agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research acknowledgment to reviewers journal agraris vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 contibution from the following reviewers in this issue was much appreciated for their valuable review comments: 1. vonny indah mutiara, ph.d., andalas university, indonesia 2. dr. lukman mohammad baga, department of agribusiness faculty of economics and management, ipb university, indonesia 3. dr. abdul mutolib, s.p., university of lampung, indonesia 4. ary bakhtiar, s.p., m.si., university of muhammadiyah malang, indonesia 5. dr. amzul rifin, department of agribusiness faculty of economics and management, ipb university, indonesia 6. dr. titik ekowati, diponegoro university, indonesia 7. dr. malose moses tjale, institute of rural development, university of venda, south afrika agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research acknowledgment to reviewers journal agraris vol. 6 no. 2 july-december 2020 contibution from the following reviewers in this issue was much appreciated for their valuable review comments: 1. titik ekowati, diponegoro university, indonesia 2. sri kuning retno dewandini, department of agribusiness universitas janabadra, indonesia 3. ujang paman, department of agribusiness universitas islam riau, indonesia 4. suprehatin, department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia 5. mohammad rondhi, department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, jember university 6. sofa nur azizah, indonesia 7. minyahil alemu, jimma university, ethiopia 8. edy prasetyo, diponegoro university, indonesia 9. destyana ellingga pratiwi, faculty of agriculture brawijaya university, indonesia isti khomah, endang siti rahayu fakultas pertanian universitas sebelas maret, email: istikhomah071@yahoo.com aplikasi peta kendali p sebagai pengendalian kualitas karet di ptpn ix batujamus/kerjoarum control p chart application as quality control tools for rubber production in ptpn ix batujamus/kerjoarum abstract the increasing of global rubber consumption is an opportunity as well as a challenge for indonesian rubber produsers to increase the quantity and the quality of production. faced the competition between countries, the quality of rubber products should be enhanced adapted to consumer demand. this study aims to determine whether the quality of the rubber produced in ptpn ix (persero) garden batujamus/kerjoarum still within the control or not. this study uses time series data, in the form of rubber production data during march 2012 february 201, that were analyzed descriptively using control p chart analysis. control p chart describe the proportion of production damage that can be tolerated as a tool for statistical process control. this study shows that the quality of the rubber produced by ptpn ix (persero) garden batujamus/ kerjoarum is out of the control. the control p chart proves that there are still many points that are outside the production control line. the production domination of the third rss type (rss 3) cause this problem, so that the profit and the efficiency of the company can be increased if the rss 3 product can be controlled and be changed with the production of rss 1. keywords: quality control, control p chart, rubber quality. pendahuluan komoditas perkebunan mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam program pembangunan ekonomi indonesia. peranan ini semakin kuat seiring dengan menurunnya sumbangan minyak dan gas (migas) terhadap devisa negara. karet alam merupakan salah satu komoditas perkebunan yang penting, bukan hanya dari segi ekonomi, tetapi juga dari segi sosial. di samping sebagai sumber devisa negara, karet juga sebagai sumber penghasilan bagi keluarga petani dan lapangan pekerjaan bagi tenaga kerja yang bekerja di perkebunan besar (abednego, 1978:1). indonesia mempunyai potensi yang sangat besar untuk menjadi produsen utama karet alam dunia. selain iklim dan lingkungan yang memenuhi syarat bagi pertumbuhan dan perkembangan, indonesia mempunyai tenaga kerja yang relatif banyak. akan tetapi, areal yang luas dan tenaga kerja yang banyak belum tentu dapat memberikan hasil yang optimum apabila tidak ditunjang dengan kemauan dan kemampuan penerapan teknologi. memanfaatkan potensi usaha karet dan dalam mengatasi masalah pengusahaan karet di indonesia serta melihat adanya kecenderungan meningkatnya konsumsi karet dunia di masa mendatang, merupakan peluang dan tantangan indonesia dalam meningkatkan produksi karet. menghadapi persaingan antar negara produsen, produk ekspor karet harus ditingkatkan mutunya disesuaikan dengan permintaan konsumen. doi:10.18196/agr.113 13 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 nancy (1997), menyatakan bahwa persaingan antar negara produsen semakin tinggi dan demikian pula dengan tuntutan konsumen akan mutu produk yang konsisten dan bebas kontaminasi. peningkatan produktivitas dan mutu diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan dan daya saing di pasar dunia, serta mampu memenuhi permintaan konsumen yang semakin meningkat. statistical quality control (sqc) dapat digunakan sebagai alat bantu untuk pengendalian kualitas, yakni dalam penentuan seberapa besar tingkat kerusakan produk yang dapat diterima perusahaan, dengan menentukan batas toleransi dari cacat produk yang dihasilkan. alat bantu statistik, dalam hal ini peta kendali p (control p chart) digunakan sebagai alat bantu pengendalian kualitas karet. pengendalian kualitas dengan alat bantu statistik bermanfaat pula mengawasi tingkat efisiensi. jadi, dapat digunakan sebagai alat untuk mencegah kerusakan dengan cara menolak dan menerima berbagai produk yang dihasilkan, sekaligus sebagai upaya efisiensi. permasalahan yang muncul apakah pengendalian kualitas karet yang dilakukan ptpn ix (persero) kebun batujamus/kerjoarum telah berhasil meminimalkan kerusakan produk yang dihasilkan?tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui daerah batas pengendalian kualitas karet yang dihasilkan di ptpn ix (persero) kebun batujamus/kerjoarum metode penelitian peta kendali p berfungsi untuk melihat apakah pengendalian kualitas pada perusahaan sudah terkendali atau belum. peta kendali p mempunyai manfaat untuk membantu pengendalian kualitas produksi dan dapat memberikan informasi mengenai kapan dan dimana perusahaan harus melakukan perbaikan kualitas. adapun pembuatan peta kendali p dilakukan dengan tahap-tahap sebagai berikut. 1. menghitung persentase ketidaksesuaian persentase kerusakan produk digunakan untuk melihat seberapa besar proporsi kerusakan produk yang terjadi pada tiap subgroup (per tanggal). rumusnya adalah sebagai berikut: p = keterangan: p : persentase ketidaksesuaian (cacat) np : jumlah ketidaksesuaian dalam subgrup n : jumlah yang diperiksa dalam subgroup subgroup : hari yang diperiksa ke2. menghitung garis pusat (center line = cl) garis pusat merupakan rata-rata ketidaksesuaian produk ( ). cl = keterangan: : jumlah total ketidaksesuaian (cacat) : jumlah total yang diperiksa 3. menghitung batas kendali atas (upper control limit = ucl) batas kendali atas (ucl) dihitung dengan menggunakan rumus berikut. ucl = keterangan: : rata-rata ketidaksesuaian produk n : jumlah produksi tiap group 4. menghitung batas kendali bawah (lower control limit = lcl) batas kendali bawah (lcl) dihitung dengan menggunakan rumus seperti di bawah ini: lcl = keterangan: : rata-rata ketidaksesuaian produk n : jumlah produksi tiap group berdasarkan data produksi selama 1 tahun (maret 2012 – februari 2013) dibuat perhitungan batas kendali atas, batas kendali bawah, dan garis pusatnya dalam 1 14 jurnal agraris peta kendali. penentuan lokasi penelitian dilakukan secara sengaja (purposive) yaitu di pt. perkebunan nusantara ix (persero) kebun batujamus/kerjoarum kabupaten karanganyar didasarkan pada pertimbangan bahwa ptpn ix kebun (persero) batujamus/kerjoarum mempunyai areal lahan yang paling luas diantara ptpn ix (persero) lainnya. data utama dalam penelitian ini adalah data yang terkait dengan proses produksi, yaitu jumlah produksi karet rss yang dihasilkan ptpn ix (persero) kebun batujamus/kerjoarum per bulan. teknik analisis data menggunakan analisis peta kendali p (control p chart). peta kendali p (peta kendali proporsi kerusakan) merupakan alat bantu yang dapat digunakan untuk pengendalian proses secara statistik. peta kendali p dipilih untuk digunakan, dikarenakan pengendalian kualitas bersifat atribut. catatan bulanan dijadikan sampel untuk pengamatan tidak tetap dan untuk produk yang mengalami kerusakan (cacat). peta kendali p menujukkan perubahan data dari waktu ke waktu, dengan pencantuman batas maksimum dan minimum yang merupakan batas daerah pengendalian. hasil dan pembahasan pt. perkebunan nusantara ix (persero) kebun batujamus/kerjoarum merupakan perusahaan penghasil produk karet dengan kualifikasi karet kualitas ekspor (rss 1). berdasarkan kriteria kualitas, produk karet rss dapat dibedakan dalam empat tingkatan kualitas. 1. rss 1: bebas kontaminasi yang tembus bandela/ pandang; tidak boleh berbintik/bergaris, kurang matang, dan buram/hangus; kondisi kering, bersih, dan kekar; tidak cacat; bergelembung maksimal sebesar kepala jarum; serta bersih, matang, dan warna cerah. 2. rss 3: bebas kontaminasi; tidak mengandung cacat, lepuh-lepuh, pasir/benda asing; kondisi kering, bersih, dan kekar; kondisi diperkenankan kurang dari 10% untuk sedikit cacat warna, gelembung udara kecil, dan noda kecil. 3. rss 4: bebas kontaminasi; tidak mengandung cacat, lepuh-lepuh, pasir/benda asing; kondisi kering, bersih, dan kekar; kondisi diperkenankan kurang dari 20% untuk karat, lengket, cendawan kecil, gelembung udara, cacat warna, dan kelebihan asap 4. cutting a: produk ini adalah karet yang dihasilkan dari potongan-potongan karet. hasil analisis peta kendali p (control p chart) menunjukkan bahwa daerah batas kualitas karet rss bervariasi antara tahun 2012-2013 yang dapat dijabarkan setiap bulan dengan hasil sebagai berikut. tabel : 1. daerah batas atas dan batas bawah kualitas karet berdasarkan analisis kendali p di ptpn ix (persero) kebun batujamus/kerjoarum hasil perhitungan semua batas kendali dapat digunakan untuk membuat peta kendali p. dengan menggunakan bantuan program spss 18 dibuat peta kendali p sebagaimana disajikan pada gambar 1. berdasarkan gambar diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa produksi karet rss selama satu tahun mulai maret 2012 sampai februari 2013 berada di luar batas kendali. pola titik-titik dalam peta kendali p ini berfluktuasi dan tidak beraturan. terdapat 75 titik yang berada dalam batas kendali dan 290 titik berada di luar batas kendali. perubahan titik-titik yang secara mendadak ke luar batas dari garis pusat dan tidak beraturan disebabkan karena banyaknya produk cacat yang dihasilkan. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pengendalian kualitas untuk produk karet rss 1 yang sesuai dengan standar masih mengalami banyak penyimpangan. penyimpangan yang terjadi ke luar batas kendali karena produk yang dihasilkan setiap harinya masih banyak yang dibawah standar rss 1. penyimpangan ini mengindikasikan bahwa masih adanya 15 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 permasalahan pada proses produksi sehingga menghasilkan produk cacat yang melebihi standar perusahaan. penyimpangan disebabkan oleh variasivariasi faktor-faktor yang meliputi faktor pekerja, bahan baku, mesin, metode/cara kerja, lingkungan dan lainlain. oleh sebab itu masih diperlukan analisis lebih lanjut penyebab terjadinya penyimpangan yang sudah terlihat pada peta kendali p di atas. selanjutnya faktorfaktor penyebab khusus ini akan dianalisis dengan menggunakan diagram sebab-akibat untuk mengetahui penyebab dari penyimpangan/kerusakan dari produk tersebut. dengan demikian, akan dapat diketahui apa saja permasalahan yang menyebabkan produksi belum dapat terkendali. kesimpulan dari penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa dengan analisis control p chart diketahui bahwa kualitas karet yang dihasilkan oleh ptpn ix (persero) kebun batujamus-kerjoarum belum terkendali. masih banyak titik yang berada di luar pengendalian dalam produksi setiap bulannya yang disebabkan oleh dominannya jenis kualitas karet rss 3. apabila produksi rss 3 ini dapat ditekan dan dijadikan kualitas rss 1, maka perusahaan akan lebih untung dan efisien. oleh karena itu disarankan untuk : i) selalu membuat dokumentasi kegiatan setiap proses produksi yang dilakukan di masingmasing bagian pengolahan, sehingga setiap kegiatan dapat dievaluasi dan dapat dilakukan tindakan perbaikan untuk proses produksi selanjutnya; ii) memberikan pengarahan dan pengawasan kepada pekerja di setiap bagian pengolahan agar dapat memberikan hasil dengan kualitas yang baik. daftar pustaka abednego, j. g. 1978. situasi industri pengolahan karet dewasa ini di indonesia. pertemuan teknis pengendalian mutu bahan olah karet yang bekerja sama dengan direktorat jendral perkebunan departemen pertanian. bogor: 28-30 juni 1978. haris, u. 2006. rekayasa model aliansi strategis sistem agroindustri crumb rubber. disertasi pascasarjana institut pertanian bogor. kuncoro, m. 2003. metode riset untuk bisnis dan ekonomi. erlangga. jakarta. nancy, c. 1997. peran komoditas karet alam dalam mendukung perkonomian nasional selama pembangunan jangka panjang i (1969-1993). jurnal ekonomi dan keuangan indonesia volume xlv nomor 3 hal. 441-456, september 1997. lembaga penyelidikan ekonomi dan masyarakat fakultas ekonomi universitas indonesia. jakarta. gambar 1. peta kendali p produk cacat, maret 2012 – februari 2013 16 jurnal agraris suparman, l. 2008. penerapan metoda gugus kendali mutu dalam mengurangi tingkat kecacatan pada produk hausing. profitabilitas: jurnal ilmiah pendidikan ekonomi akuntansi volume 2 nomor 3 januari 2008. program studi pendidikan ekonomi akuntansi fkip unpas. bandung. supriadi, m. 2009. implementasi model peremajaan partisipatif dalam program revitalisasi perkebunan karet. warta perkaretan 28(1):76-86. pusat penelitian karet. bogor. 17 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 lampiran : 1. tabel 1. perhitungan batas kendali, maret 2012 – februari 2013 18 jurnal agraris lanjutan tabel 1. 19 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 lanjutan tabel 1. 20 jurnal agraris lanjutan tabel 1. 21 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 lanjutan tabel 1. 22 jurnal agraris lanjutan tabel 1. 23 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 lanjutan tabel 1. 24 jurnal agraris lanjutan tabel 1. eko setyo budi, endang yektiningsih, eko priyanto prodi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, upn “veteran” surabaya profitabilitas usaha ternak itik petelur di desa kebonsari kecamatan candi, sidoarjo the profitability of laying duck businesses in kebonsari, candi, sidorejo abstract the aim of this research is to analyze the profitability of laying duck businesses and to analyze the feasibility of business laying duck in kebonsari village, candi sub district, sidoarjo, east java. this research used descriptive qualitative approach and profitability analysis method. primary data were collecting from 20 laying duck businesses in kebonsari through interview and observation. the research result showed that the business profitability value of laying duck is 36.15% that was classified as low. that is the reason, why more than half of breeders were not continued this business. in business scale, about 1.500 laying duck, the breeders have to spend rp102.6 million as fix cost per year and rp22.5 million as variable cost per month. this business give the breeders rp11.2 million per month as a profit. keywords: breeder laying ducks, feasibility, profitability. pendahuluan usaha ternak itik merupakan usaha perunggasan yang cukup berkembang di indonesia. meskipun tidak sepopuler ternak ayam, itik mempunyai potensi yang cukup besar sebagai penghasil telur dan daging. jika dibandingkan dengan ternak unggas yang lain, ternak itik mempunyai kelebihan diantaranya memiliki daya tahan terhadap penyakit. oleh karena itu, usaha ternak itik memiliki resiko yang relatif lebih kecil, sehingga sangat potensial untuk dikembangkan. peternakan itik di jawa timur, itik merupakan salah satu aset nasional dan sekaligus komoditas yang bisa diandalkan sebagai sumber gizi dan sumber pendapatan masyarakat. beberapa daerah di pantai utara jawa timur yaitu mojokerto, lamongan dan sidoarjo memiliki potensi peternakan itik. dengan potensi ini diharapkan usaha ternak itik tidak saja mampu menjadi usaha sampingan, namun juga sebagai penghasil pendapatan tambahan bagi keluarga. peternakan itik petelur di desa kebonsari, kecamatan candi, kabupaten sidoarjo dirintis sejak 2 mei 1992 dengan jumlah peternak 50 orang. namun seiring berjalannya waktu, jumlah peternak semakin lama berkurang, saat penelitian berlangsung terdapat 20 peternak yang masih menjalankan usahanya. pada masa awal dikembangkan, dari 50 orang peternak dapat dihasilkan telur sebanyak 67.500 butir per hari. namun, saat ini terjadi penurunan produksi yang diakibatkan berkurangnya jumlah peternak dan menurunnya produktivitas per peternak. saat ini terdapat 20 peternak itik dengan rata-rata kepemilikan itik 1.466 ekor dengan produktivitas 700 butir telur per peternak per hari. terbatasnya lahan akibat pertumbuhan penduduk yang semakin cepat sehingga banyak lahan di daerah ini dialih fungsikan menjadi perumahan; dan serangan penyakit yang diakibatkan oleh cuaca yang berubah – ubah, sehingga produksi telur doi:10.18196/agr.115 33 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 mengalami penurunan telur hingga 30-40% merupakan kendala yang dihadapi dalam mengembangan peternakan itik di wilayah ini. metode peenelitian penelitian dilakukan di desa kebonsari, kecamatan candi, kabupaten sidoarjo yang ditentukan secara sengaja (purposive). lokasi penelitian merupakan sentra peternakan itik petelur yang mempunyai prospek bagus ke depan dan produk yang di hasilkan sudah banyak dikenal oleh masyarakat. data dikumpulkan dengan cara wawancara, observasi (pengamatan) dan penelusuran dokumen berupa arsip atau literatur yang berkaitan dengan peternakan itik petelur. data yang terkumpul dianalisis dengan pendekatan deskriptif kualitatif dan analisis rentabilitas, dengan menggunakan rumus berikut laba x 100% modal hasil dan pembahasan keadaan umum desa kebonsari mempunyai keadaan topografi berupa lapangan yang pada umumnya berada pada tingkat datar dan terdapat banyak sawah yang dapat dimanfaatkan untuk membudidayakan itik. lahan yang demikian cocok untuk peternakan itik, karena pertumbuhan ternak akan baik. peternak pada umumnya membuat kandang itik di pekaranqan yang tidak jauh dari lokasi rumah dan persawahan, sehingga peternak dengan mudah dapat memantau usahanya. lokasi peternakan pada umumnya dipilih berdasarkan beberapa faktor berikut. tenaga kerja, peternakan dikembangkan di daerah lokasi pabrik yang memiliki potensi untuk mendapatkan tenaga kerja potensial. transportasi, pemilihan lokasi yang strategis karena terdapat daerah industri yang bekembang sehingga tidak akan mengalami kesulitan dalam transportasi. pemasaran yang didukung keunggulan dalam distribusi karena dekat dengan kota, sehingga kualitas telur masih terjaga dengan baik. struktur kepengurusan sruktur kepengurusan memiliki peran penting dalam mengembangkan organisasi, khususnya kerjasama. pembagian tugas dan wewenang serta tanggung jawab dalam sebah organisasi memungkinkan kerjasama dapat dikembangkan dan diorganisir lebih baik. organisasi peternakan itik “sumber pangan” di desa kebonsari kecamatan candi sidoarjo (gambar 1) sudah berjalan dengan baik dan efektif, yang didukung peran perangkat gambar 1 : struktur pengurus kelompok ternak itik “sumber pangan” 34 jurnal agraris desa. meskipun demikian, evaluasi pembagian tugas dalam organisasi masih perlu dilakukan karena peternakan masih rawan untuk merugi. demikian juga peran pemerintah kabupaten sidoarjo dalam mengembangkan aset yang dimiliki saat ini masih perlu ditingkatkan, mengingat biaya produksi ternak itik petelur cenderung mengalami peningkatan sementara masih terjadi fluktuasi harga telur di pasaran. teknik budidaya kandang yang digunakan untuk beternak itik dibangun di pekarangan rumah atau sawah. kandang dibiarkan terbuka dengan maksud memungkinkan terjadinya pergantian udara, sehingga cukup memberikan kesegaran di dalam kandang. asbes, kayu dan bambu merupakan bahan yang dominan digunakan untuk konstruksi kandang, karena bahan tersebut cukup tabel 1. rata-rata biaya produksi tetap usaha ternak itik petelur per satu tahun tabel 2. rata-rata biaya variabel produksi usaha ternak itik petelur per satu tahun 35 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 ekonomis dan tahan lama. sanitasi dan pemberian pakan merupakan aspek pemeliharaan yang penting untuk mendapat perhatian dalam usaha ternak itik petelur, karena kedua aspek tersebut berpengaruh terhadap hasil panen. sanitasi. kebersihan lingkungan kandang (sanitasi) di areal peternakan merupakan usaha pencegahan penyakit yang paling murah. hanya dibutuhkan tenaga yang ulet dan terampil, serta tindakan preventif dengan memberikan obat pada ternak dengan merek dan dosis sesuai dengan anjuran pemberian pakan dilakukan pada pagi dan sore hari. adapun jenis pakan yang digunakan adalah pakan jadi, yang langsung dibeli dari toko penyedia pakan (poultry shop), dan pakan racikan. pakan racikan dibuat sendiri oleh peternak dengan mencampur konsentrat, kulit kepala udang, limbah roti dan limbah pasar. pakan racikan cenderung lebih murah apabila dilihat dari segi biaya. panen hasil utama dari budidaya itik petelur berupa telur yang dipanen 1 kali dalam sehari. rata-rata setiap peternak mampu memproduksi telur sebanyak 45,5% dari jumlah itik yang dipelihara (1.466 ekor) atau sebanyak 700 butir per hari. biaya produksi usaha ternak itik petelur usaha ternak itik petelur memerlukan investasi yang tidak sedikit, sekitar 102,6 juta rupiah perlu disediakan di awal produksi untuk biaya penyediaan sarana prasarana (tabel 1), dan setiap bulannya tidak kurang dari 22,5 juta rupiah perlu disediakan untuk operasional proses produksi (tabel 2). biaya tetap. pada tahun pertama, peternak harus menyediakan dana tidak kurang dari rp102-juta, yang sebagian besar (rp95-juta) digunakan untuk membeli bibit itik siap bertelur sebanyak 1.466 ekor. untuk kandang seluas 33 x 25 meter dibutuhkan lahan dengan biaya sewa sebesar rp 2,4-juta dan bangunan kandang sebesar rp 2,9-juta. peralatan seperti bak air, tempat pakan dan drum/tandon terbuat dari bahan plastik, untuk tempat telur peternak biasa menggunakan dari bahan yg umum bukan dari plastik yang biasa disebut dengan tere. sedangkan bibit itik menggunakan bibit yang siap produk / telur dan berasal kecamatan mojosari kabupaten mojokerto. biaya variabel. disamping dana investasi yang harus dikeluarkan di awal produksi (tabel 1), setiap bulannya peternak harus menyediakan dana sebesar rp 22,5 juta untuk operasional produksi dengan jumlah itik sebesar 1.466 ekor (tabel 2). biaya tersebut sebagian besar (80%) digunakan untuk pembelian pakan konsentrat. pemberian pakan kuliat kepala udang, limbah roti dan limbah pasar tidak dilakukan setiap hari, pakan tersebut diberikan sebagai pakan tambahan atau selingan agar produktivitas telur itik semakin bertambah. pemberian pakan dari kulit kepala udang bertujuan untuk menjadikan kuning telur berubah benjadi berwarna merah atau yang biasa disebut masir. setiap peternak memperkerjakan satu tenaga kerja yang berasal dari luar keluarga dengan upah sebesar rp 500.000,00 per bulan. namun beberapa peternak mulai mengurangi biaya variabel dengan cara menjadikan anak atau saudara yang berasal dari keluarga mereka bahkan peternak sendiri untuk turun langsung sebagai pekerja. untuk vaksin itik, peternak menggunakan vaksin dengan harga rp 21.000,00 per botol, vaksin digunakan untuk mencegah dan mengobati itik yang sakit atau stress. biaya transportasi diperlukan untuk pengiriman telur ke pasar maupun untuk pengambilan bibit itik siap telur dari mojosari. pengiriman telur dilakukan dengan menggunakan sepeda motor atau menggunakan mobil jika telur harus dikirim dalam jumlah yang banyak, sedangkan pengambilan bibit itik siap telur biasanya menggunakan truk. biaya total. sejauh mana manajemen mampu menjalankan fungsi perencanaan dan pengendalian atas seluruh aktivitas perusahaan menjadi penentu dari tercapainya tujuan perusahaan. dalam hal ini perlu pengelolaan keuangan secara efisien dan efektif. dengan analisa sumber dan penggunaan dana akan dapat diketahui bagaimana perusahaan mengelola atau menggunakan dana yang dimiliki. modal merupakan biaya keseluruhan atau jumlah dari modal tetap dan modal lancar untuk satu kali periode produksi. usaha peternakan itik petelur menghabiskan biaya total sejumlah rp 373.322.979,00 per tahun, merupakan penjumlahan antara biaya tetap rp102.654.750,00 dan biaya variabel yaitu sebesar rp 270.668.229,00 dalam kurun waktu setahun. laba & rentabilitas usaha ternak itik petelur laba merupakan selisih antara nilai penerimaan dengan biaya total yang dikeluarkan untuk menghasilkan 36 jurnal agraris penerimaan tersebut. penerimaan usaha ternak itik bersumber dari penjualan telur dan penjualan itik afkir, dengan total nilai rp 508 juta (tabel 3). laba yang diterima peternak hampir mencapai rp 135 juta per tahun atau rp 11,2 juta per bulan. rentabilitas. rentabilitas suatu perusahaan menunjukan perbandingan antara laba dengan total biaya yang menghasilkan laba tersebut. dengan kata lain rentabilitas adalah kemampuan suatu perusahaan untuk menghasilkan laba selama periode tertentu. cara menilai rentabilitas suatu perusahaan adalah bermacam-macam, tergantung pada laba dan total biaya yang akan diperbandingkan, dengan demikian maka tidak mengherankan jika setiap perusahaan dalam perhitungan rentabilitasnya berbeda-beda. yang terpenting ialah rentabilitas mana yang akan digunakan sebagai alat pengukur efisiensi penggunaan modal dalam perusahaan yang bersangkutan. nilai rentabilitas usaha ternak itik petelur di desa kebonsari kecamatan candi sidoarjo sebesar 36,15 persen, artinya kemampuan perusahaan atau peternak untuk menghasilkan laba dalam usaha ternak itik petelur yaitu sebesar 36,15 persen dalam kurun waktu 1 tahun. dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa, usaha ternak itik petelur di desa kebonsari kecamatan candi sidoarjo menguntungkan, tetapi mempunyai rentabilitas yang masih tergolong rendah (tabel 4) oleh karena itu, walaupun usaha ternak itik petelur menguntungkan, tabel 3. penerimaan usaha ternak itik petelur per satu tahun pengusaha yang mempunyai peluang usaha dengan rentabilitas yang lebih tinggi akan beralih usaha. itulah sebabnya, jumlah peternak itik cenderung menurun dari 50 orang pada awal berdiri menjadi 20 orang pada saat penelitian berlangsung. tabel 4. kriteria nilai dan kategori rentabilitas perusahaan rendahnya rentabilitas lebih banyak disebabkan faktor kepemilikan modal dan meningkatnya biaya. bertambahan jumlah penduduk di desa kebonsari kecamatan candi sidoarjo menyebabkan luas lahan untuk usaha peternakan itik petelur semakin lama semakin berkurang. kandang itik banyak yang beralih fungsi menjadi perumahan penduduk. keterbatasan lahan mengakibatkan harga sewa lahan menjadi tinggi. itulah sebabnya, banyak peternak yang beralih profesi karena keuntungan peternakan itik sudah mulai menurun. bagi 37 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 yang tidak mempunyai peluang usaha lain, usaha ternak itik tetap ditekuni karena masih memberikan keuntungan. selain itu ada juga peternak yang masih berkeinginan untuk terus membudidayakan itik karena permintaan terhadap telur itik yang semakin tinggi dan termotivasi untuk lebih mengembangkan usaha peternakan itik ini sampai turun temurun. kesimpulan berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut : 1. peternak membutuhkan modal sebesar rp 373 juta untuk membiayai usaha ternak itik sebanyak 1.466 ekor. usaha tersebut menghasilkan laba sebesar rp 135 juta atau rp 11,2 juta per bulan dengan nilai rentabilitas 35,15% yang termasuk dalam kategori rendah. rendahnya rentabilitas ditentukan faktor kurangnya modal usaha dan meningkatnya biaya, khususnya pakan dan sewa lahan. pertumbuhan jumlah penduduk yang cepat menyebabkan luas lahan untuk peternakan itik petelur semakin lama semakin berkurang. 2. upaya-upaya untuk meningkatkan rentabilitas ternak itik petelur meliputi menambah jumlah modal, memperluas lahan dan kandang itik, penambahan bibit itik siap telur, efisiensi biaya pakan, obat-obatan, transportasi dan tenaga kerja, meningkatkan kualitas produksi telur, dan memenuhi permintaan pasar. daftar pustaka abdul w. 2010. berternak dan bisnis itik. jakarta. agromedia pustaka. budiraharjo, k. 2004. analisis profitabilitas/rentabilitas pengembangan usaha ternak itik di kecamatan pagerbarang kabupaten tegal. semarang. fakultas peternakan universitas diponegoro semarang. ketaren, pius p.. 2007. peran itik sebagai penghasil telur dan daging nasional. bogor. balai penelitian ternak. nandari dyah s., akhmad p., marsudin s. 2008. teknologi budidaya itik. bogor. balai besar pengkajian dan pengembangan teknologi pertanian. pudjosumarto, m. 2004. pengantar evaluasi proyek. malang. fakultas ekonomi universitas brawijaya. yaumil n.. 2008. analisis rentabilitas untuk mengukur efisiensi kinerja perusahaan pada cv pandan harum di balikpapan. balikpapan. abstract the aim of the research are to describe the potential of ecotourism development in mangrove forest, to describe the benefits that can be gained by the community, to analyze the internal and external environment in the development of mangrove ecotourism surabaya, and to formulate development strategiy of mangrove ecotourism wonorejo surabaya based on internal and external environment. the first and second objectives were answered using descriptive analysis, while the third objective was answered using ifas (internal factors analysis strategy) and efas (external factors analysis). the result showed that the mangrove ecotourism wonorejo surabaya has potential aspects to develop in referring to the ecology places/ sutainability places, the natural resources including flora and fauna, the government support, the organizational, and the community of wonorejo support for facilities and infrastructure. there are three aspects in terms of the benefit that owned by mangrove ecotourism wonorejo surabaya including social, economic and agribusiness aspects. based on internal factors analysis (ifas) and external factors analysis (efas), it was suggested that the aggressive strategy (growth), it can uses to get the opportunity strengthly, must be taken to develop mangrove ecotourism potential in wonorejo, surabaya. keywords: mangrove eco-tourism; development strategy, ifas & efas. pendahuluan pembangunan wilayah pesisir dan laut secara berkelanjutan merupakan kebijakan penting departemen kelautan dan perikanan. kebijakan tersebut didasarkan pada pemikiran bahwa wilayah pesisir dan laut secara ekologis dan ekonomis potensial untuk dikembangkan dan dimanfaatkan untuk kesejahteraan masyarakat. meskipun pemerintah telah melakukan berbagai upaya untuk mendorong pemanfaatan sumberdaya pesisir dan laut secara berkelanjutan, pola pemanfaatan yang sifatnya merusak dan mengancam kelestarian sumberdaya pesisir dan laut masih saja terus berlangsung. hal ini disebabkan oleh desakan kebutuhan hidup, yang semakin lama semakin tinggi. pengembangan ekonomi wisata (ekowisata) merupakan salah satu alternatif pembangunan yang dapat membantu mengatasi masalah tersebut (tuwo, 2011). pemanfaatan ekosistem mangrove untuk konsep wisata (ekowisata) sejalan dengan pergeseran minat wisatawan dari old tourism yaitu wisatawan yang hanya datang melakukan wisata saja tanpa ada unsur pendidikan dan konservasi menjadi new tourism yaitu wisatawan yang datang untuk melakukan wisata yang di dalamnya ada unsur pendidikan dan konservasi. oleh karena itu, diperlukana upaya yang serius untuk mengelola dan khoirul umam, sudiyarto, sri tjondro winarno progdi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, upn “veteran” surabaya strategi pengembangan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya development strategy of mangrove ecotourism in wonorejo, surabaya doi:10.18196/agr.116 39 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 mencari daerah tujuan ekowisata yang spesifik alami dan kaya akan keanekaragaman hayati serta dapat melestarikan lingkungan hidup (rutana, 2011). metode penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan di kawasan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya pada bulan oktoberdesember 2012. responden sebagai sumber data primer dipilih secara purposive dengan cara menggunakan metode judgement sampling yaitu pengambilan sample secara sengaja terhadap orang-orang tertentu yang dapat memberikan informasi yang berkaitan dengan permasalahan (indriantoro, 1999). data yang bersumber dari data primer maupun data sekunder dianalisis secara deskripsi. untuk menentukan arah strategi pengembangan kawasan ekowisata mangrove di wonorejo, surabaya, digunakan analisis swot dengan pendekatan internal factors analysis strategy (ifas) dan external factors analysis strategy (efas). hasil dan pembahasan potensi ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya hutan mangrove cocok dikembangkan pada kondisi lahan yang menjadi tempat pelumpuran dan akumulasi bahan organik, yang memungkinkan beranekaragam kehidupan bertumpu padanya. hutan mangrove wonorejo memiliki kondisi lahan yang cocok untuk hidup dan berkembangnya beraneka ragam flora dan fauna. potensi sumberdaya alam yang mendapat dukungan pemerintah, berupa dukungan modal, dukungan moral dan dukungan partisipasi, memungkinkan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo cukup prospektif untuk dikembangkan. organisasi masyarakat merupakan salah satu potensi yang dimiliki ekowisata mangrove wonorejo. kepengurusan organisasi sudah lama terbentuk dan mendapat dukungan pemerintah setempat, yaitu camat rungkut dan lurah wonorejo yang berkedudukan sebagai pelindung. potensi lainnya adalah partisipasi masyarakat lokal dalam pembangunan ekowisata mangrove dan ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana pendukung, seperti jalan beraspal, alat transportasi, tempat parkir, loket pembayaran, dermaga, warung, toilet umum, mushola, jogging track, kapal penumpang, kapal patroli, gazebo, resto mangrove dan kolam pancing, serta papan petunjuk akses terhadap berbagai fasilitas yang tersedia. manfaat pembangunan ekowisata bagi masyarakat wonorejo. pembangunan ekowisata hutan mangrove di wonorejo, memberikan banyak manfaat bagi maysrakat setempat baik dari aspek sosial, ekonomi maupun agribisnis. ditinjau dari aspek sosial, masyarakat merasakan manfaat berupa kenyamanan untuk beraktivitas, sekalipun itu di malam hari; kondisi lingkungan wonorejo yang semakin lama semakin membaik; dan meningkatnya kesejahteraan. secara ekonomi, ekowisata menciptakan lapangan pekerjaan, berupa kesempatan bagi masyarakat untuk berjualan di area ekowisata mangrove dengan mengikuti tata tertib yang sudah ditetapkan. sementara manfaat yang dirasakan masyarakat dari aspek agribisnis, antara lain berbagai peluang berusaha, seperti industri sirup mangrove dan kripik mangrove dengan bahan dasar buah mangrove. strategi pengembangan wilayah ekowisata mangrove dalam penelitian ini strategi pengembangan wilayah ekowisata mangrove wonorejo didasarkan pada analisis internal (ifas) dan eksternal (efas). hasil identifikasi menunjukkan, ekowisata mangrove di wonorejo memiliki 5 (lima) kekuatan, antara lain kesesuaian ekologi dengan skor tertinggi, diikuti dengan keragaman vegetasi, promosi dan dukungan pemerintah setempat dengan skor cukup tinggi (tabel 1). sementara itu, diidentifikasi pula beberapa kelemahan, yakni sering terjadi perangkapan tenaga kerja dengan skor cukup tinggi; kurangnya keramahan penjaga, kebersihan yang kurang terjaga, dan kurangnya pengawasan dari pengelola dengan skor sedang. secara total, skor kekuatan lebih tinggi dari pada kelemahan, artinya strategi pengembangan ekowisata mangrove di wonorejo dapat bertumpu dari kekuatan. sedangkan strategi pengembangan yang didasarkan pada kondisi eksternal diidentifikasi masing-masing lima peluang dan lima ancaman, dengan skor total peluang lebih tinggi dari skor ancaman (tabel 2). peluang yang menonjol dengan skor cukup tinggi, terdiri dari kebutuhan rekreasi masyarakat surabaya dan sekitarnya, dan dukungan serta partisipasi warga wonorejo. peluang lainnya berupa alternatif pariwisata baru, dukungan kebijakan pemerintah, serta sarana dan prasarana wisata mendapat skor sedang. sementara ancaman dengan 40 jurnal agraris skor sedang muncul dari pesaing usaha sejenis, penebangan hutan mangrove secara liar, kerusakan yang dilakukan pengunjung dan abrasi pantai. berdasarkan analisis eksternal, strategi pengembangan ekowisata mangrove di wonorejo diarahkan untuk memanfaatkan peluang untuk menghadapi ancaman. tabel 1. matrik ifas ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya tabel 2. matrik efas ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya dari kedua matriks tersebut disusun matrik pembobotan swot untuk memperoleh posisi strategi pengembanganntya, seperti yang tersaji pada tabel 3. berdasarkan tabel 3 dibuat grafik gambar untuk menentukan posisi dan strategi pengembangan ekowisata mangrove surabaya, sebagaimana disajikan pada gambar 1. titik p pada gambar 1 diatas menunjukkan letak titik pada posisi p(0,5;0,40) yang berada di kuadran 1. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa strategi pengembangan wilayah ekowisata mangrove, wonorejo, surabaya adalah strategi agresif, yakni posisi dimana kekuatan yang dimiliki dapat digunakan untuk memanfaatkan peluang yang ada. realisasi strategi agresif (pertumbuhan) yang dapat ditempuh adalah dengan mengimplementasikan hal-hal sebagai berikut. 1. sebagai penunjang konservasi mangrove, maka ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya sekaligus dapat digunakan sebagai alternatif tempat wisata baru yang ada di surabaya. langkah-langkah yang harus di tempuh adalah: a. melestarikan hutan mangrove dengan mengikuti program gerakan menanam seribu pohon mangrove di lingkungan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya; b. menyediakan wadah atau tempat semacam green house untuk pembibitan mangrove. 2. memanfaatkan ekologi pesisir pantai untuk mendukung kebijakan pemerintah terhadap pembangunan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya dengan cara sebagai berikut: a. melestarikan dan menjaga ekologi pesisir pantai dengan menanam pohon mangrove; b. tidak membuang sampah ke pantai maupun pesisir pantai; gambar 1. titik posisi (p) ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya 41 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 c. menanam hutan mangrove di sekitar pesisir pantai agar tidak terjadinya abrasi. 3. memanfaatkan ketersediaan vegetasi flora dan fauna yang ada untuk memenuhi kebutuhan rekreasi masyarakat surabaya dan sekitarnya dengan cara sebagai berikut: a. melestarikan flora dan fauna yang ada di ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya dengan sebaik-baiknya; b. membuat tempat pembibitan (green house) untuk mangrove dengan umur di bawah satu tahun; c. menyediakan tempat perkembangbiakan fauna terutama burung yang ada di sana dengan membuat pekarangan semacam green house untuk fauna burung. 4. memanfaatkan dukungan modal dari pemerintah kota dan dinas-dinas terkait, untuk membangun sarana dan prasarana wisata dengan cara sebagai berikut: a. mengajukan proposal kerjasama kepada pemerintah kota maupun dinas–dinas terkait untuk membangun sarana dan prasarana ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya; b. mengadakan tender terbuka kepada para kontraktor untuk pembangunan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya; c. mengelola bantuan dana yang di berikan oleh pemerintah secara transparan. 5. melakukan promosi melalui media cetak maupun media elektronik untuk mendapatkan dukungan dan partisipasi masyarakat wonorejo maupun masyarakat surabaya dengan cara sebagai berikut: a. mempromosikan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya melalui penyebaran brosur, pamflet dan pemasangan spanduk-spanduk. b. mempromosikan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya melalui media internet (berupa website), televisi maupun radio. kesimpulan 1. potensi yang di miliki oleh ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya saat ini antara lain: ekologi tempat/kesesuaian tempat, sumber daya alam yang meliputi flora dan fauna, dukungan pemerintah, keorganisasian, dukungan masyarakat wonorejo, serta tabel 3. matrik pembobotan swot 42 jurnal agraris sarana dan prasarana. 2. manfaat yang dapat diperoleh masyarakat wonorejo dengan adanya pembangunan ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya antara lain: i) dari aspek social memberikan kenyamanan beraktivitas, kondisi lingkungan yang semakin membaik, dan kesejahteraan; ii) dari aspek ekonomi terciptaknya lapangan pekerjaan dan kesempatan berjualan di area ekowisata; iii) dari aspek agribisnis, masyarakat mampu membuat sirup dan kripik dari buah mangrove. 3. kondisi lingkungan internal dan eksternal ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya saat ini terdiri dari: i) kekuatan, yakni berfungsi sebagai penunjang konservasi mangrove, ekologi tempat/kesesuaian tempat, ketersediaan vegetasi flora dan fauna, dukungan modal dari pemerintah dan promosi; ii) kelemahan, yakni sering terjadi perangkapan kerja, pendidikan dan pengalaman pengelola masih kurang, keramahan pengelola masih kurang, kurang pengawasan dari pengelola, dan kebersihan yang kurang terjaga; iii) peluang, yakni sebagai alternatif pariwisata baru, dukungan kebijakan pemerintah, kebutuhan rekreasi masyarakat surabaya dan sekitarnya, sarana dan prasarana wisata, dukungan dan partisipasi warga wonorejo; iv) ancaman, yakni pesaing sejenis, penebangan hutan mangrove secara liar, abrasi/kerusakan pantai, sampah dan kerusakan yang di lakukan oleh pengunjung (wisatawan). 4. strategi yang harus dilakukan oleh ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya adalah strategi agresif, yaitu strategi yang menggunakan kekuatan untuk memanfaatkan peluang yang ada. daftar pustaka bengen, d.g. 2001. pedoman teknis pengenalan dan pengelolaan ekosistem mangrove. pusat kajian sumberdaya pesisir dan lautan – institut pertanian bogor. bogor. ______, 2004. pedoman teknis pengenalan dan pengelolaan ekosistem mangrove. pksplinstitut pertanian bogor. bogor dahuri, r., j rais, s. p. 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wonorejo surabaya sekretariat, 2010. arsip data dari ekowisata mangrove wonorejo surabaya tuwo, a. 2011. pengelolaan ekowisata pesisir dan laut suatu pendekatan ekologi, sosial-ekonomi, kelembangaan, dan sarana wilayah. brilian internasional, surabaya. undang-undang nomor 9 tahun 1990 tentang konservasi sumber daya alam hayati dan ekosistemnya. 1990. www.dephut.go.id/.../undangutama, a. 2009. perencanaan ekowisata penyu berbasis masyarakat di pulau anano taman nasional wakatobi. institut pertanian bogor, bogor. yulianda.f, 2006. ekowisata bahari sebagai alternatif pemanfaatan sumberdaya pesisir berbasis konservasi. makalah seminar sehari pengelolaan sumberdaya pesisir dan laut institut pertanian bogor, bogor. zulkifly, 2008. kajian tingkat keberhasilan rehabilitasi vegetasi mangrove ditinjau dari bioekologi di pantai tokke-tokke kecamatan pitungpanua kabupaten wajo. universitas hasanuddin makassar, makassar. agraris journal of agribusiness and rural development research bullwhip effect study in leaf organic supply chain dwi apriyani, rita nurmalina, burhanuddin ndivhoniswani nephawe, marizvikuru mwale, jethro zuwarimwe, malose moses tjale the impact of water-related challenges on rural communities food security initiatives visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields to maintain the attraction of bantar agung tourism village impact of different importation policies scenarios on beef industry in peninsular malaysia potato market participation and its extents evidence from southwest ethiopia: a double hurdle approach ray march syahadat, priambudi trie putra, ismail saleh, tandri patih, anendawaty roito sagala, dimas muhammad thoifur the product features, functions, and benefits of seafood products for competitive repositioning nurliza, anita suharyani, aditya nugrahaa dharmawan, endang siti rahayu, minar ferichani development strategy of sago local food agroindustry using analytical hierarchy process method natelda rosaldiah timisela, masyhuri masyhuri, dwidjono hadi darwanto g0 potato seed production management in indonesia: an overview and the challenges asma sembiring, rini roro murtiningsih, kusmana mark buda, zainalabidin mohamed abduselam faris abadega effect of transaction costs on profit and the capital formation of soybean farming in lamongan regency, east java hardiyanti sultan, dwi rachmina, anna fariyanti e-issn: 2527-9238 issn: 2407-814x vol.7.1 january-june 2021 vol.7 no.1 vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021 agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june, and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai). agraris was accepted to be included in scopus on february 23rd, 2021, and achieved science and technology index 1 (sinta 1) rank. editorial team editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57215538283) advisory international editorial board dr. ammar abdul aziz school of agriculture and food sciences, the university of queensland, australia (scopus id: 57191076222) assoc. prof. dr. juwaidah sharifuddin department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia (scopus id: 55915859300) prof. masateru senge united graduate school of agricultural science, gifu university, japan (scopus id: 57201942114) dr. anidah robani institute of technology management & entrepreneurship, universiti teknikal malaysia melaka, malaysia (scopus id: 55655498600) dr. pakapon saiyut department of agricultural economics, khon kaen university, thailand (scopus id: 57197711505) editorial board prof. dr. muhammad firdaus, s.p., m.si. department of economic, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57204838013) dr. triyono, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57193756455) suprehatin, sp, mab, ph.d. department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57220105545) dr. susanawati, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57194276960) subejo, s.p., m.sc., ph.d. department of extension and communication, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia (scopus id: 57191036623) dr. ir. indardi, m.si department of agribusiness. universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57208466949) dr. abdul mutolib department of agribusiness, siliwangi university, indonesia (scopus id: 57191584252) zuhud rozaki, s.p., m.app.sc., ph.d. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57192575625) issn 9772407814009 ii agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research assistant editor heri akhmadi, s.p., m.a. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57221847740) muhammad fauzan, s.p., m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57203142471) address secretariat of agraris universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta jl. brawijaya, tamantirto, kasihan, bantul, yogyakarta 55183 (ground floor of f3 building) telp.0274-387656 (ext.201) fax. 0274-387646 e-mail: agraris@umy.ac.id wa: +62 853-2873-7828 mailto:agraris@umy.ac.id iii vol.7 no.1, january – june 2021 table of contents journal agraris vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021 editorial team ....................................................................................................................................................................i table of contents ........................................................................................................................................................... iii preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. iv manuscript guidelines .................................................................................................................................................... v article bullwhip effect study in leaf organic supply chain dwi apriyani, rita nurmalina, burhanuddin burhanuddin…….………………………………………………………………….....1-10 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9842 the impact of water-related challenges on rural communities food security initiatives ndivhoniswani nephawe, marizvikuru mwale, jethro zuwarimwe, malose moses tjale………………………………..…….....11-23 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9935 impact of different importation policies scenarios on beef industry in peninsular malaysia mark buda, zainalabidin mohamed……………………………………………………………………………...……………….….24-35 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.10540 development strategy of sago local food agroindustry using analytical hierarchy process method natelda rosaldiah timisela, masyhuri masyhuri, dwidjono hadi darwanto..…………………………………….......................36-52 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9378 potato market participation and its extents evidence from southwest ethiopia: a double hurdle approach abduselam faris abadega…………………………………………………………………..………………………………………...53-63 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9912 visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields to maintain the attraction of bantar agung tourism village ray march syahadat, priambudi trie putra, ismail saleh, tandri patih, anendawaty roito sagala, dimas muhammad thoifur…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...64-77 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.6960 g0 potato seed production management in indonesia: an overview and the challenges asma sembiring, rini roro murtiningsih, kusmana kusmana ….…………………………………….……………….…………..78-90 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.5943 the product features, functions, and benefits of seafood products for competitive repositioning nurliza nurliza, anita suharyani, aditya nugraha………...…………………………………………………………………........91-110 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.10571 effect of transaction costs on profit and the capital formation of soybean farming in lamongan regency, east java hardiyanti sultan, dwi rachmina, anna fariyanti………...…………………………………………………………………......111-126 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.4427 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9842 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9935 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.10540 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9378 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9912 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.6960 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.5943 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.10571 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.4427 iv agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research preface bismillahirrahmaanirrahiim. with full gratitude to allah swt, journal agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 of 2021 has published. the issue of this number consists of nine articles that discuss supply chain, food security and rural development, agricultural development and policy, agricultural economics, and agribusiness. in the study of supply chain, food security and rural development, agricultural development and policy is consist of one topics, sequentially as follows bullwhip effect study in leaf organic supply chain by apriyani et al., the impact of water-related challenges on rural communities food security initiatives by nephawe et al., and impact of different importation policies scenarios on beef industry by buda et al. the study of agricultural economics consist of three topics, that are development strategy of sago local food agroindustry using analytical hierarchy process method by timisela et al., g0 potato seed production management in indonesia: an overview and the challenges by sembiring et al., and the product features, functions, and benefits of seafood products for competitive repositioning by nurliza et al. the study of agribusiness consist of three topics that are potato market participation and its extents evidence from southwest ethiopia: a double hurdle approach by abadega, visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields to maintain the attraction of bantar agung tourism village by syahadat et al., and effect of transaction costs on profit and the capital formation of soybean farming in lamongan regency, east java by sultan et al. the several of discovering research, hope can be a basis to the stakeholder of policymaker that relates to the wider agricultural development and encourage developing ideas on further studies. finally, we would like to thank all the contributors such as the authors, expert reviewers, and all the editors for materializing this journal published. yogyakarta, june 2021 editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. v vol.7 no.1, january – june 2021 manuscript guidelines manuscript submission criteria: 1. the manuscript is a result of the agribusiness and rural community development research. the manuscript should have a novelty/authenticity contribution or uniqueness for academic (science) development. 2. the manuscript contains original research work, free from plagiarism and the other unethical attitude. 3. at the time of manuscript submission, the author must ensure that the manuscript has not been published in the other periodical journals. manuscript systematics: 1. title. the title should be brief, describe the uniqueness of the research, not exceed 20 words, and should begin with capitalized letter each word. 2. author’s name and affiliation. the author’s name should be included by affiliation (write completely) and email address, without the academic title. 3. abstract. abstract is written in english, one paragraph with single spacing (maximum 250 words) without any references or formulas. keywords consist of 3-5 words or phrases (alphabetically). the abstract contains of a brief description of the research background (maximum two sentences), aims, methods, main results, and conclusion. 4. introduction. introduction is written without numbers and/or pointers. this section consists of (i) nature and scope of the problem on a broader (national, regional, international) context, (ii) review of relevant literatures, (iii) significance/novelty/contribution of this research on knowledge, (iv) aims of this research. if there is a hypothesis, declare it explicitly and not in an interrogative sentence. it should be written efficiently and supported by references. extensive discussion of relevant literatures should be included in the discussion, not in the introduction. 5. research method. this section should explain how the research conducted. it should be written clearly and completely containing a clear description of (i) population and sampling, (ii) data measuring and collecting, (iii) variable and data analysis. this research method should sufficiently detail. for qualitative research, please adjusted this method to your scientific writing habits while considering the repeatability of your research. it was not necessary to write commonly analysis methods (e.g., f-test formula, t-test), but just referred your source. references of original methods/procedures must be stated, and all modifications of procedures (if any) should be explained. symbol description of the model was suggested to be written on narration. 6. result and discussion. in the beginning of results and discussion is presented the data, facts which you had found, calculated, and discovered. data should be presented in tables or figures when feasible. table should be clear and stood alone giving complete information although without text. the title of table and figure should be briefly and clearly described the facts which you described. symbols written in table and figure should be given a complete information and allowed the reader to interpret the results. each figure and table must be referred to in the narration. in the rest of section, you must write a discussion of your research findings. 7. conclusion. this section is summarize your principal findings and written briefly. conclusion related to the introduction and aims or hypothesis but did not repeat the discussion. conclusion written critically, logically, and honestly based on the existing fact, and full of cautions if there was a generalization. a recommendation showed the significance of your results/findings or practical application of this findings. this section, written in paragraph form, do not use numbering or bullets. vi agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 8. acknowledgments (if necessary). this section provided for the authors to deliver their gratitude to the research funder, facility, or the suggestion, and for the statement, if the article is part of the thesis/dissertation. 9. references. the reference contains the list of journals, books, or other publications referred in this manuscript. each reference cited in the text must be listed in references, and vice versa. references of your manuscript must be traceable, no less than 25 pieces, should be a primary source (80%), and not exceed 10 years (80%). manuscript format: 1. the manuscript is written in quarto paper size, one column, and 1.5 spacing format. the new paragraph begins six characters from the left side and uses time new roman font 12. 2. the manuscript is written in english. 3. the number of pages between 15-20, the margin on the left side and the upper side is 3 cm, the right side and the bottom side is 2.5 cm. 4. the title is written uppercase (except preposition) using font size 14 with center alignment. the subtitle is written uppercase and use font size 12. if there is a sub-subtitle, written capital each word except conjunction. if there is a sub of sub-subtitle, written capital each word and italic model. subtitle, sub-subtitle, and sub of the sub-subtitle are written begin on the left side. 5. the citation is written by the american psychological association 6th edition. below are samples of citation: (wong, sharifuddin, teng, li, & song, 2020); (triyono, kamardiani, & prasetio, 2021); (debertin, 2004); (statistics indonesia, 2020). 6. the figure or table is made as close as possible to the explanation and put the number sequentially base on the site in the explanation. the source of data is better to be included. note: figure should be clear and fix (good resolution) sample of figure: figure 1. amount of order and shipping of leaf vegetables of pt. sfo in 2017 7. tables consist of title and content. the line of the table just on the top and the bottom to separate between the title and the content of the table. vii vol.7 no.1, january – june 2021 sample of the table: table 1. food waste generated in malaysia, 2011 sources food waste ton/day ton/year household 8,745 3,192,404 wet and night market 5,592 2,040,929 food court/restaurant 5,319 1,941,608 hotels 1,568 572,284 food and beverage industries 854 311,564 shopping malls 298 108,678 hypermarket 291 106,288 institutions 55 26,962 total 22,723 8,308,973 source: ministry of housing and local government (mhlg), 2011 8. references are arranged by alphabetical, begin from the first author and follow by co-author. if there are two or more references that have the same author and year of publication, put the sign a, b, c...... etc. after the year of publication. in the reference that site from journal, scientific magazine, proceeding are should be include the name of author, year, title, place of the seminar, publisher, page, and editor. the reference of agraris is written following american psychological association (apa) 6th edition. when making reference is suggested to use mendeley application. (the tutorial of mendeley can be accessed on http://bit.ly/2vyeqgz). below is the sample of apa 6th edition: article of journal wong, k. k. s., sharifuddin, j. b., teng, p. k., li, w. w., &amp; song, l. k. (2020). impact of urban consumers food consumption behavior towards food waste. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 6(2), 198–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62100 article of proceeding triyono, kamardiani, d. r., & prasetio, m. a. (2021). alocative efficiency of honey pineapple farm in pemalang regency, central java, indonesia. in international conference on agribusiness and rural development (iconard 2020) (vol. 232, p. 01016). e3s web of conferences. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202123201016 book debertin, d. l. (2004). agricultural production economics (second ed.). new jersey: pearson education. report of institution or corporation statistics indonesia. (2020). the statistics of farm wages in rural area. jakarta: bps-statisics indonesia. additional information template of the manuscripts can be downloaded at website of agraris: (http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/index) 1: cetak agraris journal of agribusiness and rural development research e-issn: 2527-9238 issn: 2407-814x vol.7 no. 2 vol.7.2 july-december 2021 challenges and critical success factors for rural agrarian reforms in limpopo province, south africa andrie kisroh sunyigono, isdiana suprapti, nurul arifiyanti wiseman ndlovu, marizvikuru mwale, jethro zuwarimwe simbarashe ndhleve, clarah dapira, hlekani muchazotida kabiti, zibongiwe mpongwana, elphina nomabandla cishe, motebang dominic vincent nakin, stephen shisanya, keitirele patricia walker epsi euriga, michael henry boehme, siti amanah risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice supply chains: lesson learned from the involved actors changing farmers' perception towards sustainable horticulture: a case study of extension education in farming community in yogyakarta, indonesia household food insecurity status and determinants: the case of botswana and south africa agustina shinta hartati wahyuningtyas, novi haryati, destyana ellingga pratiwi, luisa maliny situmeang the priorities of leading sub-sector in the sector of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in economic development in bangka belitung province inter-market variability of smallholder beef cattle farming in east java indonesia rokhani, ahmad asrofi, ad hariyanto adi, ahmad fatikhul khasan, mohammad rondhi ahmad fawad entezari, kelly kai seng wong, fazlin ali garist sekar tanjung, any suryantini, arini wahyu utami malaysia’s agricultural production dropped and the impact of climate change: applying and extending the theory of cobb douglas production the effect of agricultural extension access on the performance of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia chamika rasanjali, pathmanathan sivashankar, rohana p. mahaliyanaarachchi women participation in rural tourism: a case of ella, sri lanka vol. 7 no. 2 july-december 2021 agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june, and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai) and indonesian society of agricultural economics (isae). agraris was accepted to be included in scopus on february 23rd, 2021, and achieved science and technology index 1 (sinta 1) rank. editorial team editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57215538283) advisory international editorial board dr. ammar abdul aziz school of agriculture and food sciences, the university of queensland, australia (scopus id: 57191076222) assoc. prof. dr. juwaidah sharifuddin department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia (scopus id: 55915859300) prof. masateru senge united graduate school of agricultural science, gifu university, japan (scopus id: 57201942114) dr. anidah robani institute of technology management & entrepreneurship, universiti teknikal malaysia melaka, malaysia (scopus id: 55655498600) dr. pakapon saiyut department of agricultural economics, khon kaen university, thailand (scopus id: 57197711505) editorial board prof. dr. muhammad firdaus, s.p., m.si. department of economic, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57204838013) dr. triyono, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57193756455) suprehatin, sp, mab, ph.d. department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57220105545) dr. susanawati, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57194276960) subejo, s.p., m.sc., ph.d. department of extension and communication, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia (scopus id: 57191036623) dr. ir. indardi, m.si department of agribusiness. universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57208466949) dr. abdul mutolib department of agribusiness, siliwangi university, indonesia (scopus id: 57191584252) zuhud rozaki, s.p., m.app.sc., ph.d. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57192575625) issn 9772407814009 ii agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research assistant editor heri akhmadi, s.p., m.a. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57221847740) muhammad fauzan, s.p., m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57203142471) address secretariat of agraris: journal agribusiness and rural development research ground floor of f3 building (siti walidah) jl. brawijaya, tamantirto, kasihan, bantul, d.i. yogyakarta, indonesia 55183 telp.0274-387656 (ext.201) fax. 0274-387646 e-mail: agraris@umy.ac.id wa: +62 853-2873-7828 mailto:agraris@umy.ac.id iii vol.7 no.2, july-december 2021 table of contents agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july-december 2021 editorial team ....................................................................................................................................................................i table of contents ........................................................................................................................................................... iii preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. iv manuscript guidelines ................................................................................................................................................... iv article malaysia’s agricultural production dropped and the impact of climate change: applying and extending the theory of cobb douglas production ahmad fawad entezari, kelly kai seng wong, fazlin ali…….…………………………………………………………………..127-141 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11274 the effect of agricultural extension access on the performance of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia rokhani rokhani, ahmad asrofi, ad hariyanto adi, ahmad fatikhul khasan, mohammad rondhi……………………........142-159 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11224 the priorities of leading sub-sector in the sector of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in economic development in bangka belitung province garist sekar tanjung, any suryantini, arini wahyu utami……………………………………………………………………….160-175 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11615 inter-market variability of smallholder beef cattle farming in east java indonesia andrie kisroh sunyigono, isdiana suprapti, nurul arifiyanti...………………………………..…………………………...........176-190 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.7621 challenges and critical success factors for rural agrarian reforms in limpopo province, south africa wiseman ndlovu, marizvikuru mwale, jethro zuwarimwe……………………………………………………………………...191-206 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11272 household food insecurity status and determinants: the case of botswana and south africa simbarashe ndhleve, clarah dapira, hlekani muchazotida kabiti, zibongiwe mpongwana, elphina nomabandla cishe, motebang dominic vincent nakin, stephen shisanya, keitirele patricia walker……………………………………………….207-224 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11451 changing farmers' perception towards sustainable horticulture: a case study of extension education in farming community in yogyakarta, indonesia epsi euriga, michael henry boehme, siti amanah ….…………………………………….……………….………………….....225-240 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11510 risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice supply chains: lesson learned from the involved actors agustina shinta hartati wahyuningtyas, novi haryati, destyana ellingga pratiwi, luisa maliny situmeang………...…........241-255 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.10126 women participation in rural tourism: a case of ella, sri lanka chamika rasanjali, pathmanathan sivashankar, rohana p. mahaliyanaarachchi………...………………………………........256-269 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11294 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11274 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11224 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11615 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.7621 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11272 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11451 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11510 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.10126 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11294 iv agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research preface bismillahirrahmaanirrahiim. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 (july-december 2021) has been published. this edition consisted of nine articles from six focuses and scope: agricultural economics, agricultural extension, agricultural development, agricultural marketing, rural development, and food security. study about agricultural economic consisted of one topic entitled malaysia's agricultural production dropped and the impact of climate change: applying and extending the theory of cobb douglas production by entezari et al. in the study of agricultural extension consisted of two topics, entitled the effect of agricultural extension access on the performance of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia by rokhani et al. and changing farmers' perception towards sustainable horticulture: a case study of extension education in farming community in yogyakarta, indonesia by euriga et al. agricultural development consisted of one topic entitled the priorities of leading sub-sector in the sector of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in economic development in bangka belitung province by tanjung et al. in agricultural marketing consisted of two topics entitled inter-market variability of smallholder beef cattle farming in east java indonesia by sunyigono et al., and risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice supply chains: lesson learned from the involved actors by wahyuningtyas et al. in rural development consisted of two topics that are challenges and critical success factors for rural agrarian reforms in limpopo province, south africa by ndlovu et al., and challenges and critical success factors for rural agrarian reforms in limpopo province, south africa by rasanjali et al. the latest scope was food security that consisted of one topic entitled household food insecurity status and determinants: the case of botswana and south africa by ndhleve et al. the various studies had been written from several countries, that were indonesia, malaysia, south africa, botswana, germany, and sri lanka. the several of discovering research, hope can be a basis to the stakeholder of policymaker that relates to the wider agricultural development and encourage developing ideas on further studies. finally, we would like to thank all the contributors, such as the authors, expert reviewers, and all editors, for materializing this journal published. yogyakarta, indonesia december 2021 editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. v vol.7 no.2, july-december 2021 manuscript guidelines manuscript submission criteria: 1. the manuscript is a result of the agribusiness and rural community development research. the manuscript should have a novelty/authenticity contribution or uniqueness for academic (science) development. 2. the manuscript contains original research work, free from plagiarism and another unethical attitude. 3. the author must ensure that the manuscript has not been published in the other periodical journals at the time of manuscript submission. manuscript systematics: 1. title. the title should be brief, describe the uniqueness of the research, not exceed 20 words, and should begin with a capitalized letter for each word. 2. author’s name and affiliation. the author’s name should be included by affiliation (write completely) and email address, without the academic title. 3. abstract. the abstract is written in english, one paragraph with single spacing (maximum 250 words) without references or formulas. keywords consist of 3-5 words or phrases (alphabetically). the abstract contains a brief description of the research background (maximum two sentences), aims, methods, main results, and conclusion. 4. introduction. the introduction is written without numbers and/or pointers. this section consists of (i) nature and scope of the problem in a broader (national, regional, international) context, (ii) review of relevant literature, (iii) significance/novelty/contribution of this research on knowledge, (iv) aims of this research. if there is a hypothesis, declare it explicitly and not in an interrogative sentence. it should be written efficiently and supported by references. extensive discussion of relevant literature should be included in the discussion, not in the introduction. 5. research method. this section should explain how the research was conducted. it should be written clearly and completely containing a clear description of (i) population and sampling, (ii) data measuring and collecting, (iii) variable and data analysis. this research method should be sufficiently detailed. for qualitative research, please adjust this method to the scientific writing habits while considering the repeatability of the research. it was unnecessary to write analysis methods commonly (e.g., f-test formula, t-test) but just referred to your source. references of original methods/procedures must be stated, and all modifications of procedures (if any) should be explained. symbol description of the model was suggested to be written on narration. 6. result and discussion. the beginning of the results and discussion presents the data and found facts, calculated, and discovered. data should be presented in tables or figures when feasible. the table should be clear and stand-alone, giving complete information without text. the title of table and figure should briefly and clearly describe the described facts. symbols written in table and figure should be given complete information and allow the reader to interpret the results. each figure and table must be referred to in the narration. in the rest of the section, the author must discuss the research findings. 7. conclusion. this section summarizes the principal findings and is written briefly. conclusion related to the introduction and aims or hypothesis but did not repeat the discussion. conclusion written critically, logically, and honestly based on the existing fact, and full of cautions if there was a generalization. a recommendation showed the significance of the results/findings or practical application. this section, written in paragraph form, does not use numbering or bullets. vi agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 8. acknowledgments (if necessary). this section provided the authors with gratitude to the research funder, facility, or suggestion and for the statement if the article is part of the thesis/dissertation. 9. author contributions: for the article with several authors, please write each author's contribution in a brief paragraph. the authorship must be limited to those who have contributed, besides reading and agreeing on the final manuscript. 10. conflict of interest: the author should declare the conflict of interest or state "the authors declare no conflict of interest." the author must identify and state the circumstances that may influence the interpretation of the research results. 11. references. the reference contains the list of journals, books, or other publications referred to in this manuscript. each reference cited in the text must be listed in references, and vice versa. references of the manuscript must be traceable, no less than 25 pieces, should be a primary source (80%), and not exceed 10 years (80%). manuscript format: 1. the manuscript is written in quarto paper size, one column, and 1.5 spacing format. the new paragraph begins with six characters from the left side and uses time new roman font 12. 2. the manuscript is written in english. 3. the number of pages between 15-20, the margin on the left and upper sides is 3 cm, the right and bottom sides are 2.5 cm. 4. the title is written uppercase (except preposition) using font size 14 with center alignment. the subtitle is written uppercase and uses font size 12 if there is a sub-subtitle, written capital each word except conjunction. write capital for each word and italic model if there is a sub of sub-subtitle. subtitle, sub-subtitle, and sub of the sub-subtitle are written on the left side. 5. the citation is written by the american psychological association 6th edition. below are samples of citation: (wong, sharifuddin, teng, li, & song, 2020); (triyono, kamardiani, & prasetio, 2021); (debertin, 2004); (statistics indonesia, 2020). 6. the figure or table is made as close as possible to the explanation and put the number sequentially based on the site in the explanation. the source of data is better to be included. note: figure should be clear and fixed (good resolution) a sample of the figure can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. amount of order and shipping of leaf vegetables of pt. sfo in 2017 7. tables consist of title and content. the line of the table just on the top and the bottom to separate between the title and the content of the table. vii vol.7 no.2, july-december 2021 a sample of the table can be seen in table 1. table 1. food waste generated in malaysia, 2011 sources food waste ton/day ton/year household 8,745 3,192,404 wet and night market 5,592 2,040,929 food court/restaurant 5,319 1,941,608 hotels 1,568 572,284 food and beverage industries 854 311,564 shopping malls 298 108,678 hypermarket 291 106,288 institutions 55 26,962 total 22,723 8,308,973 source: ministry of housing and local government (mhlg), 2011 8. references are arranged alphabetically, beginning from the first author and followed by the co-author. if there are two or more references with the same author and year of publication, put the sign a, b, c...... etc. after the year of publication. in the reference that site from a journal, scientific magazine, and proceeding should be including the name of author, year, title, place of the seminar, publisher, page, and editor. the reference of agraris is written following american psychological association (apa) 6th edition. when referring is suggested to use the mendeley application. (the tutorial of mendeley can be accessed on http://bit.ly/2vyeqgz). below is the sample of apa 6th edition: article of journal wong, k. k. s., sharifuddin, j. b., teng, p. k., li, w. w., &amp; song, l. k. (2020). impact of urban consumers food consumption behavior towards food waste. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 6(2), 198–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62100 article of proceeding triyono, kamardiani, d. r., & prasetio, m. a. (2021). alocative efficiency of honey pineapple farm in pemalang regency, central java, indonesia. in international conference on agribusiness and rural development (iconard 2020) (vol. 232, p. 01016). e3s web of conferences. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202123201016 book debertin, d. l. (2004). agricultural production economics (second ed.). new jersey: pearson education. report of institution or corporation statistics indonesia. (2020). the statistics of farm wages in rural area. jakarta: bps-statisics indonesia. additional information template of the manuscripts can be downloaded at the website of agraris: (http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/index) 1: cetak yudi sapta pranoto staf pengajar jurusan agribisnis fakultas pertanian, perikanan dan biologi, universitas bangka belitung udhei_sapta@yahoo.com faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen lada putih di kecamatan simpang teritip kabupaten bangka barat abstract this research aims to determine the factors that influence farmers’ decisions to harvest white pepper crops, which related to delay selling or direct selling. method of research used in this research was survey method, stratified random sampling was used on 60 respondents which categorized as large farmers and small farmers, and the method of analysis used logistic binary regression. the result showed that there was a difference between the large farmers and small farmers’ decisions. the tendency for large farmers do delay the selling and the tendency of small farmers as much as 57 percent do direct selling and 43 percent of farmers do delay selling. there are three variables that influence farmers’ decisions, namely the amount of production, price perception and consumption needs. keywords: farmers’ decisions, white pepper, binary logistic regression. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen lada putih, yang terkait dengan menunda penjualan atau langsung menjual. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode survey, stratified random sampling digunakan untuk memilih 60 responden yang dikategorikan sebagai petani besar dan petani kecil, dan metode analisis yang digunakan regresi biner logistik. hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat perbedaan keputusan terhadap hasil panen antara petani besar dan petani kecil. kecenderungan petani besar menunda penjualan, sedangkan kecenderungan petani kecil sebanyak 56,7 persen langsung menjual hasil panen dan 43,3 persen responden tunda jual hasil panen. faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani lada putih terhadap hasil panen yaitu variabel jumlah produksi persepsi harga, dan kebutuhan konsumsi. kata kunci: keputusan petani, lada putih, regresi biner logistik. pendahuluan lada putih yang berasal dari provinsi bangka belitung sudah dikenal di pasar dunia (internasional) dengan brand ‘muntok white pepper”. usahatani lada putih ini, didukung oleh keadaan geografis pulau bangka dan belitung yang cocok dan memiliki keunggulan tersendiri dari sisi produk yang dihasilkan. hal tersebut dapat dilihat dari produk (lada putih) yang dihasilkan petani memiliki ciri khas tersendiri dengan lada putih yang lain yaitu aroma wangi dan citra rasa yang pedas. berdasarkan geograsif tersebut, kementerian kehakiman dan hak azasi manusia (kemenhum dan ham) pada tahun 2010 mengeluarkan indikasi geografis (ig) yang merupakan kekayaan intelektual yang dimiliki provinsi bangka belitung ini (badan user typewriter doi: 10.18196/agr.2127 70 jurnal agraris pengelolaan, pengembangan dan pemasaran lada putih, 2010). lada putih dihasilkan dari enam kabupaten di provinsi bangka belitung, yaitu bangka, bangka barat, bangka tengah, bangka selatan, belitung dan belitung timur dengan total produksi pada tahun 2013 sebesar 33.596 ton, yang diusahakan oleh 54.099 rumah tangga petani (dinas pertanian, perkebunan dan peternakan prov bangka belitung, 2014). kontribusi lada putih ini bagi perekonomian bangka belitung dapat dilihat dari nilai ekspor lada putih pada tahun 2014 sebesar us$ 96.070,22 meningkat dari tahun sebelumnya yaitu sebesar us$ 80.847,66 (bp3l, 2015). kabupaten bangka barat merupakan salah satu kabupaten yang berkontribusi terhadap produksi lada putih di provinsi bangka belitung, dengan sentra produksi di kcematan simpang teritip. total produksi yang dihasilkan sebesar 36 persen dari total produksi kabupaten sebesar 3.160 ton pada tahun 2014 (dinas pertanian, perkebunan dan peternakan kabupaten bangka barat, 2015). lada putih adalah komoditi unggulan dari provinsi kepulauan bangka belitung yang telah diusahakan masyarakat sejak abad ke-18 masehi (oktaviandi, 2009). kegiatan usahatani lada putih sudah menjadi turun temurun dilakukan oleh masyarakat dan menjadi sumber pendapatan utama petani. pendapatan petani lada putih diperoleh dari hasil produksi (produk) yang dijualkan ke pasaran melalui lembaga-lembaga pemasaran yang ada di desa. hal ini senada dengan penelitian mawarnita (2013) mengatakan bahwa lada putih yang dihasilkan petani dijual kepada pedagang desa yang bertindak sebagai pedagang pengumpul kecil dan pengumpul besar. petani dalam memasarkan hasil lada putih memiliki pertimbangan dalam memutuskan untuk menjual langsung atau tunda jual setelah panen. keputusan petani dipengaruhi oleh sejumlah faktor yaitu kebutuhan hidup sehari-hari, biaya pendidikan sekolah, modal usahatani, harga komoditi, tabungan, sumber pendapatan lain. faktorfaktor tersebut berkaitan erat dengan penguasaan lahan oleh petani. menurut mubyarto (1973) petani yang dikatakan kaya (petani dengan penguasaan lahan luas) dapat menyimpan hasil panen untuk kemudian dijual sedikit demi sedikit pada waktu yang diperlukan; sedangkan petani yang dikatakan gurem (petani dengan penguasaan sempit) masih kesulitan untuk menyimpan hasil panennya. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktor apa saja yang mempengaruhi keputusan petaniuntuk langsung menjual atau tunda jual terhadap hasil panen lada putih. metode penelitian survey dilakukan di tiga desa di kecamatan teritip, bangka barat, yaitu desa kundi, bukit terak dan air menduyung. ketiga desa tersebut dipilih sebagai lokasi penelitian dengan pertimbangan ketiga desa tersebut merupakan sentra penghasil lada putih terbesar di kecamatan simpang teritip. sampel petani dipilih dengan menggunakan teknik stratified random sampling; dengan strata didasarkan pada skala usahatani (penguasaan lahan) yang dimiliki petani, yakni petani yang mempunyai skala usahatani besar dan petani yang mempunyai skala usahatani kecil. dari jumlah petani lada putih sebanyak 300 petani, diambil sampel sebanyak 20 persen atau 60 orang; yaitu 20 petani dari setiap desa, masing-masing 10 petani dari kelompok berskala usahatani besar dan berskala usahatani kecil. data primer diperoleh melalui pengamatan dan wawancara secara langsung dengan 60 petani responden melalui panduan kuisioner; sedangkan data sekunder untuk memberikan gambaran di lapangan atau merupakan data pendukung informasi yang diterima. data dan informasi yang telah diperoleh di lapangan dianalisis secara secara deskriptif, dijelaskan dengan bantuan tabel, grafik atau diagram. faktor-faktor apa saja yang mempengaruhi petani menjual dan menyimpan hasil panen lada putih dianaliisis menggunakan analisis regresi binary logistik dengan persamaan (pyndick dan rubinfield, 1981 dalam hendayana, 2012) sebagai berikut. logit (ð j ) = ln = â 0 + â 1 x j1 + â 2 x j2 +.... +â n x jn keterangan : y = keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen 1 = langsung menjual hasil panen 0 = tunda jual x 1 = umur petani (tahun) x 2 = tingkat pendidikan (tahun) x 3 = jumlah anggota keluarga (orang) x 4 = pengalaman usahatani (tahun) x 5 = jumlah produksi lada putih (kg) x 6 = luas lahan (ha) d 1 = ketersediaan tempat penyimpanan (1= ada, 0 = tidak ada) d 2 = sumber pendapatan lain (1= ada, 0 = tidak ada) d 3 = persepsi harga(1= tinggi, 0= rendah) 71 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 x7 = kebutuhan konsumsi (rp) x8 = kebutuhan investasi (rp) pendugaan parameter dalam model regresi logistik dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode kemungkinan maksimum (maximum likelihood estimation). metode kemungkinan maksimum ini digunakan untuk memaksimalkan lf guna mendapatkan nilai parameter â i sedemikian rupa, sehingga probabilitas untuk mendapatkan nilai y maksimum. nilai dugaan â i dapat diperoleh dengan membuat turunan pertama fungsi logaritma dari likelihood function, terhadap setiap nilai parameter â i yang akan kita ketahui, kemudian menyamakannya dengan nol (supranto, 2004). setelah melakukan pendugaan parameter model, selanjutnya adalah melakukan pengujian kesesuaian model yang dibentuk. ketepatan model akan diuji dengan menggunakan statistik chi-square (÷2), dengan hipotesis sebagai berikut. h 0 : tidak ada perbedaan antara model dengan data yang diamati (data empiris) h 1 : ada perbedaan antara model dengan data yang diamati sedangkan untuk menguji apakah masing-masing koefisien regresi logistik signifikan, digunakan statistik uji wald, dengan hipotesis berikut ini. h 0 : â i = 0 (variabel umur, tingkat pendidikan, jumlah anggota keluarga, pengalaman usahatani, jumlah produksi, luas lahan, ketersediaan tempat penyimpanan, sumber pendapatan lain, persepsi harga, kebutuhan konsumsi dan kebutuhan investasi tidak mempunyai pengaruh secara signifikan terhadap variabel perilaku petani terhadap hasil panen lada putih) h 1 : â i ‘“ 0 (variabel umur, tingkat pendidikan, jumlah anggota keluarga, pengalaman usahatani, jumlah produksi, luas lahan, ketersediaan tempat penyimpanan, sumber pendapatan lain, persepsi harga, kebutuhan konsumsi dan kebutuhan investasi mempunyai pengaruh secara signifikan terhadap variabel perilaku petani terhadap hasil panen lada putih). setiap koefisien dalam model regresi logistik (â i ) mengukur perubahan dalam perkiraan logit. jika variabel bebas tertentu (x j ) naik 1 unit, sedangkan variabel bebas lainnya tetap, maka secara rata-rata perkiraan logit akan naik atau turun sebesar nilai koefisien tersebut. interpretasi hasil regresi logistik dapat dilakukan dengan melihat nilai rasio oddsnya. jika suatu peubah penjelas mempunyai tanda koefisien positif, maka nilai rasio oddsnya akan lebih besar dari satu, atau sebaliknya sebaliknya. interpretasi terhadap nilai odds ini diperoleh dengan mengambil antilog dari berbagai koefisien. interpretasi dari nilai odds rasio ini adalah kecenderungan atau peluang y=1 pada kondisi x=1 sebesar exp(â i ) kali dibandingkan dengan x=0. hasil dan pembahasan sikap petani terhadap hasil panen lada putih sikap petani yang dimaksud yaitu perilaku petani akan bagaimana setelah petani panen. perilaku petani lada putih ini adalah perilaku petani melakukan tunda jual setelah panen dan perilaku petani langsung menjual atau memasarkan hasil setelah panennya. petani yang melakukan tunda jual merupakan petani yang setelah panen ada kisaran waktu (jeda) petani menunda jual hasil panennya yaitu di atas tiga bulan atau lebih, sedangkan petani yang langsung jual hasil panen merupakan petani yang setelah panen langsung menjual lada putihnya. dari total responden tiga desa sejumlah 60 responden, terdapat perbedaan kecenderungan perilaku antara petani dengan lahan luas dan lahan sempit (tabel 1). berdasarkan tabel 1, responden atau petani terhadap hasil panen ini berbeda-beda antara perilaku petani besar tabel 1. kelompok petani terhadap hasil panen lada putih di kecamatan simpang teritip tahun 2015 72 jurnal agraris dan perilaku petani kecil dimana dari 30 sampel perilaku petani besar pada saat setelah panen 96,7 persen mereka melakukan tunda jual hasil panennya atau berjumlah 29 orang dan perilaku petani langsung jual sebanyak 3,3 persen atau hanya 1 orang yang langsung menjual hasil panennya. sementara perilaku petani kecil dari 30 sampel pada saat setelah panen 43,3 persen atau 13 orang yang melakukan tunda jual, dan perilaku petani langsung menjual saat setelah panen yaitu 56,7 persen atau sebanyak 17 orang. berdasarkan data primer dari 30 responden petani besar terdapat 1 orang petani yang termasuk dalam kategori petani besar yang langsung menjual hasil panennya. berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan petani tersebut alasan yang mempengaruhi petani langsung menjual hasil panennya dengan persentase 3,3 persen yaitu dipengaruhi oleh: i) kebutuhan investasi dimana hasil penjualan lada putih dibelikan emas untuk investasi, ii) persepsi harga tinggi dikarenakan petani melihat pada saat ini harga lada putih mencapai rp 170.000/kg petani ingin membeli kendaraan roda dua, serta iii) kebutuhan konsumsi dimana petani menambah uang belanja isterinya untuk konsumsi atau kebutuhan lain-lainnya untuk anaknya. selanjutnya alasan petani besar yang melakukan tunda jual hasil panenya dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. tabel 2. alasan petani besar yang melakukan tunda jual hasil panennya berdasarkan tabel 2, kebutuhan investasi yang dimaksud yaitu petani tersebut berinvestasi dalam bentuk menyimpan lada putih, dimana petani bisa menjual lada putihnya kapan saja sesuai dengan keperluan yang nanti akan dihadapinya seperti: untuk modal tanam selanjutnya, kebutuhan mendesak, dan lain-lainnya. selanjutnya adanya sumber pendapatan lain petani yaitu karet atau sawit, yang digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup petani sehari-harinya dan keluarganya maka petani setelah panen melakukan tunda jual lada putihnya. jumlah produksi yang dihasilkan petani tinggi atau banyak sehingga petani lebih memilih untuk menunda jual lada putihnya tanpa ada batas waktunya biasanya sampai bertahun-tahun petani menyimpan lada putihnya, dan akan dijual petani pada saat petani benarbenar sedang membutuhkan uang. selain ketiga alasan tadi, terdapat alasan laian yaitu telah menjadi tradisi masyarakat atau ciri khas dari petani menyimpan hasil panennya karena mereka sangat senang jika pulang ke rumah langsung tercium akan aroma khas dari lada putih. berdasarkan data primer dari 30 responden petani kecil akan dibahas alasan yang mempengaruhi petani langsung jual dan tunda jual hasil panen pada tabel 3. berdasarkan tabel 3, persepsi harga tinggi karena harga lada putih pada saat penelitian mencapai rp 170.000/kg, maka petani tidak ingin lama-lama menyimpan hasil panennya, melainkan setelah panen petani langsung menjual lada putihnya, selanjutnya kebutuhan konsumsi petani ini seperti kebutuhan hidup sehari-hari petani yang harus dipenuhi, dikarenakan sumber pendapatan lain dari karetnya tidak banyak. sedangkan alasan petani kecil untuk melakukan tunda jual yaitu petani mempunyai sumber pendapatan lain seperti karet dan sawit dan kebutuhan investasi dengan persentase 43,3 persen. adanya sumber pendapatan lain petani seperti karet dan sawit. semua petani mempunyai sumber pendapatan lain dari usahatani karet sedangkan dari usahatani kelapa sawit hanya 2 petani responden saja yang mengusahakannya. pendapatan yang didapat petani dari usahatani karet dan kelapa sawit ini sudah cukup untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup petani dan keluarganya. selanjutnya alasan petani melakukan tunda jual untuk kebutuhan investasi atau petani menabung dalam bentuk lada putih dan akan dijual jika petani mempunyai kebutuhan mendesak. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani berdasarkan persamaan di atas terdapat sebelas variabel yang dimasukkan ke dalam program spss, setelah dianalisis menggunakan regresi binary logistic terdapat 3 variabel yang berpengaruh terhadap keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen lada putihnya. uji kelayakan model atau model goodness of fit dilakukan dengan menggunakan prinsip hosmer and lameshow (h-l test). jika nilai uji h-l sama atau kurang dari 5% berarti ada perbedaan yang signifikan antara model dengan nilai observasinya, dimana kelayakan model tidak baik karena model dianggap tidak bisa memprediksi nilai observasinya. jika nilai statistik hosmer and lemeshow’s goodness of fit 73 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 lebih besar dari 5 persen berarti model mampu untuk memprediksi nilai observasinya dengan kepercayaan 95 persen. nilai signifikansi berdasarkan uji hosmer and lameshow (h-l) adalah 97,9 persen (>5 persen), maka model regresi logistik yang disusun layak digunakan atau dipakai untuk analisis selanjutnya. uji taraf nyata dalam regresi binary logistik menggunakan uji likelihood atau uji g dan uji wald atau uji w. terlihat bahwa untuk model keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen mempunyai peluang chi-square 41.172 dengan tingkat signifikansi 0,000 atau keputusan petani lada putih terhadap hasil panen mempunyai signifikansi pada tingkat 5 persen. ini menunjukkan bahwa model yang disusun mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan antara variabel bebas dengan variabel tidak bebasnya atau bahwa faktor umur petani, tingkat pendidikan, jumlah anggota keluarga, pengalaman usahatani, luas lahan, jumlah produksi, sumber pendapatan lain, ketersediaan tempat penyimpanan, persepsi harga, kebutuhan konsumsi dan kebutuhan investasi secara bersama-sama berpengaruh terhadap perilaku petani terhadap hasil panen. variabel bebas (x) atau faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap keputusan petani lada putih terhadap hasil panen di kecamatan simpang teritip pada tingkat 0,010 atau dengan tingkat kepercayaan 90 persen adalah jumlah produksi, sedangkan persepsi harga dan kebutuhan konsumsi berpengaruh pada tingkat 0,05 atau dengan tingkat kepercayaan 95 persen. dari hasil uji statistik didapat nilai signifikansi untuk variabel jumlah produksi, persepsi harga, dan kebutuhan konsumsi yaitu untuk variabel jumlah produksi sebesar 0,077, variabel persepsi harga sebesar 0,01, dan variabel kebutuhan konsumsi sebesar 0,033 nilai lebih besar taraf uji 0,05. dapat dibuat suatu persamaan regresi penduga yaitu: ln = 0,813 0,007 jumlah produksi – 4.170 persepsi harga + 2.526 kebutuhan konsumsi dari data di atas dapat diketahui bahwa dari ketiga kategori yang berpengaruh terhadap keputusan petani lada putih terhadap hasil panen, dapat dianalisis beberapa hal sebagai berikut. jumlah produksi. nilai koefisien regresi untuk jumlah produksi adalah sebesar -0,007. dengan melihat koefisien regresi tersebut, maka jika jumlah produksi yang dihasilkan petani naik sebesar 1 unit, secara rata-rata nilainya akan turun sebesar 0,007. hal tersebut menunjukkan adanya hubungan yang negatif antara jumlah produksi lada putih dengan keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen. artinya semakin tinggi atau banyak jumlah produksi yang dihasilkan petani lada putih, maka keputusan petani cenderung untuk melakukan tunda jual hasil panennya. odds ratio (rasio peluang yang tidak terjadi) merupakan indikator kecenderungan seseorang untuk melakukan kegiatan langsung jual dan tunda jual hasil panen lada putih. nilai odds ratio untuk variabel jumlah produksi 0,993. nilai tersebut menunjukkan bahwa jika jumlah produksi lada putih tinggi atau banyak akan memiliki probabilitas yang lebih kecil untuk langsung jual hasil panennya, yakni sebesar 99,3 persen dibandingkan dengan petani yang jumlah produksinya rendah atau sedikit. persepsi harga. nilai koefisien regresi untuk persepsi harga adalah sebesar 4.170. dengan melihat koefisien regresi tersebut,maka jika persepsi petani akan harga lada putih tinggi 1 unit, secara rata-rata nilainya akan turun sebesar 4.170 unit. hal tersebut menunjukkan adanya hubungan yang negatif antara persepsi harga tinggi dengan keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen. artinya semakin tinggi persepsi petani akan harga lada putih, maka perilaku petani cenderung untuk melakukan tunda jual hasil panennya. nilai odds ratio untuk variabel persepsi harga 0,015. nilai tersebut menunjukkan bahwa tabel 3. alasan petani kecil yang melakukan langsung jual hasil panennya 74 jurnal agraris perilaku petani yang mempunyai persepsi harga lada putih tinggi akan memiliki probabilitas yang lebih kecil untuk menunda jual hasil panennya, yakni sebesar 0,15 persen dibandingkan dengan petani yang memiliki persepsi harga rendah. kebutuhan konsumsi. nilai koefisien regresi untuk kebutuhan konsumsi adalah sebesar 2.526. dengan melihat koefisien regresi tersebut, maka jika kebutuhan konsumsi petani naik 1 unit, secara rata-rata nilainya akan naik sekitar 2.526 unit. hal tersebut menunjukkan adanya hubungan yang positif antara jumlah produksi lada putih dengan keputusan petani terhadap hasil panen. artinya semakin tinggi kebutuhan konsumsi petani lada putih, maka perilaku petani cenderung untuk langsung menjual hasil panennya. nilai odds ratio untuk variabel kebutuhan konsumsi 12,499. nilai tersebut menunjukkan bahwa perilaku petani yang mempunyai kebutuhan konsumsi yang tinggi akan memiliki probabilitas yang lebih besar untuk langsung jual hasil panennya, yakni sebesar 100 persen dibandingkan dengan petani yang kebutuhan konsumsinya rendah. kesimpulan dan saran sikap petani lada putih terhadap hasil panen yang termasuk pada kelompok petani kaya kecenderungannya melakukan tunda jual. sedangkan pada kelompok petani kecil kecenderungannya sebanyak 56,7 persen petani responden yang langsung jual hasil panennya dan 43,3 persen petani responden yang melakukan tunda jual hasil panennya, faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani lada putih terhadap hasil panen yaitu variabel jumlah produksi persepsi harga, dan kebutuhan konsumsi. mengingat hasil panen lada yang diperoleh petani setiap tahun sekali, diharapkan kepada petani dapat mengembangkan dan mempertahankan tanaman lain seperti karet atau sawit dalam membantu memenuhi kebutuhan hidup sehari-hari petani. dikarenakan harga lada putih berfluktuasi diharapkan intervensi pemerintah daerah dalam meningkatkan (added value) nilai tambah komoditi lada putih daftar pustaka arbi, m. 2011. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi petani melakukan tunda jual di kecamatan sanden kabupaten bantul. jurnal staf pengajar fakultas pertanian universitas sriwijaya. badan pengelolaan, pengembangan dan pemasaran lada (bp3l), 2010. buku prasyarat indikasi geografis. bangka belitun: bp3l badan pengelolaan, pengembangan dan pemasaran lada (bp3l), 2015. data ekspor-impor lada putih di provinsi bangka belitung. bangka belitung: bp3l dinas pertanian, perkebunan dan peternakan. 2014. statistik perkebunan tahun 2015. kabupaten bangka barat dinas pertanian, perkebunan dan peternakan. 2014. statistik perkebunan tahun 2015. provinsi kepulauan bangka belitung ghozali, i. 2006. analisis multivariate lanjutan dengan program spss. semarang: badan penerbit universitas diponegoro. hendayana, r. 2012. penerapan metode regresi logistik dalam menganalisis adopsi teknologi pertanian. makalah balai besar pengkajian dan pengembangan teknologi pertanian. hosmer, d. w dan w. lemeshow. 1989. applied logistic regression. new york oktaviandi, d. 2009. perubahan sistem pasar lada putih di kepulauan bangka belitung. tesis, program pascasarjana, institut teknologi bandung, bandung. mawarnita, c. 2013. analisis kelayakan usaha lada (piper nigrum l.) di desa kundi kecamatan simpang teritip kabupaten bangka barat. skripsi, departemen agribisnis, institut pertanian bogor. mubyarto. 1973. pengantar ekonomi pertanian. jakarta: lembaga penelitian, pendidikan dan penerangan ekonomi & sosial. supranto, j. 2004. ekonometri. buku kedua. jakarta: ghalia indonesia. sriati, h. dan hutasoit. 2007. perilaku petani dalam pemasaran hasil kakao dan hubungannya dengan pendapatan. jurnal fakultas pertanian, universitas sriwijaya. tersedia pada: eprints.unsri.ac.id. [diakses pada tanggal 6 oktober 2014] triwara buddhi satyarini program studi agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta triwarabs@gmail.com karakter wirausaha pada industri mikro pangan olahan di diy dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi absract study about entrepreneurial character of micro business processed foods maker in the province of yogyakarta covering 5 districts was conducted. the sample used on this study was they who are have many firm in each district. the study aims to determine the character of the entrepreneurs and analyzed its relationship with business performance, especially in terms of the efficiency of their business. descriptive analysis was used to find out entrepreneurial character based on data assessed with liekert’s scales and use path analysis to determine the relationship between entrepreneurial character with efficiency in its business performance. the results of the analysis showed that the entrepreneurial character of the businessmen in general was less strong. external environmental factors were conducive, although the social environment factors were less supportive. family support was the only one that high. leadership has a strong influence on future orientation, character of ownership of the business, responsivity and creativity to facing change. character of leadership was in a strong level so that, if improved, it will enhance the character of entrepreneurial capacity. characters of future orientation also exist at the strong level. key words: entrepreneurial character, factor influencing, the micro firm of food made. intisari penelitian karakter wirausaha pelaku usaha mikro pangan olahan dilakukan di lima (5) kabupaten yang ada di provinsi diy. sampel industri mikro pangan olahan ditentukan yang unit usahanya terbanyak di setiap kabupaten. penelitian bertujuan untuk mengetahui karakter wirausaha dari pelaku usaha mikro pangan olahan dan dianalisis hubungannya dengan kinerja usahanya, khususnya terkait efisiensi usaha. karakter wirausaha dianalisis secara deskriptif berdasarkan data yang dinilai dengan skala likert, sedangkan hubungan antara karakter wirausaha dengan efisiensi usaha dianalisis dengan analisis jalur (path analysis). hasil analisis menyatakan bahwa karakter wirausaha yang dimiliki pelaku usaha secara umum kurang kuat. faktor lingkungan eksternal termasuk kondusif, dengan dukungan keluarga yang tinggi; walau untuk faktor lingkungan sosial kurang mendukung. karakter jiwa kepemimpinan memiliki pengaruh kuat terhadap karakter orientasi ke depan, karakter kepemilikan jaringan usaha, dan karakter tanggap dan kreatif menghadapi perubahan. karakter jiwa kepemimpinan ada pada level cukup kuat, sehingga apabila ditingkatkan akan meningkatkan juga kapasitas karakter wirausaha yang dipengaruhinya. demikian juga untuk karakter orientasi ke depan yang juga ada pada level cukup kuat. kata kunci: karakter wirausaha, faktor yang mempengaruhi, industri mikro pangan olahan. doi:10.18196/agr.2123 29 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 pendahuluan usaha mikro kecil dan menengah (umkm) mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi suatu negara. hampir 90 persen dari total cabang usaha yang ada di dunia merupakan umkm. selain itu, umkm mempunyai peranan penting dalam hal penyerapan tenaga kerja; studi empiris menunjukkan bahwa umkm pada skala internasional merupakan sumber penyediaan lapangan pekerjaan. peranan umkm dalam penyerapan tenaga kerja, baik di negara maju maupun negara berkembang, termasuk indonesia, bisa dikatakan mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam penanggulangan masalah pengangguran. beberapa keunggulan umkm dibandingkan dengan usaha besar antara lain: i) inovasi dalam teknologi yang telah dengan mudah terjadi dalam pengembangan produk; ii) hubungan kemanusiaan yang akrab di dalam perusahaan kecil; iii) kemampuan menciptakan kesempatan kerja cukup banyak atau penyerapannya terhadap tenaga kerja; iv) fleksibilitas dan kemampuan menyesuaikan diri terhadap kondisi pasar yang berubah dengan cepat dibanding dengan perusahaan skala besar yang pada umumnya birokratis; v) terdapatnya dinamisme manajerial dan peranan kewirausahaan (afiah, 2009). industri pengolahan adalah suatu kegiatan ekonomi yang melakukan kegiatan mengubah suatu bahan dasar secara mekanis, kimia, atau dengan tangan, sehingga menjadi barang jadi/setengah jadi; dan atau dari barang yang kurang nilainya menjadi barang yang lebih tinggi nilainya, dan sifatnya lebih dekat kepada pemakai akhir. industri pengolahan pangan memanfaatkan hasil pertanian sebagai bahan baku produknya, baik bahan baku impor maupun hasil pertanian lokal. di lima daerah tingkat ii yang ada di provinsi diy banyak sekali industri pengolahan pangan, mulai dari yang skala industri rumah tangga, industri kecil dan industri menengah, bahkan ada yang masuk ke golongan industri besar. dari 253 sentra industri kecil dan menengah di provinsi diy, 81 diantaranya merupakan sentra industri pengolahan pangan (tabel 1). industri mikro pengolahan pangan, yang jumlahnya 3.766 unit usaha, menggunakan bahan baku hasil pertanian yang beragam, sebagian menggunakan hasil pertanian lokal, sebagian menggunakan hasil pertanian yang diimpor dari negara lain sebagai bahan baku produknya. tentu saja industri ini akan menghadapi permasalahan terkait dengan bahan baku yang pada umumnya bersifat musiman, padahal produk yang dihasilkan diharapkan bisa stabil sepanjang tahun, baik dalam jumlah produksi maupun dalam harga jual produknya. hal ini penting bagi kelangsungan hidup industri tersebut, karena akan mempengaruhi popularitas produk pada konsumen yang pada akhirnya akan mempengaruhi laju permintaan produk. banyak industri rumah tangga dan industri kecil yang sudah sangat lama (puluhan tahun) beroperasi, namun sampai saat ini masih juga termasuk dalam skala industri rumah tangga atau kecil. kondisi demikian bisa dikatakan bahwa industri tersebut tidak berkembang, hal ini sangat menarik untuk dikaji penyebabnya. juga sangat menarik untuk diteliti tentang karakter wirausaha pelaku usaha dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya, karena akan mempengaruhi perkembangan usahanya. metode penelitian metode dasar yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah descriptive method (metode deskriptif), yaitu upaya menggambarkan hubungan antar fenomena, menguji hipotesis, dan membuat implikasi terkait dengan karakter kewirausahaan (nasir, 1989); dalam arti lain pengukuran yang cermat terhadap fenomena karakter kewirausahaan industri pengolahan pangan (singarimbun dan effendi, 1989). penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui karakter kewirausahaan pelaku usaha dan pengaruhnya tabel 1. potensi industri kecil-menengah provinsi diy sumber: diperindagkop prov.diy 2012 30 jurnal agraris terhadap efisiensi produksi, sehingga data yang didapat akan diestimasi dengan menggunakan fungsi produksi fixed proportion input. penelitian dilaksanakan di lima wilayah dati ii provinsi diy, dari masing-masing kabupaten ditentukan produk yang paling banyak produsennya/unit usahanya. selanjutnya untuk memperoleh sampel ditentukan secara quota simple random sampling. jumlah sampel ditentukan sebanyak 60 sampel untuk tiap jenis usaha, sehingga untuk seluruh kabupaten daerah tingkat ii di provinsi diy didapatkan sebanyak 300 sampel. data primer dikumpulkan dari pelaku usaha melalui pengamatan langsung di lapangan dan wawancara menggunakan kuesioner yang telah dipersiapkan. informasi umum dan kebijakan dikumpulkan melalui wawancara dengan informan kunci, mulai dari tingkat provinsi sampai ke tingkat kabupaten. sementara data sekunder diperoleh dari instansi pemerintah yang berkompeten. indikator karakter kewirausahaan dari pelaku usaha meliputi: i) keterampilan, ii) kreativitas, iii) kepercayaan diri, iv) perencanaan usaha, v) orientasi pasar, vi) kebutuhan berprestasi, v) kemandirian. faktor lingkungan internal meliputi: i) tingkat pendidikan, ii) pengalaman usaha, dan iii) sifat ekstroversi pelaku usaha. faktor lingkungan eksternal terdiri atas: i) pasar input, ii) pasar output, iii) ketersediaan sarana prasarana transportasi, iv) perkembangan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi, v) dukungan pemerintah, vi) dukungan masyarakat, dan g) dukungan keluarga. variabel penelitian ini terlebih dahulu didefinisikan berdasarkan cara operasionalnya untuk mempermudah proses pengumpulan data, kemudian di nilai dalam 5 skala likert. data karakter wirausaha dianalisis secara deskripsi menggunakan analisis, selanjutnya dilakukan analisis jalur (path analysis) untuk menjelaskan hubungan kausalitas antara karakter wirausaha dengan efisiensi usaha. efisiensi usaha dihitung dari perbandingan antara besarnya penerimaan dengan biaya yang dikeluarkan untuk berproduksi, yaitu dengan menggunakan r/c rasio (revenue cost ratio). perhitungan r/c dibedakan, antara r/ c yang menggunakan biaya yang secara riil dikeluarkan pengusaha; dan r/c yang menghitung semua biaya, baik biaya yang riil dikeluarkan maupun biaya yang tidak riil dikeluarkan (soekartawi, 1995). hasil dan pembahasan berdasarkan nilai indikator yang diperoleh (tabel 2), karakter wirausaha dari pelaku usaha bisa dikatakan kurang kuat dilihat dari rendahnya nilai rata-rata sebagian besar indikator, seperti keterampilan (2,23), kreativitas (1,20), penerimaan risiko (1,6), kebutuhan berprestasi (1,81), dan kemandirian (2,05). nilai indikator yang cukup tinggi ada pada kepercayaan diri (2,73), orientasi pasar (2,65) dan sifat ekstroversi pelaku usaha (2,79). faktor lingkungan internal adalah faktor-faktor yang berasal dari dalam diri pelaku usaha pangan olahan, seperti tingkat pendidikan, umur, lama berusaha, jumlah tanggungan keluarga dan ditambah karakter wirausaha yang dipandang dekat keterkaitannya. hasil penelitian faktor lingkungan internal yang utama bisa dicermati pada tabel 3. tabel 2. nilai rata-rata indikator wirausaha pelaku usaha (skala likert), faktor 31 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 pada tabel 3 bisa dilihat bahwa usia rata-rata pelaku usaha rumah tangga pangan olahan adalah 47,6 tahun, walau masih termasuk kelompok usia produktif tapi sudah cukup tua hampir mencapai batas atas usia produktif. bahkan pelaku usaha yang tertua termasuk tabel 3. faktor internal pelaku usaha pangan olahan tabel 4. persepsi pelaku usaha rumah tangga pangan olahan atas faktor eksternal kelompok usia yang sudah tidak produktif, yaitu 70 tahun. memang ada regenerasi dilihat dari usia termuda pelaku usahanya adalah 29 tahun dan dari data yang ada, pelaku usaha termuda ini sudah mulai berusaha sejak usia 19 tahun. sementara itu pelaku usaha tertua (70 32 jurnal agraris tahun) ternyata baru mulai berusaha pada usia 50 tahun karena pengalaman berusaha baru 20 tahun. dilihat perkembangan usahanya, sampai lama usaha rata-rata hampir 20 tahun skala usahanya masih tetap mikro, jadi termasuk tidak berkembang. hal ini bisa disebabkan karena usaha pangan olahan tidak dikelola secara maksimal. pada umumnya bagi pelaku usaha mikro pangan olahan asalkan setiap hari masih bisa berproduksi dengan jumlah tetap sudah cukup, sehingga upaya pengembangan jangkauan pemasaran juga tidak dilakukan maksimal, pelaku usaha cenderung hanya melayani konsumen yang sudah biasa membeli produknya. pelaku usaha dengan lokasi usaha jauh dari pusat pemerintahan kota, kabupaten atau provinsi, lebih memilih memasarkan produknya ke pengumpul. faktor lingkungan eksternal adalah faktor di luar kapasitas pribadi pelaku usaha yang diperkirakan berpengaruh terhadap kewirausahaan dan pertumbuhan karakter wirausahanya. faktor-faktor yang dimaksud meliputi dukungan keluarga, dukungan pemerintah, dukungan masyarakat, pasar input, pasar output, perkembangan teknologi informasi dan sarana-prasarana transportasi (tabel 4). berdasarkan rekapitulasi yang disajikan pada tabel 4 tanggapan responden terhadap kapasitas faktor eksternal cukup beragam. kebutuhan input produksi selalu terpenuhi, terbukti dengan proporsi responden yang mendapat skor persepsi yang bernilai 3 (39,67%) dan 5 (38%), hampir sama. bagi mereka pada kondisi tertentu, seperti tidak pada musimnya, harga bahan baku menjadi mahal tidak masalah asal barangnya masih bisa didapat. bahkan sebagian dari mereka berpendapat bahwa input selalu tersedia dengan harga yang masih wajar. ketersediaan input diukur berdasarkan perkembangan ketersediaan dan harganya di pasar input pada 2 tahun terakhir, mengingat input utama berupa hasil pertanian yang harganya sering berubah sesuai ketersediaannya. sementara itu tanggapan responden terhadap kondisi pasar output didominasi pernyataan bahwa permintaan terhadap produk olahan dan harga fluktuatif, namun masih selalu mendapat keuntungan (63%). diikuti dengan tanggapan bahwa pada waktu tertentu permintaan akan produk maupun harganya meningkat (34,33%). hal inilah yang kemungkinan besar menjadi alasan mereka tetap menekuni usaha produksi pangan olahan. tidak ada masalah dalam ketersediaan bahan bakunya, selalu ada permintaan akan produknya dan masih selalu mendapatkan keuntungan. pengukuran kondisi pasar output berdasarkan atas kondisi permintaan produk dan kondisi harga jual yang bisa dicapai oleh perusahaan. persepsi responden terhadap kondisi sarana prasarana transportasi cukup beragam sesuai dengan wilayah tempat usahanya. tanggapan terbanyak mengatakan bahwa kondisi jalan baik dengan ketersediaan angkutan umum juga baik dan bertambah banyak (31,33%). namun demikian, ada juga yang mengatakan bahwa kondisi jalan yang biasa dilalui dalam kegiatan berusaha jelek dengan angkutan umum yang tersedia baik, walaupun jarang/ tidak banyak (27,67%). sebagian lagi memberikan penilaian bahwa kondisi jalan terus diperbaiki dengan angkutan umum yang semakin baik dan jumlahnya semakin banyak (21,33%). adapun wilayah yang kondisi sarana prasarananya cukup menurut responden juga ada, yaitu yang kondisi jalan sudah ada perbaikan dan angkutan umum baik walau jumlahnya belum banyak (19,67%). berdasarkan uraian di atas dapat dikatakan bahwa tidak ada masalah yang menyebabkan kendala dalam berusaha dari segi sarana prasarana transportasi. pengukuran persepsi perkembangan sarana dan prasarana transportasi, diindikasikan dengan pendapat pelaku usaha berhubungan dengan sarana prasarana transportasi untuk mencapai lokasi usahanya. aspek prasarana umum yang dapat mendorong dan mengembangkan pertumbuhan usaha rumah tangga (mikro) dan kecil ini bahkan diatur dalam uu no 20 tahun 2008 tentang umkm, pasal 7 ayat (1) huruf b. (leonardus, 2009). teknologi informasi merupakan kebutuhan penting dalam dunia usaha, tidak terkecuali dalam usaha mikro pangan olahan. berdasarkan tabel 4 kondisi teknologi informasi menurut persepsi responden, adalah cukup kondusif ditandai dengan pendapat terbanyak (31%) menyatakan bahwa ketersediaan media komunikasi dan informasi yang semakin banyak macamnya dan mudah diakses. pengukuran persepsi responden terhadap perkembangan teknologi informasi diindikasikan dengan penjelasan pelaku usaha terhadap item yang ditanyakan dalam perkembangan 2 tahun terakhir meliputi: i) media alat komunikasi, ii) jumlah media alat komunikasi, iii) akses terhadap alat komunikasi, iv) keterjangkauan harga alat komunikasi, dan v) kualitas alat komunikasi. untuk dukungan pemerintah, secara rata-rata responden memberikan persepsi yang cukup rendah, artinya dukungan pemerintah menurut sebagian besar responden tidak ada dukungan sama sekali terhadap usaha mereka. hal itu dibuktikan dengan sebesar 43,67 persen responden menyatakan tidak ada dukungan 33 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 sesuatupun dari pemerintah terhadap usahanya dan 31,67 persen menyatakan pemerintah pernah memberikan penyuluhan terkait usaha mereka. namun demikian terdapat 20 persen responden yang menyatakan bahwa dukungan pemerintah tinggi, karena selain penyuluhan dan bimbingan teknis, pemerintah juga memberikan pinjaman lunak. persepsi responden terhadap dukungan pemerintah diukur berdasarkan keterangan responden atas keterlibatan pemerintah yang dirasakan selama menjalankan usahanya dalam kurun waktu 2 tahun terakhir. mengenai persepsi responden terhadap dukungan masyarakat, sebagian besar responden (70%) menyatakan bahwa pada umumnya masyarakat sekitar tidak mau tahu apa yg mereka kerjakan atau hanya memperoleh sedikit kemudahan mendapatkan tenaga kerja tidak tetap pada saat dibutuhkan. sebagian kecil responden (10%) menyatakan selain sedikit kemudahan mendapatkan tenaga kerja tidak tetap, juga cukup mudah mendapatkan pinjaman dalam kondisi terpaksa, dan yang 20 persen menyatakan bahwa selain dua pendapat di atas juga adanya rasa ikatan kekerabatan. pengukuran persepsi responden terhadap dukungan masyarakat diindikasikan berdasarkan keterangan responden atas perlakuan yang diterima/dirasakan selama menjalankan usahanya dalam kurun waktu 2 tahun terakhir dengan kriteria: i) adanya rasa ikatan kekerabatan antar pelaku usaha, ii) mudah mendapatkan pinjaman dalam kondisi terpaksa, iii) kemudahan mendapatkan tambahan tenaga kerja paruh waktu pada saat diperlukan, iv) adanya rasa kebersamaan dalam kelompok usaha, dan v) adanya keterbukaan untuk saling memberikan informasi dan tukar pikiran. secara umum responden menilai dukungan keluarga tinggi. hal ini ditunjukkan dari: 57 persen responden memperoleh dukungan keluarga dalam bentuk sumbangan pemikiran dan juga tenaga sampai produk siap dipasarkan; 20 persen responden menyatakan keluarga mendukung mulai dari pemikiran, tenaga sampai produk siap dipasarkan serta biaya produksi; 20 persen lagi mendukung dalam bentuk pemikiran saja; dan 3 persen sisanya menyatakan bahwa keluarga mendukung dalam bentuk pemikiran dan tenaga saja. persepsi responden terhadap dukungan keluarga diukur berdasarkan penjelasan pelaku usaha mengenai dukungan keluarga yang diperolehnya. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi karakter wirausaha karakter seseorang tidak sepenuhnya merupakan sifat manusia sejak dilahirkan, tapi bisa terbentuk karena pengaruh berbagai faktor yang terjadi selama hidupnya. berpijak dari arti karakter dalam kamus purwadarminta, yaitu sifat-sifat kejiwaan yang membedakan seseorang dari yang lain, suryana dan bayu (2011) berpendapat bahwa karakter dibangun melalui proses yang akhirnya dapat membentuk jiwa seseorang yang berbeda dari yang lain. dalam penelitian ini dilakukan analisis terhadap faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi karakter wirausaha dari responden berdasarkan sifat-sifat pendukung karakter wirausaha dengan hasil seperti tercantum di tabel 5. pada tabel 5 dicantumkan estimasi koefisien korelasi tabel 5. koefisien korelasi faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap karakter wirausaha keterangan: fe: faktor eksternal fi : faktor internal mb: motivasi berprestasi ok: orientasi ke depan pim: jiwa kepemimpinan ju: kepemilikan jaringan usaha mp: kemampuanmenghadapi perubahan 34 jurnal agraris antar faktor-faktor dalam karakter wirausaha hasil analisis jalur. koefisien korelasi mempunyai rentang nilai 0dˆ%koefisien%d” 1. pengaruh yang dianggap kuat apabila koefisien korelasinya > 0,50. berdasarkan tabel 4 dapat dilihat keeratan hubungan antar faktor, yang bisa dijadikan pendugaan pengaruhnya terhadap karakter wirausaha dari responden. untuk masing-masing karakter wirausaha ternyata mempunyai hubungan erat dengan lebih dari satu faktor lain (koefisien korelasi >0,500). karakter motivasi berprestasi dari responden mendapat pengaruh paling kuat dari faktor eksternal (0,711) dan berikutnya adalah dari faktor karakter orientasi ke depan dari responden (0,544). artinya motivasi berprestasi dari responden akan meningkat apabila faktor eksternal juga meningkat, didukung dengan faktor orientasi ke depan yang dimilikinya. dengan demikian usaha akan berkembang sesuai karakter yang dimilikinya dan besar/kuatnya pengaruh faktor lain yang mempengaruhinya. karakter orientasi ke depan dari responden paling kuat dipengaruhi oleh karakter jiwa kepemimpinan dari individu (0,803); kepemilikan jaringan usaha (0,521); dan kemampuan menghadapi perubahan (0,502) yang dimiliki oleh responden. artinya jiwa kepemimpinan seseorang menyebabkan seorang wirausahawan berorientasi ke depan demi keberlangsungan pertumbuhan usahanya, kepemilikan jaringan usaha, dan kemampuan dalam menghadapi perubahan di dunia usaha yang dimiliki secara individual. karakter jiwa kepemimpinan responden saling berpengaruh paling kuat dengan faktor karakter orientasi ke depan, juga saling berpengaruh kuat dengan faktor karakter kepemilikan jaringan usaha dan karakter kemampuan menghadapi perubahan. hal ini berarti jiwa kepemimpinan seorang wirausahawan akan semakin muncul/kuat bila karakter orientasi ke depan yang dimilikinya semakin kuat dan didukung oleh kepemilikannya atas jaringan usaha serta kemampuannya dalam menghadapi perubahan. karakter kepemilikan jaringan usaha dari responden berkorelasi terkuat dengan faktor karakter jiwa kepemimpinan yang dimiliki oleh individu, diperkuat oleh korelasinya dengan faktor eksternal dan juga korelasi kuat dengan faktor orientasi ke depan yang dimilikinya. ini berarti kemampuan seorang wirausahawan menciptakan kepemilikan jaringan usaha yang utama sangat dipengaruhi faktor jiwa kepemimpinan yang dimilikinya didukung faktor eksternal yang kondusif dan karakter orientasi ke depan yang dimilikinya, yang akan menentukan perkembangan usahanya. karakter kemampuan menghadapi perubahan yang dimiliki respoden paling kuat dipengaruhi oleh faktor karakter jiwa kepemimpinan yang ditunjukkan dengan koefisien korelasinya yang paling tinggi, diikuti oleh karakter orientasi ke depan yang dimilikinya. berarti faktor karakter jiwa kepemimpinan paling berpengaruh terhadap segala keputusan yang diambil responden dalam menghadapi perubahan lingkungan usahanya, hal ini juga didukung terutama oleh faktor orientasi ke depan yang dimilikinya, sedangkan faktor-faktor lain yang berpengaruh signifikan walau tidak terlalu kuat adalah faktor motivasi berprestasi dan kepemilikan jaringan usaha oleh responden. karakter wirausaha yang berperan paling penting karena pengaruhnya terhadap karakter yang lain adalah karakter jiwa kepemimpinan. karakter jiwa kepemimpinan memiliki pengaruh kuat terhadap karakter orientasi ke depan, karakter kepemilikan jaringan usaha dan karakter tanggap dan kreatif menghadapi perubahan. berikutnya yang memiliki pengaruh kuat adalah karakter orientasi ke depan, yang mempengaruhi karakter motivasi berprestasi, karakter kepemilikan jaringan usaha, karakter tanggap dan kreatif menghadapi perubahan dengan koefisien korelasi lebih rendah dibanding karakter jiwa kepemimpinan. karakter jiwa kepemimpinan ada pada level cukup kuat, sehingga apabila ditingkatkan akan meningkatkan juga kapasitas karakter wirausaha yang dipengaruhinya. demikian juga untuk karakter orientasi ke depan yang juga ada pada level cukup kuat. kesimpulan karakter motivasi berprestasi cukup rendah, karakter orientasi ke depan rendah, karakter jiwa kepemimpinan rendah, karakter kepemilikan jaringan usaha rendah, karakter tanggap dan kreatif menghadapi perubahan masih rendah. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi karakter wirausaha dari responden adalah: a) karakter motivasi berprestasi paling kuat dipengaruhi oleh faktor eksternal, b) karakter orientasi ke depan paling kuat dipengaruhi oleh jiwa kepemimpinan c) karakter jiwa kepemimpinan, paling kuat dipengaruhi oleh orientasi ke depan d) karakter kepemilikan jaringan usaha paling kuat dipengaruhi oleh jiwa kepemimpinan, e) karakter tanggap dan kreatif menghadapi perubahan paling kuat dipengaruhi oleh jiwa kepemimpinan. 35 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 daftar pustaka afiah, n.n. 2009. peran kewirausahaan dalam memperkuat ukm indonesia menghadapi krisis finansial global. working paper in accounting and finance, department of accounting, padjadjaran university nasir, m. 1989. metode penelitian. jakarta: ghalia indonesia. kusnendi, 2008. model-model persamaan struktural satu dan multi group sampel dengan lisrel. bandung: penerbit alfabeta. leonardus, s. 2014. kewirausahaan. teori, praktik, dan kasus-kasus. jakarta: penerbit salemba empat. singarimbun, m., dan s. effendi, 1989, metode penelitian survei. jakarta: lembaga penelitian pendidikan dan penerangan ekonomi sosial (lp3es). soekartawi. 1995. teori ekonomi produksi dengan pokok bahasan analisis cobb-douglas. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. subanar, h. 2009. manajemen usaha kecil. yogyakarta: bpfe. suparyanto. 2012. kewirausahaan. konsep dan realita pada usaha kecil. bandung: penerbit alfabeta. suryana, y., dan b. krisnamurthi, 2011. kewirausahaan, pendekatan wirausahawan sukses. jakarta: prenada media group. fajri jakfar, romano, nurcholis prodi magister agribisnis unsyiah email: fajri@unsyiah.ac.id pengelolaan rantai pasok dan daya saing kelapa sawit di aceh abstract nowadays, supply chain management is vital for palm oil plantations, along with the increases of competitive efforts and equal partnership position between suppliers and processors. the research aimed at mapping supply chain patterns of palm oil plantation, at analyzing performances of palm oil stakeholders, and at analyzing factors influencing performances of stakeholders in the province. the research was conducted using survey method by interviewing and focus group discussion. the results showed that (1) there were 3 supply chains flows from bunches of palm fruit to plants of palm fruit processing; (2) roles of stakeholders in supply chain management determining supply volumes, profits, and value added; and (3) factors influencing performances of stakeholders and competitive advantages were plantation productivity, cost allocation for invesment and operation, capacity of processing plants, and cpo rendemen rate. keywords: supply chain, palm oil plantation, competitive advantages. intisari saat ini pengelolaan rantai pasok (scm) menjadi penting bagi perusahaan kelapa sawit, seiring dengan semakin meningkatnya persaingan usaha dan sejajarnya posisi pemasok dan pabrik kelapa sawit sebagai mitra. penelitian ini bertujuan memetakan pola rantai pasok kelapa sawit di wilayah pantai barat aceh, menganalisis kinerja pemangku kepentingan, dan menganalisis faktor yang mempengaruhi kinerja pemangku kepentingan di wilayah ini. penelitian ini menggunakan metode survey dengan teknik pengumpulan data melalui wawancara dan diskusi kelompok terfokus. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: (1) ada 3 pola rantai pasok yang menentukan aliran tandan buah segar ke pabrik kelapa sawit; (2) peran pemangku kepentingan dalam rantai pasok kelapa sawit di wilayah ini sangat menentukan volume pasokan, keuntungan, dan nilai tambah yang terbentuk, dan (3) faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja pemangku kepentingan dan peningkatan keunggulan kompetitif adalah produktivitas kebun kelapa sawit, alokasi biaya investasi dan operasi, kapasitas pks dan rendemen cpo. kata kunci: rantai pasok, kelapa sawit, daya saing. pendahuluan pengembangan kelapa sawit di aceh merupakan kegiatan pemanfaatan sumberdaya lokal yang potensial. hal ini didukung oleh berbagai faktor, seperti kesesuaian keadaan agroklimat dan ketersediaan sumberdaya lahan yang sesuai. sub-sektor perkebunan khususnya kelapa sawit dalam rantai aktivitas terbagi menjadi dua bagian, hulu dan hilir. aktivitas hulu meliputi kegiatan perkebunan, pemasaran tbs (tandan buah segar) dan doi:10.18196/agr.1214 109 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 infrastruktur agroindustri, sedangkan aktivitas hilir meliputi pabrik pengolahan kelapa sawit (pks), stok minyak sawit mentah (crude palm oil, cpo), kernel (inti sawit) dan kegiatan ekspor. aktivitas hulu menghasilkan banyak kegiatan lain sebagai akibat dari rantai pasokan yang lebih panjang dari sektor hilir dan beragamnya jenis produk yang ditangani. produk-produk tersebut adalah cpo dan kernel. kabupaten aceh barat dan nagan raya adalah kabupaten yang memiliki perkembangan areal kelapa sawit yang sangat signifikan. tingginya pertumbuhan kelapa sawit di dua kabupaten yang dimiliki oleh swasta dan perkebunan rakyat selama beberapa tahun terakhir. berdasarkan data badan pusat statisik (2014), pertumbuhan areal kelapa sawit kabupaten aceh barat dalam kurun waktu 2007–2013 mengalami peningkatan luas areal sebesar 77,02%, begitu juga kabupaten nagan raya terjadi peningkatan luas areal yaitu sebesar 60,66%. penerapan manajemen rantai pasok (supply chain management, scm) menjadi penting bagi perusahaan, seiring dengan semakin meningkatnya persaingan usaha dan sejajarnya posisi pemasok dan konsumen sebagai mitra. scm adalah pendekatan terpadu berorientasi proses untuk menyediakan, memproduksi, mengirim produk serta jasa kepada konsumen (pujawan dan mahendrawathi, 2003). cakupan scm meliputi seluruh proses manajerial, informasi, dan aliran dana. dalam scm setiap perusahaan bertindak sebagai pemasok sekaligus pelanggan suatu rantai pasokan. proses pemenuhan kebutuhan pelanggan dalam rantai pasokan adalah suatu mata rantai penambahan nilai yang tidak hanya berhenti di satu perusahaan, tetapi mencakup seluruh perusahaan yang menjadi anggota rantai pasokan. keberhasilan tidak hanya ditentukan oleh kinerja perusahaan itu sendiri, tetapi ditentukan oleh kinerja keseluruhan rantai. scm adalah pengintegrasian dalam aktivitas manajemen rantai pasokan, yang mencangkup hubungan kerjasama organisasi, proses bisnis, dan informasi untuk menciptakan nilai guna produk. aktivitas organisasi tersebut akan menjadi keunggulan kompetitif berkelanjutan bagi organisasi dalam rantai pasokan. aktivitas organisasi dalam rantai pasokan seperti terlihat pada gambar 1 memiliki dua model saluran utama, yaitu saluran langsung dan saluran tidak langsung. kedua model saluran ini, aktivitas dimulai dari produsen hingga konsumen, pada saluran langsung aliran hanya melibatkan dua organisasi yaitu produsen dan konsumen. dilain pihak saluran tidak langsung melibatkan organisasi lain antara produsen dan konsumen, adanya organisasi diatas akan memberikan nilai tambah bagi produk ataupun terjadinya aktivitas yang spesifik dalam kegiatan distribusi. konsep manajemen rantai pasokan memperlihatkan adanya proses ketergantungan antara berbagai perusahaan yang terkait di dalam sebuah sistem bisnis. semakin banyak perusahaan yang terlibat dalam rantai tersebut maka akan semakin kompleks strategi pengelolaan yang dibangun sehingga akan memerlukan manajemen terhadap informasi dari setiap mitra organisasi. dengan demikian diperlukan pula sebuah sistem terpadu yang bertugas dalam pengumpulan, pengolahan, penyimpanan, dan penyebarluasan informasi kepada setiap mitra usaha tersebut (indrajit dan djokopranoto, 2003). basu (2002) mengungkapkan bahwa terdapaat pendekatan unik pada scm dalam peramalan kolaboratif untuk kebutuhan perencanaan, peramalan, dan adopsi perlengkapan, perbaikan hasil yang substansial, pengoptimalan persediaan, dan peningkatan penerimaan. sementara cruz (2011) menyatakan bahwa ada hubungan yang kuat nilai-tambah dan produktivitas kebun. parham (2011) menambahkan bahwa ada faktor penting yang menentukan besarnya produktivitas. sumarwan dkk (2012) menyatakan bahwa komitmen dan kepercayaan adalah dua aspek dominan yang mendasari munculnya kerjasama, daya saing serta jaminan keuntungan finansial. solikhin et al. (2012) mengemukakan bahwa masalah yang paling penting adalah faktor keuangan pada pembiayaan pasokan tbs yang melibatkan kelompok tani dan sangat menentukan kinerja rantai pasokan tbs dan daya saing kelapa sawit. penelitian ini mempunyai dua tujuan. pertama, tujuannya menganalisis nilai tambah dalam sistem rantai pasok tbs kelapa sawit di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat. kedua, tujuannya menganalisis faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja dan peningkatan keunggulan kompetitif bagi perkebunan kelapa sawit di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat. pemilihan lokasi dilakukan secara sengaja (purposive) dengan pertimbangan bahwa kabupaten tersebut merupakan daerah sentra kelapa 110 jurnal agraris sawit di pantai barat aceh. objek dalam penelitian ini adalah pelaku rantai pasok komoditi kelapa sawit mulai dari petani kelapa sawit, pedagang dan pabrik pks yang ada di kedua kabupaten tersebut. ruang lingkup penelitian ini merupakan serangkaian kegiatan rantai pasok dan daya saing. metode yang digunakan dalam pengambilan contoh dilakukan secara sengaja. sampel diambil secara proposional dari dua kabupaten, masing-masing 5 (lima) satuan pengumpul (sp), tiga orang dari masing-masing satuan kerja pemerintah kabupaten (skpk) yang memahami sistem pemasaran tbs (bapppeda, disbun) serta delapan orang dari pelaku usaha dan faktor pendukung di dua kabupaten tersebut (petani skala besar, dan pedagang pengumpul desa). analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis kuantitatif dan kualitatif yang diawali dengan penyusunan matrik semua indikator, yaitu luas panen, produksi, harga jual petani, harga jual sp dan pendapatan petani kelapa sawit. indikator kinerja lembaga yang terlibat dalam pemasaran tbs terdiri dari volume transaksi, biaya pengumpulan, biaya pemasaran dan profit margin yang diperoleh. selanjutnya analisis nilai tambah pada masing-masing tahapan pasokan dilakukan dengan model nilai tambah (value added) yang merupakan fungsi dari tingkat kesulitan aksesibelitas (a), biaya produksi(c) dan harga beli tbs (p), dengan formula sebagai berikut : v c = f(a c . c c . p c ). untuk mengukur koefisien manajemen rantai pasok dianalisis dengan persamaan eksponensial berikut : v c =a c ao. c c a1. p c a2ý. hasil dan pembahasan pks di dua kabupaten aceh barat dan nagan raya sebanyak 8 unit dengan kapasitas terpasang sebesar 45 ton per jam. akan tetapi kapasitas kerja pks ini dibatasi sampai dengan 30 ton per jam. seperti yang telah dijelaskan di atas bahwa rantai pasok kelapa sawit adalah jaringan unit usaha yang saling bekerjasama untuk menghimpun tbs dan mengirimkannya ke pks pelanggan di 2 kabupaten ini. sedangkan manajemen rantai pasok scm adalah keterpaduan dari perencanaan, koordinasi dan kendali seluruh proses dan aktivitas bisnis dalam rantai pasok untuk menghantarkan nilai maksimal kepada konsumen dengan biaya termurah sebagai keseluruhan yang memenuhi kebutuhan kepuasaan para pihak yang berkepentingan dalam rantai pasok tersebut. para pengusaha pks menyadari bahwa keunggulan daya saing cpo dan kernel perlu didukung oleh aliran tbs dari petani ke pks secara efisien dan efektif. sebagai pendukung kelancaran arus tbs maka harus terjadi juga aliran informasi yang terkait diantara komponen yang terlibat dalam rantai pasok. tahapan yang harus dilalui oleh tbs mulai dari pengumpulan tbs oleh agen-agen pengumpul di desa, mengangkut ke sp dan atau langsung membawa ke pks. dilihat dari aliran ini maka rantai pasok tbs sangat sederhana. sistem rantai pasok tbs untuk pks yang ada dapat digambarkan dari dua sudut, yaitu: (a) pasokan tbs dan (b) hasil pks. tandan buah sawit (tbs) menjadi produksi bagi perkebunan kelapa sawit dan menjadi bahan baku dalam industri pks. bahan baku pks ini diperoleh dari kebun sendiri dan dari perkebunan rakyat di sekitarnya, sampai dengan tahun 2013 enam pks yang telah beroperasi mengandalkan bahan baku dari kebun sendiri antara 30 sampai dengan 60 %. dengan kapasitas produksi 30 ton tbs per jam, beberapa pks membeli tbs dari perkebunan rakyat di sekitarnya melalui sp yang telah dibentuk. hasil inventarisasi sp enam pks yang telah beroperasi menunjukkan terdapat 21 sp yang telah mengantongi kontrak pengadaan tbs di kabupaten nagan raya, dan 9 sp di kabupaten aceh barat. dari 30 sp ini terdapat 12 sp yang aktif, sedangkan 18 lainnya masih mengandalkan hasil pengumpulan agen tbs di sentra-sentra produksi. dalam sistem rantai pasok tbs terdapat beberapa pihak yang terlibat antara lain: (a) agen pengumpul desa, (b) sp dan (c) pks. agen pengumpul di desa-desa sentra produksi membeli tbs petani kelapa sawit dengan harga yang sangat bervariasi. sp membeli tbs dari agen pengumpul desa dengan harga yang telah disepakati dengan petani. sp ini memiliki kuota pasokan pada pks masing-masing dengan beberapa kewajiban yang harus dipenuhi. pada rantai pasok tbs kelapa sawit yang terdapat di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat terdiri dari 3 macam, yaitu: a. sistem pasok i : petani skala besar ke pks b. sistem pasok ii : petani skala kecil ke satuan pengumpul dan ke pks c. sistem pasok iii : petani kecil ke agen desa ke satuan pengumpul dan ke pks 111 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 gambar 1. sistem pasok tbs untuk pks di pantai barat tahun 2014 dalam teori rantai pasok bahwa ukuran kinerja dan peran masing-masing pelaku ditentukan oleh empat hal, yakni: persediaan, transportasi, fasilitas dan informasi. kinerja persediaan pada pedagang pengumpul desa sangat tergantung pada ukuran produksi tbs yang dikelola melalui kelompok petani yang menjadi pemasok. hal ini terukur dari volume pasokan dan kontinuitas produksi, pedagang pengumpul desa memiliki sistem transportasi mulai dari kendaraan langsir dan truk yang digunakan ke pks. fasilitas yang dimiliki oleh pedagang pengumpul desa dalam bentuk gudang penampungan dan perangkat pasokan seperti timbangan dan alat menentukan kematangan tbs. pada umumnya pedagang pengumpul desa sebagai sistem pertama dalam rantai pasok tbs belum memiliki informasi yang transparan dari pks, melainkan ditentukan oleh sp yang menjamin pasokan tbs tersebut. dengan demikian kelemahan pedagang pengumpul desa adalah akses informasi volume dan harga penetapan tbs dari pks tersebut. berbeda halnya dengan kinerja petani skala besar yang telah memiliki akses langsung ke pks, sehingga informasi volume dan harga tbs diterima langsung dari pks tersebut. petani skala besar ini juga telah melengkapi fasilitas pasokan dan sistem transportasi yang efektif. oleh karena itu kinerja petani ini lebih baik dibandingkan dengan petani skala kecil dan pedagang pengumpul desa. volume pembelian 5 unit pks dapat disimulasikan berdasarkan jumlah jam kerja per hari dan hari kerja per tahun. apabila kapasitas kerja pks ini dibatasi sampai dengan 30 ton per jam dan jam kerja adalah 20 jam per hari serta hari kerja adalah 300 hari per tahun maka volume pembelian delapan unit pks ini adalah 1.440.000 ton per tahun. akan tetapi karena semua pks tidak bekerja dalam kapasitas penuh maka volume pembelian tbs di wilayah ini lebih kecil. dari lima pks sampel yang diteliti total kebutuhan tbs selama tiga kwartal yang dianalisis adalah 355.920 ton. volume pembelian juga bervariasi diantara pks dan periode pembelian. pks tersebut juga tidak melakukan pembatasan volume pembelian diantara saluran pemasaran, sehingga terdapat perimbangan volume pembelian diantara tiga sistem pasok tersebut. pada penelitian ini nilai tambah diartikan sebagai manfaat yang dapat diambil oleh pks dari bahan baku cpo dan kernel tersebut. pks sebagai pembeli akan mempertimbangkan nilai manfaat terhadap tbs tersebut berdasarkan harga atau biaya-biaya operasional dan investasi yang harus dikeluarkannya ditambah biaya untuk mendapatkan bahan baku tersebut, dibandingkan dengan manfaat atau keuntungan yang akan didapatkannya dari bahan baku tersebut setelah diproses menjadi cpo dan kernel. semakin tinggi selisih manfaat dengan biaya-biaya yang dikeluarkannya maka akan semakin semakin tinggi nilai tambahnya, akan semakin rela pks membeli tbs tersebut. sebaliknya bila selisih itu semakin sedikit maka pks akan semakin kurang rela membelinya. dengan demikian maka dalam proses negosiasi pengusaha pks akan cenderung untuk selalu mencari petani atau sp penjual yang akan memberikan nilai tambah yang paling tinggi. para manajer pks telah melakukan pembinaan terhadap sp yang memiliki kuota pasokan tbs. akan tetapi beberapa sp juga memiliki hubungan yang khusus dengan agen pengumpul di desa sentra produksi dan petani kelapa sawit yang memiliki skala usaha yang besar. pasokan tbs disesuaikan dengan kapasitas kerja pks dan kondisi sp masing-masing. terdapat beberapa alasan terjalinnya kemitraan di antara sp dengan petani dan agen pengumpul di desa, antara lain: (a) pembagian peran, (b) distribusi nilai tambah, dan (c) penguasaan sentra produksi. hasil penelitiaan menunjukkan nilai tambah yang dibagi berdasarkan peran masing-masing, nilai tambah tertinggi diperoleh pks yang mengolah tbs menjadi cpo dan kernel, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada tabel 1 berikut ini. jumlah pasokan tbs paling ditentukan oleh produksi dan produktivitas petani. semakin besar produksi kelapa sawit maka akan semakin besar nilai tambah yang diperoleh petani dalam sistem nilai tbs. pada tabel 1 terlihat perbedaan nilai tambah yang diperoleh agen pengumpul desa dan sp di kabupaten aceh barat dan 112 jurnal agraris nagan raya. untuk agen pengumpul desa di kabupaten aceh barat nilai tambah yang diperoleh lebih besar dari agen pengumpul di wilayah nagan raya. hal ini disebabkan perbedaan margin yang dipotong dari setiap harga tbs, padahal biaya pengumpulan tbs hampir sama di dua wilayah kabupaten tersebut. akibatnya nilai tambah yang diperoleh sp di wilayah kabupaten aceh barat lebih kecil dari sp yang beroperasi di kabupaten nagan raya.duaunit pks yang beroperasi di kabupaten aceh barat telah mengalokasikan nilai tambah tbs sesuai dengan korbanan pada masing-masing pelaku usaha, walaupun nilai tambah yang diperoleh pks masing sangat dominan. persamaan regresi yang menggambarkan peran masing-masing pelaku adalah sebagai berikut: vc= 83,557 a c 7,921. c c -2,989.p c -3,138. koefisien determinasi r2 = 0,943 atau 94,3% yang artinya bahwa bobot kesulitan dalam proses produksi yang diperankan oleh masing-masing pihak yang terlibat dalam sistem rantai pasok tbs, biaya yang ditanggung dan harga tbs sangat menentukan nilai tambah sistem rantai pasok. dengan kata lain nilai tambah pada sistem pasok 94,3% ditentukan oleh bobot peran, kontribusi biaya produksi dan harga tbs pada masing-masing pelaku pada sistem rantai pasok. sedangkan 5,7% lain ditentukan oleh sistem eksternal yang tidak masuk dalam model analisis. kebenaran model jugaditentukanoleh f hitung yang diperoleh 110,512 pengujian secara serempak menunjukkan f hitung = 110,512 sedangkan f tabelá=0,05 = 19,44; dan f tabelá=0,01 = 99,45. artinya ada pengaruh antara peran pelaku usaha dalam rantai pasokan kelapa sawit dengan kinerja dan keunggulan kompetitif dari sektor usaha perkebunan kelapa sawit di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat. secara parsial tiga variabel (bobot peran pelaku, kontribusi biaya dalam sistem dan harga tbs) berpengaruh nyata terhadap nilai tambah sistem rantai pasok tbs. pengujian secara parsial menunjukkan t cari = 15,859, -16,271 dan -16,109 sedangkan t tabel á=0,05 = 1,725; dan t tabel á=0,01 = 2,528. artinya ketiga variabel tersebut mempengaruhi nilai tambah. setiap anggota dari rantai pasok dimodelkan sebagai suatu agen yang mandiri dan memiliki kemampuan membuat keputusan sendiri berdasarkan informasi lingkungan yang tersedia. dengan demikian maka fasilitas produksi diwakili oleh agen desa, sp dan pks, yang merupakan replika dari keputusan-keputusan yang dibuat oleh seorang manager pabrik, berdasarkan arus barang yang mengalir dan keluar masuk pada pks dan informasi strategis yang dibuat perusahaan (misalnya kualitas tbs, pks pesaing, dan ongkos angkut). pedagang pemegang sp diwakili oleh agen pengumpul di desa-desa sentra produksi. perilaku para pedagang ini yang membuat keputusan membeli dan menjual tbs berdasarkan harga dan permintaan pks. demikian juga pks yang merupakan replika perilakunya dalam memutuskan mengenai membeli tbs atas dasar pasar cpo dan kernel. oleh karena itu volume pembelian tbs oleh pks merupakan fungsi keputusan sp yang menjadi pemegang kuota. produk cpo indonesia dapat menjadi sebagai salah satu komoditi berdayasaing saing tinggi dalam perdagangan ekspor. kuota ekspor yang besar dari beberapa negara didorong karena minat pengusaha negara tersebut semakin tinggi untuk mengimpor cpo dari indonesia. dalam implementasi pengaturan jatah kuota oleh beberapa negara misalnya, telah ditetapkan aturan bahwa ekspor di luar kuota dikenakan bea masuk (bm) lebih dari 50%. sedangkan cpo berkuota hanya dikenakan bea masuk untuk cpo sebesar 9%. dengan aturan seperti itu, sudah pasti importir beberapa negara dan eksportir nasional tidak mau langsung melakukan transaksi pengiriman komoditas tersebut, tetapi menunggu lebih dahulu rekomendasi penjatahan. oleh karena itu, dikhawatirkan pengaturan kuota berpotensi tabel 1. nilai tambah pelaku pada sistem rantai pasok tbs di pantai barat aceh 113 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 menghambat kegiatan ekspor cpo indonesia. begitu pula halnya dengan bea masuk yang tinggi tersebut. hasil wawancara dengan pengusaha pks, juga ada beberapa negara lain juga memberikan kuota ekspor cpo kepada negara agensi seperti singapura dan malaysia. hambatan kuota dan bea masuk yang dihadapi eksportir cpo indonesia selama ini akan berakhir dengan dimulainya mea 2015. kesimpulan pada sistem rantai pasok kelapa sawit di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat terdapat tiga sistem yang khas menentukan aliran tbs ke lima pks utama di wilayah pantai barat aceh. kekhasan sistem rantai pasok ditentukan oleh besarnya peran masingmasing dalam rantai pasok tbs. peran stakeholder dalam sistem rantai pasok kelapa sawit di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat sangat menentukan volume pasokan, keuntungan, dan nilai tambah yang terbentuk. peran agen pengumpul desa paling dominan terhadap volume pasokan tbs pada lima pks utama. faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja pemangku kepentingan dan peningkatan daya saing bagi perkebunan kelapa sawit di kabupaten nagan raya dan kabupaten aceh barat adalah bobot peran pelaku, kontribusi biaya dan harga jual. harga tbs berpengaruh nyata terhadap nilai tambah sistem rantai pasok tbs. keuntungan pelaku yang terlibat dalam sistem rantai pasok ditentukan oleh efisiensi biaya, dan volume pasokan tbs. untuk meningkatkan kinerja sistem rantai pasok kelapa sawit di pantai barat aceh perlu dilakukan penataan wilayah pasokan sesuai dengan kedudukan operasi pks yang bersangkutan. ucapan terima kasih peneliti mengucapkan terima kasih kepada lembaga penelitian unsyiah atas bantuan dana hibah pascasarjana unsyiah tahun 2014. daftar pustaka badan pusat statistik. 2014. aceh dalam angka 2014. badan pusat statistik aceh. banda aceh basu, r. 2002. new criteria of performance management: a transition from enterprise to collaborative supply chain. measuring business exellence. volume 5(4) cruz, ea. 2011.productivity assessment survey featuring value-added productivity measurement. apo trainingcourse on the development ofproductivity practitioners. manila. indrajit, r.e., djokopranoto, r. 2003. konsep manajemen supply chain: cara baru memandang mata rantai penyediaan barang. grasindo.jakarta. parham, d. 2011. definition, importance and determinants of productivity. workshop for the public sector linkages program.university of adelaide. adelaide pujawan, i.n., mahendrawathi, e.r. 2010.supplychain management. penerbit gunawidya. surabaya solikhin, anas m. fauzi, hadi k. purwadaria. 2012.analysis of oil palm sustainable replanting models, a case at pt agrowiyana, tunggul ulu, tanjung jabung barat, jambi.jurnal manajemen &agribisnis, mb. ipb, bogor, vol. 9. no. 3 sumarwan,u. agus maulana,muchlis ahmady,budi suharjo. 2012. key success values in relationship marketing of agriculture products, jurnal manajemen &agribisnis, mb. ipb, bogor, vol. 9. no. 2 indah widowati program studi agribisnis fakultas pertanian upn “veteran” yogyakarta email: widowati2010@gmail.com strategi pengembangan perusahaan agroindustri (studi kasus pt citra rahardja utama di kecamatan gamping kabupaten sleman) abstract this study aimed to analyze the appropriate strategy for pt citra utama rahardja in maintaining business continuity. the case study method was used in this research, as pt rahardja citra utama was a company that processes albasia wood (sengon) into barecore in yogyakarta. the sources of data was taken from primary and secondary data. the results showed from swot analysis diagram was that layout of the company was in quadrant i, that was supported an aggressive strategy which included the integration of backward, forward, horizontal; market penetration; market development; product development; diversification (related or unrelated). based on the calculation of space matrix (matrix of strategic position and action evaluation) the coordinate of space matrix diagram on the x-axis was 1,785 and y-axis was 0,16 that was in quadrant i. the competition ability of pt citra utama rahardja was considered as high and able to respond the variable of external factors. keywords: enterprise development strategy, barecore industry, swot analysis, space analysis. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis strategi prioritas untuk pt citra rahardja utama dalam menjaga keberlanjutan bisnisnya. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah studi kasus, dimana pt citra rahardja utama adalah sebuah perusahaan yang mengolah kayu sengon menjadi barecore di yogyakarta. sumber data yang digunakan terdiri atas data primer dan data sekunder. hasil diagram analisis swot menunjukkan bahwa perusahaan berada di kuadran i, yang didukung strategi agresif yang meliputi integrasi ke belakang, integrasi ke depan, integrasi horizontal; penetrasi pasar; pengembangan pasar; pengembangan produk; diversifikasi (terkait atau tidak terkait). berdasarkan perhitungan matriks space (matrix of strategic position and action evaluation), koordinat pada diagram matriks space yaitu sumbu x 1,785 dan sumbu y 0,16 kuadran i. kemampuan bersaing pt citra utama rahardja diianggap tinggi dan mampu tanggap terhadap perubah faktor eksternal. kata kunci: strategi pengembangan bisnis, industri barecore, analisis swot, analisis pendahuluan sengon (albizia chinensis) adalah sejenis pohon anggota sulen fabaceae yang berpungsi sebagai pohon peneduh dan penghasil kayu. pohon tersebut tersebar secara alami di india, asia tenggara, cina selatan, dan indonesia sengon menyebar di jawa, bali dan nusa tenggara. pengelolaan budidaya doi:10.18196/agr.1219 158 jurnal agraris sengon mudah, kesesuaian tumbuh tidak sulit, kayunya serba guna dan memperbaiki kualitas serta kesuburan tanah. sengon merupakan kayu multiguna, bisa digunakan sebagai bahan bangunan, lantai, pintu, dan ranting kayunya dapat dijual sebagai bahan baku pembuatan kertas (pulp). perseroan terbatas (pt) citra rahardja utama merupakan perusahaan pengolahan kayu (wood working factory) yang secara resmi beroperasi pada tahun 2007. lokasi perusahaan di jl. wates km 9,5 parangdewe, desa balecatur, kecamatan gamping, kabupaten sleman yogyakarta. ketinggian lokasi 112 meter di atas permukaan laut bidang usaha pt citra rahardja utama bergerak dalam bidang pengolahan kayu sengon termasuk dalam jenis industri kayu lapis laminasi termasuk decorative plywood, mengolah bahan baku berupa kayu balken menjadi barecore. kayu balken adalah kayu sengon yang berbentuk balok (log kotak) yang digunakan untuk membuat barecore. barecore merupakan produk olahan kayu berupa lembaran yang terdiri dari susunan kayu kecil-kecil. bercore dapat digunakan sebagai bahan baku block board, hiasan pada dinding, sebagai alas lantai rumah sebelum diberi keramik atau diolah kembali menjadi produk kayu lainnya seperti meja, kursi, tempat tidur, dan lain-lain. bahan baku albasia diperoleh dari daerah klaten, wonogiri, kediri, dan purwokerto. maksud dan tujuan didirikan perusahaan pt citra rahardja utama adalah untuk menjalankan usaha dalam bidang industri dan melakukan usaha perdagangan lokal maupun luar negri. permintaan pasar internasional terhadap sengon dan olahannya terus meningkat, sebagai apresiasi terhadap kayu budidaya, harganya diperkirakan akan terus meningkat. perkembanagan dan eksistensi suatu perusahaan dipengaruhi oleh faktor internal dan eksternal, sehingga suatu perusahaan harus mengetahui keadaan perusahaan sendiri dan keadaan perusahaan lain baik mengenai kekuatan maupun kelemahannya. dengan diketahui kekuatan dan kelemahan perusahaan dan perusahaan lain, diharapkan perusahaan mampu mengantisipasi setiap ancaman yang ada.selain itu perusahaan harus mampu mengamati setiap peluang untuk memperluas pangsa pasar perusahaan. faktor internal dari ptcitra rahardja utama seperti kualitas produk, kontinuitas produksi, kemampuan dan pengalaman manajerial, profesionalisme tenaga kerja, pengembangan tenaga kerja, kemampuan untuk meraih penjualan. kelemahan perusahaan seperti investasi perusahaan untuk pengembangan produk kemampuan meraih penjualan, pemasaran ke pasar luar negri, pemeliharaan dan penggantian alat produksi, lokasi perusahaan dekat dengan rumah penduduk, luas pabrik tidak bisa ditambah, gudang yang terlalu kecil. sedangkan faktor eksternalnya untuk peluang yang dimiliki perusahaan adalah pertumbuhan pasar barecore yang besar, adanya pembeli tetap, semakin banyak areal tanaman sengon, dukungan masyarakat dan pemerintah.. ancaman perusahaan yang dihadapi persaingan dengan perusahaan barecore lain, bahan baku sengon yang harus bersertifikat, kenaikan tarif listrik, kelangkaan bahan baku, upah tenaga kerja yang selalu meningkat. strategi perusahaan merupakan garis besar haluan perusahaan, kebijaksanaan dan taktik perusahaan yang merupakan penerjemahan lebih lanjut strategi yang telah ditetapkan (sukanto dan siswanto, 1990). dalam upaya meningkatkan eksistensi perusahaan, strategi perusahaan memegang peranan penting, banyak perusahaan yang tidak mampu mencapai pasar penjualan yang mengakibatkan tidak tercapainya tujuan perusahaan, hal ini disebabkan tidak tepatnya strategi perusahaan yang diterapkan. oleh karena itu perlu dilakukan penelitian untuk menganalisis pilihan strategi pada perusahaan dan untuk mengetahui keputusan strategi pengembangan yang tepat. metode penelitian metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode studi kasus (case study), yakni penelitian tentang status obyek penelitian yang berkenaan dengan suatu fase spesifik atau khas dari seluruh personalitas (maxfield dalam nazir), yang bertujuan untuk memberikan gambaran secara mendetail tentang latar belakang, sifatsifat serta karakter-karakter yang khas dari kasus, sifatsifat yang khas yang kemudian akan dijadikan suatu hal yang bersifat umum. (nazir, 1983). penelitian ini merupakan studi kasus di pt citra rahardja utama, perusahaan yang mengolah kayu albasia, hasil produksi barecore yang ada di daerah istimewa yogyakarta. luas lahan kegiatan perusahaan sebesar 3.721 m2 dengan kapasitas produksi 580.476 m3/bulan. jumlah tenaga kerja sebanyak 117 orang. pt citra rahardja utama menghasilkan produk yang memiliki prospek yang baik dan sebagian besar hasil produksinya diekspor. data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data primer dan sekunder. data primer merupakan data yang didapat dari 159 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 sumber pertama baik dari individu atau perseorangan (umar, 2014). data sekunder adalah pengambilan data yang dihimpun melalui tangan kedua (riduwan, 2013). proses manajemen strategis dapat diaplikasikan dengan menggunakan model manajemen strategis komprehensif, sebuah pendekatan yang jelas dan praktis untuk merumuskan, menerapkan dan menilai strategi (david, 2012). penerapan strategi perusahaan pt citra rahardja utama didasarkan perhitungan matrik faktor strategi internal (ifas) dan matrik faktor strategi eksternal (efas). metode analisis yang digunakan dengan analisis swot yang dilanjutkan dengan matriks posisi strategis dan evaluasi tindakan (space).strengthsweaknesses-opportunities-threats (swot) adalah sebuah alat pencocokan yang penting yang membantu para manajer mengembangkan empat jenis strategi yaitu strategi so (kekuatan-peluang), strategi wo, strategi wt, dan strategi st.tujuan digunakan analisis ini untuk mengidentifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan yang diperoleh dari analisis lingkungan internal perusahaan dan mengidentifikasi peluang dan ancaman yang diperoleh dari analiisis lingkungan eksternal perusaahan. langkah dalam analisis swot adalah menentukan faktor-faktor strategis yang menjadi kekuatan dan kelemahan perusahaan, masing-masing faktor diberi bobot dari sangat penting sampai tidak penting terhadap posisi strategis perusahaan. untuk faktor kekuatan perusahaan dimulai dari 1 sampai 4 (sangat baik), sebaliknya untuk faktor kelemahan dimulai dari 4 sampai 1. mengalikan bobot dengan rating untuk memperoleh skor pembobotan perusahaan. menentukan faktor-faktor strategis yang menjadi peluang dan ancaman, memberi bobot dan rating masing-masing faktor dan mengalikan bobot dan rating untuk memperoleh skor pembobotan perusahaan. matriks strategic, position, and action evaluation (space), matriks ini merupakan empat-kuadran yang menunjukkan apakah agresif, konservatif, defensif atau kompetitif yang paling sesuai untuk suatu organisasi. sumbu-sumbu matriks space menunjukkan dua dimensi internal dan keunggulan kompetitif, dan dua dimensi eksternal stabilitas lingkungan dan kekuatan industri. keempat faktor ini merupakan penentu terpenting dari posisi strategis keseluruhan suatu organisasi (david, 2012). hasil dan pembahasan matriks swot matriks kekuatan – kelemahan – peluang-ancaman (strengths – weaknesses – opportunities-threats/swot) adalah suatu alat pencocokan yang penting yang membantu para manajer mengembangkan empat jenis strategis.digunakan untuk menganalisis lingkungan internal meliputi kekuatan dan kelemahan dan analisis lingkungan eksternal yang meliputi peluang dan ancaman, untuk merumuskan strategi perusahaan yang tepat diterapkan pada perusahaan pt citra rahardja utama. analisis lingkungan internal kekuatan a. kontinuitas produksi keberlangsungan industri pengolahan kayu pt citra rahardja utama ini tidak terlepas dari kontinuitas produksi yang dilakukan secara terus menerus sesuai dengan standar operasional kualitas produk. b. kualitas produk kualitas produk pt citra rahardja utama termasuk bagus dilihat dari hasil produk yang rata, produknya tidak berlubang, dan kuat tidak mudah ambrol. c. letak fasilitas fisik pabrik sebuah perusahaan penataan fasilitas produksi merupakan salah satu faktor pendukung dalam efektivitas perusahaan. perencanaan tata letak produksi (tata letak mesin pemotong, oven) harus dipikirkan juga mengenai sistem pemindahan bahan. proses pemindahan bahan akan menentukan keterkaitan antara satu fasilitas dengan fasilitas produksi yang lain. d. pengalaman manajerial pengalaman, kemampuan manajer dalam menjalankam perusahaan sudah baik, berdasarkan keberadaan pabrik yang sampai sekarang masih beroperasi. e. profesionalisme tenaga kerja profesionalisme operasi tenaga kerja sudah cukup baik , semua tenaga kerja bekerja harus memenuhi standar mutu operasional. tenaga kerja yang diangkat adalah tenaga kerja yang memenuhi kualifikasi pekerjaan dan sesuai keahlian untuk pekerjaan 160 jurnal agraris operasional industri pengolahan kayu. f. letak perusahaan tidak jauh dari bahan baku letak pt citra rahardja utama di jalan jogja-wates km 9,5 perenggawe balecatur gamping sleman. letak pabrik sangat strategis, sehingga memudahkan dalam pemenuhan bahan baku yang diperlukan untuk proses produksi dan pengangkutan hasil produksi untuk dipasarkan. g. pengembangan tenaga kerja untuk meningkatkan kinerja, tenaga kerja diikutkan dalam kursus/pelatihan yang bisa mendukung dalam bekerja. h. memasang alat pengendalian pencemaran udara pada boiler pengoperasian boiler sesuai standar operation procedur (sop) sehingga tidak terjadi kerusakan dan pencemaran emisi, menghubungkan mesin produksi ke alat pengendalian pencemaran udara (dust cbolector)menyalurkan/menghubungkan boiler dan genset ke alat pengendali pencemaran emisi udara (cyclon). i. pengelolaan lingkungan hidup sudah dilakukannya analisis laboratorium terhadap pengukuran kualitas lingkungan di sekitar lokasi pt citra rahardja utama meliputi: kualitas udara dan kebisingan yaitu dengan membuat pagar pembatas permanen setinggi 3 meter mengelilingi seluruh areal kegiatan, melakukan bongkar muat hanya pada jam kerja dan menghentikan kegiatan pada malam hari saat jam istirahat penduduk, pembuatan buffer zone dengan menanam pohon perindang;saluran drainase dibuat dengan desain saluran terbuka yang terhubung ke saluran drainase di pinggir jalan raya jogja-wates dan saluran drainase sisi selatan; memasang rambu peringatan bahaya kebakaran pada lokasi rawan kebakaran dan jalur evakuasi pada setiap ruangan. j. memberikan jaminan asuransi kesehatan kepada seluruh karyawan melakukan pengecekan kesehatan karyawan secara berkala; karyawan mengenakan alat pelindung diri saat melakukan pekerjaan yang berpotensi kecelakaan kerja; semua karyawan diikutkan asuransi jamsostek. kelemahan a. investasi perusahaan untuk pengembangan produk investasi pengembangan masih kurang dan perlu mendapatkan perhatian. untuk investasi pengembangan dibutuhkan dana yang besar sehingga perlu waktu untuk menyiapkan. karena pt citra rahardja utama termasuk skala usaha yang kecil, sehingga kesulitan di dalam pengembangan produk yang sangat membutuhkan investasi banyak. inovasi pengembangan produknya dengan membuat produk lanjutan yaitu blockboard, ini perlu investasi pengembangan yang lebih besar. b. kemampuan meraih penjualan karena perusahaan termasuk dalam skala usaha kecil, maka produksinya per bulan juga kecil, sehingga tidak bisa menjual ke berbagai pembeli. jika pt citra rahardja utama mampu meraih penjualan ke berbagai pembeli bisa mendatangkan keuntungan yang besar, namun masih tergantung kinerja perusahaan dalam mengatasi kendala-kendala internal dan eksternal. c. pemasaran ke pasar luar negri penjualan produk ke pasar luar negri masih tergantung dengan pihak ketiga (broker). perusahaan sebenarnya bisa menjual secara langsung ke pembeli di negara lain, tetapi hal ini memerlukan proses/prosedur yang cukup panjang. proses tersebut hanya bisa dilakukan oleh perusahaan yang cukup besar, dan proses tersebut memerlukan kemampuan manajemen yang lebih tinggi. d. pemeliharaan dan penggantian alat produksi pemeliharaan dan penggantian alat produksi membutuhkan biaya yang besar, sehingga perlu mendapat perhatian dari perusahaan. alat-alat produksi yang ada sekarang ini sebagian besar sudah lama dan termasuk sudah ketinggalan jaman, sehingga mengakibatkan proses produksinya kurang efisien. dengan kondisi seperti itu, maka perlu penggantian alat-alat mesin produksi yang lebih modern dan canggih. e. lokasi dekat dengan rumah penduduk lokasi pt citra rahardja utama di tengah-tengah pemukiman penduduk, sehingga perusahaan kesulitan 161 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 jika akan memperluas areal. karena lokasi perusahaan di dekat rumah penduduk, maka perusahaan tidak bisa berproduksi pada malam hari, proses produksinya terbatas hanya bisa dilakukan pada siang hari. f. luas pabrik tidak bisa ditambah untuk bisa menambah produksi atau memperbesar skala usaha perusahaan, maka areal luas pabrik perlu diperbesar. tetapi dengan melihat lokasi pabrik sekarang ini, di dekat pabrik sudah penuh dengan bangunan-bangunan rumah,maka pabrik mengalami kesulitan untuk bisa menambah luas arealnya. g. gudang yang terlalu kecil untuk menyimpan hasil produksi perlu adanya gudang yang mencukupi. produksi yang dihasilkan pt citra rahardja sebesar 600 m3/bulan, kapasitas gudang hanya 300 m3, sehingga produksi harus bisa dijual dengan cepat dan tidak boleh melebihi waktu 2 minggu. analisis lingkungan eksternal peluang a. pertumbuhan pasar barecore produk barecore bisa dimanfaatkan untuk berbagai macam keperluan rumahtangga dan perusahaan. kebutuhanbarecore untuk negara cina sekitar 40005000 kontainer/bulan, 1 kontainer berisi 58 m3barecore. sementara kemampuan produsen barecore sebesar99 % untuk pasar cina didominasi oleh negara indonesia. pabrik barecoreyang ada di indonesia sebanyak 150 pabrik. produktivitas pabrik sebesar2500 kontainer/bulan. walaupun peluangnya masih besar tetapi harga barecore berfluktuatif. harga berfluktuatif karena dipermainkan oleh 4 trader besar cina. trader tersebut kemudian menjual ke perusahaan-perusahaan cina. dengan berfluktuatifnya harga barecore, maka perlu adanyausaha untuk normalisasi harga. normalisasi harga bisa dilakukan dengan cara membuat buffer stock (harga penyangga). untuk bisa melakukan buffer stock dibutuhkan dana yang cukup banyak yaitu sebesar rp 3 trilyun.hal tersebut tidak mungkin dilakukan oleh pengusaha barecore indonesia, sehingga diperlukan adanya turun tangan dari pemerintah. hal ini penting karena penjualan daribarecore mampu menyumbang devisa negara sebesar us $ 500/tahun. b. adanya pembeli tetap dengan adanya pembeli tetap menunjukkan pasar dari pt citra rahardja utama sudah jelas dan besar. kebutuhan barecore selalu ada. sebenarnya tujuan ekspor selain negara cina, masih ada beberapa negara yang menjadi pasar barecore yaitu negara timur tengah, negara eropa pasar pasar tersebut masih terbuka luas untuk tujuan ekspor. c. pemasok kayu sengon pt citra rahardja utama bekerja sama dengan petani sengon untuk persediaan bahan baku. dengan tersedianya bahan baku secara kontinyu maka produksi akan berjalan dengan lancar. kayu sengon banyak tumbuh subur di negara indonesia. bahan baku kayu sengon (albasia) yang dihasilkan negara indonesia kualitasnya lebih baik daripada kualitas sengon dari negara lain/kompetitor yaitu negara pilipina, new zealand maupun dari kanada. d. semakin banyak areal tanaman sengon tanaman sengon termasuk umurnya pendek dan harga jualnya tinggi, sehingga memberikan prospek yang bagus.hal ini dapat dilihat dari semakin banyaknya areal tanaman sengon yang diusahakan oleh petani. e. dukungan masyarakat masyarakat sekarang banyak yang menanam sengon (albasia), karena harga sengon yang menarik, tanaman sengon mudah tumbuh dan mudah cara budidayanya. ancaman a. persaingan dengan pabrik barecore lain di indonesia sekarang banyak pemain-pemain besar perusahaan barecore. sekarang banyak perusahaan besar menanamkan investasi di bidang barecore, seperti pabrik-pabrik rokok banyak yang beralih ke barecore, seperti pabrik rokok djarum, pabrik rokok gudang garam, dan lain-lain. b. adanya penerapan svlk (sertifikasi verifikasi legalitas kayu) svlk yang diterapkan kepada para petani (usaha penggergajian kayu/sawmill), membebani para petani 162 jurnal agraris tabel 1. penilaian faktor internal tabel 2. penilaian faktor eksternal 163 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 kayu sengon atau penggergaji kayu. petani sengonkalau akan menjual ke pabrik harus mempunyai sertifikat. biaya sertifikasi sebesar rp010.000.000/tahun, untuk ijin usaha dagangnya sekitar rp 5.000.000, pembuatan ijin lainnya sekitar rp 5.000.000. selain itu harus mengikuti kursus sebagai tenaga teknis untuk sertifikasi (ganis)sebesarrp 9.000.000. di samping itu tenaga teknis harus berpendidikan minimal sma. c. bahan baku sengon yang harus bersertifikat adanya kayu sengon harus bersertifikat menyulitkan penggergajian kayu karena dibutuhkan biaya yang besar, skill yang tinggi, pendidikan minimal sma. lokasi penggergajian harus di daerah industri dan di tanah pekarangan. lokasi penggergajian kayu yang selalu berpindah-pindah, menyebabkan pabrik kesulitan untuk mendapatkan bahan baku. bahan baku yang diperoleh pabrik jika tidak bersertifikat, perusahaan akan memproleh sangsi. d. kenaikan tarif listrik biaya listrik semakin naik. lima (5) tahun yang lalu biaya listrik sebesar rp16.000.000/bulan, sekarang meningkat menjadi rp 60.000.000/bulan. dengan kenaikan biaya listrik yang terus menerus maka perusahaan akan bisa terancam. e. kelangkaan bahan baku petani tidak bisa menjual, maka pengadaan bahan baku tersendat, tidak lancar. f. upah tenaga kerja yang selalu meningkat karena gerakan serikat buruh pabrik yang selalu menuntut kenaikan upah, menyebabkan biaya tenaga kerja produksi pabrik akan meningkat. untuk menentukan strategi perusahaan yang tepat diterapkan pada perusahaan pt citra rahardja utama, dapat dilakukan dengan diagram analisis swot. dari perhitungan dapat diketahui pada faktor internal total bobot x rating yaitu sebesar 0,815 dan pada faktor eksternal sebesar 1,94. sehingga pada diagram analisis swot, letak perusahaan pt citra rahardja utama berada pada kuadran i, yaitu mendukung strategi agresif. perusahaan pt citra rahardja utama dapat menggunakan seluruh kekuatan yang dimiliki untuk memanfaatkan peluang yang ada, dapat dilihat pada gambar. keterangan : fs : financial strength ca: competitive advantage es : environmental stability is : industrysrength matriks posisi strategis dan evaluasi tindakan (space). berdasarkan perhitungan matriks space, dapat diperoleh koordinat diagram matriks space yaitu pada sumbu x sebesar 2,6 – 0,815 = 1,785 dan pada sumbu y sebesar 2,10 – 1,94 = 0,16 yaitu pada kuadran i. dari hasil perhitungan memperlihatkan bahwa kemampuan bersaing pt citra rahardja utama diianggap tinggi dan mampu tanggap terhadap perubah faktor eksternal. dapat disimpulkan bahwa pt citra rahardja utama merupakan perusahaan yang memiliki daya saing yang tinggi. hal ini dapat terilihat dari pabrik-pabrik yang lain sudah tutup, mengurangi produksinya, pt citra rahardja utama tetap berproduksi dalam kapasitas penuh. hasil pemetaan antara tingginya pertumbuhan pasar dan daya saing perusahaan menunjukkan bahwa pt citra rahardja utama terletak pada kuadran i, strategi yang cocok: 1. integrasi ke belakang: untuk mengatasi kelangkaan bahan baku dengan cara memperpendek saluran suplier bahan baku, langsung ke penggergajian atau membuat bahan baku sendiri; integrasi ke depan: merangkul buyer dengan 164 jurnal agraris menjual langsung ke konsumen atau pengguna, tidak melalui trader (pedagang perantara); integrasi horizontal: kerjasama antar sesama produsen barecore untuk membuat asosiasi untuk meningkatkan bargaining power sehingga bisa menjual dengan harga tinggi. 2. penetrasi pasar: menurut umar (1999), berdasarkan pada kondisi perusahaan, petunjuk mengenai strategi bisnis yang paling efektif untuk mengimplementasikan strategi tersebut adalah kebutuhan konsumen yang ada akan produk dapat ditingkatkan. 3. pengembangan pasar: tidak hanya eksport ke cina saja tetapi juga ke timur tengah, jepang, dan eropa 4. pengembangan produk: selain memproduksi barecore, juga memproduksi blok board ( yaitu barecore dilapisi lembaran kayu tipis/veneel) 5. diversifikasi yang terkait: limbah dibuat briket arang. kesimpulan 1. dari perhitungan dengan analisis swot dapat diketahui pt citra rahardja utama faktor internal sebesar 0,815 dan pada faktor eksternal sebesar 1,94. sehingga pada diagram analisis swot, letak perusahaan berada pada kuadran i, yaitu mendukung strategi agresif, meliputi (a) integrasi ke belakang, ke depan, horizontal; (b) penetrasi pasar; (c) pengembangan pasar; (d) pengembangan produk; dan (e) diversifikasi (terkait atau tidak terkait). 2. berdasarkan perhitungan matriks space, dapat diperoleh koordinat diagram matriks space yaitu pada sumbu x sebesar 2,6 – 0,815 = 1,785 dan pada sumbu y sebesar 2,10 – 1,94 = 0,16 yaitu pada kuadran i. dari hasil perhitungan memperlihatkan bahwa kemampuan bersaing pt citra rahardja utama diianggap tinggi dan mampu tanggap terhadap perubah faktor eksternal. daftar pustaka anonim. 2014. laporan pelaksanaan upaya pengelolaan lingkungan hidup dan upaya pemantauan lingkungan hidup daviid. r. fred. 2012. manajemen strategis konsep. buku 1 edisi 12. salemba empat, jakarta hunger. jd & wheelen. tl. 2001. manajemen strategis. andi offset, yogyakarta kotler, philip. 2002. manajemen pemasaran edisi milenium jilid 1. prenhallindo, jakarta kuncoro, mudrajad. 2005. strategi bagaimana meraih keunggulan kompetitif. erlangga, jakarta nazir, m. 1988. metode penelitian. ghalia indonesia, jakarta riduwan, 2013. belajar mudah penelitian untuk gurukaryawan dan peneliti pemula. cv. alfabeta. bandung umar, husein. 2000. riset pemasaran dan perilaku konsumen. gramedia pustaka utama, jakarta ————————— 2014. metode penelitian untuk skripsi dan tesis bisnis, edisi kedua, cetakan ketigabelas. pt raja grafindo. jakarta zalika oktavia, dwidjono hadi darwanto, slamet hartono ekonomi pertanian fakultas pertanian universitas gadjah mada iikoktavia@gmail.com sektor pertanian unggulan di sumatera selatan abstract the objectives of this research were to analyze the contribution of agricultural sector to grdp from south sumatera, to identify agricultural leading sector and sub sector in south sumatera, to analyze the growth component of agricultural sector. this research used grdp time series data from year 2005-2013, with analytical methods used location quotient, dynamic location quotient and shift share. the result of this research showed that agricultural sector contributed 21,79% on grdp of south sumatera, and the most contribute sub sector was plantation. the agricultural sector is still a leading sector. the agricultural sectors influenced positively of the national economics, but the growth is still lower than other sectors in south sumatera, but nationally still compete with other provinces. keywords: location quotient, dynamic location quotient, shift share, leading sector of agriculture. intisari tujuan penelitian ini untuk menganalisis kontribusi sektor pertanian terhadap pdrb sumatera selatan, mengidentifikasi sektor dan subsektor pertanian unggulan di sumatera selatan, dan menganalisis komponen pertumbuhan di sektor pertanian. penelitian ini menggunakan data pdrb time series dari tahun 2005-2013, dengan metode analisis location quotient, dynamic location quotient dan shift share. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa sektor pertanian berkontribusi sebesar 21,79% pada pdrb sumatera selatan, dan sektor yang paling banyak berkontribusi adalah perkebunan. sektor pertanian masih tetap sebagai sektor unggulan. sektor pertanian dipengaruhi secara positif oleh perekonomian nasional, namun pertumbuhannya masih lebih rendah dibandingkan sektor lainnya di sumatera selatan, tapi secara nasional masih bersaing dengan provinsi yang lain. kata kunci: location quotient, dynamic location quotient, shift share, sektor pertanian unggulan. pendahuluan secara tradisional peranan pertanian dalam pembangunan ekonomi hanya dipandang pasif dan sebagai unsur penunjang semata. peran utama pertanian hanya dianggap sebagai sumber tenaga kerja dan bahan-bahan pangan yang murah demi berkembangnya sektor industri yang dinobatkan sebagai “sektor unggulan” dinamis dalam strategi pembangunan ekonomi secara keseluruhan. perlahan mulai disadari bahwa daerah pedesaan pada umumnya dan sektor pertanian pada khususnya ternyata tidak bersifat pasif, tetapi jauh lebih penting dari sekedar penunjang ekonomi secara keseluruhan (todaro dan smith, 2003). sektor pertanian berperan sebagai penyokong bahan baku sektor industri. jika mampu dikembangkan lebih doi:10.18196/agr.129 62 jurnal agraris lanjut produksi sektor pertanian dapat mencapai jumlah maksimal, juga dapat menghasilkan barang konsumsi lain yang bernilai lebih dibanding hanya sebagai penunjang sektor lainnya. sumbangan sektor pertanian bagi negara-negara berkembang seperti indonesia selalu menduduki posisi yang sangat vital. pemilihan sektor pertanian sebagai andalan pembangunan nasional setidaknya didukung lima alasan. pertama, sebagian besar penduduk indonesia masih hidup di sektor pertanian atau menggantungkan kehidupannya dari kegiatan yang secara langsung maupun tidak langsung memiliki kaitan dengan sektor pertanian. kedua, indonesia masih menghadapi masalah pangan, baik untuk masa sekarang maupun masa mendatang. seringkali komoditas pangan juga memiliki nilai strategis sebagai komoditas politik. ketiga, indonesia tidak mungkin dapat mengejar ketinggalannya untuk bersaing dengan negara-negara maju untuk menghasilan produk-produk industri di pasar internasional, karena (a) keterbatasan modal untuk melakukan penelitian dan pengembangan, peningkatan mutu dan produktivitas sumberdaya manusia, serta untuk melalukan investasi dan rehabilitasi dari peralatan yang digunakan; (b) ketidakmampuan poin (a) mengakibatkan tidak mampunya untuk bersaing di pasar internasional, baik karena ketidakefisienan kegiatan maupun produk yang dihasilkan; (c) diberlakukannya politik proteksionisme oleh negara-negara maju, baik melalui penerapan kebijakan tarif dan bea masuk, pembatasan jumlah kuota serta kerjasama antar negara maju. keempat, ketegaran sektor pertanian dalam menghadapi gejolak perekonomian dunia dibandingkan dengan sektor lainnya. kelima, besarnya sumbangan sektor pertanian bagi pengembangan sektor industri (penyedia bahan baku, penyedia tenaga kerja murah, penyedia modal maupun konsumen produknya) terutama di awal pembangunan sektor industri (kartasasmita, 1996). indonesia sendiri dikenal sebagai negara agraris yang mengandalkan sektor pertanian dalam menopang pembangunaan juga sebagai sumber mata pencaharian masyarakatnya. sektor pertanian sendiri sebagai penyedia pangan bagi sebagian besar penduduk di negara berkembang termasuk indonesia, juga sebagai lapangan kerja yang tersedia secara luas bagi hampir seluruh angkatan kerja. sektor pertanian juga sebagai penyedia bahan baku bagi sektor industri yang kini sedang berkembang pesat dan berkontribusi besar terhadap pertumbuhan pdrb, sehingga sektor ini dianggap sangat dominan peranannya bagi perekonomian indonesia. kriteria keberhasilan pembangunan suatu daerah dapat diikuti dengan menggunakan berbagai macam metode, dan yang paling umum serta paling banyak digunakan adalah dengan menganalisis struktur dan perkembangan pdrb (produk domestik regional bruto) suatu daerah dari tahun ke tahun secara time series. analisis secara keseluruhan akan mengetahui sektor basis perekonomian masa lalu dan kemudian dapat dipergunakan sebagai bahan atau dasar pertimbangan dalam membuat perencanaan pembangunan secara makro yang lebih baik dimasa yang akan datang (syafrizal, 1997). provinsi sumatera selatan memiliki luas daratan sebesar 8.701.741 hektar dan dialiri banyak sungai, salah satunya yaitu sungai musi yang merupakan sungai terpanjang di pulau sumatera dengan panjang sekitar 750 km. terdiri atas 11 kabupaten dan 4 kotamadya dengan sektor pertanian yang tersebar hampir merata di setiap wilayah. data dari badan pusat statistik provinsi sumatera selatan menempatkan sektor pertambangan, industri dan pertanian sebagai 3 sektor utama penopang perekonomian daerah. pada tahun 2010 data menunjukkan, sektor industri menopang 22,02% dari keseluruhan struktur perekonomian, disusul sektor pertambangan 21,70% dan sektor pertanian 17,54%. struktur perekonomian di sumatera selatan masih didominasi oleh sektor pertambangan, sektor industri dan sektor pertanian. sepanjang tahun 2010-2013 kontribusi dari ketiga sektor ini dapat dikatakan sebagai penopang utama perekonomian di sumatera selatan. pada tahun 2013 lebih dari 50% perekonomian di provinsi sumatera selatan disumbang oleh ketiga sektor utama ini. dari data kabupaten dan kota di provinsi sumatera selatan kabupaten dengan kontribusi sektor pertanian terbesar adalah kabupaten banyuasin dengan pdrb 11,93t rupiah pada 2010, dan meningkat tahun 2013 mencapai 16,92t rupiah. selain kabupaten banyuasin, daerah lain yang sama-sama memiliki keunggulan di sektor pertanian adalah kabupaten oki, lahat dan oku. ketiganya memiliki kemiripan dalam struktur perekonomian, dan pada umumnya sektor pertanianlah yang menjadi sektor penting dalam menopang perekonomian regional masing-masing daerah. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis kontribusi sektor pertanian terhadap pdrb sumatera selatan, mengidentifikasi sektor pertanian unggulan di sumatera selatan, serta menganalisis 63 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 komponen pertumbuhan struktur perekonomian sektor pertanian di sumatera selatan. metode penelitian metode yang digunakan yakni metode histori sejarah, yaitu dengan melihat kembali catatan-catatan dan laporan yang berhubungan dengan pdrb sektor pertanian di provinsi serta kabupaten dan kota di sumatera selatan. menggunakan pdrb atas dasar harga konstan (adhk) tahun 2000, kurun waktu tahun 2005-2013. kontribusi sektor merupakan besaran peranan yang diberikan masing-maisng sektor/subsektor terhadap pdrb. untuk menganalisis kontribusi sektor dan subsektor pertanian terhadap pdrb provinsi digunakan analisis kontribusi sektor atau ks (widodo, 1990) dengan formula sebagai berikut: keterangan: ks : kontribusi sektor vas : pdrb sektor/ subsektor pertanian pada tahun t (rp) identifikasi pertanian sebagai sektor unggulan analisis location quotient (lq) ini digunakan untuk menentukan sektor dan subsektor pertanian unggulan di kabupaten-kabupaten di provinsi sumatera selatan, dengan menggunakan formulasi sebagai berikut: keterangan: lq : location quotient : nilai tambah sektor/subsektor pertanian kabupaten di provinsi sumatera selatan : nilai tambah sektor/subsektor pertanian di provinsi sumatera selatan : pdrb kabupaten di provinsi sumsel : pdrb provinsi sumsel menurut bendavid (1972:95) sifat dasar aritmatika lq memastikan pada aturan-aturan penilaian sebagai berikut: lq > 1 : sektor unggulan, berpotensi ekspor. lq < 1 : sektor nonunggulan, berpotensi impor. analisis dynamic location quotient (dlq) digunakan untuk mengetahui perubahan reposisi sektor juga untuk mengatasi kelemahan metode lq yang bersifat statis yang hanya memberikan gambaran pada satu waktu tertentu, formulasinya sebagai berikut: keterangan: dlq : indeks dynamic location quotient : rata-rata laju pertumbuhan pdrb sektor/ subsektor pertanian kabupaten sumsel : rata-rata laju pertumbuhan pdrb sektor pertanian di provinsi sumsel : rata-rata laju pertumbuhan total pdrb di kabupaten di provinsi sumsel : rata-rata laju pertumbuhan total pdrb di provinsi sumsel : kurun waktu analisis kriteria penilaian yakni: jika dlq > 1, sektor/ subsektor pertanian dapat diharapkan unggulan dimasa yang akan datang, jika dlq < 1, sektor/subsektor pertanian tidak dapat diharapkan untuk menjadi basis di masa yang akan datang. setelah menganalisis dengan lq dan dlq, digunakan analisis gabungan lq dan dlq untuk mempermudah dalam mengambil kesimpulan apakah sektor dan subsektor merupakan unggulan di daerahnya. analisis sektor/subsektor unggulan menggunakan kombinasi dari lq dan dlq dengan kriteria sebagai berikut: a. lq > 1 dan dlq > 1, maka suatu sektor/subsektor belum mengalami reposisi, artinya yang menjadi unggulan pada saat itu juga masih menjadi unggulan dimasa mendatang. b. lq > 1 dan dlq < 1, maka suatu sektor/subsektor telah mengalami reposisi dan tidak bisa diharapkan untuk menjadi sektor/subsektor unggulan dimasa yang akan datang. c. lq < 1 dan dlq > 1, maka suatu sektor/subsektor telah mengalami reposisi dari sektor nonunggulan menjadi unggulan. d. lq < 1 dan dlq < 1, maka suatu sektor belum mengalami reposisi dan tetap menjadi sektor nonunggulan. 64 jurnal agraris analisis shift share metode analisis shift share digunakan untuk menunjukkan hubungan antar daerah, mengetahui produktivitas perekonomian daerah dan membandingkannya dengan perekonomian skala yang lebih besar (provinsi maupun nasional). analisis shift share digunakan untuk menganalisis perubahan struktur ekonomi suatu wilayah dengan menjelaskan pertumbuhan persektor. dengan analisis tersebut dapat diketahui apakah pertumbuhan persektor/subsektor wilayah (kabupaten) lebih rendah atau lebih tinggi dari wilayah referensi (provinsi). analisis shift share memberikan data tentang kinerja perekonomian dalam 3 bidang yang berhubungan satu sama lain, yaitu (m.nur, 2010) : a. regional share komponen pertumbuhan suatu sektor ekonomi daerah disebabkan oleh faktor luar atau nasional, dimana peningkatan sektor kegiatan ekonomi disebabkan oleh pengaruh kegiatan ekonomi nasional yang berpengaruh keseluruh daerah. hasilnya akan menggambarkan peranan nasional yang mempengaruhi pertumbuhan perekonomian daerah, sehingga apabila suatu negara mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi maka akan berdampak positif bagi perekonomian daerahnya. b. proportionality shift (mixed shift) pengukuran ini memungkinkan kita untuk mengetahui apakah perekomian daerah berkonsentrasi pada industri-industri atau sektor lain yang tumbuh lebih cepat ketimbang perekonomian yang dijadikan acuan. c. differential shift (competitive shift) pergeseran diferensial membantu dalam menentukan seberapa jauh daya saing industri daerah (lokal) dengan perekonomian yang dijadikan acuan. jika hasil pergeseran diferensial dari suatu industri positif maka dapat dikatakan bahwa sektor industri tersebut memiliki daya saing yang relatif lebih tinggi jika dibandingkan dengan industri lain. pergeseran diferensial ini juga dikatakan sebagai pengaruh keunggulan kompetitif. keterangan: : pdrb sektor pada awal tahun analisis : pdrb sektor pada akhir tahun analisis : pdrb total nasional pada akhir tahun analisis : pdrb total nasional pada awal tahun analisis : pdrb sektor nasional pada akhir tahun analisis : pdrb sektor nasional pada awal tahun analisis hasil dan pembahasan analisis kontribusi pertanian terhadap pdrb sumatera selatan hasil analisis kontribusi pdrb sektor dan subsektor pertanian di kabupaten dan kota terhadap pdrb total provinsi sumatera selatan terdapat pada tabel 1. hasil yang didapat yakni subsektor perkebunan yang berkontribusi paling besar dibandingkan subsektor pertanian lainnya dengan total 9,09% yang artinya hampir 10% dari pdrb sumatera selatan disumbang dari subsektor perkebunan saja. urutan kedua adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan, diikuti subsektor perikanan dan kehutanan. kontribusi terendah untuk subsektor pertanian adalah kontribusi dari subsektor peternakan, dengan kontribusi total rata-rata 1,49%. sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan kontribusinya mencapai angka 19,57% terhadap pdrb total sumatera selatan, hampir 20% dari total pdrb sumatera selatan disumbang dari sektor pertanian, yang artinya sektor pertanian masih berpengaruh tinggi terhadap perekonomian di sumatera selatan. data diambil dari pdrb sumatera selatan secara time series dari tahun 2005 sampai tahun 2013. tabel 2 dibawah menyajikan angka persentase kontribusi sektor dan subsektor pertanian provinsi sumsel terhadap total pdrb sumsel selama tahun 2005 hingga 2013. dari data didapat bahwa sektor pertanian masih menjadi salah satu sektor utama penunjang pdrb sumsel dengan angka 21,79%. komposisinya yakni subsektor tanaman bahan makanan 4,66%, subsektor perkebunan 10,19%, subsektor peternakan 1,67%, 65 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 subsektor kehutanan 1,70% dan subsektor perikanan 3,11%. tabel 2. kontribusi sektor dan subsektor pertanian provinsi terhadap pdrb sumsel sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah terlihat dari angka persentase kontribusi dimana subsektor perkebunan yang menjadi penunjang utama pdrb di sektor pertanian untuk provinsi sumsel. dengan angka 10,19% artinya hampir setengah dari kontribusi sektor pertanian sumsel terhadap pdrb sumsel disumbang dari subsektor perkebunan. ketersediaan lahan yang cocok untuk usaha perkebunan membuat sumsel menjadi ladang bagi perusahaanperusahaan perkebunan untuk mengembangkan usaha. dimana pada tahun 2013 terdapat 292 perusahaan perkebunan yang ada di sumsel. hal ini menyebabkan subsektor perkebunan menjadi penyumbang kontribusi terbesar sektor pertanian sumsel terhadap prdb. analisis lq, dlq dan gabungan lq dan dlq analisis location quotient digunakan untuk melihat tingkat keunggulan suatu sektor dan subsektor pertanian di masing-masing daerah tingkat kabupaten dan kota. analisis ini membandingkan antara nilai pdrb sektor dan subsektor di daerah dengan nilai pdrb provinsi. sehingga hasilnya akan menunjukkan apakah sektor/ subsektor tersebut merupakan sektor unggulan. sektor/ subsektor yang termasuk karakteristik unggulan, merupakan sektor/subsektor dengan nilai analisis lq>1, maka sektor/subsektor tersebut telah mampu memenuhi kebutuhannya baik didaerahnya sendiri juga untuk memenuhi kebutuhan permintaan di daerah lain. sedangkan hasil analisis dengan nilai lq<1, sektor tersebut termasuk kategori non unggulan, dimana hasilnya hanya mampu memenuhi kebutuhan di daerah tabel 1. kontribusi pdrb subsektor pertanian kabupaten/kota terhadap pdrb provinsi sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah keterangan: 1. sektor pertanian; 2.subsektor tanaman bahan makanan; 3.subsektor perkebunan; 4.subsektor peternakan; 5.subsektor kehutanan; 6.subsektor perikanan 66 jurnal agraris sendiri. untuk hasil analisis lq pada kabupaten dan kota di provinsi sumsel dapat dilihat pada tabel 3 berikut ini. sektor pertanian masih dominan menjadi unggulan di kabupaten dan kota di provinsi sumatera selatan, subsektor perkebunan yang paling banyak unggulan dengan nilai lq>1 di kabupaten dan kota di provinsi sumatera selatan. sedangkan untuk subsektor yang lain secara merata hampir seimbang sebagai sektor unggulan dan nonunggulan di masing-masing daerah. hasil analisis lq untuk pdrb provinsi sumatera selatan sektor pertanian masih menjadi sektor unggulan dari tahun 2004 sampai tahun 2013 dengan angka lq>1 yang terus meningkat setiap tahunnya. sedangkan untuk subsektor pertanian, subsektor perkebunan menjadi hasil analisis dlq di tingkat kabupaten dan kota di provinsi sumatera selatan dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. pada sektor pertanian hasil analisis menunjukkan angka dlq>1 di lima kabupaten yang berarti laju pertumbuhan sektor pertanian di daerah tersebut lebih cepat dibandingkan dengan pertumbuhan sektor pertanian provinsi. sedangkan untuk sepuluh kabupaten dan kota lainnya hasil analisis menunjukkan nilai dlq<1, artinya laju pertumbuhan sektor pertanian di beberapa kabupaten/ kota tersebut masih lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan pertumbuhan sektor pertanian provinsi sumatera selatan. hasil analisis dlq untuk subsektor tanaman bahan makanan nilai dlq>1 dan dlq<1 hampir imbang untuk beberapa kabupaten dan kota. angka dlq>1 terdapat di tujuh kabupaten. sedangkan sisanya angka dlq<1. kota palembang sebagai ibukota provinsi sumatera selatan hasil analisis dlq nya nol, dikarenakan nilai pdrb untuk subsektor perkebunan dan kehutanan juga nol, yang artinya tidak ada nilai dari subsektor perkebunan yang dihasilkan di kota palembang. secara tabel 3. rerata nilai lq sektor dan subsektor pertanian kab/kota di provinsi sumatera sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah keterangan: 1. sektor pertanian; 2.subsektor tanaman bahan makanan; 3.subsektor perkebunan; 4.subsektor peternakan; 5.subsektor kehutanan; 6.subsektor perikanan 67 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 keseluruhan nilai dlq untuk sektor dan subsektor pertanian hampir merata. masingmasing daerah memiliki keunggulan laju pertumbuhan di subsektor yang berbeda. meskipun untuk kota palembang dan kota prabumulih hampir keseluruhan subsektor memiliki laju pertumbuhan yang lambat, dikarenakan daerah tersebut mengalami pertumbuhan di sektor industri dan pembangunan lahan perumahan, maka semakin lama lahan pertanian yang tersedia semakin berkurang. tabel 4. hasil analisis lq sektor dan subsektor pertanian di provinsi sumatera selatan sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah keterangan: 1. sektor pertanian; 2.subsektor tanaman bahan makanan; 3.subsektor perkebunan; 4.subsektor peternakan; 5.subsektor kehutanan; 6.subsektor perikanan tabel 6 dibawah menyajikan hasil analisis lq, dlq serta gabungan lq dan dlq. dengan analisis gabungan kita dapat dengan mudah menentukan apakah sektor dan subsektor pertanian yang ada menjadi unggulan atau nonunggulan. terlihat pula sektor dan subsektor yang bereposisi unggulan yang artinya dapat diharapkan menjadi unggulan dimasa depan, dan bereposisi nonunggulan yang artinya ditahun selanjutnya tidak dapat diharapkan menjadi unggulan. dari hasil analisis pada tabel dapat dilihat bahwa nilai dlq provinsi sumatera selatan lebih dari 1, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa pertumbuhan sektor pertanian di sumsel lebih cepat dibandingkan pertumbuhan sektor pertanian untuk pdb indonesia. nilai dlq>1 juga dihasilkan untuk subsektor tanaman bahan makanan, perkebunan, peternakan dan kehutanan ini artinya laju pertumbuhan subsektor tersebut masih lebih baik dibandingkan laju pertumbuhan subsektor yang sama pada tingkat nasional. sedangkan nilai dlq<1 pada subsektor perikanan tabel 5. hasil analisis dlq sektor dan subsektor pertanian kab/kota di provinsi sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah keterangan: 1. sektor pertanian; 2.subsektor tanaman bahan makanan; 3.subsektor perkebunan; 4.subsektor peternakan; 5.subsektor kehutanan; 6.subsektor perikanan tabel 6. hasil analisis gabungan lq dan dlq provinsi sumatera selatan sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah 68 jurnal agraris menunjukkan bahwa pertumbuhan subsektor ini memang lebih lambat dibandingkan dengan pertumbuhan di indonesia. sektor pertanian menjadi unggulan. subsektor perkebunan dan kehutanan juga menjadi subsektor unggulan, subsektor tanaman bahan makanan dan peternakan berposisi unggulan, hanya subsektor perikanan yang bereposisi nonunggulan. tabel 7 menyajikan hasil analisis gabungan lq dan dlq, untuk sektor pertanian unggulan dibeberapa daerah yakni kab.musi rawas, kab.banyuasin, kab.muara enim dan kab.oku. sedangkan untuk subsektor yang paling unggul di banyak daerah adalah subsektor kehutanan. subsektor lainnya merata menjadi reposisi unggulan yang artinya dapat diharapkan unggul dimasa yang akan datang, dan ada pula yang bereposisi nonunggulan yang artinya dimasa yang akan datang tidak dapat diharapkan menjadi subsektor unggulan. analisis shift share tabel 8 menyajikan hasil analisis shift share yang dibagi menjadi tiga bagian, yakni regional share, mixed shift dan compepetive shift. dari hasil analisis sektor pertanian provinsi sumatera selatan menyumbang sebesar rp.258.079.413,78 juta. untuk subsektor pertanian angka terbesar pada subsektor perkebunan yakni rp.11.175.778 juta dan paling kecil subsektor perikanan dengan rp.772.123 juta. hasil analisis regional share semuanya positif untuk sektor pertanian dan subsektornya, artinya perekonomian sektor pertanian di sumatera selatan dipengaruhi positif oleh perekonomian pertanian nasional. hasil analisis mixed shift sektor dan subsektor pertanian didominasi angka negatif, yang artinya sektor dan subsektor tersebut pertumbuhannya masih lebih lambat jika dibandingkan sektor dan subsektor lainnya di provinsi sumatera selatan. sedangkan untuk analisis competitive shift hasil analisis sektor pertanian dan subsektornya didominasi angka positif yang artinya masih sektor pertanian sumatera selatan memiliki daya saing jika dibandingkan dengan provinsi lain secara nasional. tabel 7. hasil analisis gabungan lq dan dlq sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah keterangan: u=unggulan, nu=nonunggulan, ru=reposisi unggulan, rnu=reposisi nonunggulan 1.sektor pertanian; 2.subsektor tanaman bahan makanan; 3.subsektor perkebunan; 4.subsektor peternakan; 5.subsektor kehutanan; 6.subsektor perikanan tabel 8. hasil analisis shift share sektor dan subsektor pertanian sumatera selatan sumber: sumatera selatan dalam angka tahun 2006-2014, diolah keterangan: rs= regional share, ms= mixed shift, cs= competitive shift 69 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 kesimpulan dan saran kesimpulan 1. hasil analisis kontribusi sektor pertanian menyumbang 21,79% dari keseluruhan pdrb provinsi. subsektor yang berkontribusi paling besar adalah subsektor perkebunan 10,19% dan subsektor tanaman bahan makanan 4,66%. untuk tingkat kabupaten dan kota subsektor yang berkontribusi terbesar adalah subsektor perkebunan dan tanaman bahan makanan. kontribusi terkecil adalah subsektor peternakan. 2. hasil analisis lq, dlq dan gabungan sektor pertanian unggulan di provinsi sumatera selatan adalah subsektor perkebunan dan kehutanan. reposisi unggulan untuk subsektor peternakan dan tanaman bahan makanan, dan reposisi nonunggulan untuk subsektor perikanan. untuk kabupaten dan kota sektor pertanian unggulan empat kabupaten dan kota. subsektor paling banyak menjadi unggulan di daerah adalah subsektor kehutanan. serta subsektor yang paling tidak diunggulkan adalah subsektor peternakan. . 3. hasil analisis shift share, regional shift hampir keseluruhan sektor dan subsektor pertanian di provinsi sumatera selatan bernilai positif dan dipengaruhi perekonomian pertanian nasional. analisis mixed shift hasilnya perkembangan sektor dan subsektor pertanian masih lebih lamban dibandingkan dengan sektor perekonomian lain di provinsi sumatera selatan. competitive shift didominasi angka positif dimana sektor dan subsektor pertanian sumatera selatan masih cukup bersaing dengan sektor pertanian di provinsi lain. subsektor penyumbang perekonomian sektor pertanian terbesar adalah subsektor perkebunan. saran dari hasil analisis dapat dilihat bahwa pertumbuhan sektor pertanian masih kalah dengan pertumbuhan sektor perekonomian lainnya. karakteristik pertumbuhan yang maju tapi tertekan menunjukkan bahwa sektor pertanian masih belum berkembang secara keseluruhan karena masih terhambat dengan pertumbuhan sektor perekonomian yang lain, meskipun secara nasional pertumbuhannya masih kompetitif jika dibandingkan provinsi lainnya di indonesia. hendaknya pemerintah sebagai pengambil kebijakan lebih memberikan dorongan untuk perkembangan dalam pembangunan sektor pertanian, melihat angka kontribusi dari sektor ini cukup tinggi dalam perekonomian provinsi. ucapan terima kasih ucapan terima kasih penulis sampaikan kepada: pascasarjana ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian universitas gadjah mada yogyakarta. daftar pustaka badan pusat statistik sumatera selatan. 2007. sumatera selatan dalam angka 2007. bps sumatera selatan. palembang. badan pusat statistik sumatera selatan. 2010. sumatera selatan dalam angka 2010. bps sumatera selatan. palembang. badan pusat statistik sumatera selatan 2014. sumatera selatan dalam angka 2014. bps sumatera selatan. palembang. badan pusat statistik sumatera selatan. 2014. booklet statistik provinsi sumatera selatan (online), <www.sumselbps.go.id> (diakses 3 desember 2014). bendavid, a. 1972. regional and local economic analysis for practitioners. new york: praeger publishers, inc. kartasasmita, g. 1996. pembangunan untuk rakyat memadukan pertumbuhan dan pemerataan. jakarta: cides. nur, m.a. 2010. analisis sektor ekonomi dan komoditas pertanian unggulan di kabupaten halmahera utara. tesis. universitas gadjah mada syafrizal, 1997. pertumbuhan ekonomi dan ketimpangan regional wilayah indonesia bagian barat. jakarta: prisma. todaro, m.p. dan s.c. smith. 2003. economic development (pembangunan ekonomi di dunia ketiga alih bahasa haris munandar). jakarta: erlangga. widodo, s.t. 1990. indikator ekonomi dasar perhitungan perekonomian indonesia. yogyakarta: kanisius. sriyadi, eni istiyanti, francy risvansuna fivintari program studi agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta email: sriyadi_s@yahoo.co.id evaluasi penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practice (sop-gap) pada usahatani padi organik di kabupaten bantul abstract food security has meaning not only the availability of adequate food, but also providing security for producers and consumers and ensuring environmental sustainability for sustainable production. organic farming systems are expected to solve the problem for realizing food security and enhancement of people’s welfare. the results of research indicated that, (1) the implementation level of standard operating procedure-good agriculture practice (sop-gap) of organic rice farming in bantul district was quite high, (2) the implementation level of sop-gap of organic rice farming related to the availability of capital, the selling price and the purchase price of inputs (seeds and fertilizers), (3) the level of the farmer’s decision related to the implementation level of sop-gap of organic rice farming, and (4) development of organic rice farming required availability of sufficient capital. in this regard the government, particularly the agriculture authority and food security agency need to disburse or facilitate capital for farmers in revolving as well as low interest loans. keywords: organic farming, implementation, sop-gap, decision. intisari ketahanan pangan tidak hanya diartikan tersedianya pangan dalam jumlah yang cukup, tetapi juga ketahanan bagi produsen dan konsumen serta terjaminnya kelestarian lingkungan untuk produksi yang berkelanjutan. sistem pertanian organik diharapkan dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan untuk pencapaian ketahanan pangan dan peningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan, (1) tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practice (sop-gap) pada usahatani padi organik di kabupaten bantul cukup tinggi, (2) tingkat penerapan sop-gap pada usahatani padi organik berhubungan dengan ketersediaan modal, harga jual beras organik dan harga beli input produksi (benih dan pupuk), (3) tingkat keputusan petani berhubungan dengan tingkat penerapan sop-gap pada usahatani padi organik, dan (4) pengembangan usahatani beras organik membutuhkan ketersediaan modal yang cukup. dalam hal ini pemerintah, melalui dinas pertanian dan badan ketahanan pangan perlu memfasilitasi modal bagi petani dalam bentuk bantuan bergulir maupun pinjaman dengan bunga rendah. kata kunci: pertanian organik, penerapan, sop-gap, keputusan. pendahuluan masyarakat mulai sadar akan penggunaan pupuk kimia yang digunakan oleh para petani yang tidak lagi sehat untuk dikonsumsi. mereka akan cendrung mengalihkan cara mereka dalam pemilihan produk pertanian doi:10.18196/agr.1211 79 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 yang dihasilkan petani agar dapat dikonsumsi dengan baik selain lebih segar mereka juga akan mencari manfaat yang diberikan oleh produk tersebut, sehingga mereka akan mengkonsumsi makanan yang lebih sehat. anggapan bahwa kembali ke alam adalah salah satu pilihan yang tepat untuk menggambarkan keinginan mereka. produk organik, termasuk beras organik merupakan pangan yang dihasilkan oleh pertanian organik (biao, 2003). pangan organik diyakini lebih aman (canavari et al., 2002) karena merupakan pangan alami yang dihasilkan tanpa menggunakan bahan kimia dan pupuk buatan (connor dan douglas, 2002). produk pangan organik dihasilkan dari pertanian organik, suatu sistem produksi yang mempertahankan kesehatan tanah, ekosistem dan manusia (usda 2010). penggunaan pestisida yang tidak sesuai dan juga banyak menimbulkan kerusakan terhadap tanah yang akhir-akhir ini banyak diberitakan. pangan yang sehat dan memiliki nilai gizi yang tinggi yang diproduksi oleh petani organik, merupakan jawaban atas keinginan konsumen saat ini. pertanian organik merupakan salah satu pilihan yang dapat dilakukan oleh petani-petani kecil indonesia untuk memperoleh cukup pangan di tingkat rumah tangga sambil sekaligus memperbaiki kualitas tanah, memperbaiki keanekaragaman hayati dan memberikan pangan berkualitas kepada masyarakat kecil di sekitarnya. manfaat pertanian organik telah diperlihatkan dengan sistem pertanian organik yang terintegrasi, ekonomis, ramah lingkungan dan meningkatkan kesehatan masyarakat. hhtp;//maporina.com pada 2009, sebanyak tiga persen dari total 58.000 hektar sawah di yogyakarta menerapkan sistem organik. didaerah kabupaten bantul, dari 16.000 hektar lahan padi, baru lima persen diantaranya tersertifikasi organik, (http://ibutani.blogspot.com). mengingat setiap petani memiliki kesadaran dan pemahaman yang berbeda-beda dalam pertanian organik, maka hanya sebagian kecil saja petani yang menerapkan sistem organik untuk usaha taninya. petani khawatir resiko gagal jika menggunakan pupuk organik. mereka beranggapan bahwa penerapan sistem organik dapat menurunkan hasil tani mereka dan ada juga yang belum mengerti tentang pertanian organik sepenuhnya. dari permasalahan-permasalahan tersebut diatas, maka perlu dan menarik untuk diteliti dan diketahui bagaimana keputusan petani terhadap pertanian organik dan penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik. faktor-faktor apa saja yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani terhadap pertanian organik dan penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik. berdasarkan permasalahan yang telah diungkapkan di atas, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk (1) mengetahui tingkat penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik, (2) mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat penerapan sopgap usahatani padi organik, dan (3) mengetahui pengaruh keputusan pertanian organik terhadap tingkat penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik. metode penelitian penelitian deskriptif (sugiyono. 2014, galo. 2012, nasution. 2002 dan natsir.1999) mengenai evaluasi penerapan standar operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik di kabupaten bantul dilakukan dengan metode survei pada petani padi organik di kabupaten bantul sebagai obyek penelitian. sentra pengembangan padi organik di kabupaten bantul meliputi kecamatan srandakan, pandak, imogiri, dan pundong. masing-masing kecamatan diambil sampel petani dengan proporsional random sampling. pengambilan data dilakukan dengan cara observasi dan wawancara dengan panduan kuesioner. pada penelitian ini menggunakan analisis deskriptif untuk menggambarkan penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik. pengaruh faktor internal dan eksternal terhadap keputusan, penerapan sop-gap dan penanganan hasil panen diuji dengan menggunakan analisis korelasi rank spermant. adapun pengaruh keputusan terhadap penerapan sop-gap dan penanganan hasil panen padi dianalisis dengan analisis korelasi rank spermant. penerapan gap-sop usahatani padi organik yaitu kegiatan usahatani padi organik yang didasarkan pada standar pelaksanaan teknik budidaya yang memenuhi persayaratan kualitas produk yang dikehendaki pasar, meliputi penyediaan input (lahan, bibit, pupuk, pestisida dan alat) serta teknik budidaya dari persiapan lahan sampai dengan panen. pengukuran variabel penerapan gap-sop usahatani padi organik diukur sebagai berikut : 1. tingkat penerapan adalah intensitas kesesuaian pelaksanaan teknik budidaya dengan standar persyaratan dilihat dari frekuensi kesesuaian pelaksanaan yang di lakukan petani, di ukur dengan skor, yaitu : 80 jurnal agraris 0 untuk jawaban yang tidak pernah sesuai, 1 untuk jawaban yang jarang sesuai, 2 untuk jawaban yang kadang-kadang sesuai, 3 untuk jawaban yang sering sesuai, 4 untuk jawaban yang selalu sesuai. tidak pernah : di gunakan jika petani tidak pernah sama sekali melaksanakan gap-sop. jarang : di gunakan jika petani pernah melaksanakan dan pernah tidak melaksanakan gap-sop, namun frekuensinya sering tidak melaksanakan gap-sop. kadang-kadang : di gunakan jika petani pernah melaksanakan gap-sop dan pernah tidak melaksanakan gap-sop, frekuensinya berimbang. sering : digunakan jika petani pernah melaksanakan gap-sop dan pernah tidak melaksanakan gap-sop, namun frekuensinya lebih sering melaksanakan. selalu : di gunakan jika petani rutin melaksanakan gap-sop. 2. penerapan gap-sop dapat di pengaruhi oleh faktor internal dan eksternal. faktor internal adalah faktor yang berasal dari diri petani itu sendiri yang meliputi pengalaman usaha tani, tingkat pendidikan formal, luas lahan garapan, ketersediaan modal, tenaga kerja dalam keluarga, sedangkan faktor eksternal adalah faktor yang berasal dari luar diri petani yang meliputi harga jual output dan harga input produksi usahatani. i. pengalaman usaha tani yaitu lamanya petani dalam berkecimpung di kegiatan usaha tani padi organik yang di nyatakan dalam tahun(th), kemudian di ukur dengan skor yaitu : (1) d” 7 th, (2) >7-14 th, (3) >14-21 th, (4) > 21th. ii. tingkat pendidikan formal, yaitu proses belajar dalam lembaga formal yang telah di selesaikan oleh petani sampel sampai dengan penelitian ini di laksanakan yang dapat di bedakan menjadi d” sd, sltp, slta, pt, yang kemudian di ukur dengan skor, yaitu : (1) d” sd, (2) sltp, (3) slta, (4) pt iii. luas lahan garapan, yaitu luas lahan yang di garap petani padi terhadap areal lahan usaha tani yang meliputi milik sendiri, sewa dan bagi hasil yang di nyatakan dalam hektar (ha), kemudian di ukur dengan skor, yaitu : (1) d” 0,1 ha, (2) >0,10,3 ha, (3) > 0,3 0,5 ha, (4) > 0,5 ha. iv. ketersediaan modal yaitu keseluruhan uang dan barang yang di siapkan untuk melakukan pengelolaan, yang di ukur dengan skor, yaitu (1) tidak mencukupi, (2) kurang mencukupi, (3) mencukupi, (4) sangat mencukupi. v. tenaga kerja dalam keluarga, yaitu jumlah anggota keluarga petani yang terlibat dalam kegiatan usaha tani(orang), yang di ukur dengan skor, yaitu : (1) 12, (2)3-4, (3) 5-6, (4) e” 7. vi. harga jual, yaitu kesesuaian harga yang di terima petani, kemudian di ukur dengan skor, yaitu: (1) tidak sesuai, (2) kurang sesuai, (3) sesuai, (4) sangat sesuai. setelah data di kumpulkan dari seluruh sampel, maka di lakukan tabulasi data. tingkat penerapan gap-sop dapat dirinci dalam tabel sebagai berikut : tabel 1. rincian aspek penerapan gap-sop usahatani padi organik setelah data dikumpulkan, kemudian dilakukan analisis secara deskriptif dengan mengkategorikan tingkat penerapan gap-sop budidaya padi organik. pengkategorian tingkatan dilakukan dengan mengurangkan skor tertinggi dengan skor terendah kemudian dibagi tiga yang merupakan kisaran masingmasing tingkat kategori, dengan rumus sebagai berikut; 81 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 tabel 2. penentuan tingkat penerapan gap-sop budidaya padi organik pengujian ada atau tidaknya korelasi (hubungan) tingkat penerapan gap-sop (y) dengan faktor yang berpengaruh (x) di lakukan analisis statistik dengan prosedur pengujian sebagai berikut: a. merumuskan hipotesis statistik ho : rs = 0, artinya tidak terdapat korelasi antara faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh dengan tingkat penerapan gap-sop budidaya padi organik ha : rs ¹ 0, artinya terdapat korelasi antara faktorfaktor yang berpengaruh dengan intensitas penerapan gap-sop budidaya padi organik rs > 0, artinya tingkat penerapan gap-sop budidaya padi organik berkorelasi positif dengan masing-masing faktor yang berpengaruh rs < 0, artinya tingkat penerapan gap-sop budidaya padi organik berkorelasi negatif dengan masingmasing faktor yang berpengaruh menghitung nilai rs menggunakan uji korelasi rank spearman 6 ∑ d2 rs = 1 n3 – n dengan ketentuan : rs : harga korelasi rank spearman d : selisih antara variabel x dan variabel y n : banyaknya sampel b. menghitung nilai t untuk menguji apakah terjadi hubungan nyata atau tidak antara faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh (x) terhadap tingkat penerapan gapsop (y) t = rs 21 2 rs n − − dengan ketentuan : t : thitung rs : harga korelasi rank spearman n : jumlah sampel c. pengambilan keputusan ho ditolak : jika t hitung > t tabel, artinya terdapat korelasi antara faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh (x) terhadap tingkat penerapan gap-sop (y). ho diterima: jika t hitung £ t tabel, artinya tidak terdapat korelasi antara faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh (x) terhadap tingkat penerapan gap-sop (y) 3. pengujian pengaruh tingkat keputusan petani (x) terhadap penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik (y) di lakukan analisis statistik dengan prosedur pengujian sebagaimana langkah pengujian ada atau tidaknya korelasi (hubungan) tingkat penerapan gapsop (y) dengan faktor yang berpengaruh (x) di atas. hasil dan pembahasan profil petani umur dapat mempengaruhi kemauan dan kemampuan petani dalam melaksanakan kegiatan usahatani, semakin muda akan semakin mudah dalam menerima pembaharuan, semangat dan kemampuan dalam mengelola usahatani. anggota kelompok tani yang menjadi sampel dalam penelitian berumur antara 30 -73 tahun, dengan proporsi terbanyak 54,16 persen pada usia 46-60 tahun. pendidikan mempunyai peranan yang sangat penting dalam menjalankan kegiatan pertanian serta dalam meningkatkan usahatani, semakin tinggi pendidikan seorang petani maka akan semakin mudah petani tersebut dalam memperoleh dan memahami suatu teknologi baru yang lebih baik untuk kemajuan pertanian. dalam memperoleh informasi yang beredar dimasyarakat akan lebih cepat diserap dan dipahami oleh petani sehingga dapat menerapkan informasi tersebut sesuai dengan harapan dan anjuran yang telah ada untuk kegiatan usahatani. tingkat pendidikan yang telah ditempuh oleh petani adalah bervariasi mulai dari sd sampai perguruan tinggi, 73 persen responden berpendidikan sltp dan slta. luas lahan dalam kegiatan pertanian sangatlah berpengruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan suatu usahatani. semakin luas lahan yang dikerjakan oleh petani maka akan semakin berat pula petani mengambil keputusan dalam menggunakan inovasi baru yang diterima. semakin luas lahan yang digarap oleh petani akan mempunyai pendapatan yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan petani yang memiliki lahan lebih sedikit. luas lahan garapan petani realtif sempit berkisar antara 200 – 6000 m2, baik dari miliki sendiri, sewa dan lahan bagi 82 jurnal agraris hasil (sakap), 52,5 persen responden mempunyai luas lahan kurang dari 1000 m2. pengalaman sangat memiliki peranan sangat penting dalam kegiatan usahatani, semakin lama petani tersebut melakukan kegiatan usahatani biasanya akan lebih tahu tentang kegiatan pertanian yang ada di lingkungan yang diusahakannya, serta dampak yang terjadi. pengalaman petani yang melakukan kegiatan usahatani dengan system organik bisa dikatakan belum cukup lama, 63,33 persen petani baru melakukan kegiatan usahatani system organic kurang dari 7 tahun. tingkat penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik pada umumnya petani di kabupaten bantul daerah istimewa yogyakarta yang tergabung dalam kelompok petani padi organik sudah menerapankan penggunaan lahan, benih, pupuk, pestisida, alat, pengolahan tanah, penanaman, pemeliharaan, pemupukan, pengairan, pengendalian hama penyakit, panen dan pasca panen berdasarkan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. dari hasil jawaban responden dapat diketahui, bahwa mayoritas petani sering dan selalu menerapankan penggunaan lahan, benih, pupuk, pestisida, alat, pengolahan tanah, penanaman, pemeliharaan, pemupukan, pengairan, pengendalian hama penyakit, panen dan pasca panen berdasarkan standar operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. hal ini dilakukan karena petani sadar akan manfaat pertanian organik bagi kesehatan, lingkungan dan keberlanjutan usahatani. setelah diuraikan hasil penelitian diatas maka untuk mengetahui tingkat penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik dilakukan berdasarkan pada perhitungan dari keseluruhan pertanyaan yang diajukan kepada 13 (tiga belas) unsur yang diwakili terhadap aspek-aspek tingkat penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik. berdasarkan hasil perhitungan tersebut, maka ditetapkan nilai maksimum adalah 52. berdasarkan jumlah responden sesuai dengan tabel skor tingkat penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik, maka jumlah skor tingkat penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik adalah 42,80, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa tingkat penerapan standard operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik di kabupaten bantul tinggi. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penerapan standar operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik faktor-faktor yang diduga memiliki hubungan dengan penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik adalah yaitu pengalaman, pendidikan, luas lahan, ketersediaan modal, tenaga kerja, harga jualgabah, dan harga beli input. dari hasil analisis rank spearmant menunjukkan bahwa dari 7 faktor yang dianalisis hanya ada tiga faktor yang secara signifikan berkorelasi dengan penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. ketiga faktor tersebut adalah ketersediaan modal, harga jual gabah, dan harga beli input. 1. pengalaman korelasi antara pengalaman dengan tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sopgap) usahatani padi organik dengan nilai rs = -0,051 bergerak kearah negatif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria yang dapat diabaikan, atau dapat diartikan tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik tidak ada hubungannya dengan pengalaman, hal ini disebabkan karena berdasarkan hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa 62,50 persen petani mempunyai pengalaman yang masih minim yaitu kurang dari 7 tahun. tabel 3. nilai koefisien korelasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik keterangan : **) korelasi signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan 1 persen 2. pendidikan korelasi antara pendidikan dengan tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop83 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 gap) usahatani padi organik dengan nilai rs = -0,068 bergerak kearah negatif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria dapat diabaikan atau dapat diartikan bahwa tingkat penerapan standard operating proceduregood agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik tidak ada hubungannya dengan tingkat pendidikan. semakin tinggi pendidikan petani maka petani semakin rasional dalam mempertimbangkan risiko usahataninya sehingga cenderung berhati-hati dan tidak menerima perubahan untuk mengusahakan padi organik. 3. luas lahan korelasi antara luas lahan dengan tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sopgap) usahatani padi organik dengan nilai rs = -0,179 bergerak kearah negatif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria yang dapat diabaikan sehingga dapat diartikan bahwa tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik tidak ada hubungannya dengan luas lahan. petani yang mengusahakan lahan yang sempit akan memiliki risiko yang relatif rendah dibanding lahan yang luas karena tidak dibebani biaya yang tinggi. hal ini memungkinkan petani mengusahakan padi organik. namun demikian walaupun petani memiliki lahan sempit akan tetapi skala usaha yang kurang menguntugkan sehingga petani cenderung tidak mengusahakan padi organik. 4. ketersediaan modal korelasi antara ketersediaan modal dengan tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik dengan nilai rs = 0,561 bergerak kearah negatif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria yang signifikan sehingga dapat diartikan bahwa tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik berhubungan dengan ketersediaan modal. petani yang memiliki modal yang cukup akan mempunyai keberanian menghadapi risiko usahatani. hal ini memungkinkan petani mengusahakan padi organik. 5. tenaga kerja keluarga korelasi antara ketersediaan tenaga kerja keluarga dengan tingkat penerapan standard operating proceduregood agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik sebesar rs = -0,096 bergerak kearah negatif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria yang diabaikan atau dapat diartikan bahwa tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sopgap) usahatani padi organik tidak ada hubungannya dengan ketersediaan tenaga kerja keluarga. ketersediaan tenaga kerja keluarga diharapkan membantu pelaksanaan usahatani padi organik yang secara teknis memerlukan pengelolaan relative intensif. jika tenaga kerja keluarga mencukupi maka petani cenderung melakukan usahatani padi secara organik. namun demikian sebagian besar anggota keluarga lebih tertarik bekerja di sector lain yang dianggap lebih prospektif dibanding sektor pertanian. 6. harga jual gabah korelasi antara harga jual gabah dengan tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik dengan nilai rs = 0,281 bergerak kearah positif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria yang signifikan sehingga dapat diartikan bahwa tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik berhubungan dengan harga jual gabah. petani dalam berusahatani berharap akan memperoleh penerimaan yang tinggi, sehingga apabila harga jual gabah tinggi secara langsung akan meningkatkan penerimaannya. hal ini yang mendorong petani mengusahakan padi organik. 7. harga input korelasi antara harga input dengan tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sopgap) usahatani padi organik sebesar rs = 0,463 bergerak kearah positif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria signifikan, hal ini dapat diartikan bahwa tingkat penerapan standard operating procedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik berhubungan dengan harga input. petani dalam berusahatani berharap akan memperoleh penerimaan yang tinggi, sehingga apabila harga inputnya rendah atau kecil akan mempengaruhi atau mengurangi biaya usahatani sehingga penerimaan petani akan meningkat. hal ini yang mendorong petani mengusahakan padi organik. pengaruh tingkat keputusan petani terhadap penerapan sop-gap usahatani padi organik korelasi antara tingkat keputusan petani dengan 84 jurnal agraris tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure – good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik sebesar rs = 0,189 bergerak kearah positif. korelasi tersebut termasuk kedalam kriteria signifikan, hal ini dapat diartikan bahwa tingkat keputusan petani berusahatani padi organik berhubungan dengan tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure – good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. hal ini berarti semakin tinggi tingkat keputusan petani berusahatani padi organic semakin tinggi pula tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure – good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. hal ini sesuai dengan penelitian di lapangan bahwa petani dengan tingkat keputusan yang tinggi biasanya selalu menerapkan standar operating prosedure – good agriculture practise (sopgap) usahatani padi organik. kesimpulan dan saran kesimpulan 1. tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik di kabupaten bantul cukup tinggi. 2. tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik berhubungan dengan ketersediaan modal, harga jual gabah dan harga beli input (benih dan pupuk). semakin tersedia modal, harga gabah mahal dan harga input murah semakin tinggi tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure-good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. 3. tingkat keputusan petani berhubungan dengan tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure – good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. semakin tinggi tingkat keputusan petani untuk berusahatani padi organik semakin tinggi tingkat penerapan standar operating prosedure – good agriculture practise (sop-gap) usahatani padi organik. saran dalam pengembangan usahatani padi organik diperlukan ketersediaan modal yang cukup, berkenaan dengan hal tersebut pemerintah dalam hal ini dinas pertanian maupun badan ketahanan pangan perlu mengucurkan atau memfasilitasi modal bagi petani dalam bentuk bantuan bergulir maupun pinjaman dengan bunga rendah. daftar pustaka badan standardisasi nasional. 2002. standar nasional indonesia nomor 01-6729-2002 tentang sistem pangan organik. biao, xie., wang xiaorong, ding zhuhong dan yang yaping. 2003. critical impact assessment of organic agriculture. journal of agricultural and environmental ethics vol. 16 pp. 297-311 canavari, m., guido maria gazzani, roberta spadoni dan domenico regazzi. 2002. food safety and organic fruit demand in italy: a survey. british food journal vol. 104 (3-5) pp. 220-232 connor, r. dan lesley douglas, 2002. consumer attitudes to organic foods. nutrition and food science vol. 31 (4/5) pp. 254-258 galo, w., 2002. metode penelitian. penerbit pt gramedia widiasarana indonesia. jakarta. nasution. 2002. metode research (penelitian ilmiah). penerbit bumi aksara. jakarta. nazir, m. 1999. metode penelitian. penerbit ghalia indonesia. jakarta. sugiyono. 2014. metode penelitian kuantitatif kualitatif dan r & d. penerbit alfabeta. bandung. susanawati 1) jamhari 2) masyhuri 2) dwidjono2) 1)program studi agribisnis fakultas pertanian universitas muhammadiyah yogyakart 2) jurusan sosial ekonomi pertanian universitas gadjah mada; email : nagribis@yahoo.co.id integrasi pasar bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk (pendekatan kointegrasi engle-granger) shallot market integration in nganjuk (engle-granger co-integration approach) abstract this research aims to analyze price behavior, market integration, and leading market of the shallot. this research used producers and consumers monthly price data during 2009-2013. price behavior was analyzed by coefficient of variation. shallot market integration was analyzed by engle-granger model of co-integration. granger causality was used to analyzed the leading market. the result show that shallot price behavior at producer and consumer market in nganjuk during 2009-2013 shows a simillar movement. shallot price trend to be low occurs on january, june, july, october, and trend to be high on march, april, july. shallot price fluctuation at producer market is higher than consumer market. when viewing each year high price fluctuation occur on august and october, while the low occur on may, june, and july. producer and consumer market in nganjuk already integrated or has a long run relationship, so without intervention of the goverment, market mechanism has been able to do a price adjustment if shallot price upheavals. market leading of the shallot price in nganjuk is consumer market. keywords: price behavior, market integration, engle-granger model, shallot. pendahuluan sayuran kaya akan vitamin a,b,c,d,e, dan k yang dapat membantu melindungi tubuh dari berbagai penyakit (agusiobo, 1994). bawang merah (allium ascalonicum l) merupakan salah satu tanaman sayuran semusim yang memiliki umbi berlapis, akar serabut, dan daun berbentuk silinder berongga. bawang merah juga memiliki banyak manfaat antara lain sebagai sumber karbohidrat, vitamin a, b, dan c (anyanwu, 2003) dan dapat dikonsumsi dalam bentuk segar maupun umbi yang telah matang (thompson and kelly, 1987). menurut rahayu dan berlian (1998), adanya kandungan minyak atsiri yang terdapat dalam bawang merah dapat menimbulkan aroma khas dan memberikan cita rasa yang gurih serta mengundang selera. banyaknya kegunaan bawang merah dalam kehidupan manusia menyebabkan permintaan terhadap komoditas tersebut semakin bertambah sehingga pasarnya terbuka luas baik dalam negeri maupun ekspor (nidausholeha, 2007). manfaat utama dari bawang merah yang sesungguhnya sebagai penyediaan bahan makanan, terutama untuk penyedap rasa masakan yang dikonsumsi setiap hari. jumlah konsumsi bawang merah tingkat rumah tangga sebenarnya tidak besar, namun secara keseluruhan cukup besar dibutuhkan masyarakat. dengan demikian kurang tersedianya komoditas bawang merah serta fluktuasi harganya yang tajam dapat menimbulkan keresahan dalam masyarakat, sehingga menarik untuk dibahas. pada saat harga bawang merah jatuh, dampak negatif akan dirasakan oleh petani user typewriter doi: 10.18196/agr.117 44 jurnal agraris sebagai produsen. sebaliknya, pada saat harganya naik, konsumen yang akan merasa dirugikan. pada waktu yang bersamaan perbedaan harga yang sangat mencolok dapat terjadi pada daerah produsen dan konsumen. usahatani bawang merah prospektif untuk diusahakan, meskipun fluktuasi harganya naik turun mengingat permintaan akan bawang merah terus meningkat, seiring dengan pertumbuhan jumlah penduduk dan industri. berdasarkan keadaan di atas, perlu dilakukan penelitian terhadap komoditas bawang merah terutama mengenai bagaimana perilaku harganya pada tingkat produsen maupun konsumen, serta apakah mekanisme pasar mampu melakukan penyesuaian harga apabila terjadi gejolak harga. lebih lanjut lagi, dapat dianalisis pasar mana yang dominan (leading) dalam menentukan harga untuk komoditas bawang merah, sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai acuan pemerintah dalam menyusun kebijakan yang berkaitan dengan pengembangan komoditas tersebut. metode penelitian metode dasar yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah deskriptif analisis. tujuan dari penelitian deskriptif adalah untuk membuat deskripsi, gambaran secara sistematis, faktual dan akurat mengenai fakta-fakta, sifat serta hubungan antar fenomena-fenomena yang diteliti (nazir, 1989). dalam metode deskriptif bisa saja peneliti membandingkan fenomena-fenomena tertentu sehingga merupakan suatu studi komparatif. data yang terkumpul pertama-tama disusun, dijelaskan, kemudian dianalisis. metode deskriptif memiliki beberapa kelebihan, yaitu (1) pengukuran yang cermat terhadap penelitian sosial (singarimbun dan effendi, 1989), (2) mampu menggambarkan hubungan antar fenomena, uji hipotesis dan implikasi kebijakan (nazir, 1989), (3) analisis data dilakukan dengan pendekatan analitik secara deskriptif untuk menghasilkan hubungan atau perbandingan antar variabel (widodo dan mukhtar, 2000), dan (4) hasil penelitian dapat berupa kesimpulan yang bersifat deduktif (subyantoro dan suwarto, 2007). data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah harga bulanan bawang merah selama kurun waktu 20092013 pada pasar produsen dan konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk yang diperoleh dari petugas informasi pasar (pip) dinas pertanian, tanaman pangan dan hortikultura wilayah setempat. perilaku harga dianalisis dengan koefisien variasi yang ditampilkan dalam bentuk tabel untuk melihat fluktuasi harga yang terjadi. secara matematis, dengan koefisien variasi yang dirumuskan sebagai berikut: kv = x s ...............................................................................................(1) s = 1/2n 1i x(xi 1n 1 ⎥ ⎦ ⎤ ⎢ ⎣ ⎡ − − ∑= dimana : s = simpangan baku x = rata-rata harga bawang merah n = jumlah sampel kv = koefisien variasi analisis integrasi pasar dimaksudkan untuk menguji apakah terdapat integrasi atau keterpaduan antara harga pada pasar produsen dengan pasar konsumen. terdapat dua pendekatan untuk melihat integrasi pasar, yaitu: (1) secara horizontal yang digunakan untuk melihat integrasi harga antar pasar produsen atau antar pasar konsumen; dan (2) secara vertikal yang digunakan untuk melihat integrasi harga antara pasar produsen dengan pasar konsumen (arifianti, 2010). dalam penelitian ini digunakan pendekatan secara vertikal, karena ingin melihat integrasi harga antara pasar produsen dengan pasar konsumen. menurut hutabarat (2006), integrasi pasar di lokasi berbeda mengacu pada terdapatnya pergerakan serempak atau hubungan jangka panjang antar harga, dibatasi sebagai transmisi yang mulus atas harga serta informasi pasar melalui pasar-pasar yang berbeda lokasinya. menurut heytens (1986), dua pasar dikatakan terintegrasi apabila perubahan harga di suatu pasar diwujudkan dalam respon harga yang sama pada pasar lainnya. dalam hal ini, perubahan harga di suatu pasar secara parsial atau total ditransmisikan ke harga yang terjadi di pasar-pasar lain, baik dalam jangka pendek atau jangka panjang. transmisi dan pemanfaatan informasi diantara berbagai pasar dapat mengakibatkan harga dari komoditas tertentu bergerak secara bersamaan di berbagai pasar tersebut. terdapat beberapa model untuk melihat integrasi pasar, antara lain model ravallion (1986), engle-granger (1987), dan johansen (1991). dalam penelitian ini menggunakan model dari engle dan granger (1987) 45 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 untuk mengukur integrasi pasar secara vertikal melalui tiga tahapan analisis, yaitu : (1) uji akar unit untuk mengetahui stasioneritas dari rangkaian variabel; (2) uji kointegrasi untuk mengetahui stasioneritas dari residu analisis regresi; dan (3) uji kausalitas granger untuk mengetahui pasar yang leading. tahap pertama yaitu uji akar unit dianalisis dengan menggunakan test dickey fuller (df) dengan satu periode waktu time lag dan augmented dickey fuller (adf) untuk periode time lag lebih dari satu, model persamaan yang digunakan adalah : df ® d p t = a + â p t-1 + e t .........................................................................(2) adf ® d p t = a + â p t-1 + g 2 dp t-2 + e t .......................................................(3) keterangan : d p t = p t p t-1 p t = harga bawang merah pada waktu ke-t â, g = parameter yang akan diestimasi e = variabel kesalahan pengganggu (error term) hipotesis yang digunakan adalah: ho : â = 0, rangkaian data (p t ) adalah non stationer dan ha: â ¹ 0, rangkaian data (p t ) adalah stationer. kriteria pengujiannya adalah dengan membandingkan nilai statistik dari adf tes dengan nilai kritis mackinnon pada tingkat signifikansi 1%, 5%, dan 10%. apabila nilai adf tes lebih besar dari nilai kritis mackinnon, maka ho ditolak artinya rangkaian data yang digunakan adalah stasioner. data runtut waktu dikatakan stasioner jika ratarata, varian, dan kovarian pada setiap lag adalah tetap sama pada setiap waktu (arifianti, 2010). tahap kedua yaitu uji kointegrasi, dimana uji ini dapat dilakukan jika pasangan data harga yang akan diuji menunjukkan stasioner pada ordo yang sama. uji kointegrasi dilakukan dengan meregres variabel harga antara pasar satu dengan pasar lainnya, kemudian diuji apakah residu persamaan regresi tersebut mengandung akar unit atau tidak dengan menggunakan adf tes seperti pada proses uji akar unit sebelumnya. apabila tidak mengandung masalah akar unit berarti residu persamaan tersebut adalah stasioner dan dapat dikatakan bahwa antara variabel yang diregres saling berkointegrasi atau mempunyai hubungan jangka panjang (arifianti, 2010). persamaan yang digunakan adalah sebagai berikut : pt = b 0 + b1p 2t + e t ..........................................................................(4) d e t = a + â e t-1 + g 2 de t-2 + m t ......................................................................(5) keterangan : p1 = harga di pasar 1 p2 = harga di pasar 2 d e t = e t e t-1 e t = residu pada waktu ke-t â, g = parameter yang akan diestimasi m t = error term hipotesis yang digunakan adalah: ho : â = 0, rangkaian residu persamaan kointegrasi e t adalah non stationer, dan h 1 : â ¹ 0, rangkaian residu persamaan kointegrasi e t adalah stationer. pengujian hipotesis dengan membandingkan nilai statistik adf tes dengan nilai kritis mackinnon pada tingkat signifikansi 1%, 5%, dan 10%. apabila nilai adf tes lebih besar dari nilai kritis mackinnon, maka ho ditolak artinya rangkaian residu persamaan kointegrasi et adalah stasioner. tahap ketiga adalah uji kausalitas granger yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui respon perubahan harga di suatu pasar terhadap pasar lainnya. respon perubahan ini dapat berjalan searah dari satu pasar ke pasar yang lain atau dua arah dari kedua pasar yang dianalisis. pasar dikatakan dominan (leading) dalam pembentukan harga apabila perubahan harga yang terjadi di pasar tersebut akan ditransmisikan ke pasar-pasar lainnya. model persamaan yang digunakan dalam uji kausalitas granger adalah sebagai berikut: dp 1t = b 01 + b 02 p 1(t-1) + b 03 (p 2(t-1) + s¶ i (dp 1(t-1) ) +sd i dp 2(t-i) + e t ....................(6) dp 2t = b 11 + b 12 p 2(t-1) + b 13 (p 1(t-1) + sf i (dp 2(t-1) ) +sl i dp 2(t-i) + e t ....................(7) keterangan: dp 1t = p 1t p 1(t-1) dan dp 2t = p 2t p 2(t-1) b 02, b 03, d, ¶ = parameter yang akan diestimasi dari dp 1t b 12, b 13, f, = parameter yang akan diestimasi dari dp 2t e t = error term dengan mengasumsikan bahwa p 1 adalah harga pada pasar konsumen dan p 2 adalah harga di pasar produsen pada waktu ke-t, maka berdasarkan persamaan diatas dapat disusun dua buah hipotesis untuk mendeterminasi hubungan granger cause dengan menggunakan hipotesis sebagai berikut: h 0 : b 03 =d=0, harga dipasar produsen tidak berpengaruh terhadap harga di pasar konsumen. b 03 =l=0, harga dipasar konsumen tidak berpengaruh terhadap harga di pasar produsen. h 1 : b 03 ¹d¹0, harga dipasar produsen berpengaruh 46 jurnal agraris terhadap harga di pasar konsumen. b 03¹ l¹0, harga dipasar konsumen berpengaruh terhadap harga di pasar produsen. keputusan apakah harga di pasar produsen mempengaruhi harga di pasar konsumen, dan sebaliknya yaitu harga di pasar konsumen mempengaruhi harga di pasar produsen digunakan uji f dengan nilai f hitung sebagai berikut : f (p, df) = te)/df(rsscomple e)/prsscompletd(rssreduce − .........................................................(9) keterangan : df = derajat bebas p = variabel bebas rss = residual sum of square kriteria pengujiannya adalah apabila f hitung ³ f tabel, maka terdapat hubungan dimana harga di pasar produsen berpengaruh terhadap harga di pasar konsumen atau harga di pasar konsumen berpengaruh terhadap harga di pasar produsen. hasil uji kausalitas granger dapat digunakan untuk mendeteksi hubungan antar variabel paling tidak hubungan satu arah. apabila terjadi hubungan dua arah, maka untuk mendeteksi pasar yang leading diuji dengan uji t. hipotesis yang digunakan adalah : h 0 : b 13 £ b 03 , harga pada pasar produsen (p 2 ) mendominasi harga pada pasar konsumen (p 1 ). h 1 : b 13 > b 03 , harga pada pasar konsumen (p 1 ) mendominasi harga pada pasar produsen (p 2 ). kriteria pengujian yang digunakan adalah dengan t hitung ³ t tabel yang berarti menolak h 0 dan menerima h 1 yaitu harga pada pasar konsumen dikatakan mendominasi harga pada pasar produsen. hasil dan pembahasan perilaku harga bawang merah perilaku harga bulanan bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk pada pasar produsen dan konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk selama kurun waktu 2009-2013 menunjukkan pola atau pergerakan yang sama, artinya apabila pada pasar konsumen harganya tinggi maka harga pada pasar produsen juga akan tinggi atau sebaliknya apabila harga pada pasar konsumen rendah maka harga pada pasar produsen juga rendah. hasil analisis secara grafis terlihat pada gambar 1. gambar 1. perilaku harga bawang merah pada pasar produsen dan konsumen kabupaten nganjuk gambar 1 menunjukkan bahwa perkembangan harga bawang merah pada pasar produsen maupun konsumen relatif berfluktuasi dengan kecenderungan meningkat. peningkatan yang sangat mencolok terjadi pada bulan maret, april, juli dan agustus tahun 2013 dan puncaknya terjadi pada bulan april 2013 dengan harga rp 30.000,00 pada tingkat produsen dan rp 32.750,00 pada tingkat konsumen. hal yang menarik adalah bulan agustus merupakan musim panen raya bawang merah untuk wilayah sentra produksi kabupaten nganjuk sehingga penawaran melimpah. secara teori apabila penawaran atau produksi suatu komoditi tinggi akibatnya harga akan turun, tetapi hal yang berbeda terjadi di kabupaten nganjuk, dimana saat produksi bawang merah melimpah justru menyebabkan harga naik baik pada pasar produsen maupun konsumen. keadaan tersebut dapat terjadi karena pada bulan agustus 2013 bertepatan dengan hari raya idul fitri, dimana permintaan konsumen atau masyarakat meningkat meskipun produksi atau penawaran tinggi. selain itu pada bulan tersebut terjadi keterlambatan distribusi bawang merah impor di pelabuhan tanjung perak surabaya. fluktuasi harga bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk ditunjukkan oleh nilai koefisien variasi (kv). nilai kv untuk harga bawang merah pada pasar produsen dan konsumen masing-masing sebesar 59,32% dan 50,16%. nilai kv pada pasar konsumen lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan pasar produsen. keadaan tersebut menunjukkan bahwa harga bawang merah pada pasar konsumen relatif lebih stabil dibandingkan dengan harga pada pasar produsen atau permintaan dan penawaran pada pasar konsumen relatif lebih stabil. kondisi tersebut berbeda dengan pasar produsen, dimana harga bawang merah pada pasar tersebut relatif lebih berfluktuasi yang 47 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 ditunjukkan oleh nilai kv yang lebih besar, sehingga resiko yang terjadi pada pasar tersebut juga relatif lebih tinggi. tabel 1 menunjukkan nilai kv harga bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk berdasarkan antar waktu pada pasar produsen dan konsumen selama periode 20092013. berdasarkan tabel tersebut, secara rata-rata nilai kv yang terbesar terjadi pada pasar produsen, meskipun tabel 1. perilaku harga bawang merah antar waktu tahun 2009-2013 di pasar produsen dan konsumen. keterangan : kv = koefisien variasi sumber : analisis data sekunder, 2014 tabel 2. perilaku harga bawang merah antar tempat pada bulan januari-desember tahun 2009-2013. keterangan : rerata = rerata harga bawang merah (rp/kg) kv = koefisien variasi(%) sumber : analisis data sekunder, 2014 48 jurnal agraris pada tahun 2009 dan 2010 nilai kv harga bawang merah di pasar produsen lebih rendah daripada pasar konsumen. kondisi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa pada tahun 2009 dan 2010, fluktuasi harga bawang merah di pasar konsumen relatif lebih tinggi daripada pasar produsen. pada tahun 2013, nilai kv harga bawang merah di pasar produsen hampir sama dengan pasar konsumen artinya fluktuasi harga bawang merah pada pasar produsen dan konsumen hampir sama. perilaku harga bawang merah antar tempat pada bulan januari-desember tahun 2009-2013 disajikan dalam tabel 2. berdasarkan tabel tersebut, rerata nilai kv tinggi setiap tahunnya terjadi pada bulan agustus dan oktober masing-masing sebesar 24,24% dan 23,51%. nilai kv yang rendah terjadi pada bulan mei, juni, juli, masingmasing sebesar 14,66%; 17,45%; dan 17,86%. nilai kv yang tinggi menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan harga yang besar antara pasar produsen dan konsumen. perbedaan harga yang besar dapat disebabkan karena adanya penawaran atau produksi yang meningkat atau permintaan yang turun pada satu tempat, sehingga harga menjadi rendah, sementara di tempat lain penawaran turun atau permintaan naik sehingga harganya tinggi. integrasi pasar bawang merah model engle-granger (1987) digunakan untuk menganalisis integrasi atau keterpaduan secara vertikal antara harga pada pasar produsen dengan harga pada pasar konsumen. model tersebut menggunakan tiga tahapan analisis yaitu uji akar unit, uji kointegrasi, dan uji kausalitas granger dengan bantuan program komputer eviews versi 4. uji akar unit dilakukan untuk mengetahui stasioneritas dari rangkaian data runtut waktu (time series). suatu data runtut waktu dikatakan stasioner apabila nilai rata-rata dan varians tidak berubah secara sistematik sepanjang waktu atau dapat dikatakan rata-rata dan variansnya konstan (arifianti, dkk, 2010). menurut widarjono (2007) suatu data runtut waktu dikatakan stasioner jika rata-rata dan variannya konstan sepanjang waktu dan kovarian antara dua data runtut waktu hanya tergantung dari kelambanan antara dua periode waktu tersebut. uji akar unit dilakukan dengan metode augmented dickey fuller (adf) terhadap setiap data harga bulanan bawang merah pada pasar produsen dan konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk selama kurun waktu 2009 -2013. tabel 3. hasil uji akar unit dengan adf test pada tingkat level i(0) sumber : analisis data sekunder, 2014 tabel 4. hasil uji akar unit dengan adf test pada first difference i(1) keterangan : *** taraf kepercayaan 99%. sumber : analisis data sekunder, 2014 49 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 tiga persamaan adf yang berbeda digunakan untuk menguji akar unit. persamaam pertama menghitung statistik adf untuk model yang mengandung intersep tetapi tidak menyertakan tren, persamaan kedua menghitung statistik adf untuk model yang mengandung intersep dan tren linier deterministik, dan persamaan ketiga menghitung statistik adf untuk model yang tidak mengandung intersep dan tren (adiyoga, dkk, 2006). hasil uji akar unit untuk harga bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk tersaji dalam tabel 3. tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa nilai statistik adf untuk harga produsen dan harga konsumen lebih kecil dari nilai kritis mackinnon pada tingkat signifikansi 1%, 5%, dan 10% baik untuk model persamaan yang mengandung intersep, intersep dan trend maupun tanpa intersep dan trend, sehingga kedua rangkaian data tersebut mengandung akar unit atau tidak stasioner. data non stasioner adalah data dengan nilai rata-rata yang bervariasi dari waktu ke waktu dan mempunyai varian yang tidak terbatas, sehingga jika melakukan uji terhadap data tersebut pada tingkat level akan didapatkan regresi yang lancung atau estimasi parameter yang tidak stabil (arifianti, 2010). uji akar unit dilanjutkan ke tingkat satu atau first difference i (1) seperti ditunjukkan oleh tabel 4, karena pada tingkat level tidak stasioner. tabel 4 menunjukkan bahwa kedua variabel harga bulanan bawang merah pada pasar produsen dan konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk sudah tidak memiliki akar unit atau stasioner karena nilai statistik adf lebih besar dari nilai kritis dari mackinnon pada tingkat signifikansi 1%, 5%, dan 10% baik untuk persamaan yang mengandung intersep, intersep dan trend maupun tanpa intersep dan trend. uji kointegrasi. uji ini dilakukan untuk menguji apakah residu persamaan regresi yang digunakan mengandung akar unit atau tidak dengan menggunakan tabel 5. hasil uji kointegrasi pasar bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk tahun 2009-2013 keterangan : *** tingkat kepercayaan 99 persen sumber : analisis data sekunder, 2014 tabel 6. hasil uji kausalitas granger pasar bawang merah di nganjuk tahun 2009-2013 50 jurnal agraris adf test seperti halnya pada proses sebelumnya. apabila residu tidak mengandung akar unit artinya nilai negatif dari adf test lebih besar dari nilai kritis maka residu persamaan tersebut stasioner dan dapat dikatakan bahwa antara variabel saling berkointegrasi atau mempunyai hubungan jangka panjang (nidausholeha, 2007). hasil uji kointegrasi selengkapnya tersaji pada tabel 5. tabel 5 menunjukkan bahwa nilai statistik adf test untuk residu persamaan regresi lebih besar dari nilai kritis mackinnon pada tingkat signifikansi 1%, 5%, dan 10%, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa antara pasar produsen dan pasar konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk terintegrasi atau memiliki hubungan jangka panjang. apabila terjadi kenaikan atau penurunan harga bawang merah pada masing-masing pasar akan saling terintegrasi atau bila terjadi pergerakan harga pada pasar suatu pasar maka harga di tempat lain juga akan berubah. uji kausalitas granger. setelah melakukan uji kointegrasi, analisis dilanjutkan dengan menerapkan pendekatan sebab akibat yang dikenal dengan uji kausalitas granger. analisis ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui apakah variabel harga bawang merah di pasar produsen dan konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk memiliki hubungan dua arah atau hanya satu arah saja. pada uji ini yang dilihat adalah pengaruh masa lalu terhadap kondisi sekarang, sehingga data yang digunakan adalah data time series. tabel 6 menunjukkan bahwa dengan lag 1 nilai fstatistik sebesar 3,699 secara nyata signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 95%, sehingga dapat disimpulkan harga pada pasar konsumen mempengaruhi harga pada pasar produsen tetapi harga produsen tidak mempengaruhi harga konsumen, sehingga terjadi hubungan satu arah. pasar yang leading dalam penentuan harga bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk adalah pasar konsumen. kesimpulan dan saran 1. perilaku harga bawang merah pada pasar produsen maupun pasar konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk selama kurun waktu 2009-2013 menunjukkan pergerakan yang sama. harga bawang merah cenderung rendah pada bulan januari, juni, oktober, dan cenderung tinggi pada bulan maret, april, dan juli. fluktuasi harga bawang merah yang tinggi terjadi pada pasar produsen, sehingga peran pemerintah perlu ditingkatkan terutama dalam teknologi budidaya termasuk pola tanam dan pasca panen, sehingga dapat menurunkan risiko produksi dan harga. fluktuasi harga bawang merah antar pasar yang tinggi untuk setiap tahunnya terjadi pada bulan agustus dan oktober, sementara yang rendah pada bulan mei, juni, dan juli. 2. pasar produsen dan pasar konsumen di kabupaten nganjuk sudah terintegrasi, sehingga tanpa campur tangan pemerintah mekanisme pasar telah mampu melakukan penyesuaian harga apabila terjadi gejolak harga bawang merah. pasar yang dominan (leading) dalam penentuan harga bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk adalah pasar konsumen. ucapan terimakasih penulis mengucapakan terimakasih kepada dr. witono adiyoga, ms dari balai penelitian sayuran lembang bandung; prof. dr. ir. siti subandiyah, ms; dan prof. dr. ir. masyhuri dari fakultas pertanian ugm yang telah memberikan kesempatan kepada penulis untuk mengikuti proyek aciar tahun 2012-2015. penulis juga mengucapkan terima kasih untuk aciar (australian centre for international agriculture research) yang telah memberikan dukungan dana guna pelaksanaan kegiatan penelitian ini. daftar pustaka adiyoga, w., k.o.fuglie dan r. suherman. 2006. integrasi pasar kentang di indonesia : analisis korelasi dan kointegrasi. informatika pertanian 15 : 835852. agusiobo, o.h. 1994. sustainable food production, role of unaab graduates. the harvest publication of national association of agricultural student (naas), university of agricultural chapter vol.1. no. 1. anyanwu, b.o. 2003. agricultural science for school and college. africa first publisher, onistha, nigeria. engle, r.f., dan c.w. granger. 1987. cointegration and error correction : representation, estimation, and testing. econometrica 55: 251-276. heytens, p.j. 1986. testing market integration. food research institute studies. 20(1) : 34-49. hutabarat, b. 2006. analisis saling pengaruh harga kopi 51 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 indonesia dan dunia. jurnal agro ekonomi 24(1) : 2140. johansen. 1991. estimation and hypothesis testing of cointegration vectors in gaussian vector autoregressive models. econometrica 59 : 1551-1580. kustiari, r., dan r.n. suhaeti. 1998. rice market integration in indonesia : a cointegration analysis. jurnal agro ekonomi 17 : 1-12. nazir, m. 1989. metode penelitian. ghalia. indonesia. jakarta. nidausholeha, o., jamhari, dan masyhuri. 2007. perilaku harga dan keterpaduan pasar komoditas bawang merah. jurnal agro ekonomi 14(2) : 141-156. rahayu, e dan berlian, n. 1998. bawang merah. penebar swadaya. jakarta. ravallion m. (1986). testing market integration. american journal of agricultural economics 68 : 102-109. singarimbun, m. dan s. effendi, 1989. metode penelitian survei. lembaga penelitian dan pendidikan dan peneangan ekonomi sosial (lp3es). jakarta. subyantoro, a. dan f.x. suwarto, 2007. metode dan teknik penelitian sosial. andi yogyakarta. yogyakarta. thompson, h.c. and kelly, c.n. 1987. vegetable crops. fifth edition. mcgraw hills book coompany, new york, toronto london. widarjono, a. 2007. ekonometrika teori dan aplikasi : untuk ekonomi dan bisnis. ekonisia. fakultas ekonomi uii. yogyakarta. widodo, e. dan mukhtar, 2000. konstruksi ke arah penelitian deskriptif. avyrous. yogyakarta. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2: july-december 2020 article history: submitted: november 21st, 2020 accepted: december 3rd, 2020 kelly kai seng wong1*, juwaidah binti sharifuddin1, phuah kit teng2, wong wang li3, and lai kok song4 1 department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, faculty of agriculture, universiti putra malaysia, selangor, malaysia. 2 department of marketing, faculty of accountancy, finance and business, tunku abdul rahman university college, kuala lumpur, malaysia. 3 school of economics and management, xiamen university malaysia, sepang, malaysia. 4 health sciences division, abu dhabi women’s college, higher colleges of technology, abu dhabi, united arab emirates. *) correspondence email: kellywong@upm.edu.my impact of urban consumers’ food consumption behavior towards food waste doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62100 abstract in this study, we aims to determine the factors that affect the consumers’ food consumption behaviour and further to examine the impact of consumers’ food consumption behaviour toward food waste in urban area. this study collected 400 questionnaires from the klang valley, malaysia. the findings showed that there are three latent factors from the factor analysis which related to the negative food consumption behaviour, which were consumers’ negative attitude on food demand, perceived behavioural control on food waste, and subjective norm. multiple regression analysis showed that the negative food consumption attitude and perceived behavioural control on food waste have significant impact on the negative food consumption behaviour. furthermore, the chi-square test showed that the percentage of food waste related to the difference level of negative consumption behaviour on food. besides that, the pearson chi-square also showed that over demand for food and did not consume the food before expired date are highly significant associated with the number of food waste created by a household. in conclusion, consumers’ proper planning on food consumption, cooking, and food deliver order playing a significant role to reduce food waste in malaysia. keywords: attitude, food consumption behavior, food waste, urban introduction food waste can be defined as all edible food materials that are produced for human consumption but are not eaten, whether it is lost or thrown away throughout the food supply stages (chen et al., 2017). in malaysia, food waste which includes left over and unconsumed food shows an increase at about 15 % to 20% during festive seasons (jarjusey & chamhuri, 2017). household and business outlets such as restaurant, resort and hotels are dumping over large quantities of food after their daily business activities. for example, during weddings, birthday party celebrations, and conferences, aruna (2011) claims that malaysian are throwing away up to 930 ton of unconsumed food daily and this is equivalent to 93,000 kg of rice per http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 199 impact of urban consumers’ food ….. (wong et al) day. thus, a reduction of food waste has important implication to support food sovereignty in the future in malaysia. most global consumers are always confused by the labelling terms best before, use by date, use before, and consume by. according to newsome et al. (2014), the difference within the date of labelling terms and its uses has led to huge food loss. this is because consumers and food manufacturers tend to misunderstand the labelling terms which indicates food product’s expiry date. besides that, food waste trends in malaysia is worrisome. about 15,000 tonnes of food are wasted every day and about 3,000 tonnes are actually edible and should not be discarded (jarjusey & chamhuri, 2017). food waste makes up approximately 60 % of municipal solid waste which are still categorised under the general problem of municipal solid waste management (hassan et al., 2001). this soaring rate of food waste give harmful effects on the economy, environment and society as a whole. the estimated food waste generated in malaysia is totalling up to 9 million tonnes per year in 2011 (table 1). the biggest source of food waste is household waste, and second is from the wet and night market. third is waste from the food courts, restaurant and hotels then comes the food and beverage industries. the second last food waste contributor is from shopping mall and hypermarket, followed by institutions, schools and franchise restaurants. table 1. food waste generated in malaysia, 2011 sources food waste ton/day ton/year household 8,745 3,192,404 wet and night market 5,592 2,040,929 food court/restaurant 5,319 1,941,608 hotels 1,568 572,284 food and beverage industries 854 311,564 shopping malls 298 108,678 hypermarket 291 106,288 institutions 55 26,962 schools 45 21,808 fast food/ chain shops 25 808 total 22,793 8,331,589 source: ministry of housing and local government (mhlg), 2011 the total population in malaysia in the fourth quarter of 2017 was 32.3 million. the population increased by 1.3 percent compared to fourth quarter in 2016. in 2017, urban population for malaysia was 76.5 % which amounted to 24.509 million. urban population of malaysia increased from 32 % in 1968 to 76.5 % in 2017 growing at an average annual rate of 1.78 %. meanwhile the rural population was 23.5 % which is 7.791 million (world meters, 2017) . malaysia is now moving forward to become an urban nation as the number of urban populations continues to increase to almost 80 % in 2017 as recorded. increasing rate of urban population provides a good business opportunity for food industry especially food delivery services. hence, most of the urban family able to enjoy their variety food easily. in recent decades, women are more willing to participate in the working http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 200 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research industry rather than to be a fulltime housewife. the changes in females’ working behaviour are due to their education achievement, labour market demand, higher living costs in urban area, etc. consequently, this phenomenon shows that the eating behaviour of a household has changed from the kitchen to the restaurant or food delivery service due to the limited time for food preparation. besides, the cost of living in urban area sometimes force workers to spend more time in offices and have to sacrifice their family time for work; consequently, dining out is not an extraordinary thing for working parents. this lifestyle changes illustrate that the urban population is willing to work hard to gain more income and substitute their kitchen time to their working schedule (ali & abdullah, 2012). in malaysia, the urban population has become the major contributor to more than 70 percent of the total waste generated (budhiarta et al., 2012). higher purchasing power in urban areas generate more opportunities for food service industry such as restaurant and online food services like food panda and grab food. however, the convenient of food demand make consumers always over purchase food and consequently increase the amount of food waste. the urban population in malaysia is now 76.5 % of the total population. this large population encourage the rapid development of food system. according to chandon & wansink, (2012), consumers are easily influent by the marketing communications, and food-pricing strategies. lower income group are predominantly affected by temporary price cuts and quantity discounts. consequently, consumers over-purchased food and generate food waste. besides that, most of the consumers did not store their food at the appropriate place and this can create higher volumes of food waste. even though government taken an initiative to increase the awareness of society to reduce food waste especially in urban area, such as mysave food campaign in 2015. however, the effectiveness of this campaign on the food waste reduction is still low and most of the consumers responded to the market survey they are not aware of any campaign that has been organized by government to curb this menace (jarjusey & chamhuri, 2017). in summary, reduce food waste is crucial for urban area. the increasing food waste habit in urban society as a warning clock to the government as well as society towards food sovereignty. however, the society did not notice that the effort has been done by the government on food waste reduction. furthermore, consumers’ negative habit on food consumption such as did not keep their food in suitable place, misunderstand of labelling for best before and use before, etc are the main contribution on the market food waste. it is important to identify the factors related to the consumers’ food consumption behaviour. hence, the general objective in this study is to determine the factors affect the consumers’ food consumption behaviour and further to examine the impact of consumers’ food consumption behaviour toward food waste in urban area. government’s food waste management policy the national policy on municipal solid waste management was generally recognized as the national strategic plan (nsp) (ghafar, 2017). this policy is one of the government initiatives to curb the food waste issues in malaysia since food waste makes up to 60 % on the municipal solid waste generated in malaysia (hassan et al., 2001). the national strategic plan http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 201 impact of urban consumers’ food ….. (wong et al) was formulated in 2002 and implemented in 2005. this policy key strategies are through their viable waste management. the sustainable waste management of this policy adopt the 3rs concept which stands for reduce, reuse and recycle. this concept was done with the help of the proper technologies, equipment and facilities thus providing a viable and inclusive solid waste management service. the first objective of waste management implemented under this national strategic plan is to reduce waste. this done by efficient management of food waste resources at the stage of raw material usage, production, distribution, marketing and consumption (ghafar, 2017). then, the second objective to increase the number of sanitary landfills that are not polluting the environment (ghafar, 2017). furthermore, it also aims to reuse product and material (ghafar, 2017). in addition, the objective is to recycle the reusable amount of waste that can still be used during source and waste collection separation stages (ghafar, 2017). according to moh & manaf (2014), the last objective is to implement intermediary management of waste and generate the value of waste. the strategies formulated in this national strategic plan aimed for solving the food waste issues in malaysia through government support on data collection, setting up regulations and providing incentives. then minimize the source of food waste. as a result, when sources of food waste decrease, the amount of food waste will be decreased, which also indicates less food waste to manage. government has launched a centralized food waste treatment facilities to efficiently dispose the food waste and to minimize the impact of food waste in malaysia. although, government in malaysia carried out this national strategic plan policy in 2005, the food waste issues in malaysia is still not completely solved. innovative strategies for proper management of the food wastes are still very limited and under-developed. a strategic plan particularly focused on food waste management is crucial. therefore, creating possible solution to resolve the challenge of the entire waste management in malaysia is a long-term plan research method this study attempts to investigate the impact of urban consumer food consumption pattern by adapting the theory of planned behaviour by ajzen (1991) and modifying theoretical framework by russel et al. (2017). the modified framework is as shown in figure 1. sources: adapted by theory of planned behaviour (azjen, 1991) and modified from russel et al. (2017) figure 1. framework on factors influencing the amount of food waste disposed positive norm perceived behavioural control on food waste negative food consumption behaviour amount of food waste disposed negative attitude h1 h2 h3 h4 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 202 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research there are 4 main hypotheses for the framework which are: h1: respondents’ attitude towards food waste reduction will be positively related to the consumers’ bad behaviour in consumption pattern; h2: subjective norm in relation to food waste will be positively related to consumers’ bad behaviour in consumption pattern; h3: respondents’ perceived behavioural control regarding food waste will be positively related to the consumer’s bad behaviour in consumption pattern; and h4: bad behaviour in consumption pattern have association with food wastage questionnaire design in this study, questionnaire was designed to examine the factors influence the consumers’ consumption pattern and their food waste. the questionnaire distributed to 400 respondents with different age, gender, education level, occupation, income level, marital status and race. a self-administrated survey questionnaire was used as research method for this study. the questionnaire designed in six sections which are section a, b, c, d, e, and f. section a is to collect the information of respondents’ socio-demographic profiles for example, age, gender, education level, occupation, income level, marital status and race. section b related to the respondent’s attitude to consumption pattern (lifestyle) that created food waste. section c is about the respondent’s perception of subjective norm that affect the consumption pattern (lifestyle). section d related to the respondent’s perceived behavioural control that leads to food waste. section e is to analyse the respondent’s lifestyles that leads to food waste. finally, section f, was about the amount of food waste was disposed which measured in percentage of waste disposed based on food purchased. all questions in section b to section f were designed based on the 5-point likert scale, which are 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. sampling design this study was focusing on the consumers from klang valley area. klang valley chosen as the sampling area because of its diversity of races and ethnics, and its population are consisting mostly of high-income group, which is suitable for this study’s objective. the sampling design for this study is based on the cluster sampling. subsequently, the region of klang valley as the sample component was divided into six clusters, namely kuala lumpur, putrajaya, kajang, sri kembangan and serdang. the targeted sample size for this study was 400 respondents and each cluster sampling location was assigned 80 questionnaires. result and discussions the 400 respondents’ data were collected through the questionnaire survey and the overall demographic profile was summarized in table 2. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 203 impact of urban consumers’ food ….. (wong et al) table 2. summary of respondents’ socio demographic profile profiles frequency (n) percentage (%) gender male 220 55.0 female 180 45.0 age 18 24 years 79 19.75 25 – 34 years 135 33.75 35 – 44 years 103 25.75 45 – 54 years 66 16.5 55 – 64 years 16 4.0 65 years and above 1 0.25 race malay 249 62.3 chinese 92 23.0 indian 59 14.8 others 0 0 religion islam 249 62.3 buddha 91 22.8 hindu 58 14.5 christian 2 0.5 others 0 0 ancestry malay 249 62.3 chinese 91 23.0 hindu 59 14.8 others 0 0 district serdang 89 22.3 seri kembangan 80 20.0 kajang 79 19.8 putrajaya 68 17.0 kuala lumpur 84 21.0 marital status single 164 41.0 married 236 59.0 others 0 0 education level primary school 0 0 secondary school 46 11.5 certificate level 56 14.0 diploma 104 26.0 bachelor 173 43.3 master 20 5.0 ph.d. 1 0.3 others 0 0 occupation government sector 101 25.3 private sector 165 41.3 self-employ 65 16.3 student 68 17.0 others 1 0.3 monthly income rm 0 rm 1000 70 17.5 rm1001rm3000 124 31.0 rm3001-rm5000 142 35.5 rm5001-rm8000 60 15.0 >rm8000 4 1 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 204 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 3 indicates that three latent factors from the factor analysis which related to the negative food consumption behaviour, which were consumers’ negative attitude on food demand, perceived behavioural control on food waste, and subjective norm. these three factors showed about 81.05 % of the variation of the data are explained by these three factors. table 3. factors influent urban consumer food consumption pattern towards food waste factor 1 2 3 consumers’ negative attitude on food demand i am not worried about the amount of food that is wasted in my household .914 i am not worried about the cost of food that i throw away. .899 i am not worried about the amount of food that i have thrown away. .809 perceived behavioural control on food waste i could not control myself to waste food. .891 it is difficult for me to reduce my food waste. .883 it is difficult for me to have a list of what i need before purchase food from market. .780 positive norm i will reduce food waste, if the people who are important to me completely supported. .805 most people who are important to me think that reducing food waste is good. .907 eigenvalue 3.902 1.322 1.261 % of total variance 48.733 16.521 15.760 total cumulative variance 48.733 65.294 81.054 note: extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: varimax with kaiser normalization. the first factor is about the consumers’ negative attitude on the food demand. most of the respondents did not worried about the amount and the cost of food waste and this factor explained the total variance about 48.73 % which are the important factor related to the negative food consumption behaviour. the second factor is represented the perceived behavioural control on food waste and explained in 16.52 % of the overall dataset. there were three questions categorized in this factor; i.e. (i) the respondents are difficult to control themselves to waste food; (ii) the respondents are feeling difficult to reduce the amount of food waste; and (iii) the respondents are unable to prepare the food list before they purchase food from grocery shops. the third factor is labelled as positive norm which is expected to have a negative impact on the negative food consumption behaviour. this factor was explained by two questions, i.e. the respondent will reduce food waste when supported by the people who are important to him/her, and the people who are important to him/her have a positive perception on the food waste reduction. multiple regression analysis was used to investigate the most influential factor towards consumer’s negative food consumption behaviour. the estimated result (table 4) showed that the negative food consumption attitude and perceived behavioural control on food waste have significant impact on the negative food consumption behaviour. the positive coefficient of negative food consumption attitude (0.052) indicates that if the respondents are not worried about the volume and cost of food waste then the consumers will easily to excess demand for food and thrown the good condition food away when the tastes of food is not good. besides http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 205 impact of urban consumers’ food ….. (wong et al) that, perceive behavioural control on food waste also showed positive coefficient towards the negative food consumption behaviour. this implied that if the respondents are not able to control themselves to waste food, then the food waste will increase. table 4. summary of negative food consumption behaviour regression model coefficient std. error t-stat sig constant 3.747 .024 153.524 0.000*** negative food consumption attitude 0.052 0.024 2.115 0.035** perceived behavioural control on food waste 0.289 0.024 11.806 0.000*** positive norm -0.001 0.024 0.045 0.964 r square : 0.266 adjusted r square : 0.261 dependent variable : consumption pattern note: ***, **, and * denotes as significant at 1%, 5 % and 10% significance level, respectively. in this survey, respondent was asked a question of “how many percent of food was wasted by you during the latest month?”. this question was aimed to estimate food waste from a household. respondents showed that the percentage of food waste related to the difference level of negative consumption behaviour on food. for example, amount of food waste correlated with the taste of food (table 5). if the respondent dislikes the food tastes, then they will throw it away. even the food is still in a good condition. the pearson chi-square also showed that over demand for food and did not consume the food before expire date are highly significant associated with the number of food waste created by a household. table 5. summary of chi-square test on negative food consumption behaviour with household’s food waste bad behaviour in food consumption pattern pearson chisquare value df significant decision i throw away food because the taste is not good 36.555 16 0.002*** reject h0 i often forget the food that are stored in my refrigerator until it is spoiled 44.791 16 0.000*** reject h0 note: ***, **, and * denotes as significant at 1%, 5 % and 10% significance level, respectively. conclusions in malaysia, rapid growth of food waste should take it seriously and needs to reduce it immediately. the grave problem of food waste usually related to the consumers’ bad food demand habit such as excess-buying, inadequate storage for food, and luxury lifestyle. as estimated by solid waste and public cleansing corporation (swcorp), there are about 3,330 tonnes of daily food wasted from the households and food industry. in order to reduce the food waste, household’s food demand habit should be changed. in this study, household’s bad attitude on food demand was the main factor explained the household’s bad consumption habit. for example, if the household unappreciated the food value then they will easily throw away the food. besides that, negative behaviour on food consumption highly related to the personal perceive control on food waste. when the respondent uncontrolled themselves to waste food easily then they will just throw away their food. even the food is still good condition and safely consume. furthermore, when the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 206 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research respondent feels difficult to reduce food waste and did not have a proper planning before buying and cooking, food waste can be increased due to the inadequate storage of food. however, the bad habit on food demand can be changed through the friend or family’s advice and support on food waste reduction. in conclusion, consumers playing a significant role to reduce food waste in malaysia. environment support can help the respondents to reduce food waste such as government campaign and advertise the important of food waste reduction in social media are important to change the bad habit on food consumption. besides that, proper planning on food consumption, cooking, and food deliver order also important to reduce the food waste from market. acknowledgements this work was supported and funded by the ministry of higher education (mohe) malaysia for the award of fundamental research grant scheme, code project frgs/1/2018/ss08/upm/02/2. references ajzen, i., (1991). the theory of planned behaviour. organizational behaviour. human decision process, 50 (2), 179-211. ali, n. & abdullah, m.a. (2012). the food consumption and eating behaviour of malaysian urbanites: issues and concerns. malaysia journal of society and space, 8(6), 157 – 165. aruna p. (2011). 930 tonnes of food being thrown away every day. the star online (date: 10 june 2011). retrieved: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2011/06/10/930tonnes-of-food-being-thrown-away-every-day/. budhiarta, i., siwar, c. & basri, h. (2012). current status of municipal solid waste generation in malaysia. international journal on advanced science engineering information technology, 2(2), 16 – 21. chandon, p, and wansink, b (2012). does food marketing need to make us fat? a review and solutions. nutrition reviews, 70 (10), 571–93. chen, h., jiang, w., yang, y., yang, y., & man, x. (2017). state of the art on food waste reseabibliometrics study from 1997 to 2014. journal of cleaner production, 140, 840–846. ghafar, s.w.a (2017). food waste in malaysia: trends, current practices and key challenges. fftc agricultural policy articles. retrieved: http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php?id=774&print=1. hassan, m. n., chong, t. l., rahman, m., salleh, m. n., zakaria, z., & awang, m. (2001). solid waste management in southeast asian countries with special attention to malaysia. paper presented at the 8th international waste management and landfill symposium (pp. 1-5), environmental sanitary engineering centre, cagliari, italy. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 207 impact of urban consumers’ food ….. (wong et al) jarjusey, f. & chamhuri, n. (2017). consumers’ awareness and knowledge about food waste in selangor, malaysia. international journal of business and economic affairs, 2(2), 91 -97. moh, y. c. & manaf, l. a. (2014). overview of household solid waste recycling policy status and challenges in malaysia. resources, conversation and recycling, 82, 50-61. newsome, r., balestrini, c. g., baum, m. d., corby, j., fish-er, w., goodburn, k., labuza, t. p., prince, g., thesmar, h. s., & yiannas, f. (2014). applications and perceptions of date labeling of food. compr. rev. food sci. food saf., 13, 745–769. russell, s.v., young, c.w., unsworth, k.l. & robinson, c. (2017). bringing habits and emotions into food waste behaviour. resources, conservation and recycling, 125, 107-114. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 triyono program studi agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta jangkung handoyo mulyo, masyhuri, jamhari jurusan sosial ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada email: aatri05@yahoo.com, triyono@umy.ac.id pengaruh karakteristik struktural dan manajerial terhadap efisiensi usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman abstract efforts to increase productivity of food crops, especially rice by using technology and innovation has been facing problems such as structure of the control and management of agricultural resources. this study aimed to identify the factors of farmer’s structural and managerial characteristics that affect paddy farming efficiency in sleman. survey conducted on wetland rice farmers in rural and sub urban areas that represent the condition of the structural and manjerial characteristics that owned by farmers in sleman. analysis of stochastic frontier production function with the inclusion of the inefficiency effects model was conducted to identify determinants of production and the factors that affect the efficiency of farming. the result showed that the structural characteristics that influence the rice farming efficiency are the water irrigation source distance and the farm location, while the managerial characteristics factors are age, income outside the farm, participation in a group, experience and access to credit. key words: structural and managerial characteristics, efficiency, rice farming. intisari usaha peningkatan produktivitas tanaman pangan khususnya padi dengan pemanfaatan teknologi dan inovasi menghadapi permasalahan berupa struktur penguasaan dan pengelolaan sumberdaya pertanian. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi faktor karakteristik struktural dan manajerial petani yang mempengaruhi efisiensi usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman. survei dilakukan terhadap petani padi lahan sawah di kawasan pedesaan dan peri urban yang merepresentasikan kondisi karakterstik struktural dan manjerial yang dimiliki petani di kabupaten sleman. analisis fungsi produksi stochastic frontier dengan memasukkan model efek inefisiensi dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi faktor penentu produksi serta faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi efisiensi usahatani. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa karakteristik struktural yang berpengaruh terhadap efisiensi usahatani padi adalah jarak sumber air irigasi dan lokasi usahatani; sedangkan karakteristik manajerial yang berpengaruh terhadap efisiensi usahatani adalah umur, pendapatan luar usahatani, partisipasi dalam kelompok, pengalaman dan akses terhadap kredit. kata kunci: karakteristik struktural dan manajerial, efisisensi, usahatani padi. pendahuluan pertanian berkelanjutan menjadi isu penting di negara berkembang maupun negara sedang berkembang. di negara sedang berkembang isu ini lebih mendesak untuk dibahas, keterbatasan sumberdaya alam dan teknologi yang tersedia memerlukan upaya yang lebih kuat dalam doi:10.18196/agr.2120 2 jurnal agraris meningkatkan produksi pertanian untuk memenuhi kebutuhan penduduk yang semakin meningkat. banyak studi dilakukan untuk meningkatkan produksi pertanian melalui peningkatan efisiensi usahatani berdasarkan sumberdaya dan teknologi yang ada. sejumlah aplikasi empiris telah dilakukan untuk mengukur efisiensi dan keberlanjutan pertanian di banyak negara. investasi masyarakat untuk meningkatkan keberlanjutan usahatani membutuhkan penilaian yang tepat terhadap efisiensi usaha yang telah dijalankan oleh petani dan identifikasi sumberdaya yang tidak efisien dalam rangka mengembangkan kebijakan dan mengembangkan inovasi untuk meminimalkan inefisiensi (sherlund et al., 2002). keberlanjutan produksi padi dapat dirancang dengan mengukur efisiensi pada tingkat usahatani, mengidentifikasi faktor-faktor yang berkaitan dengan efisiensi produksi, dan merumuskan kebijakan untuk masa yang akan datang. sebagai sebuah alternatif peningkatan output produksi, upaya dapat dilakukan melalui peningkatan efisiensi teknik. efisiensi teknik artinya berproduksi dengan menggunakan sumberdaya lebih efisien (sharma dan leung, 2000). lebih dari itu, peningkatan pendapatan melalui peningkatan efisiensi akan memberikan gambaran bahwa petani dapat meningkatkan pendapatan dengan keterbatasan sumberdaya yang ada. oleh karena itu, efisiensi penggunaan sumberdaya akan menjadi tolok ukur penting dalam mengembangkan keberlanjutan usahatani padi untuk mendukung program ketahanan dan kemandirian pangan. efisiensi teknik merupakan sebuah ukuran relatif dari kemampuan manajerial petani pada tingkat teknologi yang ada. hal ini berarti efisiensi teknik terjadi karena adanya perbaikan keterampilan teknis dan kemampuan manajerial dari petani. menurut van passel (2006) kapabilitas manajerial berhubungan dengan umur, pendidikan baik formal maupun non formal, pengalaman, akses terhadap penyuluhan, kredit, dan pasar. dalam studinya yang dilakukan pada tahun 2007, bravo-ureta et al. menggunakan data yang dipublikasikan antara tahun 1979 sampai tahun 2005 diperoleh 167 studi efisiensi. komoditas yang paling banyak dianalisis adalah padi, diikuti oleh peternakan sapi perah, dan usahatani keseluruhan. dalam studi tersebut penelitian hortikultura relatif terbatas hanya sekitar 2 persen dari keseluruhan penelitian. banyak studi sudah mengkaitkan pengaruh faktor sosial, ekonomi dan ekologi terhadap efisiensi teknik. umur petani, pendidikan, akses terhadap penyuluhan, akses terhada kredit, agro-ekologi, luas lahan yang diusahakan, jumlah persil yang dimiliki, jumlah tanggungan keluarga, gender, sewa, akses pasar, akses terhadap teknologi (pupuk, pestisida, traktor, benih, intervensi pemerintah) mempunyai pengaruh positif terhadap efisiensi teknik (ahmad et al., 2002; basnayake and gunaratne, 2002; tchale dan sauer, 2007 dan 2009). bozoglu and ceyhan (2007) menilai efisiensi teknik dari produksi sayuran di turki dengan menggunakan pendekatan sfa. determinan yang menentukan efisiensi teknik meliputi umur petani, pengalaman, pendidikan, ukuran keluarga, dummy pendapatan di luar usahatani, dummy kredit, dummy partisipasi wanita, dan skor informasi. hasilnya memperlihatkan bahwa rata-rata efisiensi teknik adalah 0,82. sumber penyebab inefisiensi yang positif dan berpengaruh secara nyata adalah umur petani. namun pengalaman, pendidikan, penggunaan kredit, partisipasi wanita, dan skor informasi mempunyai tanda negatif dan berpengaruh nyata terhadap inefisiensi teknik. selanjutnya abedullah et al. (2007) menggunakan fungsi produksi stochastic frontier untuk menentukan strategi peningkatan produksi padi di punjab. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa pestisida tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap produktivitas padi, sementara pupuk memiliki dampak negatif terhadap produktivitas karena komposisi unsur hara n, k dan k yang tidak tepat. hal ini mengindikasikan minimnya diseminasi layanan penyuluhan. oleh karena itu lembaga penyuluhan seharusnya melakukan penguatan untuk peningkatan produktivitas padi serta melindungi sumberdaya alam utama, air tanah untuk generasi yang akan datang. namun demikian, studi ini belum menganalisis faktor sumberdaya alam terutama air irigasi. meuya et al. (2008) melakukan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengestimasi tingkat efisiensi teknik dari 233 petani jagung di tanzania, menggunakan fungsi produksi stochastic frontier, juga untuk melihat faktor penentu yang mempengaruhi inefisiensi sehingga dapat ditemukan cara untuk meningkatkan produksi dan produktivitas petani gandum berskala kecil di tanzania. efisiensi teknik bervariasi antara 1,1 persen sampai 91 persen dengan rata-rata te = 60,6 persen. faktor yang mempunyai pengaruh negatif terhadap efisiensi teknik antara lain: pendidikan rendah, ketidaktersediaan akses 3 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 kredit, keterbatasan kapital, fragmentasi lahan, ketidaktersediaan input, dan tingginya harga input. petani yang mempunyai pendapatan di luar usahatani ditemukan lebih efisien, sedangkan petani yang menggunakan pestisida kimia kurang efisien dalam mengusahakan usahataninya. bakhsh dan hassan (2008) melihat hubungan antara efisiensi teknik dengan kemampuan manajerial. dalam penelitiannya dianalisis hubungan efisiensi teknik dengan kemampuan manajerial dari petani wortel. tingkat pendidikan dan keterbukaan pada jasa penyuluhan merupakan faktor penentu dari kemampuan manajerial petani wortel. pendidikan dan penyuluhan mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap efisiensi teknik. dengan demikian peningkatan pendidikan dan perluasan penyuluhan dapat meningkatkan efisiensi teknik dan mengurangi pengunaan sumberdaya yang berlebihan. obare et al. (2010) melakukan penelitian untuk melihat tingkat efisiensi alokatif sumberdaya dari petani kentang dan melihat faktor yang mempengaruhi efisiensi alokatif. hasilnya menunjukkan pengalaman, akses terhadap kredit, akses terhadap penyuluhan, keanggotaan dalam kelompok berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap efisiensi alokatif. hasan dan islam (2010) menggunakan data cross section dari tiga daerah di bangladesh dengan pendekatan fungsi produksi cobb douglas menyimpulkan bahwa pendidikan dan training mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap inefisiensi teknik. sebagian besar penelitian tentang efisiensi masih didominasi faktor teknis dan sosial ekonomi sebagai variabel yang berpengaruh terhadap efisiensi. masih sedikit penelitian yang mengulas tentang faktor lingkungan, seperti irigasi dan musim tanam yang berhubungan dengan cuaca, serta faktor sosial ekonomi status penguasaan lahan. semua variabel tersebut belum banyak dibahas dalam menganalisis efisiensi usahatani. faktor-faktor tersebut banyak dijumpai pada usahatani di negara berkembang dan daerah tropis yang dapat menjalankan usahatani sepanjang tahun dengan kondisi cuaca atau musim yang berubah-ubah. upaya peningkatan produktivitas padi di pulau jawa, sebagai pemasok 60 persen produksi pangan nasional di indonesia, yang dilakukan melalui inovasi teknologi mengalami hambatan turunnya luasan lahan sawah dan turunnya daya dukung lahan dan lingkungan akibat pemakaian bahan kimia secara intensif yang menyebabkan pencemaran tanah, air, lingkungan tempat tinggal, maupun kesehatan manusia itu sendiri. berkembangnya sektor industri, jasa dan property pada era pertumbuhan ekonomi telah memberikan tekanan pada sektor pertanian, terutama lahan sawah. oleh karena itu program intensifikasi menjadi penting untuk peningkatan produksi. intensifikasi ditujukan untuk meningkatkan produktivitas yang dapat dicapai melalui peningkatan efisiensi atau terobosan teknologi. dalam kondisi teknologi yang tetap, peningkatan efisiensi adalah upaya tepat untuk peningkatan produktivitas. kabupaten sleman merupakan salah satu sentra produksi padi di yogyakarta, dengan areal lahan sawah berada di bagian utara daerah istimewa yogyakarta yang relatif dekat dengan sumber irigasi. namun demikian, kabupaten sleman memiliki pusat pertumbuhan ekonomi non pertanian yang relatif tinggi dibanding wilayah lain di daerah istimewa yogyakarta, khususnya di wilayah yang berbatasan langsung dengan kota yogyakarta. kondisi tersebut memberikan tekanan pada sektor pertanian, sehingga wilayah ini rentan terhadap perubahan struktur dan status kepemilikan lahan karena terjadi alih fungsi lahan. hal demikian, akan berpengaruh pada efisiensi dan keberlanjutan usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman berdasarkan permasalahan di atas, perlu dilakukan telaah untuk mengidentifikasi faktor sosial ekonomi (karakterisitik manajerial) petani dan faktor struktural, khususnya aspek lingkungan, yang mempengaruhi efisiensi usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di kabupaten yang memiliki lahan sawah terluas di daerah istimewa yogyakarta yaitu kabupaten sleman (bps d.i. yogyakarta, 2013). penentuan lokasi pengambilan sampel didasarkan pada aliran sungai irigasi yang melintasi kabupaten sleman yang memiliki nilai pencemaran hasil analisis dari badan lingkungan hidup di yogyakarta. dari lima sungai aliran irigasi yang melintasi kabupaten sleman, diambil 10 titik lokasi pengambilan sampel, terdiri dari enam lokasi di kawasan pedesaan dan empat lokasi di kawasan peri urban. dari masing-masing lokasi sampel diambil lima sampel petani secara simple random sampling, sehingga jumlah sampel dalam penelitian ini sebanyak 50 petani. data usahatani diambil pada musim hujan dan musim kemarau 2013/2014. 4 jurnal agraris untuk menganalisis kinerja usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman digunakan analisis kinerja ekonomi dari usahatani padi, determinan dari kinerja ini diukur dengan efisiensi teknik. untuk menganalisis efisiensi teknik digunakan model stochastic frontier analysis (sfa). model ini digunakan untuk mengestimasi fungsi produksi frontier dengan spesifikasi model sebagai berikut: ln y i = âo + â 1 lnx 1 + â 2 ln x 2 + â 3 ln x 3 + â 4 ln x 4 + â 5 ln x 5 + â 6 ln x 6 + â 7 ln x 7 + â 8 ln x 8 + d 1 d 1 + v i u i ......(1) dengan : y i = produksi total padi (usahatani ke i) (kg) x 1 = luas lahan yang digunakan untuk usahatani padi ke i (ha) x 2 = jumlah benih (kg) untuk usahatani padi ke i x 3 = jumlah pestisida (liter) untuk usahatani padi ke i x 4 = jumlah pupuk n (kg) yang digunakan usahatani padi ke-i x 5 = jumlah p (kg) yang digunakan usahatani padi ke-i x 6 = jumlah pupuk kandang/organik (kg) untuk usahatani padi ke i x 7 = jumlah tenaga kerja (hkp) untuk usahatani padi ke i x 8 = polusi irigasi (skor) untuk usahatani padi ke i d 1 = musim tanam (dummy); d=1 musim hujan, d=0 musim kemarau v it = v i adalah variabel random yang diasumsikan iid (identicallyindependenly distributed) u it = u i yang merupakan variabel random non-negatif random yangdiasumsikan disebabkan oleh inefisiensi teknis dalam produksi danjuga sering diasumsikan sebagai iid â 1 ,....â 10 = parameter fungsi yang diduga langkah selanjutnya adalah menghitung efisiensi teknik (te) yang diukur dengan: untuk melihat pengaruh karakteristik struktural dan manajerial terhadap efisiensi teknis, ke dalam model ditambahkan variabel karakteristik struktural dan manajerial, sehingga persamaan yang dimasukkan ke dalam fungsi produksi dan efek inefisiensi menjadi: ln y i = âo + â 1 lnx 1 + â 2 ln x 2 + â 3 ln x 3 + â 4 ln x 4 + â 5 ln x 5 + â 6 ln x 6 + â 7 ln x 7 + â 8 ln x 8 + d 1 d 1 +ä 0 +ä 1 z 1 + ä 2 z 2 + ä 3 z 3 + ä 4 z 4 + ä 5 z 5 + ä 6 z 6 + ä 2 d 2 + ä 3 d 3 +ä 4 d 4 +ä 5 d 5 + v i u i ..........(3) dengan : z 1 = umur petani (tahun) z 2 = pendidikan petani (tahun) z 3 = pengalaman berusahatani (tahun) z 4 = jumlah anggota keluarga z 5 = jarak sumber irigasi z 6 = pendapatan luar usahatani d 2 = dummy akses terhadap kredit (d=1; petani mempunyai akses,d=0 bila tidak) d 3 = dummy status kepemilikan lahan (d= 1 bila lahan milik; d = 0lainnya (sewa, garap)) d 4 = dummy partisipasi dalam kelompok (d=1 bila aktif; d= 0 bila tidak) d 5 = dummy lokasi kawasan (d=1 bila pedesaan, d=0 bila peri urban) pendugaan parameter fungsi produksi dan fungsi inefisiensi teknis untuk padi pada persamaaan di atas dilakukan secara simultan menggunakan program frontier 4.1. (coelli, 1996). pengujian parameter stochastic frontier dan efek inefisiensi dilakukan dalam dua tahap. tahap pertama merupakan pendugaan parameter ä i dengan menggunakan metode ols, sedangkan tahap dua dilakukan pengujian menggunakan maximum likelihood estimator (mle) untuk mengestimasi pendugaan seluruh parameter ä i (kecuali ä 0 ) dan ó i serta varians ì i dan v i . parameter dari nilai varians dapat mengestimasi nilai ã sehingga nilai 0d” ã d” 1. nilai ã merupakan kontribusi efisiensi teknis di dalam efek residual total. hasil dan pembahasan fungsi produksi dan efisiensi teknis usahatani padi berdasarkan analisis fungsi produksi model stochastic frontier dengan maksimum likelihood dapat diestimasi faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi produksi serta efek inefisiensi serta besarnya efisiensi teknis pada usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman. variabel bebas yang diduga berpengaruh terhadap produksi usahatani padi adalah luas lahan, penggunaan benih, pestisida, pupuk nitrogen, phosphor dan organik, serta penggunaan penggunaan 5 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 tenaga kerja. faktor lingkungan yang diduga berpengaruh adalah besarnya pencemaran irigasi, musim tanam dan lokasi usahatani padi. hasil analisis diperoleh nilai likelihood ratio (lr) sebesar 40,92 lebih besar dari nilai chi-square ( tabel−2χ á 1%) sebesar 21,666 sehingga variabel independen secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap variabel dependen. dengan demikian luas lahan, jumlah benih, jumlah pestisida, jumlah n, jumlah p, jumlah pupuk o, jumlah tenaga kerja luar keluarga, polusi irigasi serta dummy musim tanam secara bersamasama berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap produksi usahatani padi. secara rinci hasil estimasi fungsi produksi stochastic frontier usahatani padi disajikan pada tabel 1. tabel 1. estimasi fungsi produksi stochastic frontier usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman tahun 2013/2014 keterangan: ***= signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan (á) 1% **= signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan (á) 5% *= signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan (á) 10% ns= tidak signifikan berdasarkan gambaran hasil terhadap variabel independen yang digunakan dalam model fungsi produksi, variabel yang berpengaruh positif dan signifikan yaitu luas lahan dan penggunaan pupuk organik. koefisien luas lahan memiliki nilai paling besar dibanding koefisien variabel lainnya. hasil analisis tersebut juga menunjukkan adanya perbedaan produksi padi secara signifikan antara musim hujan dengan musim kemarau. berdasarkan hasil estimasi fungsi produksi stochastic frontier diperoleh hasil yang menunjukkan bahwa variabel luas lahan berpengaruh positif dan signifikan pada taraf kepercayaan 99 persen terhadap produksi pada usahatani padi. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa tingkat produksi berbanding lurus dengan luas lahan. nilai koefisien variabel lahan pada model menunjukkan elastisitas variabel lahan terhadap produksi padi sebesar 0,913. hal ini berarti peningkatan luas lahan sebesar satu persen akan mengkibatkan peningkatan produksi padi sebesar 0,913 persen, cateris paribus. kondisi ini menjelaskan bahwa luas lahan usahatani padi berkorelasi positif terhadap luas panen tanaman padi sehingga berpengaruh terhadap peningkatan produksi padi. variabel pupuk o (organik) berpengaruh berpengaruh positif signifikan pada taraf kepercayaan 90 persen terhadap produksi pada usahatani padi. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa tingkat produksi berbanding lurus dengan penggunaan pupuk organik. nilai koefisien variabel pupuk organik pada model menunjukkan elastisitas variabel lahan terhadap produksi padi sebesar 0,009. hal ini berarti peningkatan pupuk organik sebesar satu persen akan mengkibatkan peningkatan produksi padi sebesar 0,009 persen, cateris paribus. pupuk organik yang diberikan pada lahan akan memperbaiki kualitas tanah dengan penambahan bahan organik yang berkontribusi pada berkembangnya mikroorganisme lokal yang membantu proses penyerapan unsur hara oleh tanaman. variabel dummy musim tanam menunjukkan adanya perbedaan produksi antara musim hujan dengan musim kemarau secara signifikan pada taraf kepercayaan 95 persen. nilai koefisien variabel dummy musim tanam pada model, produksi padi pada musim hujan lebih rendah (0,083%) dibandingkan produksi pada musim kemarau. perbedaan ini terjadi karena pada musim hujan sering terjadi ledakan hama yang dapat menyerang tanaman padi dan berdampak pada penurunan produksi padi. variabel polusi irigasi tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan pada taraf kepercayaan 90 persen terhadap produksi pada usahatani padi. hal ini menunjukkan 6 jurnal agraris bahwa kualitas irigasi di kabupaten sleman masih baik bagi usahatani padi. tingkat pencemaran air irigasi masih belum berdampak terhadap penurunan produksi padi. secara geografis lahan sawah di kabuaten sleman berada di bagian atas sebelah utara kota yogyakarta serta dekat dengan sumber air irigasi sehingga tingkat pencemaran masih tergolong rendah, sehingga tidak memiliki dampak negatif bagi produksi padi. berdasarkan hasil analisis efisiensi teknis, data sebaran efisiensi teknis usahatani padi menunjukkan bahwa mayoritas nilai efisiensi pada kisaran 0,80 hingga 0,89. usahatani yang efisiensi teknisnya kurang dari 0,70 dikelola 16 orang petani (32,0%) pada musim hujan, dan 20 orang petani (40,0%) pada musim kemarau. secara umum rata-rata efisiensi teknis usahatani padi sebesar 0,758. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa secara umum masih ada peluang peningkatan produksi padi sebesar 24,2 persen untuk mencapai produksi maksimum. terjadi perbedaan efisiensi usahatani padi antara musim hujan dengan musim kemarau. efisiensi teknis usahatani padi pada musim hujan lebih tinggi daripada musim kemarau. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa produksi potensial pada musim kemarau lebih tinggi daripada produksi potensial pada musim hujan. pengaruh karakteristik struktural petani terhadap efisiensi usahatani padi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat efisiensi teknis petani responden dianalisis dengan menggunakan model efek inefisiensi teknis dari fungsi produksi stochastic frontier. tabel 3 menyajikan hasil analsis faktor-faktor yang mempengarui tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani padi di kabupaten sleman. berdasarkan hasil pendugaan model efek inefisiensi teknis, diketahui bahwa faktor struktural jarak sumber irigasi dan lokasi usahatani berpengaruh positif secara signifikan terhadap inefisiensi usahatani padi. kondisi irigasi berpengaruh terhadap efisiensi usahatani padi, yakni makin jauh jarak sumber irigasi terhadap lahan usahatani padi maka usahatani padi makin tidak efisien. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pengelolaan irigasi masih belum sepenuhnya memenuhi kebutuhan irigasi usahatai padi. lahan yang jauh dari sumber irigasi tidak mendapat jatah irigasi yang sesuai kebutuhan, sehingga produksi padi tidak bisa maksimal. tabel 3. estimasi fungsi produksi stochastic frontier model inefisiensi usahatani padi dengan metode mle keterangan : **= signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan(á) 5% *= signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan(á) 10% ns= tidak signifikan koefisien variabel dummy lokasi desa bernilai positif yang menunjukkan usahatani padi yang dijalankan di kawasan pedesaan lebih inefisien dibanding usahatani padi yang dijalankan kawasan peri urban. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa tekanan terhadap sektor pertanian di kawasan peri urban tabel 2. sebaran efisiensi teknis usahatani padi di d.i. yogyakarta tahun 2013/2014 7 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 mendorong petani menjalankan usahatani lebih serius, sehingga usahatani di kawasan peri urban lebih efisien secara teknis. masyarakat yang bertahan dengan usaha bidang pertanian di kawasan peri urban akan berusaha mengelola sumberdaya yang dimiliki secara optimal agar memberikan sumbangan pendapatan yang layak bagi ekonomi rumah tangganya. pengaruh karakteristik manajerial petani terhadap efisiensi usahatani padi van passel (2006) menyebutkan bahwa faktor karakteristik manajerial petani adalah faktor agen yang terdiri atas umur, pendidikan, pengalaman, trainingpenyuluhan, jender dan sebagainya. hasil analisis model efek inefisiensi menunjukkan bahwa faktor karakteristik manajerial petani yang berpengaruh terhadap inefisiensi teknis adalah variabel umur dan pendapatan luar usahatani. kedua variabel tersebut berkorelasi positif signifikan dengan inefisiensi teknis usahatani padi. sementara itu, pengalaman petani dan dummy akses terhadap kredit berkorelasi negatif dan signifikan terhadap inefisiensi teknis usahatani padi. berdasarkan hasil analisis model efek inefisiensi di atas dapat dijelaskan bahwa semakin tinggi umur dan pendapatan luar usahatani petani, maka usahatani makin tidak efisien. hal ini terjadi karena sebagian besar petani berusia lanjut, termasuk kategori tidak produktif lagi sehingga kemampuan mengelola usahatani sudah turun dan berdampak pada turunnya efisiensi teknis usahatani padi. sementara itu bagi petani yang memiliki sumber pendapatan di luar usahatani, maka pendapatan luar usahatani yang makin tinggi akan menjadi prioritas kegiatan dibanding kegiatan usahatani. dengan demikian kegiatan usahatani akan makin tidak efisien secara teknis. koefisien variabel pengalaman dan dummy akses terhadap kredit bernilai negatif menunjukkan bahwa semakin lama pengalaman yang dimiliki petani maka usahatani yang dijalankan akan makin efisien secara teknis. pengalaman menjalankan usahatani akan memberikan pengetahuan dan keterampilan baik keterampilan teknis maupun manajerial yang dapat meningkatkan kemampuan menjalankan usahatani padi. sementara itu petani yang memiliki akses terhadap kredit akan lebih efisien dibanding petani yang tidak memiliki akses terhadap kredit. kewajiban terhadap pengembalian kredit mendorong petani untuk menjalankan usahatani padi lebih seirus agar dapat menunaikan kewajiban terhadap pengembalian pinjaman kredit yang diambil. hal ini akan berdampak pada perbaikan tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani padi. kesimpulan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi padi adalah luas lahan, penggunaan pupuk organik dan musim tanam. luas lahan dan penggunaan pupuk organik berpengaruh positif terhadap produksi padi. sementara itu, produksi padi musim hujan lebih rendah dibanding musim kemarau. berdasarkan hasil pendugaan model efek inefisiensi teknis, diketahui bahwa faktor struktural, jarak sumber irigasi dan lokasi usahatani, berpengaruh positif secara signifikan terhadap inefisiensi usahatani padi. faktor karakteristik manajerial petani, variabel umur dan pendapatan luar usahatani, berkorelasi positif signifikan dengan inefisiensi teknis usahatani padi. sementara pengalaman petani dan dummy akses terhadap kredit berkorelasi negatif dan signifikan terhadap inefisiensi teknis usahatani padi. dalam upaya peningkatan produktivitas dan efisiensi usahatani padi, maka perlu diperhatikan faktor struktural dan manjerial petani dengan peningkatan keterampilan dan kapasitas manajemen petani melalui pelatihan dan penguatan modal usahatani yang memadai. selain itu, perlu upaya peningkatan luas tanam serta perbaikan 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valent0202@gmail.com pengambilan keputusan petani terhadap penggunaan benih bawang merah lokal dan impor di cirebon, jawa barat abstract a deficiency of shallot seed production causes indonesia could not meet its own local demand yet and thus imports foreign variety from other countries. however, farmer should choose between local and imported seed variety for their farming business activity. the purposes of the study was to analyze farmer decision and factors that determine farmer decision to utilize local and imported seed of shallot. logistic regression was used to answer the research questions. respondents were 60 persons divided into two groups, farmer who utilized local seed and that utilized the imported one. the result showed that the differences in decision making between local and imported farmers were the benefits they sought, while the factors that significantly influence the farmer’s decision to use local seed are scale of land area, seed price, income and market. scale of land area and seed price have negative influence significantly, while income and market give positive influence significantly on farmer decision to utilize conventional seed. keywords: farmer decision, influenced factor, shallot, local and imported seed. intisari adanya keterbatasan produksi benih bawang merah nasional menyebabkan indonesia belum mampu memenuhi kebutuhan benih nasional, sehingga mengimpor benih bawang merah dari negara lain. oleh karena itu petani dihadapkan kepada suatu pilihan yaitu tetap menggunakan benih lokal atau beralih pada benih impor. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengambilan keputusan petani dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani terhadap penggunaan benih bawang merah lokal ataupun impor. metode analisis yang digunakan adalah regresi logistik. responden penelitian terdiri dari 30 petani pengguna benih bawang merah lokal dan 30 petani pengguna benih impor. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan pengambilan keputusan antara petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor adalah pada manfaat yang dicari petani, sedangkan faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap keputusan petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal adalah luas lahan, harga benih, pendapatan, dan pemasaran. luas lahan dan harga benih berpengaruh negatif, sedangkan pendapatan dan pemasaran berpengaruh positif terhadap penggunaan benih. kata kunci: pengambilan keputusan petani, faktor yang berpengaruh, bawang merah, benih lokal dan impor. pendahuluan bawang merah merupakan salah satu komoditas sayuran yang memiliki nilai ekonomis tinggi ditinjau dari sisi pemenuhan konsumsi nasional, sumber penghasilan petani dan potensinya sebagai penghasil devisa negara. doi:10.18196/agr.2125 51 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 selain itu, bawang merah termasuk salah satu komoditas sayuran unggulan nasional yang telah lama diusahakan petani secara intensif. petani bawang merah menggunakan bermacam-macam varietas, baik yang lokal maupun impor. tingginya kebutuhan benih bawang merah baik dalam bentuk benih komersial maupun benih sumber, belum diikuti produksi benihnya. selain itu petani bawang merah di indonesia nampaknya sangat tergantung terhadap benih impor seperti varietas ilokos, super philip dan varietas lain yang berasal dari thailand, india, dan vietnam. padahal benih bawang merah varietas impor yang tersebar di indonesia merupakan bawang merah untuk konsumsi yang disimpan 2-3 bulan. rendahnya produksi benih bawang merah nasional disebabkan belum banyaknya produsen yang mau bergerak di bidang perbenihan bawang merah (indarawati dan padmono, 2001). kendala tersebut disebabkan antara lain: i) usaha perbenihan bawang merah membutuhkan modal yang cukup tinggi, disamping areal dan gudang yang luas; ii) pengetahuan dan ketrampilan sdm terutama dalam produksi benih masih rendah; iii) daya simpan benih bawang merah rendah (2-5 bulan) dengan susut bobot yang tinggi; iv) permasalahan penyimpanan benih dapat diatasi dengan pembentukan benih berupa biji, namun sayangnya ketrampilan ini cukup sulit diaplikasikan pada petani. adanya keterbatasan produksi benih bawang merah nasional menyebabkan indonesia belum mampu memenuhi kebutuhan benih nasional. oleh karena itu indonesia mengimpor benih bawang merah dari beberapa negara seperti philipina, vietnam, dan thailand. dengan hadirnya benih bawang merah impor, petani dihadapkan kepada suatu pilihan yaitu meneruskan usahataninya dengan tetap menggunakan benih varietas lokal atau beralih dari varietas lokal dan kemudian menggunakan benih varietas impor. benih bawang merah impor tidak langsung diterima oleh petani, namun mereka mempunyai pertimbanganpertimbangan tersendiri sebelum menggunakan sesuatu yang baru. akhirnya petani bawang merah terkelompokkan menjadi dua bagian, yaitu petani yang menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal dan petani yang menggunakan benih bawang merah impor. petani sebagai individu pembuat keputusan selalu dipengaruhi oleh ketersediaan sumberdaya rumah tangganya dan juga oleh hubungan sosialnya, yaitu keputusan suatu masyarakat akan mempengaruhi keputusan individu. disamping itu perilaku budidaya juga saling berhubungan dengan perilaku sosial, budaya, ekonomi dan perilaku dari kehidupan masyarakat pedesaan. bentuk interaksi antar faktor-faktor tersebut pada akhirnya merupakan faktor penentu dalam pembuatan keputusan oleh petani (suek, 1994; gilbert dan norman, 1980). terkait dengan alternatif pilihan benih bawang merah yang dihadapi petani, menarik untuk ditelaah bagaimana proses pengambilan keputusan petani dalam penggunaan benih bawang merah lokal dan impor serta faktor-faktor apa saja yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kecamatan gebang dan pabedilan, kabupaten cirebon, provinsi jawa barat. penentuan lokasi penelitian tersebut dengan menggunakan metode purposive sampling dengan dasar pertimbangan kabupaten cirebon merupakan salah satu daerah sentra pengembangan bawang merah terbesar di jawa barat. penelitian dilaksanakan pada bulan november 2014 sampai dengan november 2015. jenis data yang digunakan adalah data primer dan sekunder. data primer diperoleh melalui observasi dan wawancara secara langsung berdasarkan kuesioner kepada responden. penentuan sampel dilakukan secara purposive pada petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor. responden penelitian berjumlah 60 orang yang terdiri dari 30 orang petani pengguna benih lokal dan 30 orang petani pengguna benih impor. data sekunder diperoleh dari hasil penelitian pkht (pusat kajian hortikultura tropika) ipb tahun 2014. analisis data dilakukan dengan menggunakan regresi logistik dan pendugaan parameter fungsi logit dengan menggunakan metode maximum likelihood estimation (mle). fungsi tersebut dirumuskan sebagai berikut: y i = á + â 1 x 1 + â 2 x 2 +â 3 x 3 + â 4 x 4 + â 5 x 5 + â 6 x 6 + â 7 x 7 + â 8 x 8 +ëd dimana : y i = peluang petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal/impor y i = 1 jika petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal 52 jurnal agraris y i = 0 jika petani menggunakan benih bawang merah impor á = intersep x 1 = pengalaman berusahatani bawang merah (tahun) x 2 = luas lahan usahatani (ha) x 3 = status kepemilikan lahan (1=milik, 0=non milik) x 4 = harga benih (rp) x 5 = harga jual produk (rp) x 6 = produktivitas (ton/ha) x 7 = pendapatan (rp) x 8 = pemasaran (1=mudah, 0=sulit) âi = parameter peubah x i ë = parameter peubah dummy hasil dan pembahasan karakteristik responden petani bawang merah karakteristik responden merupakan ciri spesifik dari seseorang seperti umur, tingkat pendidikan, pengalaman usahatani, luas lahan, dan status kepemilikan lahan (tabel 1). penelitian asih (2009) di sulawesi mengungkap bahwa karakteristik berupa umur, pendidikan, dan status usahatani berpengaruh terhadap keterampilan petani dalam mengelola usahatani bawang merah. petani bawang merah baik yang menggunakan benih lokal maupun impor didominasi oleh petani yang berada pada kisaran umur produktif yaitu antara 20 55 tahun. pada umumnya orang-orang yang berusia produktif memiliki semangat yang tinggi untuk mengembangkan usahanya, karena terdorong oleh kebutuhan yang tinggi dan mampu melakukan usahatani bawang merah dengan lebih baik dibandingkan dengan petani yang relatif lebih tua. tingkat pendidikan petani responden baik yang menggunakan benih lokal maupun impor masih didominasi oleh pendidikan sekolah dasar. hal ini berarti bahwa sebagian besar petani responden memiliki tingkat pendidikan formal yang masih rendah. hal ini tentunya akan berpengaruh pada tingkat keberanian mengambil keputusan dan risiko dalam pengelolaan usahatani bawang merah. hal tersebut sesuai dengan penelitian emiria, et. al. (2014) yang menyatakan bahwa keterbatasan dana mengakibatkan banyak petani yang memilih untuk tidak bersekolah lagi dan meneruskan pekerjaan orang tuanya sebagai petani. pada petani bawang merah baik yang menggunakan benih lokal maupun impor, sebagian besar memiliki pengalaman berusahatani antara 1–10 tahun. pengalaman berusahatani menunjukkan lamanya petani berkecimpung dalam usahatani bawang merah. semakin lama pengalaman usahataninya maka dapat disimpulan bahwa petani tersebut sudah memahami teknik budidaya dalam kegiatan usahataninya. lahan merupakan basis dalam kegiatan usahatani yang berperan sebagai salah satu modal dalam pertanian selain tenaga kerja dan kapital. responden petani bawang merah yang menggunakan benih lokal di kecamatan gebang dan pabedilan, kabupaten cirebon, pada umumnya tergolong ke dalam petani berskala menengah dengan pengusahaan lahan antara 0,5 – 1 hektar, sedangkan petani bawang merah yang menggunakan benih impor, sebagian besar tergolong ke dalam petani berskala besar dengan pengusahaan lahan lebih dari 1 hektar. status kepemilikan lahan petani baik yang menggunakan benih lokal maupun impor sebagian besar tabel 1. karakteristik responden petani bawang merah 53 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 lahan garapannya merupakan lahan sewaan. alasan utama petani melakukan sewa tanah adalah karena adanya keterbatasan lahan yang dimilikinya sehingga pada akhirnya untuk dapat melakukan usaha budidaya bawang mereka, mereka mencari lahan sewa dari petani lain. proses pengambilan keputusan penggunaan benih proses pengambilan keputusan petani dalam menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal ataupun impor melalui 5 tahapan, yaitu: pengenalan masalah atau kebutuhan, pencarian informasi, evaluasi alternatif, keputusan pembelian, dan perilaku pasca pembelian. pengenalan masalah atau kebutuhan. proses penggunaan benih bawang merah lokal ataupun impor diawali ketika petani mulai merasakan dan mengenali adanya kebutuhan akan suatu produk benih, dan berusaha untuk memenuhi kebutuhan tersebut (tabel 2). bagi masyarakat di kabupaten cirebon, berusahatani bawang merah sudah menjadi pekerjaan utama bagi mereka. motivasi petani dalam berusahatani bawang merah sangat beragam. pada petani yang menggunakan benih lokal sebagian besar atau sekitar 53,33 persen adalah untuk memperoleh keuntungan; sedangkan pada petani yang menggunakan benih impor, sebagian besar atau sekitar 53,33 persen adalah karena faktor turuntemurun. kebutuhan terhadap benih bawang merah didorong oleh beberapa faktor dan hal ini dipengaruhi oleh motivasi petani dalam menggunakan benih. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pada petani benih lokal dan impor, timbulnya motivasi petani dalam menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal sebagian besar karena kualitasnya yang bagus. manfaat yang dicari petani dalam penggunaan benih bagi petani benih lokal sebagian besar adalah untuk meningkatkan kualitas produksi (56,67%). lain halnya dengan petani benih impor, sebagian besar petani menyatakan bahwa manfaat yang dicari dalam penggunaan benih impor adalah untuk meningkatkan jumlah produksi (90%). menurut ancok (1997), adanya pengetahuan tentang manfaat sesuatu hal akan menyebabkan seseorang bersikap positif terhadap hal tersebut. pencarian informasi. pada tahap ini petani akan melakukan pencarian informasi mengenai keunggulan dan kelemahan benih yang akan dipergunakan pada usahataninya. perolehan informasi akan mempengaruhi persepsi petani bahkan keyakinannya terhadap benih, sehingga pada akhirnya akan mempengaruhi keputusan dalam penggunaan benih. dalam mengusahakan usahataninya para petani menentukan jenis benih yang tabel 2. pengenalan masalah atau kebutuhan petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor 54 jurnal agraris akan digunakannnya selain karena memiliki pengetahuan sendiri, juga sangat dipengaruhi oleh pihak lain. sumber informasi interpersonal yang biasa dimanfaatkan petani untuk memperoleh informasi adalah sesama petani atau orangtua, petugas penyuluh lapangan, pedagang, dan distributor. dari tabel 3 dapat dilihat bahwa petani lain/ kelompok tani (66,67%) menjadi sumber informasi yang paling berpengaruh bagi petani pengguna benih bawang merah lokal. petani dan kelompok tani merupakan sumber informasi yang paling bisa dipercaya oleh petani, karena mereka melihat sendiri produktivitas benih yang digunakan. sementara sumber informasi terbesar petani pengguna benih bawang merah impor, berasal dari diri sendiri (56,67%). hal ini dikarenakan para petani tersebut sudah merasa yakin dengan kualitas benih impor. hal ini sesuai dengan pernyataan setiadi (2010) bahwa informasi yang diperoleh konsumen pada umumnya banyak berasal dari sumber komersial, tetapi informasi paling efektif berasal dari sumber pribadi. evaluasi alternatif. pada tahap ini petani membuat pertimbangan terbaik yang harus diambil dalam memenuhi kebutuhannya dengan cara memilih kriteriakriteria tertentu yang relevan dengan keinginan dan kebutuhan untuk membuat keputusan penggunaan benih. berdasarkan tabel 4, benih bawang merah yang beredar di kabupaten cirebon cukup banyak varietasnya dan bisa dibedakan menjadi benih varietas lokal dan impor. informasi penting yang dicari oleh petani dalam penggunaan benih lokal sebagian besar karena kualitas (83.33 persen); sedangkan untuk benih impor, sebagian besar karena produktivitas (93.33 persen). faktor yang menjadi pertimbangan bagi petani untuk memilih menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal ataupun impor, sebagian besar dikarenakan kebiasaan yang telah dilakukan. keputusan pembelian. pada tahap ini, petani mengambil keputusan mengenai benih apa yang akan tabel 3.sumber informasi yang mempengaruhi penggunaan benih tabel 4. evaluasi alternatif petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor 55 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 digunakan dalam usahataninya (tabel 5). menurut engel et al. (1994), niat pembelian digolongkan menjadi dua kategori yaitu pembelian terencana dan pembelian tidak terencana. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor melakukan pembelian benih sebagian besar secara terencana. petani melakukan pembelian benih secara terencana karena sudah mempunyai jadwal tanam bawang merah yang akan dilakukan pada bulan-bulan tertentu, sehingga perlu adanya stok benih untuk masa tanam berikutnya. pada umumnya para petani bawang membeli benih bawang merah lokal segar yang baru dipanen. penggunaan benih oleh petani di kecamatan gebang dan pabedilan, kabupaten cirebon selain ditentukan oleh diri sendiri, juga dipengaruhi oleh pihak luar. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa bagi petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor, yang berpengaruh dalam proses pembelian benih sebagian besar adalah diri sendiri. dalam proses pembelian, konsumen harus memutuskan dimana memperoleh produk yang diinginkan. sebagian besar petani (60%) memperoleh benih bawang merah lokal dengan cara membeli dari petani bawang merah di kabupaten brebes. para petani tersebut mengakui bahwa benih bawang merah lokal yang berasal dari kabupaten brebes memiliki kualitas yang bagus. petani yang menjual benih berkualitas bagus, walaupun tempatnya jauh dari tempat petani, maka petani akan tertarik untuk membeli benihnya. selain membeli dari petani di kabupaten brebes, ada juga petani yang membeli benih dari petani bawang merah di kabupaten cirebon ataupun dari bandar atau tengkulak. selain membeli, beberapa petani memperoleh benih dengan cara membuat benih sendiri, yaitu dengan menyisihkan sebagian hasil panennya untuk dijadikan benih pada saat musim tanam berikutnya. ada beberapa hal yang menyebabkan petani menggunakan benih sendiri, yaitu karena mereka sudah terbiasa menggunakan benih sendiri dan merasa yakin bahwa benih yang mereka tabel 5. keputusan pembelian petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor 56 jurnal agraris miliki sama hasilnya dengan benih yang dibeli pada petani lain. selain itu karena harga benih yang cukup mahal, sedangkan pembuatan benih tidaklah sulit dan produksinya tidak berbeda jauh dibandingkan benih yang baru. jarak tempat pembelian benih dengan tempat tinggal petani di kecamatan gebang dan pabedilan relatif jauh. pada petani benih lokal, jarak tempat pembelian benih sebagian besar adalah lebih dari 5 km (93,33%). hal ini karena sebagian besar petani pengguna benih lokal membeli benih bawang merah lokal dari petani-petani di kabupaten brebes. begitu pula pada petani benih impor, jarak tempat pembelian sebagian besar adalah lebih dari 5 km (60%). petani benih impor membeli benih impor dari para importir yang letaknya jauh dari tempat tinggal mereka. perilaku pasca pembelian. setelah petani responden menggunakan benih, maka akan timbul suatu perubahan dalam menilai hasil usahataninya dengan berdasarkan pada kenyataan yang sesuai di lapangan (tabel 6). seluruh petani responden yang menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal menyatakan puas dengan benih yang digunakannya. mereka mengaku bahwa benih yang digunakannya memiliki kualitas yang bagus dan juga hasil produksinya yang sesuai dengan keinginan petani. namun lain halnya dengan petani yang menggunakan benih bawang merah impor, hanya 63,33 persen petani yang menyatakan puas dengan benih impor yang digunakannya karena kualitasnya yang bagus. mereka memiliki keluhan karena kualitas benih yang tidak bagus dan pertumbuhannya yang tidak seragam. semakin tinggi tingkat kepuasan petani dalam menggunakan suatu varietas benih, maka akan semakin tinggi pula keinginan petani untuk menggunakan benih tersebut. respon positif petani terhadap benih akan mempengaruhi terhadap penggunaan benih selanjutnya. keadaan konsumen dalam membeli suatu produk sangat dipengaruhi oleh harga produk itu sendiri. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga benih bawang merah baik lokal maupun impor mengalami kenaikan, maka sebagian besar petani masih akan tetap membeli benih tersebut. hal ini karena para petani tersebut sudah sangat yakin dengan kualitasnya yang terjamin. keputusan penggunaan suatu jenis benih juga sangat dipengaruhi oleh ketersediaan benih. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa apabila benih yang akan digunakan tidak tersedia di lapang, maka sebagian besar petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor akan mencari benih tersebut di tempat lain. hal ini berarti bahwa baik petani pengguna benih lokal maupun impor sebagian besar memiliki tingkat loyalitas yang tinggi pada benih yang biasa mereka gunakan, sehingga apabila benih tersebut tidak tersedia di lapang maka mereka akan mencari di tempat lain. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani terhadap penggunaan tabel 6. perilaku pasca pembelian petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor 57 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 benih bawang merah lokal analisis regresi logistik digunakan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani dalam menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal ataupun impor. variabel respon (y) pada analisis ini berupa kategorik, dimana petani bawang merah yang menggunakan benih lokal diberi nilai 1 dan petani bawang merah yang menggunakan benih impor diberi nilai 0. berdasarkan literatur sebelumnya dan atas pertimbangan kenyataan pada lokasi penelitian, ada 8 variabel bebas yang diduga mempengaruhi keputusan petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. kedelapan variabel bebas tersebut adalah pengalaman usahatani, luas lahan, status lahan, harga benih, harga jual, produktivitas, pendapatan, dan pemasaran. untuk melihat ketepatan model digunakan nilai nagelkerke r square sebesar 0,851. nilai ini menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan variabel independen dalam menjelaskan variabel dependen adalah sebesar 0,851 atau 85,1 persen sedangkan sisanya sebesar 14,9 persen dijelaskan oleh variabel lain di luar model. untuk menguji signifikansi dari model dalam memodelkan data digunakan uji kebaikan model atau goodness-of-fit yang dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode hosmerlemeshow (h-l). hasil uji dari model tersebut dengan nilai statistik h-l test adalah 1,229 dan nilai p-value atau signifikansi yang dihasilkan adalah 0,996. nilai p-value lebih besar dari taraf nyata 5 persen, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa model logit tersebut layak untuk digunakan karena secara keseluruhan mampu menjelaskan atau memprediksi keputusan petani dalam menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. hasil dugaan model regresi logistik menunjukkan pada tingkat kepercayaan 95 persen (á=5%) ada empat variabel yang memberikan pengaruh nyata terhadap keputusan petani dalam menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. variabel tersebut adalah luas lahan, harga benih, pendapatan, dan pemasaran. empat variabel lainnya yaitu pengalaman usahatani, status kepemilikan lahan, harga jual, dan produktivitas tidak memberikan pengaruh nyata. hasil pengolahan data untuk melihat variabel bebas yang secara nyata mempengaruhi variabel terikat dengan menggunakan regresi logistik disajikan pada tabel 7. luas lahan. variabel luas lahan memiliki nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,014, sehingga variabel ini berpengaruh signifikan terhadap keputusan petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. variabel luas lahan memiliki nilai koefisien yang negatif, hal ini berarti bahwa peluang petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal berhubungan negatif dengan luas lahan, sehingga semakin luas lahan yang dimiliki petani maka kemungkinan petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal akan semakin kecil. nilai odds ratio pada variabel luas lahan adalah 0,017 yang berarti bahwa setiap adanya peningkatan luas lahan sebesar 1 hektar maka peluang petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal sebesar 0,017 kali (ceteris paribus). rata-rata petani bawang merah yang menggunakan benih lokal memiliki luas lahan seluas 0,81 hektar, sedangkan petani yang menggunakan benih bawang merah impor rata-rata memiliki lahan seluas 1,72 hektar. tabel 7. hasil analisis logit untuk faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan benih bawang merah lokal 58 jurnal agraris hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa petani bawang merah yang menggunakan benih lokal memiliki lahan yang lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan petani yang menggunakan benih impor. petani yang memiliki lahan yang lebih sempit memiliki kecenderungan untuk tetap mempertahankan pola tanam yang sudah ada sebelumnya, yaitu dengan menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal karena alasan besarnya risiko dan ketidakpastian produksi dan pemasaran yang mungkin terjadi pada benih bawang merah impor. pada umumnya petani yang memiliki lahan yang kecil memiliki modal usahatani yang tidak terlalu besar, sehingga peluangnya menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal lebih besar karena harga beli benih lokal lebih murah. harga benih. variabel harga benih memiliki nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,023, sehingga variabel ini berpengaruh signifikan terhadap keputusan petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. variabel harga benih memiliki nilai koefisien yang negatif, hal ini berarti bahwa peluang petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal berhubungan negatif dengan harga benih; semakin tinggi harga benih, kemungkinan petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal akan semakin kecil. nilai odds ratio pada variabel harga benih sebesar 0,999 yang berarti bahwa setiap adanya peningkatan harga benih sebesar rp 1 maka peluang petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal sebesar 0,999 kali (cateris paribus). menurut schiffman dan kanuk (2008), joni et al. (2001), harga merupakan salah satu dari beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi konsumen dalam keputusan membeli benih. demikian juga dengan sumiati (2006) yang menyatakan bahwa salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani menggunakan benih padi adalah harga benih. harga benih benih yang mahal menyebabkan petani tidak mampu membeli benih yang mengakibatkan areal pengusahaan bawang merah cenderung menurun. hal ini sesuai dengan hasil penelitian ginting et al. (2013) yang menunjukkan bahwa koefisien harga benih juga bernilai negatif yang menandakan bahwa semakin tinggi harga benih, maka keinginan petani untuk memperluas areal tanam bawang merah semakin kecil. berdasarkan penelitian, harga bawang merah yang menggunakan benih lokal memiliki nilai terendah sebesar rp 10.000/kg dan harga tertinggi mencapai rp 27.000/kg. sementara itu, harga bawang merah yang menggunakan benih impor memiliki nilai terendah sebesar rp 16.000/kg dan harga tertinggi mencapai rp 35.000/kg. variasi harga benih impor lebih beragam dibandingkan dengan benih lokal. pada umumnya para petani bawang merah mengatakan bahwa harga benih bawang merah lokal yang rendah sebagai alasan mereka menggunakan benih lokal. hanya petani yang memiliki modal besar yang biasanya membeli benih impor. pendapatan. variabel pendapatan berpengaruh signifikan terhadap keputusan petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. variabel pendapatan memiliki nilai koefisien positif, hal ini berarti bahwa peluang petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal berhubungan positif dengan pendapatan, sehingga semakin besar pendapatan yang diterima petani maka peluang petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal juga semakin besar. nilai odds ratio pada variabel pendapatan adalah 1 yang berarti bahwa setiap adanya peningkatan pendapatan sebesar rp 1 maka peluang petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal sebesar 1 kali (cateris paribus). petani bawang merah pengguna benih lokal rata-rata memperoleh pendapatan sebesar rp 31.429.052 sedangkan pendapatan petani pengguna benih impor sebesar rp 77.763.015. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pendapatan petani benih lokal lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan petani benih impor. besarnya nilai pendapatan yang diperoleh petani dari usahatani bawang merah akan menjadi pertimbangan bagi petani dalam mengambil keputusan mengenai input produksi yang akan digunakannya. hal ini sependapat dengan crissman dan hibon (1996) bahwa keputusan petani untuk melakukan pembelian benih berdasarkan pada keuntungan atau pendapatan yang diperoleh selama beberapa kali musim. begitu pula menurut bishop dan toussaint (1989), pendapatan para petani dapat dipengaruhi oleh pemilihan mereka atas hasil-hasil produksi. pemilihan hasil-hasil produksi tersebut dilakukan oleh petani berdasarkan pendapatan yang mereka harapkan dan penjualan hasil produksi yang diusahakan. oleh karena itu sebelum memilih dan mengusahakan suatu komoditi, petani akan mempertimbangkan besar kecilnya pendapatan yang diperoleh dari pengusahaan komoditi tersebut. pemasaran. variabel akses pasar berpengaruh signifikan terhadap keputusan petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. variabel akses pasar memiliki nilai koefisien yang positif, hal ini berarti bahwa peluang petani menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal 59 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 berhubungan positif dengan akses pasar, sehingga semakin mudah akses pasarnya maka peluang petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal juga semakin besar. nilai odds ratio pada variabel akses pasar sebesar 18.199 yang berarti bahwa apabila akses pasarnya mudah maka peluang petani menggunakan benih lokal adalah 18.199 kali lebih besar dibandingkan dengan yang pemasarannya sulit (cateris paribus). benih bawang merah lokal memiliki akses pasar yang lebih mudah. pada umumnya petani menjual hasil panennya kepada tengkulak/pedagang pengumpul tingkat desa. sistem penjualan dilakukan secara borongan ataupun tebas, yaitu berdasarkan taksiran jumlah panen. tingkat harga yang diterima oleh petani berdasarkan pada permintaan pasar dan tingkat produksi bawang merah pada sentra-sentra produksi bawang merah. pada saat panen raya dimana produksi berlimpah, maka harga bawang merah cenderung turun. namun apabila stok produksi relatif rendah dibandingkan dengan permintaan pasar, maka harga bawang merah akan meningkat. berbeda halnya dengan benih bawang merah impor. produksi bawang merah yang menggunakan benih impor apabila memiliki kualitas produksi yang bagus maka bisa dijual kepada eksportir, namun apabila kualitas produksinya jelek maka hanya bisa dijual ke pasar lokal. kemudahan bawang merah untuk dijual berkaitan erat dengan penerimaan pasar dari bawang merah baik bagi petani, pedagang, maupun konsumen. variabel lain. hasil uji regresi logistik menunjukkan bahwa variabel pengalaman usahatani, status kepemilikan lahan, harga jual, dan produktivitas memiliki nilai signifikansi lebih besar dari 0,05. hal ini berarti variabel tersebut tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan untuk ikut menentukan peluang petani dalam menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. berdasarkan kenyataan di lapangan, proses perubahan sikap petani terhadap penggunaan benih bawang merah lokal tidak dipengaruhi oleh pengalaman berusahatani tetapi dipengaruhi oleh bukti yang telah dilihat di lingkungan sekitarnya. petani cenderung mengamati dan menilai hasil dari petani lain yang telah lebih dahulu menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. setelah mengetahui keunggulan benih bawang merah lokal dibandingkan benih impor, maka mereka baru tertarik untuk menggunakan benih lokal. kesimpulan pengambilan keputusan penggunaan benih bawang merah lokal dan impor oleh petani melalui tahap pengenalan kebutuhan, pencarian informasi, evaluasi alternatif, keputusan pembelian, dan evaluasi pasca pembelian. perbedaan pengambilan keputusan antara petani pengguna benih lokal dan impor terdapat pada manfaat yang dicari petani, yakni pada petani pengguna benih lokal untuk meningkatkan kualitas produksi, sedangkan bagi petani pengguna benih impor untuk meningkatkan jumlah produksi. faktor yang berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap keputusan petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal adalah luas lahan, harga benih, pendapatan, dan akses pasar. luas lahan dan harga benih berpengaruh negatif dan signifikan, sedangkan pendapatan dan pemasaran berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap keputusan petani untuk menggunakan benih bawang merah lokal. daftar pustaka ancok, d. 1997. teknik penyusunan skala pengukur. yogyakarta: pusat penelitian kependudukan ugm. asih, d.n. 2009. analisis karakteristik dan tingkat pendapatan usahatani bawang merah di sulawesi tengah. jurnal agroland 16 (1): 53-59. bishop dan toussaint. 1989. pengantar analisis ekonomi pertanian. jakarta: mutiara. crissman, c., and a. hibon. 1996. establishing seed potato prices: concepts, procedures and implications for research and training. working paper, social science department. 1996-1. cip. lima peru. emiria, f. dan h. purwandari. 2014. pengembangan pertanian organik di kelompok tani madya, desa kebonagung, kabupaten bantul, daerah istimewa yogyakarta. jurnal penyuluhan 10 (2). engel, j.f., r.d. blackwell, dan p.w. miniard. 1995. perilaku konsumen jilid 1 (6th ed). jakarta: binarupa aksara. gilbert, e., and d.w. norman. 1980. a general overview of farming system research dalam reading in farming system research and development. westview press. ginting, m., t. sebayang, dan iskandarini. 2013. analisis pengaruh faktor sosial ekonomi petani terhadap luas 60 jurnal agraris tanam bawang merah berdasarkan pendapatan petani di kabupaten dairi. universitas sumatera utara. joni, m.m.a, m.f.r. rubzen, and p.j.batt. 2001. factors influencing a farmer’s decision to purchase seed potatoes in east java. paper presented at the 45th annual conference of the australian agricultural and resource economics society, adelaide, south australia. kotler, p. 2000. marketing management, analysis, planning, implementation control (7th ed). usa: printice hall. schiffman, and kanuk. 2008. perilaku konsumened 7. jakarta: pt. indeks. setiadi n.j. 2003. perilaku konsumen; konsep dan implikasi untuk strategi dan penelitian pemasaran. jakarta: prenada media. suek, j. 1994. faktor-faktor penentu keputusan petani memilih pola agroforestri tradisional antar zona di kawasan timor barat. tesis, program pascasarjana, institut pertanian bogor. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 46-57 article history: submitted : april 10th, 2021 revised : november 19th, 2021 july 8th, 2021 accepted : april 27th, 2022 imelda*, rakhmad hidayat, marisi aritonang social economic agriculture department, tanjungpura university, jl. prof. hadari nawawi, pontianak, indonesia *) correspondence email: imelda@faperta.untan.ac.id the effect of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship on rice farming performance doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11466 abstract entrepreneurship in the agricultural sector produces creative, innovative, and independent farmers who can improve farm performance. therefore, this research aimed to determine the impact of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship on rice farming performance. the method employed in this research was a descriptive method to provide a qualitative description of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship in the performance of rice farming. the research was executed in one of the rice-producing centers in kubu raya regency, west kalimantan. the simple random sampling method was used in selecting farmers with 150 respondents selected as the sample size. furthermore, the research variables involved were individual characteristics, farmer’s entrepreneurship, and rice farming performance. data were collected using questionnaires, interviews, and observations, and analysis was performed using structural equation modeling (sem) with smart-pls software. the results showed that individual characteristics and entrepreneurship had a significant and positive effect on rice farming performance. consequently, it can be concluded to improve rice farming performance, farmers suggested strengthening their characteristics, particularly those related to farming motivation, and enhancing their entrepreneurial characteristics through their task and outcome-oriented behavior. keywords: individual characteristics; farmer’s entrepreneurship; rice farming performance introduction farmers’ competence and entrepreneurial skills are required for the development of the agricultural sector (pindado, sánchez, verstegen, & lans, 2018) and to achieve development in information technology. entrepreneurship is an essential factor that influences farmers in improving farm productivity and market access for agricultural development (opolot, isubikalu, obaa, & ebanyat, 2018). in addition, a creative attitude, risk-taking, hard work, resource utilization, and the ability to identify business opportunities are all entrepreneurial behaviors. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:imelda@faperta.untan.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 47 the effect of individual characteristics and ….. (imelda, hidayat, and aritonang) according to several studies, farmer’s entrepreneurship is essential in determining the success of a business, therefore, entrepreneurial skills need to be improved to tackle challenges in the business environment (deka & goswami, 2020; dias, rodrigues, & ferreira, 2019; fitz-koch, nordqvist, carter, & hunter, 2018; nukpezah & blankson, 2017). the barriers to becoming an entrepreneur are higher in the farm sector than in other sectors (pindado et al., 2018) and the development of entrepreneurial skills alleviates poverty in rural areas (lin, winkler, wang, & chen, 2020; liu, he, & turvey, 2021; naminse & zhuang, 2018; nukpezah & blankson, 2017; si, ahlstrom, wei, & cullen, 2020). therefore, farmers can develop their entrepreneurial skills by registering for entrepreneurship training and obtaining credit loans. farmers who are interested in improving their entrepreneurship skills are willing to pay more (pliakoura, beligiannis, & kontogeorgos, 2020). mostly, farmers have a low level of formal and informal education which may contribute to their poor farming performance. in addition, the level of farmers’ participation in extension services is low and improving farm performance will be hampered by the lack of motivation and entrepreneurial skills. conversely, farmers who have entrepreneurial skills are willing to adopt modern technology and equipment. they also overcome risks and uncertainties in the agricultural sector. several studies have shown that entrepreneurship can increase farm diversification (yoshida, yagi, & garrod, 2020), farmers’ innovation (barzola iza & dentoni, 2020), promote farm activities (deka & goswami, 2020), productivity, creativity, and business orientation. entrepreneurship is an essential aspect of a nation’s economy that drives the economic growth and development. as a result, the increasing of entrepreneurship rises the economic growth (ratten, 2018). the government is always interested to improve farming performance; therefore, the best action is required to develop the agricultural sector and enhance farmers’ entrepreneurial skills (dobryagina, 2020). all this time, the governments’ focus has been more on the on-farm approach to increasing farm productivity. studies on farmers’ internal conditions, especially farmer’s entrepreneurship, have not been analyzed to support farm performance success. therefore, research on the effect of individual characteristics and farmer’s entrepreneurship on rice farming performance is required. this research was expected to contribute information about the role of farmer’s entrepreneurship in improving the performance of rice farming, namely increasing farm productivity, market expansion, and farmers’ competitiveness. research method the principal method used in this research was a descriptive method for gathering necessary information, identifying problems, evaluating, and determining future decisions. in this research, a descriptive approach was used to provide a qualitative description of rice farming entrepreneurship characteristics and performance. the research was carried out in one of the rice-producing centers in kubu raya regency, west kalimantan. in 2019, the rice harvesting area in the kubu raya regency was 39,017.30 ha, with a yield of 116,454.98 tons. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 48 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research rice farming spread in several regions in kubu raya regency with the highest production in sungai kakap district, batu ampar district, and kubu district contributing 39.07%, 16.96%, and 14.38% of total rice production in kubu raya regency respectively. questionnaires and interviews with farmers were performed to collect primary data which include individual characteristics (x1), farmer’s entrepreneurship (x2), and rice farming performance (y). the number of samples was determined using the hair formula because the population size was unknown. furthermore, hair, black, blac, babin, & anderson2010) stated that the minimum sample ratio is 10:1, meaning that a minimum of 10 samples is required for each independent variable studied. the sample size was determined by multiplying the number of indicators by 10 resulting in 150 respondents, and determination of the sample was done using a simple random sampling method. descriptive analysis was used to qualitatively describe the individual characteristics and entrepreneurship of rice farming in kubu raya regency. individual characteristics of farmers include education, farming experience, motivation, perceptions, and desire to do business. farmer’s entrepreneurship characteristics namely future-oriented, task and outcome-oriented, innovative, self-confident, hard-workers, risk-takers, and independent. rice farming performances include increased farm productivity, market expansion, and competitive ability. the data was quantified using a likert scale ranging from very good (score 5), good (score 4), average (score 3), bad (score 2) to very bad (score 1). the effect of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship on rice farming performance was analyzed using sem with smart-pls software. the hypothesis proposed in this study states that individual characteristics (x1) and entrepreneurial characteristics (x2) have a significant effect on rice farming performance (y) in kubu raya regency. result and discussions individual characteristics and farmer’s entrepreneurship the descriptive analysis of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship on rice farming performance are presented in table 1. according to table 1, the overall individual characteristics of rice farmers were in a good category. this means that farmers have a good education, farming experience, farming motivation, perception, and desire to do business. furthermore, highly motivated and educated farmers have a better chance of increasing farming productivity and performance (paltasingh & goyari, 2018) while experienced farmers find it easier to farm and implement strategies that improve farm performance. farmers’ perceptions of how farming was implemented include counselling activities, technological innovation features, and information media that affect farming performance. the overall entrepreneurial characteristics of rice farmers were in a good category. this indicates that farmers were good future-oriented, task and outcome oriented, innovative, selfconfident, hard workers, risk-takers, and independent. farm entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial skills can improve farm management (mcekwee, 2006) and are also perceived http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 49 the effect of individual characteristics and ….. (imelda, hidayat, and aritonang) as the best strategy to alleviate poverty (díaz-pichardo, cantú-gonzález, lópez-hernández, & mcelwee, 2012). the overall rice farming performance was in a good category which means that farmers can increase farm productivity, market expansion, and competitive ability. table 1. individual characteristics, farmer’s entrepreneurship and rice farming performance in kubu raya regency measurement indicator respondent answers (%) 5 very good 4 good 3 average 2 bad 1 very bad individual characteristics (x1) farmer’s education (x1.1) 21 49 22 7 1 farming experience (x1.2) 13 39 27 21 0 farming motivation (x1.3) 31 54 12 3 0 farmer’s perceptions (x1.4) 36 53 8 3 0 farmer’s desire to do business (x1.5) 18 66 14 2 0 farmer’s entrepreneurship (x2) future-oriented (x2.1) 17 44 21 13 5 task and outcome-oriented (x2.2) 14 55 21 10 0 innovative (x2.3) 17 54 27 2 0 self-confident (x2.4) 20 55 23 2 0 hard worker (x2.5) 6 41 38 14 1 risk-taker (x2.6) 9 53 30 7 1 independent (x2.7) 7 42 37 14 0 rice farming performance (y) increased farm productivity (y1) 10 55 32 3 0 market expansion (y2) 9 50 34 7 0 competitive ability (y3) 9 36 30 25 0 effect of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship on rice farming performance preliminary research model the effect of farmers’ characteristics and entrepreneurial characteristics on farm performance was analyzed using sem pls (structural equation model partial least square). this model consists of two exogenous latent variables, namely individual characteristics (x1) and farmer’s entrepreneurship (x2), and one endogenous latent variable, rice farming performance (y). evaluation of the measurement model (outer model) this evaluation aimed to ensure that each construct and indicator used was proven reliable and valid by examining the convergent and discriminant validity. convergent validity uses three measurements, namely (i) standardized loading factor, (ii) composite reliability (cr), and (iii) average variance extracted (ave). the results of the sem pls model analysis are described in figure 1. the standardized loading factor shows the magnitude of the correlation between the indicator item and the construct with the loading factor value ≥ 0.5 considered valid. based on the pls results (figure 1), all indicators were valid with a loading factor value ≥ 0.5, which shows that all indicators had a strong correlation with the construct. subsequently, the next http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 50 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research step was to ensure that composite reliability (cr) and average variance extract (ave) values meet the criteria if cr is above 0.7 and ave is above 0. figure 1. sem pls result analysis of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship effect on rice farming performance in kubu raya regency table 2 shows that all the cr values of the construct were satisfactory, which means that the indicators consistently measure the construct. the ave value indicates the best measure of convergent validity, meaning that the construct variable can explain most of the indicators’ variants. table 2. constructive reliability test of individual characteristics, farmer’s entrepreneurship and rice farming performance in kubu raya regency construct ave composite reliability cronbach's alpha x1 (individual characteristics) 0.560 0.862 0.801 x2 (entrepreneurship characteristics) 0.526 0.885 0.847 y (rice farming performance) 0.713 0.882 0.799 the following construct reliability test was to evaluate the discriminant validity by examining cross-loading and comparing the ave root value with an inter-construct conversion. table 3 shows the cross-loading values and illustrates that almost all indicators had a higher value with each construct than the coefficient value of the indicators in the construction block in the other column. as a result, each indicator in the block serves as the constructor of the construct in the column. the next check proves that the square root of ave for each construct was higher than its correlation with other constructs. based on table 4, the square root of ave and correlation between constructs can explain that the root of ave for construct x1 (individual characteristics) is 0.748, while the maximum correlation of x1 with other constructs is 0.677, therefore, the square root of ave construct x1 was higher than the value of the correlation http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 51 the effect of individual characteristics and ….. (imelda, hidayat, and aritonang) of other constructs. this value shows that other discriminant validity requirements were fit. other constructs also show that the square root of ave was higher than its correlation construct. table 3. cross loading of individual characteristics, farmer’s entrepreneurship and rice farming performance in kubu raya regency x1 x2 y farmer education (x1.1) 0.828 0.607 0.498 farming experience (x1.2) 0.538 0.356 0.275 farming motivation (x1.3) 0.833 0.616 0.475 farmer perceptions (x1.4) 0.751 0.446 0.306 farmer desire to do farm business (x1.5) 0.755 0.458 0.505 future-oriented (x2.1) 0.357 0.527 0.260 task and outcome-oriented (x2.2) 0.671 0.829 0.500 innovative (x2.3) 0.637 0.766 0.391 self-confidence (x2.4) 0.680 0.701 0.361 hard work (x2.5) 0.373 0.783 0.483 risk-lovers (x2.6) 0.401 0.721 0.453 independent (x2.7) 0.340 0.714 0.423 increased farm productivity (y1) 0.531 0.488 0.821 market expansion (y2) 0.489 0.535 0.871 competitive ability (y3) 0.422 0.430 0.840 table 4. the square root of ave and correlation between the individual characteristics, farmer’s entrepreneurship and rice farming performance in kubu raya regency variable construct square root of ave correlation between constructs x1 x2 y x1 (individual characteristics) 0.748 1.000 0.677 0.573 x2 (entrepreneurship characteristics) 0.725 0.677 1.000 0.577 y (rice farming performance) 0.844 0.573 0.577 1.000 inner model (structural model) the first step was to observe the significance of the relationship between constructs which was deduced from (i) r2 value, (ii) path coefficient, and (iii) t-statistics. the value of r2 for the construct “rice farming performance” was 0.395 indicating that the rice farming performance variables that the individual characteristics and farmer’s entrepreneurship account for is 39.5%, with the rest explained by other factors outside this model. subsequently, the value of the path coefficient and t-statistics of each construct was tested. according to table 5, it was observed that individual characteristics and farmer’s entrepreneurship affect rice farming performance. furthermore, individual characteristics variables were significant and had a positive effect on rice farming performance. this was deduced from the value of the “path coefficient” which was 0.337. the value of “t statistics” was 3.373, with a “p-value” of 0.001. farmer’s entrepreneurship variables were also significant and had a positive effect on rice farming performance; this can be seen from the value of the “path coefficient” which was 0.349. the value of “t statistics” was 3.199, with a “p-value” equal to 0.002. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 52 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 5. path coefficients of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship effect on rice farming performance in kubu raya regency original sample sample mean standard deviation t statistics p values x1 → y 0.337 0.349 0.100 3.373 0.001* x2 → y 0.349 0.339 0.109 3.199 0.002* df=n-k (150-3=147), n=sample, k= variable (construct) *significant at the 1% level effect of individual characteristics on the rice farming performance the results showed that the farmers’ characteristics increase rice farming performance. this indicates that the better characteristics of farmer such as education, farming experience, farming motivation, farmers’ perceptions, and desire to do farm business will improve the farm performance. furthermore, formal, and informal farmers’ education plays a role in increasing productivity, profits, and farm household performance (paltasingh & goyari, 2018; rahman, nielsen, khan, & ankamah-yeboah, 2020). educated farmers can improve entrepreneurship behavior (khokhar, 2019; pindado et al., 2018), influencing the farmers risk attitude (ahmad, afzal, & rauf, 2019; fahad & wang, 2018; meraner & finger, 2019) and risk management adoption (adnan et al., 2021; thi lan huong, shun bo, & fahad, 2017). farmers’ experience has a positive effect on increase in farm productivity and performance (rahman et al., 2020; ume, enete, onyekuru, & opata, 2020), determining farmer risk attitude (ahmad et al., 2019), and increasing the adoption of risk strategy (thi lan huong et al., 2017). the role of farmers’ motivation increases sustainable agricultural practices (bopp, engler, poortvliet, & jara-rojas, 2019; hammond et al., 2017; jambo, groot, descheemaeker, bekunda, & tittonell, 2019; mellon-bedi, descheemaeker, hundie-kotu, frimpong, & groot, 2020), especially for financial motivation, which can increase agricultural entrepreneurship (dobryagina, 2020). farmers’ perception is also essential however, even if the farmer does not have good perceptions, it does not prevent the farmer from becoming an entrepreneur (arafat, saleem, dwivedi, & khan, 2020). based on the analysis results, the variable of farming motivation (x1.3 = 0.833) plays the dominant role in constructing individual farmer characteristics, which means that if farmers had better farming motivation, they can improve their rice farming performance. in other words, farmers must increase their farming motivation so that it is easy for the farmer to absorb information and technological developments, leading to improved rice farming performance. effect of farmer’s entrepreneurship on the rice farming performance the analysis results described that the farmer’s entrepreneurship characteristics had a positive effect on rice farming performance. this indicates that the better entrepreneurial characteristics of farmer such as future-oriented, task and outcome-oriented, innovative, selfconfident, hard worker, risk-taker, and independent will improve rice farming performance. this result was in line with several other research that show farmer’s entrepreneurship behavior can affect farming performance (hassink, hulsink, & grin, 2016; morris, henley, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 53 the effect of individual characteristics and ….. (imelda, hidayat, and aritonang) & dowell, 2017; yessoufou, blok, & omta, 2018). furthermore, self-confidence, optimism, hope, and resilience are characteristics to measure psychological capital that affect entrepreneurship development (chipfupa & wale, 2018). farmers’ courage in taking risks and their orientation in their tasks and results are characteristics that build entrepreneurship behavior in farmers (asmit & koesrindartoto, 2015; deka & goswami, 2020). futureoriented, confident, and innovative attitudes also develop farmers’ entrepreneurship behavior (asmit & koesrindartoto, 2015; deka & goswami, 2020; jia & desa, 2020). task, relations, and change-oriented is positively related to entrepreneurship (demircioglu & chowdhury, 2021). farms with greater risk and larger farm capital generally require higher farmer’s entrepreneurship to optimize their farm performance. even if the farmer is risk-averse, it will encourage the farmer to become an entrepreneur (hsieh, parker, & van praag, 2017). entrepreneurial behavior is essential in the field of farming and agribusiness (ume et al., 2020), agro-tourism (yuan, liu, ju, & li, 2017), and sme activities (alzaghal & mukhtar, 2017; auwal, mohamed, shamsudin, sharifuddin, & ali, 2020) and it is reflected by a proactive attitude, results-oriented, and commitment to facing competitors. based on the analysis results, the task and outcome-oriented variables (x2.2 = 0.829) play the most dominant role in constructing farmer’s entrepreneurship. this shows that the farmer’s better task and outcome-oriented performance will improve the rice farming performance. furthermore, the entrepreneurial character of job-oriented farmers and optimism about the results will have a positive influence on improving the performance of rice farming. conclusion individual characteristics and entrepreneurship had a significant and positive influence on rice farming performance; this indicates that if individual characteristics and farmer’s entrepreneurship were improved, there will be an enhancement in the rice farming performance. therefore, farmers can increase rice farming performance by improving individual characteristics, mostly related to farming motivation and entrepreneurial skills, through a task and outcome-oriented behavior. the government plays an essential role in enhancing rice farming performance through non-formal education, counseling, mentoring, and entrepreneurial training. furthermore, recommendations for further research include utilizing a larger sample size to improve the model and adding other variables related to individual characteristics and farmer’s entrepreneurship to determine the most suitable model for rice farming performance. acknowledgments: we appreciate the funding research provided by the agriculture faculty, tanjungpura university. we'd also want to thank anonymous reviewers for their recommendations and useful comments. author contributions: i: designed the work idea, collected data, analyzed data, draft the article and responded to reviewer comments; rh: review the literature, collected data, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 54 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research analyzed data, draft and editing the article. ma: collected data, analyzed data, draft and editing the article. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest reference adnan, k. m. m., ying, l., sarker, s. a., yu, m., eliw, m., sultanuzzaman, m. r., & huq, m. e. 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(2017). a study on farmers’ agriculture related tourism entrepreneurship behavior. procedia computer science, 122, 743–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.11.432 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 248-260 article history: submitted : august 4th, 2021 revised : november 20th, 2022 october 6th, 2022 accepted : november 28th, 2022 penggawa pietra pramananda1, amzul rifin2,*, and dahlia nauly3 1 pt bank central asia, indonesia 2 department of agribusiness, faculty of economics and management, ipb university, indonesia 3 faculty of agriculture, university of muhammadiyah jakarta, indonesia *) correspondence email: amzul@apps.ipb.ac.id the effect of domestic consumption on natural rubber farmgate price in indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12480 abstract the decline in natural rubber farmgate prices in recent years directly impacted indonesia’s natural rubber market. in response to this phenomenon, the government plans to increase natural rubber domestic consumption to raise indonesia’s rubber price. this study aimed to determine the effect of increasing natural rubber domestic consumption on natural rubber farmgate prices and analyze other factors those influence it. the error correction model was used to identify the variables that significantly affect indonesia’s natural rubber farmgate price. the data used in this study were monthly data from january 2012 to december 2017. results showed that natural rubber domestic consumption did not significantly affect the indonesia natural rubber farmgate price. however, in the long run, indonesia’s natural rubber farmgate price was influenced by the previous period of indonesia’s natural rubber prices, world natural rubber prices, world crude oil prices, and exchange rates. while in the short run, indonesia’s natural rubber farmgate price was influenced by the previous period of indonesia’s natural rubber prices, world natural rubber prices, and exchange rate. keywords: domestic consumption; error correction model; natural rubber farmgate price introduction natural rubber is one of the major commodities in agricultural sector in indonesia. almost 85 percent of the producers are small-scale farmers who depend their livelihoods on the commodity (ministry of agriculture, 2017). indonesian natural rubber is also the prime commodity of indonesian exports. the export of natural rubber varies in type, but the most common export is technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20. in 2019, indonesia’s largest natural rubber exports were technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 (hs40012220), which amounts to 91.3 percent of indonesia's total natural rubber exports (bps-statistics indonesia, 2018). in 2017, indonesia also succeeded in exporting natural rubber with a total export value of 5.1 billion us dollars (un comtrade, 2019). recently the farmgate price of natural rubber has decreased considerably, which is mainly caused by the declining world price (figure 1). indonesia depends immensely on the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:amzul@apps.ipb.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 249 the effect of domestic consumption on natural….. (pramananda, rifin, and nauly) international market since almost 81 percent of its natural rubber production is exported (ministry of agriculture, 2017). the decrease in natural rubber farmgate prices has caused economic and social problems among small-scale rubber farmers (nugraha, alamsyah, & sahuri, 2018). erlina, koestiono, hanani, & syafrial (2019) also indicated that the decrease in farmgate rubber price significantly affects the activity and production decisions of both farmer and farmer’s group. in addition, tongkaemkaew & chambon (2018) revealed that the decrease in natural rubber prices would cause labor migration to the industrial or service sector. meanwhile, jin, min, huang, & waibel (2021) revealed that when natural rubber prices decline, farmers in the mekong region of china diversify their income to nonagricultural activities. farmers also stop tapping the rubber in some cases and eventually shift to other plants (ali & manoj, 2020). however, mahdi & yonariza (2017) indicated that the minimum farmgate price of idr 8,000 per kilogram of natural rubber is still profitable for farmers. figure 1. natural rubber farmgate and international price, january 2012-december 2017 source: bps-statistics indonesia (2018) some research indicated that the indonesian domestic rubber price is integrated with the international price. therefore, the government of indonesia implements two policies to increase the natural rubber farmgate price. the first is to limit natural rubber exports, which cooperate with the two other producing countries, thailand and malaysia. the policy is called the agreed export tonnage scheme (aets), in which the three countries agreed to limit their natural rubber export in some agreed periods. the second policy is increasing the domestic consumption of natural rubber. the government boosts the domestic consumption of natural rubber by using the materials in infrastructure projects such as asphalt mixture, ports, and other activities. some research indicated that the indonesian domestic rubber price is integrated with the international price. indonesian domestic natural rubber price has a long-run market 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 ja nu ar y m ay se pt em be r ja nu ar y m ay se pt em be r ja nu ar y m ay se pt em be r ja nu ar y m ay se pt em be r ja nu ar y m ay se pt em be r ja nu ar y m ay se pt em be r 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 u sd /k g id r/ kg fargate international http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 250 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research integration with national rubber prices in china, japan, and south korea (purnomowati, darwanto, widodo, & hartono, 2015). meanwhile, in singapore, the market integration occurred in the short and long-run, which is similar to suryadi, sahara, & hasbullah (2018) research. it indicates that the singapore natural rubber price determines indonesian domestic natural rubber price. in order to increase the natural rubber farmgate price, the government of indonesia has implemented several programs to increase the domestic consumption of natural rubber. the policy’s objective is to increase the demand for natural rubber and eventually increase the natural rubber farmgate price. the government bought natural rubber directly from farmers at a set price and utilized the natural rubber for several infrastructure projects. limited literature has analyzed the determinants of natural rubber farmgate price, and most literature deals with market integration between domestic and international natural rubber prices (kaewsompong, sriboonchitta, maneejuk, & yamaka, 2016; purnomowati et al., 2015; suryadi et al., 2018). fong, khin, & lim (2020) analyzed the determinants of the domestic price of natural in thailand, indonesia, malaysia, and vietnam using annual data and panel cointegration method. the authors found that consumption affects domestic prices besides other variables such as production, shanghai natural rubber price, crude oil price, and synthetic rubber price. kopp, dalheimer, alamsyah, yanita, & brümme (2019) found that the price of natural rubber, synthetic rubber, and crude oil was cointegrated or had a long-run relationship. in india, melba & shivakumar (2016) revealed that natural rubber price is affected by future price, international price, and synthetic rubber price. in indonesia, the natural rubber export price is affected by international rubber price, export tariff, exchange rate, domestic consumption, export volume, and global crisis affected (al kautsar, 2014; daulika, peng, & hanani, 2020). at the farmer’s level arifin (2005), masliani (2020); and usman, wardhana, & istiqamah (2022) and indicated that changes in the international price of natural rubber at the processing level are not perfectly transmitted to farmgate price, especially when the price increase. the traders and rubber factories keep the profit from the price increase. kopp & sexton (2021) added that natural rubber buyer has strong market power and the farmers were double marginalized causing the natural rubber farmgate price tend to fluctuate in favor of the buyer. in malaysia, khin, bin, keong, yie, & liang (2019) revealed that production, domestic consumption, crude oil price, and shanghai natural rubber prices affected the malaysian natural price. however, the exchange rate did not significantly affect the malaysian natural rubber price. meanwhile, ramli, noor, sarmidi, said, & azam (2019) and ramli (2019) indicated that natural rubber in the main producer countries, such as thailand, indonesia, and malaysia, were interelated. it implies that the change in natural rubber prices in one country will impact other countries. this article differs from the previous article, which analyzes the natural rubber farmgate price, while other articles mostly focus on export price and price integration. in addition, the analysis focusess on the effect of domestic consumption of natural rubber using monthly data. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 251 the effect of domestic consumption on natural….. (pramananda, rifin, and nauly) in terms of model, this article utilized a similar approach to other articles which used time series analysis. research method the data used in this research were secondary data from several sources. the time series monthly data from january 2012 to december 2017 was used. the data included the indonesian natural rubber prices, domestic production and consumption of natural rubber data, the exchange rate of idr to usd, world oil prices, and world natural rubber prices. data were obtained from statistics indonesia, bank indonesia, world bank, indonesian rubber companies association (gapkindo), international rubber study group (irsg), and other institutions related to previous studies. various literature studies were also sourced from books, journals, and articles from the ipb university library and the internet. the quantitative methods were applied to determine whether the indonesian natural rubber domestic consumption level and other factors affected the indonesian natural rubber farmgate prices. the model utilized was the error correction model (ecm), which consists of three steps. the first step was testing stationarity then followed by testing cointegration model with engel granger cointegration test. it constructs residuals (errors) to identify whether unit roots were present, using augmented dickey-fuller test or another, similar test. if the residuals was stationary than it can be concluded that the variables are cointegrated. this research model used the natural logarithmic equation (ln) to equalize the units on each variable, so the slope coefficient 𝑎1 shows the elasticity of the dependent variable to the independent variable. the model was calculated using the ordinary least square (ols) method, and the long-term equation was formulated as equation 1: lfpt=a0+a1lnfpt-1+a2lnintt+a3lnprodt+a4lnconst+a5lnexportt+ a6lnexcht+a7lnoilt+ut (1) the short-term equation model was formulated as equation 2: ∆lnfpt=b0+b1∆lnfpt-1+b2∆lnconst+b3∆lnprodt+b4∆lnintt+ b5∆lnexportt+b6∆lnexcht+b7∆lnoilt+γut-1+et (2) while, ∆ was first difference; lnfpt was natural rubber farmgate price month t (idr/kg); lnfpt-1 was natural rubber farmgate price in previous month t (idr/kg); lnconst was natural rubber consumption in month t (ton); lnprodt was natural rubber production in month t (ton); lnintt was world natural rubber prices in month t (usd/kg); lnexportt was indonesia natural rubber exports volume in month t (ton); lnexcht was exchange rate rupiah to us dollar in month t (idr/usd); lnoilt was world crude oil prices in month t (usd/bbl); et was error term; γ was error term coefficient; and ut-1 was error correction term. the considerably variable of this research was domestic natural rubber consumption (lnconst). since the domestic consumption increase, it will raise the natural rubber farmgate price. meanwhile, the international natural rubber price, international oil price, and the exchange rate will positively affect the natural rubber farmgate price. on the other hand, domestic natural rubber production and natural rubber export will negatively affect the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 252 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research natural rubber farmgate price. in addition, the lag of natural rubber farmgate prices can positively or negatively affect the natural rubber farmgate price. the sign of the error correction coefficient (γ) should be negative. results and discussion indonesian natural rubber condition indonesia is the second-largest producer of natural rubber in the world after thailand. indonesia's total natural rubber production reached 3.4 million tons in 2019 (figure 2) and has increased since 1990-2019, with average production growth of around 3.7 percent (food and agriculture organization [fao], 2019). the average increase is contributed by the average growth of a harvested area of 2.6 percent and the increase in productivity of 1.6 percent in 1999-2019 (fao, 2019). figure 2. indonesia’s natural rubber production, 1990-2019 source: bps–statistics indonesia (2020) the center of natural rubber production in indonesia consist of 5 provinces. south sumatra has the highest contribution to the total natural rubber production, with around 28 percent, followed by north sumatra at 12 percent, riau at 10 percent, jambi at 9 percent, and west kalimantan at 8 percent in 2019 (bps–statistics indonesia, 2020). based on ownership status, the production and harvested area of natural rubber plantations in indonesia was dominated by smallholder plantations. in 2019, 88.7 percent of the natural produced and 88.9 percent of the harvested area were dominated by smallholders (bps–statistics indonesia, 2020). the consumption of natural rubber in indonesia is still low indonesia only consumes approximately 20 percent of the total production, while the remaining 80 percent was exported. rubber is a commodity that cannot directly be consumed. commonly, the demand 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 20 11 20 12 20 13 20 14 20 15 20 16 20 17 20 18 20 19 m ill io n to ns http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 253 the effect of domestic consumption on natural….. (pramananda, rifin, and nauly) for large amounts of natural rubber is for industrial needs. natural rubber will be processed through several processes to become more valuable goods. the growth of natural rubber consumption in indonesia during 2002-2016 has a positive trend, with an average increase of 10 percent annually (figure 3). compared to 2002, domestic consumption increased four times in 2019. in 2002, only 8.9 percent of natural rubber produced was consumed domestically, and the number increased to 18.6 percent in 2019. most of the natural rubber consumption was used for the tire industry, shoes, and gloves, and product diversification is still relatively limited (perdana, 2019). figure 3. indonesia’s domestic consumption of natural rubber, 2002-2019 source: international rubber study group (2021) indonesia typically exports three main products of natural rubber, such as technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 (hs 40012220), technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 10 (hs 40012210), and ribbed smoked sheet (rss) rubber grade 1 (40012110). these products which 99 percent of indonesia’s natural rubber export value in 2019 (bps– statistics indonesia, 2020). meanwhile, technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 (hs 40012220) was the largest natural rubber exported product. this product contributed 91.3 percent of indonesia’s total value export of natural rubber products in 2019 (bps–statistics indonesia, 2020). indonesia is the leading exporter of technically specified rubber (hs 400122). in 2019, indonesia contributed 38.8 percent of the world’s total tsnr export, followed by thailand at 23.4 percent and malaysia at 9.6 percent (un comtrade, 2019). the average of technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 export value from 2010 until 2019 decreased by 3.1 percent annually (figure 4). meanwhile, the average export quantity during the same period increased by 1 percent annually (figure 4). this indicated that the exporting price of technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) fluctuates over the years and moves in the same pattern as the international price of natural rubber. 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 th ou sa nd t on s http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 254 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 4. indonesia’s tsnr 20 export value and quantity, 2010-2019 source: international trade center (2021) the major export destination of indonesia’s technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 in 2019 was the usa with 22 percent, followed by japan at 21 percent and china at 9 percent (figure 5). these three countries already contributed 50 percent of indonesia’s technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 total exports. oktora & firdani (2019) revealed that indonesia highly depends on importing countries for export, especially china. a slowdown economy of china will affect indonesia’s tsnr export to china. technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 is mainly used for raw tire materials, and many tire companies are located in the three countries. figure 5. indonesia’s tsnr 20 main export destination, 2019 source: international trade center (2021) the effect of domestic consumption on natural rubber farmgate price the unit root test indicated that all the variables were stationary in the first level or i(1) at a 10 percent significant level. it was indicated by the p-value of all the variables in the first 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 m ill io n to ns bi lli on u sd quantity value usa 22% japan 21% china 9% india 8%korea, republic of 7% turkey 3% canada 3% brazil 4% germany 2% romania 1% taipei, chinese 1% latvia 1% poland 2% mexico 1% others 15% http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 255 the effect of domestic consumption on natural….. (pramananda, rifin, and nauly) difference was less than 0.1 or 10% (table 1). then the cointegration test showed that the residual was stationary at the level form, indicating a long-run relationship between the variables (table 1). table 1. unit root and cointegration test variables level first difference adf p-value adf p-value farmgate price (lnfp) -0.820 0.358 -6.751*** 0.000 domestic consumption (lncons) 0.110 0.714 -11.009*** 0.000 production (lnprod) 2.323 0.995 -1.677* 0.088 international price (lnint) -2.103** 0.035 -5.580*** 0.000 export (lnexp) 0.417 0.801 -14.991*** 0.000 exchange rate (lnexch) 1.968 0.988 -5.991*** 0.000 oil price (lnoil) -0.767 0.381 -5.916*** 0.000 residual -6.760*** 0.000 note: ***, **, * significant at the 1% , 5% and 10% level, respectively two equations were calculated, i.e., the long-run and the short-run equation. in the long-run and short-run equation, the domestic consumption variable did not significantly affect the natural rubber farmgate price (table 2). the result indicated that the government policy towards increasing domestic consumption of natural rubber would not effectively increase the natural rubber farmgate price. this was caused since the current domestic consumption was relatively smaller than export. furthermore, despite being the world’s second-largest natural rubber producer, indonesia is a price taker rather than a price maker. this result proves that the significant variable which affected natural rubber farmgate price was external variables, such as international price, rather than domestic or internal variables. therefore, increasing domestic consumption of natural rubber will not raise the farmgate prices since the low percentage of domestic consumption. the increase in domestic consumption will only affect natural rubber export prices (al kautsar, 2014; daulika et al., 2020) but not farmgate prices. table 2. long-run and short-run estimation results variablesa long-run coefficient short-run coefficient farmgate price previous month (lnfpt-1) 0.610 *** 0.637*** domestic consumption (lncons) -0.042 0.003 domestic production (lnprod) 0.015 -0.001 international price (lnint) 0.191*** 0.258*** export (lnexport) 0.004 0.024 exchange rate (lnexch) 0.191** 0.571** oil price (lnoil) 0.081*** 0.082 error correction -0.891*** constant 1.136 0.001 r2 0.963 0.515 f-stat 231.428*** 8.088*** note: ***, **, * significant at the 1% , 5% and 10% level, respectively a the variables in the short-run are in the first difference form http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 256 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research several variables were significant in the long-run and short-run, namely the lag of natural rubber farmgate price, the international price of natural rubber, and the exchange rate. meanwhile, the oil price was only significant in the long-run. the international price of natural rubber significantly affected the indonesian natural rubber farmgate price in the longrun, with coefficients of 0.191 and 0.258 in the short-run. this result indicated that the international price of rubber would be more sensitive to changes in the natural rubber farmgate price in short-run than the long-run. the international price affected the indonesian natural rubber farmgate price since most of them were exported. therefore, indonesia depends on the international market. the recent low farmgate price was caused by the low natural rubber international price (suryadi et al., 2018). the same case also occurred in other commodities, such as cocoa beans. the cocoa bean farmgate price was influenced by its international price (rifin, 2015) and, in the case of palm oil, between domestic and international cpo prices (nakajima, 2012). the natural rubber farmgate price was sensitive to the exchange rate changes both in the long-run and short-run. a depreciation of idr to usd will increase the competitiveness of indonesian natural rubber in the export market, which finally increase the natural rubber farmgate price (al kautsar, 2014; daulika et al., 2020; khin, chau, & yean, 2016). butt, ramakrishnan, loganathan, & chohan (2020) even found a bi-directional relationship between the price of natural rubber and the nominal exchange rate in malaysia. a different result was found by khin et al. (2019) that the exchange rate did not significantly affect the malaysian natural rubber price (smr20). international oil price was significant in the long-run affecting the natural rubber farmgate price. oil was used as a raw material for synthetic rubber which was considered to be the substitute for natural rubber. high oil prices will increase the production cost of synthetic rubber, causing producers to shift to natural rubber (fong et al., 2020). this shift increases the demand for natural rubber and farmgate price. fong et al. (2020); mdludin, applanaidu, & abdullah (2016); and zhang & qu (2015) for the case of natural rubber and other agricultural commodities. kumar, pinto, hawaldar, spulbar, & birau (2021) also found that futures oil prices were affected in the short run by natural rubber prices in india, and a similar case occurred in the case of china (zhang & qu, 2015). meanwhile, in the case of thailand, there is a strong positive relationship between natural rubber and crude oil price (tanielian, 2018). the government policy to increase natural rubber domestic consumption in indonesia did not significantly affect indonesian natural rubber farmgate prices in the short and long term. even increasing domestic consumption with the current market prices did not impact natural rubber farmers due to the price level is still low, even though the objective of government policy is to protect the farmers who were facing the decline in natural rubber prices. the low price of natural rubber had declined the farmer’s monthly income, investment capacity, and purchasing power. furthermore, it caused farmers to shift their income sources from natural rubber farming to other prospective plants (syarifa, agustina, nancy, & supriadi, 2016). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 257 the effect of domestic consumption on natural….. (pramananda, rifin, and nauly) meanwhile, the international tripartite rubber council (itrc), which consists of thailand, indonesia, and malaysia, declare export restrictions as of april 1, 2019. these countries agreed to reduce the export of natural rubber by as much as 240,000 tons for the three countries. indonesia reduces rubber exports by 98,160 tons, malaysia by 15,600 tons, and thailand, the largest producer, reduces the export volume by 126,240 tons. the newly implemented policy was expected to raise the price of world natural rubber to 2 usd per kg from the current price of around 1.4 usd per kg. the results showed that the volume of indonesia’s natural rubber exports did not significantly affect the price of indonesian natural rubber. however, restricting the export of natural rubber carried out by indonesia, thailand and malaysia will certainly reduce the world’s natural rubber supply. according to the economic principle, the international price level will increase when supply decreases. the international price of natural rubber is one of the significant variables affecting the natural rubber farmgate price, indicating that the farmgate price was integrated with the international price. therefore, restricting export will hopefully increase the natural rubber farmgate price (khin, chong, shamsudin, & mohamed, 2008). this research stated that the world’s natural rubber stock has a negative relationship with the price of natural rubber, therefore when the world’s natural rubber stock decreases, it will increase the price of world natural rubber. this research showed that increasing domestic consumption had not proven to increase the farmgate price of natural rubber. two aspects can affect this condition. firstly, domestic consumption did not affect the farmgate price of natural rubber despite the volume. secondly, domestic consumption was insufficient to affect the natural rubber farmgate price. therefore, in the future, increasing domestic consumption might affect the farmgate price of natural rubber when domestic consumption is high enough. this also indicated that the farmgate price of natural rubber was basically caused by external factors rather than internal factors in indonesia. indonesia and whole natural rubber-producing countries must implement policies to increase the farmgate price of natural rubber. conclusion indonesian natural rubber domestic consumption was not proven to affect indonesia’s natural rubber farmgate price in the short and long term. in order to increase farmgate prices through domestic consumption, the downstream industry must be more developed by diversifying the product, not only depending on tires, shoes, and gloves. industries such as health products, automotive spare parts, and others can be developed to increase the domestic consumption of natural rubber and eventually increase farmgate price. in addition, factors that influenced indonesia's natural rubber farmgate price in the long-run and short-run were the lag of natural rubber farmgate price, international natural rubber price, and exchange rate. meanwhile, international oil prices affected natural rubber farmgate prices in the short-run. the policy of restricting natural rubber export for indonesia, malaysia, and thailand will likely increase natural rubber internationally price. then the increase in international price will increase indonesia’s natural rubber farmgate price. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 258 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research authors’ contributions: ppp contributed to the original draft, data acquisition and data analysis. ar contributed to the research idea and revising the manuscript. dn contributed to the revising the literature review and references conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest references al kautsar, t. m. 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(2015). the effect of global oil price shocks on china’s agricultural commodities. energy economics, 51, 354–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2015.07.012 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2019.vol6.no2.55 https://doi.org/10.21082/fae.v37n1.2019.25-39 https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83867-479-320191006 https://doi.org/10.1080/08853908.2014.941048 https://doi.org/10.17358/jabm.4.3.354 https://doi.org/10.22302/jpk.v0i0.218 https://doi.org/10.22439/cjas.v36i1.5512 https://doi.org/10.24259/fs.v2i1.3641 http://comtrade.un.org/ https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.12.3.13637 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 34-45 article history: submitted : april 20st, 2021 revised : november 23rd, 2021 accepted : march 22nd, 2022 bayu krisnamurthi and anisa dwi utami* department of agribusiness, faculty of economic and management, ipb university, indonesia *) correspondence email: anisadwiutami@apps.ipb.ac.id the effect of price policy on price dynamics: empirical evidence in indonesian rice market at wholesale level doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11546 abstract as a major share expenditure for the poor, rice is attributed as a strategic food commodity in the indonesian economy. for many decades, the indonesian rice market has been intervened by the price regulation. the indonesian government had set two types of rice price policies of 2016 and 2017 with the argument of price stabilization during the last five years. this study aimed to investigate the effect of price policies of 2016 and 2017 on the domestic price dynamics in the indonesian rice market. this study used daily price series taken from the cipinang wholesale rice market in jakarta within the period of october 1st, 2014, until february 12th, 2018 covering 10 rice varieties. the role of price policy on the price dynamics was evaluated by using a multivariate error correction model (mvecm). the empirical findings confirmed that generally, these price policies had different effects on the price dynamics which proposed different reactions from the different rice varieties both in magnitude and signs. the variations were also found regarding the short-run and long-run behavior. generally, the findings suggested a relatively small elasticity of the policy on the prices. keywords: indonesia; price dynamics; price policy; rice; vecm introduction market, politics, and price dynamics have been interesting subjects of discussions in the existing economic literature (anderson, 2012; gilbert, 2012; pieters & swinnen, 2016; timmer, 2017). the debates simultaneously arrive at questions related to the effectiveness and efficiency of the government interventions in regulating the domestic markets. in economic development and poverty reduction strategies, particularly for developing countries, market interventions are generally implemented for pursuing stability of prices and managing the allocation of resources within the economy (barrett, 2013; naylor, 2014; pinstrupandersen, 2014). in the food sector, price instability has been attracting a lot of attention since it indicates what is happening in food security (berger, dalheimer, & brümmer, 2021; dalheimer, herwartz, & lange, 2021; gardebroek, hernandez, & robles, 2016; herwartz & saucedo, 2020; honfoga, n’tandou-bonzitou, vodouhè, bellon, & hounhouigan, 2018; timmer, 2017). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:anisadwiutami@apps.ipb.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 35 the effect of price policy on price dynamics: ….. (krisnamurthi and utami) utami) the price dynamics reflect a commodity availability in a competitive market which matched by the consumers' willingness to substitute the commodity for another in their expenditure bundle. in this setting, high prices imply scarcity which will drive the producer to expand the production, while the consumers are likely to expand their consumption. along with the debates in the existing literature, intervention in the price, such as setting the price reference, may lead to market destruction where the role of the market as price discovery would be dampened. moreover, as markets have the economic function of guiding the cost of transportation, storage, and processing of food products which reflect the willingness of sellers to transfer to the consumers, this price policy will also influence the behavior of actors along the supply chain in the food industry. consequently, the competitiveness of the industry would also be affected. rice is attributed as a strategic commodity in most asian economies and the main staple food of nearly half of the world population (maclean, dawe, hardy, & hettel, 2013). being the fourth world’s most populous country, indonesia plays an important role in the world’s rice economy, particularly in food security and development. the rice industry plays a critical role in affecting people’s welfare and the national economic growth of the indonesian economy. in several rice-producing countries, rice generally accounts for half of the farmers’ income, although with declining trends of its share due to its changing nonfarm rural economies. meanwhile, on the consumer side, rice accounts for 25-40% of households’ expenditures. thus, changes in rice prices will likely lead to large changes in purchasing power and nutrition of the poor (dawe & timmer, 2012). in addition, grabowski & self (2016) found that rice price stability was one of the main drivers of structural change in indonesia. the shifting of labor from agricultural to manufacturing is critically dependent on the existence of food price stability. meanwhile, warr and yusuf (2013) found that during the world food price spikes in 2007-2008, poverty in indonesia had increased, particularly among the rural people. the higher agricultural prices can also result in higher income for the rural people since poor farmers in rural areas are the net food buyers. besides discussions on the role of the rice industry in the indonesian economy, some studies have emphasized the relation of the indonesian rice industry with the world market. in response to the increasing population, the current situation has shown that import has also played a role in fulfilling the domestic rice consumption. by assuming slow yield growth, steady consumption, and contracting cultivated area in the indonesian rice industry, bourgeois and kusumaningrum (2008) have predicted that indonesia will likely become a net importer for several food products including rice in 2020. dawe (2008) in his paper critically asks whether indonesia can trust the world market. his question is then related to whether the world market prices truly reflect the opportunity cost of producing rice given the tradedistorting subsidies and import restrictions in other countries. as the existing literature shows, the world rice market is characterized by an unstable and unreliable supply. ceballos, hernandez, minot, and robles (2017) emphasized this finding that the world rice prices are quite volatile in many developing countries so that the rice market appears to be more sensitive to volatility in the international markets. meanwhile, hoang and meyers (2015), using a http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 36 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research partial equilibrium framework, predicted that the realization of free trade liberalization in 2020 would likely induce declining domestic prices in the indonesian rice market. indonesian rice market has been politically intervened for decades mainly by the price regulation on the domestic markets besides intervention on the domestic supply related to import and export regulations. therefore, rice price stabilization is one of the most popular issues in every political agenda in indonesia. along with the importance of policy discussions in the literature, some studies have emphasized the role of indonesian government’s interventions in the rice industry (simatupang & timmer, 2008). there are at least two points arising in the policy debates in indonesian rice economic literature which focus on the goal of self-sufficiency and price stabilization. first, the self-sufficiency policy seems to be high cost in terms of government budget and thus could lead to inefficiency, and second, the policies are likely to result in market distortion (timmer, 2017). in addition, nuryanti, hakim, siregar, and sawit (2017) argued that rice policies in indonesia are biased to the government where the highest political preference of the government is received by the government itself. meanwhile, dorosh (2008), based on his studies on the food price stabilization policies in some developing countries, proposed the importance of more relying on market mechanisms to trigger the efficiency of the policy implementation. the indonesian government set two types of rice price policy in 2016 with the argument for maintaining price stabilization during the last five years and revised it in 2017. this study aimed to investigate the effect of price policies in 2016 and 2017 on the domestic price dynamic in the indonesian rice market. specifically, this study attempts to analyze the effect of the price policy through a detailed investigation on different rice varieties which can represent quality differences and find out the existence of different reactions from the different rice varieties. an understanding of the impact of price dynamics for different groups of consumers and producers can help to identify the unanticipated consequences of the policy. research method this study employed the time series econometric model, namely the multivariate error correction model (vecm). this study used daily price series taken from the cipinang wholesale rice market in jakarta within the period of october 1st, 2014, until february 12th, 2018 (n = 1225 observations). the cipinang wholesale market (pic) is the main wholesale rice market in jakarta which transfers most of the rice from several producing areas in java as well as supplies rice to several regions outside java island. this study covered 10 rice varieties based on the type and quality presented in table 1. all price series were transformed into logarithmic form. figure 1 presents the dynamics of rice prices being investigated. the multivariate vector error correction model (vecm) was employed to investigate the dynamics of rice prices. a vecm can give information about the reactions among investigated prices both in the long run and short-run periods. first, it was presumably asked whether the investigated rice prices in pic share the same long-run information. according to this assumption, a test for the existence of one common cointegrating factor was conducted. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 37 the effect of price policy on price dynamics: ….. (krisnamurthi and utami) utami) suppose n x 1 vector of nonstationary price series i.e. i(1) pt = p1, p2,…, pnt at time t for the i rice variety. this pt can be written as: pt = anxsft + ~pt (1) table 1. description of investigated rice prices in idr rice varieties quality mean minimum maximum cianjur kepala (ck) premium 13,366 12,000 15,600 cisadane (cs) premium 12,171 11,000 14,925 setra (se) premium 12,219 10,900 13,825 saigon (sa) premium 11,117 9,900 13,200 murni 1 (m1) medium 10,465 9,000 13,675 murni 2 (m2) medium 9,656.8 8,200 12,400 murni 3 (m3) medium 8,938.3 7,500 11,825 ir 641 low 9,990.3 8,800 12,650 ir 642 low 9,091.8 8,100 12,075 ir 42 medium 10,486 9,000 12,600 figure 1. daily rice prices in pasar induk cipinang from october 2014-february 2018 (idr/kilogram) where pt was an s x 1 vector of s (s<n) common unit root vectors and ~pt was a 1 x n nonstationary component. this equation implies the common factor representation if and only if there were n-s cointegrating vectors among the elements of the vector of pt as depicted in the engel-granger representation theorem. based on this theorem, a cointegrated system can be explained by a vector of error correction model as follows: ∆ pt= μ+πpt-1 + 𝛤1δ pt-1 + 𝛤2δ pt-2 + … + 𝛤p-12δ pt-p+1 + εt (2) where π and 𝛤 were the coefficient of matrices of n x n and π had reduced ranks of n-s. the matrix of π can also be written as π = αβ΄ where α was a nxn (n<s) cointegrated vector. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 38 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research accordingly, it is п pt-1 = αβ' pt-1 = α zt-1. the interesting point here was the error correction term as zt-1 = β' pt-1 with α called as adjustment coefficient from the long run disequilibrium. with this framework, the market integration was holding when s = 1 for markets that share the same long-run information. therefore, searching the common factor representation as in equation 1 was equivalent for n-1 cointegrating vectors. the search for n-1 cointegrating vectors was conducted in a multivariate framework proposed by johansen i.e. the reduced rank of var cointegration testing. subsequently, the investigation on interdependency among the rice prices was conducted by referring to the magnitude of error correction coefficients i.e. αresulted from the mvecm. the vec in equation 2 contains the short-run dynamics of the vector pt as a function of α past disequilibrium and the lags of pt-1 for every ∆pt. the matrix of the speed of adjustments provides information about the structure of the market which can be observed by referring to which coefficient was statistically significant. for example, if all α was found to be statistically significant, it implies the reactions of one rice variety to every disequilibrium of any other rice varieties. the long-run and the short-run equation were augmented with the dummy variables representing the implementation of rice policy was used to capture the effect of the policy during the periods of investigation between 2014-2017. therefore, for this purpose the normalized cointegrating vector for each pair was defined as follows: p1t = ꞵ0 + ꞵ1p2t + ꞵ3policy 2016 + ꞵ4policy 2017 + ut (3) ∆pt= μ + πpt-1 + 𝛤1δpt-1 + 𝛤2δ pt-2 + … + 𝛤p-12δpt-p+ ꞵ5 policy 2016 + ꞵ6 policy 2017 + εt (4) where p1t and p2t were the price pairs of the respective rice varieties, while policy 2016 was the dummy variable in which value 1 represents the implementation of the price reference policy of 2016 and policy 2017 for the implementation of the ceiling price policy of 2017 respectively. according to these results, the estimation of cross-product price elasticities was calculated, which refers to the magnitude of β1 for each pair of rice variety prices. the empirical technique was briefly summarized as follows: 1) checking the time series properties by testing the stationary of the price variables using the augmented dickey-fuller unit root test; 2) for the price variables which had the same order of integration at the first difference i.e. i(1), testing the existence of cointegration relationships by employing the johansen multivariate cointegration test; then, 3) after finding the number of cointegration ranks, the estimation with multivariate error correction model (mvecm) with several modifications in normalizing the cointegrating vector for each rice variety. result and discussions price policy in indonesian rice industry in 2016 and 2017 the indonesian government had set up some food price policies for some primary food commodities including rice to maintaining food price stabilization. these price policies were mainly coordinated by the ministry of trade (mot) by issuing minister’s regulations. during the last five years, in the rice industry, the mot had issued two regulations in 2016 and 2017 as a revision from the previous regulation. in 2016, through the minister regulation number http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 39 the effect of price policy on price dynamics: ….. (krisnamurthi and utami) utami) 63/m-dag/per/9/2016, the government published the application of purchasing price reference policy and the price reference policy for the sale. according to this regulation, the purchasing price reference was applied at the farmer level while the price reference was determined by considering the reasonable cost structure including production costs, distribution costs, as well as profits, and other possible costs. furthermore, the purchasing price preference at the farmer level for rice was set at idr 7,500, while the price reference for the sale at the consumer level was set at idr 9,500. these reference prices were mainly applied by national logistics (bulog) and other state-owned companies. national logistics (bulog) is a state-owned company that is responsible for coordinating the supply of some food commodities. to this responsibility, bulog had to purchase food commodities from the farmers and distribute them to the public through market operation, for instance. the government had revised the previous price reference policy in 2017 by issuing the minister of trade’s regulation, number 57/m-dag/per/8/2017. according to this regulation, a ceiling price policy at the retail level for rice has been applied, which was called harga eceran tertinggi (het). different from the regulation of 2016, the rice price was set up at the retail level and applied to the medium and premium rice varieties. the regulation of 2016 did not consider the differences in the rice product’s quality. in addition, the het was also set differently for a particular area in indonesia. the details were presented in the table 2. table 2. the ceiling rice price in 2017 (het 2017) areas het for medium rice (idr/kg) het for premium rice (idr/kg) java, lampung, and south sumatera 9,450 12,800 sumatera (excluding lampung and south sumatera) 9,950 13,300 bali and west nusa tenggara (ntb) 9,450 12,800 east nusa tenggara (ntt) 9,950 13,300 sulawesi 9.450 12,800 kalimantan 9,950 13,300 maluku 10,250 13,600 papua 10,250 13,600 notes: as mentioned in the minister of trade regulation number 57/m-dag/per/8/2017 empirical findings a common procedure in the time series analysis, first, was checking the time series properties to investigate whether the investigated variables were stationary. to do this an augmented dickey-fuller (adf) unit root test including both constant and trend was employed to complete this step. according to the results of adf test as summarized in table 3, all price variables were stationary at the first difference i.e. i (1). furthermore, after finding that all price variables had a same order of integration at the first difference, then cointegration tests were conducted by employing the johansen cointegration test. the results suggested the existence of nine cointegration ranks for the ten price variables being investigated, as shown in table 4. the presence of cointegration among variables suggest that these rice varieties have long-run relationships with each other. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 40 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 3. corresponding p-value of adf unit root test variable of rice varieties price level first difference constant constant and trend constant constant and trend 1_cianjur kepala (ck) 0.9066 0.9254 0.0000 0.0000 1_cisadane (cs)cs 0.9660 0.9668 0.0000 0.0000 1_se 0.2139 0.2489 0.0000 0.0000 1_sa 0.7147 0.4243 0.0000 0.0000 1_murni 1 (m1) 0.5061 0.6154 0.0000 0.0000 i_murni 2 (m2) 0.2484 0.2964 0.0000 0.0000 i_murni 3 (m3) 0.3257 0.4363 0.0000 0.0000 1_ir 641 0.4352 0.1142 0.0000 0.0000 1_ir 642 0.6897 0.6641 0.0000 0.0000 1_ir 42 0.6144 0.7241 0.0000 0.0000 notes: the lag selection in the unit root test was based on the aic/ nul hypothesis was the existence of unit root. table 4. results of johansen cointegration test rank of cointegration constant constant and trend trace-test p-value trace-test p-value 0 314.11 0.0000 382.70 0.0000 1 235.57 0.0001 268.53 0.0001 2 165.92 0.0218 192.40 0.0282 3 111.98 0.2588 137.10 0.2315 4 78.770 0.4156 103.03 0.2988 5 48.965 0.6870 72.907 0.4047 6 29.367 0.7563 43.131 0.7334 7 13.154 0.8815 23.712 0.8478 8 4.6736 0.8394 8.2297 0.9724 9 0.14233 0.7067 2.1733 0.9430 notes: number of lags was selected by aic. the effect of rice price policy on the price dynamics was investigated by referring to the estimated coefficient of policy variables (policy 2016 and policy 2017) which were augmented both in the cointegrated relations among the price variables (long-run relationships) and in the error correction models (short-run relationships). the first one was called the restricted vecm and the second one is the unrestricted vecm. by following the johansen cointegration in a multivariate framework, several modifications were conducted in the normalization process by determining which price variable based on table 5 and table 6. the effect of the implementation of price policy on the rice price dynamics generally showed variations in the long-run both in the magnitudes and signs of the estimated policy variable i.e. policy 2016 and policy 2017 as presented in table 5 and table 6 respectively. this implied that each price variable had a different reaction to the implementation of price policy. regarding the significance of policy variables, the findings showed that price policy in 2016 did not have a significant effect on the price dynamics in most cases. the significant effect of policy 2016 was found in some rice varieties which were commonly characterized as medium and low rice variety i.e. sa, murni 1, murni 2, ir 641, and ir 642. meanwhile, different findings were found in the significant effect of price policy in 2017. for instance, in the case of cianjur kepala (ck), this variable did not react to the implementation of policy http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 41 the effect of price policy on price dynamics: ….. (krisnamurthi and utami) utami) 2016 in most cases, but contrary with respect to policy 2017. as shown in table 6, the effect of policy 2017 on the price dynamics was generally negative. however, an exception was found when normalizing the cointegrating vectors by using the ck price variable. according to this model, it was suggested that the effect of policy 2017 was positive for most variables, but with an exception for the response of ir 64 which was negative. regarding the sign of the estimated coefficient, an exception was also found in the case of ir 42. it was suggested that the effect of policy 2017 was positive. table 5. estimated coefficient of price policy in 2016 from long-run equation variable of rice varieties price dependent variables ck cs se sa m1 m2 m3 ir 641 ir 642 ir 42 cianjur kepala (ck) 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.18 0.13 0.02 0.06 -0.10 0.29 cisadane (cs) -0.01 -0.00 -0.04 0.07 0.03 0.00 -0.01 -0.05 0.07 setra (se) -0.01 0.01 -0.03 0.09 0.05 0.00 0.00 -0.06 0.11 saigon (sa) -0.00 0.04 0.02 0.16** 0.11** 0.014 0.04** -0.09 0.24** murni 1 (m1) -0.02 -0.02 -0.02 -0.06** -0.02 -0.00 -0.04** -0.02** -0.05 murni 2 (m2) -0.02 -0.02 -0.02 -0.06** 0.02** -0.00 -0.03** -0.03 -0.01 murni 3 (m3) -0.02 -0.00 -0.00 -0.04 0.05 0.02 -0.01 -0.05 0.05 ir 641 -0.01 0.00 -0.00 -0.03** 0.08** 0.04** 0.00 -0.05 0.09 ir 642 0.78** -0.05 -0.03 -0.08** -0.04 -0.05 0.01 -0.07** -0.14 ir 42 -0.02 -0.01 -0.01 -0.05** 0.03 0.00 -0.00 -0.03 -0.03 notes: *significant at 10 % level, ** significant at 5 % level, *** significant at 1 % level table 6. estimated coefficient of price policy in 2017 from long-run equation variable of rice varieties price dependent variables ck cs se sa m1 m2 m3 ir 641 ir 642 ir 42 cianjur kepala (ck) 0.38** 0.20** 0.37** 1.08** 0.83** 0.02 0.52** -0.75** 2.23** cisadane (cs) -0.11** -0.03 0.00 0.21** 0.14** -0.10** 0.04 -0.36** 0.61** setra (se) -0.09** 0.04 0.05 0.32** 0.23** -0.09** 0.09 -0.41** 0.81** saigon (sa) -0.11** -0.00 -0.03 0.19** 0.13** -0.11** 0.03 -0.35** 0.58** murni 1 (m1) -0.13** -0.09** -0.08** -0.08** -0.02 -0.13** -0.07** -0.26** 0.22** murni 2 (m2) -0.13** -0.08** -0.07** -0.07** 0.03 -0.13** -0.06** -0.28** 0.28** murni 3 (m3) -0.01 0.32** 0.17** 0.31** 0.95** 0.73** 0.45** -0.69** 1.99** ir 641 -0.11** -0.03 -0.05 -0.02 0.14** 0.08** -0.11** -0.33** 0.48** ir 642 -0.21** -0.35** -0.24** -0.32** 0.32** -0.49** -0.21** -0.04** 0.09** ir 42 -0.15** -0.14** -0.11** -0.13** -0.12** -0.12** -0.15** -0.14** -0.21** notes: *significant at 10 % level, ** significant at 5 % level, *** significant at 1 % level the effect of policy variables on the price dynamics in the short run can be seen in table 7, as estimated by the unrestricted vecm. table 7 showed, not all price variables react to the implementation of rice policy both in 2016 and 2017. referring to the significance of the respected price variables, the rice prices reacting to the implementation of policy in 2016 were cisadane (cs), murni 1 (m1), ir 642, and ir 42. meanwhile, with respect to the policy in 2017, the reacting rice prices were cs (cisadane), murni 1 (m1), ir 641, and ir 642. furthermore, regarding the magnitude of the estimated coefficient, the findings generally suggested relatively small elasticity. in addition, regarding the signs of the effect of the policy variables, both positive and negative effects were found in the empirical results. the positive signs of this policy were found in the coefficients of cs and ir 642, while the negative http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 42 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research relations were found in murni 1 (m1). these findings were quite interesting as the objective of the price policy was to maintain rice price stabilization. this means that the effect of price policy was expected to be negative which implies that either price reference or ceiling price policy should be able to lower the rice prices. table 7. estimated coefficient of policy variables from the unrestricted vecm (short-run equation) dependent variable of rice varieties price policy 2016 policy 2017 d_1_cianjur kepala (ck) -0.00017 -0.00049 d_1_cisadane (sc) 0.00117** 0.00082** d_1_setra (se) -0.00059 -0.00148 d_1_saigon (sa) 0.00038* -0.00151 d_1_murni 1 (m1) -0.00123** -0.00183** d_1_murni 2 (m2) 0.00056 -0.00088 d_1_murni 3 (m3) 0.00077 -0.00103 d_1_ir 641 0.00088* -0.00197*** d_1_ir 642 0.00134** 0.00323*** d_1_ir 42 0.00123** 0.00113 notes: *significant at 10 % level, ** significant at 5 % level, *** significant at 1 % level summarizing the empirical findings both in the short-run and long-run behavior, this study suggested that the indonesian rice market seems to become more heterogeneous. this was implied in the response of rice prices to the implementation of the price policy which each rice variety has a different reaction compared to each other’s. in 2016, where the government set up only one price reference without considering the product differentiation, the policy effect was found to be insignificant in most cases especially in the long run. meanwhile, when the government imposes the price reference for the premium and medium rice varieties and regional differentiation in 2017, the effect of the policy was found to be significant, though with relatively small elasticity. in the previous studies, rice as the main staple food in indonesia was usually treated as a single commodity which was commonly viewed as a homogenous product in the market. however, along with the changing consumers’ socio-economic condition, this assumption needs to be reconsidered by looking more detail into the behavior of each rice variety. even though rice is still positioned as the main staple food which has the highest share in the food intake, as people are more aware of the rice products quality (rachmat, thahir, & gummert, 2006), this can consequently lead to the different market behavior among rice products. concerning the question of the effectiveness of setting price reference policy, the government should be able to understand the market behavior in the industry. as heavily discussed in the literature, controlling prices into some administrative zone could likely result in market distortion which will also affect the competitiveness of the industry in the long run. when the market becomes more heterogeneous with different consumer behavior, the implementation of the policy should consider the targeted market behavior focusing on the goal of the policy. managing the price in the food system requires an understanding of the behavior of the actors along the value chain. even though rice is still considered as the main http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 43 the effect of price policy on price dynamics: ….. (krisnamurthi and utami) utami) staple food of the people, each rice variety seems to have different behavior which may be affected by changes in the socioeconomic situation. furthermore, regarding the price stabilization purpose, the empirical findings suggested that maintaining price stabilization could not be achieved by only implementing the official price intervention in the market. as previously mentioned, in the short run, not all rice variety prices were reacting to the implemented price policy both in 2016 and 2017. moreover, the elasticities were also found to be small in the significant price variables. following the conceptual framework by pieters & swinnen (2016) which emphasizes the existence of a tradeoff between price distortions and reduced-price volatility in the presence of government intervention in the food market during the food price spikes, the empirical finding supports the importance of policy improvement in the context of food price stabilization policy in general. the main task is to set up the intervention price at an appropriate level which requires a lot of understandings of the market dynamics (galtier, 2013). despite maintaining price stabilization, setting the price intervention in the domestic market could likely induce price instability because too high floor prices or too low ceiling prices notwithstanding unpredictable intervention will likely lead to crowd out private storage and trade (tschirley & jayne, 2010). in addition, for a more macro perspective, the price stabilization policy should be updated following the country’s progression along its development stage as stated by (timmer, 2002). conclusion the application of price policy in the indonesian rice industry had resulted in various effects on the price dynamics. confirming this situation, this study found that the price policy which was implemented in the indonesian rice market in 2016 and 2017, had different effect for each rice variety both in magnitude and sign. the effects were also found to be different regarding short-run and long-run behavior. in the short run, the effects of the price policy in 2016 and 2017 were slightly different in terms of which rice varieties were reacting to the implementation of the policy. however, regarding the magnitude of the effects of both price policies, the effects of price policy in 2016 and in 2017 were quite similar, which propose relatively small elasticity. therefore, according to these findings, it can be concluded that the short-run effect of the price policy both in 2016 and 2017 was relatively small. combining the empirical findings both in the short-run and long-run periods of the effect of price policy, this study suggested that the indonesian rice market seems to become more heterogeneous. each rice variety had been found to have a different reaction to the implementation of price policy. these findings confirmed the assumption that rice consumers have been differentiated according to the type and quality of rice varieties. acknowledgments: the authors would like to thank to the department of agribusiness, faculty of economic and management, ipb university for facilitating the research. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 44 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research author contributions: bk: conceptualized the idea, analyzed the results, and review the manuscript, adu: wrote and edited the manuscript, collected, and analyzed the data, addressed reviewer’s comments. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest reference anderson, k. 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(2013). world food prices and poverty in indonesia. australian journal of agricultural and resource economics, 58(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/14678489.12015 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research acknowledgment to reviewers agraris vol. 7 no. 1 january june 2021 contibution from the following reviewers in this issue was much appreciated for their valuable review ccomments: 1. andriyono kilat adhi, department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia 2. titik ekowati, department of agribusiness, diponegoro university, indonesia 3. mohamad harisudin, department of agribusiness, universitas sebelas maret, indonesia 4. ihsanuddin, department of agribusiness, trunojoyo university, indonesia 5. yunastiti, department of economisc, universitas sebelas maret, indonesia 6. mark buda, department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia 7. eni istiyanti, department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june, and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai). agraris journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol.7.1 january-june 2021 in collaboration with: ag raris vol. 7 no. 1. january-june 2021 1: cetak agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research acknowledgment to reviewers agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july-december 2021 contribution from the following reviewers in this issue was much appreciated for their valuable review comments: abdul mutolib, department of agribusiness, siliwangi university, indonesia endang siti rahayu, faculty of agriculture, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia komariah, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia kusnandar, department of agribusiness, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia lukman muhammad baga, department of agribusiness, faculty of economics and management, ipb university, indonesia malose moses tjale, institute of rural development, university of venda, south africa mark buda, department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, faculty of agriculture, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia subejo, department of extension and communication, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia wayne nelles, chulalongkorn university school of agricultural resources (cusar), thailand yudhi pramudya, department of plantation management, polytechnic of lembaga pendidikan perkebunan, yogyakarta, indonesia yunastiti purwaningsih, department of economic development, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june, and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai) and indonesian society of agricultural economics (isae). agraris journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol.7.2 july-december 2021 in collaboration with: ag raris vol. 7 no. 2. july-decem ber 2021 1: cetak issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 256-269 article history: submitted : march 7th, 2021 revised : july 6th, 2021 june 8th, 2021 accepted : july 26th, 2021 chamika rasanjali, pathmanathan sivashankar*, and rohana p. mahaliyanaarachchi department of agribusiness management, sabaragamuwa university of sri lanka, sri lanka *) correspondence email: sivashankar.p@hotmail.com women participation in rural tourism: a case of ella, sri lanka doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11294 abstract tourism industry is one of sectors that have potential to develop and grow in the next few years in sri lanka. according to tourism development strategy of sri lanka, tourism industry is expected to be the largest foreign exchange earner by 2024. the principal focus of this study was to explore major factors that affect women’s participation and non-participation in the hospitality industry in ella ds division sri lanka. the study used a deductive approach, and primary data were collected through a self-administered structured questionnaire. samples were 60 women, consisting of thirty women involved in the hospitality industry and thirty women of the non-hospitality industry, randomly selected. results were analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. the results found that the differences in language skills and problem-solving had the most significant effect on women’s participation in hospitality industry. besides, childcare responsibility and lack of experience were affected women’s involvement in this industry. the results also showed that most of the non-hospitality workers have language barriers (33.3%), lack of knowledge about tourism industry (23.3%), and lack of opportunities to engage in tourism work (13.3%). based on the results, 53.3% of 30 non-hospitality workers had an idea to be involved in tourism and hospitality industry in the future, while the remaining 46.6% had no idea to be involved. keywords: barriers, gender, glass ceiling, hospitality, rural tourism, women employability introduction tourism and hospitality industry plays a vibrant role in an economy, shaping the future of the nation (aslam, awang, & othman, 2014). sri lanka tourism is on the rise, and the related services, training, and labor supply are also on-demand (hettiarachchi, de silva, & sivashankar, 2015). this denotes that there are enough opportunities for unemployed to engage in the tourism sector. women’s involvement in tourism and travel sector was 10 11% in sri lanka (international labor organization, 2016). tourism is an employment generator in many countries, which also creates a market for women’s employment (aytuğ & mikaeili, 2017; hafçi, 2018). tourism is important in creating new job opportunities as it is a labor-intensive http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:sivashankar.p@hotmail.com https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11294 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 257 women participation in rural tourism: a case ….. (rasanjali, sivashankar, and mahaliyanaarachchi a labor-intensive sector. globally, 54% of the workforce in tourism is female, yet there are disparities in wages (world tourism organization, 2019). in developing countries, this disparity is worse. women face disparities at both horizontal and levels in the labor market (rinaldi & salerno, 2020). rural tourism promotes farm income through non-agricultural activities, employment opportunities for women, new skills for rural people, building the rural economy, protecting landscape and wildlife, and uplifting the essential services in rural areas (education, health, transport, retail), and slows rural to urban migration (aytuğ & mikaeili, 2017). rural tourism is an effective way of supporting women’s labor force, as women appear in most rural activities, either directly or indirectly. also, they are flagbearers of rural culture, authentic traditions, and cuisines. women are considered as passive workforce in rural tourism. thus, decent employment can be provided to these women by bringing them to the forefront (aytuğ & mikaeili, 2017; sanagustin-fons, lafita-cortés, & moseñe, 2018). nevertheless, women face a multitude of problems and challenges in engaging in rural tourism activities. these include entering the industry, and some factors can affect their continuation in the industry. further, external factors may also play a role in women’s decision to engage in rural tourism. this research investigates the factors affecting the rural women to engage in the local tourism and hospitality industry. furthermore, factors affecting their engagement, and barriers for their engagement, especially in rural tourism and homestays, are assessed. this study looks into the dynamics of women’s involvement at various stages of the small tourism accommodations and restaurants. which factors affect women’s involvement and non-involvement in the tourism and hospitality industry? further, we try to identify suitable strategies to increase women’s involvement in tourism and hospitality industry. this study will add to discussion of gender and tourism, in context of rural tourism, with special relevance to ella region in sri lanka. the implication of the study is that this will serve as a checklist for identifying issues women face in the region, thus could benefit regional policymakers and assist in evidence-based policymaking. though other studies have focused on women in tourism in general, fewer studies focus on the problems of women in rural tourism. this paper, unlike the literature, compares the issues of women in tourism as well as those who are not in tourism in the same place in question. issues in women involvement in rural tourism many studies investigated issues in women engagement in rural tourism: brazil (duarte & pereira, 2018), india (mohanty, swain, & besra, 2018), serbia (cvijanović & gajić, 2020; milena, nataša, & snežana, 2019; milicaa, gordanaa, & milan, 2021), turkey (aytuğ & mikaeili, 2017; hafçi, 2018), georgia (khartishvili, muhar, dax, & khelashvili, 2019), greece (koutsou, notta, samathrakis, & partalidou, 2009), nepal (palikhe, 2018), sri lanka (aslam & awang, 2015) and emerging countries (chant, 2005; rinaldi & salerno, 2020). there is an agreement in literature, and most women and men have positive attitudes towards rural tourism. duarte and pereira (2018) further suggested that women were not supplementary for rural tourism but complementary, as they are the major stakes of rural tourism. although they http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 258 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research still received a lesser return or are not paid at all (mohanty et al., 2018), female managers saw rural tourism development as a business opportunity for them (milicaa et al., 2021). however, the general consensus from literature is that women’s participation in rural tourism is not at a satisfactory level, mainly in emerging economies. a wider array of employment opportunities is available for a range of people from educated to less educated, from urban to rural, for both men and women as well as for marginalized groups. further, tourism sector provides very flexible employment opportunities, though they are vulnerable to external shocks. ample studies had been conducted on employment-related issues in tourism for both formal and informal employment. these included issues in training staff or labor force (formal training and informal training), internships, and turnover (wang, 2013; albattat & som, 2013; zahari, yusoff, jamaluddin, radzi, & othman, 2010; yusoff, zahari, ahmad, isa, & ghani, 2013; gibbs & slevitch, 2019). these aspects had been studied based on gender perspectives as well. it was suggested that certain glass ceilings exist for women to engage in this sector (maxwell, ogden, & broadbridge, 2010). though this was true for most other sectors, the existing glass ceilings were much greater in the hospitality industry (janta, 2011; knutson & schmidgall, 1999). koutsou et al. (2009) discussed the issues of age, experience, and education of women shaping rural tourism engagements and also on risk-taking. aged, experienced, and educated women tend to start their own businesses than join cooperatives, as they coukd handle the issues faced by the industry. despite these issues, cvijanović & gajić (2020) suggested that rural tourism empowers women through social connectivity. a similar finding stems from greek women entrepreneurs involved in the agro-tourism business (koutsou et al., 2009). according to world bank group (2017), the main factors that explain women’s participation in tourism are mainly personal and work-related factors (i.e., environment), as most of the gender constraints can be grouped within these groups. this study also mainly looks into the issues and problems of women’s involvement in rural tourism, mainly based on these two cohorts. though literature posits and studies women’s involvement in rural tourism, no literature has paid attention to personal factors and environment-related factors. thus this study adds to the literature filling this gap with evidence from sri lanka. research method this research investigates the ella ds division of the badulla district to study the women involved in the small-scale hospitality industry. ella ds is located 200 kilometers away from colombo with an altitude of 1,041 m above mean sea level. ella has been a very famous tourist destination which is located in a remote rural area (urban development authority, 2019). it is renowned for countryside tourism, especially for typical village life, scenery, waterfalls, peaks, hiking, and rich biodiversity. thus there are numerous small and medium scale hospitality enterprises as well as large hotels. since even the large-scale hotels are surrounded by nature, recreation activities, and villages, this area consists of many small-scale boutiques and restaurants which cater to tourists. thus this place was deemed to be an ideal place to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 259 women participation in rural tourism: a case ….. (rasanjali, sivashankar, and mahaliyanaarachchi study the research question. the villagers, including the women, have the potential to serve the tourists through diverse means of business activities in ella. the study followed a deductive approach. data were collected through a pre-tested interviewer-administered questionnaire from 60 women in ella, with 30 women involved in the hospitality industry and 30 women who were not involved in the industry. this stratification would provide a better understanding of the push and pull factors for these women to engage in the hospitality industry. the questionnaire primarily consisted of 4 sections with categorical and likert scale questions. a section of the socio-economic background (categorical questions), followed by success factors of local women employability in tourism (5 points likert scale: 1 = extremely important, 2 = very important, 3 = moderately important, 4 = slightly important, 5 = not at all important; lower mean value denotes that factor is extremely important ), pull factors of women participation (4 points likert scale: 1 = very relevant, 2 =relevant, 3 = less relevant, 4= not relevant at all: lower mean value denotes that factor is extremely important.), and strategies to improve local women participation in the hospitality industry (selection). the survey also included an in-depth discussion with selected respondents. the discussion helped in understanding the women’s responses in a different context, and they were used to validate and explain the answers in the questionnaire. the data were analyzed using spss version 21 software. the analysis was performed using descriptive analysis and mean comparisons of selected variables and perception between women working in the tourism industry and women not involved in any of tourism-related activities. the conceptual framework of the study can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. conceptual framework for women involvement in tourism and hospitality related work socio-demographic factors: age marital status number of children education level religion working environment” working hours promotion salary job security personal factors family conflict childcare responsibility experience job knowledge women participation in hospitality industry http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 260 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research results and discussion sample profile as mentioned, half of the sample was involved in the tourism and hospitality industry, and another half were not involved. when considering the women who work in the hospitality industry, the majority of women (86.60%) were married, and 13.30% of women were unmarried among those who were involved in the industry. among those who have not been involved in the industry, 63% were married, and 37% were unmarried (table 1). this clearly suggests that most of the women engaged in the tourism and hospitality industry were married. this may be for many plausible reasons. in general, there is a taboo in society for women working in tourism-related income-generating activities. thus, due to social status pressure, unmarried women may tend to be less interested in the job openings in this field. on the other hand, there may be other reasons for married women to engage in these activities. one is that, with family and children, the expenses of a household may be high, so women may also be pressured to work to support the family. another reason could be that their male counterparts may already have engaged in tourism-related livelihoods, and women may be supporting their husbands in their ventures. on the other hand, it could also be true that, after marriage, women are less pressured to get their hands into the tourism industry. the societal pressure which was there before marriage could be absent after marriage. age distribution patterns were similar in both samples (table 1). nevertheless, the respondents were distributed well among the women who were involved in the tourism and hospitality industry compared to those who were not involved. in the former group, mostly women (30%) were in the 25-29 age group, and 23% were in the 45< age group (table 1). rests of them were 30% of women in the 30-34 age category and 13% from the 35-39 age category. so, most women were in the young age (25-29) and (30-34) age category (almost 37%). this sums up that 70% of women were between 25 to 45 years old. the least representation of 7% was from women who were less than 25 years of age. so, there is the potential of enthusiasm and ability to get new job experience in the tourism and hospitality industry. in the latter group, the majority (36%) of women were in the 25-29 age category, and 32% were in the 45< age category (table 1). only a few women represented the age group between 35 to 45 years in the women who were not involved. nevertheless, even in the same age group, there was better representation from the women involved in the tourism and hospitality industry. this again may be explained as the groups involved in tourism-related activities are predominantly married. it is also possible that by chance, the other group had less representation from that age group. there were no substantial differences in the groups with respect to educational qualifications though subtle differences were there. women involved in tourism-related activities were almost educated, i.e., none of them were in the education category, whereas there were few from the not involved group. also, the percentage of women who received higher education was slightly higher in those who were involved with the industry. education is a good demographic factor for all the women who work in the tourism and hospitality http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 261 women participation in rural tourism: a case ….. (rasanjali, sivashankar, and mahaliyanaarachchi industry, e.g., the ability to speak a different language is a good opportunity for them to succeed in their job. when comparing those two educational levels majority of them have secondary education (70%), and only 30% of women have diplomas and bachelor’s degrees. in the not-involved group of women, 70% of women had secondary education, 23% had higher education, and the rest had only primary education. some of these women work in government or private jobs, but some of them are housewives. table 1. description of the sample profile variable category women involved in the tourism and hospitality industry (n1=30) women not involved in tourism and hospitality industry (n2=30) age mean age of both groups=36.05 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45< 7% 30% 17% 13% 10% 23% avg. age = 35.8 max. age = 69 min. age = 24 7% 36% 20% 3% 3% 32% avg. age = 36.2 max. age = 60 min. age =23 marital status married unmarried 86.6% 13.3% 63% 37% educational level primary education secondary education higher education 70% 30% 7% 70% 23% level of employment food and beverage front office finance housekeeping event management accommodation 33.3% 13.3% 16.6% 10% 3.3% 23.3% these women were not involved in the tourism and hospitality industry number of family members (average) 3.7 3.9 number of children(average) 1.6 2.05 years in tourism industry/ experience 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 above 20 years 80% 10% 3% 7% these women were not involved in the tourism and hospitality industry according to this research, the researchers found six main departments where women work in cafes and restaurants. majority of them (33.3%) work in the food and beverage department. furthermore, the most minor participation (3.3%) is found in event management. in women worker families, the average family size was 3.7, and the average number of children was 1.6. in families where women are not involved in tourism, the average family size http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 262 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research and number of children were 3.9 and 2.05, respectively. most (80%) of them have been involved in the tourism and hospitality industry within the last 1 to 5 years; about 10% have 6-10 years of experience in the industry. nevertheless, only 7% of women have above 20 years of job experience in the tourism industry. according to the collected data for women workers, 16.6% of women said gender affects tourism jobs. nevertheless, most of the women (60%) said there was no gender barrier in getting jobs related to the tourism industry. however, 23.3% had a moderate idea about gender barriers. when considering the idea of the women who are not involved in this sector, most of them (43.3%) said there were gender barriers in tourism-related jobs. also, 30% of them said gender was not a big problem for this industry. nevertheless, in this group, women who hold moderate views on gender barriers were around 26.6%, which was significantly higher than the other group of women. here, 13.3% of women said society had a good view about tourismrelated jobs. furthermore, unfortunately, 30% of women said society had a bad view, and 56.6% said society had a moderate view regarding tourism and hospitality industry jobs. women perception about factors influencing the local women’s employability in the hospitality industry this section presents the perception of women regarding the factors that influence the success of a women’s employability in the tourism and hospitality industry in ella. these factors may differ between those who were engaged and those who were not engaged in this industry. besides the factors that influence local women’s employability of hospitality industry success, the distribution of ‘obstacles to career success’ was divided into two categories (personal factors and working environmental factors) to analyze the different perceptions between the two samples clearly. table 2. key success factors for women employability in the tourism and hospitality industry female work in hospitality industry female does not work in hospitality industry. factor mean sd mean sd df t sig. good personality 1.3333 .71116 1.2667 .63968 60 .382 .496 effective communication skills* (knowledge about different languages) 1.3667 .55605 1.6333 1.03335 60 -1.245 .015 attitudes towards work 1.4333 .67891 1.5000 .82001 60 -.343 .620 job knowledge 1.6333 .92786 1.7333 .82768 60 -.441 .562 family support 1.8000 .96132 1.7667 .81720 60 .145 .604 hard work 1.8667 1.16658 1.5667 .72793 60 1.195 .099 problem-solving skills* 1.8000 .88668 2.0000 .69481 60 -.972 .004 job security 1.8333 .98553 2.0333 1.40156 60 -.639 .113 mentor support 1.8667 .81931 2.3667 .96431 60 -2.164 .493 educational qualification 2.0667 .98027 2.6667 1.12444 60 -2.203 .089 note: *p<0.05 means significantly different the factors are presented from most important to least important (i.e., from low mean values to higher mean values) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 263 women participation in rural tourism: a case ….. (rasanjali, sivashankar, and mahaliyanaarachchi the perceptions on key success factors for women’s employability in the tourism and hospitality industry did not differ greatly between the women who are involved and women who are not (table 2). mostly, both groups highlighted the same factors as important. in general, scores by women who were involved in the industry were low, meaning they mostly suggested all the factors were important compared to women who were not involved in the industry. the exception was the factors of familial support and hard work. for both these factors, not engaged women thought they were more important than those engaged with the industry. nevertheless, in general, both groups agreed that a good personality is the most important factor, effective communication skills and attitudes towards work. these were the most important three factors. educational qualification was considered the least important factor by both groups of women. the next least important factors were mentor support and job security. only in two factors, there were significant differences in the means, viz, effective communication skills and problem-solving skills. it is noteworthy that both of these two factors are skills that are usually considered very important in any working environment (janta, 2011; nyataya & ma, 2016). table 3. pull factors of women participation in tourism and hospitality industry female work in hospitality industry female does not work in hospitality industry. personal factors mean sd mean sd df t sig. conflicts with family activities 2.2333 .85836 1.6000 .49827 60 3.495 .075 childcare responsibilities* 2.4000 1.03724 1.5667 .56832 60 3.859 0.002 lack of experience* 1.8667 .97320 1.6333 .49013 60 1.173 0.014 inadequate job knowledge 1.9667 .85029 1.5667 .50401 60 2.217 0.433 factors related to working environment long working hours 2.3333 .88409 1.8000 .71438 60 2.570 .061 lack of promotion 2.1667 .69893 2.0667 .58329 60 .602 .246 satisfaction about salary than other jobs (incentive, bonus) 1.9000 .84486 1.9000 .66176 60 0.000 .375 note: *p<0.05 means significantly different. the factors are presented from most important to least important (i.e., from low mean values to higher mean values table 3 presents the factors that act as barriers for women to involve in the tourism and hospitality industry. contrastingly, compared to the push factors, there were considerable differences between the two women groups. women who were not involved tend to rate these factors as most relevant compared to the other group. those already working in the industry said these were less relevant than the other group. these pull factors were of two types: personal factors and work-related factors. in general, working women in the industry suggested that conflict with family (2.2333±0.858) and childcare responsibilities (2.4000±1.037) were less relevant among the factors. for the same factors, the non-engaged women rated 1.6000±0.498 for conflict with families and 1.5667±0.0.568 for childcare responsibilities. there was a significant difference in the two groups’ mean values for childcare responsibilities and lack of experience. both groups recorded the same mean values for the factor, satisfaction http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 264 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research about the salary. one interesting feature is the observation of the standard deviation (sd) values. there seems to be a higher variance in the sd values from the women working in the industry than women not working in the industry. startling deviations were observed in the personal factors of the women who were engaged in the industry. further, the least deviations were observed in personal factors among those who were not engaged in the industry. but in the work environment factors, people already in the industry showed lesser variance than those not in the industry. this is plausible as regarding the work environment, one group already had the experience, and the other group they do not possess any experience; thus, there may be greater variance in their answers (knutson & schmidgall, 1999; marinakou, 2014). ella is a heritage for the tourism and hospitality industry. nevertheless, that 30 women not involving the tourism industry can have their reason for non-participation in this industry. therefore, the researcher asks them through a questionnaire, ‘why are you not involved in the tourism and hospitality industry?’ there were five reasons included in the questionnaire (orido, 2017). according to that, most of them (33.3%) are not involved in tourism industry because of ‘language barriers.’ the second biggest issue was family conflict. it was 23.3%. moreover, 16.6% of women said lack of knowledge about the tourism industry was the reason that avoids their participation. furthermore, the same amount (13.3%) of them said they had no opportunities, and the rest of them said they were not interested in any job. however, out of these 30 women, 53.3% of them had an idea to involve the tourism and hospitality industry in the future. the rest of them (46.6%) had no idea to involve this sector. strategies to improve local women participation in the hospitality industry in ella figure 2 and 3 show the possible strategies to lure more women into the tourism and hospitality industry. most of them who were engaged in the industry suggest that workshops and training programs (43%) would be good. this is understandable as those already in the industry know the industry requirements and may need to improve certain skills through this training. among those who were not involved in the industry suggest that promotional strategies through social media (54%) would attract more women into the industry. both the groups think the least effective strategy would be through tv programs. in both cohorts, a considerable number of respondents believe that expanding the jobs in the tourism and hospitality industry would also be an effective strategy to lure more rural women into the industry. figure 2. opinion of the workers in the industry figure 3. opinion of non-workers through workshop through tv program through social media54% 20% 23 3% through workshop through tv program 43% 23% 27% 7% http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 265 women participation in rural tourism: a case ….. (rasanjali, sivashankar, and mahaliyanaarachchi these barriers have been of manifolds for women. thus, very few women have climbed the career ladder in this industry. an ample amount of flexibility is available for workers in this industry, as formal education is not a barrier. thus even rural people with less education, including women, can get involved, and they too can decide on their time allocation (budig, 2006). some studies have even looked at opportunities for physically impaired people in the industry (yusoff et al., 2013; zahari et al., 2010). moore (2009) found that discrimination for older women in the industry. it is exacerbated by factors like age, race, and class. thus older women face occupational and sectoral segregation. beyond these factors, if the women are from other countries or migrants, the glass ceilings for them are even higher (janta, 2011). as the migrant women lack knowledge of the local regulations and labor practices adopted, they face further challenges. another reason was that migrant workers will not be too demanding on work conditions, unlike locals. women mostly involve themselves in non-professional and non-managerial selfemployment activities to balance work and family demands (budig, 2006). this would allow them to maintain a proper balance, whereas if they engage in higher levels of activities, they may have to allocate more time. greater focus on the job will be demanded as the responsibilities rise. family factors seem to contribute little to explain women’s entrance into professional and managerial self-employment in the hospitality industry. a considerable amount of studies has dealt with women’s employment issues in the tourism and hospitality industry. they have dealt with why women lag behind in the tourism sector (nayomi & gnanapala, 2015; nyataya & ma, 2016) and some specifically on the context of rural women (malkanthi, ishana, sivashankar, & weeralal, 2015). what factors lead to these differences in gender disparity. from agriculture, it has been found that women’s contribution to the family is noticeable (gamhewage, sivashankar, mahaliyanaarachchi, wijeratne, & hettiarachchi, 2015; walpole & goodwin, 2000). thus, in rural areas, women can considerably contribute to the family through tourism activities. women take the leading roles in rural tourism (duarte & pereira, 2018). nevertheless, most of the women are kept out of the institutional system. past studies also infer that a proper institutional system is needed to empower women (herawati, purwaningsih, pudianti, & surya, 2014; khartishvili et al., 2019; koutsou et al., 2009; mohanty et al., 2018; ramli, rinanto, ariyanto, mafruhah, & praseptiangga, 2016). this could be through cooperatives, private enterprises, or even state involvement. once there is an established system, it is also easy to expel the bad taboo about this industry too. municipalities could also take up the coordination role. when women are supported by organizations to enter the tourism industry, their income-generating capacity grows and reflects in self-esteem and greater bargaining power (rinaldi & salerno, 2020). further, institutionalization improves many other skills, including personal and work-related transferable skills, as women get more exposure to other stakeholders (cvijanović & gajić, 2020; koutsou et al., 2009). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 266 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research conclusion the main objectives of this research were to understand the important factors affecting and hindering women involvement in ella ds division’s rural tourism activities in restaurants, cafes, and small hotels and examine the effects of the demographic factors such as age, educational level, and marital status on their involvement in such activities. further, the study measures push and pull factors that affect women’s involvement in rural tourism activities. this study also discusses the constraints and provides solutions for these identified constraints. based on statistical analysis, two hypotheses have been tested. the study found that women’s involvement and non-involvement in the rural hospitality industry can be mainly observed in the age category of 25-29 years older women. when considering these two groups, most of the women are married and have up to secondary education. most of these women were involved in food & beverage-related activities in these enterprises. finally, the study reveals effective communication skills and problem-solving skills had a significant relationship with women’s success in the hospitality industry. child caring responsibilities and lack of experience are the pull factors that hinder women’s participation in the tourism and hospitality industry. some suggestions can be inferred based on the findings of the study. since this is an avenue for women to earn an additional income without migrating away from the village, rural tourism can be used as a strategy to alleviate poverty. establishing day-care centers which would take care of children during working hours would be a solution for the women, as this is a pull factor for them. further, short training in hospitality management would give these women a chance to cater to the pressing needs of the industry and to improve their language and social capital. this would also aid in removing the traditional mindset of the villagers. as these ventures can cater to both local and foreign tourists, women’s involvement in rural tourism should be promoted so as to improve the vulnerable groups who strive below the poverty lines. references albattat, a. r. s., & som, a. p. m. 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(2017). challenges faced by female chefs in the kenyan hospitality industry: a study through an african oral tradition of storytelling (doctoral dissertation, auckland university of technology, auckland, new zealand). retrivied from https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/handle/10292/10626 palikhe, a. (2018). women empowerment in tourism: special reference to pokhara metropolitan city. journal of nepalese business studies, 11(1), 35–44. https://doi.org/10.3126/jnbs.v11i1.24199 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/handle/10292/10626 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 269 women participation in rural tourism: a case ….. (rasanjali, sivashankar, and mahaliyanaarachchi ramli, m., rinanto, y., ariyanto, j., mafruhah, i., & praseptiangga, d. (2016). rural tourism in ponorogo east java indonesia. journal of asian vocational education and training, 9, 52–66. rinaldi, a., & salerno, i. 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(2010). the employability of the hearing impaired graduates in malaysia hospitality industry. world applied sciences journal, 10 (specia, 126–135. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228542055%0a http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 241-255 article history: submitted : november 2nd, 2020 revised : november 3rd, 2021 september 21st, 2021 accepted : november 8th, 2021 agustina shinta hartati wahyuningtyas, novi haryati*, destyana ellingga pratiwi, and luisa maliny situmeang department of agricultural socio-economics, faculty of agriculture, universitas brawijaya, jl. veteran kota malang 65145, indonesia *) correspondence email: noviharyati@ub.ac.id risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice supply chains: lesson learned from the involved actors doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.10126 abstract rice is the main consumption food for indonesians. the demand for food increased from 114.6 kg per capita in 2016 to 124.89 kg in 2017. however, rice farmers and supply chain actors in rice agribusiness have experienced high challenges, such as production, transportation, price, product quality, and the environment. this research aimed to understand actors involved in the supply chain, their perception of occurring risks, and evaluation and risk mitigation in the supply chain. this was a quantitative descriptive study done purposively in watugede village, singosari sub-district, malang regency. non-probability sampling was taken to gather primary data. the respondent of this research was 16 involved actors, from on-farm actors to consumers. the data were analyzed using the fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (fahp) to provide descriptive risk mitigation strategies. the results show that six involved actors are suppliers, farmers, grinders, traders, and buyers. each actor faces different risks, and thus, the recommended mitigation strategies are adjusted to their risks. sharing information, optimizing the level of supply availability, measuring supply chain performance, and building more coordination with the government are the best strategies to mitigate risks. keywords: mitigation, rice, risk, supply chains introduction gross domestic product (gdp) from the agricultural sector in indonesia increased to 73.3% in the first quarter of 2019 from idr 46,173.20 billion in the fourth quarter of 2018; the increase reaches an average of idr 68,735.56 billion from 2010 to 2019 (food and agriculture organization [fao], 2021). therefore, certain agricultural products with high selfsufficiency received special attention in the blueprint of the asean economic community (aec). in particular, this condition applies to rice which by far is one of the four strategic commodities. typical risks occur in every supply chain management, including interruptions and delays caused by suppliers, such as supply capacity (bollapragada et al., 2004; cachon & lariviere, 1999; ellram, 1990; feng, 2010; kahraman et al., 2003; wu et al., 2008), product design changes (novak & eppinger, 2001) and delivery delays (feng, 2010). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:noviharyati@ub.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.10126 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gdp.asp issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 242 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research meanwhile, other risks are due to exchange rates, inventory, and out of stock (halldórsson et al., 2009), logistics, and transportation risks (santis et al., 2017). the demand risks include demand volatility and forecasting inaccuracies, information distortion, and stock accumulation due to bullwhip effects (kahraman et al., 2003). other researchers divide the risks into environmental, social, and financial risks. environmental risk is a consequence of natural ecosystems, corporate reputation, financial compliance, and legal compliance (cachon & lariviere, 1999). meanwhile, social risk refers to sending responsibility to employees, consumers, business partners, the government, and society. other examples of social risks include business scandals that employ underage workers, unethical treatment of animals, illegal environmental practices, pricing, allegations of bribery, fraud, and patent infringement (hammoudi et al., 2009). the financial dimension separates financial risks performed by financial environment, corporate, and individual behavior and strives for continuous economic growth (blome & schoenherr, 2011). sustainability is generally related to risks encountered by industries, such as greenhouse gas emissions, natural disasters, accidents, energy consumption, waste, and environmental damage during shipping and transportation. the sustainability risks include resistance to boycotting a company's products, litigation against companies to cover financial losses caused by environmental accidents, non-compliance with regulations, or unethical behavior, risks of social justice from unfair workers and work practices, and increasing commodity and energy prices as fuel shortages (spekman & davis, 2004). economic risks are related to uncertainty in a country’s economic conditions, interest rates, business trends like increasing outsourcing or offsourcing and information technology used to develop sustainable supply chains (zhou & benton, 2007). the impact of these risks is the increasing costs, and thus, a strategy for resource allocation and capacity development to manage risks is necessary (tang & nurmaya musa, 2011). one technique to manage risk is to provide incentives in the supply chain, and thus suppliers can work together following the contract and provide reliable guarantees (matzembacher & meira, 2019). after analyzing the risks of the supply chain, this study was expected to find a strategy to prevent or eliminate risks for the rice supply chain. rice farmers in watugede village singosari have experienced high challenges in their supply chains since they produce semi-organic rice with different marketing processes. besides, other challenges are production, transportation, price, product quality, and the environment. therefore, this research was conducted to understand 1) actors involved in the supply chain, 2) their perception of occurring risks, and 3) evaluation and risk mitigation in the supply chain. this research is expected to provide theoretical contributions for the actor mapping and supply chain risk mitigation, as well as practical contributions for advice and inputs for supply chain actors. research method this research employed a quantitative descriptive approach queirós, faria, & almeida, (2017) because this research involved data in numbers. the data were obtained from interviews conducted in each supply chain. the descriptive method was also used to describe http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 243 risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice ….. (wahyuningtyas, haryati, pratiwi, and situmeang) each actor in a semi-organic rice supply chain. this method identified sources of risks perceived by each actor in the semi-organic rice supply chain. identifying risks perceived by each supply chain actor can be seen from the respondents’ answers on the questionnaire using the likert scales. the scales were 1-5 with the following descriptions: 1 = very unimportant, 2 = not important, 3 = doubtful, 4 = important, and 5 = very important. furthermore, this study employed the judgment sampling technique to answer the objective of supply chain risk. this technique considers the determined characteristics of target populations and is adapted to the research purposes or problems queirós, faria, & almeida, (2017). this research employed the primary data collected with the structured questionnaires based on the research purposes. the research site was watugede village, singosari sub-district, malang regency, indonesia. the data were analyzed using the fuzzy ahp. the research respondents are the actors of each supply chain. they were one supplier, three farmers, three loggers, three grinders, three traders, and three consumers. the research framework was summarized in figure 1. figure 1. the research framework of semi-organic rice supply chains mitigation supply risks price risks production risks quality risks environment risks transportation risks semi-organic rice supply chains identification source of risks supplier farmer logger grinder trader buyer perception in every chain fuzzy-analytic hierarchy process (f-ahp) evaluation of risks (determining the priority risk) risk mitigation http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 244 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research fuzzy ahp (analytical hierarchy process) is the best method to determine the weight of each risk factor (feng, 2010). meanwhile, the risk factors were selected using the highest weight with expert judgment inputs. in general, this study developed the fuzzy ahp method through eight stages. 1. the first stage was identifying risk problems. the criteria of risk selection were supply, transportation, price, quality, and environment. 2. the second stage was creating a hierarchical structure to represent a complex problem in the risk selection. the sub-criteria of risk selection were diversity of supply, uncertain supply, damaged infrastructures, uncertain time, transportation, road insecurity, long haul distances, inflation, price fluctuations, information distortion, low quality, quality variations, government policy, political, social, and cultural conditions, and competitors’ products. 3. the third stage was choosing alternative assessments and criteria. this stage is pivotal to determine the priority criteria from every tier of semi-organic rice, including suppliers, farmers, loggers, grinders, traders, and buyers. 4. the fourth stage was fuzzy fiction from the results of assessing and performing defuzzification of the fuzzy score. this stage was done by making criteria and alternative matrices. 5. the fifth stage was calculating the eigenvector values and testing their consistency. if the values are not consistent, the data collection should be repeated. the eigenvector values in questions refer to the maximum obtained eigenvector value. 6. the sixth stage was calculating ratio consistency and final scores, determining the ranking of the final scores (santis et al., 2017), and testing the hierarchy consistency. if the scores do not meet the cr <0.100, the assessment must be repeated. 7. the seventh stage was evaluating the highest priority of the most important risks in the criteria and sub-criteria. the last stage was determining the risk mitigation strategies for each actor in the semiorganic rice supply chain. the mitigation strategies were determined by conducting a discussion between the researchers and respondents, actors in the semi-organic rice supply chain. result and discussions semi-organic rice supply chains the post-harvest rice supply chain in singosari district involves several actors. the rice supply chain flow consists of the rice supply chain flow, such as supply chains for grain, rice bran, and husk. each supply chain flow had product, financial, and information flows. however, this research limited its investigation to the post-harvest supply chains. actors involved in the post-harvest supply chain were farmers, grain traders, mills, rice traders, retailers of markets, stalls, and shops, brick entrepreneurs, and breeders. these actors were mentioned in figure 1. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 245 risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice ….. (wahyuningtyas, haryati, pratiwi, and situmeang) figure 2. the semi-organic rice supply chain in the post-harvest, the semi-organic rice experienced changes in values from grain to rice readily consumed, and in the flow of post-harvest yield received by the grinders (wet rice). wet rice was the main raw material in the rice milling process to become rice. wet grains were initially dried in the sun to reduce the water content until they are ready for the grinding process. dry milled grain was included in the rice milling system. farmer groups have provided milling facilities for their members, although they are not required to deposit to farmer groups. evaluating the highest risk priority for each supply chain actors of semi-organic rice risks at the supplier level the result of weighting risk using the fuzzy ahp shows that the highest risk weighting at the supplier level was supply risk. the following high risks were quality risks, environmental risks, production risks, price risks, and transportation risks. the rating was considered valid because its cr value is 0.01 or <0.1. the risk of weighting results at the supplier level is presented in figures 3 and 4. there were five criteria to examine the risks for actors of semiorganic rice supply chains. they were the supply, transportation, price, quality, and environment. figure 3 shows that the highest risk priority was the supply risk by 0.301. the successive risk priorities were the transportation risk by 0.078, the price risk by 0.280, the quality risk by 0.259, and the environmental risk by 0.081. the sub-criterion risks to supply risks are presented in figure 4. the figure signifies that the uncertain supply has the highest risk of the supplier’s activities by 0.81, while the score of diversity in supply was 0.19. supply risks faced by the supplier refer to risks in the uncertain supply availability to meet farmers’ needs. goods that are only provided by suppliers were commodities highly needed by farmers. meanwhile, suppliers wait for the total items requested by farmers to cultivate rice. figure 3. the weighting structure of risk priority criteria and subcriteria at the supplier level figure 4. the weighting structure of risk priority at the supplier level therefore, the most troubling conditions for suppliers are when farmers do not need supplies or pay attention to the available supplies. however, when farmers need supplies, then the suppliers must immediately provide the available supply. if the supply is absent, the farmers are angry, sue the suppliers, or protest against them. suppliers farmers loggers grinders traders buyers priority risk criteria environment by 0.081 quality by 0.259 prices by 0.28 transportatio n by 0.078 supply by 0.30 priority risk criteria uncertain supply 0.81 variety of supply 0.19 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 246 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research risks at the farm level the farm level was analyzed to determine the risks faced by farmers in the supply chain management to improve the quality of semi-organic rice products. the result of weighting risk factors using the fuzzy ahp shows that the highest risk factor at the farm level was the environmental risk. meanwhile, the following factors were quality, price, supply, production, and transportation risks. rating was considered valid because its cr value was 0.04 or <0.1. the risk factor of weighing results at the farm level are presented in figure 5. there were six criteria to examine the risks for actors of semi-organic rice supply chains. they were supply, transportation, price, quality, environment, and production. figure 5. priority risk criteria and sub-criteria at the farmer level figure 5 demonstrates that the highest risk priority at the farmer level was the environmental risk by 0.507. the transportation risk weights -0.03, the supply risk weights 0.02, the price risk weights 0.28, the quality risk weights 0.22, and the production risk weights 0.02. meanwhile, the risk sub-criteria in the environmental risks are presented in figure 6. figure 6. risk priority at the farmer level figure 6 denotes that the pests and diseases are at the highest risk for farmer activities with a weight of 0.32. other risks are the natural disaster risk with a weight of 0.10, the government policy risk with a weight of 0.12, the climate risk with a weight of 0.24, the risk of political, social, and cultural conditions weight 0.05, and the competitor’s product risk weights 0.17. the highest risk of pests or diseases to the farmers’ activities refers to the number of pests, such as rats, that make farmers experience huge losses. pests in agriculture are plantdisturbing organisms that damage the crops physically and physiologically. these pests cause crop failure, decrease the amount of crop production, disturb rice growth, decrease the economic value of production, and cause losses to farmers. farmers and the community have done various ways to control rats, such as biological, sanitary, mechanical, and chemical methods, but they always fail and suffer from crop failure. besides pests, diseases, such as bacterial leaf blight, often attack rice plants. this disease attacks rice leaves and is similar to stem borer attacks. another disease is a leaf spot disease caused by fungus. priority risk criteria environment by 0.57 quality by 022 price by 0.2 transportation by -0.03 supply by 0.02 production by 0.02 priority risk sub-criteria socio, economic, and political risks by 0.05 pest by 0.32 climate by 0.24 government policy by 0.12 natural disaster by 0.10 others by 0.17 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 247 risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice ….. (wahyuningtyas, haryati, pratiwi, and situmeang) risks at the logger level the analysis level was conducted to determine the risks compulsorily faced in the supply chain management to improve the quality of semi-organic rice products. the result of weighting risk factors using fuzzy ahp shows that the highest risk factor to the logger level was the environmental risk. the successive high factors were price, quality, supply, and transportation risks. the rating was considered valid because its cr value was 0.03 or <0.1. the weighting results of the risk factor at the log level are presented in figure 7. this study employed five criteria to examine the risks to actors of semi-organic rice supply chains. they were supply, transportation, price, quality, and environment. the following structures are weighting priority risk criteria and risk sub-criteria at the logger level. figure 7. the priority weighting structure of risk criteria at the logging level figure 8. priority weighting structure of environmental risk sub-criteria at the logging level figure 7 shows that the highest risk priority at the logging level was the environmental risk by 0.37. the supply risk weights are 0.04, the transportation weights 0.04, the price risk weights 0.24, the quality risk weights 0.23, and the environmental risk weights 0.37. figure 8 shows that the risk of competing products was the highest risk to logging activities with a weighting of 0.34. other risks were the natural disaster risk with a weight of 0.14, the government policy risk with a weight of 0.25, the climate risk with a weight of 0.12, the risk of social, political, and cultural conditions with a weight of 0.05, and pest or disease risk with a weight of 0.17. the competitors’ product risk in question refers to competition among loggers when cutting grains from farmers. in addition, when harvesting in other cities, many products from those cities were brought to watugede village. consequently, the product prices from this village fall and loggers suffer from losses. in addition, the government policies also cause the risk because of insufficient relation to the rice entry distribution in watugede village. risks at the grinder level risk identification at the grinder level using the fuzzy ahp obtained the highest priority risk faced by grinders in the semi-organic rice supply chain was the price risk. the next highpriority risk sub-criteria socio, economic, and political by 0.05 pest by 0.11 climate by 0.12 government policy by 0.25 natural disaster by 0.14 others by 0.34 priority risk criteria environment by 0.37 quality by 0.23 price by 0.24 transportation by 0.04 supply by 0.04 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 248 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research priority risks were quality, production, supply, transportation, and environmental risks. the risk assessment was considered valid because its cr value was 0.06 or <0.1. figure 9 shows the calculation results using fuzzy. there were six criteria used to examine the risks to actors of semiorganic rice supply chains. they were the supply, transportation, price, quality, environment, and production. the following is the weighting structure of priority risk criteria and risk sub-criteria at the grinder level. figure 9. priority weighting structure of risk criteria at the grinder level figure 9 describes that the highest risk priority at the grinder level was the price risk by 0.30. the supply risk weights were 0.19; the transportation risk had a weight of 0.06, the quality risk weights 0.21, the environmental risk weights 0.05, and the production risk weights 0.37. the risk sub-criteria on environmental risks are presented in figure 10. the figure presents that the price fluctuation was the highest risk to grinder activities with a weight of 0.62. another risk is inflation with a weight of 0.23. the risk of information distortion weights 0.15. price fluctuations occur in two situations. when production is abundant, prices will greatly decrease. conversely, when production is small, prices will rise. in addition, price fluctuations occur because the quality of rice was not good due to the damage when drying the grain, and there are a lot of rice stocks or broken rice due to uncertain weather conditions. the poor grain quality makes the grinder recognize that they should reduce the rice price for the retailers and consumers. in addition, the desire of retail traders and consumers to low prices causes grinders to suffer from loss. if direct sales are made to consumers, the grinder will receive a higher price because the direct sales can be directly adjusted to market prices. however, if a sale was made to a trader, the received price will be lower because the price was adjusted to the price at the grinder level. risks at the trader level the risk identification at the trader level using the fuzzy ahp obtained risk priorities faced by traders in the semi-organic rice supply chain. the price and quality risks were the highest priorities. the next priorities were environmental risk, supply risk, and risk transportation. the assessments will produce priority weights investigating the value of each risk. the rating was considered valid because its cr value was 0.04 or <0.1. five criteria were employed to examine the risks to actors of semi-organic rice supply chains. they were supply, transportation, price, quality, and environment. the following structures are the weighting of priority risk criteria and risk sub-criteria at the retail trader level. priority risk criteria environment by 0.05 quality by 0.21 price by 0.30 transportation by 0.06 supply by 0.19 production by 0.20 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 249 risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice ….. (wahyuningtyas, haryati, pratiwi, and situmeang) figure 11. priority weighting structure of risk criteria at the retail=trader level figure 12. priority weighting structure of price and quality risk sub-criteria at the retail trader level figure 11 shows that the highest risk priority at the retail level was the price and quality risk by 0.291. the supply risk weights 0.119, the transportation risk weights 0.122, and the environmental risk weights 0.177. the risk sub-criteria of the price and quality risk are presented in figure 12. the figure shows that the price fluctuation was the highest price risk to trader activities with a weight of 0.68. other risks were inflation with a weight of 0.19 and the information distortion risk with a weight of 0.13. quality variation also becomes the highest quality risk to trader activities with a weight of 0.57. another risk was the risk of low quality with a weight of 0.43. this risk was caused by the low rice price because of low quality, such as inadequate rice. prices sold by retailers range from idr9,500 to idr12,000 per kg. in addition, the quality of rice was sometimes low and diverse, and thus, consumers refuse or become more selective when purchasing rice. groats in rice is another important factor (beloshapka et al., 2016) that probably makes consumers refuse to buy rice. risks at the consumer level the risk identification at the consumer level by using the fuzzy ahp revealed that the highest priority risk faced by consumers in the semi-organic rice supply chain was the price risk. other encountered risks were the supply and quality risks. the assessments will produce priority weights to examine the value of each risk. the rating was considered valid because its cr value was 0.04 or <0.1. the following figures summarize the results of calculations using fuzzy. three criteria were employed to explore the risks to actors of semi-organic rice supply chains. they were the supply, price, and quality. the following structures are the weighting of priority risk criteria and risk sub-criteria at the consumer level. priority risk criteria environment by 0.177 quality by 0.29 price by 0.29 transportation by 0.06 supply by 0.119 priority risk sub-criteria price by 0.291 price inflation by 0.19 price fluctuation by 0.68 distortion of information by 0.13 quality by 0.291 low quality by 0.43 varies in quality by 0.37 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 250 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 13. priority weighting structure of risk criteria at the consumer level figure 14. priority weighting structure of price risk sub-criteria at the consumer level figure 13 shows that the highest risk priority at the consumer level was price risk by 0.48. the supply risk weights 0.46, and the quality risk weights 0.06. the data of risks at the consumer level processed by the fuzzy ahp are provided by three respondents. table 14 shows that the highest risk priority experienced by consumers was the price risk by 0.48. therefore, the price risk had the biggest or most important influence among the other five risks to consumers of semi-organic rice. meanwhile, the weight of the supply risk was 0.46, and the weight of the quality risk was 0.06. the price risk had several risk sub-criteria, such as inflation, price fluctuations, and information distortion. the questionnaire using the fuzzy ahp revealed that the highest risk priority of the price fluctuation was at the consumer level. consumers frequently encounter price fluctuations because of the low quality, falling rice prices, and rising rice prices due to rising demand (costantino et al., 2012). risk mitigation strategies for actors of each semi-organic rice supply chains this research employed risk mitigation strategies to improve the occurring risks in semiorganic rice (talluri, kull, yildiz, & yoon, 2013). the strategies applied for semi-organic rice supply chains in watugede village are expected to minimize the risk. mitigation strategies are conducted by discussion between researchers and respondents, who are actors (di falco & bulte, 2013) in the semi-organic rice supply chains. the risk mitigation of risk priorities encountered by actors in each supply chain is explained as follows. risk mitigation strategies at the supplier level table 1 describes those suppliers perceive three risks that occur at the supplier level. the first was the supply risk, namely the uncertain supply risk. the second was the quality risk, namely the low-quality risk. the third was the environmental risk, namely government policy risk. the fuzzy ahp analysis discovered that the highest risk priority was the supply risk, namely the uncertain supply risk. to deal with the uncertain supply problem, sharing information in the supply chain, optimizing the level of supply readiness, and measuring supply chain performance are highly needed (zhou & benton, 2007). risk mitigation strategies at the farmer level table 1 describes those farmers perceive five risks occurring at the farm level. the first was the supply risk, consisting of the uncertain supply risk. the second was the price risk, priority risk criteria quality by 0.06 price by 0.48 supply by 0.46 priority risk sub-criteria information distortion by 0.32 price fluctuation by 0.35 inflation by 0.33 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 251 risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice ….. (wahyuningtyas, haryati, pratiwi, and situmeang) consisting of the inflation and price fluctuation risk. the third was the quality risk, consisting of the risk of low quality. the fourth was the environmental risks, consisting of the government policy, pest or disease, and competitors’ product risks. the fifth was production risk, consisting of the risk of an unachieved production target. the fuzzy ahp analysis revealed that the highest risk priority was the environmental risk, consisting of the pest or disease risk. this risk is preventable by cleaning land or environmental sanitation, cleaning grass or bushes where rats nest, installing nursery curtains when rice is sown, dismantling rat holes, and killing the physical states of the rats directly (di falco & bulte, 2013). table 1. perception and evaluation results of the highest risk priorities for actors of semi-organic rice supply chains criteria sub-criteria supplier farmer logger grinder trader consumer supply diverse supplies ✓ uncertain supplies ✔ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ transportation infrastructure damages uncertain transportation time ✓ insecure road long haul distances prices inflation ✓ ✓ price fluctuations ✓ ✓ ✔ ✔ ✔ information distortion ✓ ✓ ✓ quality low quality ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ quality variation ✓ ✓ ✔ ✓ environment natural disasters government policies ✓ ✓ ✓ climates ✓ ✓ ✓ political, social, and cultural conditions pests/diseases ✔ ✓ competitive products ✓ ✔ ✓ ✓ production production capacities inefficient production processes not achieved targets ✓ use of technology risk mitigation strategies at the logger level table 1 shows that the loggers perceive four risks occurring at the logger level. the first was the supply risk, comprising of the uncertain supply risk. the second was the price risks, comprising price fluctuations and information distortion risks. the third was the quality risks, comprising low quality and various quality risks. the fourth was the environmental risk, comprising government policy, climate, and competitors’ product risks (zhou & benton, 2007). the ahp fuzzy analysis found that the highest risk priority for the environmental risk was the risk of competitors’ products. if the harvest in other cities is big, the products freely enter the village. this condition makes the price fall, and the logger suffers from losses (di falco & bulte, 2013). there are several efforts to minimize the risks: http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 252 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 1. communicating more with farmers, 2. paying more attention to rice planting schedules to minimize falling prices and maintain the supply availability when there is a big harvest outside watugede village, 3. relating the government policies to several products entering watugede village, and 4. hoarding unhusked rice in advance to keep the stock and increase rice production. risk mitigation strategies at the grinder level table 1 represents that the grinders perceive five risks occurring at the grinder level. the first was the supply risks, such as the diverse supply and uncertain supply risks. the second was the transportation risk, such as uncertain transportation time. the third was the price risks, such as price volatility and information distortion risks. the fourth was the quality risk, such as the low quality and various quality risks. the fifth was the environmental risk, such as the climate risk. the sixth was the production risk, such as the competing product risk (di falco & bulte, 2013). the ahp fuzzy analysis revealed that the highest risk priority was the price risk, consisting of the price fluctuation risk. (zhou & benton, 2007) propose several efforts to minimize the risks: 1. more maintaining quality of rice produced, 2. obtaining raw materials of grain, and 3. always updating the information of prevailing grain and rice prices in the market. risk mitigation strategies at the trader level table 1 presents that the retail traders perceive four risks occurring at the retail trader level. the first was the supply risk, consisting of the uncertain supply risk. the second was the price risks, consisting of the risks of price fluctuations and information distortion. the third was the quality risks, consisting of the risk of low quality and the risk of various quality. the fourth was the environmental risks, consisting of the pest or disease risk and the competing product risk. the ahp fuzzy analysis found that the highest risk priority was the price risk, consisting of the price fluctuation risk, and the quality risk, consisting of the risk of various quality. an effort to minimize the risks is building cooperation among traders to control rice prices in the market (di falco & bulte, 2013). in addition, frequently fluctuating prices require intervention from the government to stabilize rice prices (zhou & benton, 2007) risk mitigation strategies at the consumers level table 1 shows that the consumer perceived three risks occurring at the consumer level. the first was the supply risk, comprising of uncertain supply risk. the second was the price risk, comprising of the price fluctuation risk. the third was the quality risk, comprising lowquality and various quality risks. the ahp fuzzy analysis discovered that the highest risk priority was the price risk, comprising of the price fluctuations. the risk can be minimized by maintaining stable prices in all parties or actors of the supply chain from the downstream to the upstream (zhou & benton, 2007). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 253 risk mitigation strategies in semi-organic rice ….. (wahyuningtyas, haryati, pratiwi, and situmeang) conclusion this study concludes several principal findings. this conclusion is related to the introduction and aims or hypothesis but does not repeat the discussion. moreover, the conclusion was written briefly, critically, logically, and honestly following the discovered facts. moreover, the discussion was written cautiously if there had been a generalization. actors involved in semi-organic rice supply chains in watugede village, singosari district were suppliers, farmers, loggers, grinders, traders, and consumers. the risks at the supplier level were supply, quality, and environment risks. risks at the farm level awere the supply, price, quality, environment, and production risks. risks at the logging level were supply, price, quality, and environment risks. risks at the grinder level were supply, transportation, price, quality, environment, and production risks. risks at trader levels were supply, price, quality, and environment risks. finally, risks at the consumer level were supply, price, and quality risks. the evaluation of the highest risk priority in supply chain actors employed the fuzzy ahp and revealed several points. the risks at the supplier level were the supply risk and the supply risk sub-criteria, such as the uncertain supply risk. the risks at the farm level were the environmental risk and environmental risk sub-criteria, such as the pest or disease risk. the risks at the logistical level were environmental risks and environmental risk sub-criteria, such as the risk of competing products. the risks at the grinder level were the price risk and the price risk sub-criteria, such as the price fluctuation risk. the risks at the retail level were price risk and quality risk. the price risk subcategory constitutes the price fluctuation risk. meanwhile, the quality risk subcategory constitutes the risk of various quality. the risks at the consumer level were the price risk and price risk sub-criteria, such as the price fluctuation risk. the risks at the supplier level can be prevented by sharing information along the supply chains, optimizing the level of supply availability, measuring supply chain performance, and building more coordination with government subsidies. the risks at the farm level can be prevented by clearing land or environmental sanitation, cleaning grass or bushes where rats nest, installing nursery curtains when rice is sown, dismantling rat holes, and killing rats’ physical states directly. the risks at falling prices can be minimized by improving government policies on products entering watugede village and hoarding unhusked rice. consequently, stocks remain. another effort is increasing rice production. the risks at the grinder level can be minimized by maintaining the quality of rice production, obtaining raw materials of grains, and always following the information of prevailing grain and rice prices in the market. the risks at the retail trader level can be minimized by building cooperation among traders to control rice prices in the market. moreover, frequently fluctuating prices require intervention from the government to stabilize rice prices. the risks at the consumer level can be minimized by maintaining stable price stability in all parties or actors in the supply chain from the downstream to the upstream. acknowledgments: we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the directorate of research and community service, general directorate for strengthening research and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 254 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research development of the ministry of research, technology, and higher education (ristekdikti) for funding this research through the community service in the community partnership program no. 579 in 2019. reference beloshapka, a. n., buff, p. r., fahey, g. c., & swanson, k. s. 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(2008). promoting innovation through the accumulation of intellectual capital, social capital, and entrepreneurial orientation. r&d management, 38(3), 265-277. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9914.00120-i1 zhou, h., & benton, w. c. (2007). supply chain practice and information sharing. journal of operations management, 25(6), 1348–1365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jom.2007.01.009 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.1108/09576050310503367 https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-03-2018-0207 https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-03-2018-0207 https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.47.1.189.10662 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.887089 https://doi.org/10.14488/bjopm.2017.v14.n3.a15 https://doi.org/10.1108/09600030410545454 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2010.06.013 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9914.00120-i1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jom.2007.01.009 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 127-141 article history: submitted : march 5th, 2021 revised : may 25th, 2021 accepted : may 28th, 2021 ahmad fawad entezari, kelly wong kai seng*, fazlin ali department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, faculty of agriculture, universiti putra malaysia, 43400, upm serdang, selangor, malaysia *) correspondence email: kellywong@upm.edu.my malaysia’s agricultural production dropped and the impact of climate change: applying and extending the theory of cobb douglas production doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11274 abstract under climate change, malaysia's agricultural production showed decreasing in recent decades. this study tries to fill in the gaps to applying and extending the cobb douglas production function theory to examine the impact of climate change and economic factors on malaysia's agricultural production. using englegranger (eg) test with 37 years of data from 1980 to 2016. the findings showed that the long-run estimated coefficients for rainfall, temperature, and interest rate were -0.338, -0.024, and -0.029, respectively. this indicates that each additional percent in rainfall, temperature, and interest rate will be affected the agricultural production, on average, to decrease by 0.338%, 0.024%, and 0.029%, respectively, holding others constant. besides that, the long-run elasticity of real gdp per capita, employment, and trend showed 0.509, 0.513, and 0.119, respectively. increase 1% of real gdp per capita will lead to the agricultural production to increase about 0.509%, ceteris paribus. the elasticity of employment showed that each 10% increase in agricultural employment will increase the agricultural production on average 5.13%, ceteris paribus. furthermore, the trend estimated coefficient showed that the agricultural production will have a constant growth rate which is 0.119% per year. all variables were statistically significant to explain the long-run agricultural production. the short-run rainfall, temperature, employment, and trend were statistically significant to determine the short-run production growth. therefore, advanced technology and the latest information on climate change are relevant to boost agricultural production growth. in addition, policymakers also suggested establishing lower interest rate loan facilities and no labor shortage in this industry. keywords: agriculture, climate change, global warming, economics, co-integration introduction in malaysia, the agricultural sector contributed 8.6% of the national gross domestic product (gdp) and about 12.1% of the total labor force in 2016. however, the contribution of this sector in national gdp has declined gradually from 23.03% in 1980 to about 10.09% in 2010. on the other hand, the employment in this sector has declined from about 1.78 million in 1980 to 1.42 million in 2011. even the percentage of agriculture contribution to national http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:kellywong@upm.edu.my https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11274 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 128 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research income and the percentage share of total employment have declined (figure 1). the agriculture sector's contribution remains a crucial sector to the malaysian gdp (ahmed et al., 2016; akhtar, masud, & afroz, 2019; kadir & tunggal, 2015). figure 1. malaysia’s agriculture employment and gdp (% share in total gdp), 1980 – 2016 source: department of statistics malaysia, (2019a, 2019b) the production system in the agriculture sector is entirely different from other economic sectors such as the manufacturing and services sectors. agricultural production growth is strongly related to labor and capital productivity, but the climate variables (rainfall and temperature) also critical to determine production growth. hence, climate change will directly harm agricultural production, and this sector is affected biophysically by climate factors such as rainfall and temperature more than other economic sectors. biologically speaking, agricultural products such as crops and plantations need sufficient rainfall and appropriate temperature to grow. numerous researchers have claimed the negative effects of climate change on the world’s agricultural production (aydinalp & cresser, 2008; calzadilla, zhu, rehdanz, tol, & ringler, 2014) as well as some non-government organization (ngos) such as the food and agriculture organization (alexandratos & bruinsma, 2012; ipcc, 2014). studies have shown that climate change substantially reduces agricultural production in low latitude (tropical and semitropical) regions (adams et al., 1998; fujimori et al., 2018; nashwan et al., 2019; and rosenzweig & parry, 1994). it mainly a threat to most world developing communities (huong et al., 2019; and laux et al., 2010). climate change is a general problem and that malaysia would not be excluded as it is a developing country located in lower latitude. according to n’zué (2018) and sinha & bhatt (2017), greenhouse gases (ghgs) are the main cause of climate change, and it is estimated that more than 60% of climate change is caused by carbon dioxide. the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere harms the agricultural sector through temperature rises and changes in rainfall patterns, leading to climate disasters. most importantly, it interferes with the crop nutrition system and increases the susceptibility to pests and diseases that ultimately reduce crop productivity. in malaysia, the emissions of greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (co2) and 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 ag ric ul tu re g dp (% s ha re ) ag ri. e m pl oy m en t (m ill io n pe rs on ) agriculture employment (million person) agriculture gdp % share http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 129 malaysia’s agricultural production dropped ….. (entezari, seng, and ali) temperature recorded an increasing trend (figure 2), indicating that climate change is also happening in malaysia, thereby warning the risk of shortage in future agricultural production as well as food production. figure 2. malaysia's co2 emission (kt) and average temperature ( oc), 1980 – 2016 source: the world bank, world bank indicators (2019) aside from the climatic factors, malaysia’s agriculture sector is facing the restriction from the economic side too (ali et al., 2010). for instance, agricultural land in malaysia has increased at a slower growth rate which is about 2.7% from 1980 to 2016 and the agricultural land size remained at 70 thousand km2 from 1990 to 2016 (world bank group, 2019). furthermore, considering that agriculture is one of the labor-intensive sectors, a decreased in employment poses a major problem faced by the agriculture sector in malaysia. the agriculture sector, particularly crop production, is influenced by labor and capital and climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall. under climate change, assess the factors that lead to the failure of agricultural production is very important. choe (1989) and adekunle & ndukwe (2018) found that interest rates have a negative impact on agricultural output. these authors stated that an increase in interest rate will raise the cost of capital (cost of borrowing the money), which ultimately results in reduced investment and then a decrease in agricultural output. besides that, the negative relationship between interest rate and agricultural production was confirmed by (ali et al. 2010; baek & koo, 2010; and onakoya et al. 2018). the employment rate is a commonly used representative variable used to represent labor in a production function. consistent with the postulation of okun’s law (okun, 1962) on the relationship between employment and output, employment has a positive relationship with agricultural output. increasing labor productivity or labor quantity will increase total output. abbas et al. (2015), barrios et al. (2008), belloumi (2014), odhiambo et al. (2004), onakoya et al. (2018), and udah & nwachukwu (2015) found employment has a positive related to the agricultural production, an increase in employment in the agriculture sector will able to increase the agricultural output. since the agriculture sector is a labor-intensive market, employment will play an important role in this industry. 24 24,5 25 25,5 26 26,5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 1980198219841986198819901992199419961998200020022004200620082010201220142016 av er ag e te m pe ra tu re (o c) co 2 em iss io n (1 00 0 kt ) co2 emissions (1000 kt) temperature http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 130 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research additionally, economic growth or national income is also known as one of the key economic factors that have a significant impact on agricultural production (baek & koo, 2010; brownson et al., 2012). according to baek & koo (2010), national income is positively related to agricultural production. when the economic growth, producers will intent to produce more of the outputs because they will expect that market demand will increase. in terms of the impact of agricultural climate change, numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the impact of climate change on agricultural production in various regions across the globe which used temperature and rainfall as climate change factors and found a negative impact of climate change on the agriculture sector (adams et al., 1998; laux et al., 2010; liu et al., 2004; rosenzweig & parry, 1994; tang, 2019). in malaysia, there are many studies have investigated the impact of climate change on crop production and showed that climate change negatively influenced agricultural sector (al-amin et al., 2011; alam et al., 2012; ali et al., 2017; herath et al., 2020 ; masud et al., 2014; siwar et al., 2009; tang, 2019; vaghefi et al., 2011). according to tang (2019), climate change in malaysia has harmed the agricultural sector due to rising temperatures and unexpected rainfall variability every year. extreme weather may damage agricultural products such as paddy during the flood or drought (akhtar et al., 2019; alam et al., 2011). for instance, alam et al. (2017), and herath et al. (2020) used mean temperature and rainfall to determine the impact of climate change on paddy production in malaysia. they found that both temperature and rainfall harm paddy production. there are limited studies that combined climate change and economic variables to explain agricultural production. cobb douglas's production function theory widely in the past studies explains the physical output determine by the physical inputs use. however, agricultural production such as crops and livestock is different than manufacturing production. the factors used to explain agricultural production should not limit to either climate change variables (rainfall and temperature) or economic variables. as mentioned before, climate factors are important to justify agricultural production and they should be included in the cobb douglas production function. therefore, this study tries to fill in the gaps to applying and extending the cobb douglas production function theory to examine the impact of climate change and economic factors on malaysia’s agricultural production. research method cobb douglas' production function (cobb and douglas, 1928) is a popular economic theory that widely adopted to explain specific physical products that can generate by two or more physical inputs (such as labor and capital) quantity (equation 1). 𝑌 = 𝑓(𝐴, 𝐿, 𝐾) = alαkβ (1) where, y represents the physical output; a, l, and k denotes total input productivity, physical labor, and physical capital, respectively; then α and β implies the constant output elasticity of capital input and labor input. however, cobb douglas' production function http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 131 malaysia’s agricultural production dropped ….. (entezari, seng, and ali) does not take climate impact as one of the important determinants of agricultural production. hence, additional climate change variables are crucial to extending the cobb douglas production theory in this study. based on the general equation 1, the long-run agricultural production regression can be written as equations 2: lnagrit = β0 + β1lnintt+ β2 lnempt + β3lnrgdppct+ β4 lntempt + β5 lnraint + β6 trendt + ut (2) where, ln denotes as natural logarithmic and the β0 represents the constant total productivity of malaysia’s agricultural production. in addition, β1, β2, β3, β4, β5, and β6 have represented the long-run elasticity for interest rate (int) which is a proxy for the physical capital, employment (emp) is proxy for labor input, real gdp per capita (rgdppc) as a proxy for the national economic performances, temperature (temp) and rainfall (rain) both represents the climate change variables and the technology time trend (trend), respectively. the ut denotes the estimated residual of the model and error correction term (ect). regarding the signs of the coefficients in equation 2, the previous expectations of theoretically determining the signs of the parameters of economic relations are discussed in the literature review section. it is expected that β1<0 because a rise in interest rates would increase the borrowing costs which will subsequently lead to a decrease in agricultural production as a consequence of reduced investment in physical capital. as to the effect of employment, it is expected that β2>0, which is consistent with the postulation of okun’s law that typically in an economy the production of more goods and services would require more labor and employment to promote the output. similarly, concerning the impact of real per capita gdp (income), since an increase in real gdp per capita will increase purchasing power, which will lead to a rise in output, it is expected that β3>0. finally, it is foreseeable that due to the increase of temperature and rainfall, both β4 and β5<0 will cause climatic disasters such as floods and droughts, which will lead to soil erosion and leaching, and ultimately lead to reduced agricultural production due to depletion of soil nutrients. based on the classical linear regression model (clrm) assumptions, the ect in longrun regression must be stationary to avoid the spurious regression problem. hence, engle & granger (1987) proposed a co-integration test and using augmented dickey-fuller (adf) test to confirm the ect in the stationary process. the eg co-integration test obtains the ect from equation 2 and re-estimate in the following regression form: δ�̂�t= (p – 1)�̂�t-1 +∑ 𝜃𝑗 𝑘 𝑗=1 ∆�̂�t-j + et (3) where, δ�̂�t is the first difference of the residual (ut) obtained from equation 2. k denotes the number of lags, θj is the coefficient of the lagged difference of the estimated residuals, �̂�t-j the lag of estimated residual from the long-run regression, and et is the error term for the adf test. if the null hypothesis of the p-1 = 0 is rejected in this test, indicating a long-run cointegration relationship and there is no spurious regression problem. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 132 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research if there is a long-term co-integration relationship between the regression variables, the error correction model (ecm) will take the lagged one ect as a relevant variable to explain the impact of short-term changes. the short-run ecm will show as the equation 4: δyt= α0 +∑ 𝛽𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∆𝑦𝑡−𝑖 +∑ 𝛿𝑘 𝑚 𝑘 ∆𝑥𝑗𝑡−𝑘+ λectt-1+ut (4) where, 𝛽 and 𝛿 are the short-run dynamic coefficient of the model. ectt-1 is the lagged one of the residual from equation 2 and λ is the coefficient of the error correction term (-1< λ < 0) which represents the speed of adjustment. if the market has a self-adjustment from disequilibrium back to the equilibrium point, the coefficient of the ectt-1 is estimated to be negative and statistically significant (engle & granger, 1987; gujarati, 1995). based on the general equation 4, the ecm model for variables in this study can be written as equation 5: δlnagri𝑡 = 𝛿0 + θect𝑡−1 + ∑ 𝛼𝑖∆𝑙𝑛𝐴𝐺𝑅𝐼𝑡−𝑖 𝑃 𝑖=1 + ∑ 𝛽𝑗 𝑞 𝑗=0 ∆𝐼𝑁𝑇𝑡−𝑗 + ∑ 𝛽𝑘 𝑟 𝑘=0 ∆𝑙𝑛𝐸𝑀𝑃𝑡−𝑘 + ∑ 𝛽𝑚 𝑠 𝑚=0 ∆𝑙𝑛𝑅𝐺𝐷𝑃𝑃𝐶𝑡−𝑚 + ∑ 𝛽𝑛 𝑢 𝑛=0 ∆𝑙𝑛𝑅𝐴𝐼𝑁𝑡−𝑛 + ∑ 𝛽𝑓 𝑣 𝑓=0 ∆𝑙𝑛𝑇𝐸𝑀𝑃𝑡−𝑓 + 𝛿1∆𝑙𝑛𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑁𝐷𝑡 + 𝑢𝑡 (5) where, δ0 is constant, θ is coefficient for ect and it is expected to be negative and significant; ∑ 𝛽𝑗 𝑞 𝑗=0 , ∑ 𝛽𝑘 𝑟 𝑘=0 , ∑ 𝛽𝑚 𝑠 𝑚=0 , ∑ 𝛽𝑛 𝑢 𝑛=0 , and ∑ 𝛽𝑓 𝑣 𝑓=0 are the magnitude of the short-run changes for agri, int, emp, rgdpoc, rain, temp, and trnd, respectively. the annual time series data from 1980 to 2016 is used in this study. real agricultural gdp (agri) and lending interest rate for the capital were collected from world bank indicators (www.worldbank.org/indicator). annual data on the number of employees in the agricultural sector (emp) and malaysia's real gdp per capita (rgdppc) collected from the food and agriculture organization (www.fao.org) each year, as well as data on climatic factors (rainfall and rainfall) can be accessed from the world bank group's climate knowledge portal (https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org). result and discussions the findings of augmented dicky fuller (adf) and phillip-perron (pp) tests were summarized in table 1. the adf and pp tests showed that all variables were significant at 1% of significance level which after transformed it into the first difference. this indicates that these variables were considered as integrated at order one or i (1) variable. the result of the engle-granger co-integration test was presented in table 2. it showed that the residual of the estimated co-integration regression (𝑢�̂� = −5.218) was less than the critical value (-4.07) at 1% of the significance level. therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no co-integration relationship was rejected, indicating that all estimated variables (int, emp, rgdppc, rain, and temp) had a strong long-term co-integration relationship with agricultural production. the long-run regression result showed that all the independent variables followed the expected sign in the model. the lntemp was found significant at 5% significance level and other variables were statistically significant at 1% of the significance http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 133 malaysia’s agricultural production dropped ….. (entezari, seng, and ali) level. the interest rate (int), rainfall (rain), and temperature (temp) had negative relationships with agricultural production, whereas employment (emp) and real gdp per capita (rgdppc) had a strong positive relationship with agricultural production in malaysia. a linear time trend (trend) was included in the eg long-run model to take into account the constant technology change effect on agricultural production. the trend showed statistically positive significance to explain the agricultural production at 1% significance level. this indicates that the constant increase in technology in the agricultural sector will able to increase agricultural production. table 1. summary of stationary test results (adf and pp tests) variables adf pp i(0) i(1) i(0) i(1) lnagri -1.159 ( 0 ) -5.955*** ( 1 ) -1.172 ( 4 ) -5.792*** ( 6 ) lnint -0.649 ( 0 ) -5.375*** ( 0 ) -0.480 ( 6 ) -9.114*** ( 21) lnemp -2.821 ( 0 ) -8.449*** ( 0 ) -2.740 ( 2 ) -8.486*** ( 2 ) lnrgdpc -0.683 ( 0 ) -4.997*** ( 0 ) -0.677 ( 1 ) -4.997*** ( 0 ) lntemp -2.616 ( 0 ) -6.486*** ( 1 ) -2.616 ( 0 ) -15.890*** ( 34 ) lnrain -2.041 ( 0 ) -6.983*** ( 0 ) -2.079 ( 3 ) -14.021*** ( 24 ) note: *** and ** denotes the significance level at 1% and 5% respectively. the value of parenthesis (…) represents the optimum lag selected based on the sic criteria. table 2. finding of engle-granger co-integration test and long-run regression lnagri c lnint lnemp lnrgdppc lnrain lntemp trend β 0 β 1 β 2 β 3 β 4 β 6 β 7 27.974*** -0.029*** 0.513*** 0.509*** -0.338*** -3.024** 0.119*** (4.034) (0.006) (0.108) (0.060) (0.094) (1.211) (0.035) [0.000] [0.001] [0.000] [0.000] [0.001] [0.018] [0.002] engle-granger co-integration test: δ�̂�t= (p – 1)�̂�t-1 +∑ 𝜃𝑗 𝑘 𝑗=1 ∆�̂�t-j +et -5.218*** critical value 1% -4.07 5% -3.37 10% -3.03 r2 0.966 durbin watson stat 1.624 note: *** and ** indicated the significance level at 1% and 5%, respectively. the value in the parenthesis (…) denotes standard error while the value in the […] represents the p-value. the estimated elasticity of int is -0.029 which indicates that a 1% increase in the interest rate will result in a decline in long-run agricultural production by 0.029%, holding other factors constant. the finding accords with the result of adekunle, wasiu & ndukwe (2018), ali et al. (2010), baek & koo (2010), and odior (2014) where an ascent in the interest rate would lower agricultural production as a consequence of diminishing investment due to the increase in the capital cost and the cost of production. the long-run coefficient elasticity for emp is 0.513, indicating that a 10% increase in agricultural employment would increase agricultural production by about 5.13%, ceteris paribus. the finding corresponds with the results of abbas et al. (2015), onakoya et al. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 134 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (2018), and udah & nwachukwu (2015), stating that the labor force is one of the most important contributors to agricultural production. researchers believe that employment and agricultural production have a direct and important relationship. also, the estimated coefficient for rgdppc is 0.509, which implies a direct and significant relationship between national income and agricultural production. in other words, agricultural growth will increase by 5.09% for every 10% increase in national income. similar results were found by brownson et al. (2012), dlamini et al. (2015), and baek & koo (2010) that, an increase in income will increase production by increasing the purchase power demand for production. however, there is a negative relationship between climate factors (rainfall and temperature) and agricultural production (chizari et al., 2017 and herath et al., 2020). the estimated elasticity for rain was -0.34, indicating that at a 1% increase in rainfall, the agricultural production will decline by about 0.34%, holding other factors constant. this result is consistent with those observed by alam et al., (2014), ali et al. (2017), chizari et al. (2017), and herath et al. (2020) that, rainfall harms agricultural production. the long-run elasticity coefficient for temp is -3.024, which means that a 1% increase in temperature will lead to a decline in total agricultural output by 3.024% in the long run. a similar finding is also reported by alam et al. (2014) that, 1% increase in temperature would decrease rice production by about 3.4%. the results of the ecm model for short-run analysis are presented in table 3. it shows that all the estimated variables followed the expected sign even in the short run. the lag one of error correction term (ectt-1) represents the speed of adjustment, which is -0.456 and significant at 1% of the significance level. it indicates that the short-run disequilibrium in agricultural production would require a moderate speed of adjustment to recover the state of equilibrium. table 3. estimated result of error correction model coefficient standard error p-value c 0.007 0.009 0.422 ectt-1 -0.456*** 0.163 0.009 δagrit-1 0.341** 0.160 0.042 δintt -0.004 0.007 0.576 δempt 0.427*** 0.103 0.000 δrgdppct 0.253 0.170 0.149 δraint -0.179*** 0.057 0.004 δtempt -2.703*** 0.767 0.002 trendt 0.041** 0.018 0.027 note: *** and ** indicated the significance level at 1% and 5%, respectively. based on the estimated result of the ecm model for short-run analysis, the slope coefficient of lag one of the dependent variable (agrit-1) was statistically significant at 5% of the significance level. emp was the only significant variable from the economic factors, which was statistically significant at 1% of the significance level. he estimated that the elasticity of short-term employment was within a reasonable range of 0.427, which indicates that the increase in labor demand in this industry will increase labor productivity and then http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 135 malaysia’s agricultural production dropped ….. (entezari, seng, and ali) increase agricultural production in the short term (onakoya et al., 2018). however, int and rgdppc had an insignificant positive causal impact on agricultural production. the estimated elasticity for climate factors of both rainfall and temperature were negative and statistically significant at a 1% level, indicating that climate change has a strong negative relationship with agricultural production even in the short run. these findings were supported by talib & darawi (2002), and rainfall has an important impact on production. in this study, several keys diagnostic tests were used to confirm that the long-term and short-term estimated models are the best linear unbiased estimators (blue). the results were reported in table 4. the r-squared of the long-term model is 0.966, indicating that all independent variables (int, emp, rgdppc, rain, and temp) in the model explain about 96.6% of the variation in agricultural production. however, the r2 in the short-term estimation model was 0.606, which indicates that about 60.6% of the changes in agricultural output were explained by the changes in the independent variables, while there was no explanation for about 39.4% in the model. the f-statistic in the long-run and short-run model were statistically significant at 1% of significance level, which indicates that the models were fit, and all independent variables used in the models jointly affected the agricultural output. table 4. diagnostic checking tests test statistics ols estimation ecm estimation r2 0.966 0.606 adj r2 0.959 0.485 fstatistics 139.241*** [0.000] 4.998*** [0.001] lm test 1.166 [0.558] 0.269 [0.874] jarque-bera 0.620 [0.733] 1.414 [0.235] arch 0.071 [0.790] 3.746 [0.154] note: *** and ** indicated the significance level at 1% and 5%, respectively. the value in the parenthesis […] represents the p-value. also, the auto-serial correlation test (lm-test) was employed to confirm the estimated regressions were not suffering from a serial correlation problem. the result showed that the p-value was insignificant and failed to reject the null hypothesis and that the residual was serially correlated. in addition, the jarque-bera test and arch test were insignificant and failed to reject the null hypothesis, thereby confirming that the residuals of the regression models were normally distributed, and the variance of the residual was constant over time. hence, the model has fulfilled the homoscedasticity assumption in the classical linear regression method (clrm). finally, the cumulative sum of recursive residuals (cusum) and the cumulative sum of recursive residuals (cusumsq) statistical graphs move within the critical range (significantly 5%), indicating that the stability estimates all variables' coefficient and not cause any structural damage (figure 3). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 136 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 3: cusum and cusumsq tests for estimated parameter stability conclusion and recommendation conclusion in recent decades, the agriculture gdp has a lower growth rate, which has drastically fallen since 2010. this study employed the co-integration method and utilized annual data spanning a period of 37 years (1980 2016). the co-integration test showed that there is a long-run co-integration between agricultural production and all explanatory variables (trend, int, emp, rgdppc, temp, and rain). the results further showed that all the variables followed the expected signs, both in the long run and short run. in the long run, interest rate, rainfall, and temperature have negative and significant effects on agricultural production, while national income and employment have positive significant effects. in the short run, rainfall and temperature have negative and significant effects on agricultural production while employment has a positive and significant effect. meanwhile, interest rate and income do not have significant effects on agricultural production in the short run. also, the negative and significant ectt-1 indicated that the short-run disequilibrium in agricultural production would require a moderate speed to recover the state of equilibrium. therefore, the findings highlighted that an accurate forecast of the weather changed is important to reduce the farmers’ losses. the perfect information sharing i.e the changes of rainfall and temperature between the meteorology department and farmers is important. according to the accurate weather forecast of the meteorological department, farmers can make good agricultural production plans. moreover, time to receive the information of weather also an important element especially before the flood and drought happens. from the economic point of view, policymakers or governments can establish lower interest or special interest loan facilities to encourage farmers to adopt advanced technology or increase their investment in their agricultural production. besides that, the local authorities also have to make sure that there is no labor shortage in this industry. because when the sector is facing larger excess labor demand, the agricultural sector may face shortage at the end. since the upstream sector shortage, the downstream sector such as the food sector may face increasing food import bills or food shortage. this indicates that the problem of labor shortage may increase the nation's food insecure issues. -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 cusum 5% significance -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 cusum of squares 5% significance http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 137 malaysia’s agricultural production dropped ….. (entezari, seng, and ali) recommendation based on the finding of this study, several relevant policy recommendations are proposed to help better coping with the impact of climate change. however, some adaptation strategies, such as growing drought-resistant crops, changing the planting date, and managing the irrigation and technology use, are recommended to afford the farmers a cushion against further anticipated adverse climatic conditions. nevertheless, the government as an authority for policy and law-making must play the most influential role in ensuring climate mitigation and adaptation at all levels. first and foremost, climate change factors harm agricultural production. to overcome the negative effect of climate change, the government and policymakers should provide policies on providing advanced technology to overcome the climate change problem and ensure that the producers receive up-to-date information in anticipation of severe climate change variations. this is to enable the farmers to make well-informed decisions on their productions. another important policy message based on the finding of the study that pertains to the negative influence of interest rate on agricultural production is to offer a special lower interest rate for the farmers to reduce production costs and increase their investment in their physical capital. additionally, given the fact that agriculture is a labor-intensive sector and an increase in the number of employments has a significant impact on increasing agricultural production, appropriate authorities have to make sure there is no labor shortage in this industry. finally, policymakers and economists need to consider adaptation barriers, namely financial, ecological, technical, and institutional barriers, to define government incentive plans, because agricultural policies need to be more strategic and must respond to possible be fully prepared for the impact. acknowledgement this work was supported by the ministry of higher education (mohe)/higher education development program (hedp) of afghanistan and funded by the world bank scholarship. reference abbas, m., barros, c., & mosca, j. 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(2019). climate change in malaysia: trends, contributors, impacts, mitigation and adaptations. science of the total environment, 650, 1858–1871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.316 the world bank, world development indicators (2019). climate change knowledge portal [data file]. retrieved from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/download-data udah, s. c., & nwachukwu, i. n. (2015). determinants of agricultural gdp growth in nigerian. international journal of agricultural research and review, 3(3), 184–190. vaghefi, n., shamsudin, m. n., makmom, a., & bagheri, m. (2011). the economic impacts of climate change on the rice production in malaysia. international journal of agricultural research, 6(1), 67–74. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijar.2011.67.74 world bank group. 2019. agricultural transformation and inclusive growth : the malaysian experience. the malaysia development experience series;. world bank, washington, dc. © world bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/32642 license: cc by 3.0 igo.” http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.316 https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/download-data https://doi.org/10.3923/ijar.2011.67.74 happy dewi purnomowati, dwidjono hadi darwanto, sri widodo, slamet hartono jurusan sosial ekonomi pertanian fakultas pertanian ugm email: dewi.happy@yahoo.com analisis permintaan karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional abstract the development of the natural rubber market in three years was relatively favorable for producers, which was indicated by the relatively high price level. this was due to increasing demand. of course this will be a good opportunity for indonesia to export processed rubber and rubber industry in indonesia to other countries. the purpose of this study was to determine the factors that can affect demand for indonesia’s natural rubber exports in each country’s export destinations. the data used was secondary data years 1980-2013 time series derived from irsg, bps, fao, gapkindo, un comtrade, bi, and the world bank. methods of analysis using dynamic demand model “stock adjustment principle”, nerlove (1983) and the model of ordinary least square (ols), auto correlation models and two stage least square (2sls) with modifications to several independent variables. the results showed that indonesia’s natural rubber demand in the market of the united states, china, japan, singapore, and south korea is positively influenced by the volume of exports last year, the population of a country, and per capita income of a country. as well as negatively affected by the exchange rate of a country’s currency against the us dollar and the implementation of the export quota policy. keywords: demand for exports, indonesia natural rubber, importing countries. intisari pengembangan pasar karet alam dalam tiga tahun terakhir relatif menguntungkan bagi produsen, diindikasikan oleh tingkat harga yang relatif tinggi. ini terjadi karena peningkatan permintaan. tentu saja ini menjadi peluang yang baik bagi indonesia untuk mengekspor karet olahan dan karet industri indonesia ke berbagai negara. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah menentukan faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap permintaan karet alam indonesia pada masing-masing negara tujuan ekspor. data yang digunakan adalah data time series, data tahunan selama periode 1980-2013 yang diperoleh dari irsg, bps, fao, gapkindo, un comtrade, bi, dan bank dunia. metode analisis yang digunakan adalah model permintaan dinamis “stock adjustment principle”, nerlove (1983) dan model ols, serta model auto korelasi dan model 2sls dengan modifikasi beberapa variabel independen. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa permintaan karet alam indonesia di as, china, jepang, singapura, dan korea selatan dipengaruhi secara positif oleh volume ekspor tahun sebelumnya, jumlah penduduk, dan pendapatan per kapita. dan secara negatif dipengaruhi oleh nilai tukar mata uang negara tersebut terhadap dollar as, dan implementasi kebijakan kuota ekspor. kata kunci: permintaan ekspor, karet alam indonesia, negara importir. doi:10.18196/agr.1217 137 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 pendahuluan perkebunan merupakan sub sektor pertanian yang mempunyai peran penting dalam perekonomian indonesia. menurut payaman (1983) perkebunan adalah komoditi di luar minyak dan gas alam yang mempunyai potensi dan prospek cukup baik di pasaran dunia. karet merupakan komoditi utama sektor perkebunan di indonesia selain kelapa sawit dan kelapa, yang perlu mendapat perhatian dari pemerintah. karet alam merupakan salah satu komoditi perkebunan yang sangat penting peranannya dalam perekonomin indonesia. selain sebagai sumber pendapatan dan kesejahteraan masyarakat serta sebagai pendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi sentra-sentra baru di wilayah sekitar perkebunan karet, komoditi ini juga memberikan kontribusi yang signifikan sebagai sumber devisa negara, mengingat 84% produksi karet alam indonesia diekspor dalam bentuk karet mentah sementara konsumsi karet domestik baru mencapai 16%. karet bersama-sama dengan kelapa sawit merupakan dua komoditas utama penghasil devisa terbesar dari subsektor perkebunan, dalam kurun waktu 5 tahun terakhir karet menyumbang devisa 25% 40% terhadap total ekspor produk perkebunan. meningkatnya permintaan dunia terhadap karet menjadi peluang bagi indonesia untuk menempatkan diri sebagai produsen utama karet dunia. bukan saja intensifikasi yang dapat dilakukan oleh indonesia, tetapi juga ekstensifikasi, yang tidak mungkin dilakukan thailand maupun malaysia karena keterbatasan lahan. indonesia masih dapat mengembangkan perkebunan karet lebih luas lagi karena masih banyaknya lahan kosong seperti hutan yang gundul, semak belukar, dan padang alang-alang yang seharusnya cepat ditanam pohon karet yang memiliki kemampuan tumbuh dengan baik di lahan apa saja. dengan demikian keuntungan yang diperoleh tidak hanya dari meningkatnya produksi karet alam indonesia, tetapi diharapkan mampu memperbaiki kondisi lingkungan melalui rehabilitasi lahan gundul dan lahan marginal lainnya. berdasarkan latar belakang dan rumusan masalah di atas, maka tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk: mengetahui faktor-faktor apa saja yang dapat mempengaruhi permintaan ekspor karet alam indonesia pada masing-masing negara tujuan ekspor (negara importir). metode penelitian data dalam penelitian ini dikumpulkan melalui pencatatan dari berbagai sumber penerbitan maupun dari kantor atau instansi yang berkaitan dengan karet. data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data sekunder time series tahun 1980 – 2013 yang berasal dari instansi yang berhubungan dengan penelitian, antara lain: irsg (international rubber statistic group), anrpc (asosiation natural rubber producing countries), fao (food and agriculture organization), gapkindo (gabungan pengusaha karet indonesia), bps (biro pusat statistik), kementerian pertanian, dinas perkebunan, kementerian industri dan perdagangan, bank indonesia dan bank dunia, un comtrade. metode analisis data volume ekspor jangka pendek dan jangka panjang dianalisis dengan menggunakan model permintaan dinamis “stock adjusment principle” nerlove dan model analisis ordinary least square (ols), auto correlation models dan two stage least square (2sls) dengan modifikasi beberapa variabel independen. model persamaan permintaan dipakai dengan asumsi harga yang terjadi merupakan interaksi permintaan dan penawaran. persamaan struktural dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut. persamaan permintaan dimana: q dt = volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir (ribu ton) pt = harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional (amerika serikat), (us$) it = pendapatan per kapita negara importir (us$) st = harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/dmestik (us$) ert = nilai tukar (exchange rate) rupiah terhadap us$ dt = kebijakan kuota ekspor (dummy variable, ada kebijakan kuota = 1 dan tidak ada kebijakan kuota = 0) pd = harga riil karet alam domestic/dalam negeri (rp/kg) pat = harga riil karet sintetis negara importir (us$) 138 jurnal agraris pop t = populasi penduduk negara importir (jiwa) q dt-1 = volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu (ribu ton) á i (i = 1,2,…,10) = koefisien regresi μ t = an error term hasil dan pembahasan negara amerika serikat hasil analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat seperti ditunjukkan pada tabel 1. uji secara keseluruhan dari hasil analisis permintaan ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat diperoleh nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,9282. hal ini berarti sekitar 92,82% variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat dapat dijelaskan oleh volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/domestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) rupiah terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor yang ada dalam model, sementara sisanya (7,18%) ditentukan oleh variabel bebas lain di luar model analisis yang digunakan. untuk melihat pengaruh secara keseluruhan variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) rupiah terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) secara bersama-sama terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat digunakan uji ftest. bersasrkan hasil analisis pada tabel 1 diperoleh nilai f-hitung sebesar 53,157 dan nilai ini jauh lebih besar dari nilai f-tabel pada tingkat kesalahan 1% (á = 1%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel bebas dalam model secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. untuk melihat pengaruh masing-masing variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) rupiah terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat digunakan uji t-test. berdasarkan hasil analisis uji t-test pada tabel 1, variabel harga karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat satu tahun sebelumnya, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional, nilai tukar, tabel 1. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan karet alam indonesia keterangan: ***) signifikan pada á = 1%; **) signifikan pada á = 5%; *) siginifikan pada á = 10%; ns = tidak signifikan 139 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 jumlah penduduk amerika serikat, pendapatan per kapita amerika serikat secara statistik berpengaruh atau signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat. pada tabel 1 volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat satu tahun sebelumnya secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. hal ini berarti bahwa apabila volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat satu tahun sebelumnya meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan cateris paribus (tetap), maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat mengalami peningkatan sebesar 0,2250%. oleh karena itu, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat satu tahun sebelumnya terdapat kecenderungan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara amerika serikat tahun berikut mengalami peningkatan. harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional adalah sebesar -0,3440. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional (0,3440). selanjutnya, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional adalah sebesar 0,2014. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat akan mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional (0,2014). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa karet sintetis merupakan barang subtitusi dari karet alam. selanjutnya, nilai tukar (exchange rate) us$ terhadap rupiah secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel nilai tukar (exchange rate) us$ terhadap rupiah adalah sebesar -0,3418. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila nilai tukar (exchange rate) rupiah terhadap us$ meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat akan mengalami penurunan sebesar 0,3418%. jumlah penduduk negara amerika serikat secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara amerika serikat adalah sebesar 4,0033. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila jumlah penduduk negara amerika serikat meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara amerika serikat yakni sebesar 4,0033%. variabel pendapatan per kapita negara amerika serikat juga secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara amerika serikat adalah sebesar 1,4369. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila pendapatan per kapita negara amerika serikat meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara amerika serikat yakni sebesar 1,4369. kebijakan kuota ekspor secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia dengan dikeluarkan kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor yakni adanya kebijakan kuota ekspor tersebut dapat menghambat atau menurunkan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara amerika serikat. besarnya nilai penurunan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara amerika serikat dengan adanya kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor adalah sebesar 0,1353%. variabel bebas lain yang masuk dalam model analisis yaitu harga riil karet alam dalam negeri secara statistik tidak menunjukkan pengaruh yang nyata (non signifikan) 140 jurnal agraris terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terjadinya perubahan pada nilai dari variabel harga riil karet alam dalam negeri dan nilai tukar rupiah terhadap us$ secara statistik tidak berpengaruh terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara amerika serikat. negara china hasil analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china seperti ditunjukkan pada tabel 2. tabe1 2. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan karet alam indonesia ke negara china. keterangan: ***) signifikan pada á = 1%; **) signifikan pada á = 5%; *) siginifikan pada á = 10%; ns = tidak signifikan uji secara keseluruhan dari hasil analisis permintaan ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china diperoleh nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,8532. hal ini berarti sekitar 85,32% variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china dapat dijelaskan oleh volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor yang ada dalam model, sementara sisanya (14,68%) variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china ditentukan oleh variabel bebas lain di luar model analisis yang digunakan. untuk melihat pengaruh secara keseluruhan variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) secara bersama-sama terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china digunakan uji f-test. bersasrkan hasil analisis pada tabel 2 diperoleh nilai fhitung sebesar 48,143 dan nilai ini jauh lebih besar dari nilai f-tabel pada tingkat kesalahan 1% (á = 1%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel bebas dalam model secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. untuk melihat pengaruh masing-masing variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china digunakan uji t-test. berdasarkan hasil analisis uji t-test pada tabel 2 menunjukkan bahwa variabel volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china satu tahun sebelumnya, harga karet alam dalam negeri, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$, jumlah penduduk china, dan pendapatan per kapita china secara statistik berpengaruh atau signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china. pada tabel 2 volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china satu tahun sebelumnya secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. hal ini berarti bahwa apabila volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke 141 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 negara china satu tahun sebelumnya meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan cateris paribus (tetap), maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china mengalami peningkatan sebesar 0,5345%. oleh karena itu, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china satu tahun sebelumnya terdapat kecenderungan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara china tahun berikut mengalami peningkatan. harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/domestik secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan negative terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/ domestik adalah sebesar -1,1158. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/ domestik meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/domestik yakni sebesar 1,1158%. selanjutnya, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional adalah sebesar 0,5092. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china akan mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional (0,5092%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa karet sintetis merupakan barang subtitusi dari karet alam. selanjutnya, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$ secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$ adalah sebesar -0,9389. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$ meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china akan mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel nilai tukar (exchange rate) yuan terhadap us$ yakni sebesar 0,9389%. jumlah penduduk negara china secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara china adalah sebesar 1,4477. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila jumlah penduduk negara china meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara china yakni sebesar 1,4477%. variabel pendapatan per kapita negara china juga secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara china adalah sebesar 0,3227. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila pendapatan per kapita negara china meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara china yakni sebesar 0,3227%. kebijakan kuota ekspor secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia dengan dikeluarkan kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor yakni adanya kebijakan kuota ekspor tersebut dapat menghambat atau menurunkan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara china. besarnya nilai penurunan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara china dengan adanya kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor adalah sebesar 1,5148%. variabel bebas lain yang masuk dalam model analisis yaitu harga riil karet alam dalam di pasar internasional secara statistik tidak menunjukkan pengaruh yang nyata (non signifikan) terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terjadinya perubahan pada nilai dari variabel harga riil karet alam dalam di pasar internasional secara statistik tidak berpengaruh terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara china. negara jepang hasil analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang seperti ditunjukkan pada tabel 3. 142 jurnal agraris tabe1 3. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang keterangan: ***) signifikan pada á = 1%; **) signifikan pada á = 5%; *) siginifikan pada á = 10%; ns = tidak signifikan uji secara keseluruhan dari hasil analisis permintaan ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang diperoleh nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,9756. hal ini berarti sekitar 97,56% variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang dapat dijelaskan oleh volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yen jepang terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor yang ada dalam model, sementara sisanya (2,44%) variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang ditentukan oleh variabel bebas lain di luar model analisis yang digunakan. untuk melihat pengaruh secara keseluruhan variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yen jepang terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) secara bersama-sama terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang digunakan uji f-test. bersasrkan hasil analisis pada tabel 3 diperoleh nilai fhitung sebesar 125,021 dan nilai ini jauh lebih besar dari nilai f-tabel pada tingkat kesalahan 1% (á = 1%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel bebas dalam model secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. untuk melihat pengaruh masing-masing variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yen jepang terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang digunakan uji t-test. berdasarkan hasil analisis uji t-test pada tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa variabel harga karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang satu tahun sebelumnya, harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional, nilai tukar (exchange rate) yen jepang terhadap us$, jumlah penduduk negara jepang, dan pendapatan per kapita negara jepang secara statistik berpengaruh atau signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang. pada tabel 3 volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang satu tahun sebelumnya secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang pada tingkat kepercayaan 95%. hal ini berarti bahwa apabila volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang satu tahun sebelumnya meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan cateris paribus (tetap), maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang mengalami peningkatan sebesar 0,5902%. oleh karena itu, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang satu tahun sebelumnya terdapat kecenderungan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara jepang tahun berikut mengalami peningkatan. harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional 143 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 adalah sebesar -0,5387. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional (0,5387%).\ harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/domestik secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang pada tingkat kepercayaan 95%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/ domestik adalah sebesar -0,2783. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/ domestik meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di dalam negeri/domestik (0,2783%). selanjutnya, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional adalah sebesar 0,2800. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang akan mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional (0,2800%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa karet sintetis merupakan barang subtitusi dari karet alam. jumlah penduduk negara jepang secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara jepang adalah sebesar 3,6659. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila jumlah penduduk negara jepang meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara jepang yakni sebesar 3,6659%. variabel pendapatan per kapita negara jepang juga secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara jepang adalah sebesar 0,8221. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila pendapatan per kapita negara jepang meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara jepang yakni sebesar 0,8221%. kebijakan kuota ekspor secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara jepang. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia dengan dikeluarkan kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor yakni adanya kebijakan kuota ekspor tersebut dapat menghambat atau menurunkan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara jepang. besarnya nilai penurunan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara jepang dengan adanya kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor adalah sebesar 0,4145%. tabe1 4. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura sumber: data sekunder, diolah keterangan: ***) signifikan pada á = 1%; **) signifikan pada á = 5%; *) siginifikan pada á = 10%; ns = tidak signifikan 144 jurnal agraris negara singapura hasil analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura seperti ditunjukkan pada tabel 4. uji secara keseluruhan dari hasil analisis permintaan ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura diperoleh nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,9122. hal ini berarti sekitar 91,22% variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura dapat dijelaskan oleh volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) dolar singapura terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor yang ada dalam model, sementara sisanya (8,78%) variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura ditentukan oleh variabel bebas lain di luar model analisis yang digunakan. untuk melihat pengaruh secara keseluruhan variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) dolar singapura terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) secara bersama-sama terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura digunakan uji f-test. bersasrkan hasil analisis pada tabel 6.4 diperoleh nilai fhitung sebesar 119,647 dan nilai ini jauh lebih besar dari nilai f-tabel pada tingkat kesalahan 1% (á = 1%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel bebas dalam model secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. untuk melihat pengaruh masing-masing variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) dolar singapura terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura digunakan uji t-test. berdasarkan hasil analisis uji t-test pada tabel 4 menunjukkan bahwa variabel harga karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura satu tahun sebelumnya, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional, nilai tukar dolar singapura terhadap us$, jumlah penduduk negara singapura, dan pendapatan per kapita negara singapura secara statistik berpengaruh atau signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura. pada tabel 4 volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura satu tahun sebelumnya secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. hal ini berarti bahwa apabila volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura satu tahun sebelumnya meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan cateris paribus (tetap), maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura mengalami peningkatan sebesar 0,1500%. oleh karena itu, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura satu tahun sebelumnya terdapat kecenderungan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara singapura tahun berikut mengalami peningkatan. harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional adalah sebesar -0,5561. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional (0,5561%). harga riil karet alam dalam negeri secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam dalam negeri adalah sebesar -0,1110. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga riil karet alam dalam negeri meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam dalam negeri yakni sebesar 0,1110%. selanjutnya, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar 145 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 internasional secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional adalah sebesar 0,5021. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura akan mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional (0,5021%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa karet sintetis merupakan barang subtitusi dari karet alam. selanjutnya, nilai tukar (exchange rate) dolar singapura terhadap us$ secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel nilai tukar (exchange rate) dolar singapura terhadap us$ adalah sebesar -0,1720. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila nilai tukar (exchange rate) dolar singapura terhadap us$ meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura akan mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel nilai tukar (exchange rate) dolar singapura terhadap us$ yakni sebesar 0,1720%. variabel jumlah penduduk negara singapura juga secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 95%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara singapura adalah sebesar 0,5821. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila jumlah penduduk negara singapura meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara singapura yakni sebesar 0,5851%. variabel pendapatan per kapita negara singapura juga secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura pada tingkat kepercayaan 95%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara singapura adalah sebesar 0,3280. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila pendapatan per kapita negara singapura meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara singapura mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara singapura yakni sebesar 0,3280%. negara korea selatan hasil analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan seperti ditunjukkan pada tabel 5. tabe1 5. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan keterangan: ***) signifikan pada á = 1%; **) signifikan pada á = 5%; *) siginifikan pada á = 10%; ns = tidak signifikan uji secara keseluruhan dari hasil analisis permintaan ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan diperoleh nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,9122. hal ini berarti sekitar 91,22% variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan dapat dijelaskan oleh volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota 146 jurnal agraris ekspor yang ada dalam model, sementara sisanya (8,78%) variasi volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan ditentukan oleh variabel bebas lain di luar model analisis yang digunakan. untuk melihat pengaruh secara keseluruhan variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) secara bersama-sama terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan digunakan uji f-test. bersasrkan hasil analisis pada tabel 5 diperoleh nilai f-hitung sebesar 31,960 dan nilai ini jauh lebih besar dari nilai f-tabel pada tingkat kesalahan 1% (á = 1%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel bebas dalam model secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. untuk melihat pengaruh masing-masing variabel bebas (volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara importir tahun lalu, harga riil karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, harga riil karet alam dalam negeri/ dmestik, harga riil karet sintetis negara importir, pendapatan per kapita negara importir, nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$, populasi penduduk negara importir, dan kebijakan kuota ekspor) terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan digunakan uji t-test. berdasarkan hasil analisis uji t-test pada tabel 5 menunjukkan bahwa variabel harga karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan satu tahun sebelumnya, harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional, nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$, jumlah penduduk korea selatan, dan pendapatan per kapita korea selatan secara statistik berpengaruh atau signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan. pada tabel 5 volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan satu tahun sebelumnya secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan dan positif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. hal ini berarti bahwa apabila volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan satu tahun sebelumnya meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan cateris paribus (tetap), maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan mengalami peningkatan sebesar 0,3646%. oleh karena itu, volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan satu tahun sebelumnya terdapat kecenderungan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara korea selatan tahun berikut mengalami peningkatan. harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional adalah sebesar -0,5472. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan mengalami penurunan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional (0,5472%). selanjutnya, nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$ secara statistik juga berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$ adalah sebesar 0,2191. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa, apabila nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$ meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan akan mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel nilai tukar (exchange rate) mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$ (0,2191%). jumlah penduduk negara korea selatan secara statistik berpengaruh nyata terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara korea selatan adalah sebesar 0,2956. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila jumlah penduduk negara korea selatan meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel jumlah penduduk negara korea selatan yakni sebesar 0,2956%. variabel pendapatan per kapita negara korea selatan juga secara statistik berpengaruh nyata dan positif 147 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. besarnya nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara korea selatan adalah sebesar 1,3177. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa apabila pendapatan per kapita negara korea selatan meningkat 1% dengan asumsi faktor lain dalam keadaan tetap, maka volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan mengalami peningkatan sebesar nilai koefisien regresi dari variabel pendapatan per kapita negara korea selatan yakni sebesar 1,3177%. kebijakan kuota ekspor secara statistik menunjukkan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia dengan dikeluarkan kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor yakni adanya kebijakan kuota ekspor tersebut dapat menghambat atau menurunkan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara korea selatan. besarnya nilai penurunan volume ekspor karet alam ke negara korea selatan dengan adanya kebijakan pembatasan kuota ekspor adalah sebesar 0,5770%. variabel bebas lain yang masuk dalam model analisis yaitu harga riil karet alam dalam negeri dan harga riil karet sintetis dipasar internasional secara statistik tidak menunjukkan pengaruh yang nyata (non signifikan) terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terjadinya perubahan pada nilai dari variabel harga riil karet alam dalam negeri dan harga riil karet sintetis dipasar internasional secara statistik tidak berpengaruh terhadap volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara korea selatan. kesimpulan 1. permintaan volume ekspor karet alam indonesia ke negara: a. amerika serikat dipengaruhi secara positif oleh volume ekspor tahun lalu ke amerika serikat, pendapatan per amerika serikat, dan jumlah penduduk amerika serikat serta dipengaruhi secara negatif oleh harga riil karet alam dipasar internasional, dan pemberlakuan kebijakan kuota ekspor. b. china dipengaruhi secara positif oleh volume ekspor tahun lalu ke negara china, pendapatan per negara china, dan jumlah penduduk negara china serta dipengaruhi secara negatif oleh harga riil karet alam dalam negeri, nilai tukar yuan terhadap us$, dan pemberlakuan kebijakan kuota ekspor. c. jepang dipengaruhi secara positif oleh volume ekspor tahun lalu ke negara jepang, pendapatan per negara jepang, harga riil karet sintetis di pasar internasional, dan jumlah penduduk negara jepang serta dipengaruhi secara negatif oleh harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional dan pemberlakuan kebijakan kuota ekspor. d. singapura dipengaruhi secara positif oleh volume ekspor tahun lalu ke negara singapura, dan jumlah penduduk negara singapura serta dipengaruhi secara negatif oleh harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional dan pemberlakuan kebijakan kuota ekspor. e. korea selatan dipengaruhi secara positif oleh volume ekspor tahun lalu ke negara korea selatan, pendapatan per kapita negara korea selatan dan jumlah penduduk negara korea selatan serta dipengaruhi secara negatif oleh harga riil karet alam di pasar internasional, nilai tukar mata uang korea selatan terhadap us$ dan pemberlakuan kebijakan kuota ekspor. saran untuk meningkatkan volume ekspor karet alam indonesia dengan memanfaatkan momentum peningkatan permintaan karet alam dunia yang terus meningkat utamanya pada lima negara tujuan ekspor yakni negara amerika serikat, negara china, negara jepang, negara singapura, dan negara korea selatan perlu memperhatikan faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh baik secara positif maupun secara negatif pada masingmasing negara. daftar pustaka anonim, 2006. kerjasama “tripartite” komoditas karet (itrc) di bali. direktorat budidaya tanaman 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wiranatha m., 2006. metodologi penelitian sosial. penerbit andi offset, yogyakarta. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 123-138 article history: submitted : june 29th, 2021 revised : june 7th, 2022 october 25th, 2021 accepted : june 28th, 2022 gity maulina yolanda*, dwidjono hadi darwanto, m. khalifatul ardhi department of agribusiness management, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia *) correspondence email: gitymaulina96@mail.ugm.ac.id consumers’ attitude and preference toward fresh tomatoes in special region of yogyakarta, indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12150 abstract increasing tomatoes consumption which is driven by needs and desires, changes consumers’ tastes and preferences. this study aimed to determine consumers’ attitudes and preferences towards tomato’s attributes. a convenience sampling which consisted of 150 respondents in the special region of yogyakarta was selected for this research. fishbein’s multi-attribute was used to analyze consumers’ attitude, and a conjoint analysis was employed to identify consumers’ preferences. according to the findings of this study, consumers have a favorable attitude toward tomato attributes such as freshness, color, firm texture, surface appearance, and taste. meanwhile, the findings of the conjoint analysis revealed that the color of the tomatoes was the most favored characteristic. the most preferred combination of tomato characteristics was red color, highly fresh, firm texture, spot-free surface look, and sweetness. keywords: attributes; conjoint analysis; consumers’ attitude; consumers’ preference; multi-attribute fishbein introduction since the spread of covid-19, people have become more concerned about their health as a long-term investment. to prevent the covid-19 infection, people change their behavior to be a healthier lifestyle and become aware of the nutritional facts’ balance (rohmani, 2020). many people choose a healthy diet as a preventive measure due to the virus infecting the human immune system. the covid-19 pandemic has prompted people to change their consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables into the most consumed products by 62% compared to others (gdp venture, 2020). the increased consumption of fruits and vegetables is vital because of their wealthy nutrients (dossou et al., 2007). tomatoes are a product of high nutritional facts, especially vitamin c, which is relatively safe to consume and essential in maintaining immunity (soetiarso, 2010; dias, 2012; salehi et al., 2019). in addition, tomato is the most globally produced vegetable and is considered a favorite vegetable in many countries (serio et al., 2006). tomatoes can be a high-priority vegetable to consume if it is associated with health. this fact is clarified by the consumption of tomatoes in indonesia which is expected to sustainably http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:gitymaulina96@mail.ugm.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12150 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 124 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research increase in 2017-2021 with an average growth of 5.32% per year (pusat data dan sistem informasi pertanian, 2017). special region of yogyakarta is the highest of vegetable consumption in indonesia (ridwan, 2017). on the other hand, population diversity and increased consumption will always be accompanied by consumer tastes and preferences changes. moreover, the covid19 pandemic has been claimed to be one of the most disturbing incidents in recent history, affecting almost all aspects of consumers' lives. lockdown and social distancing policies to combat the covid-19 virus have caused significant disruptions to consumer behavior (sheth, 2020). food choices are complex because they are influenced by previous experiences, beliefs, and consumer knowledge about the product, lifestyle, and situations (steptoe, pollard, & wardle, 1995; steptoe et al., 1995; brunsø et al., 2004). on the other hand, consumer dissatisfaction with taste quality has stimulated breeders to improve tomatoes’ sensory quality according to their demands (sinesio et al., 2021). quality of product is a set of attributes that are evaluated by the end user to determinate the product's performance (widiyanto et al., 2016). therefore, when consumers are faced with several choices, consumers must first be assumed to identify the attribute dimensions that are relevant to the decision and then evaluate each option based on the existing attributes (ajzen, 2015a). a product attribute concept approach may consumer apply to identify the quality characteristics of product (adiyoga & nurmalinda, 2012). the specificity of attributes in tomatoes is essential in determining consumers' attitudes and preferences. attitude is a combination of consumers’ beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions towards several products in the market that are perceived simultaneously due to the highly interdependent and represent forces that influence how consumers will react to objects (perner, 2010). therefore, more positive, and stronger beliefs will make better attitudes. a person may have beliefs about many objects and problems that not only come from the logical reasoning process but come from partiality by emotions or desires and can fulfill various personal needs (ajzen, 2015b). based on their product assessment, consumers’ attitudes can be shown through positive or negative attitudes. this follows the findings, which confirm that attributes with positive values indicate key factors influencing consumer attitudes and tendencies in making their choices (widayanti et al., 2020). in other words, consumers who have a positive attitude will make purchases and recommend them to others, while those who have a negative attitude will make a rejection. tomato’s quality commonly describes as fresh one. however, such a consumer’s definition of freshness is a complex issue involving a diversity of attributes consisting of sensory and non-sensory components (péneau, linke, escher, & nuessli, 2009; dinnella, torri, caporale, & monteleone, 2014; zhang, lusk, mirosa, & oey, 2016; hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021). sensory attributes primely contribute to the concept of freshness than nonsensory attributes (péneau et al., 2009). a survey investigating the relationship between sensory traits and perceived freshness showed that freshness evaluation was positively related to appearance attributes (dinnella et al., 2014). the expectations and sensory perceptions are http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 125 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) important factors that influence one's choice (krishna, 2012). this is supported by the findings, which state that visual inspection is the main process conducted by consumers to evaluate vegetable products to rise to a perspective (barrett et al., 2010). meanwhile, several studies have revealed that primarily sensory attributes which describe appearance and texture are related to the level of freshness perceived by consumers (ares, giménez, & gámbaro, 2008; fillion & kilcast, 2002; jung, padmanabahn, hong, lim, & kim, 2012; løkke, seefeldt, & edelenbos, 2012; péneau, hoehn, roth, escher, & nuessli, 2006). another author who researched with a sample of consumers in the special region of yogyakarta explained that freshness attributes strongly influenced consumer interest in tropical vegetables (hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021). consumers realize that vegetables are perishable products, so freshness attribute is the main priority in buying vegetables. in particular, the quality of tomatoes as fresh consumption depends on many properties which are related to external attributes, i.e., appearance, firmness, and internal attributes, i.e., texture, taste, and nutritional value (baldwin, scott, & bai, 2015; grandillo & cammareri, 2016; zhao et al., 2019; sinesio et al., 2021). it is critical to examine the characteristics of tomatoes to understand them better and meet consumer needs. in another consumer research study with cherry tomatoes, preference mapping was dominated by consumer groups who like red tomatoes and their sweetness (pagliarini et al., 2001). the other findings reveal that color is an essential indicator of tomato quality for consumers (oltman, jervis, & drake, 2014; adegbola et al., 2019). specifically, red is the familiar color consumers desire to buy and do not want to take risks by buying tomatoes other than red. several studies mention that texture and taste attributes are also important aspects of consumer perceptions of fresh tomatoes and purchasing decisions (serrano-megías & lópeznicolás, 2006; usse et al., 2010; oltman et al., 2014). in addition, the visual appearance of tomatoes is also considered very important for consumer purchasing decisions. consumers’ purchase intentions for fruits and vegetables are significantly influenced by visual appearance (loebnitz & grunert, 2014; barbe, dewitz, & triay, 2017; symmank, zahn, & rohm, 2018; lombart et al., 2019). consumers are willing to buy fruits and vegetables with a perfect appearance that shows no defects compared to others. in tomato market, each consumer has some preferences for various attributes. a finding asserts that consumer becomes the center of attention concerning satisfying consumer needs and desires, which are interconnected (frenqvist, 2014). the unanswered question is how fulfill these needs and desires to tomato’s characteristic. based on these conditions, it is undoubtedly a fascinating problem to study. the previous study shows that limited research explicitly discusses the role of attributes in tomatoes as a determinant of consumer preferences. therefore, this study aims to determine consumers' attitudes toward tomato attributes and examine consumers' preferences towards tomato attributes. research method the population of this study includes the entire people in special region of yogyakarta, which was spread over one city and four districts. a total of 150 samples were selected using http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 126 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the convenience sampling technique. the distribution of samples was 16 in yogyakarta city, 48 in sleman regency, 40 in bantul regency, 29 in gunung kidul regency, and 17 in kulon progo regency. in this study, the sample size determination is based on the method developed by (green & srinivasan, 1978), which requires a minimum sample size of 100 to apply the conjoint analysis. the data was collected by distributing online questionnaires to meet two criteria of participants. first, the respondent must be domiciled in the special region of yogyakarta, and second, respondents must decide to buy and consume tomatoes at least in the last month. the research questionnaire consisted of three parts. the first part was related to sociodemographic questions, buying behavior and consumption of tomatoes, and purchase location. the second part related to the question of respondents’ attitudes towards tomato attributes on a five-point likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly distrust) to 5 (strongly believe) for the trust component and 1 (very unimportant) to 5 (very important) for the evaluation of importance. the third part was related to respondents’ assessment of eight combinations of tomato attributes by sorting them from 1 (most preferred) to 8 (least preferred). this study began by testing the research instrument’s validity and reliability using the statistical program for social sciences (spss) application. the validity test criteria can be seen from the value of r-count, which was higher than r-table with a significance level of 0.05. meanwhile, the reliability test criteria used the cronbach alpha method, which was declared reliable when the value was 0.60. the analytical tools used in this research were fishbein multi-attribute and conjoint analysis. fishbein’s multi-attribute analysis model was considered capable of describing consumer behavior towards a product which was determined by two points, i.e., 1) belief in the attributes of a product (bi component), and 2) evaluation of the importance of a product (ei component) (engel, blackwell, winiard, & budijanto, 1994). the tomato attributes assessed through fishbein’s multi-attribute analysis include color, freshness, texture, fruit surface appearance, taste, and size. meanwhile, the conjoint analysis described consumer ratings or alternative product choices to estimate the utility value and importance value attached to each product attribute (green & srinivasan, 1978). the analysis is used to model consumer preferences based on consumer perceptions of various product attributes, beginning with determining the attributes and attribute levels (firdaus, 2011). attributes are selected based on attributes that have positive values from the results of fishbein’s multi-attribute analysis and supporting studies, including freshness (hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021), color (oltman et al., 2014; adegbola et al., 2019), texture (usse et al., 2010), fruit surface appearance (lombart et al., 2019), and taste (oltman et al., 2014). some selected attributes had not been specifically capable of representing consumer preferences, so it was necessary to extend the level for each attribute. attributes and attribute levels include freshness (fresh, weak), color (red, orange, yellow), texture (firm, soft), surface appearance (without spots and wounds, with spots and wounds), and taste (sour, sweet). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 127 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) attributes and attribute levels were developed with a qualitative level definition to be easily understood by consumers. after the attributes were selected and the level was determined, the next step in the conjoint analysis was to design the attribute combination. this study adopted a full profile approach with combinations formed from various attribute levels, namely 48 stimuli. theoretically, a respondent should rate 48 combinations of tomatoes. however, evaluating 48 stimuli was not possible for consumers and tended to risk non-objective assessment. therefore, to avoid this situation, the number of stimuli submitted for consumer evaluation was reduced by applying an orthogonal fractional factorial design using the statistical program for social sciences (spss) software, which maintains the experiment's validity. based on this orthogonal process produces eight stimuli (table 1). table 1. design of the conjoint experiment for preference toward fresh tomato profiles color freshness texture surface appearance taste 1 red fresh firm without spots and wounds sweet 2 red weak soft without spots and wounds sour 3 red fresh firm with spots and wounds sweet 4 red weak soft with spots and wounds sour 5 orange fresh soft with spots and wounds sweet 6 orange weak firm without spots and wounds sour 7 yellow fresh firm with spots and wounds sour 8 yellow weak soft without spots and wounds sweet the eight stimuli created from the orthogonal results were then represented in eight tomato profiles, each of which had different attributes. in the survey, respondents were asked to assess the eight tomato profiles by ranking the most preferred combination of tomato attributes (1) to the least preferred (8). the conjoint analysis was measured by examining the correlation value of pearson and tau kendall as a basis for decision-making. this test measured whether the score was significant or not at the 0.05 significance level. the test showed that it was significant, so the opinions of n respondents were acceptable in describing the population’s desire to buy tomatoes with specific characteristics. result and discussions the validity test using the pearson correlation of 150 respondents at a significance level of 0.05 showed an r-table of 0.160. the validity test results showed the overall r-count > 0.160, which means that all the question items in the questionnaire were valid. the complete results regarding the validity test are presented in table 2. furthermore, the reliability test on 150 respondents showed that all the question items had a cronbach alpha value of 0.812 was higher than 0.60 (table 2). this result showed that all of tested items revealed a good reliability level and can be trusted. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 128 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 2. validity and reliability test indicators items score r-count score r-table criteria attribute interest of tomato color 0.637 0.160 valid freshness 0.546 0.160 valid texture 0.568 0.160 valid surface appearance 0.550 0.160 valid taste 0.527 0.160 valid size 0.641 0.160 valid attribute importance of tomato color 0.697 0.160 valid freshness 0.601 0.160 valid texture 0.520 0.160 valid surface appearance 0.561 0.160 valid taste 0.603 0.160 valid size 0.536 0.160 valid cronbach’s alpha 0.812 reliable respondent characteristics the characteristics of tomato consumers in the special region of yogyakarta were described by several variables, such as gender, age, marital status, education, type of work, income and consumption frequency, purchase frequency, and purchase location (table 3). table 3. respondent’s characteristics of consumers’attitude and preference toward fresh tomatoes characteristics frequencies percentage (%) characteristics frequencies percentage (%) gender male 17 11.30 income <1,000,000 4 2.67 female 133 88.70 1,000,000 – 2,000,000 26 17.33 age 20-27 y 72 48.00 2,100,000 – 3,000,000 83 55.33 28-35 y 24 16.00 3,100,000 – 4,000,000 11 7.33 36-43 y 18 12.00 4,100,000 – 5,000,000 12 8.00 44-51 y 18 12.00 >5,000,000 14 9.33 52-59 y 13 8.67 frequency of consumption rarely (1-4 times a month) 34 22.67 60-67 y 5 3.33 often (12 times a month) 72 48.00 marital status married 88 58.70 always (30 times a month) 44 29.33 single 62 41.30 frequency of purchase 2-3 times a week 42 28.00 family size 1-2 people 43 28.70 once a week 64 42.67 3-4 people 64 42.70 2 times a month 16 10.67 5-6 people 35 23.30 once a month 28 18.67 >7 people 8 5.30 purchasing location modern market 6 4.00 education elementary school 4 2.70 traditional market 72 48.00 junior high school 9 6.00 stall 24 16.00 senior high school 38 25.30 mix (modern market, traditional market, and stall) 39 26.00 associate degree 10 6.70 others 9 6.00 undergraduate 80 53.30 postgraduate 9 6.00 types of work college student 35 23.30 state-owned enterprises or civil servants 14 9.30 employees 41 27.30 entrepreneur 19 12.70 housewife 34 22.70 others 7 4.70 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 129 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) consumer characteristics indicate that most tomato consumers in the special region of yogyakarta were women, with 88.70%. the average consumer was productive age between 20-27 years and was married. in aggregate, most tomato consumers (42.70%) had family members ranging from 3-4 (households with 1-2 children). all consumers, 59.30% had an education level of more than 12 years (high school and above). the majority of respondents (54.0%) were employed, rest of respondents were a student in college (23.3%) and housewives (22.7%). most consumers’ income in the special region of yogyakarta had reached the regional minimum wage of special region of yogyakarta (79.99%). 48% of consumers stated that consume tomatoes at least 12 times a month, and almost half of the consumers (42%) buy tomatoes at least once a week. most consumers (48%) prefer to buy tomatoes in traditional markets than other purchasing locations. consumers’ attitude the assessment of consumer attitudes towards tomatoes' attributes was analyzed using fishbein's multi-attribute analysis, which was seen from consumer evaluation of interest and important attributes for tomatoes. the evaluation of interest attributes describes the consumer's assessment of the tomatoes’ specific attributes' performance. the results of the assessment of tomato interest attributes (table 4) indicate that freshness attribute had the best performance in consumer perception. respondents considered that freshness contributed most to satisfying respondents’ expectations, compared to the attributes of color, texture, surface appearance, taste, and size. the results of the evaluation of the level of interest in tomato attributes can be seen in table 4. table 4. consumer’s evaluation of interest attributes for tomatoes attributes interest (bi) category color 4.25 good freshness 4.38 very good texture 4.22 good surface appearance 4.17 good taste 3.97 good size 3.90 good based on assessing the importance of tomato attributes in table 5, respondents rated freshness as the most important attribute in purchasing tomatoes. four other attributes that were also very important were color, texture, surface appearance, and taste. respondents assessed size of tomatoes as an important product but were not prioritized in buying tomatoes. table 5. consumer’s evaluation of important attributes of tomatoes attribute important (ei) category color 4.44 very important freshness 4.69 very important texture 4.43 very important surface appearance 4.33 very important taste 4.30 very important size 3.69 important http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 130 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the assessment of interest and important tomato attributes based on the consumer’s perspective resulted a positive and negative attitude expressed through consumer behavior. table 6 shows five attributes of tomatoes: freshness, color, texture, surface appearance, and taste attributes, categorized as positive attitudes (> 15.4). positive attributes indicate key factors influencing consumer attitudes and tendencies in making choices (widayanti et al., 2020). the freshness attribute was dominant with the highest score of 20.56, meaning that respondents tend to behave pleasantly to decide on a purchase by prioritizing the freshness attribute in tomatoes. other findings state that the level of freshness in tomatoes indicates the level of quality in the tomatoes themselves (adeoye et al., 2016). even the level of freshness was an initial assessment that can represent the color, taste, and size of tomatoes due to an indication of sensory or visual assessment or perception from consumers. consumer opinion on tomato freshness highly depends on their situational context (saba et al., 2018). in conclusion, it was unquestionable that consumers concerned freshness as most substantial attribute. table 6. consumer’s attitude toward tomato attributes attribute interest (bi) important (ei) consumer attitude (ao) category of attitude color 4.12 4.44 18.86 positive freshness 4.25 4.69 20.56 positive texture 4.17 4.43 18.68 positive surface appearance 4.23 4.33 18.08 positive taste 3.91 4.30 17.09 positive size 3.86 3.69 14.38 neutral on the other hand, size attribute was categorized as neutral (10.7-15.4). size was the last attribute that consumers considered in buying tomatoes. it means that respondents’ attitudes towards this attribute might be construed as pleasant or unpleasant. the size attribute was difficult for respondents since there were disparities in consumer comprehension or perception of the “ideal” tomato size. based on previous findings, it is infrequent to find research examine size as an assessment attribute due to no apparent preference for size in tomatoes (jürkenbeck et al., 2020). consumers’ preference the estimation results of the conjoint analysis accuracy level show that the pearson & kendall tau scores were 0.000 and 0.001, respectively. that is, this value was significant at the 0.05 significance level (table 7). the results of this test prove that there was a strong correlation between estimates and actual, where the opinions of 150 consumers were acceptable and can represent the desire of the population in the special region of yogyakarta to consume tomatoes. conjoint analysis is a powerful tool for studying “customer’s value”. we can define incentives and test them with simulations to determine what consumers need. in this research, the purpose of the conjoint analysis was to determine the relative importance of the attributes and the utility value of each attribute level. the relative importance of an attribute reveals http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 131 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) how important consumers consider an attribute. the higher score indicates that attribute is more important to consumers. the utility score describes the level of attractiveness of attribute, a higher utility score indicates more attractive attribute level. a negative utility score did not necessarily indicate that an attribute was unattractive but rather less attractive than a positive utility score in the same attribute. the estimation of the relative importance of attributes and the utility score of each attribute level is presented in table 7. table 7. consumer’s preference for attributes evaluated in the conjoint survey attribute average importance (%) level average utility preference color 40.35 red 1.272 red orange -0.158 yellow -1.114 freshness 20.24 fresh 0.761 fresh weak -0.761 texture 10.77 firm 0.339 firm soft -0.339 surface appearance 12.06 without spots and wounds 0.432 without spots and wounds with spots and wounds -0.432 taste 16.57 sweet 0.664 sweet sour -0.664 pearson’s r = 0.994 significant = 0.000 kendall’s tau = 0.857 significant = 0.001 constant = 4.184 the results of previous studies explain that one of the indicators of tomato quality for consumers is color (oltman et al., 2014; adegbola et al., 2019). this finding was in line with the results of this study that color was attributed with the highest importance score, which was 40.35% (table 7). it proves that consumers prioritize color attributes over other attributes in buying tomatoes. for utility scores, red tomatoes were preferred by consumers. respondents believed tomatoes were popular and identical to red, so consumers were less willing to explore different color. furthermore, respondents always assume they were end consumers who bought tomatoes for direct consumption. this opinion was reinforced by the research findings, which explain that tomato producers and wholesalers prefer green tomatoes, while retailers and final consumers prefer red tomatoes (moraes et al., 2017). the second most important attribute consumers considered in buying tomatoes was freshness, with an importance score of 20.4% of the total preference (table 7). the utility value of consumer preferences was more interested in buying fresh tomatoes. this was consistent with the research finding which confirmed that freshness is an important attribute of the perceived quality of a product (tsiros & heilman, 2005; farruggia, crescimanno, galati, & tinervia, 2016; hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021). tomatoes were classified as agricultural products, and the characteristics of agricultural products were always synonymous with freshness. based on the respondent’s perspective, the concept of freshness was interpreted differently according to their respective opinions. consumer opinions about freshness attributes have different styles, depending on personal factors and situational contexts (saba et al., 2018). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 132 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research as a finding, it confirms that consumers could evaluate level of freshness based on color expectations (dinnella et al., 2014; farruggia et al., 2016). another opinion asserts that texture is one of essential components involved in the concept of freshness (péneau et al., 2009). meanwhile, several studies reveal that level of freshness is closely related to the period or shelf life of the affected product because it is limited by odor and changes caused by appearance (ares et al., 2008; lareo et al., 2009; medina, tudela, marín, allende, & gil, 2012). furthermore, consumers choose the taste attribute as the third most essential attributes in buying tomatoes, with an importance score of 16.57% (table 7). the results of this study were appropriate to the findings, which grouped taste attributes into organoleptic factors and became the main factor consumers prioritized in buying tomatoes (fernqvist & hunter, 2012; moraes et al., 2017). taste is a key attribute that can increase consumer interest in tomato purchasing decisions (oltman et al., 2014; fernqvist & göransson, 2021). consumers stated that sweetness was their higher preference, with a utility score of 0.664 (table 7), in line with the findings, which stated that consumers are more likely to choose tomatoes that have a nonsour taste (usse et al., 2010). this finding confirms that tomatoes' taste is a very complex phenotype, mainly influenced by sensory evaluation involvement (klee & tieman, 2018). however, the limitations of consumers to directly taste the tomatoes that are purchased are very small, so retailers usually expand their product range and try to give a taste signal to consumers, for instance, by using taste descriptors (moser et al., 2011). more practical, respondents usually easily make an analogy with the color of tomatoes. the sour taste in tomatoes could decrease from the green phase to the ripe phase (carrari & fernie, 2006). thus, redder tomatoes produce less sour. in addition to the attributes of color, freshness, and taste, the appearance attribute of fruit surface was one of the most critical factors for consumers in buying tomatoes, with an importance score of 12.06% (table 7). this study found that respondents were more interested in tomatoes with clean fruit surfaces or no spots and wounds (positive utility). this finding was consistent with several previous studies which stated that consumers’ purchase intentions toward fruits and vegetables are significantly influenced by visual appearance (loebnitz & grunert, 2014; barbe et al., 2017; symmank et al., 2018; de hooge et al., 2017; lombart et al., 2019). consumers were willing to buy fruits and vegetables with perfect appearance (no defects) compared to fruits and vegetables whose appearance was moderate or flawed. in practice, retailers have sold fruit and vegetables flawlessly for the past few decades, so they have formed consumer expectations about the appearance of fruits and vegetables and set a reference point for their evaluation. respondents assume that injured tomatoes will speed up the decay process, thereby shortening the shelf life of the fruit. this study's results support the notion that tomatoes' appearance affects respondents' expectations, perceived satisfaction, liking, and purchase intentions. the last most crucial attribute that consumers considered in buying tomatoes was the texture attribute of the fruit, with an importance score of 10.77% (table 7). the study found that consumers preferred tomatoes with a firm texture (positive utility value). this result was http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 133 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) in line with the previous findings that confirmed texture is an essential aspect of consumer perception of fresh tomatoes, and most consumers prefer firm texture tomatoes (pagliarini et al., 2001; causse, buret, robini, & verschave, 2003; serrano-megías & lópez-nicolás, 2006). other findings underline that the texture attribute is a decision driver to assist consumers in the tomato selection process because they will touch the tomatoes directly before making a purchase (piombino et al., 2013; oltman et al., 2014). respondents understand that the texture of tomatoes was always associated with weight loss of fruit. so, consumers perceive that the harsher tomato texture was better quality because they are juicier than the soft one. conclusion consumers had favorable attitudes towards tomato attributes, i.e., freshness, color, firm texture, surface appearance, and taste. the study found that the tomato’s color was the most preferred attribute. the combination of attributes that most consumers needed was red tomatoes, very fresh, firm texture, surface appearance without spots and wounds, and sweetness. the results of this study suggested that tomato producers or farmers produce tomatoes that meet the consumers’ needs and desires. in addition, this study is also important for marketers and retailers to maintain tomato attributes, especially those considered necessary by consumers. acknowledgments: the authors would like to thank the department of agribusiness management, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada (ugm) for providing research facilities. author contributions: gmy: conceptualization ideas, data collection, formal analysis, writing, review, and editing preparation, and addressed the reviewer’s comments; dhd: conceptualization ideas, adviser and supervisor of data collection and analysis, reviewed the manuscript, and reviewed literature; mka: conceptualization ideas, writing, review, and editing preparation, and addressed the reviewer’s comments. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest reference adegbola, y. p., ahoyo adjovi, n. r., adekambi, s. a., zossou, r., sonehekpon, e. s., assogba komlan, f., & djossa, e. 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(2019). meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies provides insights into genetic control of tomato flavor. nature communications, 10, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09462-w http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 agraris is a periodical of scientific journals on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published twice a year (january-june, and july-december) by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai). agraris accredited “b” by decree of the indonesian ministry of research, technology, and higher education (ristekdikti) no.51/e/kpt/2017 on 4th december 2017. editorial team editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57215538283) advisory international editorial board assoc. prof. dr. juwaidah sharifuddin department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia (scopus id: 55915859300) prof. masateru sange united graduate school of agricultural science, gifu university, japan (scopus id: 57201942114) dr. malose moses tjale institute of rural development, university of venda, south africa dr. anidah robani institute of technology management & entrepreneurship, universiti teknikal malaysia melaka, malaysia (scopus id: 55655498600) dr. pakapon saiyut department of agricultural economics, khon kaen university, thailand (scopus id: 57197711505) editorial board prof. dr. muhammad firdaus, s.p., m.si. department of economic, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57204838013) dr. aris slamet widodo, s.p. m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia suprehatin, sp, mab, ph.d. department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia dr. susanawati, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57194276960) subejo, s.p., m.sc., ph.d. department of extension and communication, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia (scopus id: 57191036623) dr. ir. indardi, m.si department of agribusiness. universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57208466949) zuhud rozaki, s.p., m.app.sc., ph.d. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57192575625) issn 9772407814009 ii agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research assistant editor heri akhmadi, s.p., m.a. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia muhammad fauzan, s.p., m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57203142471) reviewer available on: http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/about/ displaymembership/61 address secretariat of agraris universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta brawijaya street, tamantirto, kasihan, bantul, yogyakarta 55183 (ground floor of f3 building) telp.0274-387656 (ext.201) fax. 0274-387646 e-mail: agraris@umy.ac.id wa: +62 853-2873-7828 mailto:agraris@umy.ac.id vol. 6. no.1. january-june 2020 iii table of contents journal agraris vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 editorial team ................................................................................................................................................................ i reviewer ......................................................................................................................................................................... ii address ........................................................................................................................................................................... ii table of contents ......................................................................................................................................................... iii preface ...........................................................................................................................................................................iv manuscript guidelines .................................................................................................................................................. v article performance behavior of corn smallholders for sustainable cooperative change in west kalimantan nurliza, agus ruliyansyah, rini hazriani atmaja………………………………………………………….……...…………………...1-11 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6186 assessing determinants of farmer’s participation in sugarcane contract farming in indonesia rokhani, mohammad rondhi, ebban bagus kuntadi, joni murti mulyo aji, anik suwandari, agus supriono, triana dewi hapsari……………………………………………………………………...………………………....12-23 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6187 satisfaction of restituted farms beneficiaries with performance of farms in waterberg district, south africa malose m. tjale, marizvikuru mwale, beata m. kilonzo………………………………………………………...………………….24-37 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6188 sociodemographic factors affecting household food security in sumedang regency west java province nugrahana fitria ruhyana, wiedy yang essa, mardianis…………………………………………..……………….......................38-51 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6189 the stability of supply and rice price in sukoharjo regency titik ekowati, edy prasetyo, mukson………………………………………………………………………………..………………..52-62 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6190 institutional performance of dairy farmers and the impacts on resources amam, mochammad wildan jadmiko, pradiptya ayu harsita……………………………………………………………………..63-73 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6191 economic intuition to social capital: household evidence from jimma zone, south-west ethiopia minyahil alemu haile, sisay tola whakeshum…………………………………………………………………………...………….74-92 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6192 asymmetric price transmission with threshold behavior of potatoes market in bandung regency west java dina nurul fitria, harianto, d.s. priyarsono, noer azam achsani ……………………………………………………….…........93-106 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6193 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6186 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6187 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6188 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6189 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6190 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6191 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6192 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6193 iv agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research preface bismillahirrahmaanirrahiim. with full gratitude to allah swt, journal agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 of 2020 has published. the issue of this number consists of eight articles that discuss agricultural development, marketing of agriculture products, and socioeconomic agriculture. in the study of agricultural development has four topics, that are performance behavior of corn smallholders for sustainable cooperative change by nurliza et.al, assessing determinants of farmer's participation in sugarcane contract by rokhani et.al, satisfaction of restituted farm beneficiaries with performance of farm by tjale et.al, and sociodemographic factors affecting household food security by ruhyana et.al. the study of marketing agriculture products has two topics, that are the stability of supply and rice price by ekowati et.al and asymmetric price transmission with the threshold behavior of the potato market by fitria et.al. the last one is the study of socioeconomic agriculture that discusses economic intuition to social capital: household evidence from the jimma zone by haile, et.al. the various of discovering research, hope can be a base to the stakeholder of policymaker that relates to the wider agricultural development and encourage to develop ideas on further studies. finally, we would like to thank all the contributors such as the author, expert reviewer, and all the editors for materializing this journal published. yogyakarta, june 2020 editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. vol.6 no. 1 january-june 2020 v manuscript guidelines manuscript submission criteria: 1. the manuscript is a result of agribusiness and rural development research. the manuscript should have novelty/authenticity, contribution or uniqueness for academic (science) development or applications in real life or both of it. 2. the manuscript contains original research, free of plagiarisms, and others unethical attitude. 3. at the time of submitting the manuscript, the author should ensure that the manuscript has not or has not been in the process of publishing in another periodical journal. manuscript systematics: 1. title. the title should be clear, informative, and not exceed 15 words. 2. author’s name and affiliation. the author’s name should be included by affiliation and email address, without the academic title. 3. abstract. the abstract contains a brief description of the research background (maximum two sentences), aims, methods, results, and implication. abstract is written in english, one paragraph with single spacing (maximum 200 words) without any references or formulas. keywords consist of 3-5 words or phrases (alphabetically). 4. introduction. this section explains: (i) general background of research (brief), (ii) a review of the previous research that relevant and up-to-date, (iii) novelty statement (analysis of gap) that contains the urgency and novelty of the research, and (iv) the aims of the research. if there is a hypothesis, declare explicitly and not in an interrogative sentence. the introduction should be written without numbers and/or pointers. 5. research method. this section contains a research design that includes: population/sample of research, data, and techniques/instrument of data collections, tools of analysis, and models used. commonly methods no need to write in detail, but simply refers to the reference book (example: f test formula, t-test). the symbol of the description of the model is written in sentences. 6. result and discussion. this section contains the result of data analysis (in table or figure, not in a raw data, and not a print screen of analysis result), the connections between the result and basic concept and / or hypothesis (if there is), and conformity or contradiction with the result of previous research. this section can also contain an implication from the result of research, both theoretical and appropriately. every figure and table must be referred to in the text. 7. conclusion. conclusion written briefly, only answer the aims or hypotheses of the research, do not repeat the discussion. conclusion written critically, logically, and honestly based on the existing fact, and full of cautions if there is a generalization. this section is written in paragraph form, do not use the numbering or bullets. 8. acknowledgments (if necessary). this section provided for the authors to deliver their gratitude to the research funder, facility, or the suggestion, and for the statement, if the article is part of the thesis/dissertation. 9. references. the reference contains a list of journals, books, or the other publications that are referenced of published manuscripts in the last 10 years (80%). vi agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research manuscript format: 1. the manuscript is written in quarto paper size, one column, and 1.5 spacing format. the new paragraph begins six characters from the left side and uses time new roman font 12. 2. the manuscript is written in english. 3. the number of pages between 15-20, the margin on the left side and the upper side is 3 cm, the right side and the bottom side is 2.5 cm. 4. the title is written uppercase (except preposition) using font size 14 with center alignment. the subtitle is written uppercase and use font size 12. if there is a sub-subtitle, written capital each word except conjunction. if there is a sub of sub-subtitle, written capital each word and italic model. subtitle, sub-subtitle, and sub of the sub-subtitle are written begin on the left side. 5. the citation is written by the american psychological association 6th edition. below are samples of citation: (susanawati, jamhari, masyhuri, & dwidjono, 2015); (bayuriatiga, widodo, & sriyadi, 2015); (bps, 2014); (syaukat, 2011). 6. the figure or table is made as close as possible to the explanation and put the number sequentially base on the site in the explanation. the source of data is better to be included. note: figure should be clear and fix (good resolution) sample of figure: 7. tables consist of title and content. the line of the table just on the top and the bottom to separate between the title and the content of the table. sample of the table: table 1. random value index (ri) country value of export (000 usd) value trend of export (%) indonesia 17.598 2,658 prancis 4.040 4,114 swiss 2.858 -4,837 source: hakimi (2017) 8. references are arranged by alphabetical, begin from the first author and follow by co-author. if there are two or more references that have the same author and year of publication, put the sign a, b, c...... etc. after the year of publication. in the reference that site from journal, scientific magazine, proceeding are should be include the name of author, year, title, place of the seminar, publisher, page, and editor. vol.6 no.1 january-june 2020 vii the reference of agraris is written following american psychological association (apa) 6th edition. when making reference is suggested to use mendeley application. (the tutorial of mendeley can be accessed on http://bit.ly/2vyeqgz). below is the sample of apa 6th edition: article of journal susanawati, s., jamhari, j., masyhuri, & dwidjono, d. (2015). integrasi pasar bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk (pendekatan kointegrasi engle-granger). agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1(1), 43-51. http://doi.org/10.18196/agr.117 article of proceeding banyuriatiga, b., widodo, a. s., & sriyadi, s. (2015). persepsi dan evaluasi pengembangan jambu mete di desa wisata karang tengah, kecamatan imogiri, kabupaten bantul. in s. y. rusimah, i. indardi, m. fauzan, & a. fachruddin (eds.), prosiding seminar nasional optimalisasi potensi sumberdaya lokal menghadapi mea 2015 (pp. 82–90). yogyakarta: program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta. retrieved from http://repository.umy. ac.id/handle/123456789/10106 book debertin, d. l. (2004). agricultural production economics (second edi). new jersey: pearson education. report of institution or corporation bps. (2014). statistik indonesia 2014. jakarta. retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/index.php/publikasi /326 additional information template of the manuscripts can be downloaded at website of agraris: (http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/index) http://doi.org/10.18196/agr.117 http://repository.umy.ac.id/handle/123456789/10106 https://www.bps.go.id/index.php/publikasi/326 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 181-197 article history: submitted : march 30th, 2021 revised : september 26th, 2022 january 24th, 2022 accepted : october 7th, 2022 imade yoga prasada1,*, aura dhamira2 1 study program of agribusiness, faculty of science and technology, universitas putra bangsa, kebumen, indonesia 2 agribusiness department, faculty of agriculture, universitas pembangunan nasional veteran yogyakarta, indonesia *) correspondence email: imade.yogap@gmail.com non-tariff measures and competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber export in destination countries doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11392 abstract in the last few decades, the implementation of tariff policies between countries has declined. as a result, the enforcement of non-tariff measures (ntms) experiences an increase. implementing ntms raises a new obstacle to trade activities in the global market, including the trade of indonesia’s natural rubber. therefore, this study was conducted to determine the effect of enforcing ntms on the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber. this study utilized secondary data from un comtrade on 1995 to 2019. the data was analyzed using frequency index, coverage ratio, comparative advantage, and two-stage least square regression model. the results revealed that india, china, and the usa enforced the most ntms of indonesia’s natural rubber. additionally, the implementation of ntms in importing countries positively correlated to the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber in destination countries. keywords: competitiveness; destination countries; indonesia; natural rubber; non tariff measures introduction free trade and protectionism are still being debated (yeo & deng, 2019). relatively established countries desire more open trade and are concerned about the emergence of new trade tariff policies. however, developing countries still want protectionist policies to be enforced to protect their domestic industries. tariffs on international trade increase deadweight losses, thereby reducing social welfare (amiti, redding, & weinstein, 2019). conversely, reducing or eliminating tariffs can escalate the growth of domestic consumption and production factors (phat & hanh, 2019). for the last few decades, the world trade organization (wto) has successfully negotiated a tariff reduction within its member countries. through the formation of the general agreement on tariffs and trade (gatt) in 1947, the wto continues to encourage free trade between member countries and reduce tariff barriers. in addition, the gatt seeks to liberate trade from quantitative restrictions and subsidies for various goods traded in the international market (chin & rusli, 2015). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:imade.yogap@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11392 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 182 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research countries worldwide, especially wto member countries, have begun eliminating tariff policies, including indonesia. at the same time, implementing non-tariff measures (ntms) to protect domestic producers experiences a rise (jordaan, 2017; ronen, 2017). ntms refer to policy measures other than tariffs impacting international trade in goods (united nations conference on trade and development [unctad], 2021). this impact takes the form of changes in the number of goods traded, the price of goods, or a combination of the two. ntms can be categorized into sanitary and phytosanitary (sps), technical barriers to trade (tbt), pre-shipment inspection (insp), contingent trade protective measures (ctpm), quantity control measures (qc), price control measures (pc), export-related measures (exp), and other measures (unctad, 2020). implementing ntms raises varied impacts on the export performance of a commodity. ntms positively influence the export performance of indonesia’s tuna commodity to several major export destination countries (rindayati & kristriana, 2018). furthermore, implementing ntms with the tbt type positively affected indonesia’s natural rubber export in various destination countries (virginia & novianti, 2020). on the other hand, research on ntms and the export performance of rcep countries unveiled that the implementation of ntms by importing countries reduced the export performance of the health sector (zainuddin, sarmidi, & khalid, 2020). it is supported by a study concerning ntms and the export performance of indonesia’s fishery commodities, uncovering that ntms harmed the export performance of these commodities (permata & handoyo, 2019). moreover, research in africa revealed that the application of ntms by importing countries significantly reduced the volume of trade in agricultural products (liu, lin, liu, & li, 2019). as one of the largest natural rubber exporters, indonesia faces the challenges of ntms. indonesia contributed a market share of 28.06% of world’s total natural rubber export in 2019 (trademap, 2021). indonesia’s natural rubber export in the international market can be divided into several specifications: natural rubber latex, natural rubber smoked sheets (rss), and technically specified natural rubber (tsnr). respectively, each specification contributes 1.22%, 2.30%, and 97.48% of the total export (statistics indonesia, 2019). the high export of indonesia’s natural rubber demonstrates the potential to enhance this commodity’s competitiveness in the international market (erkan & yildirimci, 2015; wiranthi & mubarok, 2017). furthermore, the efforts to enhance the export competitiveness of the natural rubber commodity should consider ntms applied in the destination countries. the major export destination countries for indonesia’s natural rubber commodity are the usa, japan, china, india, and the republic of korea. these five countries have implemented ntms for the natural rubber commodity with tsnr specifications. accordingly, the imposition of ntms by these countries can limit indonesia’s natural rubber trade and affect the competitiveness of this commodity. several studies investigated factors affecting to ntms and the competitiveness of agricultural commodities. several research which utilized the ordinary lease square (ols model) in indonesia revealed that export competitiveness was influenced by productivity, the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 183 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (prasada and dhamira) export price of agricultural commodities, and trade openness (sa'diyah & darwanto, 2020; yanita, napitupulu, & rahmah, 2019; yulhar & darwanto, 2019). another study on indonesia’s cocoa commodity analyzed using the ecm model discovered that the export competitiveness was affected by the exchange rate, the world price of cocoa, and the export duty (hapsari & yuniasih, 2020). in addition, another research uncovered that the export competitiveness of the rubber commodity was influenced by the implementation of ntms, encompassing sps, tbt, and quota policy (purnomowati, darwanto, widodo, & hartono, 2015; virginia & novianti, 2020). moreover, another study using the ols model concluded that the application of ntms was influenced by the gross domestic product (gdp) and dummy membership of the wto (chin & rusli, 2015; zhang, sun, gordon, & munn, 2020). previous research analyzed the effect of ntms on agricultural commodities’ volume and export value. therefore, the effect on export competitiveness was unknown, especially for natural rubber. in addition, previous studies employed ols and ecm models for the analysis. however, these models could not overcome the endogeneity problem in the variable of ntms. export competitiveness, in this case, was assessed using the rca index, allegedly influenced by the application of ntms. furthermore, ntms are influenced by an instrument variable of gdp and a dummy variable of wto membership. therefore, this study was conducted using the two stage least square (tsls) model to fill the gaps that emerged from previous studies. this study aims to determine the effect of the imposition of ntms by importing countries on the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber commodity with tsnr specifications and identify the factors affecting the competitiveness of this commodity in five major export destination countries. research method this study employed panel data that consisted of time series and cross-section data. the time series data were from 1995 to 2019. the cross-section data were sourced from five major export destination countries of indonesia’s natural rubber commodity with tsnr specifications (hs code 400122), comprising the usa, japan, china, india, and the republic of korea. these five countries were determined as the main destinations due to the high proportion of tsnr imports from indonesia, as displayed in table 1. table 1. average of indonesia’s tsnr export in five destination countries from 1995 to 2019 country import quantity (tonnes) share of import (%) rank usa 563,296.83 31.24 1 japan 230,688.45 12.79 2 china 191,344.34 10.61 3 republic of korea 93,075.35 5.16 4 india 75,325.12 4.18 5 indonesia’s total export 1,803,041.23 100.00 the variables in this study comprised revealed comparative advantage (rca), real gdp at a constant price of importing countries (gdp), indonesia’s real exchange rate (rer), the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 184 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dummy of wto membership, and the number of ntms of the natural rubber commodity imposed by importing countries. the data were gathered from un comtrade, unctad, and the federal reserve bank of st. louis. rca refers to a comparison between the export share of a commodity from a country to the share of commodity export in the world market (muzayyin, masyhuri, darwanto, & junaidi, 2019). formula 1 was used to calculate rca (balassa, 1965). rcaij ̇= xij/xt wij/wt (1) 𝑅𝐶𝐴𝑖�̇� is revealed comparative advantage of product j produced by country i. 𝑋𝑖𝑗 represents the country i’s export value of product j to the destination country. 𝑋𝑡 implies the country i’s total export value to the destination country. 𝑊𝑖𝑗 refers to the world export value of product j. 𝑊𝑡 signifies the total world export value. the rca lies in the interval between 0 and positive infinity (0≤rca≤+∞) (hailay, 2017; jagdambe, 2019). the rca can be grouped into four categories (erkan & saricoban, 2014): (1) no comparative advantage (0<rca≤1), (2) weak comparative advantage (1<rca≤2), (3) moderate comparative advantage (2<rca≤4), and (4) strong comparative advantage (4<rca). in addition, indonesia’s real exchange rate was determined using the following formula. rer=ner× cpii cpiindonesia (2) rer refers to indonesia’s real exchange rate (idr/usd). ner represents indonesia’s nominal exchange rate (idr/usd). cpii signifies the consumer price index in country i. meanwhile, cpiindonesia is the indonesian consumer price index. moreover, the frequency index could be utilized to determine the percentage of the import transaction concerning ntms of the exporting country. in other words, the frequency ratio could determine the percentage of product k applying one or more ntms. the higher frequency indexes will affect more ntms forced by importing countries on indonesia’s natural rubber commodity and conversely. the following formula was employed for calculating the frequency index (disdier & fugazza, 2019): fj=[∑ dimii ∑ mii⁄ ] (3) 𝐹𝑗 is the frequency index of ntms imposed by country j. 𝐷𝑖 illustrates a dummy variable reflecting one or more ntms on product i; 1 if a country imposes one or more ntms and 0 if otherwise. 𝑀𝑖 represents a dummy variable indicating whether there are imports of product i. furthermore, the trade value for indonesia’s tsnr subject to ntms in an importing country can be seen from the coverage ratio. the coverage ratio can demonstrate the reach of ntms and their importance for imported goods (zainuddin et al., 2020). the coverage ratio was examined using the following formula (disdier & fugazza, 2019). cj=[∑ divii ∑ vii⁄ ] (4) 𝐶𝑗 is the coverage ratio of ntms applied in country j. 𝐷𝑖 is defined like before. 𝑉𝑖 indicates the import value of product i. the higher coverage ratio value signifies that http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 185 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (prasada and dhamira) indonesia’s natural rubber commodity is getting bigger, affected by ntms in importing countries (virginia & novianti, 2020; zainuddin et al., 2020). after collecting all data, it was necessary to pay attention to the nature of time series data. time series data could generate bias due to not stationary data over time (prasada, dhamira, & nugroho, 2021). therefore, before performing data analysis, a stationarity test on the panel data should be run using levin-lin-chu (llc) unit root test (prasada, dhamira, & nugroho, 2022). as table 2 exhibits, the stationarity test revealed that the variables of rca, real gdp at a constant price, and ntms were significant at the first difference stage, while indonesia’s real exchange rate (rer) was significant at the level stage. table 2. stationarity test variable stage llc statistic prob. information rca 1st difference -5.505 0.000 stationary rer level -1.296 0.098 stationary gdp 1st difference -3.240 0.001 stationary ntms 1st difference -3.535 0.000 stationary note: rca = revealed comparative advantage; rer = indonesia’s real exchange rate toward usd; gdp = real gdp at constants price; ntms = number of ntms imposed after obtaining stationary data over time, the regression analysis was carried out properly. this study employed a two-stage least square (tsls) regression model. this regression model can be applied when the variable possesses endogeneity problems, in this case, ntms. the variable of ntms was expected to influence the competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber export. however, at the same time, this variable was influenced by other variables: the real gdp at a constant price and wto membership. therefore, the variables of the real gdp at a constant price and wto membership affecting ntms were modeled, which then ntms influenced the competitiveness of indonesia’s rubber export. a single equation was unable to solve the relationship between these variables. nevertheless, simultaneous equations using the tsls model could solve it (greene, 2002). the first-stage regression models are written as formula 5. ntmsi t=γ0+γ1gdpi t+γ2wto+u (5) while, the second-stage regression models are written as the formula 6. rcai t=β 0 +β 1 reri t+β 2 ntmsi t+v (6) where rcai t is revealed comparative advantage for country i in year t; ntmsi t represents the number of ntms imposed by country i in year t; gdpi t shows the real gdp at a constant price for country i in year t (millions usd); wto is the dummy of wto membership (1=member; 0=non member); and reri t shows indonesia’s real exchange rate toward usd for country i in year t (idr/usd). the model in this study was compiled based on various previous studies. research on forest products using the ols method disclosed that ntms influenced a country’s gdp and wto membership status (chin & rusli, 2015; zhang et al., 2020). however, other studies http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 186 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research revealed that ntms and a country’s real exchange rate affected rca (hapsari & yuniasih, 2020; purnomowati et al., 2015; virginia & novianti, 2020). this study modeled that ntms were influenced by the equation’s gdp and wto membership status. this modeling was based on several theories on economic globalization and international trade. adam smith stated that when a country has an absolute advantage (can produce a product more efficiently) over another country but at the same time has an absolute disadvantage (not more efficient than other countries) in producing other products, then the two countries will benefit each other when exchanging their products (salvatore, 2013). it only happens if there is minimum government intervention in the economic system (a laissez-faire policy) (nugroho, bhagat, magda, & lakner, 2021). the facts indicate that government intervention in the economic system is substantial in both developed and developing countries. developed countries tend to apply restrictive non-tariff policies. conversely, developing countries have a tendency to impose tariff policies. the implementation of non-tariff policies by high-income countries has increased more rapidly than in upper-middle-income, lower-middle-income, and low-income countries (niu, liu, gunessee, & milner, 2018). scholte (2005) revealed that developed countries tend to state ambiguous policies; on the one hand, they claim to encourage world trade liberalization, but on the other hand, they also establish protective policies to protect their domestic industries. furthermore, trade policies between countries are also interfered with by the wto, where wto membership consists of both developed and developing countries. the policies established by the wto are likely to favor developed countries, causing them to have failed to integrate the interests of developing countries in developing an ideal trading system (ukpe & khorana, 2021). the analysis using the tsls model generated an r2 value of 0.66, meaning that the independent variables could explain 66% of the variation in the dependent variable in the model. the tsls model in this study was valid with an f-statistic value of 37.36 and significant at a 1% alpha level. the endogeneity test yielded a significant value at 1% alpha, indicating that the variable of ntms was endogenous. furthermore, the anderson canon. corr. lm test was also significant at a 1% alpha level. meanwhile, the sargan test was insignificant at the same alpha level, implying that the model could be precisely identified. in addition, the stock-yogo test unveiled an eigenvalue statistic of 80.36. it was higher than the 2sls wald test at 5% (19.93), confirming that the gdp and wto were strong instrumental variables. results and discussion figure 1a displays indonesia’s natural rubber export to the usa, reaching an annual average of 0.57 million tonnes from 1995 to 2019. figure 1b exhibits that, during the same period, the average export of indonesia’s natural rubber to japan reached 0.27 million tonnes per year. it was higher than indonesia’s natural rubber export to china, which averaged 0.23 million tonnes yearly, as illustrated in figure 1c. as demonstrated in figures 1d and 1e, the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 187 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (prasada and dhamira) republic of korea and india could absorb an annual average of 0.11 million and 0.07 million tonnes of indonesia’s natural rubber, respectively. indonesia is one of the leading exporters of natural rubber to these five countries. it was recorded that indonesia’s natural rubber export to the usa contributed 73.11% of its total demand. moreover, indonesia’s natural rubber export to japan met 66.16% of its total demand. subsequently, indonesia’s natural rubber contributed 74.57% of india’s total demand for this commodity. similarly, indonesia’s natural rubber commodity could meet the demand in china and the republic of korea by 26.82% and 46.14%. the high contribution of indonesia’s natural rubber demonstrated significant potential to increase its competitiveness in central destination countries. it is closely related to the penetration and expansion of indonesia’s rubber commodity in these five countries (cvetković & petrovicrandelovic, 2017; yulhar & darwanto, 2019). the high volume of indonesia’s natural rubber export depicted its high capacity for producing this commodity. indonesia’s natural rubber export in various central destination countries also fluctuated considerably. the export volume of indonesia’s natural rubber to the usa fluctuated with a positive trend following the demand for this commodity. the usa’s lowest demand for natural rubber occurred in 2009, at only 0.55 million tonnes. simultaneously, indonesia’s export to the usa reached 0.38 million tonnes, as illustrated in figure 1a. this export volume met 69.38% of the usa’s total demand for natural rubber. within this period, the rca of indonesia’s natural rubber export to the usa reached 85.61, slightly lower than the average export competitiveness from 1995 to 2018, which was 94.90. the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber commodity in the usa fell into the category of strong competitiveness, with an average rca value of greater than 4. as figure 1b displays, indonesia’s natural rubber export to japan depicted a positive trend, signifying an annual export increase. indonesia’s natural rubber export to china, india, and the republic of korea also exhibited the same trend. figure 1c illustrates that indonesia’s natural rubber export to china increased by 0.02 million tonnes yearly. meanwhile, figure 1d demonstrates an annual export increase of 0.01 million tonnes in india. on the other hand, as portrayed in figure 1e, indonesia’s natural rubber export to the republic of korea relatively increased by 0.001 million tonnes per year. the high volume of indonesia’s natural rubber export to japan, china, india, and the republic of korea boosted the export competitiveness of this commodity. the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber reached an average of 18.08 in japan and 18.70 in the republic of korea. furthermore, the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber to india and china acquired average rca values of 29.89 and 21.98. the rca value in each destination country was greater than 4, implying strong competitiveness in indonesia’s natural rubber export performance. despite having strong competitiveness, rca tended to decline in the usa and china. the rca for indonesia’s natural rubber export to the usa generated a negative trend, signifying an annual export decline of 0.15. similarly, the rca in china also demonstrated a relative decline of 0.47 yearly. the decline in these two countries was driven by their prolonged trade war. the trade war between these two countries caused a decline in demand http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 188 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research for natural rubber due to slowing global production and international trade (iqbal, elianda, akbar, & nurhadiyanti, 2020; kapustina, lipková, silin, & drevalev, 2020). accordingly, it forced indonesia to diversify the natural rubber market to other countries to reduce the trade war’s negative impact on the economy and the performance of natural rubber export (taufikurahman & firdaus, 2019; wangke, 2020). this export market diversification led to a decline in the share of indonesia’s natural rubber in china and the usa, resulting in a relative decline in the competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber export. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure 1. (a) indonesia’s tsnr export volume vs rca in the usa; (b) indonesia’s tsnr export volume vs rca in japan; (c) indonesia’s tsnr export volume vs rca in china; (d) indonesia’s tsnr export volume vs rca in india; (e) indonesia’s tsnr export volume vs rca in the republic of korea http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 189 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (prasada and dhamira) increasing the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber in various major destination countries was inseparable from tariff and non-tariff barriers. relative tariff barriers have decreased, but non-tariff barriers have increased with the emergence of ntms. these ntms are applied to various commodities marketed in the international market, including vegetables, animal products, and natural rubber. natural rubber commodity has experienced the implementation of ntms in multilateral or bilateral agreements between indonesia and importing countries. the analysis revealed that india imposed the most ntms, with a frequency index of 78.67%, as displayed in figure 2. ntms implemented by india for indonesia’s natural rubber products included sanitary and phytosanitary (sps) measures, technical barriers to trade (tbt), and export-related measures. in addition, the usa and china also employed many ntms to indonesia’s natural rubber commodity, with a frequency index of 72.80% and 65.71%, respectively. the republic of korea and japan utilized fewer ntms on indonesia’s rubber commodity, with the lowest frequency index value. figure 2. frequency index and coverage ratio of indonesia’s tsnr commodity in destination countries the coverage ratio from the largest to the smallest were demonstrated sequentially by india, china, the usa, the republic of korea, and japan. the order was slightly different from the frequency index, sequentially starting from india, the usa, china, japan, and the republic of korea. the coverage ratio greater than the frequency index implied that ntms by importing countries significantly affected the export of indonesia’s natural rubber commodity (gourdon, 2014). china’s frequency index was smaller than the usa’s. however, china’s coverage ratio was more significant than the usa’s, meaning that the ntms in china had an enormous impact on indonesia’s natural rubber export than the ntms imposed by the usa. china has implemented ntms in all classifications, from sps, and tbt, to exportrelated measures, generating tighter ntms and impacting the performance of indonesia’s natural rubber export. the same happened to japan and the republic of korea’s frequency 79.91 28.72 90.83 94.13 29.72 72.80 22.67 65.71 78.67 21.00 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 usa japan china india republic of korea coverage ratio frequency index http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 190 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research index and coverage ratio. the coverage ratio of the republic of korea was more considerable than japan’s. however, it had a lower frequency index than japan. this result was driven by more classifications of ntms implemented by the republic of korea, tightening trade. these results are consistent with research conducted in europe, america, asia, and africa, revealing an increase in the use of ntms as protective measures for domestic products (niu et al., 2018). in addition, research on the agri-food trade between the us and eu discovered that removing ntms could loosen and expand trade by 11.6 billion dollars (arita et al., 2017). table 3. factors affecting the competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber in destination countries variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob first-stage regression: dependent variable of ntms gdp 2.19e-06*** 1.76e-07 12.48 0.00 wto 4.41ns 3.79 1.16 0.25 rer -7.43e-04*** 1.02e-04 -7.29 0.00 cons. 1.59ns 3.94 0.40 0.69 second-stage regression: dependent variable of rca rer 2.19e-03*** 2.64e-04 8.30 0.00 ntms 0.82*** 0.24 3.46 0.00 cons. -8.91ns 5.85 -1.52 0.13 r2 =0.66 f-statistic =37.36 anderson canon. corr. lm test =71.31 sargan test =0.07 stock-yogo test =80.36 endogeneity test =27.96 where: *** significant at 1 percent alpha; ns not significant note: rca = revealed comparative advantage; gdp = real gdp at the constant price; wto = dummy of wto membership; rer = indonesia’s real exchange rate toward usd; ntms = number of ntms imposed. furthermore, the impact of implementing ntms was modeled in a structural equation system on the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber in the major destination countries. the analysis unveiled that the number of ntms imposed by the importing countries on indonesia’s natural rubber was influenced by the real gdp at a constant price in each country, as described in table 3. the gdp variable was significant at the level of 1% with a positive regression coefficient, illustrating that since higher real gdp of a country will increase the number of implemented ntms. high-income countries tend to use ntms in commodity trading (heal & palmioli, 2015) due to their incredible and efficient market forces (chin & rusli, 2015). in addition, high-income countries do not have as much dependence on international trade as low-income countries, making them more effective in implementing ntms to gain more benefits. research related to trade in the wine commodity uncovered that developed countries with higher gdp than developing countries tended to implement more product-specific ntms, triggering the emergence of a non-transparent trading environment (santeramo, lamonaca, nardone, & seccia, 2019). in addition, developed countries often play a role as policymakers of restrictive policies on international trade in agricultural http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 191 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (prasada and dhamira) products, while developing countries play a role as policy takers of these policies (santeramo & lamonaca, 2022). it caused the implementation of ntms to be preferred by developed countries. as described in table 3, the tsls analysis revealed that the real exchange rate (rer) variable significantly affected the competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber export at the level of 1%. the positive rer coefficient indicated that as higher rer would increase indonesia’s rubber competitiveness. a higher rer implied the depreciation of idr against usd, causing the price of indonesia’s natural rubber in the destination country to be relatively lower and increasing export competitiveness. the commodity price influenced a consumer’s purchase intention (wong & zeng, 2015). in addition to rer, the ntms variable was significant at the level of 1% and showed a positive regression coefficient. the value meant that an increase in ntms by importing countries boosted the export competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber. in other words, importer countries’ implementation of ntms provided an opportunity to increase the competitiveness of indonesia’s rubber export. ntms mainly imposed by importing countries for the natural rubber commodity were sps and tbt. indonesia currently applies a natural rubber standardization system of tsnr specifications as stated in sni 1903 (indonesian rubber standard) since 2000, amended by the national standardization agency (known as badan standarisasi nasional in indonesian or bsn) in 2011 (virginia & novianti, 2020). sni 1903 refers to iso standards to ascertain that indonesia’s natural rubber quality meets the appropriate international natural rubber standards. the ability of indonesia to maintain and improve natural rubber quality will enhance its export competitiveness. these results are consistent with research on the wine trade in 24 countries, which revealed that ntms increased imports of bottled wine of importer countries (santeramo et al., 2019). other research discovered that the implementation of ntms in importer countries positively affected the quality of products of exporter countries. this quality improvement was driven by “coercion” to meet all product requirements specified in ntms (cipollina & demaria, 2020; santeramo & lamonaca, 2022). indonesia is well-prepared to face non-tariff barriers than its primary competitor, thailand. the standardization of natural rubber in thailand only to be explored in 2013. in this phase, thailand did not apply a standard for testing natural rubber (thailand productivity institute, 2013). nevertheless, thailand’s natural rubber productivity increased annually, and causes the country as world’s leading natural rubber exporter. in contrast to indonesia, although it applies internationally recognized standardization of natural rubber, its natural rubber productivity was relatively lower than in thailand. the productivity of thailand’s natural rubber was double of indonesia’s. the average of indonesia’s natural rubber productivity from 1995 to 2019 was 7,961.20 hectogram per hectare, while the average productivity of thailand’s natural rubber in the same period reached 15,836.80 hectogram/hectare (food and agriculture organization, 2021). several reasons underlay the low productivity of natural rubber in indonesia, such as the low quality of seeds and coagulants as well as the low use of fertilizers and stimulants in cultivating rubber plants http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 192 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (springfield centre, 2020). maintaining and improving the quality of indonesia's natural rubber and raising productivity by utilizing certified superior rubber clones was essential to reclaiming the export share of natural rubber in the world by exporter countries. moreover, applying high-quality coagulants, fertilizers and stimulants contributed to increase the productivity and quality of natural rubber. following the analysis results, the indonesian government is suggested to implement several policies to increase the export of natural rubber in the major destination countries. firstly, indonesia should maintain the exchange rate of idr against usd at a low level. so, indonesian natural rubber products in the major destination countries are more favorable than other exporters’ natural rubber products (husaini & lean, 2021; kayamo, 2021). additionally, indonesia should be more adaptive in implementing restrictive trade policies. hence, natural rubber products exported could meet the requirements set by the importing countries. the fulfillment of these various requirements could boost the competitiveness of indonesian natural rubber products in the central destination countries (bashir, khwaja, rashid, turi, & waheed, 2020; ha, 2021; nekmahmud & fekete-farkas, 2020). indeed, fulfilling these trade conditions has become a strategic step indonesia take to overcome trade barriers from importing countries (prasada, nugroho, & lakner, 2022). conclusion indonesia’s natural rubber export to the major destination countries is categorized as strongly competitive. this competitiveness was influenced by the number of ntms imposed by importer countries. at the same time, ntms was influenced by the real gdp. the number of ntms positively affected to export competitiveness of natural rubber. indonesia has been well-prepared to face non-tariff barriers by implementating the sni 1903 on standard indonesian rubber than its competitors. however, indonesia faced the challenge of low productivity. the productivity of indonesia’s natural rubber should be escalated by utilizing certified superior seeds, high-quality coagulants, fertilizers, and stimulants suitable for rubber plants. in addition, the export of indonesian natural rubber to major destination countries should be enhanced by implementing a strategy to maintain the idr exchange rate against the usd in a favorable position for increasing export. furthermore, indonesia’s export competitiveness could be improved by increasing its adaptability to restrictive trade policies. this adaptability could be demonstrated by the fast and precise fulfillment of various requirements set by the importer countries. authors’ contribution: i.y.p served as a conceptor, data analysis, data interpretation, and writing the manuscript; a.d. performing as data seekers, tabulating data, writing manuscript, and reviewing final manuscript. conflict of interest: the authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose and have all approved this submission. this research received no external funding. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 193 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. 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(2020). sustainable production, non-tariff measures, and trade performance in rcep countries. sustainability, 12(23). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12239969 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://www.trademap.org/index.aspx https://doi.org/10.1108/jitlp-08-2020-0052 https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/non-tariff-measures/ntms-classification https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/non-tariff-measures/ntms-classification https://doi.org/10.20473/jde.v5i1.18609 https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijber.20200903.18 https://doi.org/10.18502/kls.v2i6.1056 https://doi.org/10.1504/ijtgm.2015.067970 https://doi.org/10.32734/injar.v2i3.2857 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40008-019-0169-8 https://doi.org/10.22146/ae.49014 https://doi.org/10.3390/su12239969 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 197 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (prasada and dhamira) zhang, x., sun, c., gordon, j., & munn, i. a. (2020). determinants of temporary trade barriers in global forest products industry. sustainability, 12(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093839 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 215-230 article history: submitted : march 25th, 2022 revised : september 19th, 2022 july 25th, 2022 accepted : september 23rd, 2022 inaya cahyaningtyas*, arini wahyu utami, lestari rahayu waluyati department of agricultural socioeconomics, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia *) correspondence email: inaya.cahyaningtyas@mail.ugm.ac.id indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and technically specified natural rubber 20 export: the effect of el nino southern oscillation doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14320 abstract el nino southern oscillation (enso) causes rainfall anomalies, which may disrupt indonesia’s natural rubber production by interfering with the trees’ growth and affecting the export volume. this study analyzed the effect of enso dynamics on the monthly productivity of natural rubber and technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 export. monthly data from january 2006 to december 2019 were collected from the statistics indonesia, international trade centre (itc), world bank, bank indonesia, and national ocean and atmospheric administration (noaa). descriptive statistics unveiled that strong la nina increased the average of monthly productivity by 3.37% to 9.68%, while strong el nino tended to decrease productivity by 1.30% to 9.27%. moreover, the vector error correction model (vecm) demonstrated the negative effect of enso on indonesia’s natural rubber export, both in the short and long term. keywords: el nino; la nina; natural rubber; productivity; tsnr 20 export introduction natural rubber is one of the plantation commodities with a considerable contribution to indonesia’s economy. the report from statistics indonesia (2021) revealed that natural rubber contributed 6.13% to the national income of plantation sub-sector in 2019. it also adds to the national income from international trade since 80% of its production is exported. most types of natural rubber are exported in the form of technically specified natural rubber (tsnr 20/hs 40012220). to maintain the stability of production, water management is crucial. in this regard, climate factors, including rainfall, affect the growth and productivity of natural rubber plants (daslin, 2013; susetyo & hadi, 2012). the average indonesia rainfall is modulated by climate variability modes, such as el nino southern oscillation (enso) (amirudin, salimun, tangang, juneng, & zuhairi, 2020; lestari et al., 2016; supari et al., 2018). rainfall anomalies induced by enso can interfere with growth, productivity, and tapping process of rubber plants. enso occurs as two distinct phenomena, el nino, associated http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:inaya.cahyaningtyas@mail.ugm.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14320 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 216 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research with lower rainfall than normal, and la nina, linked to higher rainfall than normal. both el nino and la nina causes extreme rainfall or flooding and drought throughout indonesia (kurniadi, weller, min, & seong, 2021), with the most substantial impact seen during dry season and the weaker impact in wet season. it is strongly tied to the growth of rubber plants in indonesia, hampered during 1994 and 1997 el nino as well as 2015 el nino (saputra, stevanus, & cahyo, 2016). in contrast, there was no interference with rubber growth during the la nina years (cahyo, murti, & putra, 2020). in terms of agricultural commodities, enso also affects the productivity of oil palm (e.g., azlan et al., 2016; stiegler et al., 2019; suresh, 2013), wheat (gutierrez, 2017), and other crops (e.g., anderson, seager, baethgen, & cane, 2017; iizumi et al., 2014; nóia júnior & sentelhas, 2019). on wider scopes, studies uncovered that enso impacted the socioeconomic aspects of society, such as that in south america (cai et al., 2020), civil conflict (hsiang, meng, & cane, 2011), critical sectors in the society, i.e., water, agriculture, and health (zebiak et al., 2015), as well as transportation system, such as in california, hawaii, and the us-affiliated pacific islands (kim, chowdhury, pant, yamashita, & ghimire, 2021). the link between enso and the macroeconomic aspects, including economic growth and inflation, has also been examined (e.g., cashin, mohaddes, & raissi, 2015; generoso, couharde, damette, & mohaddes, 2020; smith & ubilava, 2017). previous research analyzed the determinant factors of indonesia’s natural rubber export. yanita, yazid, alamsyah, & mulyana (2016) discovered that determinant factors of crumb rubber export between 2005 and 2012 consisted of production quantity, exchange rate, and export in previous period. higher production and lower exchange rate were associated with higher export of natural rubber. in another study on a particular natural rubber importer’s country, sari, supriana, & rahmanta (2021) disclosed that the determinant factors of indonesia’s natural rubber export to japan comprised a positive sign of production and price. nevertheless, there has been no study on the effect of enso climate anomaly on indonesia’s natural rubber export. therefore, this study assessed the effect of enso on the volume of tsnr 20 natural rubber export and computed the monthly productivity differences of natural rubber across the enso events. research method this study utilized secondary data, monthly data from january 2006 to december 2019. the variables of interest included the production quantity and land area of natural rubber, collected from the statistics indonesia, the export volume of tsnr 20/sir 20 (hs 40012220) from the international trade centre (itc) trade map, the international price of natural rubber from the world bank, and the exchange rate of indonesian rupiah (idr) to us dollar (usd) from bank indonesia (i.e., indonesia’s central bank). this study employed the oceanic nino index (oni) as indicator of el nino and la nina occurrence collected by the u.s. national ocean and atmospheric administration (noaa). the oni was computed from differences in the sea surface temperature (sst) of the pacific ocean nino region 3.4. el niño occurs when the oni is +0.5 or higher, indicating that the corresponding region is http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 217 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (cahyaningtyas, utami, and waluyuti) much warmer than normal. meanwhile, la nina occurs when oni is -0.5 or lower, meaning that the region is cooler than normal (national oceanic and atmospheric administration [noaa], 2021). this study analyzed the differences in productivity across the enso phenomena descriptively. the productivity rate was measured by comparing productivity between the same month in different years to determine the difference between months across years. then, the average monthly productivity changes were compared with the different annual enso intensities classified into weak or strong el nino, weak or strong la nina, and normal condition. index level of +0.5 to +1.5/(-0.5 to -1.5) belongs to weak el nino/(la nina), while higher than +1.5/(-1.5) indicates strong el nino/(la nina). the influence of enso on the volume of natural rubber export was examined using vector error correction model (vecm) regression. the stages performed before obtaining the vecm results encompassed (1) test for stationarity with unit root test, (2) determination of optimal lag criteria, (3) stability test, (4) cointegration test, and (5) vecm regression. the estimation of the vecm equations is as follows. long-term equation: ectt-1 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1log(exp_tsnr20t-1)+ 𝛽2𝐿og(prodtvt-1) + 𝛽3𝐿og(exct-1) + 𝛽4𝐿og(price_tsnr20t-1) + 𝛽5onit-1 (1) short-term equation: ∆log(exp_tsnr20t) = αectt-n + 𝛽0 + 𝛽1∆log(exp_tsnr20t-n)+ 𝛽2∆𝐿og(prodtvt-n) + 𝛽3∆𝐿og(exct-n) + 𝛽4∆𝐿og(price_tsnr20t-n) + 𝛽5∆onit-n (2) ect refers to the error correction term or matrix of coefficient cointegration. exp_tsnr20 is the export volume of technically specified natural rubber (ton per hectare). prodtv represents the productivity of dry natural rubber (ton per hectare). exc is idr to the usd exchange rate. price_tsnr20 implies the international price of tsnr 20 (usd per ton). meanwhile, the oni serves as the enso indicator. data were analyzed in log form, except the oni data. the symbol of α indicates the coefficient of ect, 𝛽0 refers to a constant, 𝛽1-𝛽5 are coefficient of all independent variables, t-1 implies the period in one previous month, and n signifies the optimal period on analysis. results and discussion enso-monthly productivity rate rubber trees is an annual plan that begins to produce latex five years after planting. tapping can be carried out every day until the plants are unproductive. rubber trees are perennial and sensitive to weather or climatic changes, unlike seasonal crops, of which climatic necessities during cultivation can be easily modified. enso consists of normal, la nina, and el nino phases of different durations, as described in table 1. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 218 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 1. la nina and el nino events from january 2006 to december 2019 la nina period oni average duration (month) el nino period oni average duration (month) jan 2006–mar 2006 jun 2007–jun 2008 nov 2008–mar 2009 jun 2010–may 2011 juli 2011–apr 2012 feb 2014 agt 2016–dec 2016 oct2017–apr 2018 -0.76 -1.09 -0.7 -1.18 -0.77 -0.5 -0.62 -0.79 3 13 5 12 10 1 5 7 sep 2006–jan 2007 jul 2009–mar 2010 oct 2014–apr 2016 sep 2018–jun 2019 nov 2019–dec 2019 0.76 1.03 1.39 0.68 0.5 5 9 19 10 2 total 56 total 45 source: noaa (2021) from january 2006 to december 2019, el nino lasted 45 months, and la nina persisted for 56 months. the most prolonged el nino occurred for 19 months, from october 2014 to april 2016, with an average oni of 1.39, considered one of the strongest el nino recorded since the 1980s. another el nino arrived in september 2018 and took place for ten months. the most decisive phase of la nina happened from june 2010 until may 2011, with a duration of 12 months and an average oni of -1.18. a month later, la nina returned, occurring from july 2011 to may 2012, lasting ten months. enso has a seasonal cycle and impacts varied atmospheric circulations (timmermann et al., 2018). in this case, monthly indonesia’s natural rubber productivity was graphed against the oni along the 2006 to 2019 study period to exhibit the fluctuation in its productivity during the el nino and la nina events. some notable high productivity of 110 kg per hectare per month or more was associated with la nina events, as depicted by negative downward bars in figure 1. on the other hand, el nino episodes, indicated by positive upward bars, were associated with lower productivity of 60 to 100 kg per hectare per month. figure 1. monthly natural rubber productivity in indonesia versus the oceanic nino index, 2006-2019 source: noaa (2021); statistics indonesia (2021) neverthless, it should be noted that la nina could caused also lower productivity, as occurred in 2008 and 2010, with a monthly productivity of 70 to 80 kg per hectare per month. however, the effect of el nino could be inconsistent and asymmetries (ubilava & abdolrahimi, 2019). for instance, the strong 2015 el nino was linked to the monthly 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 110.00 120.00 130.00 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 20 06 m 01 20 06 m 06 20 06 m 11 20 07 m 04 20 07 m 09 20 08 m 02 20 08 m 07 20 08 m 12 20 09 m 05 20 09 m 10 20 10 m 03 20 10 m 08 20 11 m 01 20 11 m 06 20 11 m 11 20 12 m 04 20 12 m 09 20 13 m 02 20 13 m 07 20 13 m 12 20 14 m 05 20 14 m 10 20 15 m 03 20 15 m 08 20 16 m 01 20 16 m 06 20 16 m 11 20 17 m 04 20 17 m 09 20 18 m 02 20 18 m 07 20 18 m 12 20 19 m 05 20 19 m 10 ru bb er p ro du ct iv it y en so month oni index natural rubber productivity (kg/ha) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 219 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (cahyaningtyas, utami, and waluyuti) productivity of 80 to 90 kg per hectare, higher than those from 2009 to 2010 el nino with only 60 to 80 kg per hectare. the 2015 el nino was noted as the extreme one, as it fits the description of environmental disasters (chen, li, behera, & doi, 2016; meijide et al., 2018; santoso, mcphaden, & cai, 2017). by itself, el nino is characteristically stronger, if not more extreme, than la nina (dommenget, bayr, & frauen, 2013; hsiang & meng, 2015). moreover, indonesia’s natural rubber productivity amounted to 1,095.17 kg per hectare in 2019, or about 91.26 kg per hectare per month (statistics indonesia, 2021). the productivity of natural rubber demonstrated seasonal patterns, as exhibited in figure 2. average productivity experienced two peak harvests in june and december, while low average productivity occurred from march to april and august to september. nonetheless, la nina and el nino events classified in weak and strong intensities resulted in differences in annual productivity patterns. seasonal patterns tended to be more regular from 2013 to 2019. however, in 2015, a strong el nino caused a decrease in average productivity from january to august compared to two years earlier, despite the different production risks in other regions (qian, zhao, zheng, cao, & xue, 2020). figure 2. monthly productivity of natural rubber in indonesia (kg per hectare) differentiated by el nino and la nina intensity: (a) in 2006-2012 and (b) in 2013-2019 source: statistics indonesia (2021) 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec pr o du ct iv it y (k g/ ha ) month 2006-weak el nino 2007-strong la nina 2008-weak la nina 2009-strong el nino 2010-strong la nina 2011-weak la nina 2012-normal a. 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec pr o du ct iv it y kg /h a month 2013-normal 2014-weak el nino 2015-strong el nino 2016-weak la nina 2017-weak la nina 2018-weak el nino 2019-normal b. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 220 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research productivity change analysis described the rate of productivity growth across months. table 2 displays the analysis results. the average productivity growth rate of natural rubber tended to increase during strong or weak la nina and decrease following strong or weak el nino. strong la nina raised the average monthly productivity rate by 3.37 to 9.68%, while the strong el nino event lowered the average monthly productivity by 1.30 to 9.27%. la nina, causing higher rainfall, could affect the natural rubber supply. hence, increasing rainfall will enhance the natural rubber supply (arunwarakorn, suthiwartnarueput, & pornchaiwiseskul, 2019). table 2. natural rubber productivity growth (%) year event month average jan feb mar apr may june july aug sep oct nov dec 2007 strong ln 12.90 2.54 -14.95 -6.05 -1.01 -6.42 -3.50 4.42 11.79 24.58 22.01 -5.83 3.37 2008 weak ln -13.54 -12.85 8.43 15.58 13.27 30.95 9.64 -19.80 -20.55 0.34 -3.86 0.70 0.69 2009 strong en -9.20 -11.04 -11.92 -12.54 -11.36 -12.47 -10.17 -6.52 -6.21 -5.53 -9.80 -4.46 -9.27 2010 strong ln 9.49 9.40 9.68 9.77 9.70 10.06 9.80 9.45 9.46 9.94 9.81 9.56 9.68 2011 weak ln 8.38 8.38 8.32 8.28 8.29 8.23 8.29 8.39 8.39 8.28 8.30 8.38 8.33 2012 normal 0.00 0.07 0.12 0.24 0.33 0.55 0.41 0.09 0.18 0.48 0.36 0.03 0.24 2013 normal 5.67 10.08 12.18 6.88 -4.51 -14.97 -6.60 11.39 8.43 -0.35 2.87 -7.18 1.99 2014 weak en -1.87 -1.60 -1.31 -1.42 -2.09 -2.84 -2.39 -1.33 -4.97 -5.13 -4.46 -4.10 -2.79 2015 strong en -7.85 -7.75 -7.14 -7.32 -5.20 -5.19 -7.70 -7.81 13.84 9.58 6.19 10.78 -1.30 2016 weak ln 6.55 6.54 6.46 6.53 6.61 7.01 6.93 6.54 6.46 6.45 6.36 6.29 6.56 2017 weak ln 5.69 5.99 7.02 6.18 7.38 7.39 5.96 5.81 15.80 13.51 11.98 15.16 8.99 2018 weak en -0.31 -0.47 -0.96 -0.22 -1.57 -1.36 -0.09 -0.29 -10.52 -8.23 -6.73 -9.57 -3.36 2019 normal -4.07 -4.48 -5.13 -5.75 -2.51 -4.34 -3.80 -4.34 -8.67 -8.46 -7.87 -7.83 -5.61 note: strong ln = strong la nina; weak ln = weak la nina; strong en = strong el nino; weak en = weak el nino in contrast, el nino, lowering rainfall, could decrease natural rubber productivity, as demonstrated by the 2015 el nino (saputra, stevanus, & cahyo, 2016). to compare these results to another critical and valuable commodity, lower yield due to el nino also occurring in palm oil plantations (e.g., azlan et al., 2016; khor et al., 2021; oettli, behera, & yamagata, 2018; stiegler et al., 2019). khor et al. (2021) computed that the opportunity losses because of el nino, beginning from 1986 (excluding 2018, 2019), were around usd 9.55 billion, while oettli et al. (2018) discovered that la nina was favorable for improving profit. these results are consistent with selvaraju (2003), examining the impact of enso on food grain production, uncovering that total food grain production increased from normal during la nina. vector error correction model (vecm) estimation before running the vecm regression, augmented-dickey fuller (adf) test was conducted to ensure data stationarity. the vecm required stationary variables in the first difference (i). table 3 exhibits three insignificant variables at this level. however, all variables of interest were significant in the first difference level (p-value < 0.05). after all, these variables were stationary, and the subsequent step was determining the optimum lag to be utilized in the regression analysis. optimal lag testing could take advantage of some information by using akaike information criterion, schwarz criterion, and hannanhttp://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 221 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (cahyaningtyas, utami, and waluyuti) quin criterion. the optimum lag length was based on the smallest value among the other lags. the second lag was optimum from aic, sc, and hq values marked with asterisks (*) (table 4). table 3. results of stationary test variable level first difference adf probs adf probs log (exp_tsnr20) -3.891322*** 0.0026 -21.51016*** 0.0000 log (prodtv) -1.321500 ns 0.6189 -3.602440*** 0.0067 log (exc) -0.832823 ns 0.8069 -10.07921*** 0.0000 log (price_tsnr20) -1.857535 ns 0.3518 -9.095177*** 0.0000 oni -5.223822*** 0.0000 -6.043501*** 0.0000 notes: log (exp_tsnr20) = export volume of tsnr 20; log (prodtv) = rubber productivity; log (exc) = exchange rate; log (price_tsnr20) = price of tsnr 20; oni = enso indicator ***) significant at the 0.01 alpha, ns) insignificant table 4. results for lag length for endogenous with lag length criteria lag logl lr fpe aic sc hq 0 95.59894 na 2.28e-07 -1.104865 -1.010357 -1.066498 1 865.8632 1484.168 2.57e-11 -10.19345 -9.626404 -9.963253 2 1036.428 318.2494 4.37e-12* -11.96864* -10.92905* -11.54660* 3 1058.429 39.70848 4.54e-12 -11.93206 -10.41993 -11.31819 4 1080.086 37.76870* 4.75e-12 -11.89130 -9.906627 -11.08560 note: (*) indicates lag order selected by the criterion. lr = sequential modified lr test statistics (each test at 5% level); fpe = final prediction error; aic = akaike information criterion; sc = schwarz information criterion; hq = hannanquinn information criterion subsequently, the stability test was run, ensuring the modulus was less than one for the regression model to be stable. table 5 displays less than one modulus on the model. thus, the second lag fit and the established varm was stable. table 5. results of the stability test root modulus 0.986685 0.986685 0.866536 0.251219i 0.902217 0.866536 + 0.251219i 0.902217 0.884816 0.884816 0.349903 0.685643i 0.769765 0.349903 + 0.685643i 0.769765 0.684584 0.684584 0.423816 0.423816 -0.417256 0.417256 0.093150 0.093150 a cointegration test followed to confirm the shortand long-term equilibrium. table 6 describes that trace and maximum eigenvalue test indicated three co-integrating equations and might be a long-term equilibrium relationship, confirming the appropriateness of using vecm regression. table 7 exhibits an ect coefficient of -0.236381, significant at 0.10 alpha, implying the model’s validity. the ect coefficient determined how quickly the equilibrium http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 222 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research was recovered. an ect of -0.236381 signifies that its equilibrium and the development of the previous tsnr 20 export volume were corrected for the current period of 23.64%. table 6. cointegration test unrestricted cointegration rank test (trace) ho eigenvalue trace statistic critical value 0.05 prob.** none*** 0.570496 221.2900 76.97277 0.0000 at most 1*** 0.218516 80.99939 54.07904 0.0000 at most 2 ** 0.154764 40.07027 35.19275 0.0138 at most 3 ns 0.056362 12.15921 20.26184 0.4347 unrestricted cointegration rank test (maximum eigenvalue) ho eigenvalue trace statistic critical value 0.05 prob.** none*** 0.570496 140.2906 34.80587 0.0000 at most 1*** 0.218516 40.92913 28.58808 0.0008 at most 2*** 0.154764 27.91106 22.29962 0.0074 at most 3 ns 0.056362 9.630022 15.89210 0.3692 notes: the null hypothesis, ho was no-cointegrating vector. ‘none’ = no co-integrating equation; ‘at most (1 to 3)’ = the number of co-integrating equations. ***), **) denotes rejection at the 0.01 and 0.05 alpha, ns) insignificant prob.** mackinnon-haug-michells (1999) p-values table 7. estimation of the vector error correction model (vecm) variable coefficient statistics-t prob. long-term logexp_tsnr20(-1) 1.000000 logprodtv(-1) -1.556677ns -12.7314 0.12227 logexc(-1) 0.516614ns 3.53543 0.14612 logprice_tsnr20(-1) 0.027125* 0.50275 0.05395 oni(-1) -0.020219** -1.32340 0.01528 c 2.388028 short-term d(logexp_tsnr20(-1)) -0.487927* -5.20763 0.09369 d(logexp_tsnr20(-2)) -0.174404* -2,08602 0.08361 d(logprodtv(-1)) -0.286970* -3.34544 0.08578 d(logprodtv(-2)) -0.245177ns -2.35612 0.10406 d(logexc(-1)) -0.221982ns 0.54001 0.41107 d(logexc(-2)) -0.251514ns -0.61428 0.40945 d(logprice_tsnr20(-1)) 0.128369ns 1.10268 0.11642 d(logprice_tsnr20(-2)) 0.400922ns 3.48682 0.11498 d(oni(-1)) 0.042009* 0.62032 0.06772 d(oni(-2)) -0.065942* -0.06645 0.06645 ect -0.236381* -3.00134 0.07876 note: logexp_tsnr20(-1) = tsnr 20 export volume; logprodtv(-1) = rubber productivity; logexc(-1) = exchange rate; logprice_tsnr20(-1) = price of tsnr 20; oni(-1) = enso indicator. all variable were differentiated in the short-term equation and lag 2 was the optimal period. d(logexp_tsnr20(-1)) = tsnr 20 export volume in lag 1; d(logexp_tsnr20(-2)) = tsnr 20 export volume in lag 2; d(logprodtv(-1)) = rubber productivity in lag 1; d(logprodtv(-2)) = rubber productivity in lag 2; d(logexc(-1)) = exchange rate at lag 1; d(logexc(2)) = exchange rate at lag 2; d(logprice_tsnr20(-1)) = price of tsnr 20 at lag 1; d(logprice_tsnr20(-2)) = price of tsnr 20 at lag 2; d(oni(-1)) = enso indicator at lag 1; d(oni(-2)) = enso indicator at lag 2; ect = error correction term. **) significant at the 0.05 alpha, *) 0.10 alpha, ns) insignificant http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 223 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (cahyaningtyas, utami, and waluyuti) table 7 portrays the vecm regression results. regarding the effect of enso on tnsr export volume, an increase of one unit of the oni, or the tendency of el nino event, both in the longand short-term equilibrium, was related to a reduction in the tsnr 20 export volume. a higher oni indicated the occurrence of el nino, signifying that el nino decreased natural rubber export, while la nina was beneficial for it. it was evidenced by the statistically significant oni variable in the model, at 5% alpha in the long term and 10% alpha in the short term. one unit increase in the oni variable (oni (-1)) in the long term harmed decreasing the tsnr 20 export volume by 100.0201 = 1.05 ton. in the short term, the oni variable from two previous months (d (oni (-2)) was associated with declining the tnsr 20 export volume by 1.16 tons. these results emphasized the effect of non-economic factors, such as el nino, on natural rubber export. these findings align with gutierrez (2017), disclosing a negative association between global wheat export and enso anomalies. the study, however, discovered that la nina put a higher burden on wheat export than el nino. la nina’s highest impact on wheat export was -2.23% after six months following the event, compared to el nino’s highest impact of -0.62% after three months of its occurrence. enso can affect a country’s export, especially concerning the national income, including indonesia. cashin et al. (2015) uncovered a relative short-term decrease in gdp during el nino episodes. if traced back to the effect of el nino on the decline of natural rubber productivity, downstream industries, such as tsnr 20 processing, could be impacted by the availability of natural rubber. it could inhibit export, which consequently lowered the national income. moreover, excessive heat due to the strong el nino phase could reduce economic growth (dell, jones, & olken, 2012). moreover, the tsnr 20 price variable (logprice_tsnr20(-1)) demonstrated a significant and positive value in the long term, meaning that one unit increase in tsnr 20 price, on average, increased the tsnr 20 export volume by 1,064 ton, holding constant other variables. this result is supported by khin, bin, kai, teng, & chiun (2019), revealing that when the price dropped by usd 1, the export of natural rubber decreased by up to 30 tons in the asean market. higher natural rubber price in the world market is an indication of more profit to obtain. it also highlights the importance of natural rubber as one export commodity for the national income (claudia, yulianto, & mawardi, 2016). natural rubber export remained steady despite declining the natural rubber price globally (perdana, 2019). the tsnr 20 price highly affected export since it signaled natural rubber producers of the prospective high profit to earn. accordingly, it encouraged producers to improve the maintenance of rubber plantations, increasing output and more export (yanita et al., 2016). on the micro-scale, research by syarifa, agustina, nancy, & supriadi (2016) revealed that some farmers remained to tap rubber even during falling prices. regarding natural rubber productivity, the variable was insignificant in the long-term analysis (logprodtv (-1)) but negatively significant in the short term on one previous month (d(logprodtv(-1))). these results contradict amoro & shen (2013). the sign on the variable of natural rubber productivity was positive, signifying that an increase in production http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 224 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research stimulated an escalation in export. however, this research had a lag time between productivity and export volume. farmers sometimes reduced the tapping days and delayed the dry rubber trade to the factory or middlemen because of falling prices (suwardin, 2015). indeed, it could cause the buildup of dry rubber products to be sold in the following month. concerning the effect of tsnr 20 export, the variable was negatively significant in the short term. in other words, the lower export volume in one (d(logexp_tsnr20(-1))) and two previous months (d(logexp_tsnr20(-2))) was responded by the higher tsnr export volume. crumb rubber processing capacity in south sumatra was only 76.5% fulfilled (suwardin, 2015). hence, to optimize the processing and export capacity of natural rubber, the low quality of rubber material, rubber processing technique, and supply chain should be enhanced (antoni & tokuda, 2019). exchange rate variable depicted insignificant effect in both long (logexc(-1)) and short term (d(logexc(-1)) and d(logexc(-2))). empirically, it is in line with klaassen (2004), revealing that the exchange rate had no significant effect on export. in another study, however, the exchange rate affected export due to the depreciation of the indonesian rupiah (idr) currency in the importing country, causing the product price to be lower to improve trade flows (arumta, mulyo, & irham, 2019). on the other hand, another factor excluded in this model was variation in domestic policies across countries. some policies in some countries, such as using tires, vehicles, and crude oil, could influence the demand for natural rubber. the crude oil price could be an essential factor in the natural rubber price. the input cost of natural rubber products depends on the crude oil price, which is the raw material for synthetic rubber (fong, khin, & lim, 2018). however, although natural rubber is currently less produced and less consumed than synthetic rubber, natural rubber remains irreplaceable by synthetic rubber. in many ways, the advantages of the quality of natural rubber are difficult to match with synthetic rubber (wahyudy, khairizal, & heriyanto, 2018). figure 3. impulse response function (irf) of the technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 export volume to shock affected by enso, productivity, exchange rate, and price furthermore, figure 3 presents the impulse response function (irf), comparing the effect of variables included in the regression. the irf demonstrated that the shock of the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 225 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and ….. (cahyaningtyas, utami, and waluyuti) natural rubber export volume by one standard deviation in the first month increased natural rubber export by 11.05% and had not responded to the shock from other variables. in the second month, a shock by enso was responded positively by natural rubber export by 0.59%. then, the response fluctuated until the fifth month, when the export volume negatively responded to the enso shock in the next period. the response of natural rubber export to the enso shock began to reach balance in the 23rd month, where natural rubber export responded negatively to the shock by 0.96%. moreover, variance decomposition analysis helped explain the shock contribution from the natural rubber productivity variable, price, exchange rate, and enso to fluctuation in the tsnr 20 export volume. the time frame to forecast this variance decomposition was 36 months (three years). figure 4 displays that the export shock caused export fluctuation in the first month. in the next 12 months, the export volume was affected by tnsr 20 export by 68.23%, tsnr 20 price by 17.55%, productivity by 11.64%, the exchange rate by 1.60%, and the oni by 0.97%. however, in the next 36 months, the export volume was influenced by tnsr 20 export by 62.24%, tsnr 20 price by 20.54%, productivity by 13.38%, the exchange rate by 1.99%, and the oni by 1.86%. the smallest proportion of the enso shock disclosed that enso in the following few periods did not significantly affect the export shock (bastianin, lanza, & manera, 2018). fluctuation in the volume of natural rubber export in some periods was predominantly influenced by the export volume rather than other variables. figure 4. variance decomposition (vd) of the technically specified natural rubber (tsnr) 20 export volume (shock contribution from enso, productivity, exchange rate, and price) conclusion this study assessed the effect of el nino southern oscillation (enso) on natural rubber productivity and the tsnr 20 export volume. a descriptive analysis of natural rubber productivity under the la nina and el nino conditions unveiled that la nina was associated with increased productivity, while el nino decreased natural rubber productivity. as for the effect of enso on the tsnr 20 export volume, in-line results were discovered. the vector http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 226 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research error correction model (vecm) regression revealed that higher oni, indicating el nino, led to the lower tsnr 20 export volume, both in the long and short term. following the effect of enso on natural rubber productivity, several mitigation efforts could be directed toward using drought-resistant clones and improving water management in rubber plantations, especially during el nino. meanwhile, to buffer the shock of enso on the export volume, the rubber industry could develop inventory management, specifically during high production or when el nino is predicted to occur. expectedly, the inventory could provide the tsnr 20 stock to be exported during low production to lessen the shock on export. acknowledgment: the authors are grateful for the support of the department of agricultural socioeconomics, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada (ugm) in providing research facilities. authors’ contributions: i.c. contributes on conceptualization, data collection, data analysis, writing original manuscript, review and editing manuscript, addressing review comments. a.w.u. is responsible in conceptualization, methodology and writing supervision, review and editing manuscript. l.r.w. is responsible in supervision of data collection and reviewing the manuscript. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references amirudin, a. a., salimun, e., tangang, f., juneng, l., & zuhairi, m. 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(2015). investigating el niño-southern oscillation and society relationships. wiley interdisciplinary reviews: climate change, 6(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.294 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.25299/dp.2018.vol34(2).5409 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 123-138 article history: submitted : june 29th, 2021 revised : june 7th, 2022 october 25th, 2021 accepted : june 28th, 2022 gity maulina yolanda*, dwidjono hadi darwanto, m. khalifatul ardhi department of agribusiness management, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, 55281, indonesia *) correspondence email: gitymaulina96@mail.ugm.ac.id consumers’ attitude and preference toward fresh tomatoes in special region of yogyakarta, indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12150 abstract increasing tomatoes consumption which is driven by needs and desires, changes consumers’ tastes and preferences. this study aimed to determine consumers’ attitudes and preferences towards tomato’s attributes. a convenience sampling which consisted of 150 respondents in the special region of yogyakarta was selected for this research. fishbein’s multi-attribute was used to analyze consumers’ attitude, and a conjoint analysis was employed to identify consumers’ preferences. according to the findings of this study, consumers have a favorable attitude toward tomato attributes such as freshness, color, firm texture, surface appearance, and taste. meanwhile, the findings of the conjoint analysis revealed that the color of the tomatoes was the most favored characteristic. the most preferred combination of tomato characteristics was red color, highly fresh, firm texture, spot-free surface look, and sweetness. keywords: attributes; conjoint analysis; consumers’ attitude; consumers’ preference; multi-attribute fishbein introduction since the spread of covid-19, people have become more concerned about their health as a long-term investment. to prevent the covid-19 infection, people change their behavior to be a healthier lifestyle and become aware of the nutritional facts’ balance (rohmani, 2020). many people choose a healthy diet as a preventive measure due to the virus infecting the human immune system. the covid-19 pandemic has prompted people to change their consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables into the most consumed products by 62% compared to others (gdp venture, 2020). the increased consumption of fruits and vegetables is vital because of their wealthy nutrients (dossou et al., 2007). tomatoes are a product of high nutritional facts, especially vitamin c, which is relatively safe to consume and essential in maintaining immunity (soetiarso, 2010; dias, 2012; salehi et al., 2019). in addition, tomato is the most globally produced vegetable and is considered a favorite vegetable in many countries (serio et al., 2006). tomatoes can be a high-priority vegetable to consume if it is associated with health. this fact is clarified by the consumption of tomatoes in indonesia which is expected to sustainably http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:gitymaulina96@mail.ugm.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12150 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 124 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research increase in 2017-2021 with an average growth of 5.32% per year (pusat data dan sistem informasi pertanian, 2017). special region of yogyakarta is the highest of vegetable consumption in indonesia (ridwan, 2017). on the other hand, population diversity and increased consumption will always be accompanied by consumer tastes and preferences changes. moreover, the covid19 pandemic has been claimed to be one of the most disturbing incidents in recent history, affecting almost all aspects of consumers' lives. lockdown and social distancing policies to combat the covid-19 virus have caused significant disruptions to consumer behavior (sheth, 2020). food choices are complex because they are influenced by previous experiences, beliefs, and consumer knowledge about the product, lifestyle, and situations (steptoe, pollard, & wardle, 1995; steptoe et al., 1995; brunsø et al., 2004). on the other hand, consumer dissatisfaction with taste quality has stimulated breeders to improve tomatoes’ sensory quality according to their demands (sinesio et al., 2021). quality of product is a set of attributes that are evaluated by the end user to determinate the product's performance (widiyanto et al., 2016). therefore, when consumers are faced with several choices, consumers must first be assumed to identify the attribute dimensions that are relevant to the decision and then evaluate each option based on the existing attributes (ajzen, 2015a). a product attribute concept approach may consumer apply to identify the quality characteristics of product (adiyoga & nurmalinda, 2012). the specificity of attributes in tomatoes is essential in determining consumers' attitudes and preferences. attitude is a combination of consumers’ beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions towards several products in the market that are perceived simultaneously due to the highly interdependent and represent forces that influence how consumers will react to objects (perner, 2010). therefore, more positive, and stronger beliefs will make better attitudes. a person may have beliefs about many objects and problems that not only come from the logical reasoning process but come from partiality by emotions or desires and can fulfill various personal needs (ajzen, 2015b). based on their product assessment, consumers’ attitudes can be shown through positive or negative attitudes. this follows the findings, which confirm that attributes with positive values indicate key factors influencing consumer attitudes and tendencies in making their choices (widayanti et al., 2020). in other words, consumers who have a positive attitude will make purchases and recommend them to others, while those who have a negative attitude will make a rejection. tomato’s quality commonly describes as fresh one. however, such a consumer’s definition of freshness is a complex issue involving a diversity of attributes consisting of sensory and non-sensory components (péneau, linke, escher, & nuessli, 2009; dinnella, torri, caporale, & monteleone, 2014; zhang, lusk, mirosa, & oey, 2016; hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021). sensory attributes primely contribute to the concept of freshness than nonsensory attributes (péneau et al., 2009). a survey investigating the relationship between sensory traits and perceived freshness showed that freshness evaluation was positively related to appearance attributes (dinnella et al., 2014). the expectations and sensory perceptions are http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 125 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) important factors that influence one's choice (krishna, 2012). this is supported by the findings, which state that visual inspection is the main process conducted by consumers to evaluate vegetable products to rise to a perspective (barrett et al., 2010). meanwhile, several studies have revealed that primarily sensory attributes which describe appearance and texture are related to the level of freshness perceived by consumers (ares, giménez, & gámbaro, 2008; fillion & kilcast, 2002; jung, padmanabahn, hong, lim, & kim, 2012; løkke, seefeldt, & edelenbos, 2012; péneau, hoehn, roth, escher, & nuessli, 2006). another author who researched with a sample of consumers in the special region of yogyakarta explained that freshness attributes strongly influenced consumer interest in tropical vegetables (hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021). consumers realize that vegetables are perishable products, so freshness attribute is the main priority in buying vegetables. in particular, the quality of tomatoes as fresh consumption depends on many properties which are related to external attributes, i.e., appearance, firmness, and internal attributes, i.e., texture, taste, and nutritional value (baldwin, scott, & bai, 2015; grandillo & cammareri, 2016; zhao et al., 2019; sinesio et al., 2021). it is critical to examine the characteristics of tomatoes to understand them better and meet consumer needs. in another consumer research study with cherry tomatoes, preference mapping was dominated by consumer groups who like red tomatoes and their sweetness (pagliarini et al., 2001). the other findings reveal that color is an essential indicator of tomato quality for consumers (oltman, jervis, & drake, 2014; adegbola et al., 2019). specifically, red is the familiar color consumers desire to buy and do not want to take risks by buying tomatoes other than red. several studies mention that texture and taste attributes are also important aspects of consumer perceptions of fresh tomatoes and purchasing decisions (serrano-megías & lópeznicolás, 2006; usse et al., 2010; oltman et al., 2014). in addition, the visual appearance of tomatoes is also considered very important for consumer purchasing decisions. consumers’ purchase intentions for fruits and vegetables are significantly influenced by visual appearance (loebnitz & grunert, 2014; barbe, dewitz, & triay, 2017; symmank, zahn, & rohm, 2018; lombart et al., 2019). consumers are willing to buy fruits and vegetables with a perfect appearance that shows no defects compared to others. in tomato market, each consumer has some preferences for various attributes. a finding asserts that consumer becomes the center of attention concerning satisfying consumer needs and desires, which are interconnected (frenqvist, 2014). the unanswered question is how fulfill these needs and desires to tomato’s characteristic. based on these conditions, it is undoubtedly a fascinating problem to study. the previous study shows that limited research explicitly discusses the role of attributes in tomatoes as a determinant of consumer preferences. therefore, this study aims to determine consumers' attitudes toward tomato attributes and examine consumers' preferences towards tomato attributes. research method the population of this study includes the entire people in special region of yogyakarta, which was spread over one city and four districts. a total of 150 samples were selected using http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 126 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the convenience sampling technique. the distribution of samples was 16 in yogyakarta city, 48 in sleman regency, 40 in bantul regency, 29 in gunung kidul regency, and 17 in kulon progo regency. in this study, the sample size determination is based on the method developed by (green & srinivasan, 1978), which requires a minimum sample size of 100 to apply the conjoint analysis. the data was collected by distributing online questionnaires to meet two criteria of participants. first, the respondent must be domiciled in the special region of yogyakarta, and second, respondents must decide to buy and consume tomatoes at least in the last month. the research questionnaire consisted of three parts. the first part was related to sociodemographic questions, buying behavior and consumption of tomatoes, and purchase location. the second part related to the question of respondents’ attitudes towards tomato attributes on a five-point likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly distrust) to 5 (strongly believe) for the trust component and 1 (very unimportant) to 5 (very important) for the evaluation of importance. the third part was related to respondents’ assessment of eight combinations of tomato attributes by sorting them from 1 (most preferred) to 8 (least preferred). this study began by testing the research instrument’s validity and reliability using the statistical program for social sciences (spss) application. the validity test criteria can be seen from the value of r-count, which was higher than r-table with a significance level of 0.05. meanwhile, the reliability test criteria used the cronbach alpha method, which was declared reliable when the value was 0.60. the analytical tools used in this research were fishbein multi-attribute and conjoint analysis. fishbein’s multi-attribute analysis model was considered capable of describing consumer behavior towards a product which was determined by two points, i.e., 1) belief in the attributes of a product (bi component), and 2) evaluation of the importance of a product (ei component) (engel, blackwell, winiard, & budijanto, 1994). the tomato attributes assessed through fishbein’s multi-attribute analysis include color, freshness, texture, fruit surface appearance, taste, and size. meanwhile, the conjoint analysis described consumer ratings or alternative product choices to estimate the utility value and importance value attached to each product attribute (green & srinivasan, 1978). the analysis is used to model consumer preferences based on consumer perceptions of various product attributes, beginning with determining the attributes and attribute levels (firdaus, 2011). attributes are selected based on attributes that have positive values from the results of fishbein’s multi-attribute analysis and supporting studies, including freshness (hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021), color (oltman et al., 2014; adegbola et al., 2019), texture (usse et al., 2010), fruit surface appearance (lombart et al., 2019), and taste (oltman et al., 2014). some selected attributes had not been specifically capable of representing consumer preferences, so it was necessary to extend the level for each attribute. attributes and attribute levels include freshness (fresh, weak), color (red, orange, yellow), texture (firm, soft), surface appearance (without spots and wounds, with spots and wounds), and taste (sour, sweet). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 127 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) attributes and attribute levels were developed with a qualitative level definition to be easily understood by consumers. after the attributes were selected and the level was determined, the next step in the conjoint analysis was to design the attribute combination. this study adopted a full profile approach with combinations formed from various attribute levels, namely 48 stimuli. theoretically, a respondent should rate 48 combinations of tomatoes. however, evaluating 48 stimuli was not possible for consumers and tended to risk non-objective assessment. therefore, to avoid this situation, the number of stimuli submitted for consumer evaluation was reduced by applying an orthogonal fractional factorial design using the statistical program for social sciences (spss) software, which maintains the experiment's validity. based on this orthogonal process produces eight stimuli (table 1). table 1. design of the conjoint experiment for preference toward fresh tomato profiles color freshness texture surface appearance taste 1 red fresh firm without spots and wounds sweet 2 red weak soft without spots and wounds sour 3 red fresh firm with spots and wounds sweet 4 red weak soft with spots and wounds sour 5 orange fresh soft with spots and wounds sweet 6 orange weak firm without spots and wounds sour 7 yellow fresh firm with spots and wounds sour 8 yellow weak soft without spots and wounds sweet the eight stimuli created from the orthogonal results were then represented in eight tomato profiles, each of which had different attributes. in the survey, respondents were asked to assess the eight tomato profiles by ranking the most preferred combination of tomato attributes (1) to the least preferred (8). the conjoint analysis was measured by examining the correlation value of pearson and tau kendall as a basis for decision-making. this test measured whether the score was significant or not at the 0.05 significance level. the test showed that it was significant, so the opinions of n respondents were acceptable in describing the population’s desire to buy tomatoes with specific characteristics. result and discussions the validity test using the pearson correlation of 150 respondents at a significance level of 0.05 showed an r-table of 0.160. the validity test results showed the overall r-count > 0.160, which means that all the question items in the questionnaire were valid. the complete results regarding the validity test are presented in table 2. furthermore, the reliability test on 150 respondents showed that all the question items had a cronbach alpha value of 0.812 was higher than 0.60 (table 2). this result showed that all of tested items revealed a good reliability level and can be trusted. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 128 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 2. validity and reliability test indicators items score r-count score r-table criteria attribute interest of tomato color 0.637 0.160 valid freshness 0.546 0.160 valid texture 0.568 0.160 valid surface appearance 0.550 0.160 valid taste 0.527 0.160 valid size 0.641 0.160 valid attribute importance of tomato color 0.697 0.160 valid freshness 0.601 0.160 valid texture 0.520 0.160 valid surface appearance 0.561 0.160 valid taste 0.603 0.160 valid size 0.536 0.160 valid cronbach’s alpha 0.812 reliable respondent characteristics the characteristics of tomato consumers in the special region of yogyakarta were described by several variables, such as gender, age, marital status, education, type of work, income and consumption frequency, purchase frequency, and purchase location (table 3). table 3. respondent’s characteristics of consumers’attitude and preference toward fresh tomatoes characteristics frequencies percentage (%) characteristics frequencies percentage (%) gender male 17 11.30 income <1,000,000 4 2.67 female 133 88.70 1,000,000 – 2,000,000 26 17.33 age 20-27 y 72 48.00 2,100,000 – 3,000,000 83 55.33 28-35 y 24 16.00 3,100,000 – 4,000,000 11 7.33 36-43 y 18 12.00 4,100,000 – 5,000,000 12 8.00 44-51 y 18 12.00 >5,000,000 14 9.33 52-59 y 13 8.67 frequency of consumption rarely (1-4 times a month) 34 22.67 60-67 y 5 3.33 often (12 times a month) 72 48.00 marital status married 88 58.70 always (30 times a month) 44 29.33 single 62 41.30 frequency of purchase 2-3 times a week 42 28.00 family size 1-2 people 43 28.70 once a week 64 42.67 3-4 people 64 42.70 2 times a month 16 10.67 5-6 people 35 23.30 once a month 28 18.67 >7 people 8 5.30 purchasing location modern market 6 4.00 education elementary school 4 2.70 traditional market 72 48.00 junior high school 9 6.00 stall 24 16.00 senior high school 38 25.30 mix (modern market, traditional market, and stall) 39 26.00 associate degree 10 6.70 others 9 6.00 undergraduate 80 53.30 postgraduate 9 6.00 types of work college student 35 23.30 state-owned enterprises or civil servants 14 9.30 employees 41 27.30 entrepreneur 19 12.70 housewife 34 22.70 others 7 4.70 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 129 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) consumer characteristics indicate that most tomato consumers in the special region of yogyakarta were women, with 88.70%. the average consumer was productive age between 20-27 years and was married. in aggregate, most tomato consumers (42.70%) had family members ranging from 3-4 (households with 1-2 children). all consumers, 59.30% had an education level of more than 12 years (high school and above). the majority of respondents (54.0%) were employed, rest of respondents were a student in college (23.3%) and housewives (22.7%). most consumers’ income in the special region of yogyakarta had reached the regional minimum wage of special region of yogyakarta (79.99%). 48% of consumers stated that consume tomatoes at least 12 times a month, and almost half of the consumers (42%) buy tomatoes at least once a week. most consumers (48%) prefer to buy tomatoes in traditional markets than other purchasing locations. consumers’ attitude the assessment of consumer attitudes towards tomatoes' attributes was analyzed using fishbein's multi-attribute analysis, which was seen from consumer evaluation of interest and important attributes for tomatoes. the evaluation of interest attributes describes the consumer's assessment of the tomatoes’ specific attributes' performance. the results of the assessment of tomato interest attributes (table 4) indicate that freshness attribute had the best performance in consumer perception. respondents considered that freshness contributed most to satisfying respondents’ expectations, compared to the attributes of color, texture, surface appearance, taste, and size. the results of the evaluation of the level of interest in tomato attributes can be seen in table 4. table 4. consumer’s evaluation of interest attributes for tomatoes attributes interest (bi) category color 4.25 good freshness 4.38 very good texture 4.22 good surface appearance 4.17 good taste 3.97 good size 3.90 good based on assessing the importance of tomato attributes in table 5, respondents rated freshness as the most important attribute in purchasing tomatoes. four other attributes that were also very important were color, texture, surface appearance, and taste. respondents assessed size of tomatoes as an important product but were not prioritized in buying tomatoes. table 5. consumer’s evaluation of important attributes of tomatoes attribute important (ei) category color 4.44 very important freshness 4.69 very important texture 4.43 very important surface appearance 4.33 very important taste 4.30 very important size 3.69 important http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 130 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the assessment of interest and important tomato attributes based on the consumer’s perspective resulted a positive and negative attitude expressed through consumer behavior. table 6 shows five attributes of tomatoes: freshness, color, texture, surface appearance, and taste attributes, categorized as positive attitudes (> 15.4). positive attributes indicate key factors influencing consumer attitudes and tendencies in making choices (widayanti et al., 2020). the freshness attribute was dominant with the highest score of 20.56, meaning that respondents tend to behave pleasantly to decide on a purchase by prioritizing the freshness attribute in tomatoes. other findings state that the level of freshness in tomatoes indicates the level of quality in the tomatoes themselves (adeoye et al., 2016). even the level of freshness was an initial assessment that can represent the color, taste, and size of tomatoes due to an indication of sensory or visual assessment or perception from consumers. consumer opinion on tomato freshness highly depends on their situational context (saba et al., 2018). in conclusion, it was unquestionable that consumers concerned freshness as most substantial attribute. table 6. consumer’s attitude toward tomato attributes attribute interest (bi) important (ei) consumer attitude (ao) category of attitude color 4.12 4.44 18.86 positive freshness 4.25 4.69 20.56 positive texture 4.17 4.43 18.68 positive surface appearance 4.23 4.33 18.08 positive taste 3.91 4.30 17.09 positive size 3.86 3.69 14.38 neutral on the other hand, size attribute was categorized as neutral (10.7-15.4). size was the last attribute that consumers considered in buying tomatoes. it means that respondents’ attitudes towards this attribute might be construed as pleasant or unpleasant. the size attribute was difficult for respondents since there were disparities in consumer comprehension or perception of the “ideal” tomato size. based on previous findings, it is infrequent to find research examine size as an assessment attribute due to no apparent preference for size in tomatoes (jürkenbeck et al., 2020). consumers’ preference the estimation results of the conjoint analysis accuracy level show that the pearson & kendall tau scores were 0.000 and 0.001, respectively. that is, this value was significant at the 0.05 significance level (table 7). the results of this test prove that there was a strong correlation between estimates and actual, where the opinions of 150 consumers were acceptable and can represent the desire of the population in the special region of yogyakarta to consume tomatoes. conjoint analysis is a powerful tool for studying “customer’s value”. we can define incentives and test them with simulations to determine what consumers need. in this research, the purpose of the conjoint analysis was to determine the relative importance of the attributes and the utility value of each attribute level. the relative importance of an attribute reveals http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 131 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) how important consumers consider an attribute. the higher score indicates that attribute is more important to consumers. the utility score describes the level of attractiveness of attribute, a higher utility score indicates more attractive attribute level. a negative utility score did not necessarily indicate that an attribute was unattractive but rather less attractive than a positive utility score in the same attribute. the estimation of the relative importance of attributes and the utility score of each attribute level is presented in table 7. table 7. consumer’s preference for attributes evaluated in the conjoint survey attribute average importance (%) level average utility preference color 40.35 red 1.272 red orange -0.158 yellow -1.114 freshness 20.24 fresh 0.761 fresh weak -0.761 texture 10.77 firm 0.339 firm soft -0.339 surface appearance 12.06 without spots and wounds 0.432 without spots and wounds with spots and wounds -0.432 taste 16.57 sweet 0.664 sweet sour -0.664 pearson’s r = 0.994 significant = 0.000 kendall’s tau = 0.857 significant = 0.001 constant = 4.184 the results of previous studies explain that one of the indicators of tomato quality for consumers is color (oltman et al., 2014; adegbola et al., 2019). this finding was in line with the results of this study that color was attributed with the highest importance score, which was 40.35% (table 7). it proves that consumers prioritize color attributes over other attributes in buying tomatoes. for utility scores, red tomatoes were preferred by consumers. respondents believed tomatoes were popular and identical to red, so consumers were less willing to explore different color. furthermore, respondents always assume they were end consumers who bought tomatoes for direct consumption. this opinion was reinforced by the research findings, which explain that tomato producers and wholesalers prefer green tomatoes, while retailers and final consumers prefer red tomatoes (moraes et al., 2017). the second most important attribute consumers considered in buying tomatoes was freshness, with an importance score of 20.4% of the total preference (table 7). the utility value of consumer preferences was more interested in buying fresh tomatoes. this was consistent with the research finding which confirmed that freshness is an important attribute of the perceived quality of a product (tsiros & heilman, 2005; farruggia, crescimanno, galati, & tinervia, 2016; hardyastuti & perwitasari, 2021). tomatoes were classified as agricultural products, and the characteristics of agricultural products were always synonymous with freshness. based on the respondent’s perspective, the concept of freshness was interpreted differently according to their respective opinions. consumer opinions about freshness attributes have different styles, depending on personal factors and situational contexts (saba et al., 2018). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 132 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research as a finding, it confirms that consumers could evaluate level of freshness based on color expectations (dinnella et al., 2014; farruggia et al., 2016). another opinion asserts that texture is one of essential components involved in the concept of freshness (péneau et al., 2009). meanwhile, several studies reveal that level of freshness is closely related to the period or shelf life of the affected product because it is limited by odor and changes caused by appearance (ares et al., 2008; lareo et al., 2009; medina, tudela, marín, allende, & gil, 2012). furthermore, consumers choose the taste attribute as the third most essential attributes in buying tomatoes, with an importance score of 16.57% (table 7). the results of this study were appropriate to the findings, which grouped taste attributes into organoleptic factors and became the main factor consumers prioritized in buying tomatoes (fernqvist & hunter, 2012; moraes et al., 2017). taste is a key attribute that can increase consumer interest in tomato purchasing decisions (oltman et al., 2014; fernqvist & göransson, 2021). consumers stated that sweetness was their higher preference, with a utility score of 0.664 (table 7), in line with the findings, which stated that consumers are more likely to choose tomatoes that have a nonsour taste (usse et al., 2010). this finding confirms that tomatoes' taste is a very complex phenotype, mainly influenced by sensory evaluation involvement (klee & tieman, 2018). however, the limitations of consumers to directly taste the tomatoes that are purchased are very small, so retailers usually expand their product range and try to give a taste signal to consumers, for instance, by using taste descriptors (moser et al., 2011). more practical, respondents usually easily make an analogy with the color of tomatoes. the sour taste in tomatoes could decrease from the green phase to the ripe phase (carrari & fernie, 2006). thus, redder tomatoes produce less sour. in addition to the attributes of color, freshness, and taste, the appearance attribute of fruit surface was one of the most critical factors for consumers in buying tomatoes, with an importance score of 12.06% (table 7). this study found that respondents were more interested in tomatoes with clean fruit surfaces or no spots and wounds (positive utility). this finding was consistent with several previous studies which stated that consumers’ purchase intentions toward fruits and vegetables are significantly influenced by visual appearance (loebnitz & grunert, 2014; barbe et al., 2017; symmank et al., 2018; de hooge et al., 2017; lombart et al., 2019). consumers were willing to buy fruits and vegetables with perfect appearance (no defects) compared to fruits and vegetables whose appearance was moderate or flawed. in practice, retailers have sold fruit and vegetables flawlessly for the past few decades, so they have formed consumer expectations about the appearance of fruits and vegetables and set a reference point for their evaluation. respondents assume that injured tomatoes will speed up the decay process, thereby shortening the shelf life of the fruit. this study's results support the notion that tomatoes' appearance affects respondents' expectations, perceived satisfaction, liking, and purchase intentions. the last most crucial attribute that consumers considered in buying tomatoes was the texture attribute of the fruit, with an importance score of 10.77% (table 7). the study found that consumers preferred tomatoes with a firm texture (positive utility value). this result was http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 133 consumer attitudes and preferences for fresh ….. (yolanda, darwanto and ardhi) in line with the previous findings that confirmed texture is an essential aspect of consumer perception of fresh tomatoes, and most consumers prefer firm texture tomatoes (pagliarini et al., 2001; causse, buret, robini, & verschave, 2003; serrano-megías & lópez-nicolás, 2006). other findings underline that the texture attribute is a decision driver to assist consumers in the tomato selection process because they will touch the tomatoes directly before making a purchase (piombino et al., 2013; oltman et al., 2014). respondents understand that the texture of tomatoes was always associated with weight loss of fruit. so, consumers perceive that the harsher tomato texture was better quality because they are juicier than the soft one. conclusion consumers had favorable attitudes towards tomato attributes, i.e., freshness, color, firm texture, surface appearance, and taste. the study found that the tomato’s color was the most preferred attribute. the combination of attributes that most consumers needed was red tomatoes, very fresh, firm texture, surface appearance without spots and wounds, and sweetness. the results of this study suggested that tomato producers or farmers produce tomatoes that meet the consumers’ needs and desires. in addition, this study is also important for marketers and retailers to maintain tomato attributes, especially those considered necessary by consumers. acknowledgments: the authors would like to thank the department of agribusiness management, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada (ugm) for providing research facilities. author contributions: gmy: conceptualization ideas, data collection, formal analysis, writing, review, and editing preparation, and addressed the reviewer’s comments; dhd: conceptualization ideas, adviser and supervisor of data collection and analysis, reviewed the manuscript, and reviewed literature; mka: conceptualization ideas, writing, review, and editing preparation, and addressed the reviewer’s comments. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest reference adegbola, y. p., ahoyo adjovi, n. r., adekambi, s. a., zossou, r., sonehekpon, e. s., assogba komlan, f., & djossa, e. 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(2019). meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies provides insights into genetic control of tomato flavor. nature communications, 10, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09462-w http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& aris slamet widodo program studi agribisnis fakultas pertanian universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, email: armando1215@yahoo.com pendapatan dan produksi potensial usahatani konservasi lahan pantai di kabupaten bantul income and production potential of conservation farming at coastal land in bantul abstract coastal land management are expected not only serves as an erosion control (wind), but also serves to increase farmer’s incomes. this study aims to analyze the income and the potential production of conservation farming system on coastal land in bantul. the survey was conducted in the village of srigading and gadingsari bantul. income and potential production of four main commodities, namely red onions, red peppers, eggplant, and sweet potatoes were analyzed using technical efficiency effect model. results of the study showed that from 0.1 hectares of coastal land, the farmers obtain the highest revenue of red pepper, which amounted to rp 3.9 million in the dry season 1 and rp 2.5 in the dry season 2; followed by red onions income, amounted to rp 2.1 million in the rainy season and rp1.6 in the dry season; while eggplant provide the lowest income, which amounted to rp 98 thousand in the rainy season. the estimation results of cobb-douglas stochastic frontier model with mle method showed an increase in the potential of onion in the rainy season by 7.4%; eggplant 11.4% and 10.2% sweet potato. in the dry season 1, there is an increase in onion production by 10.6%; red chili 4% and 5.6% sweet potato. while in the dry season 2, there is an increased production of red onion and eggplant by 4.1% at 6.1%. keywords: conservation farming, coastal land, technical efficiency pendahuluan berdasarkan keputusan menteri kelautan dan perikanan nomor 10/ men/2002 tentang pedoman umum perencanaan pengelolaan pesisir terpadu dan uu no. 5 tahun 1990 tentang konservasi sumber daya alam hayati dan ekosistemnya; dan pentingnya pesisir pantai yang kaya akan sumber daya alam dan jasa lingkungan, hendaknya pemanfaatan pesisir pantai dilakukan dengan baik dan benar serta mampu berfungsi ganda. berfungsi ganda artinya pengelolaan lahan pantai selain berfungsi sebagai pengendali erosi (angin) juga berfungsi meningkatkan pendapatan masyarakat melalui usaha budidaya tanaman yang sesuai dan bernilai ekonomis. salah satu permasalahan wilayah pantai dari segi iklim adalah kenaikan air laut yang dapat menyebabkan abrasi pantai, sedimentasi dan erosi berlebihan. dampak peristiwa erosi pasir antara lain: 1) tanah pada lahan pantai bertekstur kasar dan bersifat lepas sehingga sangat peka terhadap erosi angin, 2) hasil erosi yang berupa endapan pasir (sand dune) mampu menutup wilayah budidaya pertanian dan pemukiman didaerah dibelakangnya, 3) butiran pasir bergaram yang dibawa dari proses erosi angin dapat merusak dan menurunkan produktivitas tanaman budidaya. peristiwa tersebut menyebabkan lahan pantai berpasir menjadi kritis dan doi:10.18196/agr.111 2 jurnal agraris harus segera mendapatkan penanganan (triatmodjo, 1999; tim ugm, 1992, haryadi b., 2009; suryanto, 1996 dalam budiyanto, dkk., 2005). menurut sukresno (haryadi b., 2009), hal yang sangat penting dalam melakukan konservasi lahan pantai berpasir adalah dengan melakukan penanaman tanaman tanggul angin/ pemecah angin (cemara laut, glirisidae, pandan dan mete) dan pengusahaan tanaman budidaya hortikultura yang ditanam diantara tanaman tanggul angin. usaha budidaya hortikultura, lahan pantai memerlukan dua syarat pokok yaitu ketersediaan air dan bahan organic. teknologi yang digunakan adalah dengan pengadaan sumur renteng dan pemberian pupuk kandang. weersink, dkk., (adiyoga w., 1999) menjelaskan bahwa tingkat pendapatan usahatani sangat ditentukan oleh efisiensi petani untuk mengalokasikan sumberdaya yang dimilikinya kedalam berbagai alternative aktivitas produksi. apabila petani tidak menggunakan sumberdaya secara efisien, maka akan terdapat potensi yang tidak/ belum tereksploitasi untuk meningkatkan pendapatan. metode penelitian penelitian ini menggunakan metode survey dengan lokasi penelitian di kabupaten bantul, daerah istimewa yogyakarta. sampel kecamatan dan desa ditetapkan secara purposif, yaitu sepanjang pantai samas di kecamatan sanden, dengan sampel desa di desa srigading dan gadingsari. daerah tersebut merupakan daerah konservasi dan kegiatan usahatani lahan pantai yang telah berlangsung lama yaitu sejak tahun 1996 dan merupakan daerah pantauan konservasi dari dinas kehutanan, pertanian, peternakan dan pesisir, kelautan dan perikanan kab. bantul. metode penarikan sampel petani yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah dengan proporsional random sampling yaitu suatu teknik pengambilan sampel secara acak dengan jumlah yang proporsional untuk setiap sub populasi (kelompok tani) sesuai dengan ukuran populasinya (sekaran, 2003). teknik pengumpulan data menggunakan tiga macam cara, yakni teknik wawancara, observasi dan pencatatan. besarnya pendapatan yang diterima petani dihitung menggunakan rumussebagai berikut: nr = tr – tc eksplisit keterangan : nr = net revenue (pendapatan) tr = total revenue (total penerimaan) tc eks = total cost eksplisit (total biaya) teknik analisis untuk efisiensi teknis diawali dengan persamaan untuk fungsi produksi usahatani (bawang merah, cabai merah, terong dan ubi jalar) lahan pantai yaitu: ln y = á + â 1 ln x 1 + â 2 ln x 2 + â 3 ln x 3 + â 4 ln x 4 + â 5 ln x 5 + â 6 ln x 6 + â 7 ln x 7 + (v i – u i ) keterangan : y = produksi (kg) á = intersep â i = koefisien regresi (parameter yang ditaksir) (i = 1 s/d 7) x 1 = luas lahan (ha) x 2 = tenaga kerja (hok) x 3 = pupuk an-organik (kg) x 4 = pupuk organik (kg) x 5 = sumur renteng (unit) x 6 = windbarier (unit) x 7 = pestisida (liter) v i – u i = error term, (u i ) efek inefisiensi teknis dalam model tanda parameter yang diharapkan : â 1, â 2, â 3, â 4, â 5, â 6, â 7 > 0 tahapan analisis selanjutnya adalah pendugaan parameter fungsi produksi stochastic frontier dan inefficiency function dilakukan secara simultan dengan program frontier 4.1 (coelli, 1996). pendugaan seluruh parameter â 0 , âi, varians u i dan v i dengan menggunakan metode maximum likelihood estimation (mle) dengan pilihan technical efficiency effect model. model inefisiensi teknis : u i = ñ 0 + ñ 1 z 1 + ñ 2 z 2 + ñ 3 z 3 + ñ 4 z 4 + ñ 5 z 5 + ñ sl z sl dimana : u i = efek inefisiensi teknis ñ = koefisien inefisiensi teknis z 1 = umur petani (tahun) z 2 = tingkat pendidikan formal petani (tahun) z 3 = pengalaman usahatani padi sawah (tahun) z 4 = jumlah anggota rumah tangga (jiwa) z 5 = frekuensi mengikuti penyuluhan (pertemuan) tahapan analisis berikutnya adalah analisis efisiensi teknis yang dapat diukur dengan menggunakan rumus berikut: 3 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 e(y u i , x i ) te i = = e [ exp (-u i ) / i ] e(y* u i = 0, x i ) dimana te i adalah efisiensi teknis petani ke-i, exp( e[u i |å i ]) adalah nilai harapan (mean) dari u i dengan syarat å i , jadi 0 te i 1. metode efisiensi teknis yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini mengacu kepada model efek inefisiensi teknis yang dikembangkan coelli et al., (1998). tingkat efisiensi akan digunakan untuk mengetahui produksi potensial tiap komoditas. hasil dan pembahasan pendapatan usahatani konservasi lahan pantai pola usahatani yang dilakukan oleh petani lahan pantai adalah kombinasi antara usahatani tanaman hortikultura dan tanaman pangan (bawang merah, cabai merah, terong dan ubi jalar) dengan usaha ternak yaitu sapi, kambing dan unggas dan dengan melakukan penanaman tanaman konservasi terutama cemara udang dan pengadaan system irigasi sumur renteng. penelitian ini memfokuskan pada analisis pendapatan usahatani tanaman hortikultura dan tanaman pangan yaitu bawang merah, cabai merah, terong dan ubi jalar selama tiga musim tanam. tabel 1 menjelaskan bahwa pada musim hujan tanaman bawang merah memiliki pendapatan tertinggi, namun demikian ubi jalar juga memiliki potensi untuk dikembangkan karena mampu memberikan pendapatan yang cukup tinggi juga. pada musim kemarau 1, tanaman cabai merah memiliki pendapatan tertinggi dengan rp 4,193,321.dan menjadi pendapatan tertinggi juga pada setiap musim. musim kemarau 1 dianggap musim terbaik bagi tanaman hortikultura di lahan pantai. pada musim kemarau 2, cabai merah dan ubi jalar memiliki pendapatan yang hampir sama. hal tersebut menunjukan bahwa keduanya berpeluang untuk diusahakan walaupun pendapatannya tidak setinggi musim kemarau 1. pada usahatani konservasi lahan pantai terdapat biaya pemeliharaan sumur renteng dan windbarier serta pupuk kandang. luas lahan 0.1 ha rata-rata memerlukan sumur renteng sejumlah 9 (bis beton) dengan biaya pemeliharaan permusim sebesar rp 18,333.dan memerlukan tanaman windbarier sejumlah 8 tanaman dengan biaya pemeliharaan sebesar rp 106,370.-. produksi potensial usahatani konservasi lahan pantai setiap produksi usahatani pasti memiliki sejumlah produksi potensial. namun, dengan adanya keterbatasan usahatani maka petani kesulitan untuk mencapai produksi potensial. salah satu keterbatasan yang juga sering menghambat adalah kemampuan manajemen petani itu sendiri. manajemen sebagai salah satu faktor produksi dan akan mempengaruhi kondisi usahatani. kemampuan manajerial seorang petani sebagai pengelola dapat didekati dengan tingkat efisiensi teknis yang diperoleh dari estimasi fungsi produksi frontier. untuk dapat menganalisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat efisiensi teknik hal pertama yang harus dilakukan adalah mengukur tingkat efisiensi teknik masing-masing responden petani pada tiap komoditas. tabel 2. menjelaskan tingkat inefisiensi yang ditunjukan oleh hasil coefficient gamma. coefficient gamma sebenarnya error term (vi-ui) yang dipengaruhi oleh delta (factor manajemen). apabila nilai gamma kecil, tabel 1. analisis pendapatan usahatani konservasi tanaman hortikultura dan tanaman pangan di lahan pantai, kabupaten bantul (0.1 ha). sumber: data primer diolah. 4 jurnal agraris maka ada kemungkinan dipengaruhi oleh factor diluar inefisiensi atau delta tersebut. mean efficiency menunjukan tingkat efisiensi sehingga selisih antara tingkat efisiensi dengan 1 (satu) merupakan besarnya potensi untuk memaksimalkan produksi. seluruh komoditas pada musim hujan dan musim kemarau 2 memiliki nilai gamma yang cukup tinggi yaitu diatas 0,9 dan memiliki t-ratio cukup tinggi sehingga sangat signifikan yang berarti bahwa variable manajemen yang meliputi umur, pengalaman, frekuensi mengikuti penyuluhan, pendidikan dan tenaga kerja dalam keluarga berpengaruh terhadap inefisiensi. pada musim kemarau 1 hanya komoditas bawang merah yang sangat signifikan sedangkan komoditas cabai merah dan ubi jalar memiliki nilai gamma sebesar 0,55 dan 0,66 dengan t-ratio sebesar 1,44 dan 1,29. nilai tersebut menjelaskan bahwa ada sebagian atau kemungkinan produksi dipengaruhi oleh factor diluar inefisiensi walaupun t-ratio menyimpulkan masuk dalam kategori signifikan. tabel 2 juga menjelaskan bahwa nilai mean efficiency yang bervariasi antar komoditas antara 0,89 (89 %) sampai dengan 0,96 (96 %), sehingga potensi peningkatan efisiensi berkisar antara 4 % sampai dengan 11 %. berdasarkan nilai mean efficiency dapat diperoleh potensi peningkatan produksi ditiap komoditas dan potensi produksi maksimal. secara rinci besarnya nilai potensi produksi maksimal di tiap musim tiap komoditas dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. kesimpulan dan implikasi kebijakan kesimpulan 1. tanaman bawang merah memiliki pendapatan tertinggi pada musim hujan, namun demikian ubi jalar juga memiliki potensi untuk dikembangkan karena mampu memberikan pendapatan yang cukup tinggi juga. pada musim kemarau 1, tanaman cabai merah memiliki pendapatan tertinggi dengan rp 4,193,321.dan menjadi pendapatan tertinggi pada setiap musim. pada musim kemarau 2, cabai merah dan ubi jalar memiliki pendapatan yang hampir sama. 2. usahatani bawang merah, cabai merah, ubi jalar dan terong memiliki potensi peningkatan produksi berkisar antara 4% 11,4% dengan melakukan peningkatan faktor manajemen. implikasi kebijakan 1. pengadaan dan pemeliharaan variabel konservasi yang terdiri dari tanaman windbarier, sumur renteng atau system irigasi dan pupuk organic diperlukan dalam usahatani lahan pantai. 2. tanaman bawang merah, cabai merah dan ubi jalar tepat untuk diusahakan di lahan pantai, sedangkan terong agak rentan terhadap gagal panen karena faktor lingkungan. 3. faktor manajemen (pendidikan petani, pengalaman, frekuensi penyuluhan, tenaga kerja dalam keluarga dan umur petani) berpengaruh pada peningkatan produksi potensial. pelatihan teknis dan manajemen perlu dilakukan terutama kepada petani muda yang potensial. tabel 2. tingkat efisiensi dan inefisiensi tiap komoditas pada usahatani lahan pantai di kab. bantul. 5 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 daftar pustaka adiyoga w., 1999. beberapa alternatif pendekatan untuk mengukur efisiensi atau inefisiensi dalam usahatani. informatika pertanian aigner, c.d., k. lovell and p. schmidt., 1977. formulation and estimation of stochastic frontier production function models. journal of econometrics, 6: pp. 21-37. asikin, c. 2006. beragribisnis yang lestari di lahan pasir pantai. kepala badan ketahanan pangan dan penyuluhan provinsi diy. yogyakarta. bappeda kabupaten bantul, 2007. buku perencanaan pembangunan kabupaten bantul. bantul. balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian yogyakarta, 2006. sistem irigasi sumur renteng. yogyakara. budiyanto g., 2005. dampak aplikasi batuan zeolit alam dan nitrogen terhadap keragaan vegetatif tanaman jagung di lahan pasir pantai. jurnal: agr-umy, xiv, (1): 1-13. coelli, t.,1998. a guide to frontier version 4.1: a computer program for stochastic frontier production and cost function estimation. centre for efficiency and productivity analysis, university of new england armidale, new south wales. dahuri, r; rais y; putra s.g; sitepu m.j, 2001. pengelolaan sumber daya pesisir dan lautan secara terpadu. pt pradnya paramita. jakarta. departemen kelautan dan perikanan. 2003. pokok pikiran ruu pengelolaan wilayah pesisir dalam http://www.dkp.go.id. diakses juli 2012. dinas kelautan, perikanan dan peternakan kabupaten bantul, 2007. rencana strategis pengelolaan pesisir dan laut terpadu (rspplt). daerah istimewa yogyakarta. g.e. battese dan t.j. coelli, 1992). frontier production, technical efficiency dan panel data. the journal of productivity analysis, 3, 153-169. netherlands. haryadi b., 2009. model rehabilitasi lahan dan konservasi tanah pantai berpasir. laporan hasil penelitian, badan penelitian dan pengembangan kehutanan. surakarta. sekaran, u. 2003. research methods for business : a skill building approach 2nd edition, john wiley and son. new york. sukresno. 1998. pemanfaatan lahan terlantar di pantai berpasir samas-bantul diy dengan budidaya semangka. prosiding. seminar nasional dan pertemuan tahunan komisariat daerah himpunan ilmu tanah indonesia, hiti komda jawa timur, malang. triatmodjo, b. 1999. teknik pantai. beta offset. yogyakarta. tim ugm. 1992. rencana pengembangan wilayah pantai jawa tengah. f. geografi ugm yogyakartabrlkt wilayah v, ditjen rrl, dephut, semarang. tabel. 3. potensi kenaikan produksi tiap komoditas pada usahatani lahan pantai di kabupaten bantul, tahun 2012. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 73-89 article history: submitted : june 28th, 2021 revised : may 11th, 2022 september 12th, 2021 accepted : may 24th, 2022 shafira wuryandani *, dyah ismoyowati, and endy suwondo department of agro-industrial technology, faculty of agricultural technology, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia *) correspondence email: shafira.wuryandani@ugm.ac.id developing an ingredient branding strategy applied to pigmented rice commodity doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12013 abstract pigmented rice agroindustry has just started its market development, thus require a branding strategy. it may apply an ingredient branding strategy that can increase brand awareness and equity of pigmented rice by highlighting the ingredients. this paper discussed the developing strategy of pigmented rice products using the customer-based brand equity model (cbbe). the brand awareness and loyalty survey was conducted to analyze the pigmented rice brand equity. the survey also explored branding media to increase consumers’ brand equity. the survey captured 261 respondents from various cities in indonesia. the results of the ttest showed a significant difference between regular and occasional consumers. the cbbe diagnosis indicated that the producer should highlight antioxidants, anthocyanin, and other health benefits through advertising, word of mouth, health-related campaigns, and informative packaging. keywords: branded strategy; branding strategy; ingredient branding; pigmented rice introduction branding is one of product marketing strategies. a lot of large companies and small businesses have now adopted branding strategies. more personal aspects, such as health and political choice, use branding strategies (jain, pich, ganesh, & armannsdottir, 2017). product component aspects are also often used for branding. ingredient branding could be a branding strategy that positively utilizes product components to attract consumer interest (desai & keller, 2002). it has been a widely adopted strategy to increase brand equity and market competitiveness (yan & cao, 2017). most food industries often use ingredient branding to highlight product composition characteristics in functional food products. these food products have valuable content beneficial to health as a marketing strategy (aluko, 2012). another overview uncovers that half south and southeast asia customers buy packaged rice. the more consumers move requests from free to bundled rice, the more esteem chain partners can include esteem to rice items through branding, and the more they can separate rice items into different advertising segments (bairagi, gustafson, custodio, ynion, & demont, 2021). pigmented rice with functional http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:shafira.wuryandani@ugm.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12013 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 74 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research content has the potential to be marketed using this ingredient branding strategy. pigmented rice has pigments outside the peel (kristamtini, taryono, basunanda, & murti, 2014). pigmented rice contains anthocyanin as a high antioxidant that can combat free radicals (kristamtini et al., 2014; putri & ismoyowati, 2020; shao et al., 2018). those ingredients can be promoted as health factors in pigmented rice. the small and niche market of pigmented rice consumers makes pigmented rice producers need to build branding. producers need to increase brand awareness of pigmented rice to have strong brand equity. the specific pigmented rice contents and health benefits can attract consumers to consume pigmented rice. the producer can use its nutritional content to market pigmented rice as a functional food and use the ingredient branding strategy. pigmented rice can use the concept of ingredient branding because the raw material has better nutritional content than white rice. besides, pigmented rice branding ingredients can come from other product components. the customer-based brand equity (cbbe) model is one method for developing a branding strategy. cbbe was chosen because it is a branding strategy formulation method that uses consumer information. for this reason, this paper aims to discuss branded commodities and ingredient branding strategies that might be applied to pigmented rice using the customer-based brand equity model (cbbe). this article discussed the potential development of applying the ingredient branding strategy for pigmented rice in indonesia based on the level of brand awareness and brand loyalty of consumers towards pigmented rice obtained from consumer surveys. this research also explored the branding media of pigmented rice to increase consumers’ brand equity. research method the online survey was carried out from february to march 2020. two hundred sixtyone respondents joined the survey. they were rice consumers from five big cities in indonesia, primarily located on java island, where 80% of indonesia’s population lives. the cities are bali, jakarta, surabaya, bandung, and yogyakarta. data collection in this survey used a convenience sampling method combined with snowball sampling. technically, the survey was distributed to respondents who have purchased the rice and to other respondents who know. respondents were consumers who had purchased any rice, whether white rice, red rice, or black rice. the survey included white rice consumers to know and understand their attitude toward brand awareness and loyalty to pigmented rice. it would be helpful to build the ingredient strategy for white rice consumer groups to shift into pigmented rice consumers. the survey obtained data on brand awareness and brand equity in pigmented rice products. respondents should answer the question on the survey, whether they are regular or occasional consumers. regular consumption affects the brand consumer’s response, especially the level of brand awareness and brand loyalty. for this reason, groups of regular and occasional consumers need to be separated. the two groups were then tested with an independent sample t-test with spss to determine whether there was a significant difference in brand awareness and brand loyalty between groups. the survey also asked respondents http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 75 developing an ingredient branding strategy ….. (wuryandani, ismoyowati, and suwondo) about their attitudes towards branding media, such as word-of-mouth, information about packaging, advertisements, and campaigns. this paper developed the cbbe model based on the results of the survey qualitatively. each stage in the cbbe pyramid was built based on the survey. the essential step was determined based on consumer brand awareness. the second and third stages were determined based on consumer brand performance. the top scene showed how to get brand loyalty. the cbbe pyramid stages were interconnected and led to the branding goal depicted at the top of the pyramid. result and discussions respondents’ characteristics the consumer survey results showed the characteristics of the majority of respondents as follows: 71% were female, aged 22-26 years, 45% were currently married, 32% work in the private sector, and 33% earn around usd 170 usd 340 in a month. the detailed characteristics as in table 1. table 1. consumer characteristics of pigmented rice respondents regular consumer occasional consumer regular consumer occasional consumer n % n % n % n % gender occupancy female 55 83% 64 33% civil servant 10 15% 20 10% male 11 17% 131 67% private sector 14 21% 70 36% age university student 12 18% 46 24% 17-22 6 9% 27 14% teacher 2 3% 1 1% 23-28 28 42% 100 51% businessman 8 12% 16 8% 29-34 12 18% 23 12% others 20 30% 42 22% 35-40 2 3% 17 9% monthly income (in usd) 41-46 6 9% 9 5% <743 55 83% 174 89% 47-51 7 11% 7 4% 744-1452 7 11% 19 10% 53-58 3 5% 10 5% 1453-2161 2 3% 1 1% 59-64 2 3% 2 1% 2162-2870 1 2% 0 0% marital status >2871 1 2% 1 1% single 21 32% 26 13% married 45 68% 169 87% most respondents (78%) consumed white rice. the others consumed brown (35%), black (3%), or mixed rice (6%). the white rice consumers would be the target of the ingredient strategy to shift into pigmented rice consumers. the pigmented rice consumers are also targeted to make them loyal consumers of pigmented rice. based on the survey results, respondents had different brand awareness of brown rice and black rice. respondents knew more about brown rice products than black rice. as many as 84% (n=107) of respondents claimed to know brown rice. however, only 59% (n=154) of consumers know black rice. in addition, consumers also admit that they rarely hear the word “black rice”. only 33% (n=78) of consumers admitted that they often hear the word black rice. consumers who often hear brown rice were more than 85% (n=222) of the total. red http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 76 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research and brown rice were commonly consumed in indonesia, while black rice was rarely consumed and had smaller production than red and brown rice. those become one of the reasons why consumers knew more about red and brown rice than black rice. besides, 25% (n=66) of respondents stated that they regularly consumed pigmented rice, while 75% (n=195) did not regularly consume it. the two groups indicated a significant difference in brand loyalty towards pigmented rice (f = 1.277, sig. 0.260). regular pigmented rice consumers had higher brand loyalty than occasional pigmented rice consumers (figure 1). it aligned with the brand equity theory that consumers who repurchase products have higher loyalty than those who do not. figure 1. groups of pigmented rice consumers regular pigmented rice consumers had medium to high brand awareness. they knew and often heard about the pigmented rice even though they did not recall the brand name. come to 40% were highly loyal pigmented rice consumers who felt proud of being pigmented rice consumers and were more likely to promote pigmented rice to others. they understand the ingredient branding factors that match the main content of pigmented rice, such as antioxidants, high fiber, and low sugar. they know not only basic information about pigmented rice but also more detailed and in-depth information. the others (60%) had medium loyalty because they consume pigmented rice regularly but did not intend to promote it to others. they did not feel familiar with the word "antioxidant" regarding pigmented rice. they tend to know general information about pigmented rice, such as low sugar and high fiber. they have limited knowledge of pigmented rice. occasional pigmented rice consumers had low brand awareness and brand loyalty. they did not become familiar with "antioxidants" while talking about pigmented rice. they tend to know general information about pigmented rice, such as low sugar and high fiber. consumers with intense brand loyalty would have limited knowledge of basic information related to the product. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 77 developing an ingredient branding strategy ….. (wuryandani, ismoyowati, and suwondo) pigmented rice business the pigmented rice business is a potential business that can develop by farmers. in yogyakarta, most farmers have been farming pigmented rice traditionally; some have been farming semi-organically. red rice is sold at around 125 to 150 percent above white rice, and black rice is about 200 to 250 percent higher than white rice (nuringtyas & ismoyowati, 2018). besides, other research states that black rice has a b/c value of 1.39 and an r/c value of 2.39. if sold as rice, profits will increase with a b/c value of 1.59 and an r/c value of 2.59 (djatiharti & kristamtini, 2009). those showed that pigmented rice agroindustry is a good profit. in yogyakarta’s pigmented rice business, a key person’s role is to connect farmers with buyers. without this key person, farmers face difficulties in selling their pigmented rice. linking farmers’ products to modern retailers open more opportunities to develop pigmented rice marketing. pigmented rice farmers thought this pigmented rice business would be more profitable with the increasing demand and quality of pigmented rice in the future (nuringtyas & ismoyowati, 2018). based on the previous research, there are five leading roles in the pigmented rice value chain in sleman, yogyakarta. the role of a key person becomes one in a group of pigmented rice farmers. besides the key person’s role, the middleman still dominates the pigmented rice business chain. most pigmented rice consumers do not market their rice directly to consumers or at the retail level. other parties connect farmers and consumers. the most significant income margin in the pigmented rice business chain consists of farmers, farmer groups, retailers, and end consumers (anindita, ismoyowati, & suwondo, 2019). previous research on the black rice marketing supply chain depicts a model showing that black rice sales in yogyakarta occurred both inside and outside the province. the total sales of black rice were 67,940 kg (25.81%) to yogyakarta’s consumers. the remaining 195,291 kg (74.19%) were sold to consumers outside yogyakarta through wholesalers, retailers, and distributors. the amount marketed by farmers was only 8,676 kg (3.3%) of the total black rice sold in a year. black rice's end-consumers come from inside and outside yogyakarta, such as jakarta, surabaya, lampung, lombok, bali, semarang, and others (putri, ismoyowati, & pamungkas, 2019). the data showed that marketing activities were not limited to the region. therefore, there is a need for consumer research inside and outside yogyakarta. pigmented rice is sold at a higher price than white rice. this pricing makes only middle to upper-income consumers who commit to healthy food could buy pigmented rice. the potential of pigmented rice still brings problems for black rice farmers. those farmers feel benefited in terms of the price and content of pigmented rice used to compare their products. however, farmers find it still challenging to market their products. information about the market and consumers of pigmented rice is still very minimal among farmers and pigmented rice producers (nuringtyas & ismoyowati, 2018). it shows that black and red rice producers need market information to develop marketing strategies. rice farmers depended on promoting mouth-to-mouth advancement done intentionally by their clients. they ordinarily http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 78 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research have steadfast clients who have emphatically accepted the quality of the rice they deliver (taridala et al., 2019). rice is the leading food for most of indonesia’s population and the primary carbohydrate source (statistics indonesia, 2018). rice consumption in indonesia increases yearly because of indonesia’s population (silalahi et al., 2019). the most devoured sort of rice is white rice. its consumption is generally identified with an expanded danger of type 2 diabetes brought about by increasing the opportunity of glucose homeostatic turmoil (soriguer et al., 2013). type 2 diabetes, which is familiar as diabetes mellitus (dm), is a chronic metabolic disorder whose predominance has increased worldwide. people can anticipate type 2 diabetes through life changes, counting calories, and avoiding being overweight and obese (olokoba, obateru, & olokoba, 2012). in indonesia, stroke, coronary heart disease, and diabetes are the illnesses that most cause death in indonesia according to the who report in 2017 (pariona, 2017), thus raising consumers’ desire to change their lifestyle toward a healthier lifestyle (zegler, 2017). besides white rice, there are red and black rice, then called pigmented rice. several regions in indonesia that produce these kinds of rice are south sulawesi, central java, and yogyakarta special region. the rice pigment indicates it contains anthocyanin (sabir, rafi, & darusman, 2017). black rice and red rice is well known enough in asia. dark rice has numerous different names, such as head rice and taboo rice. both terms refer to the history of black rice in the past, which should only be consumed by the royal family (oikawa et al., 2015). in china, only the king and the royal family allowed to consume black rice. they believed this rice could extend the king’s life (kushwaha, 2016). the rice shade variety relies upon the shading colors, particularly anthocyanin in the seed coat, aleuron, or pericarp layer (kristamtini et al., 2014). because of extreme focus, the shade of the rice becomes purple to almost dark. pigmented rice can be a wellspring of anthocyanins that can work as cell reinforcements (aluko, 2012). additionally, pigmented rice has lower sugar content compared to white rice. black rice has antioxidant activity (dpph radical reduction) of 78.66% (putri & ismoyowati, 2020). another study found that black rice’s dpph radical reduction value was 91.10% (lu, huang, xiao, & wang, 2022). it implies that black rice has a very high antioxidant activity. black rice is rich in fiber, protein, press, vegetable fats, vitamins, and minerals, adjusting other nourishments by our body. it comprises cancer prevention agents known as anthocyanin and tocopherol (sangma & parameshwari, 2021). black rice has various pharmacological and amino acid contents that provide complete nutrition (prasad, sharavanan, & sivaraj, 2019). most farmers produce by semi-organic planting methods (nuringtyas & ismoyowati, 2018). red rice and black rice began to be in great demand by consumers. the consumption of pigmented rice in yogyakarta has increased, represented by retailers’ availability. besides, people can see consumers’ increased interest and demand for the increasingly available pigmented rice products in modern and traditional retail. research data in 2017 shows an increment in red and black rice consumption in the next five years (goldstein market http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 79 developing an ingredient branding strategy ….. (wuryandani, ismoyowati, and suwondo) intelligence, 2018). it is an alluring business sector opportunity, even though pigmented rice market is still a specialty and niche market. producers can market pigmented rice as a functional food with ingredients that are beneficial to health. the healthy and functional food category is one of japan’s food companies’ ingredient branding strategies (kanama & nakazawa, 2017). pigmented rice branding consumer awareness of pigmented rice needs to be increased due to its small market presence. the increase in consumer awareness will lead to a rise in pigmented rice consumption, undoubtedly benefiting farmers and pigmented rice producers. ingredient branding is one of the right strategies for this. consumers strongly associated this consumption of pigmented rice with health as its health impacts and included as a functional food. claims concerning the infection preventative properties of functional foods are the foremost appealing to consumers (topolska, florkiewicz, & filipiak-florkiewicz, 2021). the black rice consumer survey in 2018 also showed that 39% of consumers consume black rice for health reasons (putri & ismoyowati, 2020). providing information on the nutritional content and health benefits of consuming pigmented rice is one way to brand pigmented rice. a reliable and accommodating fopl is one that most individuals will get it clearly and know what is within the food they are buying (saleem, bhattacharya, & deshpande, 2022). there are critical indirect impacts on purchase intention for handling claims and fixing records through the packaging label (rybak, burton, johnson, & berry, 2021). the utilization of pigmented rice could not measure up to white rice in indonesia. pigmented rice is burned through in a lot more modest sums and just arrives at ingredient branding. opportunities to expand ingredient branding are wide open with increasing public awareness of diet and healthy nutrition. more than 45% of consumers in a survey conducted by zegler in 2017 said they wanted to change their lifestyle to be healthier (zegler, 2017). producers can expand ingredient branding by developing a pigmented rice branding strategy to increase the consumption of loyal consumers and increase the brand awareness of new consumers. public attention to consuming pigmented rice will positively impact a healthier life (prasad et al., 2019). the ingredient branding strategy can increase brand awareness (tiwari & singh, 2012). the ingredient branding strategy can raise brand awareness (tiwari and singh, 2012). this strategy is considered suitable for adoption to increase new customers and old consumer repurchases. rice is a commodity that has various types, including pigmented rice. rice, in the past, has no difference in the eyes of consumers. during its development, commodity products such as rice were packaged and compared. those are most likely to attract consumers because they assume that packaged products and brands are cleaner than bulk. the research results show that the top-ranking essential parameters for purchasing packaged rice are no impurities, no hazardous chemicals and pesticides, and social status (kathuria & gill, 2013). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 80 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research based on kanama & nakazawa (2017), ingredient branding conducted for japan’s food industry mostly includes health and functionality. four essential factors influence a successful ingredient branding strategy in agroindustry products, as shown in table 2. pigmented rice meets three categories, namely (1) ingredients were the main factor in product functionality and quality, (2) the final product was related to a new product, and (3) the final product can be developed. pigmented rice does not meet the patent’s superior technology factor because it does not use complex manufacturing technology. the process of producing pigmented rice uses simple and brief technological stages. pigmented rice is planted for 3-4 months. after harvesting, rice is colored only through drying and packaging, without sophisticated and complicated technology. table 2. summary of factors that affects ingredient branding strategies for agroindustry aspect strategy author increased brand awareness & brand equity • advertisement • word-of-mouth • diet-related campaign • health-related campaign • informative & attractive packaging • influencers (relatives, friends, newspapers, magazines) (anindita et al., 2019; custodio et al., 2019; englund, zhou, hedrick, & kraak, 2020; kathuria & gill, 2013; putri & ismoyowati, 2020) essential factors of successful ingredient branding strategies • technology superior material, proven by patent • material is the main factor in product quality and functionality • the final product must not be highly branded related to new product categories • the company must develop materials and final products together (kanama & nakazawa, 2017) the producer needs to highlight the main content of pigmented rice as an essential component. anthocyanins have often been mentioned to be present in black rice. the other bioactive compounds also contributed to being part of the black rice. both ingredients revealed high antioxidant activity and prevented some chronic diseases such as cancer (ito & lacerda, 2019). a few scientists have analyzed anthocyanin and its auxiliaries, cyanidin-3-oglucoside, in black rice. it also contains amino acids that provide complete nutrition. awareness among the individuals about black rice consumption will suggest a healthier and more valuable life (prasad et al., 2019). red rice has high fiber content, antioxidants, minerals, and protein. a lower glycemic list and higher supplement thickness made red rice moderately better than white rice. red rice has various dietary benefits, making it a helpful superfood (raghuvanshi, dutta, tewari, & suri, 2017). pigmented rice needs to be promoted to become part of a daily or functional food that improves consumers’ health (rathna priya, eliazer nelson, ravichandran, & antony, 2019). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 81 developing an ingredient branding strategy ….. (wuryandani, ismoyowati, and suwondo) producers can do pigmented rice ingredient branding with advertisements that highlight the health benefits of pigmented rice. producers can use valid and scientific information about the health benefits of consuming pigmented rice for advertising. based on the survey shown in table 3, 60% of respondents agreed that advertisements could influence their decision to determine which type of rice they consume. they said advertisements provided new product information that helped consumers know more about rice products. advertising can be done in newspapers and magazines as an essential consumer information source (kathuria & gill, 2013). it is likewise conceivable to lead ads through advanced media, considering that computerized media is present simple to attract more purchasers. promoting should be possible through online media like instagram, twitter, facebook, or youtube. table 3. percentage of agreed respondents towards ingredient branding media ingredient branding media percentage of agreed respondent advertisement 60% campaign 60% word of mouth 53% packaging information 63% friends and family are distributors of product-related information. in australia’s meat market, friends, family, and relatives become influencers that introduce branded meat products (morrison & eastburn, 2006). in this pigmented rice consumers’ study, this group influences consumers to consume pigmented rice. it means that product-related information is widely distributed through the nearest circle of consumers, meaning that word of mouth becomes essential here. word of mouth is one possible method to build brand awareness and brand reviews of rice purchasers in india (kathuria & gill, 2013). regarding the survey, 53% of respondents agreed that word of mouth could increase their awareness of pigmented rice. most consumers decided that friends, family, and relatives are trusted informants for food and health. it showed that the informal system should likewise be possible for indonesian purchasers principally through the nearest circle of buyers, family, companions, and family members. diet-related missions advance solid living as a suitable advertising mechanism for healthy food (englund et al., 2020). utilizing standard requests that draw upon feelings and emphasize the tactile measurements of nourishment at the side of its well-being benefits may draw consideration of customers and affect nourishment choices (bublitz & peracchio, 2015). an excellent local area can likewise be a mode for scattering data and missions to new shoppers. promoting missions by presenting solid messages to grown-ups can change better food decisions (dovey, torab, yen, boyland, & halford, 2017). there are 60% of respondents in this investigation intrigued by wellbeing-related missions. respondents are keen on the solicitation to practice for at any rate 30 minutes every day, a low carb diet, and a low sugar diet. in addition to healthy advertising messages, the packaging can also be a marketing tool for pigmented rice. regarding the survey, 63% of respondents agreed that packaging is essential in increasing their buying decision. attractive and environmentally friendly packaging are consumers’ considerations in determining their buying decision. packaging has http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 82 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research become a critical factor influencing consumer satisfaction with organic red rice in denpasar city. they are willing to give their time and brain to focus on red rice product information before choosing to get it (sianturi, putra, & ginarsa, 2013) . packaging that contains product information is fundamental for shoppers. informative packaging builds brand awareness of the product (oaya, newman, & ezie, 2017). millennial customers who have a reliable way of life focus on subtleties of bundling. they read in detail the data composed on the packaging. moreover, depicting signs on the packaging would make the buyer less convoluted in settling their decisions (küster, vila, & sarabia, 2019). the type of packaging is likewise the focal point of purchasers. given the past research, a pigmented rice marking procedure can improve the specialty market by uncovering its fixing (figure 2). figure 2. conceptual framework on how to brand pigmented rice the group regularly consumed pigmented rice did not differ significantly from the other group regarding ingredient branding stimulus factors (f=1,218; sig=0,448). the mean value of the ingredient branding stimulus factors of the two groups was not much different. several things may cause this result. first, tiny (even none) rice is advertised through mass media by producers or social media influencers in indonesia. as a staple food, almost everyone consumes rice in indonesia, and so far, rice producers feel that advertising for rice is unnecessary. only a few rice brands do this, but the intensity is much smaller than advertisements for other food products. second, campaigns about healthy food are still rarely carried out in indonesia. the indonesian ministry of health has started a healthy lifestyle campaign, including nutritious food. however, it was not an effective campaign because of the lack of publicity, so most people did not recognize the campaign. third, the lack of information on packaging labels is related to indonesian consumers' low awareness of packaging labels. less than half of indonesia's consumer survey respondents pay attention to packaging labels' details (fadlillah, nuraida, & purnomo, 2015). another study about policy http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 83 developing an ingredient branding strategy ….. (wuryandani, ismoyowati, and suwondo) intervention for a healthy diet suggested that nutritional labeling contributes to informed choice, but informed choice is not necessarily translated into healthier dietary choices (brambila-macias et al., 2011). the two groups of consumers with different brand awareness levels and brand loyalty to pigmented rice identified consumer behavior related to the pigmented rice brand. as a result, there are two main groups. the first group was a group that regularly consumes pigmented rice. a second group was a group of consumers who do not regularly consume pigmented rice. figure 3. cbbe pyramid diagnosis for regular consumers of pigmented rice in the regular consumer group, the products carried out in this strategy were pigmented rice consisting of red rice and black rice (figure 3). it follows the brand awareness of consumers who regularly consume pigmented rice. they claim to know and often hear about brown rice and black rice. the brand image of pigmented rice in this group is to have different nutritional content from white rice, low in sugar (low in glycemic index), high in fiber, healthy, and antioxidants. based on their experience consuming pigmented rice, this type of rice’s brand performance has anthocyanin color pigments, easily damaged, quickly processed, purchased in packaging, easily served, and consistently priced. the brand response for pigmented rice has more valuable than white rice because it is superior to white rice and is a healthy product. consumers will have a feeling of satisfaction and feel healthy when consuming pigmented rice. expected brand resonance for this group is behavioral loyalty, active engagement, and a sense of community. behavioral loyalty refers to repurchase behavior and the addition or quantity of product purchases to expand the pigmented rice market niche. a sense of community goal is also needed to support this, where products will have a deeper meaning for consumers when reaching out to their communities. the brand community can reflect a person’s close relationship with a brand or product. several communities focusing on healthy food and living habits can help this happen. in yogyakarta, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 84 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research this type of community influences nutritional products’ meaning to consumers, one of which is in the yogyakarta organic market (nuringtyas & ismoyowati, 2018). family and community are essential factors that should be considered when promoting healthy eating (sarwar, aftab, & iqbal, 2014). active engagement aims to strengthen brand resonance for groups that regularly consume this. most consumers of this group have carried out this activity by claiming to seek information on pigmented rice, talking about it to others, and sharing information on it with those around them. figure 4. cbbe pyramid diagnosis for occasional consumers of pigmented rice for consumers who do not regularly consume pigmented rice, the products carried in this strategy are pigmented rice consisting of brown rice and black rice containing anthocyanin (antioxidants). this group’s consumers have various brand awareness, ranging from frequently hearing pigmented rice to never hearing it, so it is necessary to mention brown rice and black rice. besides, it is also worth mentioning “rice with antioxidant-antioxidant” because many consumers in this group do not know that pigmented rice contains anthocyanin and antioxidants. the brand image of pigmented rice in this group is to have different nutritional content from white rice, low in sugar (low in glycemic index), high in fiber, healthy, and a source of carbohydrates. based on their opinion of pigmented rice, this type of rice’s brand performance is to have a color and content different from white rice. consumers will have a feeling of satisfaction and fitness when consuming pigmented rice. the expected brand resonance for this group is behavioral loyalty only. behavioral loyalty refers to repurchase behavior and the addition or quantity of product purchases (figure 4). it is consistent with expanding the pigmented rice market niche for consumers who do not regularly consume pigmented rice. for consumers who occasionally consume pigmented rice, the products carried in this strategy were pigmented rice consisting of brown rice and black rice containing anthocyanin (antioxidants). this group’s consumers had various brand awareness, ranging from frequently http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 85 developing an ingredient branding strategy ….. (wuryandani, ismoyowati, and suwondo) hearing pigmented rice to never hearing it, so it is necessary to mention brown rice and black rice. besides, it is also worth mentioning “rice with antioxidant-antioxidant” because many consumers in this group do not know that pigmented rice contains anthocyanin and antioxidants. the brand image of pigmented rice in this group is to have different nutritional content from white rice, low in sugar (low in glycemic index), high in fiber, healthy, and a source of carbohydrates. based on their opinion of pigmented rice, this type of rice’s brand performance was to have a color and content different from white rice. consumers will have a feeling of satisfaction and fitness when consuming pigmented rice. the expected brand resonance for this group is behavioral loyalty only. behavioral loyalty refers to repurchase behavior and the addition or quantity of product purchases (figure 4). it is consistent with expanding the pigmented rice market niche for consumers who do not regularly consume pigmented rice. another study found that substituting white for brown and black rice is still challenging for young adults in indonesia. several barriers make further efforts needed to increase brown and black rice consumption (helmyati et al., 2020). more significant efforts are needed to apply this ingredient branding strategy, mainly in groups that have not regularly consumed pigmented rice. the efforts can increase consumer awareness of the product and product superiority in the womb. other actions also need to be made to raise awareness by reading the product packaging information before deciding to buy the product. besides, the publication of campaigns carried out by the government or other state institutions is expected to reach wider communities in various regions and circles in indonesia. from several studies, agroindustries producing pigmented rice need to implement marketing strategies that align with their target markets. producers need to do pigmented rice branding to expand the reach of consumers. this ingredient branding strategy will improve pigmented rice producers’ marketing ability to pay attention to ingredients and quality factors. the pigmented rice industry, especially producers (farmers), will get new marketing insights. it no longer uses the old-fashioned method of selling only in bulk but trading with a clear target end-user with a directed approach. those will make marketing a real effect on the increase in the number of sales through the expansion of the pigmented rice market. conclusion consumers who regularly consume pigmented rice had higher brand loyalty than the occasional consumers. in addition, consumers who repurchase products had higher loyalty than others. based on the cbbe diagnosis, the producer can implement an ingredient branding strategy that emphasizes pigmented rice's antioxidants, anthocyanins, and other health benefits. they also can utilize media, such as advertisements, informative packaging, word of mouth, and health-related campaigns to build purchaser brand equity. informative and attractive packaging was an essential branding medium. this research found that the ingredient branding media variable was not significantly different between regular and occasional consumers due to the lack of advertisements about rice, the low reading awareness on packaging information labels, and the lack of publicity for healthy living campaigns. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 86 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research further research on pigmented rice branding ingredient strategy in indonesia needs to be done. besides, the ingredient branding strategy is most suitable for pigmented rice products, and consumers in indonesia must be investigated. this information is helpful to the producers for marketing the pigmented rice. acknowledgments: this research is funded by direktorat penelitian universitas gadjah mada. author contributions: s.w. was contribute on formal analysis, inversitigation, methodology, software, and writing original draft; d.i. was contribute on methodology, supervision, writing, review and editing. e.s. was contribute on methodology, software, supervision, writing, review and editing. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. conflict of interest: there is no conflict of interest in this publication. reference aluko, r. e. 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(2017). 2017 global food and drink trends: how did we do? retrieved from mintel website: https://www.mintel.com/blog/food-market-news/2017-global-fooddrink-trends-how-did-we-do-12 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.07.009 https://doi.org/10.5614/3bio.2019.1.1.6 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2012.11.008 https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/260/1/012011 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105327 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2016.10.009 https://www.mintel.com/blog/food-market-news/2017-global-food-drink-trends-how-did-we-do-12 https://www.mintel.com/blog/food-market-news/2017-global-food-drink-trends-how-did-we-do-12 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021, pages: 91-110 article history: submitted: december 10th, 2020 accepted: april 11th, 2021 nurliza*, anita suharyani, aditya nugraha department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura, jl. prof. hadari nawawi, pontianak, indonesia *)correspondence email: nurliza.spmm@gmail.com the product features, functions, and benefits of seafood products for competitive repositioning doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.10571 abstract the global demand for seafood products increased in a dynamic environment. still, fails to achieve competitive positioning due to labeling, unattractive and unprofitable targeted segments, and less preferred quality and features. thus, this study tried to create competitive positioning through features, functions, and benefits of seafood product attributes. the results arranged through consumer characteristics, consumer preference with conjoint analysis, market identification and competition with regression analysis, multidimensional scaling, and correspondence analysis from 206 respondents. the results prove that (i) canned fish, dried fish, and salted fish competed on freshness, durability, and food safety (labels); (ii) shredded fish, surimi, and pedak competed on density, taste, physiological function, and easy-to-use feature; (iii) crackers competed on taste, social function, and psychological function; (iv) shrimp paste competed on shape, color, surface condition, texture, additive content, and chemicals. the implications of the results: (i) transported and packed to processing plants and food storage facilities; (ii) an increase in food diversity, food fortification, and supplementation; (iii) cultural congruence between the product and the market with certain packaging designs, launch timing, and advertising; (iv) several methods of process, such as quick freezing and cookchilling, pasteurized before packed or retort pouch and natural food additives. keywords: competitive positioning, product features, product functions, product benefits, perceptual map. introduction recently, the seafood product demand rate is increasing globally (oecd-fao, 2018) due to the ease of information exchange. their markets become a key driver of transition toward more sustainable and responsible seafood production globally (the david and lucile packard foundation, 2017). meanwhile, dynamic competitive environment and rapid changes in consumer needs (d’aveni, 1998; hunt & arnett, 2004) cause a tremendous challenge. careful consideration should be given for seafood products with an assessment of the current market situation by analyzing the external threats and opportunities as well as internal strengths and weaknesses for effective marketing strategies (engle, quagrainie, & dey, 2016). in product-specific marketing strategies, product positioning needs a distinctive image of target consumers' minds related to their buying decisions (ostasevičiute & šliburyte, 2008). the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 92 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research successful positioning will convey why one company's product is preferred than other companies’ by wielding competitive perspective, clear mind, consumer perception, uniqueness, and competitive advantage (saqib, 2019). it will ensure that the marketing messages are received well by the target consumers through the right communication channels (richards, 2015). however, the current seafood product marketing in empirical literatures is indicated failing in achieving competitive positioning of seafood products because of some reasons, such as labeling (alfnes, chen, & rickertsen, 2018), unattractive and unprofitable targeted segments, less preferred quality and features, uncompetitive price, short–term orientation, and poor procedure organization (fao, 2013). in this case, product attributes and consumer segments play an important role in the buying decision of seafood products (olsen, tuu, & grunert, 2017). despite the importance of the positioning of seafood products for effective marketing strategies, strengths and weaknesses of different products’ attributes only receive little attention. in fact, product quality is competing simultaneously in consumer perception. understanding regarding this can be obtained by linking customer perception and quality dimensions for developing competitive positioning in marketing strategy. therefore, careful consideration should be given for the seafood products with an assessment on the current market situation with the analysis of internal strengths and weaknesses of the product attributes based on the quality dimension theory (garvin, 1987) by taking into account what attributes characterize the quality of both the competitive firms and consumer satisfaction. thus, this study gives a better understanding of how consumers create their perceptions about products through a combination of features, functions, and benefits of seafood products in the market for designing a competitive positioning. research method this study was conducted by involving 206 participants who often consumed seafood products on many occasions. the participants were from coastal areas and the main producers of seafood products in west kalimantan, indonesia. data were obtained through interviews and questionnaires, which considerably had a high return rate and needed fewer answers, with controlled answering order, and were practical and relatively flexible (alshenqeeti, 2014). the study also used in-depth information about external behavior and internal beliefs regarding seafood products to obtain richer data and validate the research findings (ingleby, 2012; alshenqeeti, 2014; cohen et al., 2017). the competitive positioning of seafood products was arranged based on the value attributes through three steps. the first step was identification of consumer characteristics (i.e. age, religion, ethnicity, family members, education, job-status, time of purchase, and expenditure) to ensure that the collected data strictly describe the target data (alshenqeeti, 2014). the second step was identification of consumer preference regarding seafood product attributes (i.e. product features, product functions, and product benefits) in quality dimensions (garvin, 1987) using conjoint analysis for the target market (lai, 1995). within http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 93 the product features, functions, and benefits ….. (nurliza et al.) this step, the validity was measured by comparing how well conjoint utilities predicted choices from the holdout tasks (orme, alpert, & christensen, 1997). consumers reflected the product attribute value for ensuring acceptability behavior and social intervention. the third step was analysis of market identification and competition for simultaneous product benefits (i.e. shape, color, surface, texture, sanity, defect, solidness, nutrients, moisture, additives, chemicals, taste, aroma, flavor, physiological, social, psychological, safety, easiness, and affordability) that explain the prices. regression analysis with the 2log likelihood model was used to see the significance of the observed variables (iazzi, vrontis, trio, & melanthiou, 2016) performed with systemized, adapted, and statistical resources (bergen & peteraf, 2002). the best attributes from multivariate analysis with the multidimensional scaling (verma, 2013) and the correspondence analysis (kroonenberg & greenacre, 2004) were used to make a prompt decision of competitive positioning designs. multidimensional scaling/mds and correspondence analysis/ca is a 20-item scale (i.e. shape, color, surface, texture, freshness, disabilities, density, nutritional value, moisture, additives, chemicals, flavor, aroma, taste, physiological function, social function, psychological function, food safety, ease of use, affordability) with reference to product features, product functions, and product benefits of quality dimensions. multidimensional scaling/mds was rated on a 5point likert scale, ranging from (1) very similar to (5) very different. meanwhile, correspondence analysis/ca was rated on a 2-point nominal scale, which were (0) the attributes are not satisfying and (1) the attributes are satisfied. result and discussions the consumer characteristics marketers need to understand the consumer characteristics that influence the buying behavior of seafood products as presented in table 1. as seen in table 1, most consumers were older adults, more experienced, and more interested in seafood products. thus, consumer age affected their purchasing decisions (drolet et al., 2010; slabá, 2019). since consumer behavior was a significant factor in product purchasing, religion also affected consumer values and actions in spending their money (daas, 2018). consumer ethnicity also impacted on a distinct pattern in buying behavior by informational influence and perception on the product attributes (velioğlu, karsu, & umut, 2013). family members were found to directly influence the purchase decision by justifying as well as highlighting the benefits of purchasing, forming coalitions, compromising, and remaining persistent in using their product-related knowledge and information to encourage parents to purchase certain products (thomson, laing, & mckee, 2007; polya & szucs, 2013). meanwhile, education gave various perception on product values, such as functional, financial, individual, and social values. thus, education was also an important demographic variable that affects the purchase decision (srinivasan, srivastava, & bhanot, 2014). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 94 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 1. the consumers’ characteristics of seafood products characteristic percentage (%) characteristic percentage (%) age (year): education (year): 19 – 24 5.34 less than 6 4.85 25 – 40 31.55 6 4.85 40 – 49 29.13 9 12.62 more than 50 33.98 12 38.83 religion: more than 12 38.83 islam 82.52 job-status: christianity 15.05 full-time 14.08 buddhism 2.43 part-time 2.91 ethnicity: student 3.40 malay 50.49 unemployment 3.88 java 17.48 retired 22.33 dayak 13.59 housewife 53.40 bugis 5.83 time of purchase: others 12.62 beginning of month 60.68 family members: middle of month 16.99 1 6.31 end of month 21.36 2 7.28 expenditure (rupiah): 3 22.82 less than 279,800 90.78 4 21.84 279,800 – less than 19,600 6.31 5 29.61 more than 419,600 6.31 6 6.80 7 4.85 8 0.49 based on the job-status of the participants, most seafood product purchase decisions were made by the housewives as they often shopped in retail markets (ahmed, zamir, yazdani, & mehmood, 2016) and chose types of products as well as food according to others’ benefit experiences (kumaravel, 2017) and psychological factors (widodo, rusimah, & choirunisa, 2018). time of purchase implies the level of decision-making time to anticipate regrets and achieve purchase satisfaction. buying seafood products in the beginnings of the months reflects the perceived time of shopping situation (moon & lee, 2013) due to the payday time. last but not least, in the consumer expenditure, a certain amount of spending was influenced by the amount of income received, rational spending pattern, as well as socioeconomic and demographic factors (mattila & wiro, 1999; wilska, 2002). the consumer preference the second part was consumer preference of seafood products, which was defined as consumer purchase satisfaction. it reflects the product attribute value for ensuring acceptability behavior and social intervention, such as product features, functions (physiological, social, and psychological), and benefits as shown in figure 1 and figure 2. in figure 1, observed and estimated preferences have a very strong relationship. product features was the most important dimension in consumer preference, followed by social function, product benefits, physiological function, and psychological function. these findings were in line with consumer characteristics. age, religion, ethnicity, family members, education, job-status, time of purchase, and expenditure were significant factors in consumer http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 95 the product features, functions, and benefits ….. (nurliza et al.) values and actions, displaying a distinct pattern in buying behavior and perception on product attributes. figure 1. the attribute dimensions of a product features, functions, and benefits of seafood products product features affect buying satisfaction (tanzila, sohail, & tanveer, 2015) due to consumer emotional or cognitive knowledge of a particular experience at a particular time (giese & cote, 2000). in addition, purchase satisfaction also gives the producer loyalty based on trust, perceived value, and positive emotional attachment (rahmatiyah, yulianto, & kusumawati, 2017; scridon, achim, pintea, & gavriletea, 2019). on the other hand, the social function provides a cognitive process of understanding the targeted communication with emotions (bagozzi, gopinath, & nyer, 1999). these emotions provide embodied information about the costs and benefits of an action which were assumed to explain some of the purchased items (zadra & clore, 2011). the balance of positive and negative emotions will drive to consumer decision making (soodan, v. pandey, 2016). the product benefit dimension was the main key for sustaining the perceived values of utility, benefits, quality, and satisfaction in the market competition (morar, 2013; aulia et al., 2016). the higher perceived value level indicates the higher direct effect over the consumer repurchase intention (hellier, geursen, carr, & rickard, 2003), loyalty (ramadhan & siagian, 2019), and satisfaction (raji & zaina, 2016). consumer characteristics considered as an active interpreters of marketing, so marketers have to look into both the consumer physiological and psychological character traits. these traits directly affect the need, the desire, and how stimuli are interpreted (vainikka, 2015). in psychological attributes, consumers are bound to have cognitive, emotional, and behavioral predispositions (park, macinnis, & priester, 2007). the intensity of psychological attributes affects both consumers’ negative and positive attitude responses and producers' advertising responses (loken, 2006). the physiological attributes are those related to the physical body that affects the thinking and certain types of attitudes that predispose consumer preference (lefcheck, whalen, davenport, stone, & duffy, 2013; vainikka, 2015). each attribute of product features, physiological function, social function, psychological function, and benefit dimensions as shown in figure 2. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 96 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research in figure 2, negative and positive utility attributes reflect the decreasing and increasing pleasure of consumer preference. the negative attributes were referred to as the risks or negative impacts of the consumer purchase decision (nguyen & gizaw, 2014). figure 2 also shows the attributes that could not meet the priority of purchasing decision-making or deficiency to interact with what consumers think and act on (zia, 2017). figure 2. the product utility attributes of feature, physiological function, social function, psychological function, and product benefits dimensions of seafood products the attributes that most influence consumer preference were food additive (the chemicals in product features) and net dry content (food safety and easy-to-use feature in product benefits), followed by color (physiological aspect in product functions), product instruction (food safety and ease of use in product benefits), total solidness (physical aspect in product features), chemical content (social aspect in product functions), moisture content (social aspect in product functions), food additives (social aspect in product functions), chemical content (psychological aspect in product functions), size (physiological aspect in product features), and texture (psychological aspect in product functions). the chemical content as food additives in the product features attracted potential consumers. the chemical taste enhancers (thunström, 2009) improve the product quality and functionality, which are from seafood, plants, mushrooms, animal sources, and other functional materials (bashir, kim, an, sohn, & choi, 2017). however, the use of chemical food additives should be conducted by considering food safety and including them in http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 97 the product features, functions, and benefits ….. (nurliza et al.) information label on the packaging (tarnavölgyi, 2003; sachithananthan, 2017). net dry content in food safety and ease of use in product benefits are the dimensions that explain the consumers' reasons for purchasing the products by utilizing their cognitive processing based on prior knowledge that focuses on important information and health decisions (miller & cassady, 2015). in the physiological function, there was a strong relationship of colors with moods and behaviors (küller, ballal, laike, mikellides, & tonello, 2006; kurt & osueke, 2014) due to the basic neurological stimulation as a form of specific brain responses (valdez & mehrabian, 1994). thus, marketers should be able to identify emotional benefits for a brand identity. at the same time, there were issues of food naturalness and authenticity in terms of food safety and easy-to-use feature in food distribution demanded by consumers (yeung & morris, 2001; fontes et al., 2015). the perception of healthy ingredients became a marketing strategy for restoring the purchase intention and mitigated the blame among consumers (roy, tata, & parsad, 2018). in physical products, consumer preference on seafood products were solid (loporcaro, campo, & baldassarre, 2017). it was critical for producers, processors, and fishers to understand the food item physical properties in their jobs (ward & beyens, 2012). producers must be knowledgeable in force and deformation as they are fracturing the food mechanics (vincent, 2004), in which the rheology of certain food products is (schurz, 1967) when changing raw products into usable products. furthermore, consumers were concerned about chem-contaminated products because of other consumers’ observation, objective information from the media, social networks, and past contamination (frank & schvaneveldt, 2016). changes in moisture content can affect a product’s internal structures (figueroa, moraes, & maestri, 2015), as in the surface becomes rougher, getting more turgid, less crisp, and stiff (hawaree, chiewchan, & devahastin, 2009; onwulata et al., 2013). in food additive social function, consumers tended to have more positive attitudes and intentions toward fishery products due to sufficient information on food additives (seo, kim, & shim, 2014). creating awareness and knowledge about food additives through the content information on the product package is one way to educate consumers about product contents (sachithananthan, 2017). the avoidance of food additives is highly influenced by knowledge level (szűcs, szabó, guerrero, tarcea, & bánáti, 2019). consumers also expressed strong concerns about psychological chemical contents due to severe long-term consequences (kher et al., 2013). consumers considered traceability as a useful tool to improve consumer confidence in food safety (zhang, mankad, & ariyawardana, 2020). the physiological of size as part of product feature affected consumer decision due to sufficient resolution in capturing images of consumer acceptance and product success (lautiainen, 2015). therefore, it will help advertisers, producers, managers, and designers to make the most appropriate choice with potential benefits and effectiveness (nurliza & dolorosa, 2017). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 98 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research regarding texture, as part of psychological function, the positive hedonic response was associated with specific sensory cues. consumers considered that sensory cues influence the way food tastes and textures, how it feels in the mouth, as well as the food rheological (stokes et al., 2013; pramudya & seo, 2019) through cutting, shearing, chewing, compressing, or stretching (kohyama, 2020). however, consumers had less hedonic pleasure of ingredient list and net content (food safety and ease of use in product benefits); physiological aspect in product functions; nutrition value (psychological and social aspects in product functions); nutrition value (the chemicals in product feature), sanitary, and defect (physical aspect in product feature). therefore, producers need to consider seafood products' shape and surface with innovative, attractive, as well as understandable ideas (girard & payrat, 2017) and improve the texture for sensory cues but with a supportive environment (mccrickerd & forde, 2016). market identification and competition analysis market identification and competition analyses for seafood products prove that all of the primary benefits of product characteristics are quite appropriate, and the price is appropriate and affordable for consumers as shown in table 2. table 2. the price of unbundled or bundled offers compares to the primary benefit of product characteristics product characteristics benefit product characteristics very inappropriate inappropriate quite appropriate appropriate very appropriate price (%) 5.56 55.56 18.18 7.07 13.64 shape (%) 7.07 25.25 58.59 9.09 color (%) 2.02 37.88 54.04 6.06 surface condition (%) 3.03 37.88 51.52 7.58 texture (%) 3.03 30.81 57.07 9.09 sanity (%) 9.09 28.79 55.56 6.57 defect (%) 20.20 22.22 39.39 18.18 total solid (%) 8.59 40.91 40.91 9.60 nutrition value (%) 11.11 47.47 37.37 4.04 moisture content (%) 6.06 54.04 34.85 5.05 food additive (%) 16.16 54.55 23.23 6.06 chem contaminants (%) 23.74 40.91 28.79 6.57 taste (%) 1.01 29.29 58.08 11.62 aroma (%) 6.57 43.94 37.88 11.62 flavor (%) 1.52 32.83 56.06 9.60 the physiological functions (%) 10.10 47.47 39.90 2.53 the social function of food (%) 20.71 46.46 25.76 7.07 the psychological functions of food (%) 8.08 47.98 38.89 5.05 food safety (%) 1 30.30 29.80 29.29 10.10 easy to used (%) 23.23 59.60 17.17 affordability (%) 22.73 48.48 28.79 the regression model analysis of the benefits of seafood products simultaneously explains the prices as shown in table 3. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 99 the product features, functions, and benefits ….. (nurliza et al.) the benefits of seafood product characteristics (nutrition in chemical benefits, the flavor in sensory benefits, and food safety) positively related to price. consumers pay different primary levels of benefits or higher levels of each benefit (d’aveni, 2007) but markets tended to cover at the same price because there was no distance and disparities of price benefits or no price deviation (figure 3). table 3. the regression of the price-benefit equation parameters estimate wald threshold [price = 1,00] -1.218 (1.690) .519 [price = 2,00] 2.324 (1.689) 1.894 [price = 3,00] 3.293 (1.697) 3.768 [price = 4,00] 3.826 (1.702) 5.050 location shape -.377 (.232) 2.647 color -.128 (.266) .233 surface .406 (.287) 2.001 texture -.433 (.277) 2.447 sanity -.024 (.222) .012 defect -.115 (.175) .430 solid -.198 (.226) .768 nutrition .421 (.240) 3.088* moisture -.241 (.250) .929 additive .052 (.251) .043 chem .318 (.214) 2.204 taste .322 (.286) 1.272 aroma -.055 (.218) .063 flavor -.509 (.265) 3.696 physiological .138 (.263) .276 social .014 (.198) .005 psychological .166 (.249) .445 food safety .279 (.168) 2.768* easy .320 (.293) 1.190 affordability .215 (.235) .833 ( ) error std. *, **,*** α = 10%, 5%, 1% figure 3. the consistency test of the respondent's attitude dimensions of seafood products for market identification and competition illustrated in figure 4, as well as respondents’ attitude toward product feature attributes (the first dimension), product function attribute dimension (the second dimension), and product accessibility attribute dimension (the third dimension). products in the same dimension http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 100 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research competed with each other, while products in different dimensions were complement or independent. in figure 4, shredded fish, shrimp paste, surimi, canned fish, crackers, salted fish, cencalok, empek-empek, and presto competed in product feature attributes. while botok and curry competed in product function. however, all the seafood products were complements or independent in product accessibility. figure 4. dimensions of seafood products for market identification and competition perceptual mapping for competitive positioning the relative perceived strengths and weaknesses prove that mostly, seafood product attributes have the same level of similarity and satisfaction as shown in table 4. table 4. similiarity and satisfaction level of fishery products attibutes attributes level of similiarity level of satisfaction very similar similar quite similar different very different unsatisfied satisfied shape (%) 16.90 42.57 24.24 14.86 1.43 12.63 87.37 color (%) 15.07 40.73 26.48 15.68 2.04 12.58 87.42 surface condition (%) 16.33 48.75 31.41 1.21 2.30 12.09 87.91 texture (%) 19.59 38.57 30.01 10.20 1.63 9.83 90.17 sanity (%) 14.49 35.71 36.53 11.84 1.43 12.6 87.4 defect (%) 12.37 33.20 34.85 17.11 2.47 9.83 90.17 total solid (%) 18.00 35.17 33.13 12.88 0.82 21.69 78.31 nutrition value (%) 12.50 40.98 35.25 9.43 1.84 27.50 72.50 moisture content (%) 14.00 41.00 36.00 8.00 1.00 14.52 85.48 food additive (%) 12.00 46.00 31.00 8.00 3.00 24.38 75.62 chem contaminants (%) 15.00 0 54.00 26.00 5.00 24.38 75.62 taste (%) 10.00 38.00 36.00 14.00 2.00 13.35 86.65 aroma (%) 9.00 37.00 36.00 15.00 3.00 17.00 83.00 flavor (%) 11.00 35.00 36.00 16.00 2.00 17.00 83.00 the physiological functions (%) 14.00 32.00 46.00 6.00 2.00 34.00 66.00 the social function of food (%) 20.00 40.00 32.00 8.00 0 13.00 87.00 the psychological functions of food (%) 20.30 36.70 33.10 9.20 0.60 36.00 64.00 food safety (%) 21.00 47,50 22.05 4.95 4.05 31.00 69.00 easy to used (%) 20.70 45.30 24.00 8.00 1.80 6.00 94.00 affordability 23.69 39.83 22.64 10.90 2.93 17.00 83.00 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 101 the product features, functions, and benefits ….. (nurliza et al.) meanwhile, customer satisfaction levels on the attributes of seafood products show some similarities (figure 5), which was in line with the results of consumer perception in the perceptual distribution (figure 6). figure 5. perceptual similiarities of fishery products attributes figure 6. perceptual distribution of seafood products it showed that canned fish, dried fish, and salted fish provide similar satisfaction. shredded fish, surimi, and pedak also provide similar satisfaction. however, the shrimp paste and crackers provide different satisfaction in their distribution, which leads to a willingness to pay (wtp) at higher prices, while perceived risk influences behavioral intention (demirgüneş, 2015). the perceptual distribution combination of seafood product attributes as shown in figure 7. in figure 7, the groups of seafood product attribute with similar satisfaction: (i) pedak, crackers, shrimp paste, and salted fish; and (ii) surimi, dried fish, shrimp paste, shredded fish, and canned fish. these findings illustrate that the group of pedak, crackers, shrimp paste, and salted fish can compete with the group of surimi, dried fish, shrimp paste, shredded fish, and canned fish. meanwhile, the best attributes of seafood products is presented in table 5. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 102 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 7. perceptual distribution combination of seafood product attributes table 5. the best attributes of seafood products seafood products the best attributes canned fish, dried fish, and salted fish freshness, durability, nutritional value, moisture content, and food safety through labels (5, 6, 8, 9, 18) shredded fish, surimi, and pedak density, nutritional value, moisture content, taste, physiological function, and easy-to-use feature (7, 8, 9, 12, 15, 19) cracker’s taste, social function, psychological function, and affordability (14, 16, 17, 20) shrimp paste shape, color, surface condition, texture, additive content, chemical, and affordability (1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 20) there is no need to compete with each other in the similar perception of seafood products. in table 2, group of seafood product can compete to each other by using their best attributes. the group of canned fish, dried fish, and salted fish can use the attribute of freshness, durability, and food safety through labels by being transported and packed to processing plants (song, moon, chen, & houston, 2018) and food storage facilities (nagar, 2007). meanwhile, group of shredded fish, surimi, and pedak can use attribute of density, taste, physiological function, and easy-to-use feature by increasing food diversity, food fortification, and supplementation (smith, coffin, miller, & popper, 2006). crackers can use attribute of taste, social function, and psychological function by using cultural congruence between the product and the market (song et al., 2018) with certain packaging design, launch timing, and advertising. on the other hand, shrimp paste can use attribute of shape, color, surface condition, texture, additive content, and chemicals by using pasteurized before packaging, natural food additives, quick freezing, retort pouch, and cook-chilling (venugopal, 2005). these findings gave the ways to treat seafood products with similar and different satisfactions for customer loyalty, extend the life cycle of a customer, expand the life of merchandise the customer purchase, and deliver positive words by direct communication (ruzzier, ruzzier, & hisrich, 2013). they will help make a prompt decision for the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 103 the product features, functions, and benefits ….. (nurliza et al.) continuous improvement of the business or management approaches about customer expectation. thus, stakeholders can use these seafood product best attributes to formulate competitive positioning in marketing strategy and communication to ensure consumer satisfaction and producer profit. conclusion product features was the most important dimension in consumer preference that was in line with consumer characteristics. food additive and net dry content are the most attributes that influence consumer preference, while the benefits of seafood product characteristics positively related to price. the findings proved canned fish, dried fish, and salted fish competed on freshness, durability, and food safety (labels). shredded fish, surimi, and pedak competed on density, taste, physiological function, and easy-to-use feature by increasing food diversity, fortification, and supplementation. crackers competed on taste, social function, and psychological function. shrimp paste competed on shape, color, surface condition, texture, additive content, and chemicals. thus, there were concerns in marketing strategy and communication to ensure consumer satisfaction and producer profit, such as transporting and packing to processing plants and food storage facilities. besides, it was necessary to increase food diversity, food fortification, and supplementation. certain packaging designs, launch timing, and advertising were needed in cultural congruence between the product and the market. pasteurization was needed before packaging, as well as natural food additives, quick freezing, retort pouch, and cook-chilling. acknowledgment we would like to express sincere gratitude to the faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura for funding the research. references ahmed, r. r., zamir, m., yazdani, s., & mehmood, s. 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(2017). impact of product attributes on purchase decision: a study of processed food consumer in india. in the 10th multidisciplinary academic conference (pp. 42– 51). prague. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 142-159 article history: submitted : february 26th, 2021 revised : august 2nd, 2021 june 8th, 2021 accepted : august 11th, 2021 rokhani1,*, ahmad asrofi2, ad hariyanto adi3, ahmad fatikhul khasan3, mohammad rondhi2 1 department of agricultural extension, university of jember, east java, indonesia 2 department of agribusiness, university of jember, east java, indonesia 3 performa cendekia, east java, indonesia *) correspondence email: rokhani@unej.ac.id the effect of agricultural extension access on the performance of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11224 abstract agricultural extension plays a crucial role in the indonesian agricultural revitalization program for the 2005-2025 periods, where sugarcane is one of the fourteen priority crops. the provision of an agricultural extension was aimed to increase the income and productivity of sugarcane farmers. this study aimed to evaluate the effect of agricultural extension access on smallholder sugarcane farmers' performance in indonesia. this study used data from the 2014 indonesian sugarcane farm household survey, consisting of 8,831 farmers. this study employed propensity score matching to estimate the effect of access to an agricultural extension on several outcome variables. these variables were gross value-added (gva), net value added (nva), labor productivity (lp), land productivity (ldp), net income (ni), and remuneration of family labor (rofl). the result shows that having access to an agricultural extension increases gva by 40.5%, nva by 40.3%, labor productivity by 42.8%, and ni by 40.2%. however, access to agricultural extension insignificantly affects rofl due to the differences in family working units. also, farmers with agricultural extension access have 13.7% lower land productivity than non-agricultural extension farmers since the former has lower input use intensity than the latter. these results suggest that providing agricultural extension service is adequate to improve sugarcane farmers' economic performance. keywords: agricultural extension, farm gross value-added, farm net value-added, net income, remuneration of family labour introduction agricultural extension (ae) plays a crucial role in improving farmers' managerial and technical capacity (mtc) (bhatta, ishida, taniguchi, & sharma, 2008; hansson, 2008). an improved farmer's mtc is essential to increase farm production, minimize yield loss due to better pest management, and foster technology adoption that further increases farm productivity (hansson, 2008). thus, ae has a strategic role at the macro level to improve agricultural productivity and improve farm performance and farmer welfare at the microlevel. in indonesia, ae is an integral part of the agricultural revitalization program (arp) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:rokhani@unej.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11224 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 143 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) for the 2005-2025 periods. the government legalized act 16/2006 to establish the national agricultural extension system (aes). the aes establishment aims to achieve the arp-2025 goals of improving farm performance and farmer welfare for 14 strategic commodities. sugarcane is a strategic commodity that serves as the primary raw material for the indonesian sugar industry and livelihood source for 287,099 farm households (bps-statistics indonesia, 2019). however, the lack of high-quality seed plants and the inefficient farm is currently causing the low productivity of sugarcane farmers (toharisman, triantarti, & hasan, 2013). ae plays a crucial role in solving this challenge since it increases farmers' probability of adopting high-quality seeds and improving farming practices (suwandari et al., 2020). thus, evaluating how ae improves farm performance and farmer welfare is crucial. various studies have identified how ae affects farm performance in different countries, utilizing nationally representative farm data. ragasa and mazunda (2018), using a national household panel survey from the government of malawi, found that ae is strongly associated with maize and legume farmers' productivity. the brac extension program improves farmers' basic cultivation methods in uganda, increasing productivity gains from the same farm inputs quality (pan, smith, & sulaiman, 2018). similarly, cunguara and moder (2011), utilizing the national agricultural survey of 2005 in mozambique, found that ae increases farm productivity by 11%, but the extension officers tend to choose wealthy farmers, potentially increasing income inequality in the rural area. also, emmanuel, owusu-sekyere,, owusu, & jordaan (2016) used the 2011 ghana agricultural production survey to estimate the effect of ae on rice farmers' productivity. they found that ae increases rice farm productivity through increased chemical fertilizer application. finally, a study using the teagasc national farm survey found that ae increases irish farmers' income. these findings demonstrate that ae significantly improves farm productivity and income (cawley, o'donoghue, heanue, hilliard, & sheehan, 2018). however, it potentially increases rural income inequality and environmental damages through increasing chemical inputs use. to date, few studies evaluate the indonesian aes policy using appropriate and nationally representative farm data. the majority of ae-related studies in indonesia is case studies in nature and did not use comprehensive farm performance variables. examples of those studies are wardana and sunaryanto (2019), who studied rice farmers perception toward ae and its impact on their welfare in semarang, yunita, satmoko, & roessali (2018), who studied the role of ae on the adoption of integrated crop management by rice farmers in magelang, and prihatin, aprolita, & suratno (2018) who studied the effect of ae on-farm labor productivity in vegetable farming in muaro jambi. these studies found that ae positively impacts farm performance. an exception to the previous studies is (indraningsih, 2015), who conducted an ethnomethodology study on indonesian aes's governing bodies in java, sumatra, and sulawesi. the study found that extension policies increase rice productivity by 29-32.7%. based on that background, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of ae on the performance of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia. the study used data from the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 144 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 2014 indonesian plantation farm household survey, consisting of 8,831 farmers. the study used comprehensive performance variables representing farm value-added (gross valueadded and net value-added), farm productivity (labor and land productivity), farm income, and family labor remuneration. these variables effectively measure farm economic performance but are rarely used in ae-evaluation studies, particularly in indonesia. a comprehensive economic evaluation of ae is needed to understand how ae affects and improves farm performance. the primary contribution of this study is to inform whether and how much ae affects the performance of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia. research method research design this study used a mixed-method sequential explanatory approach (m-msea) design to estimate the effect of ae access on farmer performance. m-msea consists of two analytical stages, the quantitative and qualitative stages (creswell, 2013). the m-msea aims to obtain generalizable findings from the quantitative stage backed with the qualitative stage's explanations. in the quantitative stage, we estimated ae access on smallholder sugarcane farmers' performance using nationally representative data of 8,831 farmers. figure 1 shows the distribution of farmers. in the qualitative stage, we explored the mechanism by which ae was delivered to farmers. in the second stage, we conducted in-depth interviews with sugarcane farmers, government extension officers, and private enterprise extension officers. the interviews were conducted at malang regency, east java, in november 2020. figure 1. the distribution of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 145 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) data this study used nationally representative data of sugarcane farmers in indonesia for the quantitative stage. the data was the result of the 2014 indonesian plantation farm household survey (ipfhs). the ipfhs data is appropriate for this study for three reasons. first, the survey was conducted in 2014 and can capture the first half of arp2025. second, the data has nationwide coverage of sugarcane farmers; thus, it accurately measures the national agricultural extension program's outcome. third, the data cover comprehensive socio-economic information of sugarcane farmers, making it possible to perform a thorough farm economic assessment. the data consists of 8,831 sugarcane farmers distributed in eight provinces (figure 1). the figure shows that most sugarcane farmers are located in east java (59.80%) and central java (35.62%). the total number of farmers in both provinces accounts for 95.42% of total sugarcane farmers in indonesia. the rest of the farmers are located in sulawesi island (2.15%), sumatera island (1.03%), west java (0.85%), and yogyakarta (0.54%). estimating the effect of ae access on smallholder sugarcane farmers performance the estimation of the ae effect on farmer performance consisted of two phases. first, we assessed farm economic performance using the farm accountancy data network (fadn) framework. the framework provides comprehensive indicators to measure the value-added and profit from farming activity, labour productivity, and family labour remuneration. for that purpose, this study used five indicators: farm gross value-added, farm net value-added, labour productivity, net farm income, and remuneration of family labour. the calculation of these indicators used variables in table 1 (coded 2). then, these indicators will be used as outcome variables in the second phase of quantitative analysis. table 2 shows the formula for each indicator. table 1. the farm performance indicators variable unit description formula fgva idr/yr farmer gross value added output + government support – intermediate consumption fnva idr/yr farmer net value added fgva – tax – depreciation lp idr/awu labour productivity fnva / awu ldp idr/ha land productivity fnva/uaa fni idr/yr farm net income fnva – total external factors + balances of government support and taxes investment rofl idr/afwu remuneration of family labour fni – opportunity cost of own land – opportunity cost of own capital note: 1. fgva: farm gross value-added, fnva: farm net value-added, lp: labour productivity, ldp: land productivity, fni: farm net income, rofl: remuneration of family labour. 2. awu is an annual working unit, and afwu is an annual family working unit we estimated the average treatment effect on the treated (att) of ae access on smallholder sugarcane farmer's performance in the second quantitative analysis phase. the att has been widely used to estimate the effect of an intervention using observational data. the att is the expected value difference between the outcome variables of the control and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 146 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research treated group. since we used observational data, we assumed that the data meet conditional independence and overlapping assumptions. then, we estimated the att using propensity score matching analysis (psm). equation 1 denotes the estimation formula in psm. 𝐴𝑇𝑇 = 𝐸(𝑦𝑖𝑗 |𝐷𝑗 = 1, 𝑝(𝑥𝑖𝑗 )) − 𝐸(𝑦𝑜𝑗 |𝐷𝑗 = 0, 𝑝 (𝑥𝑖𝑗 )) (1) where e(●) denotes the expected value of the outcome variables for farmers with ae access (y1j) and farmers with no ae access (y0j). the psm estimates the farmers' probability of accessing ae using several observable characteristics (xij). the probability values were obtained from propensity scores generated using a logistic regression model (lrm). the dependent variable in the lrm is farmer's access to ae, and the independent variables consisted of eight socio-economic variables shown in table 1 (coded 1). equation 2 denotes the formula to estimate the lrm. 8 0 i i b 0 8 0 i i b 0 b b x i i b b xi p e y ln , i 1, 2, ,8 1 p 1 e = = + +    = = =  −   + k (2) yi is farmer access to ae (1=have access, 0=have no access), b0 is the regression constant, bi is the parameter to be estimated, and xi is the independent variable. the likelihood ratio test and pseudo r2 were used to check the robustness of the lrm. before estimating the att, a balance test was conducted to test the balance between the control and treated groups. a balance test was performed to make a relevant comparison group and decide the appropriate matching algorithm (baser, 2006). we estimate the att using the radius matching algorithm. this algorithm is appropriate because it matched each observation in the treated group with those in the control group, which propensity scores within a predefined radius (dehejia & wahba, 2002). that way, more observations from the control will be used if suitable matches are available, and fewer observations will be used if suitable matches are not available. results and discussion result socio-economic characteristics of indonesian smallholder sugarcane farmers this study used data from the 2014 indonesian plantation farm household survey for sugarcane. the data cover farmers in eight provinces and have a wide range of socioeconomic characteristics. the variables cover the social (age, education, gender), economic (utilized agricultural area, farm capital, wealth), and institutional (government support and contract farming) aspect of sugarcane farming. also, the data cover the farming aspect such as farm production, farm labor, seed plant, fertilizer, and pesticide. table 2 summarizes the socio-economic characteristics of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 147 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) table 2. socio-economics characteristics of indonesian sugarcane farmers code variable have access to ae have no access to ae mean sd. freq.1 mean sd. freq. 1 age (yr) 50.7 11.1 51.8 11.9 1 education elementary 872 (63.05) 5,416 (72.72) middle 436 (31.53) 1,815 (24.37) high 75 (5.42) 217 (2.91) 1 gender female 78 (5.64) 779 (10.46) male 1,305 (94.36) 6,669 (89.54) 1 uaa (ha) 22.48 70.47 0.72 21.04 1 capital (idr)4 45,882.9 17,1015.7 10,669.5 39,659 1 wealth poor 360 (26.03) 2,181 (29.28) wealthy 1,023 (73.97) 5,267 (70.72) 1 government support not receive 765 (55.31) 4,062 (54.54) receive 618 (44.69) 3,386 (45.46) 1 contract farming not participate 466 (33.70) 5,329 (71.55) participate 917 (66.31) 2,119 (28.45) 2 production (kg) 78,238.3 28,3027.5 24,764.6 88,857.8 2 hired labour 27.2 70.3 10 70.1 2 family labour 2.8 5.4 1.8 5.5 2 seed plant 31,038.3 59,132.1 14,509 59,272.1 2 fertilizer urea 100 333.6 69.6 334.2 tsp/sp36 78.6 395.3 24.7 396.2 za 1,416 2,684.3 487.9 2,689.3 kcl 32.2 161 10.4 161.7 npk 719 1,612.2 221 1,614.8 organic 641.8 1,798.3 272.7 1,801.1 2 pesticide solid 0.1 195.3 2.8 195.7 liquid 213.5 2,050.9 51.8 2,054.9 2 growth simulator solid 0.9 12 0.6 12.1 liquid 31.5 1,144.3 60 1,146.6 sample size (n) 1,383 7,448 note: 1. the value represents the number of the farmer for each category in each group for the categorical variable. 2. household size is the number of household members (including farmers) in a particular farm household. the data in table 2 suggests that young and educated farmers have better access to ae. on average, a farmer with access to ae is one year younger than those with no ae access. also, the educational attainment of farmers with access to ae is higher than their counterparts. in the former group, 36.95% of farmers attended middle and higher education, higher than that of the latter, 27.29%. meanwhile, 63.05% of farmers having access to ae have elementary education, lower than those who have no access to ae, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 148 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 72.72%. but, access to ae seems to be gender-biased since the percentage of female farmers with access to ae is lower than those with no access to ae. 94.36% of farmers with access to ae are male, and only 5.64% are female. meanwhile, in the no access group, 10.46% of farmers are female. furthermore, a cross-tabulation of education, gender, and access to ae (table 3) provides a clear insight. the educational attainment of female farmers in both groups is lower than that of male farmers. in the access group, female farmers with elementary education are 73.1%, higher than male farmers, 62.5%. similarly, in the non-access group, the percentage of female farmers with elementary schooling is 85.2%, higher than that of his male counterparts, 71.3%. then, the percentage of female farmers in the middle and higher education is lower than male farmers in both groups. this data indicates that their low educational attainment might cause females’ lower access to ae. table 3. education, gender and access to ae of indonesian sugarcane farmers education have access to ae have no access to ae male female male female elementary 815 (62.5) 57 (73.1) 4,752 (71.3) 664 (85.2) middle 417 (31.9) 19 (24.4) 1,709 (25.6) 106 (13.6) higher 73 (5.6) 2 (2.5) 208 (3.1) 9 (1.2) n 1,305 78 6,669 779 note: the values in the bracket indicate the percentage in each group. furthermore, the data strongly suggests that access to ae favors large-scale farmers. on average, farmers' harvest area with access to ae is 18.7 hectares, higher than those with no access to ae, 4.5 hectares. similarly, farmers' farming capital with access to ae is higher than those with no ae access. the former has annual farming capital of idr 45,882,900 while the latter has only idr 10,669,500. furthermore, 73.97% of farmers with ae access are wealthy households, slightly higher than those with no ae access, 70.72%. on average, farmers with ae access have a larger farm size; thus, they have higher input use. the average hired labor in the farm with ae access is 27.2 per year, higher than that in non-ae access farms, 10. also, the former group has a larger household size than the latter. farmers with ae access used more seed plants and fertilizer than those with no ae access. indonesian smallholder sugarcane farmers commonly use six fertilizer types, and farmers with ae access use each fertilizer in higher quantity than their counterparts. however, farmers with no ae access use higher solid pesticide and liquid growth simulators than farmers with ae access. farmers with no ae access use 2800% and 190% higher used of solid pesticide and liquid growth simulators than farmers with ae access, respectively. the percentage of farmers who receive government support does not differ significantly between the two groups. the data show that farmers with ae access tend to participate in contract farming (cf). 66.31% of farmers with ae access participate in cf, higher than that of non-ae access group, 28.45%. the data imply that the receiving of agricultural extension is related to farmer participation in cf. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 149 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) the performance of indonesian smallholder sugarcane farmers this study aimed to estimate the impact of agricultural extension access on smallholder sugarcane farmers' performance in indonesia. to achieve this goal, this study was divided into two analytical phases. in the first phase, we measured the farmers' performance using several performance indicators. these indicators were also used as the outcome variables in the second stage of analysis. each performance indicator formula is shown in table 2, and the components of those indicators are shown in table 4. the results demonstrate that farmers with ae access operate at a larger scale than farmers with no ae access. the ae farmers have higher values than non-ae farmers in three variables representing the farm size: total output, intermediate consumption, and total external factors. the first variable is the total output representing the agricultural products' value being sold and products for farmers' use and consumption. ae farmers' average total output is idr 78,793,000/yr, higher than non-ae farmers, idr 22,231,000/yr. the second variable is the intermediate consumption that represents the direct and overhead costs of farm production. on average, ae farmers spend idr 24,504,000/yr on intermediate consumption, four times higher than that of non-ae farmers, idr 6,230,000/yr. also, ae farmers use higher total external factors, averaging idr 609,000/yr than non-ae farmers, idr 56,000/yr. table 4. the performance of smallholders sugarcane farmers in indonesia variables pooled access to ae no access to ae mean sd mean sd mean sd total output (idr/year) 31,089 126,252 78,793 283,837 22,231 58,718 intermediate consumption (idr/year) 9,092 37,291 24,504 85,087 6,230 16,184 total external factors (idr/year) 142 4,113 609 9,615 56 1,690 annual working unit (person) 15 73 30 175 12 26 family working unit (person) 5 36 11 86 4 11 tax (idr/year) 117 437 234 859 97 306 depreciation (idr/year) 319 3,154 1,042 7,922 190 651 oc of land (idr/year) (17,096) 83,795 (46,029) 187,274 (11,724) 40,410 oc of capital (idr/year) (20,363) 88,326 (49,724) 195,545 (14,911) 44,321 note: 1. the value is in thousands rupiah. 2. awu is an annual working unit employed by a farm. 3. fwu is a family working unit. 4. the brackets indicate a negative value. the average awu and fwu for ae farmers are 30 and 11 persons, while non-ae farmers are 12 and 4 persons. it suggests that ae farmers employ two times more farm labour than non-ae farmers. furthermore, the ae farmers have higher value both for the fixed and opportunity costs. there are two fixed-cost in our analysis, farm tax, and depreciation. the average annual farm tax for ae farmers is idr 234,000, 240% higher than non-ae farmers, idr 97,000. however, the farm tax represents a small percentage of the total farming costs. the ae farmers have 548% higher depreciation cost than that of non-ae farmers. the annual depreciation cost for each group is idr 1,042,000 and idr http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 150 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 190,000, respectively. it demonstrates that ae farmers used more capital goods than nonae farmers. finally, the opportunity cost for land and capital of ae farmers is higher than that of non-ae farmers. still, both groups' value is negative, indicating that sugarcane farming is the optimal economic decision for farmers compared to other alternatives. table 5. the performance of farmers with access and no access to agricultural extension indicators pooled access to ae no access to ae mean sd mean sd mean sd farm gross value added (idr/yr) 21,997 94,327 54,372 210,967 16,001 46,412 farm net value added (idr/yr) 21,931 94,758 54,289 209,773 15,907 46,427 labour productivity (idr/awu) 2,147 5,700 3,709 12,048 1,857 3,323 land productivity (income/hectare) 23,717 23,915 21,415 17,734 24,145 24,872 farm net income (idr/yr) 21,788 93,857 53,762 208,725 15,850 46,208 remuneration of family labour (idr/fwu) 16,890 76,114 55,215 248,843 21,407 69,275 sample size (n) 8,831 1383 7,448 note: 1. the value is in thousands rupiah. 2. awu is annual working unit employed by a farm. 3. fwu is family working unit. table 5 shows the value of each performance indicator. the results further demonstrate that ae farmers operate a larger farm than non-ae farmers. furthermore, the former group records above-average performance while the latter has a below-average performance. ae farmers produce a higher value-added than non-ae farmers. the average gross value-added of ae farmers is idr 54,372,000/year, higher than that of non-ae farmers, idr 16,001,000/year. a similar order of comparison is also evident for farm net value-added, where each group has a value of idr 54,289,000/year and idr 15,907,000/year, respectively. the productivity measures indicate that ae farmers have higher labor productivity, but non-ae farmers have higher land productivity. the average labor productivity, measured as the net value-added per unit of labor for ae and non-ae farmers, is idr 3,709,000 and idr 1,857,000, respectively. the average land productivity for the non-ae farmers is idr 24,145,000/hectare, higher than that of ae farmers, idr 21,415,000/hectare. the last two indicators represent the net income for a farm and the remuneration of each family labour. the results indicate that ae farmers have a higher farm income than non-ae farmers. ae farmers' average farm income is idr 53,762,000/year, higher than nonae farmers, idr 15,850,000/yr. similarly, the family labour of ae farmers receives higher remuneration than those of non-ae farmers. the average family labour remuneration of ae and non-ae farmers is idr 55,215,000/yr and idr 21,407,000/year, respectively. however, the mean value of each group does not provide a relevant group of comparison. thus, the propensity score analysis is required to create a balanced comparison group. the impact of agricultural extension access on the farm performance the propensity score analysis to estimate the effect of ae on farm performance was divided into three steps: estimating the propensity score, performing a balance test on http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 151 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) covariates, and estimating the att (average treatment effect on the treated). a logistic regression model (lrm) was used to estimate the propensity score of access to ae, consisting of eight variables. the estimation results show that the model is robust. the model likelihood ratio is 896.01 and significant at 1% level, and the pseudo r2 is 0.117. of the eight variables in the model, six variables significantly affect farmer access to ae. farm capital, farmers' education, gender, contract farming, and farmer's wealth increase the probability of accessing ae. in contrast, being a recipient of government support decreases the probability of a farmer accessing ae. finally, the size of the utilized agricultural area has no significant effect on farmer access to ae. table 6 summarises the estimation results of the lrm. table 6. estimates of factors affecting farmers access to agricultural extension variable β se. sig. utilized agricultural area (ha) 0.01 0.02 0.446 capital (million rupiah) 0.004 0.009 0.000* age (yr) -0.001 0.003 0.825 education (higher education) 0.237 0.059 0.000* gender (man) 0.543 0.128 0.000* government support (receive support) -0.177 0.063 0.005* contract farming (participate) 1.510 0.064 0.000* wealth (wealthy) 0.155 0.071 0.029** constanta -3.324 0.233 0.000* number of obs 8.831 lr chi2 896.01 prob > chi2 0.000* pseudo r2 0.117 note: *significant at 10%, **significant at 5%, ***significant at 1%, nsnot significant table 7. the balance test of covariates in propensity score matching variable unmatched matched bias reduction ae nae sig. ae nae sig. uaa 22489 7220.4 0.000*** 19638 18246 0.524 ns 90.6 capital 45883 10670 0.000*** 39693 36418 0.563 ns 90.7 age 50.665 51.767 0.001*** 50.723 50.609 0.792 ns 89.6 education 1.4237 1.302 0.000*** 1.4141 1.4315 0.442 ns 85.7 gender 0.9436 0.89541 0.000*** .94273 .94366 0.916 ns 98.1 government support 0.44685 0.45462 0.594ns 0.44493 0.4402 0.804 ns 39.0 contract farming .66305 0.28451 0.000*** .65786 0.65518 0.252 ns 99.3 wealth .7397 0 .70717 0.014 .73568 0.747 0.315 ns 65.2 pseudo r2 0.115 0.000* mean bias 24.7 1.7 median bias 19.8 1.8 note: *significant at 10%, **significant at 5%, ***significant at 1%, nsnot significant the second step is the balance test. the purpose of the balance test is to create a relevant group of comparison between the treated (ae farmers) and the control group (nonae farmers). we employed a radius matching algorithm to perform the balance test. the balance test reduces the selection bias by improving the balance between the treated and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 152 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research control groups' explanatory variables. the balance test results demonstrate that all explanatory variables in the control and treated group do not differ significantly after matching. six out of eight explanatory variables were statistically different in the unmatched panel at the 1% level. after matching, all explanatory variables do not differ significantly and produce an average of 92.33% bias reduction. also, the mean and median bias after matching is only 1.7 and 1.8%. this result indicates that the matching algorithm produces a relevant comparison group and is suitable for the att estimation. table 7 summaries the balance test results. table 8 shows the att estimation results. the att estimation results show that ae farmers have higher gross value-added, net value-added, labor productivity, and farm income than non-ae farmers. but, the non-ae farmers have significantly higher land productivity than ae farmers. in contrast, the remuneration of family labour for both groups does not differ significantly. but, the results indicate that ae farmers remunerate more family labour than non-ae farmers. the att estimation compares ae and non-ae farmers with statistically indifferent explanatory variables. thus, the estimation procedure compares farmers with the same size of land and capital, similar age and level of education, and equal access to government support and contract farming. also, both groups have a similar composition of male and female farmers. table 8 the impact of ae on the performance of smallholders sugarcane farmers variable ae nae att s.e. t-stat gross value-added 54,372 38,696 15,675 5,731 2.73 net value-added 54,289 38,675 15,613 5,700 2.74 labour productivity 3,709 2,595 1,113 329 3.38 land productivity 21,278 24,680 -3,401 649 -5.24 net income 53,762 38,322 15,440 5,671 2.72 remuneration of family labour 55,215 55,704 -488 6,997 -0.07 hired labour 18 11 7 2 2.86 family labour 11 5 6 2 2.35 1. the values presented are the average value after matching. 2. the matching algorithm used was radius matching. the results demonstrate that ae farmers produce 40.5% or idr 15,675,000/year higher gross value-added (gva) than non-ae farmers. the average gva of ae and non-ae farmers is idr 54,372,000/year and idr 38,696,000/year, respectively. similarly, the net value-added of ae farmers is 40.3% higher than that of non-ae farmers. the average net value-added of ae farmers is idr 54,289,000/year, higher than that of non-ae farmers, idr 38,675,000/yr. discussions access to agricultural extension improves farm performance the primary purpose of this study is to identify the effect of ae on the performance of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia. this study used farm value-added to capture the added value from sugarcane farming. farm value-added is crucial in measuring economic http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 153 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) sustainability since it can measure whether labor, land, and resources used in agricultural production are optimally remunerated (thomassen, dolma, van calker, & de boer, 2009). this study demonstrates that ae increases both the gross and net farm value-added. the value of fgva and fnva is quite similar. this value indicates that the tax and depreciation costs are relatively small compared to other costs. this study's findings indicate that ae is a crucial policy instrument to improve smallholder farmers' economic sustainability. the primary purpose of the indonesian aes, especially in the sugarcane sector, is to increase farm productivity (micro-level) to increase aggregate production (macro-level) to support the national sugar industry. however, the indonesian aes covers only 15.16% of farmers. the lrm estimation of farmer access to ae (table 1) demonstrates a tendency for extension officers to select only large-scale farmers. farmer with higher capital is more likely to gain access to ae. also, farmer with a higher household wealth is more likely to have access to ae than those with lower household wealth. according to arias, leguía, & sy (2013), farm size increases farmer access to ae since large economies of scale implement feasible new technologies. farmer education increases the likelihood of farmer access to ae. this finding conforms to previous studies in ghana, where education increases the probability of a farmer accessing ae ( anang, bäckman, & sipiläinen, 2020). participation in contract farming and government support increases the probability of access to ae. at the field level, the government uses ae as a channel to deliver the content of agricultural policy (bhatta, ishida, taniguchi, & sharma, 2008). in addition, the result demonstrates that female farmer is less likely to receive ae than male farmers. meanwhile, utilized agricultural area and farmer age have no significant effect on farmer access to ae. our in-depth interview found that sugarcane farmers receive extension services mainly from private extension officers. this service is a feature of contract farming between farmers and sugar mill companies. the companies used ae as a channel to distribute farm credit and inputs to farmers. this arrangement is typical in the indonesian sugarcane sector, where ae is the channel to distribute farm credit to farmers (rondhi et al., 2020). also, ae access is closely related to farmer participation in contract farming (rokhani et al., 2020) and adopting a certified seed plant that increases farm productivity (suwandari et al., 2020). access to ae also increases farm labor productivity by 42.8%; however, it decreases land productivity by 13.7%. ae farmers' labor productivity is idr 3,709,000/awu, higher than non-ae farmers idr 2,595,000/awu. but non-ae farmers have higher land productivity of idr 24,680,000/ha than ae farmers, idr 21,278,000/ha. this finding aligns with previous literature (cunguara & moder, 2011; emmanuel et al., 2016; pan et al., 2018; ragasa & mazunda, 2018). however, unlike previous studies, which measure farm productivity in yield per unit of land, we measured farm productivity as the value-added created by one unit of labor (labor productivity) and utilized agricultural area (land productivity). the purpose of using these indicators is to identify whether ae increases farm productivity through labor or land. the results show that ae significantly increases labor productivity. it signifies the role of ae as an institution that delivers training to farmers and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 154 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research improves their managerial and technical capability. furthermore, previous studies associated ae access with technology adoption (lambrecht, vanlauwe, & maertens, 2016; ogutu et al., 2020; pan et al., 2018). it is evident that these technologies, especially farm machinery, increase labor productivity (paudel, kc, rahut, justice, & mcdonald, 2019). however, our study indicates that ae farmers have lower land productivity than non-ae farmers. the possible explanation for this finding is that ae farmers, on average, utilized a larger land area; thus, the input use intensity is lower than those of non-ae farmers. we define input use intensity as the farm inputs used for each hectare of utilized agricultural area. the data in table 9 demonstrate that farmers with no access to ae have higher input use intensity for all types of inputs. farmers with access to ae have lower labor, seed, fertilizer, pesticide, and growth simulator use intensity for each hectare of land. input use intensity is crucial for farm productivity. table 9 shows the average input use intensity between farmers with access to ae and no ae access. table 9. access to ae and input use intensity of sugarcane farmers variable have access to ae have no access to ae mean sd. mean sd. hired labor (labor/ha) 1.21 3.13 13.89 97.36 family labor (labor/ha) 0.12 0.24 2.50 7.64 seed plant (seed/ha) 1380.71 2630.43 20151.39 82322.36 fertilizer 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 urea (kg/ha) 4.45 14.84 96.67 464.17 tsp/sp36 (kg/ha) 3.50 17.58 34.31 550.28 za (kg/ha) 62.99 119.41 677.64 3735.14 kcl (kg/ha) 1.43 7.16 14.44 224.58 npk (kg/ha) 31.98 71.72 306.94 2242.78 organic (kg/ha) 28.55 80.00 378.75 2501.53 pesticide 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 solid (kg/ha) 0.00 8.69 3.89 271.81 liquid (l/ha) 9.50 91.23 71.94 2854.03 growth simulator 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 solid (kg/ha) 0.04 0.53 0.83 16.81 liquid (l/ha) 1.40 50.90 83.33 1592.50 furthermore, access to ae significantly increases farm income by 40.2%. ae farmers' net farm income is idr 53,762,000/year, higher than non-ae farmers, idr 38,322,000/yr. however, both groups have statistically insignificant remuneration of family labour (rofl). the rofl of ae and non-ae farmers is idr 55,215,000/year and idr 55,704,000/yr, respectively. the rofl value is higher than that of farm income because the opportunity cost of land and capital is negative. previous studies have confirmed the income-increasing effect of ae (baiyegunhi, majokweni, & ferrer, 2019; cawley et al., 2018; danso-abbeam,, ehiakpor, & aidoo, 2018), but these studies measure only farm income and not the remuneration of family labour. measuring the effect of ae on family labour remuneration is crucial to identify whether ae increases farmer welfare and contributes to poverty alleviation http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 155 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) of the farm household. thus, we compare family labour remuneration and regional minimum wages to see whether farm family labour is optimally incentivized. does the benefit of ae access equally distributed across the region? the primary advantage of a nationally representative study is its ability to capture spatial inequality in the effect of agricultural extension access. the primary purpose of aes is to improve farm productivity and farmer income in all regions. however, the data shows a spatial inequality in the aes coverage and ae effect on farmer income. first, the data in figure 1 suggest an un-proportionate distribution of extension officials in each province. for example, farmers with access to ae in east java and central java are only 10.91% and 19.23%, respectively, even though 95.42% of sugarcane farmers are situated in these provinces. on the other hand, the percentage of farmers with ae access in other provinces is higher than 20%, such as sumatera (26.37%), yogyakarta (64.58%), sulawesi (60.53%), and west java (42.67%). this result indicates that the current distribution of extension officials is disproportionate to the number of farmers in each province. thus, a reallocation of extension officials, especially to the province with the highest number of farmers, will increase aes coverage. addressing inequality in agricultural extension is crucial since it contributed to agricultural productivity (tsikata, 2015). second, the result demonstrates a spatial inequality in income. figure 2 compares the family labour remuneration of ae and non-ae farmers to each province's minimum wages. family labour remuneration is higher than minimum wages in west java and east java, both for ae and non-ae farmers. these provinces accounted for 60.65% of indonesian smallholder sugarcane farmers. the average rofl of ae farmers in west java is lower than that of non-ae farmers. in contrast, ae farmers' average rofl is higher than that of nonae farmers in east java. furthermore, only 19% of ae farmers in east java whose rofl is lower than the minimum wages, compared to 21% for the non-ae farmers. a contrasting situation is found in central java, whose farmers account for 35.62% of indonesian sugarcane farmers. the average rofl for ae farmers is lower than that of non-ae farmers and minimum wages. however, the percentage of ae farmers whose rofl is lower than minimum wages is 76%, lower than non-ae farmers, 82%. the rofl of ae and non-ae farmers is lower than minimum wages in yogyakarta, lampung and north sumatera. but, the farmers in these three provinces are only 1.57% of total farmers. this finding provides essential information on the indonesian agricultural revitalization program (arp) evaluation, especially on the indonesian agricultural extension system (aes). in general, the indonesian aes effectively increases both the productivity and income of smallholders of sugarcane farmers. however, there are two situations worthy of consideration. first, the data imply that there is a tendency for the extension officers tends to select larger farmers. this tendency makes the aes less inclusive since the majority of farmers are small-scale farmers. second, the coverage of extension services must be increased proportionally to the population in each province. for example, the aes coverage in east java, whose farmers account for 59.80% of total farmers, is only http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 156 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 10.91%. meanwhile, the aes coverage in sulawesi, whose farmers are only 2.15% of total farmers, is 60.53%. in this case, the government should allocate aes's coverage proportionately to the number of farmers, which can be achieved by equating aes's percent coverage in each province. figure 2. family labour remuneration and regional minimum wages between ae and non-ae farmers conclusions this study aimed to estimate the impact of agricultural extension access on smallholder sugarcane farmers' performance in indonesia. the results of this study show that ae access significantly improves farm performance. first, farmers with access to ae produce 40.5% (gross) and 40.3% (net) higher value-added than those with no ae access. second, access to ae increases labor productivity by 42.8%, but it decreases land productivity by 13.7%. third, agricultural extension access increases farm income by 40.2%. the remuneration of family labour doesn't differ significantly between ae and non-ae farmers, but the former remunerates more family labour than the latter. however, the study found that the indonesian aes prioritizes larger farmers than small-scale farmers, making it less inclusive since most farmers are small-scale farmers. therefore, the study recommends that the government should increase the coverage of aes and prioritize small-scale farmers to enhance the benefits of ae. acknowledgements: the authors wish to acknowledge the institute for research and community service (lp2m) of the university of jember for supporting this study. also, we wish to acknowledge the anonymous reviewer who provides constructive comments and suggestions which significantly improve the original manuscript. the authors further acknowledge the infrared research group for providing the data that was used in this study. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 157 the effect of agricultural extension access….. 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(2020). farmers' satisfaction toward arrangement and performance of sugarcane contract farming in wonolangan sugar mill, probolinggo, east java. jurnal littri, 26(2), 58–68. suwandari, a., hariyati, y., agustina, t., kusmiati, a., hapsari, t. d., khasan, a. f., & rondhi, m. (2020). the impacts of certified seed plant adoption on the productivity and efficiency of smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesia. sugar tech, 22(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12355-020-00821-2 thomassen, m. a., dolman, m. a., van calker, k. j., & de boer, i. j. m. (2009). relating life cycle assessment indicators to gross value added for dutch dairy farms. ecological economics, 68(8–9), 2278–2284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.02.011 toharisman, a., triantarti, & hasan, m. f. (2013). rise and fall of the indonesian sugar industry. in d. m. hogarth (ed.), proceedings of international society of sugarcane technologists (vol. 28, pp. 1992–2000). sociedade dos técnicos açucareiros e http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 159 the effect of agricultural extension access….. (rokhani, asrofi, adi, khasan, and rondhi) alcooleiros do brasil (stab) & the xxviiith issct organising committee. http://www.issct.org/proceedings/2013.html tsikata, d. (2015). understanding and addressing inequalities in the context of structural transformation in africa: a synthesis of seven country studies. development (basingstoke), 58(2–3), 206–229. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41301-016-0002-8 wardana, r. w., & sunaryanto, l. t. (2019). farmers' response on agriculturaleducation and its impact for farmers in reksosari, semarang roby. agriland: jurnal ilmu pertanian, 7(2), 107–111. yunita, f., satmoko, s., & roessali, w. (2018). the influence of agricultural extension centers (bpp) in the application of technology of integrated crop management (ptt) and the rice production increase in magelang. agrisocionomics: jurnal sosial ekonomi pertanian, 2(2), 127–138. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 198-214 article history: submitted : march 22nd, 2022 revised : september 29th, 2022 june 8th, 2022 accepted : october 11th, 2022 hebat hisham mohd yusoff1, normaz wana ismail2,*, shaufique fahmi ahmad sidique1,2, and nitty hirawaty kamarulzaman3 1 institute of agricultural and food policy studies, universiti putra malaysia, 43400 serdang, selangor, malaysia 2 school of business and economics, universiti putra malaysia, 43400 serdang, selangor, malaysia 3 faculty of agriculture, universiti putra malaysia, 43400 serdang, selangor, malaysia *) correspondence email: nwi@upm.edu.my competitive advantage between malaysia and world halal producers of ruminant meat doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11364 abstract the gap created by the mismatch between high domestic demand and low domestic supply of halal meat has been filled by ruminant meat sourced from the international markets. however, the exporting countries are still limited due to stringent halal requirements. this study examined the competitive advantage of trading partners in the exportation of ruminant meat. moreover, this study also identified factors underlying the import of ruminant meat and determined the comparative advantage of local production of ruminant meat. this study employed vollrath indices through the utilization of relative export advantage, relative import advantage, and overall relative trade advantage. analysis was conducted on 26 countries and 15 product codes of ruminant meat. the findings disclosed that the possession of competitive advantage did not exclusively belong to traditional sources but to other countries, particularly pakistan and the netherlands. keywords: halal; ruminant meat; revealed competitiveness; malaysia introduction the criticality of ruminant meat in malaysia is primarily rooted in the mismatch between its demand and supply. growing consumption, proven by the increased consumption per capita from 6.2 kg in 2012 to 6.7 kg in 2018, has been the leading cause of the incrased demand. however, the high demand is not commensurate with domestic production capacity. the state of domestic production is depicted by the decrease in production from 51,227 metric tonnes in 2012 to 46,333 in 2017 (malaysia competition commission [mycc], 2019) and the situation of self-sufficiency level, which has been relatively dormant, hovering at a level below 30% since 1990 (mohamed, 2012; yusoff, ismail, & kamarulzaman, 2020), even though the government has intervened with various production-related programs designed to double up the outputs. the programs include providing specific areas for ruminant production activities such as permanent food or ruminant production parks, loaning out livestock to potential farmers, integrating farming to address the issue of land scarcity for cross-breeding to produce high-yield breeds, utilizing local resources in producing animal feeds, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:nwi@upm.edu.my https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11364 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 199 competitive advantage between malaysia ….. (yusoff, ismail, sidique, and kamarulzaman) and imposing border measures to ensure adequate supply of meat for domestic consumption (mohamed, hosseini, & kamarulzaman, 2013). those programs have allowed the ruminant sector to record positive growth. unfortunately, the quantum of the growth has not been able to catch up with the quicker pace of the demand. the dominant demand, triggered by the betterment in purchasing power, population expansion, socio-cultural practices, and urbanization changing lifestyles, has continuously surpassed domestic production. ruminant meat sourced from the international markets has filled the mismatched gap. the low comparative advantage of local production, compounded with high domestic demand, has deepened malaysia’s dependency on international markets for the supply of ruminant meat, reflected in its balance of trade (buda & mohamed, 2021). meat and its preparation have become one of the contributing factors to trade deficits. therefore, the main objective of this study is to evaluate the overall exporters of ruminant meat, considering the opportunities offered by other exporting countries, including malaysia’s fta partners and the major exporters of halal ruminant meat. the exporting markets on which malaysia relies are no longer typical since the halal requirements have become the most critical determinant in selecting exporters. malaysia is known to have one of the strictest halal standards in the world. hence, the halal requirements it imposes have been deemed by some ruminant meat exporters as technical barriers to trade, resulting in complaints being lodged at the wto (latif, mohamed, sharifuddin, abdullah, & ismail, 2014). malaysia’s strict halal requirements could be understood from the fact that it is a muslim-majority country that depends on non-muslim foreign countries for its food need due to the issue of comparative advantage. the concept of halal is highly embedded in the lives of muslims, and the level of halal sensitivities and meticulousness in meat consumption is higher. the demand for halal has also been strengthened by the growing acceptance of non-muslims of halal ruminant meat due to its quality assurance aspects (kabir, 2015). those mentioned factors have made the demand for halal ruminant meat significant. malaysia’s trade performance is primarily measured based on its export competitiveness. moreover, some research has highlighted imports as a dimension of competitiveness. indeed, it will provide a more comprehensive picture of the country’s competitiveness as both export and import are considered. apart from that, imports, to some extent, reflect the country’s domestic strength in particular sectors. the significance of this research is in the selected commodity analyzed. halal ruminant meat is highly critical because it has been one of the major contributors to malaysia’s trade deficit for the past 20 years. it is also central to malaysia as it carries an essential social connotation, especially to the muslim community constituting almost 65% of malaysia’s overall population. the findings could, in some way, assist the government in diversifying the import sources and reducing its over-dependency on several countries. it would further cushion the country from any supply disruption, which various factors could cause. to achieve the research objective, the revealed trade advantage (rta) index was used to measure the competitive advantage. market share performance has been regarded as a revelation of a country’s comparative advantage and level of competitiveness. kuldilok, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 200 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dawson, & lingard (2013) have suggested using a country’s performance in market share as an indicator of competitiveness. several studies have adopted the rta index based on ‘revealed competitiveness’ in analyzing the revealed competitive advantage of various sectors of different countries. for example, iranian’s chicken meat competitiveness in the middle east market (mirzaei, yazdani, & mostafavi, 2006), saudi arabia’s competitive position as one of the world’s major exporters of palm date (el-habba & al-mulhim, 2013), export fisheries performance of balkan and eastern european (kaimakoudi, polymeros, & batzios, 2014), thailand’s tuna industry (kuldilok et al., 2013), italian’s wines in the international market (crescimanno & galati, 2014), agro-food trade competitiveness for eight central european and balkan countries on the european union (eu) markets (bojnec & fertő, 2017), the strength of china in the trade of agricultural products in the context of belt and road initiative (erokhin & gao, 2018), vietnam’s agricultural trade specialization in the exportation of crop and fisheries (hoang, 2019), and trade competitiveness of fish and seafood products among the rcep member countries (erokhin, tianming, & ivolga, 2021). this study focuses on measuring competitiveness among ruminant meat suppliers, seeing malaysia as highly dependent on several traditional exporters such as india, australia, new zealand, and brazil for chilled and frozen ruminant meat, controlling almost 90% of its market share. for example, india has a strong position as one of the world’s major agricultural exporters, specifically in unprocessed agricultural products such as rice, groundnut, fresh onion, fresh mango, and beef (jain & kannan, 2021). assessing the competitiveness of malaysia’s meat sector vis a vis its competitors in the asean markets using the vollrath index or the rta, the study unveiled that the ruminant sector was far behind the non-ruminant. the situation has been rooted in the factors of unavailability of good breeds, the exorbitant cost of quality ruminant feeds, and the absence of supportive fiscal policies (bitrus et al., 2018; bouwman, van der hoek, eickhout, & soenario, 2005; devendra, 2010; garrett et al., 2017; ismail, abdullah, & hassanpour, 2013; ismail & yusop, 2014). research method annual trade data covering imports and exports from 2008 to 2017 from the comtrade were employed for analysis. the ruminant meat and its varieties are represented by a four-digit harmonized commodity description and coding system, known as hs code: hs020110, hs020120, hs020130, hs020210, hs020220, hs020230, hs020410, hs020421, hs020422, hs020423, hs020430, hs020441, hs020442, hs020443, and hs020450. this study involved 27 countries, comprising 18 of malaysia’s fta partners and nine major halal meat exporting countries: australia, chile, china, india, japan, korea, new zealand, pakistan, turkey, brunei, cambodia, indonesia, laos, myanmar, the philippines, singapore, thailand, vietnam, brazil, the usa, south africa, the netherlands, kenya, paraguay, germany, ethiopia, and somalia (farouk, 2013). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 201 competitive advantage between malaysia ….. (yusoff, ismail, sidique, and kamarulzaman) the method: revealed competitiveness the trade performance of a commodity could be utilized to gauge its competitive advantage as it would stimulate relative market costs (bojnec & fertő, 2017). its trade performance was evaluated against its competitors over a certain period. in this regard, rta was regarded as one of the suitable methods to measure the competitiveness of a country’s particular commodity. the indices offered by vollrath (1991) have been associated with three specifications: (1) the revealed comparative export advantage (rxa) index, (2) the relative import advantage (rma) index, and (3) the relative trade advantage (rta) index. it is an improvement of ballasa’s equation addressing the issue of double counting, where the values of the country and commodity in question have been excluded in the calculation of rma and rxa. the importance of intra-trade within an industry has been demonstrated using the net export instead of the gross export. furthermore, the issue of asymmetric has also been rectified because an rta value greater than zero indicates a relative trade advantage, while a value lesser than zero reflects a relative trade disadvantage. on the other hand, balassa (1965) indicates that a value from zero to one denotes a competitive disadvantage, while a competitive advantage is when the value is between 1 to infinity. the rxa was calculated using formula 1. rxa= xij xit⁄ xnj xnt⁄ (1) where, x indicates exports, i is the selected country, j signifies the ruminant meat (hs020110 to hs020450 ), t refers to the total number of agricultural products, and n represents all countries involved in this study, xij describes a country’s exports of ruminant meat to the remaining countries in the group, while xit denotes the country’s total exports of agricultural products without the particular ruminant meat represented by j. xnj indicates all countries’ total exports, excluding country i. xnt represents the total agricultural exports by all countries except i and the ruminant meat j. the issue of double counting was addressed through the exclusion of j (ruminant meat) from xnt and xit, and the exclusion of country i from xnt and xnj vollrath, (1991) as adapted by bojnec & fertő, (2017). the calculation of rma was based on the following formula. rma= mij mit⁄ mnj mnt⁄ (2) where, m represents imports, i is the country in question, j implies the ruminant meat products t refers to the total number of agricultural products, and n signifies all countries selected for this study. mij indicates that the country imported; a specific ruminant meat j from other countries. mit, on the other hand, reflects the country’s imports of agricultural products except for the ruminant meat j. mnj refers to the imports by all countries except country i. mnt represents the total imports of agricultural products by all countries excluding the ruminant meat j and the country i. the double-counting issue was rectified by excluding the ruminant http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 202 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research meat j from mit and mnt, while the country i was excluded from mnj and mnt vollrath, (1991) as adapted by bojnec & fertő, (2017). finally, rta was derived from the difference between the rxa and rma. its values were considered exports and imports, as demonstrated by the following equation. rta=rxa-rma (3) according to vollrath, positive rta values indicate a relative trade advantage, whereas negative rta values imply a relative trade disadvantage. results and discussion export specialization advantage the analysis of export specialization, as mentioned in table 1, revealed that australia, new zealand, the netherlands, paraguay, india, pakistan, germany, the usa, thailand, malaysia, cambodia, and brunei possessed an export specialization advantage based on the rxa values greater than one. those countries recorded at least one product code of export specialization advantage. a country’s export specialization advantage is revealed when rxa >1 (bojnec & fertő, 2012). it is based on a country’s exports of ruminant meat relative to its total agricultural exports and the corresponding export performance of a set of countries—the remaining 25 countries in the group. if the comparison is made between the 13 countries with export specialization advantage, australia, new zealand, and the netherlands are the most dominant since they possess more than five product codes of export specialization advantage. in this regard, australia had the highest number of product codes that fit into the category of export specialization advantage. the total product codes analyzed in this study were 15, of which australia had 14 tariff product codes with rxa values of greater than one. in other words, australia’s competitiveness lay in the exportation of ruminant meat. it is also proof of australia’s dominance in the trade of ruminant meat based on the commanded export market share. its specialization in exporting ruminant meat covered not only bovine but also lamb, sheep, and goat meat. its specialization extended to every level of value addition and processing stage, from bone-in to boneless, fresh, or chilled to frozen. the most substantial export specialization advantage of australia was recorded in the exportation of chilled or frozen goat meat. chilled or fresh bovine was the only product code with an export specialization disadvantage. new zealand was another country with an impressive strength of export specialization advantage. it recorded 10 of 15 product codes having export specialization advantage based on the rxa value of greater than one. the analysis disclosed that the specialization of new zealand significantly focused on the exportation of a selective small ruminant with specific processing stages. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 203 competitive advantage between malaysia ….. (yusoff, ismail, sidique, and kamarulzaman) table 1. revealed export advantage (rxa) and revealed import advantage (rma) hs code australia brazil brunei cambodia chile china ethiopia germany india indonesia japan laos malaysia rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa 20110 0.152 0.775 0.121 0.000 0.008 0.000 4.956 45.110 0.004 0.071 0.000 0.004 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.049 0.000 20120 0.003 3.200 0.001 0.002 0.411 0.037 0.825 0.226 0.043 0.012 3.824 11.192 0.004 0.037 0.000 0.094 0.001 0.393 0.000 0.099 0.001 20130 0.050 18.265 1.502 0.644 0.174 0.000 0.013 35.207 0.457 0.027 0.000 0.001 0.006 1.098 0.230 0.008 0.115 0.000 4.216 0.464 0.180 0.005 0.112 0.026 20210 0.419 4.820 0.699 18.374 40.474 0.000 0.205 0.555 0.345 0.194 0.000 0.967 6.311 0.002 0.000 0.095 0.000 0.000 4.760 1.031 20220 0.034 9.281 0.002 0.004 1.505 1.750 0.011 0.316 0.117 0.451 0.000 0.002 0.130 0.047 0.123 0.728 0.000 0.106 0.000 0.438 0.167 1.233 0.000 20230 0.044 14.235 0.342 0.399 1.136 0.001 0.020 0.003 1.135 0.105 0.399 0.004 0.003 0.172 0.195 8.116 1.285 0.000 1.529 0.448 0.017 0.009 2.155 0.022 20410 3.408 0.624 1.791 0.011 0.587 1.603 10.110 0.226 0.073 0.027 0.196 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.234 0.022 20421 38.119 0.311 15.185 0.069 0.001 0.161 0.198 0.005 2.786 0.091 0.005 0.009 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 20422 0.087 43.798 0.001 0.000 2.039 0.000 0.004 0.004 0.854 0.024 0.009 0.022 0.025 0.000 0.314 0.000 0.046 0.000 0.756 0.000 20423 0.117 21.604 0.001 0.623 0.012 0.001 0.001 0.000 2.469 0.032 0.000 0.497 0.021 0.000 2.137 0.000 0.026 0.000 0.229 0.001 20430 0.019 22.692 0.154 0.935 0.790 0.072 0.052 3.270 1.541 0.340 0.673 0.104 0.048 0.527 0.000 0.573 0.000 0.127 0.000 4.571 0.007 20441 10.773 0.016 0.001 0.603 0.006 0.234 1.243 0.006 0.001 0.003 0.026 0.458 0.000 0.194 0.000 0.000 0.000 13.046 0.000 20442 0.056 14.110 0.153 0.000 2.844 0.150 0.001 1.055 3.988 0.002 0.000 0.969 0.101 0.008 0.001 0.101 0.000 0.143 0.000 0.033 0.000 1.729 0.000 20443 0.144 21.716 0.022 0.822 0.006 0.030 0.640 0.214 0.020 0.002 3.994 0.294 0.003 0.004 0.159 0.000 1.006 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.583 0.001 20450 0.007 1,223.815 0.008 0.000 0.142 0.015 0.005 0.014 0.001 0.098 0.207 0.000 0.100 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.548 0.000 table 1. continued hs code myanmar the netherlands new zealand pakistan paraguay philippines rep korea singapore south africa thailand turkey usa vietnam rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa rma rxa 20110 0.000 0.000 19.450 3.851 0.008 0.001 0.025 0.515 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.005 0.000 0.008 0.000 0.017 0.221 0.000 0.000 0.085 0.003 0.000 20120 0.001 0.002 9.164 6.316 0.160 0.096 0.000 0.067 0.184 0.017 0.007 0.000 2.974 0.000 0.485 0.027 0.000 0.024 0.065 0.000 4.388 0.000 0.091 0.660 0.027 0.000 20130 0.000 0.000 0.896 1.409 0.496 0.861 0.001 0.005 0.056 18.252 0.001 0.000 1.700 0.000 0.671 0.011 0.002 0.111 0.104 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.741 1.362 0.066 0.000 20210 0.118 0.491 6.492 9.417 0.000 3.959 2.170 23.226 0.000 0.000 3.751 0.000 0.042 0.000 0.223 0.000 0.302 0.763 12.031 7.746 0.000 0.000 0.014 0.856 0.678 0.000 20220 0.017 0.056 0.117 0.071 0.106 5.080 0.002 0.106 0.000 0.099 0.644 0.001 57.726 0.526 0.586 0.513 0.484 0.946 0.093 0.014 0.141 0.000 0.035 5.724 0.138 0.000 20230 0.132 0.093 0.253 0.075 0.162 6.233 0.048 0.150 0.067 1.075 2.442 0.001 2.582 0.027 0.673 0.127 0.102 0.131 0.236 0.038 0.000 0.000 3.166 0.635 0.399 0.003 20410 0.019 0.000 1.975 88.280 0.000 0.077 0.000 0.506 0.000 0.000 0.226 0.000 0.026 0.000 14.050 0.056 0.000 0.031 0.115 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.041 0.019 0.020 0.000 20421 0.000 0.000 0.000 166.651 0.372 14.757 0.000 7.669 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.017 0.000 0.092 0.137 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.257 0.026 0.005 0.000 20422 0.000 0.000 0.578 0.064 0.194 14.543 0.009 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.196 0.000 0.612 0.009 0.026 0.003 0.276 0.000 0.000 0.000 19.056 0.001 0.051 0.000 20423 0.001 0.000 0.975 0.185 0.038 26.575 0.000 0.428 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.021 0.000 0.538 0.020 0.004 0.006 0.051 0.001 0.000 0.000 4.500 0.002 0.022 0.000 20430 0.110 0.000 0.141 0.070 0.000 28.470 0.061 0.475 0.000 0.000 1.071 0.000 0.043 0.000 1.378 0.178 0.126 0.004 0.086 0.000 0.000 0.000 6.250 0.068 0.030 0.000 20441 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.007 0.976 73.648 0.000 0.031 0.000 0.000 0.043 0.000 0.073 0.000 8.913 0.023 0.048 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.291 0.003 0.020 0.000 20442 0.000 0.000 0.528 0.092 0.398 42.391 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.098 0.000 0.348 0.000 0.697 0.034 1.702 0.143 0.198 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.007 0.011 0.084 0.000 20443 0.002 0.000 1.559 0.369 1.037 25.198 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.080 0.000 0.634 0.000 2.174 0.072 0.782 0.013 0.186 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.575 0.012 0.059 0.000 20450 0.000 0.345 0.001 0.007 0.012 0.403 0.026 0.118 0.000 0.000 0.008 0.000 0.941 0.000 0.093 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.007 0.000 0.000 0.000 40.050 0.009 1.155 0.005 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 204 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research new zealand had a strong export specialization advantage on chilled or fresh and frozen sheep. however, it was not the case with lamb, as its export specialization advantage only covered frozen lamb and not chilled or fresh ones. new zealand had no export specialization advantage on chilled or fresh and frozen goat meat. amongst its product codes registered export specialization advantages, its greatest strength was the exportation of frozen sheep carcasses. the analysis results unveiled that bovine was not new zealand’s forte. its specialization was not in exporting bovine. it could be seen from the product codes with export specialization disadvantage, primarily made up of bovine and its related products. the product codes included chilled or fresh bovine carcasses, chilled or fresh bovine cuts bone-in, and chilled or fresh bovine cuts boneless. apart from australia and new zealand, another country with extensive export specialization advantage was the netherlands, with six product codes having rxa values of more than one. the netherlands’ specialization encompassed solely bovine and sheep, not goat meat. in the exportation of bovine, its focus was concentrated on chilled or fresh bovine carcasses, frozen bovine carcasses, chilled or fresh bovine cuts bone-in, and chilled or fresh bovine cuts boneless. as for the small ruminant, its specialization lay in chilled or fresh lamb carcasses and chilled or fresh sheep carcasses. on the whole, the exportation of chilled or fresh sheep carcasses was netherlands’ major strength. it is interesting to note that malaysia’s principal supplier of ruminant meat, india, had only two product codes of export specialization advantages: boneless frozen bovine cuts and chilled or fresh sheep carcasses. a cross-country comparison revealed that india was not the most highly specialized country exporting those two commodities. in the product category of frozen bovine cuts boneless, australia was in a better position than india, as indicated by the value of rxa. india was the second after australia, followed by new zealand and paraguay as countries with recorded export specialization advantage in that particular product category. as for pakistan, its export specialization advantage was concentrated on frozen bovine carcasses and chilled or fresh sheep carcasses. its export specialization advantage on frozen bovine carcasses was impressive, as it was ranked second after cambodia. cambodia was the most specialized country, leading the pack of other countries of the same category, including pakistan, the netherlands, thailand, australia, new zealand, and malaysia. the only malaysia’s product code recording the export specialization advantage was frozen bovine carcasses. the exportation of frozen bovine carcasses was basically to meet the demand from the neighboring states, particularly singapore and brunei. it is important to note that malaysia has not been a principal supplier of this good to those countries. its role is to cover the minimal deficit of supply experienced by singapore and brunei. amongst the countries that have recorded the export specialization advantage for the same product code, malaysia was the least specialized. in this regard, this export specialization advantage must be analyzed by importing the same product code to acquire a comprehensive overview of trade specialization. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 205 competitive advantage between malaysia ….. (yusoff, ismail, sidique, and kamarulzaman) germany, paraguay, the usa, and chile recorded two product codes with the export specialization advantage. the products included chilled or fresh bovine carcasses, chilled or fresh bovine cuts bone-in, chilled or fresh bovine cuts boneless, frozen bovine cuts boneless, frozen bovine cuts bone-in frozen lamb carcasses, and frozen sheep cuts bone-in. on the other hand, brunei and ethiopia specialized in exporting frozen bovine cuts bone-in and chilled or fresh lamb carcasses, respectively. moreover, brazil, china, indonesia, japan, lao, myanmar, the philippines, the republic of korea, singapore, south africa, and turkey had no export specialization advantage. from the analysis of export specialization advantage, it is interesting to note that malaysia’s non-traditional partners in the trade of ruminant meat, such as cambodia, pakistan, and thailand, possessed a substantial export specialization advantage. those countries have signed fta agreements with malaysia. cambodia and thailand are together with malaysia in asean trade in goods agreement (atiga), while pakistan is malaysia’s partner in the malaysia-pakistan closer economic partnership agreement (ministry of international trade and industry malaysia, 2018). regarding halal certification requirements, pakistan has possessed two halal certification bodies recognized by jakim. matters related to halal in thailand have been supervised by the central islamic council of thailand (cicot), and jakim has also accredited its halal certification. on the other hand, cambodia has utilized a halal certification body from a vietnam-based halal certification body, vietnam-halal certification agency vietnam (hca), which has also received endorsement from jakim (secretariat malaysia halal council, 2019). in other words, those countries have fulfilled the primary prerequisite of market access in the trade of ruminant meat required by malaysia. the short physical distance connecting these countries with malaysia was another beneficial factor. shorter distances not only reduce transportation time, crucial for the perishable item to maintain its quality, but also reduce the overall operational costs due to lower freight costs (kaitibie, haq, & rakotoarisoa, 2017). the materialization of the pan-asia railway project will further fertilize the trade in the region as countries have options on whether to prefer sea or land freight depending on the cost factor (oh, 2018). these merits are worth malaysia’s consideration in its effort to diversify its import sources, as overdependency has been proven to be unhealthy, considering the occurrence of supply vulnerabilities resulting from various kinds of shocks. import specialization advantage the country’s import specialization advantage is revealed when rma < 1. when rma > 1, countries are said to have an import specialization disadvantage (bojnec & fertő, 2012). import specialization advantage or disadvantage is based on a country’s imports of ruminant meat relative to its total agricultural imports and the corresponding import performance of a set of countries—the remaining 25 countries in the group. those indicators demonstrate the level of the country’s import dependency. countries are said to have low import dependency http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 206 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research when they have an import specialization advantage. it is contrary to import specialization disadvantage as it associates countries with high import dependency. as table 1 displays, the countries analyzed in this study depicted various levels of import dependency. in general, most countries could be categorized as having an import specialization advantage, which could be construed as low import dependency for the supply of ruminant meat. it is derived from the fact that the number of product codes with ratio values of lesser than one (rma < 1) outnumbered the product codes with ratio values of greater than one (rma > 1). well-known ruminant meat producers like australia, new zealand, india, and paraguay demonstrated that their import dependency was less significant than their exports. their minimal dependency on imports could be seen from the fact that none of their product codes recorded an rma value greater than one. the same goes for brazil and pakistan, the other world’s major ruminant meat producers, with only one product code recorded as an import specialization disadvantage. in the case of australia and new zealand, imports have become a seasonal matter and complimentary, not the primary supply line. new zealand imported from australia for domestic needs in case of a domestic supply shortage. australia has become the selected exporter due to its geographical proximity, particularly the distance, and comparable biosecurity requirements emphasizing traceability and green and clean production systems (tucker, 2018). the domestic supply shortage typically occurs when there is a surge in demand by the importing countries, reaching up to 95% of their total meat production. the enticement of higher prices from the importing countries could lead to under-supply at home. new zealand’s ruminant meat was highly pursued due to its premium status rooted in its production system, primarily based on grass-fed as opposed to most of the rest of the world, grain-fed. unsuitable pasture conditions caused by prolonged dry weather, which would negatively affect production, have become another factor leading to imports. australia’s imports were relatively low and not as significant as its exports. imports were seasonally utilized in the event of domestic shortage, usually caused by strong demand from the importing countries and long dry spells deteriorating its pastoral area. unlike its neighbour-new zealand, depending on pastoralism, australia’s ruminant sector has grain-fed and pasture-fed ruminants (garrett et al., 2017; macleod & moller, 2006). in some cases, imports were also utilized as a feeder to their food processing industries. its import sources were concentrated amongst a few selected countries, such as new zealand, the us, japan, and the netherlands. production-wise, australia was incomparable with major producers, particularly brazil, india, and the us. however, the fact that australia could export almost 70% of its production has made it one of the world’s major exporters of ruminant meat. a similar demand and supply pattern could be discovered in new zealand and australia, where domestic production was meant mainly for exports while domestic consumption was met through imports. this pattern is not exclusive to the two countries and is also not confined to ruminant meat per se. it is quite a common practice for exporting countries to prioritize the export markets compared to their domestic market (macleod & moller, 2006; robertson, 2010). the profitability factors have driven it, and the tide could http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 207 competitive advantage between malaysia ….. (yusoff, ismail, sidique, and kamarulzaman) change depending on the same factor. the margins and profits determined the flow of goods. aggregately, the revenue derived from the export should be able to offset and shoulder the costs of imports. as for india, the importation of beef has been strictly prohibited on the ground of religious sensitivities. as such, no data on the importation of beef was recorded (liu & iqbal, 2016). the only available data were on the importation of lamb and sheep meat, but the volume and value were not big enough to be considered an import specialization disadvantage. in other words, india’s limited imports of ruminant meat were confined to lamb and sheep meat, and no importation of beef was made due to the consumption restriction. this unique situation has freed india from being reliant on imports as far as ruminant meat is concerned. paraguay was another country with all 15 product codes recorded with rma values smaller than one, denoting its low import dependency. it is crucial to note that paraguay has become one of the world’s primary meat-producing countries, and its consumption per capita of beef has been amongst the highest in the world. the low import dependency was attributed to the fact that halal meat was not highly demanded in paraguay. it is not a muslim-majority country, with a muslim population of less than 1%. moreover, most of the countries analyzed in this study were not paraguay’s traditional trade partners except brazil, the usa, and chile, located in the same region as paraguay. pakistan, brazil, south africa, and turkey also recorded the absence of import specialization disadvantage. those countries had only one product code recorded an rma value of greater than one, indicating an import specialization disadvantage. the only import specialization disadvantage recorded by pakistan was in frozen bovine carcasses, while brazil was in chilled or fresh bovine cuts boneless. south africa, on the other hand, had recorded import specialization disadvantage in frozen sheep cuts, bone-in, and turkey’s dependency on import lay in chilled or fresh bovine cuts bone-in. this situation is evidence of the low import reliance of these countries rooted mainly in the ability of their domestic production to meet the demand, especially in pakistan and turkey. as for brazil and south africa, halal meat was not in high demand due to low consumption, as the muslim population only constituted around 2% of their overall population. the demand from this population could be easily satisfied by domestic production. paraguay and chile also shared a similar situation, as explained earlier. a low preference for ruminant meat due to the availability of more affordable alternatives such as poultry was another factor explaining the low import dependency, as indicated by the rma values. the consumption per capita of beef and lamb or sheep meat depicted the same pattern. this explanation has been confirmed for muslim-minority countries like cambodia, laos, myanmar, and vietnam, where producing halal ruminant meat was not their economic forte. moreover, australia, new zealand, brazil, and india are countries with muslim minorities, but they have become the producers and exporters of halal ruminant meat. malaysia and the usa recorded more product codes with import specialization disadvantages than those with import specialization advantages, illustrating their high import http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 208 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dependency. the usa’s ruminant sector has been primarily concentrated in beef production, making it one of the world’s major producers. however, its involvement in small ruminants was not as intensive as the beef production industry. demand for the small ruminants—lamb and sheep meats—was satisfied through imports. it has been manifested by the product codes with recorded import specialization disadvantages covering all types of lamb, sheep, and goat meat with all types of processing levels. malaysia’s reliance was evident for these particular product codes: frozen sheep carcasses, frozen bovine carcasses, and frozen lamb carcasses. the results conform with the findings of various studies highlighting malaysia’s strong import reliance. it is also in tune with malaysia’s balance of trade statistics, highlighting the import of ruminant meat as one of the contributing factors to the deficit in agro-food trade (tey et al., 2016). it is not new, as the same pattern has existed since the early 1980s when industrialization and industrial commodities were prioritized over agro-food commodities. it has caused the shift of resources toward the promoted sector, leaving the agro-food sector, including the ruminant sub-sector, to assume the secondary role. over time, the situation has triggered the deterioration of competitiveness and efficiency of the sector and adversely affected its ability to meet domestic demand. revealed trade advantage (rta) positive values of rta indicate a competitive trade advantage, while negative values of rta represent a competitive trade disadvantage. the calculated rta values are displayed in table 2, and it is apparent that australia has become the most competitive country in the ruminant meat trade. australia recorded no negative values of rta for the all-tariff lines, and its rta was quite substantial, where 14 out of 15 tariff lines reached values greater than one. other countries recording impressive competitive trade advantages were new zealand and pakistan. they had only two out of 15 tariff lines with negative values of rta. new zealand’s ruminant sector focused mainly on small ruminants, where it enjoyed a strong competitive advantage. however, it was different with bovine, of which the relative trade disadvantage was reflected in chilled or fresh bovine carcasses and chilled or fresh bovine cuts bone-in. as for pakistan, its strength lay in exporting frozen bovine carcasses and chilled or fresh sheep carcasses, while its relative trade disadvantage was on chilled or fresh sheep cuts bone-in and frozen sheep cuts boneless. the fact that pakistan and indonesia are muslim countries has become another positive factor promoting bilateral trade on ruminant meat. moreover, the halal certification for ruminant meat issued by the two countries has been recognized and endorsed by jakim. as of 2019, jakim recognized three halal certification bodies from the two countries: the indonesian council of ulama, jamea markaz uloom islamia mansoora, and punjab halal development agency of pakistan(secretariat malaysia halal council, 2019). in other words, exporters having the halal certification issued by the recognized halal certification bodies are allowed to export to malaysia (noordin, noor, & samicho, 2014). in this case, common religion could act as a trade-promoting factor in strengthening the bilateral flows of trade, as http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 209 competitive advantage between malaysia ….. (yusoff, ismail, sidique, and kamarulzaman) table 2. revealed trade advantage (rta) hs code australia brazil brunei cambodia chile china ethiopia germany india indonesia japan laos malaysia 20110 0.152 0.775 (0.121) (0.000) (0.008) 40.154 0.004 (0.071) (0.004) (0.048) 20120 3.196 0.001 (0.411) (0.037) (0.600) (0.043) (0.012) 7.368 0.004 (0.037) (0.093) (0.393) (0.099) 20130 18.215 (0.858) (0.174) (0.013) (34.750) (0.027) 0.005 (0.868) 0.008 (0.115) (3.752) (0.175) (0.087) 20210 4.402 (0.699) 22.100 0.205 (0.555) (0.345) (0.194) 0.967 (6.309) 0.095 (3.729) 20220 9.247 0.002 0.245 (0.011) (0.198) (0.451) (0.002) (0.084) 0.123 (0.728) (0.106) (0.272) (1.233) 20230 14.190 0.057 (1.135) (0.017) (1.030) (0.395) (0.003) 0.023 8.116 (1.285) (1.081) (0.007) (2.133) 20410 3.408 0.624 (1.791) (0.011) 1.016 (9.884) (0.046) (0.196) (0.005) (2.212) 20421 38.119 (0.311) (15.185) (0.069) (0.001) 0.037 2.781 (0.086) (0.009) 20422 43.711 (0.001) (2.039) (0.000) (0.004) (0.004) (0.830) 0.013 (0.025) (0.314) (0.046) (0.756) 20423 21.488 (0.001) (0.623) (0.012) (0.001) (0.001) (2.438) 0.497 (0.021) (2.137) (0.026) (0.229) 20430 22.673 (0.154) (0.146) (0.072) 3.218 (1.541) (0.340) (0.569) (0.048) (0.527) (0.573) (0.127) (4.563) 20441 10.773 (0.016) (0.603) (0.006) 0.234 (1.237) 0.002 0.026 (0.458) (0.194) (13.046) 20442 14.054 (0.153) (2.694) (0.001) 1.055 (3.987) (0.000) (0.868) (0.007) (0.101) (0.143) (0.033) (1.729) 20443 21.572 (0.022) (0.816) (0.030) 0.640 (0.195) (0.002) (3.700) 0.001 (0.159) (1.006) (1.582) 20450 1,223.809 (0.008) 0.000 (0.127) 0.005 (0.012) 0.098 (0.207) (0.100) (0.005) (0.548) table 2. continued hs code myanmar the netherlands new zealand pakistan paraguay the philippines rep korea singapore south africa thailand turkey usa vietnam 20110 (15.599) (0.007) 0.490 (0.001) (0.000) 0.000 0.008 0.017 (0.221) 0.085 (0.003) 20120 0.001 (2.848) (0.063) 0.067 (0.168) (0.007) (2.974) (0.458) 0.024 (0.065) (4.388) 0.569 (0.027) 20130 (0.000) 0.513 0.365 0.004 18.196 (0.001) (1.700) (0.660) 0.108 (0.103) 0.621 (0.066) 20210 0.373 2.925 3.959 21.056 (3.751) (0.042) (0.223) 0.461 (4.286) 0.842 (0.678) 20220 0.038 (0.046) 4.974 0.104 0.099 (0.644) (57.200) (0.074) 0.461 (0.078) (0.141) 5.689 (0.138) 20230 (0.039) (0.178) 6.071 0.102 1.008 (2.440) (2.555) (0.546) 0.029 (0.198) (2.530) (0.396) 20410 (0.019) 86.306 0.077 0.506 (0.226) (0.026) (13.994) 0.031 (0.115) (0.022) (0.020) 20421 166.651 14.385 7.669 (0.000) 0.092 (0.137) (0.231) (0.005) 20422 (0.513) 14.349 (0.009) (0.002) (0.196) (0.603) (0.023) (0.276) (19.055) (0.051) 20423 (0.001) (0.789) 26.537 0.428 (0.003) (0.021) (0.518) 0.002 (0.050) (4.498) (0.022) 20430 (0.110) (0.070) 28.470 0.415 (1.071) (0.043) (1.199) (0.121) (0.086) (6.183) (0.030) 20441 0.005 72.672 0.031 (0.043) (0.073) (8.890) (0.048) (0.002) (2.288) (0.020) 20442 (0.435) 41.993 0.000 (0.098) (0.348) (0.662) (1.560) (0.198) (1.997) (0.084) 20443 (0.002) (1.190) 24.161 (0.001) (0.080) (0.633) (2.102) (0.769) (0.185) (1.564) (0.059) 20450 0.345 0.006 0.391 0.092 (0.008) (0.941) (0.093) 0.001 (0.007) (40.041) (1.150) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 210 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research suggested by studies on the issue of cultural similarities between countries (hergueux, 2011; lankhuizen & de groot, 2016; mehchy, nasser, & schiffbauer, 2015; selmier & oh, 2013). india’s position as one of the world’s prominent producers of ruminant meat was proven since the majority of its tariff lines, 13 out of 15, have constituted competitive trade advantages. moreover, its position as one of the world’s prominent exporters of ruminant meat was also proven since most of its tariff lines, 12 out of 15, recorded relative trade advantages. india’s most outstanding relative trade advantage was recorded for its main export item, frozen bovine cuts boneless. chilled or fresh lamb carcasses, frozen lamb carcasses, and frozen sheep cuts bone-in were the three tariff lines with relative trade disadvantages. south africa demonstrated that its ruminant sector was relatively competitive and enjoyed relative trade advantages for most of its tariff lines; 10 out of 15 had positive rta values. however, the positive values exhibited by those tariff lines were relatively low for having values of less than one. even though the netherlands had only six tariff lines with relative trade advantages, the strength of its tariff lines with positive rta was quite impressive, especially for chilled or fresh lamb carcasses, chilled or fresh sheep carcasses, and frozen bovine carcasses. those mentioned items recorded positive values of greater than one. malaysia, the philippines, china, indonesia, japan, the republic of korea, laos, singapore, thailand, and vietnam were considered uncompetitive in producing ruminant meat. malaysia has become one of the most uncompetitive countries of all 15 tariff lines of ruminant meat, all depicted negative values, and eight reached less than 1. those products included frozen carcasses or half-carcasses of sheep (excl. lamb), frozen carcasses or halfcarcasses of lamb, frozen carcasses or half-carcasses of bovine animals, fresh or chilled carcasses or half-carcasses of lamb, and boneless frozen meat of bovine animals. the same goes for china, indonesia, the philippines, the republic of korea, laos, and vietnam, where all products recorded negative values. whereas for japan, singapore, and thailand, 14 products recorded negative values. conclusion the analysis revealed that the traditional markets that malaysia has been highly dependent upon, particularly australia, new zealand, and india, were the most competitive exporting countries amongst the halal exporting countries. in line with import diversification strategies meant to reduce over-reliance on particular markets, non-traditional exporting countries like pakistan, south africa, the netherlands, and chile were worth considering based on their strong rta. malaysia’s condition of not having positive rta for all tariff lines added to the importance of import diversification to cushion any form of shocks not only confined to economic factors and the outbreak of diseases. the suitability of candidates was entirely determined by their ability to fulfill the criteria of malaysia’s halal requirements. malaysia’s unsatisfactory level of domestic production has caused a significant dependency on imported markets. dependency on several countries would expose malaysia to shocks that could disrupt supply. the situation highlights the importance of having import diversification strategies to provide a cushion against future shocks, which could be originated http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 211 competitive advantage between malaysia ….. (yusoff, ismail, sidique, and kamarulzaman) not only from economic factors but also from non-economic ones, such as pandemics. in this regard, malaysia should begin evaluating the ability of the non-traditional countries as an alternative source for its imports of ruminant meat. countries that have met all the determinant criteria, particularly the halal aspects, should be considered, as it has been proven that recognized halal certification is the primary prerequisite in determining imports. acknowledgment: the article is part of the thesis, and university putra malaysia funded the study under grant number gp-ips/2018/9623700. authors’ contribution: h.h.m.y contribute to data analysis, data interpretation, and writing manuscript; n.w.i contribute to getting the grant, writing manuscript, and review final manuscript; s.f.a.s served as commentor; and n.h.k served as commentor. conflict of interest: the authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose and have all approved this submission references balassa, b. 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department of agribusiness, faculty of economics and management, ipb university, indonesia kusnandar, department of agribusiness, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia titik ekowati, department of agribusiness, diponegoro university, indonesia lukman muhammad baga, department of agribusiness, faculty of economics and management, ipb university, indonesia nurliza, department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura, indonesia ujang paman, department of agribusiness, universitas islam riau, indonesia agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june, and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai) and indonesian society of agricultural economics (isae). agraris journal of agribusiness and rural development research in collaboration with: a g r a r is vol. 8 no. 1. january-june 2022 vol.8.1 january-june 2022 1: cetak agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research acknowledgment to reviewers agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022 contribution from the following reviewers in this issue was much appreciated for their valuable review comments: pakapon saiyut, department of agricultural economics, khon kaen university, thailand tonny judiantono, department of urban and regional planning, universitas islam bandung, indonesia malose moses tjale, institute of rural development, university of venda, south africa amzul rifin, department of agribusiness, faculty of economics and management, ipb university, indonesia titik ekowati, department of agribusiness, universitas diponegoro, indonesia yunastiti, department of economic development, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia etty puji lestari, department of economics, universitas terbuka, tangerang selatan, indonesia nurliza, department of agribusiness, university of tanjungpura, indonesia agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai) and indonesian society of agricultural economics (isae). agraris journal of agribusiness and rural development research in collaboration with: a g r a r is vol. 8 no. 2. july-decem ber 2022 vol.8.2 july-december 2022 page 1 tri cahyo mardiyanto dan tri reni prastuti balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian (bptp) jawa tengah tri_cahyo_p2u@yahoo.com efektivitas pelatihan teknologi budidaya bawang putih varietas lokal ramah lingkungan dengan metode ceramah di kabupaten karanganyar abstract garlic (allium sativum l.) is a vegetable that has a lot of profit because its high economic value. garlic consumption from year to year increases with population growth, but this increase has not matched with an increase in production due to many constraints such as pest attack. training for garlic farmer aims to improve farmers’ knowledge in the application of garlic environmentally friendly cultivation technology. training of farmers was conducted on 14 april 2015 using the lecture method. the purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the training model using the lecture method to garlic farmers in karanganyar. the samples used were 20 farmers from the garlic farmers in karanganyar. purposive sampling was used as sampling technique. the study was conducted by giving pretest and postest to determine the increase farmers’ knowledge, then the data were analyzed using non-parametric statistical analysis (wilcoxon match pairs test). the results showed that the value of the z count on the wilcoxon test was 3.106 an absolute value. furthermore, the error level of 5%, z table = 1.64 so that the z count is greater than z table. this shows that training the farmers by using lecture method in karanganyar was effective to improve the knowledge of the farmers. keywords: effectiveness, training, garlic. intisari bawang putih (allium sativum l.) merupakan sayuran yang banyak mendatangkan keuntungan karena mempunyai nilai ekonomi tinggi. kebutuhan konsumsi bawang putih dari tahun ke tahun meningkat dengan meningkatnya jumlah penduduk, namun peningkatan ini belum diimbangi oleh peningkatan produksi karena banyak kendala antara lain serangan opt. pelatihan terhadap petani bawang putih bertujuan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan petani dalam penerapan teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan. pelatihan terhadap petani dilakukan pada 14 april 2015 menggunakan metode ceramah. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah mengetahui efektivitas model pelatihan menggunakan metode ceramah kepada petani bawang putih di kabupaten karanganyar. jumlah sampel yang digunakan sebanyak 20 orang dari petani bawang putih di kabupaten karanganyar. tehnik pengambilan sampel menggunakan metode purposive sampling. penelitian dilakukan dengan memberikan pretest dan postest untuk mengetahui peningkatan pengetahuan petani, selanjutnya data tersebut dianalisis menggunakan analisis statistik non parametrik yaitu uji wilcoxon match pairs test. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa harga z hitung pada uji wilcoxon adalah -3,106 merupakan nilai mutlak. selanjutnya pada taraf kesalahan 5 %, z tabel = 1,64 sehingga z hitung lebih besar dari z tabel. hal doi:10.18196/agr.2126 62 jurnal agraris ini menunjukkan bahwa pelatihan petani menggunakan metode ceramah di kabupaten karanganyar efektif dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan peserta pelatihan. kata kunci: efektivitas, pelatihan, bawang putih. pendahuluan bawang putih (allium sativum l.) merupakan sayuran yang banyak mendatangkan keuntungan karena mempunyai nilai ekonomi tinggi. kebutuhan konsumsi bawang putih dari tahun ke tahun meningkat dengan meningkatnya jumlah penduduk, namun peningkatan ini belum diimbangi oleh peningkatan produksi karena banyak kendala antara lain serangan organisme pengganggu tanaman (opt). dalam menghadapi pasar bebas seperti masyarakat ekonomi asean (mea) 2015, bidang pertanian dituntut untuk dapat menghasilkan produk yang aman dikonsumsi dengan mutu yang lebih baik dan tidak berdampak negatif terhadap lingkungan. menindaklajuti tuntutan tersebut, sudah saatnya petani menjadi perhatian serius bagi pemerintah, salah satunya dengan meningkatkan pengetahuan dan ketrampilan petani. pengetahuan adalah hasil dari tahu dan ini terjadi setelah seseorang melakukan penginderaan terhadap suatu objek tertentu. tanpa pengetahuan seseorang tidak memiliki dasar untuk mengambil keputusan dan menentukan tindakan terhadap masalah yang dihadapi. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pengetahuan antara lain adalah pendidikan, pekerjaan, umur, minat, pengetahuan dan informasi (anonim, 2014). peningkatan pengetahuan petani dilakukan melalui berbagai metode. menurut hamalik (2005), secara umum pelatihan bertujuan untuk mempersiapkan dan membina tenaga kerja, baik struktural maupun fungsional, yang memiliki kemampuan dalam profesinya, kemampuan melaksanakan loyalitas, dedikasi dan disiplin yang baik. menurut sastradipoera (2006) konsep pelatihan sebagai salah satu bentuk proses pembelajaran yang berhubungan dengan upaya pengubahan tingkah laku sumber daya manusia agar tingkah laku itu sesuai dan memadai untuk kebutuhan dan tujuan tertentu. salah satu metode yang digunakan dalam penyuluhan pertanian (pelatihan) adalah metode ceramah. menurut peraturan menteri pertanian nomor : 52/permentan/ ot.140/12/ 2009 tentang metode penyuluhan pertanian, metode ceramah adalah penyampaian informasi secara lisan kepada pelaku utama, pelaku usaha dan/atau tokoh masyarakat dalam suatu pertemuan. menurut penelitian yang dilakukan oleh ooi, et al. (2007), faktor yang paling berkontribusi terhadap efektivitas pelatihan adalah kompetensi trainer dan metode pelatihan. hal ini diperkuat oleh penelitian yang dilakukan haslinda (2009) bahwa kompetensi instruktur dan jenis pelatihan merupakan faktor yang signifikan berkontribusi terhadap efektivitas pelatihan. menurut suwarto (1999), efektivitas artinya adanya efek (pengaruh, akibat, dan kesan) pada penggunaan metode/cara, sarana/alat dalam melaksanakan aktivitas sehingga berhasil guna (mencapai hasil yang optimal). melalui pelatihan diharapkan pengetahuan petani dapat meningkat sehingga petani dapat menerapkan teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan. berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut di atas, maka perlu dilakukan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui efektivitas model pelatihan menggunakan metode ceramah yang diberikan kepada petani bawang putih di kabupaten karanganyar. keefektifan dapat juga diartikan suatu ukuran yang menyatakan seberapa jauh target (kuantitas, kualitas dan waktu) yang telah dicapai. dengan demikian semakin tinggi kadar keefektifan maka semakin tinggi pula tingkat capaian kuantitas, kualitas dan waktu pencapaianya (anonim, 2014). hasil dari penelitian ini selanjutnya dapat digunakan sebagai instrumen pendekatan dalam memperbaiki dan penyempurnaan program/kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian sehingga lebih efektif, efisien dan dapat mencapai tujuan yang telah ditetapkan. metode penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan di kabupaten karanganyar pada tanggal 14 april 2015. populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah 20 petani bawang putih kecamatan tawangmangu, kabupaten karanganyar. pengambilan sampel sebanyak 20 petani bawang putih dilakukan secara sengaja (purposive sampling). petani yang dipilih merupakan petani bawang putih yang sudah lama (turun temurun) melakukan budidaya bawang putih dengan teknik budidaya secara umum dan sederhana yaitu belum menggunakan teknologi ramah lingkungan. penelitian ini dilakukan dengan mengukur pengetahuan petani bawang putih sebelum dan sesudah mengikuti pelatihan dengan menggunakan metode ceramah. metode ceramah yang dilaksanakan diperkaya dengan teknik-teknik pengaktifan peserta misalnya 63 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 diskusi atau tanya jawab. menurut mujiman (2006), pelatihan dengan menggunakan metode ceramah yang diperkaya dengan teknik-teknik pengaktifan peserta misalnya diskusi atau tanya jawab akan mengaktifkan dan memotivasi peserta dalam pemahaman dan penguasaan materi yang diberikan. alat ukur yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kuisioner pretest dan postest. kuisioner berupa pertanyaan dengan penilaian secara skoring mengenai materi teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan. kuisioner pretest dan posttes yang digunakan sama. pertanyaan yang digunakan sebagai variabel dalam pengukuran efektivitas pelatihan meliputi pengetahuan/pemahaman tentang: (i) cara budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan; (ii) penggunaan benih bersertifikat dalam mendukung budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan; (iii) cara mendapatkan benih yang sehat; (iv). cara mendapatkan pupuk organik yang baik; (v) penggunaan pupuk dalam budidaya bawang putih yang ramah lingkungan; (vi) pembuatan guludan/bedengan yang ramah lingkungan; (vii) penggunaan pestisida yang baik agar sesuai dengan kaidah ramah lingkungan; (viii) agensia hayati; (ix) cara mendapatkan agensia hayati; (x) penggunaan agensia hayati dan aplikasinya; dan (xi) cara mengelola pengendalian hama dan penyakit dalam satu kawasan atau pengendalian secara terpadu. dari setiap varabel atau pertanyaan akan dilakukan skoring/ penilaian dengan interval 1 – 3 dengan kriteria, skor 1 menunjukkan nilai tinggi, skor 2 menunjukkan nilai sedang, dan skor 3 menunjukkan nilai rendah. pelatihan dilakukan selama tujuh jam dimulai jam 09.00 – 16.00 wib. materi yang disampaikan berupa teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan hasil kajian dan dijadikan rekomendasi teknologi yang meliputi: penggunaan varietas yang unggul dan baik, pupuk organik plus, rekomendasi pemupukan, penggunaan mulsa, jarak tanam, penggunaan agensia hayati, dan sistem tanam. data primer yang dihimpun terdiri dari karakteristik responden dan hasil pretest dan postest. data dianalisis dengan perangkat lunak aplikasi spss 17, menggunakan analisis statistik, dengan uji wilcoxon match pairs test (siegel, 1994 dan sugiyono, 2010). uji ini digunakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan pengetahuan peserta antara sebelum dan sesudah diberikan pelatihan. hasil dan pembahasan keragaan responden respoden dalam penelitian ini adalah peserta pelatihan, yaitu petani bawang putih dari kecamatan tawangmangu kabupaten karanganyar. seluruh responden berjenis kelamin laki-laki, namun terdapat keragaman karakteristik responden dari aspek usia dan pendidikan (tabel 1). berdasarkan tabel 1 seluruh responden, secara umum masuk dalam usia produktif yaitu 36 – 64 tahun yaitu sebanyak 19 responden, sedangkan 1 responden sudah masuk usai non produktif (68 tahun). untuk tingkat pendidikan sebanyak 50 persen responden adalah slta. seluruh responden merupakan petani bawang putih yang telah memiliki pengalaman berusahatani cukup lama, namun demikian penerapan berusahatani dilakukan secara turun temurun sehingga belum menerapkan budidaya ramah lingkungan. mardikanto (2009) dalam bukunya tentang sistem penyuluhan pertanian menyebutkan bahwa karakterisitik penerima manfaat (petani) pada kegiatan penyuluhan (pelatihan) sangat menentukan dalam pemahaman dan pengetahuan petani yang meliputi: (i) karaktrsiktik pribadi (jenis kelamin, umur, suku/etnis, dan agama); (ii) status sosial ekonomi tabel 1. karakterisasi petani bawang putih kecamatan tawangmangu, kabupaten karanganyar 64 jurnal agraris (tingkat pendidikan, tingkat pendapatan, dan keterlibatan dalam kelompok); (iii) perilaku keinovasian; dan (iv) moral sosial (petani subsisten atau petani komersial). usia responden yang sebagain besar masuk dalam kategori usia produktif lebih cenderung memiliki sifat keinovasian dan motivasi yang tinggi dalam adopsi inovasi teknologi baru. lama berusaha tani juga menentukan pemahaman terhadap materi yang berikan, responden tinggal membandingkan dengan apa yang telah dilakukan dengan teknologi baru. pemahaman tentang teknologi baru dapat diperkuat melalui diskusi antara nara sumber dan petani (responden) sehingga dapat menyakinkan dalam penerapan teknologi baru yang disampaikan. moral sosial petani (responden) sebagai petani komersial juga menjadi faktor penentu dalam adposi teknologi baru, yaitu keinginan untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dari penerapan teknologi baru; dibandingkan dengan petani subsisten yang hanya mengandalkan teknologi turun temurun, tanpa ada inovasi dalam pengembangan teknologi dalam berusaha tani. efektivitas pelatihan (menggunakan metode ceramah) untuk mengetahui efektifitas model pelatihan menggunakan metode ceramah dilakukan dengan pengisian kuisioner pretest oleh responden sebelum pelatihan dimulai. peningkatan pengetahuan responden setelah pelatihan diukur menggunakan kuisioner postest yang diisi oleh responden setelah pelatihan selesai dilaksanakan. penilaian setiap materi pada kusioner dengan skoring, yaitu dengan nilai tertinggi 3 dan nilai terendah 1, kemudian nilai tersebut dijumlahkan sebagai nilai akhir. hasil dari pengisian kuisioner pretest dan postest tersaji pada tabel 2. data selanjutnya dianalisis dengan aplikasi spss 17, menggunakan analisis statistik nonparametrik yaitu dengan uji wilcoxon match pairs test. hasil dari analisis data yang dilakukan tersaji pada tabel 3. analisis data dilakukan dengan membandingkan nilai hasil pre test dan post test untuk menguji signifikansi dua subyek penelitian berpasangan (ernawati, et al, 2012). analisis uji wilcoxon match pairs test merupakan analisis pengujian efektivitas (narbuko, 2004). tabel 3. analisis statistik uji wilcoxon match pairs tabel 2. hasil pre test dan post test 65 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 hasil analisis uji wilcoxon dengan n = 20, taraf kesalahan 5 persen menunjukkan nilai asymp. sig. 0,000 (asymp. sig. d” 0,05). harga z hitung pada uji wilcoxon adalah -3,929 merupakan nilai mutlak. selanjutnya pada taraf kesalahan 5 persen, z tabel = 1,64 sehingga z hitung lebih besar dari z tabel. hal ini menunjukan bahwa pelatihan yang dilakukan menggunakan metode ceramah berpengaruh signifikan dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan peserta pelatihan. sebelum dilakukan pelatihan tentang teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan terlebih dahulu telah dilakukan identifikasi teknologi eksisting di tingkat petani untuk mengetahui materi yang sesuai dengan kondisi di tingkat petani tentang teknologi ramah lingkungan melalui pra (partispatoris rural apprasial). dari data pra tersebut secara umum, responden (petani) belum menggunakan teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan. perbedaan teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan dan teknologi budidaya bawang eksisting di tingkat petani yang disampaikan pada pelatihan dapat dilihat pada tabel 4. materi yang diberikan dalam pre test dan post test merupakan pertanyaan tentang budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan secara umum. materi yang digunakan sebagai variabel/pertanyaan dalam pengukuran efektivitas pelatihan meliputi pengetahuan/pemahaman tentang hal-hal sebagai berikut. 1. budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan (p1); 2. penggunaan benih bersertifikat dalam mendukung budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan (p2); 3. cara mendapatkan benih yang sehat (p3); 4. cara mendapatkan pupuk organik yang baik (p4); 5. penggunaan pupuk dalam budidaya bawang putih yang ramah lingkungan (p5); 6. pembuatan guludan/bedengan yang ramah lingkungan (p6); 7. penggunaan pestisida yang baik agar sesuai dengan kaidah ramah lingkungan (p7); 8. tentang agensia hayati (p8); 9. cara mendapatkan agensia hayati (p9); 10. penggunaan agensia hayati dan aplikasinya (p10); dan 11. cara mengelola pengendalian hama dan penyakit dalam satu kawasan atau pengendalian secara terpadu (p11). perkembangan pengetahuan responden (petani) dapat dilihat dari perbedaan nilai yang diperloleh dari nilai masing-masing materi yang diberikan hasil dari penilaian pre test (sebelum mengikuti pelatihan) dan post test (setelah mengikuti pelatihan). berikut peningkatan tabel 4. perbedaan teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan dan eksisting di tingkat petani sumber: data pra/partisipatoris rural appraisal (2015) 66 jurnal agraris pengetahuan peserta pelatihan hasil pre test dan post test dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. tabel 5. perkembangan pengetahuan petani berdasarkan materi pre test dan post test yang diberikan dari tabel 5 dapat dilihat bahwa rata-rata pengetahuan responden (petani) mengenai budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan setelah pelatihan mengalami peningkatan sebesar 54,52 persen. hal ini juga dapat dilihat pada grafik di bawah ini. peningkatan pengetahuan petani melalui pelatihan ini tidak terlepas dari peran dari narasumber yang berkompeten dalam memberikan materi tentang teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan, hal ini diperkuat oleh penelitian yang dilakukan haslinda et al. (2009) bahwa kompetensi instruktur merupakan faktor yang signifikan berkontribusi terhadap efektivitas pelatihan. nara sumber yang menyampaikan materi berasal dari bptp jawa tengah yang merupakan peneliti hama dan penyakit tanaman hartikultura dan peneliti ilmu tanah (pemupukan) tanaman hortikultura serta pemulia dan peneliti hortikultura khususnya bawang putih dari balai penelitian sayuran (balitsa) lembang, jawa barat. peserta pelatihan yang merupakan petani yang berpengalaman dalam budidaya bawang putih juga merupakan faktor penting yang berpengaruh dalam meningkatnya pengetahuan peserta pelatihan, sebagaimana yang disampaikan anonim (2014) bahwa faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pengetahuan antara lain adalah pendidikan, pekerjaan, umur, minat, pengetahuan dan informasi. setelah pelaksanaan pelatihan, selain diberikan pertanyaan dalam post test, reponsden (petani) juga diminta untuk memberikan penilaian terhadap materi untuk mengetahui sikap dan respon selanjutnya. penilaian diberikan terkait dengan: manfaat materi yang diberikan, kemudahan materi untuk diterapkan, kelebihan keuntungan yang didapat dalam penerapan materi, kesesuaian materi dengan kebutuhan usahatani, kesukaan atau ketertarikan terhadap materi yang diberikan, keinginan untuk menerapkan materi yang diberikan, dan rencana penerapan materi yang telah diberikan (tabel 6). tabel 6 menujukkan bahwa dari ketujuh kriteria sikap dan respon terhadap materi yang diberikan secara umum dinilai pada katerogi tinggi yaitu 100 persen. namun demikian untuk kriteria kemudahan materi dalam penerapannya 30 persen responden menilai pada kategori sedang. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa responden (petani) belum terlalu yakin terhadap kemudahan dalam penerapan materinya, untuk itu, sebagai tindak lanjut dibutuhkan pendampingan dalam penerapan teknologi budidaya. sementara itu, untuk kriteria kelebihan keuntungan yang didapat dalam penerapan materi, 40 persen responden menilai pada kategori sedang. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa responden (petani) belum melihat langsung kelebihan keuntungan dalam penerapan materi. sebagai tindak lanjutnya akan dilakukan demplot sehingga petani akan dapat merasakan dan melihat langsung kelebihan dan keuntungan yang diperoleh dalam menerapkan teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan. untuk kriteria rencana penerapan materi yang telah diberikan, 45 persen responden menilai pada kategori tinggi, 35 persen menilai pada kategori sedang, dan 20 persen menilai pada kategori rendah. perbedaan kategori ini berdasarkan pada tingkatan rencana responden (petani) dalam rencana penerapannya yaitu: (i) kategori 67 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 tinggi artinya responden (petani) berencana akan mencoba menerapkan sendiri, mencoba merapkan di kelompok tani, dan menyampaikan kepada petani lain di pertemuan kelompok; (ii) kategori sedang artinya responden (petani) berencana akan mencoba sendiri dan di kelompok tani; dan (iii) kategori rendah artinya responden (petani) hanya berencana akan mencoba sendiri. tabel 6. sikap dan respon terhadap materi yang diberikan keterangan: 1 = rendah; 2 = sedang; 3 = tinggi kesimpulan analisis uji wilcoxon dengan membandingkan pengetahuan peserta pelatihan melalui pretes dan postes menunjukkan pelatihan secara signifikan meningkatkan pengetahuan peserta. hasil penelitian membuktikan bahwa model pelatihan menggunakan metode ceramah efektif dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan petani tentang teknologi budidaya bawang putih ramah lingkungan di kabupaten karanganyar. peningkatan pengetahuan responden (petani) setelah mengikuti pelatihan rata-rata sebesar 54,52 persen. untuk sikap dan respon secara umum dinilai pada kategori tinggi yaitu: (i) manfaat materi yang diberikan sebesar 100 persen; (ii) kemudahan materi untuk diterapkan sebesar 70 persen; (iii) kelebihan keuntungan yang didapat dalam penerapan materi sebesar 60 persen; (iv) kesesuaian materi dengan kebutuhan usahatani sebesar 100 persen; (v) kesukaan atau ketertarikan terhadap materi yang diberikan sebesar 100 persen; (vi) keinginan untuk menerapkan materi yang diberikan sebesar 100 persen; dan (vii) rencana penerapan materi yang telah diberikan sebesar 45 persen. ucapan terima kasih sumber dana penelitian berasal dari dipa badan litbang pertanian jakarta dan bptp jawa tengah ta. 2015. ucapan terima kami ucapkan kepada tim kkp3sl bawang putih bptp jawa tengah tahun 2015 dan narasumber pelatihan dari balai penelitian sayuran lembang, laboratorium pengawasan hama dan penyakit sukoharjo, bptp jawa tengah, dan dinas pertanian tph kabupaten karanganyar. daftar pustaka anonim. 2009. peraturan menteri pertanian nomor: 52/ permentan/ot.140/ 12/2009 tentang metode penyuluhan pertanian. departemen pertanian. jakarta. anonim. 2014. panduan pelaksanaan dan kumpulan materi training of trainer (tot) “metodologi pengkajian penyuluhan dan evaluasi kinerja diseminasi hasil litkaji bagi penyuluh pertanian lingkup balai besar pengkajian dan pengembangan teknologi pertanian (bbp2tp) badan penelitan dan pengambangan pertanian” emawati, s., lutojo, h. irianto, t.h. rahayu, i.a. sari. 2012. efektivitas model pelatihan keterampilan berbasis usaha pertanian-peternakan terpadu pasca bencana erupsi gunung merapi di kecamatan selo, kabupaten boyolali. sains peternakan 10 (2): 85 – 92. hamalik, o. 2005. manajemen pelatihan ketenagakerjaan pendekatan terpadu: pengembangan sumber daya manusia. jakarta: bumi aksara. haslinda a. and m.y. mahyuddin. 2009. the effectiveness of training in the public service. american journal of scientific research :39 – 51. 68 jurnal agraris mujiman, h. 2006. manajemen pelatihan berbasis belajar mandiri. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. narbuko. 2004. metodologi penelitian. bumi aksara. jakarta. ooi, ai yee. 2007. the determinants of training effectiveness in malaysian organizations. international journal of business research. sastradipoera, k.. 2006. pengembangan dan pelatihan, suatu pendekatan manajemen sdm. bandung: penerbit kappa sigma.. siegel, s. 1994. statistik nonparametrik untuk ilmu-ilmu sosial. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. sugiyono. 2010. statistik nonparametrik untuk penelitian. bandung: alfabeta. suwarto. 1999. perilaku keorganisasian. yogyakarta: universitas atma jaya yogyakarta. yunastiti purwaningsih, sutomo, nurul istiqomah fakultas ekonomi universitas sebelas maret surakarta email: yst_stm@yahoo.com analisis dampak alih fungsi lahan terhadap tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga petani di karanganyar, jawa tengah abstract the aim of this study were to identify the sources of household income and to analyze factors that influence the accessibility of food of household food rice farmers who are not converted and converted their land. the study was conducted in karanganyar with sample area was colomadu district. the analysis technique used was description to identify the sources of household income and two different test mean used to determine whether there are differences in average income from various sources between households who did not convert and those who converted their land function. logit regression was used to analyze the factors that influence the accessibility of food expenditure. the results on sources of household income showed that most households of both have the main income from farming and self-employed. the monthly average income of farm households who were not converted their land greater than households who converted their land. land convertion, age, number of household members and assets have significant effect on household food accessibility, while farm income and household income were not significant. keywords: agricultural land convertion, sources of household income, food accessibility. intisari tujuan penelitian ini mengidentifikasi sumber pendapatan rumah tangga serta menganalisis faktor yang mempengaruhi pengeluaran pangan dan aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga petani padi yang tidak beralih fungsi lahan dan yang melakukan alih fungsi. penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten karanganyar dengan sampel daerah adalah kecamatan colomadu. teknik analisis yang digunakan adalah diskripsi untuk mengidentifikasi sumber pendapatan rumah tangga dan uji beda dua mean untuk mengetahui apakah ada perbedaan rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber antara rumah tangga petani yang tidak beralih fungsi dan yang melakukan alih fungsi. untuk mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi aksesibilitas pangan dianalisis dengan regresi logit. hasil penelitian mengenai sumber pendapatan rumah tangga menunjukkan sebagian besar rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi maupun alih fungsi lahan, mempunyai pendapatan utama dari usahatani dan wiraswasta. rata-rata pendapatan sebulan dari usahatani untuk rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi lahan lebih besar dibanding rumah tangga alih fungsi. alih fungsi lahan, umur, jumlah anggota rumah tangga dan aset signifikan berpengaruh terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga, sedangkan pendapatan usahatani dan pendapatan rumah tangga tidak signifikan. kata kunci: alih fungsi, sumber pendapatan rumah tangga, aksesibilitas pangan. doi:10.18196/agr.1213 99 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 pendahuluan peningkatan penduduk dan taraf hidup masyarakat mengakibatkan meningkatnya kebutuhan lahan untuk pemukiman atau kegiatan ekonomi lainnya. kebutuhan lahan ini kemudian mengambil lahan sawah produktif yang sarana dan prasarananya baik, dan umumnya lokasinya dekat perkotaan. dampak alih fungsi lahan secara makro adalah ketersediaan pangan yang berkurang dan berakibat pada berkurangnya ketahanan pangan secara nasional. secara mikro, alih fungsi lahan mengakibatkan petani yang semula mengusahakan tanaman pangan dan dapat memenuhi sendiri ketersediaan pangan (beras) bagi rumah tangganya menjadi tidak memiliki beras dan harus membeli. dampak lain dari alih fungsi lahan adalah hilangnya mata pencahariannya sebagai petani. seperti dinyatakan afandi (2011) bahwa dampak alih fungsi lahan sawah menyebabkan petani kehilangan pendapatan dari berusaha tani. dari segi produksi, dengan terkonversinya lahan sawah maka akan menghilangkan hasil produksi pertanian sebanyak luas lahan yang terkonversi, kerugian lain menurut afandi adalah hilangnya kesempatan kerja pada usaha tani, serta peluang pendapatan dan kegiatan ekonomi yang berhubungan dengan usaha tani, seperti asaha penyediaan saprotan, alsintan, penggilingan padi, penyewaan traktor. irawan (2005) menyatakan adanya alih fungsi lahan, akan menghilangkan pendapatan para petani, baik petani pemilik, penyewa, penggarap maupun buruh tani yang menggantungkan hidupnya dari usaha tani. apabila alih fungsi lahan, terutama lahan sawah produktif yang banyak menyerap tenaga kerja, maka akan terjadi penurunan kesempatan kerja, dan selanjutnya berdampak pada penurunan pendapatan para petani. dengan menurunnya pendapatan maka daya beli menurun dan berdampak pada menurunnya aksesibilitas ekonomi rumah tangga petani terhadap pangan. menurut santosa, dkk. (2011) alih fungsi lahan sangat sulit dihentikan, bahkan cenderung meningkat dengan luas yang semakin banyak, dan ini sangat berpengaruh pada ketahanan pangan. penelitian mengenai alih fungsi lahan dan dampaknya pada tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga belum banyak dilakukan oleh peneliti. ginting (2005) meneliti tentang dampak alih fungsi lahan terhadap pendapatan petani di desa munte kabupaten karo sumatera utara. hasil penelitin tersebut menunjukkan bahwa alih fungsi lahan sawah telah menjadikan petani mengganti komoditi yang ditanam dari padi sawah ke komoditi non padi sawah, sehingga berdampak pada penurunan pendapatan petani. secara nasional, petani tanaman pangan menjadi subyek yang penting dalam ketersediaan pangan. hal ini karena pemerintah mencanangkan kemandirian pangan melalui swasembada pangan. namun meningkatnya alih fungsi lahan pertanian produktif akan berdampak pada ketersediaan pangan secara wilayah dan secara nasional. alih fungsi lahan juga kemungkinan berdampak pada menurunnya tingkat kesejahteraan petani, atau berkurangnya ketahanan pangan rumah tangga petani. dengan demikian perlu diteliti tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga petani antara yang alih fungsi lahan dan yang tidak melakukan alih fungsi. petani yang tidak melakukan alih fungsi, maka mereka merupakan aktor penting dalam ketersediaan pangan, sehingga perlu diidentifikasi tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangganya dan faktor yang mempengaruhinya. fakta empiris menunjukkan petani yang menanam beras, membeli beras karena kekurangan beras. keadaan ini diduga disebabkan sedikitnya produksi yang membawa akibat pada kekurangan ketersediaan pangan secara fisik. atau bila semua hasil panennya dijual, dengan sedikitnya produksi maka pendapatan dari hasil panen juga sedikit. implikasi selanjutnya adalah keterbatasan daya beli atau keterbatasan akses pangan secara ekonomi. selanjutnya bagi petani yang sudah melakukan alih fungsi, kemungkinan berdampak pada menurunnya tingkat ketahanan pangan. penelitian ini mengidentifikasi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga petani yang beralih fungsi dan yang tidak alih fungsi. tingkat ketahanaan pangan dilihat dari aspek akses pangan secara ekonomi. fokus penelitian adalah faktor yang mempengaruhi akses rumah tangga terhadap pangan. penelitian mengenai akses pangan para rumah tangga petani tanaman pangan urgen untuk dilakukan, mengingat kedudukan strategis petani tanaman pangan dalam ketersediaan pangan secara nasional, namun dihadapkan pada meningkatnya alih fungsi lahan produktif. penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten karanganyar dengan sampel daerah adalah kecamatan colomadu. kecamatan colomadu diambil sebagai daerah penelitian dikarenakan banyaknya lahan produktif yang ditanami padi dan letaknya dekat perkotaan yaitu bersebelahan dengan kota solo bagian barat. berkembangnya kota solo menyebabkan banyak 100 jurnal agraris lahan produktif di kecamatan colomadu beralih fungsi untuk pemukiman dan industri. metode penelitian ini menggunakan metode survei dengan unit analisis adalah rumah tangga petani padi yang tidak beralih fungsi lahan dan yang melakukan alih fungsi lahan. jumlah sampel terdiri 100 rumah tangga yang tidak beralih fungsi dan 100 rumah tangga petani yang beralih fungsi. teknik analisis yang digunakan adalah diskripsi untuk mengidentifikasi sumber pendapatan rumah tangga dan uji beda dua mean untuk mengetahui apakah ada perbedaan rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber antara rumah tangga petani yang tidak beralih fungsi dan yang melakukan alih fungsi lahan. untuk mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi pengeluaran pangan dianalisis dengan regresi berganda (persamaan 1). untuk mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi aksesibilitas pangan dianalisis dengan regresi logit (persamaan 2). regresi berganda dan regresi logit masingmasing dilakukan terhadap 3 persamaan regresi, persamaan seluruh rumah tangga, rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi dan rumah tangga alih fungsi lahan. lpangi = ai + bi alih + ci lum + di ljang + ei dik + fi lpustan + gi lpend + hi laset + vi (1) keterangan : lpangi : log pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga ke i dimana i = 1,2,3i = 1 seluruh rumah tangga ; i=2 rumah tangga tidak alih fungsii = 3 rumah tangga alih fungsi alih : alih fungsi lahan tidak alih = 1 ; alih = 0 lum : log umur ljang : log jumlah anggota rumah tangga dik : tingkat pendidikan sma ke atas = 1 ; smp ke bawah = 0 lpustan : log pendapatan usahatani lpend : log pendapatan rumah tangga laset : log asset a : konstanta b,c,….h : koefisien regresi v : variabel pengganggu = − pi pi 1 ln api = aai + bbi alih + cci um + ddi jang + eei dik + ffi pustan + ggi pend + hhi aset + vvi (2) keterangan : api : aksesibiltas pangan rumah tangga ke i dimana i = 1,2,3akses baik = 1 ; akses tidak baik = 0i = 1 seluruh rumah tangga ; i=2 rumah tangga tidak alih fungsii = 3 rumah tangga alih fungsi alih : alih fungsi lahan tidak alih = 1 ; alih = 0 um : umur (tahun) jang : jumlah anggota rumah tangga (orang) dik : tingkat pendidikan sma ke atas = 1 ; smp ke bawah = 0 pustan : pendapatan usahatani (rp/musim) pend : pendapatan rumah tangga (rp/bulan) laset : aset (rp) aa : konstanta bb,cc,….hh: koefisien regresi vv : variabel pengganggu aksesibilitas pangan (ap) adalah akses rumah tangga terhadap pangan diukur secara katagori, baik dan tidak baik. indikator yang digunakan adalah proporsi pengeluaran pangan dari pengeluaran total rumah tangga, dengan cutting point sebesar 60% dari pengeluaran total rumah tangga. cutting point ini menggunakan sebagian indikator johnson dan toole (1991), yang diadopsi oleh maxwell et al., (2000). bila proporsi pengeluaran pangan < 60% dari pengeluaran total maka dinyatakan akses rumah tangga terhadap pangan adalah baik, dan sebaliknya bila proporsi pengeluaran pangan e” 60% dari pengeluaran total, dinyatakan akses tidak baik. hasil pembahasan karakteristik responden rata-rata umur responden menurut alih fungsi menunjukkan pada rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi adalah 64 tahun dan rumah tangga alih fungsi adalah 66 tahun. rata-rata jumlah anggota rumah tangga, baik rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi maupun alih fungsi sebanyak 2 orang. menurut jenis kelamin, sebagian besar responden adalah laki-laki (90% rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi dan 93% rumah tangga alih fungsi). menurut alih fungsi lahan, sebagian besar responden yang tidak alih fungsi adalah sd (49%), sebagian besar responden yang alih fungsi adalah smp (50%). sebagian besar lokasi lahan sawah responden yang dialihfungsikan adalah di dekat perumahan (67%). ratarata luas lahan yang dialih fungsikan adalah 2.628 m2 dengan rata-rata nilai lahan sebesar rp 689,470 juta. tingginya nilai lahan ini sejalan dengan cepatnya perkembangan pemukiman dan perindustrian di daerah kecamatan colomadu. kecepatan laju alih fungsi ini ditunjang dengan lokasi kecamatan colomadu yang dekat dengan daerah surakarta bagian barat. semakin berkembangya surakarta, akan berdampak pada semakin cepatnya perkembangan kecamatan colomadu menjadi daerah pemukiman dan perindustrian. lama responden mengalihfungsikan lahan rata-rata sudah selama 4,4 tahun atau alih fungsi terjadi sekitar tahun 2008-2009. distribusi responden menurut aksesibilitas pangan dan alih fungsi lahan menunjukkan sebagian besar 101 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 rumah tangga akses pangan baik adalah rumah tangga yang tidak melakukan alih fungsi lahan (57,14%), sedangkan rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik adalah rumah tangga yang melakukan alih fungsi lahan (66,67%). selengkapnya distribusi responden menurut alih fungsi lahan dan akses pangan disajikan pada tabel 1. sumber pendapatan rumah tangga rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber pendapatan menurut alih fungsi lahan disajikan pada tabel 2. menurut alih fungsi lahan, sebagian besar rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi maupun alih fungsi, mempunyai pendapatan yang bersumber dari usahatani dan wiraswasta. rata-rata pendapatan sebulan dari usahatani untuk rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi sebesar rp 1,593 juta dan rumah tangga alih fungsi sebesar rp 1,362 juta. secara statistik terdapat perbedaan rata-rata pendapatan antara kedua kelompok rumah tangga tersebut, rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi lebih besar dibanding rumah tangga alih fungsi. temuan ini menarik, bahwa rumah tangga alih fungsi masih mengusahakan usahatani. diduga mereka mengalihfungsikan sebagian lahan yang dimiliki, sehingga masih memiliki lahan pertanian yang dapat dibudidayakan. temuan ini juga mengindikasikan masih terdapatnya lahan sawah garapan di derah penelitian yang masih dibudidayakan, sehingga masih dapat menjadi sumber pendapatan bagi petani. selengkapnya rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber dan alih fungsi lahan disajikan pada tabel 2. rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber pendapatan menurut aksesibilitas pangan disajikan pada tabel 3. menurut aksesibilitas pangan, rumah tangga akses pangan baik mempunyai rata-rata pendapatan usahatani sebulan sebesar rp 1,570 juta, sedangkan rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik mempunyai rata-rata pendapatan usahatani sebulan sebesar rp 1,260 juta. secara statistik menunjukkan terdapat perbedaan rata-rata tersebut, (signifikan 1%). rata-rata pendapatan dari buruh tani rumah tangga akses pangan baik dan tidak baik, juga menunjukkan adanya perbedaan (signifikan 1%). dengan demikian rata-rata pendapatan dari pertanian (usahatani dan buruh tani) rumah tangga akses pangan baik lebih besar dibanding rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik. selengkapnya rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber dan akses pangan disajikan pada tabel 3. hasil penelitian pada tabel 3 menunjukkan rumah tangga dengan akses pangan baik, mempunyai banyak sumber pendapatan selain dari usahatani, yaitu pegawai negeri, wiraswasta, montir, sopir, pekerja bangunan, pramuwisma dan serabutan. rumah tangga dengan akses pangan tidak baik memiliki sumber pendapatan yang tabel 1. distribusi responden menurut alih fungsi lahan dan aksesibilitas pangan tabel 2. rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber menurut alih fungsi lahan keterangan : ** signifikan 5% (t hitung 2,1981 ; probabilitas = 0,0294) tabel 3. rata-rata pendapatan dari berbagai sumber menurut aksesibilitas pangan keterangan : ** signifikan 1% (t hitung usaha tani 3,6250 ; probabilitas 0,0004 dan t hitung buruh tani 3,4681; probabilitas 0,0007). 102 jurnal agraris terbatas, yaitu dari usahatani, buruh tani dan serabutan. ini mengimplikasikan bahwa semakin banyak sumber pendapatan rumah tangga, semakin tinggi pendapatan dan berdampak pada semakin baik aksesnya terhadap pangan. kepemilikan aset rumah tangga menurut alih fungsi lahan disajikan pada tabel 3, menunjukkan rata-rata nilai aset rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi lebih kecil dibanding rumah tangga alih fungsi. menurut jenis aset yang dimiliki, rata-rata nilai aset disel dan tabungan menunjukkan perbedaan antara rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi dan alih fungsi. nilai disel rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi lebih tinggi dibanding rumah tangga alih fungsi. nilai tabungan rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi lebih sedikit dibanding rumah tangga alih fungsi. ini menunjukkan bahwa rumah tangga alih fungsi diduga masih menyimpan sebagian hasil penjualan lahannya dalam bentuk tabungan. tabel 3. rata-rata nilai aset menurut alih fungsi lahan keterangan : *** signifikan 1%, * signifikan 10% tabel 4. rata-rata nilai aset menurut alih fungsi lahan keterangan : *** signifikan 1%, ** signifikan 5%, * signifikan 10% 103 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 kepemilikan aset rumah tangga menurut akesibilitas pangan menunjukkan rata-rata nilai aset rumah tangga akses pangan baik adalah rp 186,802 juta, rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik adalah rp 19,368 juta, serta secara statistic terdapat perbedaan antara keduanya (signifikan 1%). ini berarti rata-rata nilai aset rumah tangga akses pangan baik lebih besar dibanding dengan rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik. selengkapnya ratarata nilia aset menurut alih fungsi lahan disajikan dalam tabel 4. pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga rata-rata pengeluaran rumah tangga menurut menurut aksesibilitas pangan disajikan pada tabel 5. hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat perbedaan rata-rata pengeluaran pangan, pengeluaran non pangan, jumlah pengeluaran dan proporsi pengeluaran pangan antara rumah tangga akses pangan baik dan rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik (siginifikan 1% dan 5 %). rata-rata proporsi pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga akses pangan baik sebesar 0,4726, sedang rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik sebesar 0,6357. tabel 5. rata-rata pengeluaran rumah tangga menurut alih fungsi lahan keterangan : *** signifikan 1%, ** signifikan 5% pengeluaran pangan menurut komoditi pangan dan aksesibilitas pangan disajikan pada tabel 6. rata-rata pengeluaran beras rumah tangga akses pangan tidak baik lebih kecil dibanding rumah tangga akses pangan baik (signifikan 1%). selain beras yang merupakan pengeluaran dengan porsi besar, buah-buahan, makanan jadi dan mie instan juga merupakan porsi besar. selengkapnya dapat dilihat pada tabel 6. penentu pengeluaran pangan hasil analisis regresi berganda terhadap faktor penentu pengeluaran pangan untuk tidak alih fungsi, alih fungsi dan total rumah tangga disajikan pada tabel 7. hasil analisis regresi pengeluaran pangan terhadap rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi menunjukkan variabel umur signifikan berpengaruh positif dan pendapatan usaha tani signifikan berpengaruh negatif terhadap pengeluaran pangan, sedangkan jumlah anggota rumah tangga, tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan rumah tangga dan aset tidak signifikan. semakin tua umur maka semakin tinggi pengeluaran pangan. semakin tinggi pendapatan usahatani maka semakin rendah pengeluaran pangan. selanjutnya hasil analisis regresi pengeluaran pangan terhadap rumah tangga alih fungsi menunjukkan variabel umur dan jumlah anggota rumah tangga signifikan berpengaruh positif terhadap pengeluaran pangan, sedangkan tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan rumah tangga dan aset tidak signifikan. semakin tua umur, atau semakin banyak jumlah anggota rumah tangga, maka semakin tinggi pengeluaran pangan. hasil analisis regresi berganda terhadap faktor penentu pengeluaran pangan untuk total tumah tangga (tabel 7) menunjukkan variabel alih fungsi dan aset signifikan berpengaruh negatif, serta umur, jumlah anggota rumah tangga dan pendapatan rumah tangga signifikan berpengaruh positif terhadap pengeluaran pangan, sedangkan tingkat pendidikan dan pendapatan usaha tani tidak signifikan. rumah tangga yang tidak alih fungsi mempunyai pengeluaran pangan lebih kecil dibanding rumah tangga alih fungsi. semakin tinggi nilai aset yang dimiliki maka pengeluaran pangan akan semakin rendah. semakin tua umur, atau semakin banyak jumlah anggota rumah tangga, atau semakin tinggi pendapatan rumah tangga maka pengeluaran pangan akan semakin tinggi. temuan nilai aset berpengaruh negatif sesuai dengan hukum engel, semakin tinggi kekayaan maka pengeluaran pangan akan berkurang. penentu aksesibilitas pangan hasil analisis regresi logit terhadap faktor penentu aksesibilitas pangan pada rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi, alih fungsi dan total rumah tangga disajikan pada tabel 8. hasil analisis regresi logit terhadap rumahh tangga tidak alih fungsi menunjukkan variabel umur, jumlah anggota rumah tangga, tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan usahatani adalah signifikan berpengaruh terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi (peluang akses pangan baik atau akses pangan tidak baik), sedangkan sedangkan pendapatan rumah tangga dan aset tidak signifikan. umur dan jumlah anggota berpengaruh negatif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi. semakin tua umur maka semakin kecil peluang rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi untuk memiliki 104 jurnal agraris tabel 6. rata-rata pengeluaran pangan menurut komoditi dan alih fungsi lahan keterangan : *** signifikan 1%, ** signifikan 5% tabel 7. hasil analisis regresi faktor yang mempengaruhi pengeluaran pangan keterangan : *** signifikan 1%, ** signifikan 5%, * signifikan 10%, ts = tidak signifikan 105 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 akses pangan baik. semakin banyak jumlah anggota rumah tangga maka semakin kecil peluang rumah tangga untuk memiliki akses pangan baik. tingkat pendidikan berpengaruh positif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi. peluang akses pangan baik pada rumah tangga dengan tingkat pendidikan smta ke atas lebih besar dibanding dengan rumah tangga dengan tingkat pendidikan smtp ke bawah. pendapatan usahatani berpengaruh positif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi. semakin tinggi nilai aset maka semakin besar peluang rumah tangga untuk memiliki akses pangan baik. hasil analisis regresi logit terhadap faktor penentu aksesibilitas pangan pada rumah tangga alih fungsi (tabel 8) menunjukkan variabel umur, dan tingkat pendidikan adalah signifikan berpengaruh terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga alih fungsi (peluang akses pangan baik atau akses pangan tidak baik). umur berpengaruh negatif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga alih fungsi. semakin tua umur maka semakin kecil peluang rumah tangga untuk memiliki akses pangan baik. tingkat pendidikan berpengaruh negatif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga alih fungsi. peluang akses pangan baik pada rumah tangga dengan tingkat pendidikan smta ke atas lebih kecil dibanding dengan rumah tangga dengan tingkat pendidikan smtp ke bawah. hasil analisis regresi logit terhadap faktor penentu aksesibilitas pangan untuk total rumah tangga (table 8) menunjukkan variabel alih fungsi, umur, jumlah anggota rumah tangga dan aset adalah signifikan berpengaruh terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga (peluang akses pangan baik atau akses pangan tidak baik), sedangkan pendapatan usahatani dan pendapatan rumah tangga tidak signifikan. alih fungsi berpengaruh positif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga, rumah tangga yang tidak melakukan alih fungsi mempunyai peluang lebih besar untuk memiliki akses pangan baik dibanding dengan rumah tangga yang melakukan alih fungsi. umur dan jumlah anggita rumah tangga berpengaruh negatif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga. semakin tua umur maka semakin kecil peluang rumah tangga untuk memiliki akses pangan baik. semakin banyak jumlah anggota rumah tangga maka semakin kecil peluang rumah tangga untuk memiliki akses pangan baik. tingkat pendidikan berpengaruh positif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga. peluang akses pangan baik pada rumah tangga dengan tingkat pendidikan smta ke atas lebih besar dibanding dengan rumah tangga dengan tingkat pendidikan smtp ke bawah. aset berpengaruh positif terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga. semakin tinggi nilai aset maka semakin besar peluang rumah tangga untuk memiliki akses pangan baik. pengaruh masing-masing variabel independen terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga dilihat dari odds ratio. hasil perhitungan odds ratio disajikan pada tabel 9. tabel 8. hasil analisis regresi faktor yang mempengaruhi aksesibilitas pangan keterangan : *** signifikan 1%, ** signifikan 5%, * signifikan 10%, ts = tidak signifikan 106 jurnal agraris berdasar tabel 9, pada total rumah tangga, odds ratio variabel alih fungsi sebesar 41,75 berarti rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi lahan mempunyai peluang lebih besar 41,75 untuk akses pangan baik dibanding rumah tangga alih fungsi lahan, dengan menganggap variabel lain konstan. untuk variabel umur pada ketiga kelompok rumah tangga menunjukkan nilai odds ratio yang hampir sama sekitar 0,8 berarti peningkatan umur dengan satu persen maka kecenderungan rumah tangga untuk akses pangan baik berkurang sebesar 0,79 kali, dengan menganggap variabel lain konstan. begitu juga variabel tingkat pendidikan menunjukkan nilai odds ratio yang hampir sama sekitar 4,11 berarti rumah tangga tingkat pendidikan smta ke atas mempunyai peluang lebih besar 41,11 kali untuk akses pangan baik dibanding rumah tangga tingkat pendidikan smtp ke bawah, dengan menganggap variabel lain konstan. besarnya peluang rumah tangga untuk akses pangan baik dapat dihitung dengan memasukkan data variabel independen yang secara statistik signifikan ke dalam persamaan regresi hasil estimasi. hasil perhitungan pada rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi lahan dengan umur 64 tahun, jumlah anggota rumah tangga 2 orang, tingkat pendidikan smta ke atas dan nilai aset yang dimiliki sebesar rp 20.728.850, mempunyai peluang untuk akses pangan baik sebesar 5,22%. kesimpulan temuan bahwa sumber pendapatan utama rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi maupun alih fungsi berasal dari usahatani, bahwa rumah tangga yang tidak alih fungsi mempunyai peluang lebih besar untuk akses pangan baik, dan bahwa pendapatan usahatani pada rumah tangga tidak alih fungsi berpengaruh positif terhadap peluang untuk mempunyai akses pangan baik, maka pemerintah hendaknya menghentikan alih fungsi lahan atau mengendalikan alih fungsi lahan. upaya pengendalian ini tidak saja pada pembuatan aturan saja, namun juga mengawal dan memonitor pelaksanaan peraturan tersebut untuk menjamin tidak terjadinya alih fungsi lahan. pemberian insentif pada rumah tangga petani yang mengusahakan budidaya tani di lahan produktif perlu juga diupayakan, sehingga mereka tidak mengalihfungsikan lahannya. daftar pustaka afandi, muhamad nur. 2011. “analisis kebijakan alih fungsi lahan pertanian terhadap ketahanan pangan di jawa barat”. jurnal ilmu administrasi. vol. viii no.2 agustus 2011. ginting, memberita. 2005. “faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi alih fungsi lahan pertanian padi sawah terhadap pendapatan petani (studi kasus di desa munte kabuoaten karo)”. tesis. usu repository. 2007. http://google.com. diakses tanggal 7 desember 2012 irawan, bambang. 2005. “konversi lahan sawah : potensi dampak, pola pemanfaatannya, dan faktor determinan”. forum penelitian agro ekonomi. volume 23 no. 1, juli 2005 : 1 – 18. jonsson, u. and toole, d. 1991. household food security and nutrition: a conceptual analysis. unicef mimeo. tabel 9. odds ratio koefisien regresi aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga keterangan : *** signifikan 1%, ** signifikan 5%, * signifikan 10%, ts = tidak signifikan 107 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 maxwell, d; c. levin; m.a. klemeseau; m.rull; s.morris and c.aliadeke. 2000. “urban livelihoods and food nutrition security in greater accra,ghana”. ifpri in collaborative with noguchi memorial for medical research and world health organization. research report no.112. washington, d.c. santosa, i gusti ngurah; gede menaka adnyana dan i ketut kartha dinata. 2011. “dampak alih fungsi lahan sawah terhadap ketahanan pangan beras”. prosiding seminar nasional budidaya pertanian : urgensi dan strategi pengendalian alih fungsi lahan pertanian. bengkulu 7 juli 2011. isbn 978-602-19247-0-9. bambang yudi ariadi1) maman haeruman k2) dini rochdiani2) elly rasmikayati2) 1) jurusan agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah malang 2) program doktor ilmu pertanian, universitas padjadjaran bandung email: ariadiyudi0@gmail.com model dinamik manajemen usahatani ubikayu dynamic model of cassava farm management abstract cassava production is very important in kabupaten trenggalek to fulfill need of local industries and market demand from outside region. in fact, cassava production is not stable, one of the cause is price fluctuation. before planting time, cassava price is expencive and farmers are interested to plant, however, at harvest time the price is fall so that farmers get lose. such condition caused farmers to change to plant others commodity. the study aimed to: 1) conduct maping of the real system of cassava farm management and farmer’s performance in kabupaten trenggalek east java; 2) analyze the components and its relevant on cassava farm management and farmer’s performance; 3) design model of cassava farm management and farmer’s performance in the perspective of system dynamic. the system dynamic analysis that did maping the real system creat a mental model, causal loop diagram (cld). there are two model sub-systems, they are sub-system of farm management are sub-system of farmer’s performance. based on the mental model, next we design flow diagram (fd) of the model and model validation by using software of vensim. in the model of farm management and farmer’s performance, it was found a leverage factor namely technology of integrated farming system (ifs). if a component of ifs is change or slightly increased/decreased, the whole system will also changed. keywords: farm management, farmer’s performance, system dynamic, integrated farming system. pendahuluan jawa timur merupakan propinsi sentra produksi ubi kayu terbesar di pulau jawa dan kedua secara nasional setelah provinsi lampung (bps dan direktorat jendral tanaman pangan, 2011). pada tahun 2010 jawa timur merupakan propinsi percontohan nasional dalam pengembangan ubi kayu menjadi tepung mocaf (modified cassava flour). kabupaten trenggalek merupakan salah satu kontributor terpenting dalam produksi ubi kayu, di kabupaten ini terdapat 2.061 usaha rakyat yang menggunakan ubi kayu sebagai bahan baku utama (disperindag, kab.trenggalek, 2012). dalam pengembangan ubi kayu, pemerintah daerah dan entrepreneur telah dilibatkan mulai dari pengembangan di hulu sampai hillir. namun, belum ada sistem yang mengatur koordinasi di antara mereka. produksi ubi kayu di kabupaten trenggalek sangat penting untuk memenuhi kebutuhan industri setempat maupun untuk dipasarkan ke luar daerah. faktanya produksi ubi kayu tidak stabil, salah satunya disebabkan oleh fluktuasi harga. saat menjelang tanam, harga ubi kayu tinggi dan menarik petani untuk menanam, namun saat panen harganya jatuh sehingga petani mengalami kerugian. tantangan yang paling menarik dan kritikal bagi petani (manajer doi:10.18196/agr.114 26 jurnal agraris usahatani) saat ini adalah kompleksitas yang secara inheren ada dalam pengelolaan usahataninya. interaksi antara komponen biofisik dan sosial ekonomi serta faktor-faktor legal dalam pengelolaan usahatani, merupakan salah satu permasalahan yang harus dihadapi. permasalahan yang kompleks dan dinamis tersebut jika dilihat secara sempit dan terfragmentasi berakibat pada disain penelitian yang kurang sesuai dan berimplikasi pada rekomendasi yang salah. analisis sistem adalah proses yang menekankan pada pendekatan holistik terhadap pemecahan masalah dan menggunakan model untuk mengidentifikasi dan meniru karakteristik dari sistem yang kompleks serta membuat alternatif skenario pemecahan masalah. tentu saja pendekatan sistem bukanlah satu-satunya cara untuk untuk membuat skenario-skenario tersebut, tetapi dinamika sistem sangat berguna untuk menggambarkan pemahaman tentang sistem yang ada di alam nyata. kompleksitas produksi ubi kayu selain dapat dipengaruhi oleh alam (iklim), waktu panen, fluktuasi harga, pemasaran, juga dipengaruhi oleh kebijakankebijakan yang diterapkan oleh pemda kabupaten trenggalek. kompleksitas produksi yang demikian ini membuat pengetahuan kita tentangnya tidak pernah lengkap. dalam keadaan demikian analisis sistem dan simulasi sering dipakai untuk untuk menguji hipotesishipotesis kita tentang bagaimana sistem bekerja (grant et al., 1997). jika kita dapat memodelkan sistem produksi ubi kayu maka skenario untuk mengelola usahatani dapat dilaksanakan secara baik, dan berimplikasi pada kinerja petani. penelitian ini bertujuan: 1) melakukan maping dari sistem nyata usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu; 2) menganalisis unsur-unsur dan relevansinya dalam usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu; dan 3) merancang model manajemen usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu dalam perspektif sistem dinamik. manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah dapat mendesain suatu kebijakan untuk memperbaiki persoalan usahatani sebagai upaya meningkatkan kinerja petani. metode penelitian tahapan penelitian dalam perspektif sistem dinamik artikel ini merupakan bagian dari penelitian disertasi yang menggunakan pendekatan sistem dinamik untuk mencari informasi yang menjelaskan (explanatory research) tentang model manajemen usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu dalam perspektif dynamic system. prosedur ilmiah pendekatan sistem dinamik (gambar 1.) menunjukkan analisis struktur dari fenomena perilaku dunia nyata (base run). analisis struktur dunia nyata adalah mencari elemen-elemen pembentuk dan pola keterkaitannya. perilaku dunia nyata tersebut memiliki dinamika berdasarkan perubahan waktu yang bersifat nonlinier dan mengandung ketidakpastian. fenomena gambar 1. prosedur ilmiah pemodelan kebijakan (saeed,1994) 27 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 yang diperoleh dari hasil penilaian struktur (struktur assessment) tersebut selanjutnya dibuat struktur model dasar melalui logika berpikir induktif. setelah penstrukturan model, selanjutnya dilakukan simulasi untuk mendapatkan pemahaman (understanding) tentang perilaku yang tidak dikehendaki. pemahaman perilaku model tersebut menggunakan logika berpikir deduktif (menggunakan logika dan matematika). struktur model maupun perilaku model divalidasi (pembuktian kebenaran) dengan struktur dan perilaku dunia nyata. berdasarkan pemahaman model tersebut selanjutnya dirancang suatu kebijakan (policy/direction) untuk memperbaiki persoalan tersebut (tasrif, 2005). implementasi penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten trenggalek, jawa timur, yang ditentukan berdasarkan rekomendasi dinas pertanian dan dinas perindustrian perdagangan pertambangan dan energi (disperindagtamben) yang menyatakan bahwa kabupaten trenggalek merupakan daerah sentra ubi kayu dan sekaligus sentra agroindustri yang mengolah bahan baku ubi kayu. untuk mencapai tujuan penelitian dikumpulkan data, informasi dan pengetahuan yang berasal dari sumber primer dan sekunder. pengumpulan data, informasi dan pengetahuan tersebut diperoleh melalui observasi, diskusi dan wawancara dengan responden. kriteria responden yang dipilih harus representatif dan kredibel untuk informasi pada level mikro. jenis data yang diperlukan untuk penelitian ini terdiri dari tiga jenis, yaitu data numerik, data tertulis dan model mental. data numerik merupakan parameter atau besaran kuantitatif yang terdapat dalam struktur fisik dan keputusan pada sistem usahatani ubi kayu yang diteliti. data tertulis merupakan berbagai rujukan yang digunakan dalam pemodelan. data tertulis diperoleh melalui data sekunder, jurnal penelitian dan buku yang relevan dengan penelitian. model mental merupakan kaidah yang melandasi pembuatan keputusan (petani). data numerik dan model mental diperoleh melalui wawancara dengan responden dan diskusi kelompok terbatas (focus group discussion) dengan pemangku kepentingan (stakeholder) terkait. data model mental, kepustakaan dan numerik yang dikumpulkan diolah menjadi rancangan model dengan menggunakan metodologi sistem dinamik. dalam penyusunan model tersebut digunakan perangkat lunak vensim professional academic version 5,7. perangkat lunak tersebut digunakan untuk pembuatan diagram sebab akibat dan mendesain diagram alir model yang dikaji. hasil dan pembahasan model mental sistem nyata usahatani dan kinerja petani dasar pembuatan model mental yang direpresentasikan dalam bentuk diagram sebab akibat atau causal loop diagram (cld) ini adalah keadaan nyata aktivitas usahatani dan kinerja petani ubikayu di kabupaten trenggalek, jawa timur. kebanyakan para pelaku (petani) dalam praktek usahatani bertindak relatif independen antara satu petani dengan petani lainnya. akibatnya, setiap pelaku bertindak berdasarkan informasi lokal yang mereka miliki dan pada akhirnya mengakibatkan terjadinya distorsi informasi dalam usahataninya. distorsi informasi tersebut menyebabkan kinerja menjadi kurang efektif. berbagai komponen dalam usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu tersebut ditemukan dan dicari interelasinya satu sama lainnya dengan menggunakan metode diagram sebab akibat. tanda panah pada diagram diberi tanada (+) atau (-) tergantung pada hubungan yang terjadi apakah positif atau negatif. tanda (+) menunjukkan hubungan yang terjadi antara dua faktor yang berubah dalam arah yang sama, sebaliknya tanda (-) menunjukkan hubungan yang terjadi antara dua faktor tersebut berubah dalam arah yang berlawanan. secara diagramatik hubungan antar elemen atau komponen dalam model sistem usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu di gambarkan sebagai berikut. (lihat gambar 2) sub model manajemn usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu interaksi variabel dan sebab akibat yang kompleks dari struktur manajemen usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu menyebabkan upaya pemahaman fenomena tersebut harus dikembangkan dari diagram sebab akibat (cld) menjadi model simulasi berupa diagram sub model yang merupakan hasil dari pengembangan diagram alir (flow diagram). diagram sub model tersebut diidentifikasi dan dikembangkan struktur fisik dan struktur keputusan yang menjadi pembentuk perilaku produksi dan kinerja petani ubi kayu yang dinamis yang senantiasa berubah sejalan 28 jurnal agraris dengan waktu. struktur fisik direpresentasikan dengan aliran material dan aliran uang, sedangkan struktur keputusan direpresentasikan dengan aliran informasi yang menjadi pengendali keputusan aliran material dan uang. dalam diagram sub model tersebut terdapat beberapa simbol, yaitu segi empat menyatakan stok (level), simbul katup (valve) menyatakan aliran (rate atau decision point) dan simbol tulisan variabel pelengkap. pembuatan diagram sub model tersebut dengan menggunakan perangkat lunak vensim. sub model manajemen usahatani menggambarkan proses usahatani ubi kayu petani. produksi ubi kayu yang dihasilkan ditentukan oleh jumlah tanaman ubi kayu di masa produktif, produktivitas ubi kayu per pohon dan input produksi yang digunakan. jumlah tanaman pada masa produktif ditentukan oleh aktivitas pertumbuhan atau pemeliharaan. aktivitas pertumbuhan atau pemeliharaan ubi kayu dipengaruhi oleh fraksi tanaman tumbuh, penyulaman dan waktu penyulaman. fraksi tanaman tumbuh merupakan rasio dari tanaman masa tumbuh hidup dengan total tanaman. tanaman masa tumbuh hidup merupakan efek penggunaan pupuk organik. jumlah tanaman masa tumbuh dipengaruhi oleh aktivitas penanaman. aktivitas penanaman ditentukan oleh seberapa besar tanaman ubi kayu yang ditanam. jumlah tanaman ubi kayu yang ditanam dipengaruhi oleh luas lahan yang dimiliki, populasi tanaman per hektar, waktu tanam dan jumlah bibit yang dibutuhkan. sub model kinerja petani ubi kayu merupakan indikator kinerja berupa kas petani ubi kayu yang diperoleh karena aktivitas usahatani yang dilakukan. kas petani merupakan selisih antara penerimaan dengan pengeluaran usahatani. likuiditas kas petani menunjukkan kemampuan kas petani dalam mengcover gambar 2. causal loop diagram (cld) usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu 29 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 kebutuhan usahatani. usahatani dipengaruhi oleh jumlah ubi kayu yang dihasilkan dari usahatani dikalikan dan harga ubi kayu. penerimaan usahatani direpresentasikan dengan nilai tambah, profitabilitas dan keuntungan usahatani. dengan demikian perilaku penerimaan usahatani dapat dilihat oleh perilaku nilai tambah, profitabilitas dan keuntungan usahatani. secara skematis sub model manajemen usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu digambarkan dalam flow diagram pada gambar 3 a dan 3 b. dalam model yang dikaji umpan balik yang dilakukan oleh petani yaitu dengan melakukan upaya perbaikan manajemen usahataninya. salah satu upaya yang dilakukan adalah mendorong inovasi teknologi integrated farming system ke pelaku usahataninya, yaitu mengintegrasikan secara horizontal usaha di tingkat petani ubi kayu, peternak dan pengelola agroindustri. adopsi inovasi teknologi integrasi pada petani ubi kayu akan menciptakan daya dukung yang tinggi terutama dalam persediaan pupuk organik untuk kebutuhan usahataninya. pupuk bagi petani merupakan hal yang vital, ketersediaan pupuk yang terjangkau (murah dan mudah) akan menekan biaya usahataninya dan memperlancar proses budidayanya. tercukupi kebutuhan pupuk akan meningkatkan produksi ubi kayu, peningkatan produksi berimplikasi pada peningkatan kinerja petani. peningkatan ketersediaan ubi kayu akan mengurangi gap persediaan ubi kayu di tingkat petani dan kebutuhan ubi kayu ditingkat agroindustri. rendahnya gap ini adalah hal yang sangat penting bagi agroindustri, karena dengan demikian akan terpenuhi kebutuhan bahan baku ubi kayu untuk keberlangsungan proes produksi di agroindustri. keterjangkauan agroindustri terhadap bahan baku ubi kayu (murah dan mudah) akan menentukan efisiensi produksi di agroindustri. efisiensi penting karena akan mempengaruhi harga produk olahan ubi kayu, hal ini berimplikasi pada daya saing tinggi di pasar. kegiatan agroindustri olahan ubi kayu memiliki potensi terhadap pencemaran, hal ini dapat difahami karena selain olahan ubi kayu yang diproduksi, juga menghasilkan limbah (padat dan cair) yang sangat mengganggu terhadap lingkungan. adopsi inovasi teknologi integrasi pada pengolah agroindustri akan menciptakan daya dukung yang tinggi terutama dalam persediaan pakan untuk kebutuhan usaha ternak. pakan bagi peternak merupakan hal yang vital, ketersediaan pakan yang terjangkau (murah dan mudah) akan menekan biaya usaha ternaknya dan memperlancar proses budidayanya. tercukupi kebutuhan pakan akan meningkatkan produksi ternak (daging dan susu), peningkatan produksi ini berimplikasi pada peningkatan ketersediaan dan pendapatan bagi peternak. peningkatan ketersediaan pakan akan mengurangi gap persediaan pakan di tingkat agroindustri dan kebutuhan pakan di tingkat peternak. rendahnya gap ini adalah hal yang sangat penting bagi peternak, karena dengan gambar 3.a. flow diagram model manajemen usahatani ubi kayu 30 jurnal agraris demikian akan terpenuhi kebutuhan pakan untuk keberlangsungan proes budidaya ternak di usaha ternak. keterjangkauan usaha ternak terhadap pakan (murah dan mudah) akan menentukan efisiensi budidaya di usaha ternak. efisiensi penting karena akan mempengaruhi harga ternak (daging dan susu), hal ini berimplikasi pada daya saing tinggi di pasar. kegiatan usaha ternak memiliki potensi terhadap pencemaran, hal ini dapat dipahami karena selain daging dan susu yang diproduksi, juga menghasilkan limbah (faeses dan urine) yang sangat mengganggu terhadap lingkungan. adopsi inovasi teknologi integrasi pada peternak akan menciptakan daya dukung yang tinggi terutama dalam persediaan pupuk untuk kebutuhan usahatani. pupuk bagi petani merupakan hal yang vital, ketersediaan pupuk yang terjangkau (murah dan mudah) akan menekan biaya usahataninya dan memperlancar proses budidayanya. tercukupi kebutuhan pupuk akan meningkatkan produksi ubi kayu, peningkatan produksi ini berimplikasi pada peningkatan ketersediaan dan pendapatan bagi petani. peningkatan ketersediaan pupuk akan mengurangi gap persediaan pupuk ditingkat usaha ternak dan kebutuhan pupuk ditingkat usahatani. rendahnya gap ini adalah hal yang sangat penting bagi petani, karena dengan demikian akan terpenuhi kebutuhan pupuk untuk keberlangsungan proes budidaya di usahatani. keterjangkauan usahatani terhadap pakan (murah dan mudah) akan menentukan efisiensi budidaya di usahatani. efisiensi penting karena akan mempengaruhi harga ubi kayu, hal ini berimplikasi pada daya saing tinggi di pasar. perilaku produksi dan kinerja petani ubi kayu perilaku produksi (4a) di tingkat petani ditentukan oleh jumlah tanaman pada masa produktif, produktivitas ubi kayu per pohon dan input produksi yang digunakan. dalam hasil simulasi dalam kurun waktu 100 tahun, gambar 3.b. flow diagram model kinerja petani ubi kayu 4(a) perilaku produksi ubi kayu 4(b) perilaku kas petani 31 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 menunjukkan perilaku produksi ubi kayu yang terus meningkat dan mulai tahun ke 30 perilaku tersebut memiliki kecenderungan stabil. hal ini juga sama dengan perilaku dari kas petani. kesimpulan 1. model mental yang disebut dengan causal loop diagram (cld) merupakan maping dari sistem nyata aktivitas usahatani dan kinerja petani ubi kayu dipecah menjadi 2 sub sistem model, yaitu sub sistem usahatani dan sub sistem kinerja petani ubi kayu. 2. leverage atau faktor pengungkit dalam sistem yaitu teknologi integrated farming system (ifs) yang bila diubah sedikit saja sistem secara keseluruhan akan berubah. daftar pustaka bps, 2008. biro pusat statistik propinsi jawa timur. http// www.bps.go.id. astuti, p. 2010. sistem penunjang keputusan intelejen chaostic untuk strategi pengembangan agroindustri ubikayu. jurnal teknik industri, issn: 1411-6430. muchlis, a., sumarwan, u., suharjo, b. and maulana, a., 2012. the role of socio_cultural in relationship marketing: case findings on farmers in west java. euoropeaan journal of scientific research, 75 (4), pp. 523535. coyle, r.g., 1996. system dynamics modelling; a practical approach, chapman & hall, london. ford, a., 1999. modeling the environment: an introduction to system dynamics models of environmental systems. island press. washington dc. falade, k., & akingbala, j. (2011). utilization of cassava for food. food reviews international, 27, pp.51–83. doi:10.1080/87559129.2010.518296 heizer jay, barry brander, 1991. production and operations management. allyn and bacon a division of simon and schuster, inc.usa hidaka, s., 1999. system dynamics: a new tool for tqm. the proceedings of the 17 th international conference of the system dynamics society and 5 th australian & new zealand systems conference. kennedy, m ., 1999. some issues in building system dynamic modelds designed to improve the information systems investment appraisal process. the proceedings of the l7th intemational confeience of the system dynamics society and 5 th australian & new zealand systems conference. marquez, a.c., 2010. dynamic modelling for supply chain management. springer-verlag london limited. somantri, supriatna, a. dan machfud, 2006. analisis sistem dinamik untuk kebijakan penyediaan ubi kayu (studi kasus di kabupaten bogor). buletin technologi pascapanen pertanian vol 2 tahun 2006. tsegai, d. w., & kormawa, p. m. (2009). the determinants of urban households’ demand for cassava and cassava products in kaduna, northern nigeria: an application of the aids model. european journal of development research, 21 3, 435–447. ukwuru, m. u., & egbonu, s. e. (2013). recent development in cassava-based products research. academia journal of food research, 1, 1–13. yandra, marimin, irawadi jamaran, eriyatno, hiroyuki tamura. 2007. an integration of multi-objective genetic algorithm and fuzzy for optimization of agroindustrial supply chain design. proceeding of the 2007 isss conference. lestari rahayu program studi agribisnis fakultas pertanian universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta lestari-_rahayu@yahoo.com aksesibilitas petani bawang merah terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro sebagai sumber pembiayaan the shallot farmer’s accessibility to microfinance institution as the source of financing abstract microfinance institutions (mfis) is an institution conducting the provision of financial services to micro and small entrepreneurs including shallot farmers. this study aims to determine the accessibility and the influencing factors of farmer’s decisions in determining the source of financing for shallot business sustainability. the study was conducted in bantul as the centre production of shallot in diy. two hundred and five of farmers (205 persons) as microfinance client taken randomly, were interviewed and observed in collecting primary data, and then analyzed using multinomial logit model. farmers group is the microfinance institution that the most accessible for farmers to access shortterm credit scheme (seasonal). the farmers can defer the payment to the next season in case the crop failure, while the farmers perceive that the administrative procedures is simple. tne education level of farmers, the farming experience, the number of family members, the frequency of credit, the farmers’ perception about mfi services, the total income, and the amount of credits are the factors that influence the decisions of farmers in the selection of the mfi as source of business finance. keywords: microfinance institution, shallot farmers, farmers group pendahuluan petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul mengusahakan bawang merah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan benih dan kebutuhan konsumsi. walaupun pengembangan usahatani bawang merah cukup prospektif, sempitnya luas penguasaan lahan, lemahnya penguasaan teknologi dan lemahnya permodalan menjadi kendala bagi petani untuk memanfaatkan peluang usaha secara optimal (saptana 2002, syukur 2003, pranaji 2004, ashari 2006) lemahnya permodalan menyebabkan petani di kabupaten bantul tidak memiliki jaminan terhadap keberlangsungan usahataninya. lemahnya permodalan merupakan permasalahan pokok yang dihadapi petani, karena usahatani bawang merah tergolong padat modal baik dalam penggunaan input produksi maupun tenaga kerja yang dibutuhkan (rp 3 juta per 0,14 hektar atau rp 20 juta per ha). kecukupan modal melalui bantuan pembiayaan dapat berfungsi efektif untuk mencapai tingkat optimal dalam skala usaha dan adopsi teknologi maupun pasca panen. banyak program pembiayaan yang telah ditawarkan tapi masih sedikit petani yang memanfaatkannya. pemerintah di kabupaten bantul mengupayakan sarana untuk menstimulasi petani agar tetap melakukan usahatani secara kontinyu melalui penguatan modal dengan bantuan kredit seperti kredit usaha tani (kut), kredit ketahanan pangan (kpk) dan penguatan modal usaha kelompok (pmuk) yang disalurkan melalui kelompok tani. namun tidak semua petani dapat memanfaatkan kredit program pemerintah ini karena terbatasnya dana yang tergantung dari user typewriter doi: 10.18196/agr.118 53 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 alokasi anggaran pemerintah. selain itu ada anggapan, penyaluran kredit melalui kelompok dinilai tidak praktis, selain kepercayaan atas kemampuan dan kejujuran pengurus kelompok tidak sepenuhnya dapat diandalkan. sedangkan sumber pembiayaan dari lembaga keuangan formal (perbankan) lebih diakses oleh golongan petani yang menguasai lahan luas dan/atau pedagang secara individual. sedangkan para petani yang menguasai lahan sempit mengalami kesulitan mengakses lembaga formal tersebut yang antara lain disebabkan belum memiliki aset yang dapat dijadikan jaminan (seperti sertifikat pemilikan tanah, bpkb kendaraan bermotor. selain persyaratan ketat juga prosedur administrasi dinilai rumit dan memerlukan waktu lebih lama. akibatnya, saat petani membutuhkan dana yang bersifat segera (misalnya untuk membeli obat-obatan), dana tersebut belum tersedia. selain itu, sebagian besar petani beranggapan bahwa mekanisme pembayaran harus dilakukan bulanan. sebagai penyedia dana bagi beberapa petani, lembaga informal dinilai sangat fleksibel dan relatif mudah diakses karena tidak memerlukan prosedur administrasi yang rumit seperti halnya lembaga pembiayaan formal. sumber pembiayaan yang berasal dari rumah tangga petani sering dipandang tidak cukup untuk membiayai peningkatan usahataninya, karena pada umumnya rumah tangga petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul adalah petani kecil dan bermodal lemah. untuk itu petani masih memerlukan alternatif sumber pembiayaan lain yaitu dengan cara meminjam pada lembaga pembiayaan yang ada juga dilakukan sesuai dengan aksesibilitas masing-masing petani.. sehingga perlu dilakukan penelitian bagaimana aksesbilitas dan penilaian petani terhadap keragaan lembaga keuangan mikro yang ada serta faktor apa yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani dalam menentukan sumber pembiayaan untuk keberlanjutan agribisnis bawang merah metode penelitian penentuan lokasi dilakukan secara purposif karena kabupaten bantul merupakan sentra produksi bawang merah. penelitian dilakukan terhadap 205 petani yang menjadi nasabah bpr (bank perkreditan rakyat), bukp (badan usaha kredit pedesaan), bmt (baitul maal wattamwil), kud (koperasi unit desa), dan kelompok tani, di kecamatan srandakan, sanden, dan kretek yang diambil secara simple random sampling dan sensus. pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan wawancara dan observasi. untuk aksesibilitas petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro dianalisis secara deskriptif, sedangkan penilaian petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro diukur dengan skor. selanjutnya untuk mencari rata-rata skor dengan arithmetic mean, dihitung dengan rumus sebagai berikut. n x x σ = keterangan : x = mean x = nilai tiap skor n = banyaknya data selanjutnya data skor yang diperoleh dibagi dalam 3 kategori. 1,00 – 1,99 = penilaian petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro kurang baik 2,00 – 2,99 = penilaian petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro cukup baik 3,00 – 4,00 = penilaian petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro baik untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani dalam memanfaatkan lembaga keuangan mikro sebagai sumber modal usahatani bawang merah digunakan model analisis multinominal logit. 1) keputusan lkm bpr probabilitasnya : ( ) 621 ...1 1 0pr0 zzz eee xyp ++++ === 2) keputusan mengakses lkm bukp : ( ) 621 1 ...1 1 1pr1 zzz z eee xyp ++++ === 3) keputusan mengakses lkm bmt : ( ) 621 2 ...1 1 2pr2 zzz z eee xyp ++++ === 4) keputusan lkm kud : ( ) 621 3 ...1 1 3pr3 zzz z eee xyp ++++ === 5) keputusan lkm kel tan : 54 jurnal agraris ( ) 621 4 ...1 1 4pr4 zzz z eee xyp ++++ === karena dalam penelitian ini digunakan lima kategori keputusan, maka model regresi logistik sebagai berikut : in 101033221101 0 1 ... xxxxz p p βββββ +++++==⎟⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎝ ⎛ in 101033221102 0 2 ... xxxxz p p βββββ +++++==⎟⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎝ ⎛ ……….. in 101033221104 0 4 ... xxxxz p p βββββ +++++==⎟⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎝ ⎛ hasil dan pembahasan aksesibilitas petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro lembaga keuangan yang terlibat dalam penyaluran kredit mikro disebut dangan lembaga keuangan mikro (lkm). definisi lembaga keuangan mikro atau micro finance institution adalah lembaga yang melakukan kegiatan penyediaan jasa keuangan kepada pengusaha kecil dan mikro serta masyarakat berpenghasilan rendah yang tidak terlayani oleh lembaga keuangan formal dan yang telah berorientasi pasar untuk tujuan bisnis. menurut krishnamurti (2005), walaupun terdapat banyak definisi keuangan mikro, namun secara umum terdapat tiga elemen penting dari berbagai definisi tentang keuangan mikro. pertama, memyediakan beragam jenis pelayanan keuangan; kedua, melayani rakyat miskin; ketiga, menggunakan prosedur dan mekanisme yang kontekstual dan fleksibel. sementara usman dkk (2004) membagi lkm di indonesia menjadi 3 golongan besar, ditinjau dari sisi penyedia kredit dikelompokkan menjadi a) kredit formal adalah kredit yang disediakan oleh lembaga kredit formal berbadan hukum baik bank maupun non-bank; b) kredit informal adalah kredit yang disediakan oleh suatu lembaga, kelompok simpan pinjam atau perorangan yang tidak berbadan hukum; c) kredit program adalah kredit yang disediakan melalui program pemeerintah yang mempunyai tujuan khusus dan diberikan dalam kurun waktu tertentu seperti kredit ketahanan pangan (kkp), dana penguatan modal usaha kelompok (pmuk), program peningkatan pendapatan petani kecil dan nelayan (p4k). petani bawang merah dalam menjalankan kegiatan usahataninya memerlukan modal yang cukup besar/padat modal. modal yang dibutuhkan petani dapat tabel 1 lembaga keuangan mikro yang diakses petani tabel 2. rata-rata skor penilaian petani terhdap lkm 55 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 berasal dari 2 sumber yaitu modal dalam yaitu modal sendiri dan berasal dari luar yaitu meminjam pada lembaga keuangan mikro (bank bantul, lkm bukp, bmt, kud, kelompok tani) tabel 1 menginformasikan bahwa dalam pembiayaan usahatani tujuh puluh persen petani menggunakan modal sendiri. sumber pembiayaan dari luar yang banyak diakses oleh petani adalah dari kelompok tani, yang merupakan kredit program dari pemerintah yang disalurkan lewat kelompok (pmuk). sebenarnya petani yang berminat untuk mendapatkan kredit dari kelompok banyak namun karena kemampuan keuangan pemerintah terbatas maka jumlah petani peserta juga dibatasi. skim kredit program sangat sesuai karena suku bunganya rendah, agunan sertifikat tanah dapat diwakili oleh sertifikat milik pengurus kelompok tani dan pengembalian pinjaman dlakukan secara musiman. kelompok tani dalam pengelolaan pembiayaan pertanian menggunakan sistem tanggung renteng yaitu dalam pengelolaannya ttanggung jawab bersama diantara anggota dalam satu kelompok atas segala kewajiban kelompok berlandaskan keterbukaan dan saling percaya. dengan sistem ini ternyata bisa mengurangi kemacetan kredit, karena petani selain mendapatkan modal kerja (working capital) juga mendapatkan modal sosial (social capital). bagi petani kecil social capital nilainya sangat tinggi karena apabila petani tersebut yang menyebabkan kemacetan kredit maka akan berhadapan dengan lingkungan masyrakat sekitarnya, sehingga petani berusaha jangan sampai kehilangan social capital sebagai satu-satunya asset intangible paling bernilai. selain itu karena dengan adanya ppl dikelompok tani, pendampingan untuk usahataninya menjadi lebih bagus sehingga usahataninya dapat berkembang dengan baik yang akhirnya dapat meningkatkan pendapatan. setiap kegiatan usahatani dievaluasi secara bersama-sama sehingga untuk kedepannya bisa lebih baik lagi. fasilitasnya lebih meyakinkan. petani yang akses ke lembaga mikro formal sangat kecil hal ini dikarenakan beberapa kendala: (a) petani tidak memiliki agunan, (b) pembayaran secara bulanan tidak sesuai dengan usahatani yang memberikan siklus produksi musiman dan (c) petani kecil umumnya belum familier dengan prosedur administrasi yang rumit. demikian juga untuk akses lembaga keuangan syariah, petani pada umunya kurang paham atau pengetahuannya rendah tentang produk-produk pembiayaan syariah dan resiko sepenuhnya masih ditanggung oleh petani. penilaian petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro lembaga keuangan mikro (lkm) sebagai perusahaan jasa yaitu sebagai perantara keuangan menjadi penghubung antara pihak yang kelebihan dana (penabung) dan pihak yang membutuhkan atau kekurangan dana (peminjam). sebagai perusahaan jasa keuangan, lkm harus mampu memenuhi kebutuhan nasabah. perkembangan suatu lembaga keuangan akan sangat ditentukan pada kredibilitas dan profesionalitasnya. menurut muhammad (2000), kredibilitas sebuah lkm yaitu merupakan kepercayaan masyarakat kepada lkm berkenaan dengan dana titipan yang mereka amanatkan dan dana pinjaman yang mereka manfaatkan, sedangkan definisi profesionalitas yaitu keandalan dalam mengelola organisasi dan cekatan dalam menjalankan kegiatan operasinal perbankan. penilaian yang berbeda-beda terhadap suatu objek akan mempengaruhi perilaku konsumen (nasabah atau mitra). menurut budiyanto (1994), perilaku konsumen merupakan tindakan yang langsung terlibat dalam mendapatkan, mengkonsumsi dan menghabiskan produk atau jasa, termasuk proses keputusan sebelum memakai dan setelah memakai produk atau jasa serta tingkat kepuasan pelanggan. menurut engel, et al (tjiptono,2000) mendefinisikan bahwa kepuasan pelanggan merupakan evaluasi purna beli dimana alternatif yang dipilih sekurang-kurangnya memberikan hasil (outcome) sama atau melampaui harapan pelanggan, sedangkan ketidakpuasan timbul apabila hasil yang diperoleh tidak memenuhi harapan pelanggan. penilaian petani terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro dilihat dari reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy, dan tangibles (tjiptono 2000). realibility yaitu keandalan lembaga keuangan mikro baik formal, non formal, informal dalam memberikan pelayanan jasa kredit/ pembiayaan kepada petani, seperti produk yang ditawarkan persyaratan, prosedur, biaya administrasi, ataupun bagi hasil tidak memberatkan. responsiveness yaitu ketanggapan lkm untuk membantu dan ketanggapan dalam memberikan pelayanan kepada nasabahnya, seperti pelayanan dimulai secepatnya ketika nasabah datang , teller menyelesaikan transaksi dalam jangka waktu singkat, cairnya dana kepada nasabah cepat, lkm sebagai mitra kerja mau mendengarkan keluan, pendapat, masukan dari para nasabah. asurance yaitu jaminan keamanan dan kepercayaan terhadap pelayanan jasa 56 jurnal agraris seperti jumlah dana yang diberikan sesuai kemampuan nasabah, pihak lkm selalu memenuhi kontrak yang telah dibuat , staf / karyawan dalam memberikan informasi jasa atau produknya jelas dan dapat dipercaya serta dapat dipertanggung jawabkan, pembiyaan / kredit yang dicairkan sesuai dengan waktu yang dijanjikan. empathy yaitu perhatian lembaga keuangan mikro yang bermitra kepada para nasabahnya seperti pelayanan dengan suasana familiar, perhatian terhadap keadan usaha dan bersedia membantu apabila usaha nasabah mengalami kesulitan, serta adanya penangguhan angsuran kepada nasabah yang belum bisa menggembalikan. tangibles yaitu kondisi fisik lkm seperti kesediaan alat yang memadai, pengisian dan penggunaan formulir mudah, tersedianya brosur yang cukup jelas dan menarik, gedung dan ruang untuk menunggu nyaman dan memadai, lokasi mudah dijangkau, kelima dimensi tersebut akan menimbulkan sebuah penilaian tersendiri terhadap lembaga-lembaga keuangan yang ada. berdasarkan tabel 2 dapat diketahui bahwa penilaian petani terhadap 5 lkm sebagai sumber pembiayaan usahatani cukup baik. penilaian petani terhadap lkm bmt dilihat dari reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy dan tangibles paling tinggi dan paling rendah adalah pada lkm kud. hal ini karena ada beberapa responden yang menyatakan bahwa lkm tersebut dirasakan masih belum mampu memenuhi apa yang dikehendaki oleh petani, misalnya saja dari jumlah dana yang tidak sesuai kebutuhan usahatani, dan fasilitas fisik lkm. bank bantul. penilaian petani paling tinggi ada pada tangibles, ini terbukti dari tanggapan responden tentang gedung atau ruang tunggu ketiga lkm nyaman dan memadai, peralatan yang cukup memadai dan sudah tergolong canggih, pengisian formulir yang mudah serta masing-masing lkm mempunyai brosur yang jelas dan menarik. penilaian paling rendah adalah pada tabel 3 faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani dalam pemilihan lembaga keuangan mikro sebagai sumber modal usahatani bawang merah. 57 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 emphaty karena kredit yang diberikan jumlahnya masih belum sesuai dan belum membantu usaha petani. bukp. penilaian petani tertinggi adalah pada reliability. hal ini karena biaya administrasi, prosedur serta bunga yang ditetapkan oleh lkm tersebut bila dibandingkan dengan lkm lain ( bank bantul dan bmt) tidak berbelit-belit, ringan, mudah dan tidak memberatkan. sedangkan penilaian terhadap lkm bukp terendah adalah pada empathy, hal ini karena banyak dari responden menyatakan bahwa bukp kurang mampu membantu kesulitan petani dalam hal ini adalah pemberian kredit untuk usahatani kususnya usahatani bawang merah. bmt. penilaian paling tinggi adalah pada tangibles, sama halnya dengan lkm bank bantul, fasilitas fisik seperti gedung, ruang tunggu, peralatan sudah memadai, sedangkan untuk brosur sudah cukup jelas dan menarik. menurut beberapa responden menyatakan bahwa brosur yang diberikan berisi tentang syarat-syarat pengajuan transaksi baik simpanan maupun pembiayaan, macammacam produk yang ditawarkan dan penjelasan umum tentang bmt. penilaian paling rendah ada pada reliability. beberapa responden menyatakan bahwa persyaratan, prosedur cukup berbelit-belit dan menyulitkan sedangkan untuk biaya administari dan penetapan bagi hasil oleh lkm dirasa masih memberatkan. penilaian petani terhadap kelompok tani paling tinggi adalah pada reliability dan responsiveness. dilihat dari persyaratan, prosedur, biaya administrasi dan bunga tidak bebelit-belit, mudah dan tidak memberatkan petani. reliability dari kelompok paling tinggi dari lkm lainnya karena syarat sipeminjam hanya tercatat sebagai anggota . penilaian paling rendah adalah pada tangibles, kedua lkm masih kurang memadai, dan belum mempunyai peralatan yang seperti komputer yang digunakan untuk transaksi keuangan dan tidak tersedianya brosur yang menjelaskan profil lkm. persepsi terhadap lkm kud dapat dikatakan paling rendah diantara lembaga keuangan mikro lainnya cukup baik, hal ini dikarenakan penilaian kud yang gagal dalam mengelola kut. kegagalan program kut tidak hanya menimbulkan masalah kemacetan dana tetapi juga lebih jauh yaitu turunnya kinerja kud. kegagalan program kut karena (a) melibatkan terlalu banyak lembaga atau agen sehingga menimbulkan birokrasi berlebihan, (b) banyak penerima kredit bukan petani, (c) sering terjadi penyimpangan bantuan baik dalam jumlah maupun kualitasnya. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani dalam pemilihan lembaga keuangan mikro sebagai sumber modal usahatani bawang merah dapat didekati dengan menggunakan model multinominal logit. dalam model ini outcomes pilihan lebih dari dua dan sifatnya tidak berjenjang yaitu (1) keputusan mengakses lkm bpr, (2) keputusan mengakses lkm bukp, (3) keputusan mengakses lkm bmt, (4) keputusan mengakses lkm kud, (5) keputusan mengakses kelompok tani. dalam analisis ini yang digunakan sebagai pembanding adalah bpr, jadi hasil analisis dari keempat lembaga yang lain selalu dibandingkan dengan bpr. adapun hasil pengujian dengan multinominal logit terhadap variabelvariabel yang signifikan pada tingkat ü 10% dapat dilihat pada tabel 3 uji g. uji g bertujuan untuk melihat pengujian koefisien variabel secara keseluruhan. berdasarkan uji g dapat dilihat nilai -2 log likelihood mencapai 302,744, yang lebih besar dibandingkan dengan ÷² tabel (51,805) yang berarti paling tidak ada salah satu variabel yang signifikan secara statistik. cox and snell. cox and snell untuk menguji ketepatan model, nilai cox and snell menunjukkan variabel x menjelaskan variabel y. adapun setelah dilakukan pengolahan data diketahui nilai cox and snell sebesar 0,772. artinya bahwa variabel-variabel x 1 (umur), x 2 ( pendidikan), x 3 (pengalaman usahatani), x 4 (pendapatan), x 5 (luas lahan garapan), x 6 (jumlah tanggungan keluarga), x 7 (frekuensi meminjam), x 8 (jumlah pinjaman), x 9 (penilaian petani), x 10 (motivasi petani) mampu menjelaskan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani dalam pemilihan lembaga keuangan mikro (y) sebesar 77,2%, sedangkan sisanya 22,8% dijelaskan variabel-variabel lain diluar model, misalnya kelompok rujukan, peran dan status sosial. uji wald. uji wald digunakan untuk menguji signifikansi parameter dari masing-masing individu yang diperoleh dari tabel chi square pada derajat bebas 1 dan á 10% (2,705). berdasarkan tabel 3 dapat diketahui variabel yang signifikan untuk mengakses lkm bukp adalah variabel (pendidikan, jumlah anggota keluarga, jumlah kredit.), lkm bmt variabel (frekuensi pengambilan kredit, pendapatan, jumlah kredit), lkm kud variabel (penilaian, jumlah kredit), dan lkm kelompok tani adalah variabel (pengalaman usahatani, penilaian, jumlah kredit). 58 jurnal agraris pendidikan. petani yang mempunyai tingkat pendidikan yang lebih tinggi akan lebih mudah menerima informasi dan inovasi baru. tingkat pendidikan juga akan berpengaruh terhadap gaya hidup petani. petani yang lebih tinggi tingkat pendidikannya akan lebih selektif dalam memilih sesuatu, termasuk dalam hal memilih lembaga keuangan yang akan diakses. nilai koefisien variabel pendidikan yang ditunjukkan oleh tabel 3 bertanda positif, ini berarti semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan petani lebih berpeluang untuk mengakses lkm bukp dibanding lkm bpr, dimana peluangnya sebesar 2,036 kali dibanding mengakses di lkm bpr, karena lokasi bukp terletak di kota kecamatan yang dekat dengan tempat kerja luar usahatani, seperti kantor kecamatan, kantor desa yang sebagian besar pendidikannya tinggi. pengalaman usahatani. berdasarkan hasil perhitungan pada variabel pengalaman usahatani mempunyai pengaruh nyata pada level 10%. hal ini berarti faktor pengalaman usahatani sangat mempengaruhi petani dalam mengambil keputusan untuk memilih lembaga keuangan mikro sebagai sumber modal usahataninya. pada tabel 34 nilai koefisien variabel pengalaman usahatani bertanda positif, yang berarti tingkat pengalaman usahatani petani yang mengakses lkm kelompok tani lebih tinggi daripada petani yang mengakses di bpr. hal ini dikarenakan adanya unsur kedekatan lembaga keuangan tersebut, sehingga petani yang sudah tergolong tua lebih memilih lkm kelompok tani,karena dirasa mudah dalam prosedur maupun syaratnya. peluang petani yang mempunyai pengalaman usahatani lebih lama untuk mengakses di lkm kelompok tani sebesar 1,186 kali dari pada mengakses di lkm bpr. jumlah tanggungan keluarga. jumlah tanggungan keluarga merupakan jumlah jiwa yang menjadi bagian dari keluarga petani. banyak sedikitnya jumlah tanggungan keluarga petani akan berpengaruh terhadap banyaknya kebutuhan, jadi semakin banyak jumlah tanggungan keluarga maka kebutuhannyapun secara otomatis akan meningkat. dari hasil analisis statistik nilai koefisien untuk variabel jumlah tanggungan keluarga bertanda negatif, berarti semakin sedikit jumlah tanggungan keluarga petani lebih berpeluang mengakses lkm bukp dibanding lkm bpr, dimana peluangnya sebesar 0,492 kali dari pada lkm bpr. hal ini berhubungan dengan jumlah kredit yang diambil petani. lkm bpr bisa memberikan kredit lebih banyak dibanding lkm bukp, sehingga petani yang membutuhkan biaya banyak lebih memilih untuk mengakses lkm bpr. frekuensi pengambilan kredit. frekuensi pengambilan kredit menggambarkan tingkat kepercayaan petani terhadap suatu lembaga keuangan mikro. semakin sering frekuensi pengambilan kreditnya berarti petani sudah menaruh kepercayaan pada lembaga keuangan tersebut sehingga tidak mau pindah ke lembaga keuangan yang lain. terlihat pada tabel 34 bahwa nilai koefisien untuk variabel frekuensi pengambilan kredit bertanda negatif, yang berarti frekuensi pengambilan kredit di lkm bmt lebih rendah dibanding frekuensi pengambilam kredit di lkm bpr. karena bmt usianya masih muda sehingga petani belum banyak mengenal produk yang ditawarkan bmt seperti dalam hal system bagi hasil. namun nilai koefisien variabel frekuensi pengambilan kredit pada lkm kelompok tani dan kud bertanda positif, berarti peluang frekuensi pengambilan kredit di kelompok tani (1,229 kali) dan kud (1,174 kali) lebih tinggi dibanding bpr, hal ini dikarenakan prosedur dan syarat yang diberlakukan di kud dan kelompok tani cenderung lebih mudah daripada bpr serta jangka waktu pencairan kreditnya lebih cepat dibanding bpr. pendapatan. pendapatan menggambarkan pemasukan yang diperoleh petani baik dari on farm, off farm maupun non farm. dalam penelitian ini pendapatan dihitung selama satu musim atau tiga bulan. besarnya pendapatan akan mempengaruhi dalam hal pengangsuran kredit dan pemilihan produk kredit yang ditawarkan. petani yang mempunyai pendapatan tetap per bulan akan lebih memilih sistem pengembalian secara angsuran tiap bulan, namun bagi petani yang pendapatannya musiman lebih memilih sistem pengembalian tangguhan (sebrakan/insidentil) yang dilunasi pada saat panen dan tiap bulannya hanya memberikan bunga atau jasa. untuk variabel pendapatan terlihat koefisiennya bertanda positif, yang berarti semakin besar pendapatan petani lebih berpeluang untuk mengakses di lkm bmt dibandingkan dengan mengakses di lkm bpr, dimana peluangnya sebesar 1,569 kali dibanding lkm bpr. hal ini dikarenkan bmt menawarkan beberapa produk yang macamnya lebih banyak dibanding lkm yang bpr, bukp, kud dan kelompok tani, seperti murobahah (jual beli), ijarah (sewa), mudarabah (bagi hasil), musyarakah (kerjasama) dan al-qordul hasan. jika dilihat dari bunga/ bagi hasilnya bmt malah justru lebih besar dibanding lkm yang lain. namun bagi petani yang mempunyai 59 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 pendapatan yang lebih besar hal itu tidak menjadi masalah, bagi mereka prinsip syariahnya yang lebih penting. jumlah/besarnya kredit. untuk variabel jumlah atau besarnya kredit, terlihat bahwa koefisiennya bertanda negatif pada semua lkm. namun secara berurutan yang tanda negatifnya lebih besar adalah kelompok tani, kud, bmt dan bukp. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa di kelompok tani jumlah kreditnya paling sedikit, setelah itu disusul kud, bmt dan bukp, atau semakin besar jumlah kredit yang diambil petani lebih berpeluang untuk mengakses lkm bpr. berarti lkm bpr bisa memenuhi kebutuhan petani yang membutuhkan dana/ kredit yang besar dibanding lkm yang lain. berdasarkan hasil penelitian, kelompok tani hanya menyediakan pinjaman dengan jumlah maksimal 500 ribu rupiah, sedangkan bpr bisa menyediakan pinjaman sampai 10 juta rupiah. penilaian petani. penilaian petani terhadap lembaga keuangan akan mempengaruhi keputusan petani dalam memilih lembaga keuangan tersebut sebagai sumber pembiayaan. dari hasil perhitungan dapat diketahui bahwa nilai koefisien variabel penilaian petani bertanda negatif, pada lkm kud tanda negatifnya lebih besar dibanding dengan kelompok tani. hal ini berarti menjelaskan bahwa penilaian petani terhadap kud lebih rendah dibanding dengan kelompok tani. namun penilaian petani terhadap kud dan kelompok tani masih lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan lkm bpr, karena melihat dari kenampakan fisik seperti gedung, alat transaksi dan fasilitasnya kurang memadai, sedangkan di bpr dilihat dari kenampakan fisik gedungnya, alat transaksinya, kesimpulan lembaga keuangan mikro yang paling banyak diakses petani adalah kelompok tani yang sebenarnya merupakan sumber pembiayaan kredit program pemerintah, yaitu kredit pmuk dengan skim kredit: (a) menyediakan bantuan kredit dengan suku bunga rendah, (b) menyediakan kredit jangka pendek (musiman) dan pembayaran dapat ditunda pada musim berikutnya apabila terjadi kegagalan panen, (c) memperbolehkan agunan sertifikat tanah dan bangunan berasal dari salah satu pengurus kelompok tani, dan (d) melayani petani dengan prosedur administrasi yang sederhana. penilaian petani terhadap kud paling rendah dibanding lkm lainnya dikarenakan kinerja kud yang semakin menurun sehingga banyak kud yang tidak aktif dari hasil penelitian dapat diketahui bahwa faktor-faktor (variabel) yang berpengaruh terhadap keputusan petani dalam pemilihan lembaga keuangan mikro sebagai sumber modal usahatani bawang merah adalah tingkat pendidikan petani, pengalaman petani dalam berusahatani, jumlah tanggungan keluarga, frekuensi pengambilan kredit di lkm yang sama, persepsi petani, pendapatan petani, dan jumlah kredit/pinjaman. dalam menumbuh kembangkan dan merancang skim kredit petani mikro hendaknya bersifat kontekstual dan fleksibel dalam arti lkm yang ditumbuhkembangkan harus disesuaikan dengan kondisi dan budaya setempat; serta mempertimbangkan karakteristik petani sebagai pengguna, seperti masih rendahnya pendidikan, dukungan asset, ketrampilan, produkstivitas dan pendapatan ushatani. dengan demikian, skim kredit yang ditetapkan harus dalam batas-batas jangkauan kemampuan mereka. penumbuhan lkm harus melibatkan petani setempat, sehingga selain dapat mengakomodasi aspirasi petani, pengembangan yang dibangun secara partisipatif akan mampu membangun rasa kepedulian dan kepemilikan serta kebersamaan daftar pustaka ashari. 2006. potensi lembaga keuangan mikro (lkm) dalam pembangunan ekonomi pedesaan dan kebijakan pengembangannya. pusat penelitian sosial ekonomi pertanian, badan penelitian dan pengambangan pertanian. ashari, friyatno s. 2006. perspektif pendirian bank pertanian di indonesia. forum penelitian agro ekonomi 24(2):107–134. cahyono, b.t. 1983. manajemen perkreditan. ananda. yogyakarta. ismawan, b. 2003. peran lembaga keuangan mikro dalam otonomi daerah. http:// www.ekonomirakyat.org.com. kasmir. 2000. bank dan lembaga keuangan lainnya. raja grafindo persada. jakarta. krisnamurti, b. 2005. pengembangan keuangan mikro bagi pembangunan indonesia. media informasi bank perkreditan rakyat. edisi iv maret 2005 pranadji t, 2004 potensi lembaga keuangan mikro 60 jurnal agraris (lkm) dalam pembangunan ekonomi pedesaan dan kebijakan pengembangannya saptana t, pranadji, syahyuti, r. elyzabet m. 2003. transformasi kelembagaan tradisional: untuk menunjang ekonomi kerakyatan di perdesaan (studi kasus di provinsi bali dan bengkulu). bogor: pusat penelitian dan pengembangan sosial ekonomi pertanian, badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian singarimbun, m dan effendi, s. 1987. metode penelitian survei. lp3es. jakarta. sudarsono, h. 2003. bank dan lembaga keuangan syariah. ekonisia. yogyakarta. syukur m, hastuti el, soentoro, supriyatna a, supadi, sumedi, wicaksono bwd. 2003 kajian pembiayaan pertanian mendukung pengembangan agribisnis dan agroindustri di pedesaan bogor: pusat penelitian dan pengembangan sosial ekonomi pertanian, badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian tjiptono (2008). service management mewujudkan layanan prima. penerbit andi offset edisi ii yogyakarta. candra nuraini mahasiswa program doktor ilmu pertanian, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada dwidjono hadi darwanto, masyhuri, jamhari program studi ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada candra151274@gmail.com model kelembagaan pada agribisnis padi organik kabupaten tasikmalaya abstract this study aims to: (1) to identify the forms of institutional and analyze interaction at the institutional organic rice agribusiness; (2) to design the institutional model in organic rice agribusiness. the study was conducted by using descriptive method. result of the analysis showed that the profile of organic rice agribusiness institutions include: farmers, farmers’ groups combined sympathy, organic farmers cooperatives, village cooperatives, private enterprises agroindustry (cv), bpp, ngo, exporters, agroindustry company. the conditions of farmer organizations today are more cultural and mostly just to government facilities, it has not been fully geared to take advantage of economic opportunities through the use of accessibility to information technology, capital and markets necessary for the development of organic rice agribusiness and agricultural businesses. on the other hand, institutional businesses in rural areas, such as the cooperative has not fully accommodate the interests of farmers / farmer groups as a forum for technical guidance. various farmer institution that already exist such as farmers ‘groups, farmers’ groups combined, the association of water user farmers are expected on the challenges ahead to revitalize themselves and institutions that currently more dominant just as container technical development and social into institutional also serve as a platform for business development legal entity or can integrate other institutions in the agribusiness chain of organic rice. model on organic rice agribusiness institution system is based on agribusiness and institutional dimensions as well as the three pillars of the new institutional. keywords: institutional, agribsinis, organic rice. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk: i) mengidentifikasi bentuk-bentuk kelembagaan dan menganalisis interaksi kelembagaan pada agribisnis padi organik; ii) merancang model kelembagaan pada agribisnis padi organik. penelitian dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode deskriptif. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa profil lembaga agribisnis padi organik meliputi kelompok tani, gabungan kelompok tani simpati, koperasi petani organik, koperasi desa, perusahaan swasta agroindustri (cv), bpp, ngo, eksportir, perusahaan agroindustri. kondisi kelembagaan organisasi petani saat ini lebih bersifat budaya dan sebagian besar beriorientasi hanya untuk mendapatkan fasilitas pemerintah, belum sepenuhnya diarahkan untuk memanfaatkan peluang ekonomi melalui pemanfaatan aksesibilitas terhadap berbagai informasi teknologi, permodalan dan pasar yang diperlukan bagi pengembangan agribisnis padi organik dan usaha pertanian. di sisi lain, kelembagaan usaha yang ada di pedesaan, seperti koperasi belum sepenuhnya mengakomodasi doi:10.18196/agr.2121 10 jurnal agraris kepentingan petani/kelompok tani sebagai wadah pembinaan teknis. berbagai kelembagaan petani yang sudah ada seperti kelompok tani, gabungan kelompok tani, perhimpunan petani pemakai air dihadapkan pada tantangan ke depan untuk merevitalisasi diri; dari kelembagaan yang saat ini lebih dominan hanya sebagai wadah pembinaan teknis dan sosial, menjadi kelembagaan yang berfungsi sebagai wadah pengembangan usaha berbadan hukum atau dapat berintegrasi dengan lembaga lain dalam rantai agribisnis padi organik. model pada kelmbagaan agribisnis padi organik didasarkan pada sistem agribisnis dan dimensi kelembagaan serta tiga pilar kelembagaan baru. kata kunci: kelembagaan, agribsinis, padi organik. pendahuluan era globalisasi menuntut kesiapan negara-negara di dunia menghadapi perdagangan bebas, termasuk indonesia, sebagai negara agraris untuk berkompetisi di dunia internasional, khususnya komoditi pertanian. salah satu komoditi yang memiliki potensi untuk bersaing adalah beras organik, terbukti dengan telah dilakukan ekspor beras organik ke berbagai negara di dunia. seiring dengan tantangan tersebut, indonesia menghadapi berbagai masalah klasik dalam pembangunan agribisnis. permasalahan agribisnis, antara lain kondisi struktur agribisnis yang bersifat dispersal atau tersekat-sekat, yang ditunjukkan dari adanya pemisahan keterkaitan setiap subsistem satu dengan subsistem yang lain atau subsistem hulu sampai hilir. aktivitas dalam subsistem agribisnis digerakkan oleh lembaga, sehingga rangkaian aktivitas dalam sistem agribisnis digerakkan oleh berbagai kelembagaan. peranan kelembagaan dalam sistem agribisnis sangat menentukan keberhasilan pembangunan pertanian di masa depan. secara umum struktur agribisnis saat ini dapat digolongkan sebagai tipe dispersal. struktur agribisnis dispersal dicirikan oleh tiadanya hubungan organisasi fungsional diantara setiap tingkatan usaha. jaringan agribisnis praktis hanya diikat dan dikoordinir oleh mekanisme pasar (harga). hubungan diantara sesama pelaku agribisnis praktis bersifat tidak langsung dan impersonal. dengan demikian setiap pelaku agribisnis hanya memikirkan kepentingan diri sendiri dan tidak menyadari bahwa mereka saling membutuhkan. bahkan hubungan di antara pelaku agribisnis cenderung berkembang menjadi bersifat eksploitatif. pola agribisnis dispersal tersebut diperburuk oleh berkembangnya asosiasi pengusaha horizontal (usaha sejenis) yang bersifat asimetri dan cenderung berfungsi sebagai kartel. sifat asimetri terlihat dari tiadanya asosiasi para pelaku agribisnis yang efektif di tingkat hulu (petani), sedangkan asosiasi pelaku agribisnis di tingkat hilir (industri pengolahan, pedagang/eksportir) sangat kuat. hal inilah yang membuat organisasi usaha dalam sektor agribisnis cenderung berperan sebagai sebuah kartel yang memiliki kekuatan monopsonistis maupun kekuatan monopolistik. dengan kondisi demikian, sebagai implementasi dari strategi peningkatan produksi beras, maka diperlukan sedikitnya 10 paket program pengembangan agribisnis padi (simatupang dan rusastra 2004). salah satu paket yang terkait dengan permasalahan diatas adalah restrukturisasi lembaga pelayanan dan pemberdayaan petani melalui pemberdayaan kelembagaan lokal serta organisasi petani dan advokasi untuk kepentingan petani. berdasarkan pada kondisi yang terjadi di tingkat bawah dan kebijakan pemerintah maka perlu penguatan kelembagaan dalam sistem agribisnis, sehingga menjadikan berbagai kelembagaan tersebut terintegrasi antara antara subsistem satu dengan dengan subsistem yang lain, karena aspek kelembagaan merupakan syarat pokok agar agar struktur agribisnis menjadi sistem agribisnis yang terintegrasi dan terpadu secara berkesinambungan. saleh et al. (2007) mengatakan bahwa kelembagaan merupakan faktor penting dalam mengatur hubungan antar individu untuk penguasaan faktor produksi yang langka. kelembagaan mempunyai peran strategis, namun menurut soekartawi (2001) aspek kelembagaan, baik formal maupun informal justru merupakan aspek yang menonjol yang dapat menghambat pembangunan pertanian di negara-negara yang sedang berkembang. hal ini terjadi karena kelembagaan yang ada di negara-negara berkembang, termasuk indonesia masih banyak yang belum optimal. definisi kelembagaan mencakup dua demarkasi penting, yaitu i) norma dan konvensi (norms and conventions), serta ii) aturan main (rules of the game). kelembagaan kadang tertulis secara formal dan ditegakkan oleh aparat pemerintah, tetapi kelembagaan juga dapat tidak tertulis secara formal seperti pada aturan adat dan norma yang dianut masyarakat. kelembagaan umumnya dapat diprediksi dan cukup stabil, serta dapat diaplikasikan pada situasi berulang, sehingga sering diartikan sebagai seperangkat aturan main atau tata cara untuk kelangsungan sekumpulan kepentingan (a set of 11 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 working rules of going concerns). jadi, definisi kelembagaan adalah kegiatan kolektif dalam suatu kontrol atau jurisdiksi, pembebasan atau liberasi, dan perluasan atau ekspansi kegiatan individu (arifin, 2005). berdasarkan tingkatannya, kelembagaan dapat dikategorikan dalam empat kategori, yaitu: pranata sosial, kelompok, organisasi atau perhimpunan, dan lembaga instansional. pranata sosial adalah aturan-aturan tertentu yang dianut oleh masyarakat secara umum dan meluas, misalnya sistem sewa tanah, bagi hasil, ijon, pinjam meminjam antar petani, bayar pinjaman setelah panen, dan lain-lain. kelompok (tani) adalah kumpulan (petanipetani) yang bersifat informal. ikatan-ikatan dalam kelompok berpangkal pada keserasian dalam arti mempunyai kesamaan dalam pandangan, kepentingan, dan pekerjaan serta ketenangan yang sama, misalnya kelompok pendengar siaran pedesaan, kelompok arisan. organisasi atau perhimpunan (petani) adalah organisasi (petani) yang sifatnya formal, ada pengurus dan anggotaanggota yang jelas terdaftar. organisasi (petani) ini mempunyai anggaran rumah tangga yang tertulis, mencantumkan tujuan-tujuan, usaha-usaha, syarat-syarat keanggotaan, dan ketentuan lainnya (adjid, 2001). interaksi antara teori kelembagaan dan organisasi melahirkan teori kelembagaan baru. sumbangan utama dari kelembagaan baru adalah penambahan pengaruh dari pengetahuan, ketika individu bertindak karena persepsinya terhadap dunia sosial (nee dan ingram dalam syahyuti, 2010). semenjak era sosiologi klasik sampai dengan munculnya paham kelembagaan baru, terdapat tiga aspek pokok yang dikaji dalam kelembagaan, yakni aspek-aspek normatif, regulatif, dan kultural-kognitif. fungsi lembaga adalah menyediakan stabilitas dan keteraturan dalam masyarakat, meskipun dapat berubah. bagi petani, lembaga memberikan pedoman dalam menjalankan aktivitasnya sehari-hari khususnya dalam bidang agribisnis. berbagai norma yang hidup di masyarakat termasuk norma-norma pasar beserta seperangkat regulasi menjadi pertimbangan petani untuk bertindak sebagaimana petani memahaminya (kulturalkognitif). sesuai dengan sistematika yang disusun scoot (2008) dalam syahyuti (2011), pendekatan kelembagaan baru mencakup tiga pilar. pendekatan ini telah merangkum seluruh pemikiran yang berkembang berkenaan dengan lembaga dalam bidang sosiologi, semenjak era sosiologi klasik sampai dengan munculnya paham kelembagaan baru. ketiga pilar tersebut, meliputi pilar regulatif, pilar normatif dan pilar kultural-kognitif. objek perhatian pada pilar regulatif adalah aturan yang ada dan “keuntungan apa” yang akan diperoleh pelaku dalam bertindak. binswanger dan ruttan (1978), menyebut lembaga sebagai “... the set of behavioral rules that govern a particular pattern of section and relationship”. sejalan dengan ini, nee (2005) dalam kontek analisa kelembagaan menyebutkan hubungan antara proses formal dan informal pada lingkungan kelembagaan. hal lain, bahwa lembaga diukur dari kapasitasnya untuk menegakkan aturan, misalnya melalui reward dan punishment. aturan ditegakkan melalui mekanisme formal dan informal. objek perhatian pada pilar normatif adalah normanorma yang hidup dan disepakati di tengah masyarakat. norma merupakan komponen pokok dan paling awal dalam lembaga. fokus perhatian pada pilar kulturalkognitif adalah pengetahuan kultural yang dimiliki individu dan masyarakat, dengan menggunakan perspektif sosiologi pengetahuan. berdasarkan pada ketiga pilar tersebut, “lembaga” dapat dirumuskan sebagai hal yang berisi norma, regulasi dan kultural-kognitif yang menyediakan pedoman, sumber daya, dan sekaligus hambatan untuk bertindak sebagai aktor. demikian pula untuk petani, lembaga memberikan pedoman bagi petani dalam menjalankan aktivitasnya sehari-hari khususnya dalam bidang agribisnis. menurut mackay et al. dalam syahyuti (2004), ada empat dimensi untuk mempelajari suatu kelembagaan (institutional assesment), yakni: i) kondisi lingkungan eksternal (the environment), ii) motivasi kelembagaan (institutional motivation), iii) kapasitas kelembagaan (institutional capacity), dan iv) kinerja kelembagaan (institutional performance). pertama, lingkungan eksternal meliputi kondisi politik dan pemerintahan (administratif and external policies environment), sosiokultural (sociocultural environment), teknologi (techonogical environment), kondisi perekonomian (economic enviroenment), berbagai kelompok kepentingan (stakeholders), infrastuktur, serta kebijakan terhadap pengelolaan sumberdaya alam (policy natural resources environment). kedua, motivasi kelembagaan (institutional motivation). kelembagaan dipandang sebagai suatu unit kajian yang memiliki jiwanya sendiri, terdapat empat aspek yang bisa dipelajari untuk mengetahui motivasi kelembagaan yaitu sejarah kelembagaan (institutional history), misi yang diembannya, kultur yang menjadi pegangan dalam 12 jurnal agraris bersikap dan berperilaku anggotanya, serta pola penghargaan yang dianut (incentive schemes). suatu fakta sosial adalah fakta historik, sejarah perjalanan kelembagaan merupakan pintu masuk yang baik untuk mengenali secara cepat aspek aspek kelembagaan yang lain. tiga, kapasitas kelembagaan (institutional capacity), meliputi bagaimana kemampuan kelembagaan untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuannya sendiri. kemampuan tersebut diukur dari lima aspek, yaitu: strategi kepemimpinan yang dipakai (strategic leadership), perencanaan program (program planning), manajemen dan pelaksanaannya (management and execution), alokasi sumberdaya yang dimiliki (resource allocation), dan hubungan dengan pihak luar yaitu terhadap clients, partners, government policymakers, dan external donors. empat, kinerja kelembagaan (institutional performance), terdiri dari: keefektifan kelembagaan dalam mencapai tujuan-tujuannya, efisiensi penggunaan sumber daya, dan keberlanjutan kelembagaan berinteraksi dengan para kelompok kepentingan di luarnya. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kalkulasi secara ekonomi merupakan prinsip yang menjadi latar belakangnya. pendekatan sistem agribisnis memandang bahwa pertanian kecil komoditas tertentu di daerah tertentu bisa bergerak, hanya jika dikonsolidasikan dan terhubung dengan seluruh pelaku dalam rantai komoditas dan didukung oleh infrastruktur publik. hal ini dapat dikatakan unit agribisnis industrial, di mana semua pelaku dalam rantai komoditas bersatu seperti sebuah perusahaan industri yang terintegrasi. analisis kelembagaan dalam bidang pertanian adalah analisis yang ditujukan untuk memperoleh deskripsi mengenai suatu fenomena sosial ekonomi pertanian yang berkaitan dengan hubungan antara dua atau lebih pelaku interaksi sosial ekonomi, mencakup dinamika aturanaturan yang berlaku dan disepakati bersama oleh para pelaku interaksi, disertai dengan analisis mengenai hasil akhir yang diperoleh dari interaksi yang terjadi. dalam batas-batas tertentu analisis kelembagaan dapat berlaku umum di berbagai wilayah dan keadaan, namun dalam banyak hal aspek lokalitas dan permasalahan spesifik harus selalu memperoleh penekanan, mengingat peluang besar terjadinya variasi per lokasi maupun permasalahan (syahyuti, 2002). penelitian ini bertujuan untuk: i) mengidentifikasi bentuk-bentuk kelembagaan dan menganalisis interaksi kelembagaan pada agribisnis padi organik; ii) merancang model kelembagaan pada agribisnis padi organik. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode deskriptif, suatu metode dalam meneliti status sekelompok manusia, suatu objek, suatu sistem kondisi, suatu sistem pemikiran, ataupun suatu kelas peristiwa pada masa sekarang (nazir, 2005). penelitian deskriptif dapat digunakan pendekatan kuantitatif berupa pengumpulan dan pengukuran data yang berbentuk angka atau pendekatan kualitatif berupa penggambaran keadaan secara naratif (kata-kata) apa adanya (sukmadinata, 2011). kabupaten tasikmalaya dipilih sebagai lokasi penelitian, dengan pertimbangan kabupaten tersebut merupakan salah satu penghasil padi organik di indonesia dengan luas areal 120,245 ha dan telah melakukan ekspor ke berbagai negara. penelitian ini difokuskan pada gapoktan simpatik yang merupakan organisasi petani padi organik di kabupaten tasikmalaya dan podusen utama beras organik yang telah disertifikasi internasional. identifikasi pola-pola dan karakteristik kelembagaan pada usahatani padi organik dilakukan dengan menggunakan analisis kelembagaan dengan metode kualitatif deskriptif didasarkan pada sifat-sifat data yang diperoleh dengan memperhatikan proporsi pengetahuan kelembagaan. data dan informasi dijabarkan dan diinterpretasikan menurut alur logika melalui penerapan statistik induktif (bailey, 1992) dan deskriptif dengan menerapkan pendekatan dan analisis sistem. bahan kajian meliputi dinamika kelembagaan usaha tani dalam tiap segmen kegiatan dalam siklus produksi tahunan dan dalam setiap subsistem dari sistem agribisnis. dari tiap segmen dan subsistem dirinci kondisi aktual kelembagaan saat pengamatan dilakukan, serta dinamika, masalah, dan alternatif pemecahan masalah. tiap segmen analisis menunjukkan keterkaitan antara rincian analisis dengan jenis kegiatan dalam siklus produksi rutin. pembahasan kelembagaan agribisnis padi organik kelembagaan merupakan basis terbentuknya modal sosial yang dapat menfasilitasi kerjasama dalam aktivitas agribisnis padi organik. dukungan kelembagaan dalam pengembangan sistem pertanian organik mempunyai peranan penting dalam setiap aktivitas masing-masing subsistem agribisnis. modal sosial petani yang meliputi jaringan kerjasama, saling percaya dalam kerjasama, dan norma kerjasama dalam sistem pertanian organik akan 13 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 mempengaruhi keberhasilan agribisnis. dalam konteks pengembangan kelembagaan agribisnis perlu dilakukan analisis kebijakan yang menyangkut kebijakan input, budidaya, produk, pemasaran dan perdagangan. kelembagaan subsistem agribisnis hulu kelembagaan pada subsistem agribisnis hulu bertujuan untuk menjamin terpenuhinya input yang dibutuhkan petani untuk usahatani padi organik seperti pupuk organik, benih dan pestisida organik. kelembagaan penyedia input terdiri dari gapoktan, kelompok tani, agroindustri kelapa dan kelompok peternak. gapoktan simpatik selain berperan sebagai pembeli padi organik dari petani, juga sebagai penyedia input, antara lain benih dan pupuk organik. hasil olahan pupuk organik oleh gapoktan simpatik, dibagikan pada kelompok-kelompok yang membutuhkan pupuk organik. untuk menjaga kontinuitas penyediaan pupuk organik, perlu upaya pemberdayaan kelompok tani sebagai penyedia pupuk organik untuk anggotanya melalui pengelolaan peternakan sapi. dengan demikian kelompok tani padi organik dapat berperan sebagai produsen pupuk organik. beberapa kelompok tani padi organik mendapatkan bantuan hewan ternak (sapi) dan mesin pengolah pupuk dari pemerintah. dengan bantuan mesin pengolahan pupuk organik diharapkan program pemberdayaan kelompok tercapai, antara lain sebagai upaya untuk penyediaan pupuk organik, minimal bagi anggota kelompok. bahkan kelompok tani mampu melayani kebutuhan pupuk organik dari kelompok lain di wilayah tersebut. pihak lain yang turut dalam memasok bahan baku pembuatan pupuk organik adalah agro-industri kelapa. kelembagaan subsistem usahatani (on farm agribusiness) padi organik subsistem yang kedua pada kelembagaan padi organik adalah subsistem usahatani. peran subsistem adalah melakukan kegiatan yang menggunakan barang-barang modal dan sumberdaya alam untuk menghasilkan komoditas pertanian primer, yakni padi organik. pada kelembagaan ini, kelompok tani adalah pelaku utama yang terdiri dari petani padi organik, baik petani yang disertifikasi dan petani non sertifikasi. kelompok tani yang disertifikasi internasional tergabung dalam gapoktan simpatik dan telah menerapkan manajemen modern dalam kegiatan usahataninya, antara lain adanya pencatatan dalam berbagai aktivitas usahataninya. aktivitas usahatani dari pengolahan tanah, pembibitan, penanaman, pemupukan, pemeliharaan sampai dengan pasca panen telah sesuai dengan manajemen mutu secara standar internasional. kontrol terhadap kualitas budidaya dilakukan secara rutin oleh ics (internal control system). sertifikasi internasional dilakukan 1-2 kali dalam setahun oleh imo. hal ini dilakukan sebagai persyaratan untuk menghasilkan produk yang berkualitas sesuai standar internasional. keterkaitan antara kelompok tani, gabungan kelompok tani, penyuluh pertanian, perusahaan beras organik, ngo dan lembaga pensertifikasi sangat erat dalam proses budidaya padi organik. lembaga-lembaga tersebut bersinergi untuk menghasilkan dan menjamin produk dari subsistem usahatani agar memenuhi standar internasional. kelembagaan subsistem agribisnis hilir subsistem yang ketiga pada kelembagaan padi organik adalah subsistem agribisnis hilir. produk primer yang dihasilkan oleh subsistem usahatani (on-farm) padi organik adalah gabah. selanjutnya produk primer tersebut (gabah) diproses oleh subsistem agribisnis hilir. hal ini bertujuan untuk memberikan nilai tambah dari padi produk primer tersebut (padi/gabah). produk yang dihasilkan dari proses pengolahan ini adalah beras organik yang sesuai standar internasional. pelaku utama pada subsistem agroindustri untuk padi organik yang tersertifikasi ini adalah gabungan kelompok tani, perusahaan swasta cv. alam subur, lembaga pensertifikasi, dan perusahaan eksportir. sementara untuk padi organik non sertifikasi, proses pengolahan dilakukan oleh perusahaan penggilingan swasta (tingkat desa) yang pada umumnya bercampur dengan padi atau gabah konvensional. karenanya padi/gabah non sertifikasi tidak didistribusikan ke gapoktan “simpati”, yang proses pengolahan padi organiknya dilakukan dengan menggunakan mesin modern sesuai dengan standar internasional. subsistem agribisnis pemasaran adalah subsistem yang melakukan aktivitas pemasaran produk beras organik sampai ke tangan konsumen. pada subsistem terdapat beberapa lembaga pemasaran yang terlibat dalam pelaksanaan pendistribusian produk dari produsen ke konsumen. pelaku pada subsistem ini, untuk beras organik yang tersertifikasi adalah kelompok tani, gabungan kelompok tani simpati (beras organik 14 jurnal agraris sertifikasi internasional), perusahaan swasta (cv. alam subur), supermarket dan eksportir (untuk konsumen di luar negeri). sementara itu, untuk beras organik non sertifikasi dilakukan oleh kelompok tani dan perusahaan penggilingan di tingkat desa (huller). dalam perkembangannya pemasaran oleh gapoktan simpati dilakukan oleh koperasi yang didirikan oleh gapoktan (simpati) untuk beras organik yang disertifikasi nasional. peran koperasi adalah melakukan pembelian gabah dari petani dan melakukan pemasaran produk dari gapoktan ke grosir dan konsumen. keberadaan koperasi diharapkan memfasilitasi keterlibatan petani dalam kegiatan pemasaran, sehingga petan menikmati keuntungan dari aktivitas pemasaran. dalam penelitian ini ditemukan adanya koperasi desa yang terlibat dalam pemasaran padi organik dengan melakukan kerjasama dengan gapoktan simpati. peran dari koperasi ini adalah melakukan pembelian gabah dari petani dan selanjutnya didistribusikan ke gapoktan simpati. kelembagaan subsistem penunjang agribisnis padi organik peran dari subsistem penunjang pada agribisnis padi organik adalah memberikan dukungan terhadap kelembagaan subsistem yang lainnya. kelembagaan penunjang yang terpenting adalah lembaga keuangan, perkumpulan petani pemakai air, ataupun lembaga penyuluh pertanian., lembaga sertifikasi baik internasional maupun nasional. agribisnis padi organik juga didukung oleh ngo (internasional) dan aliansi organik indonesia. peran kelembagaan adalah memberikan berbagai pelatihan-pelatihan kepada petani maupun kelompok tani pertanian organik. pada subsistem ini, keberadaan koperasi juga memiliki peran yang penting dalam memberikan kredit kepada petani. dukungan kebijakan pemerintah kebijakan pembangunan pertanian organik telah dicanangkan kementerian pertanian sejak 2001 yakni program “indonesia go organik”. pada tahun 2005, masuk dalam program revitalisasi pertanian yang dicanangkan presiden susilo bambang yudhoyono (sby) dengan nama program go organik 2010. hal ini juga didukung program subsisdi pupuk tidak hanya untuk pupuk tunggal, tetapi sudah dikembangkan juga untuk pupuk majemuk (npk), dan mulai tahun 2008 diikuti pupuk organik. implementasi program go green dikawal peraturan menteri pertanian nomor 64/permentan/ ot.140/5/2013 tentang sistem pertanian organik. di tingkat daerah didukung visi dinas pertanian tanaman pangan kabupaten tasikmalaya “terwujudnya pembangunan pertanian yang berkelanjutan berbasis perdesaan”. implemetasi visi tersebut diwujudkan melalui program pengembangan agribisnis padi organik, dengan memberikan bantuan sarana produksi kepada setiap kelompok secara bergilir. hal ini memberikan rangsangan untuk melakukan pertanian organik. model kelembagaan agribisnis padi organik model kelembagaan untuk pengembangan agribisnis padi organik didasarkan pada pendekatan sistem agribisnis dan empat dimensi kelembagaan (kusnandar et al. 2013) yang mencakup beberapa subsistem, yaitu: i) subsistem hulu, ii) subsistem usahatani, iii) subsistem hilir, iv) subsistem agroindustri, dan v) subsistem sarana penunjang. posisi petani dalam agribisnis padi sampai saat ini, masih lemah dan tidak mempunyai bargaining position. dalam sistem agribisnis, petani hanya sebagai pelaku pada subsistem on-farm atau budidaya saja. oleh karena itu dalam model agribisnis pada pertanian organik diharapkan adanya peran aktif dari petani pada berbagai subsistem dalam agribisnis. kondisi ini berkaitan dengan kelembagaan yang ada dalam sistem agribisnis, yaitu lemahnya kapasitas dan kelembagaan petani. kondisi organisasi petani saat ini lebih bersifat budaya dan sebagian besar beriorientasi hanya untuk mendapatkan fasilitas pemerintah, belum sepenuhnya diarahkan untuk memanfaatkan peluang ekonomi melaui pemanfaatan aksesibilitas terhadap berbagai informasi teknologi, permodalan dan pasar yang diperlukan bagi pengembangan usahatani dan usaha pertanian. di sisi lain, kelembagaan usaha yang ada di pedesaan, seperti koperasi belum sepenuhnya mengakomodasi kepentingan petani/kelompok tani sebagai wadah pembinaan teknis. berbagai kelembagaan petani yang sudah ada seperti kelompok tani, gabungan kelompok tani, perhimpunan petani pemakai air diharapkan dapat menghadapi tantangan ke depan untuk merevitalisasi diri dan kelembagaan yang saat ini lebih dominan hanya sebagai wadah pembinaan teknis dan sosial, menjadi kelembagaan yang juga berfungsi sebagai wadah pengembangan usaha yang berbadan hukum atau dapat 15 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 berintegrasi dalam koperasi yang ada di pedesaan. selain kelompok tani sebagai pelaku utama, gapoktan juga memiliki peran penting dalam agribisnis padi organik. gapoktan dibangun dalam upaya memperkuat posisi daya tawar petani berhadapan dengan pihak luar, baik dari segi kepentingan ekonomi, pemenuhan modal, kebutuhan pasar dan informasi. dalam model ini gapoktan diposisikan sebagai lembaga usaha ekonomi pedesaan atau dikenal dengan luep (syahyuti, 2011). altenatif lain adalah dirintisnya pendirian koperasi petani organik oleh gapoktan simpatik, diharapkan menjadi salah satu pijakan untuk menjadikan petani sebagai pelaku agribisnis dari hulu sampai hilir. koperasi petani organik yang merupakan wadah organisasi bagi petani organik diharapkan mampu menaungi petani organik pada berbagai subsistem agribisnis, salah satunya sebagai unit pemberi kredit bagi petani. pada awal implementasi budidaya padi organik, kebutuhan input usahatani dinilai sangat besar, misalnya kebutuhan pupuk kandang/organik. keterbatasan petani dalam pendanaan, menyebabkan jumlah masukan input pada usahatani padi organik juga tidak memenuhi standar kecukupan untuk padi organik. hal ini akan berpengaruh terhadap produksi yang dihasilkan. berdasarkan dari uraian diatas maka diperlukan suatu model kelembagaan agribisnis yang mampu berakomodir berbagai kepentingan dan kebutuhan berbagai pelaku yang terlibat dalam pengembangan agribisnis padi organik, sehingga mampu mensinergikan berbagai subsistem dalam sistem agribisnis terintegrasi antara satu dengan lain untuk mencapai tujuan. hal ini dilakukan dengan pendekatan sistem agribisnis, sebagaimana digambarkan pada bagan gambar 1. kesimpulan dari hasil penelitian ini, beberapa hal penting untuk mendapat catatan, antara lain: i) kelembagaan pada agribisnis padi organik belum sepenuhnya dimanfaatkan sebagai upaya pemberdayaan organisasi; ii) model pada kelmbagaan agribisnis padi organik didasarkan pada sistem agribisnis dan dimensi kelembagaan serta tiga pilar kelembagaan baru; iii) lemahnya koordinasi, sinergi, dan efektivitas kebijakan agribisnis memerlukan adanya revitalisasi kelembagaan yang diarahkan untuk memantapkan kelembagaan pada sistem agribisnis; iv) perlu adanya internvensi pemerintah dalam pemasaran padi organik, karena harga padi konvensional dan padi organik yang diterima petani belum berbeda secara signifikan. daftar pustaka downey, w.d. and s.p. erickson. 1987. agribusiness management, second ed. new york: mcgraw hill. guidi, d. 2011. sustainable agriculture enterprise: gambar 1. model kelembagaan agribisnis padi organik 16 jurnal agraris framing strategies to support smallholder inclusive value chains for rural poverty alleviation. cid research fellow and graduate student working. working paper. center for international development at harvard university. kusnandar, d., w. padmaningrum, rahayu, dan a. wibowo. 2013. rancang bangun model kelembagaan agribisnis padi organik dalam mendukung ketahanan pangan. jurnal ekonomi pembangunan 14(1): 92-101. michelsen, j., k. lynggaard, s. padel, and c. foster c. 2001. organic farming development and agricultural institutions in europe: a study of six countries. organic farming: economic and policy vol 9. uphoff, n. 1992. local institutions and participation for sustainable development. gatekeeper series sa31. london: iied nazir, m. 2005. metode penelitian. bogor: ghalia indonesia. simatupang, p. dan w. rusastrasaya. 2004. kebijakan ekonomi beras nasional. perekonomian indonesia padi dan beras. (ed. f. kasryno, et al., 2004). jakarta: badan litbang pertanian. sukmadinata, dan n. syaodih. 2011. metode penelitian pendidikan. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. syahyuti. 2004. model kelembagaan penunjang pengembangan pertanian di lahan lebak: aspek kelembagaan dan aplikasinya dalam pengembangan pertanian. bogor: puslitbang sosial ekonomi pertanian. syahyuti. 2011. gampang-gampang susah mengorganisasikan petani. kajian teori dan praktek sosiologi lembaga dan organisasi. bogor: penerbit ipb press. suharyanto, jemmy rinaldy, nyoman ngurah arya balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian (bptp) bali; email: suharyanto.bali@gmail.com analisis risiko produksi usahatani padi sawah di provinsi bali abstract this study aimed to analyze the risk of paddy rice farming and the impact of the use of farm inputs to the risk of rice production in bali province. the research was conducted in three districts of rice production centers, tabanan, buleleng and gianyar during two cropping seasons in 2012. the data collected through interviews with 122 randomly selected farmers. risk production of low land rice was analyzed by the coefficient of variation, while the factors that affect the risk of rice production were analyzed with multiple linear regression analysis with multiplicative heteroskedastic method. the result showed that the risk production of rice on wet season and the land does not belong to his own status is higher than dry season and his own status. production factors that significantly affect the risk of rice production are land, organic fertilizers and pesticides. keywords: risk, production, low land rice. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis risiko usahatani padi sawah serta pengaruh penggunaan input usahatani terhadap risiko produksi padi sawah di provinsi bali. penelitian dilaksanakan di tiga kabupaten sentra produksi padi sawah antara lain kabupaten tabanan, buleleng dan gianyar selama dua musim tanam pada tahun 2012. pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui wawancara terhadap 122 petani yang dipilih secara acak. risiko produksi padi sawah dianalisis dengan metode koefisien variasi sedangkan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi risiko produksi padi sawah dianalisis dengan analisis regresi linier berganda dengan metode multiplikatif heteroskedastisitas. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa risiko produksi padi sawah lebih tinggi pada musim hujan dengan status lahan bukan milik sendiri. faktor-faktor produksi yang secara nyata mempengaruhi produksi padi sawah antara lain luas lahan, pupuk organik dan pestisida. kata kunci: risiko, produksi, padi sawah. pendahuluan provinsi bali yang memiliki luas areal usahatani padi sawah relatif lebih kecil (14,40% dari dari luas wilayah) dibandingkan dengan provinsi lain di indonesia, namun tingkat produktivitasnya yang relatif lebih tinggi dibandingkan produktivitas nasional (badan pusat statistik provinsi bali, 2013). produktivitas tersebut sesungguhnya masih dapat ditingkatkan hingga mendekati potensinya, namun berbagai permasalahan muncul seiring dengan munculnya berbagai kepentingan dan kondisi perubahan sumberdaya alam. suryana et al., (2009) mengungkapkan bahwa beberapa permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan usahatani padi sawah antara lain : (a) kepemilikan lahan usahatani yang relatif kecil dan tersebar dan bahkan doi:10.18196/agr.1210 71 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 cenderung mengecil karena adanya proses fragmentasi lahan sebagai akibat dari sistem/pola warisan, (b) terjadinya alih fungsi lahan sawah untuk penggunaan lainnya sebagai akibat perkembangan perekonomian daerah baik untuk pariwisata, perumahan maupun sektor lainnya, (c) keterbatasan debit air irigasi pada beberapa wilayah, terutama pada musim kemarau yang disebabkan oleh persaingan dalam penggunaan air irigasi, (d) keterbatasan tenaga kerja terutama pada saat panen raya, sehingga kebutuhan tenaga kerja umumnya berasal dari luar bali, (e) keterbatasan modal usahatani, sehingga produktivitas yang dicapai masih dibawah produktivitas potensialnya dan (f) tingkat serangan hama penyakit yang masih cenderung tinggi dan beragam antar wilayah dan antar musim tanam seperti wereng coklat, penggerek batang, tungro dan tikus. dalam praktek usahatani, walaupun telah memiliki pengalaman panjang dalam berusahatani untuk komoditas pertanian, namun petani tidak selalu dapat mencapai tingkat efisiensi dan produktivitas seperti yang diharapkan. walaupun mempergunakan paket teknologi yang sama, pada musim yang sama dan di lahan yang sama sekalipun, keragaman selalu muncul. hal ini disebabkan oleh hasil yang dicapai pada dasarnya merupakan resultan bekerjanya demikian banyak faktor, baik yang yang dapat dikendalikan (internal) maupun faktor yang tidak dapat dikendalikannya (eksternal), serta faktor yang mempengaruhi intensitas input dan harga relatifnya (coelli et al., 1998). risiko usahatani padi yang utama antara lain frekuensi banjir, kekeringan dan serangan hama penyakit yang saat ini menjadi masalah yang semakin kompleks dalam situasi perubahan iklim yang sulit diprediksi karena kebutuhan untuk tetap menyediakan beras dengan jumlah yang cukup untuk dikonsumsi masyarakat. sebagian besar dari petani padi sawah sebagian besar termasuk dalam dalam kategori petani subsisten, karena kegiatan usahatani yang dilakukan bukan hanya untuk tujuan komersialisasi tetapi juga untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pangan rumahtangganya. kehidupan petani di pedesaan cukup dekat dengan batas subsisten dan selalu mengalami ketidakpastian cuaca, sehingga petani tidak mempunyai kesempatan untuk menerapkan perhitungan keuntungan maksimum dalam berusahatani. petani akan berusaha menghindari kegagalan dan bukan memperoleh keuntungan yang besar dengan mengambil risiko (sriyadi, 2010). berbagai permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh petani seperti tersebut diatas menjadi kendala bagi mereka untuk meningkatkan produksi, pendapatan dan mewujudkan ketahanan pangan rumahtangganya. permasalahan-permasalahan tersebut merupakan risiko yang harus dihadapi oleh petani dalam melakukan aktivitas usahataninya. menurut soedjana (2007) istilah risiko lebih banyak digunakan dalam konteks pengambilan keputusan, karena risiko diartikan sebagai peluang akan terjadinya suatu kejadian buruk akibat suatu tindakan. makin tinggi tingkat ketidakpastian suatu kejadian, makin tinggi pula risiko yang disebabkan oleh pengambilan keputusan itu. dengan demikian, identifikasi sumber risiko sangat penting dalam proses pengambilan keputusan. secara konseptual petani yang mampu mereduksi risiko produksi maupun risiko harga dengan cara memperbaiki produktivitasnya, penggunaan diversifikasi, penggunaan pola tanam yang tepat, penguatan kelembagaan petani, dan posisi tawar petani akan dapat produksi dan pendapatan petani. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis risiko usahatani padi sawah serta pengaruh penggunaan input usahatani terhadap risiko produksi padi sawah di provinsi bali. metode penelitian lokasi penelitian ditentukan secara purposive pada tiga kabupaten sentra produksi padi sawah di provinsi bali, yaitu kabupaten tabanan, buleleng dan gianyar. pengumpulan data dilaksanakan selama dua musim tanam pada tahun 2012 melalui survei dengan mewawancarai petani contoh dengan panduan kuesioner yang terstruktur. pengambilan sampel petani padi sawah dalam penelitian ini digunakan metode sampel acak sederhana sebanyak 122 petani padi sawah yang terdistribusi 44 petani di desa selanbawak, kecamatan marga kabupaten tabanan, 38 petani di desa bona kecamatan blahbatuh kabupaten gianyar dan 40 petani di desa sangsit, kecamatan sawan kabupaten buleleng. data-data yang dikumpulkan terkait dengan tulisan ini mencakup karakteristik rumah tangga petani, penguasaan tanah, pola tanam, struktur input dan output usahatani. analisis risiko usahatani padi sawah meliputi analisis risiko produksi usahatani padi sawah. untuk mengetahui besarnya risiko produksi dianalisis dengan menggunakan koefisien variasi (cv). koefisien variasi (cv) merupakan ukuran resiko relatif yang diperoleh dengan membagi standar deviasi dengan nilai yang diharapkan (pappas dan hirschey,1995). secara matematis risiko dirumuskan 72 jurnal agraris sebagai berikut : cv = ........................................................................ (1) nilai koefisien variasi yang lebih kecil menunjukkan variabilitas nilai rata-rata pada distribusi tersebut rendah. hal ini menggambarkan risiko yang dihadapi untuk memperoleh produksi tersebut rendah. besarnya pengaruh penggunaan input terhadap risiko produksi dianalisis dengan menggunakan regresi linier berganda dengan metode heteroscedastic. model heteroscedastic yang digunakan adalah model multiplicative heteroscedasticity dengan memaksimumkan fungsi likelihood (just and pope dalam roumasset et al. 1976; greene, 2003). model regresi untuk pengaruh penggunaan input terhadap produksi dan terhadap risiko produksi secara umum dituliskan sebagai berikut : ln y = á + â 1 ln x 1 + â 2 ln x 2 + â 3 ln x 3 + â 4 ln x 4 + â 5 ln x 5 + â 6 ln x 6 + â 7 ln x 7 + â 8 ln x 8 + ä mt d mt + ä sl d sl + [ ……..............................................(2) [2 = á + â 1 ln x 1 + â 2 ln x 2 + â 3 ln x 3 + â 4 ln x 4 + â 5 ln x 5 + â 6 ln x 6 + â 7 ln x 7 + â 8 ln x 8 + ä mt d mt + ä sl d sl + [ ……..............................................(3) keterangan : y = produksi padi sawah (ton) [2 = risiko produksi padi sawah (residual) á = intersept â i = koefisien regresi (parameter yang ditaksir) (i = 1 s/d 8) äi = koefisien regresi dummy (parameter yang ditaksir) (i = mt, sl) x 1 = luas lahan (ha) x 2 = benih (kg) x 3 = pupuk n (kg) x 4 = pupuk p (kg) x 5 = pupuk k (kg) x 6 = pupuk organik (kg) x 7 = pestisida (liter) x 8 = tenaga kerja (hok) d mt = dummy musim tanam (0 = mh, 1 = mk) d sl = dummy status lahan (0 = bukan milik,1 = milik sendiri) [ = error term uji statistik terhadap model regresi terdiri atas tiga macam pengujian yaitu uji koefisien determinasi (r2), likelihood ratio test dan individual test (uji-t). nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) digunakan untuk mengetahui ketepatan model yang digunakan. hasil pembahasan profil responden dan usahatani padi sawah secara umum umur kepala keluarga dalam hal ini petani padi sawah rata-rata 49 tahun. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sektor pertanian khususnya usahatani padi sawah cenderung kurang banyak diminati oleh penduduk pedesaan usia produktif (25-40 tahun). pertumbuhan sektor non pertanian yang dinamis khususnya jasa dan pariwisata membuka peluang lapangan pekerjaan yang cukup besar, sehingga penduduk usia muda di pedesaan lebih cenderung untuk memilih bekerja diluar sektor pertanian. meskipun ada keterkaitan antara rata-rata usia kerja kepala rumahtangga dengan pengalaman usahatani, keterbatasan umur juga menunjukkan kemampuan untuk mengadopsi teknologi juga terbatas. kreatifitas serta inisiatif untuk memanfaatkan teknologi baru yang tersedia belum banyak dilakukan, sehingga proses adopsi teknologi juga akan berjalan lambat. rata-rata tingkat pendidikan petani umumnya tidak tamat smp (7,8 tahun), dimana tingkat pendidikan terendah tidak sekolah (1,6%). sedangkan petani yang berpendidikan setingkat sarjana yang relatif kecil (0,8%). dengan tingkat pendidikan yang rata-rata tidak tamat smp atau setara tamat sd, dapat dipahami bahwa pekerjaan di sektor pertanian bukanlah pekerjaan yang membutuhkan tingkat keahlian/ketrampilan khusus, pendidikan tidak menjadi indikator keberhasilan. fenomena ini menjadikan sektor pertanian sulit berkembang, kemampuan untuk dapat mengadopsi teknologi baru membutuhkan tingkat kemampuan yang memadai untuk menerima, mengolah dan menerapkan teknologi yang tersedia. pengalaman dalam berusahatani padi sawah secara keseluruhan sudah cukup lama, yaitu 24,3 tahun dengan pengalaman terendah 5 tahun dan tertinggi 42 tahun. cukup lamanya rata-rata pengalaman berusahatani padi sawah yang lebih dari 20 tahun dimungkinkan karena mereka memulai usahataninya dari usia yang relatif muda dan diwariskan oleh orangtua mereka secara turuntemurun. pengalaman yang dimiliki oleh petani ini 73 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 sesungguhnya dapat digunakan sebagai peluang kearah efisiensi dalam penggunaan input-input produksi yang mereka gunakan. karena sebagian besar petani dalam melaksanakan kegiatan usahataninya didasarkan pada pengalaman empiris yang diperoleh di lahannyaselama beberapa periode. lahan sebagai faktor produksi mempunyai peranan besar terhadap peningkatan produksi dan pendapatan usahatani padi sawah. secara keseluruhan rata-rata penguasasaan lahan garapan relatif kecil yaitu seluas 0,41 ha. dengan penguasan lahan yang relatif kecil tentunya produksi dan pendapatan yang akan diperoleh juga akan rendah, terlebih apabila tidak diikuti dengan penerapan teknologi dan managerial yang baik. berdasarkan status kepemilikan lahan, 75,46% petani memiliki lahan sendiri dan sisanya merupakan lahan dengan status sewa atau sakap. dengan status lahan garapan yang menyewa ataupun menyakap tentunya pendapatan yang diterima juga tentunya akan lebih kecil, karena harus mengeluarkan biaya sewa ataupun hasil yang peroleh dibagi dengan pemilik lahan sesuai aturan yang disepakati. luas lahan garapan yang dikuasai umumnya juga terfragmentasi menjadi beberapa persil, baik pada hamparan yang sama tetapi ada juga pada hamparan yang berbeda. biasanya dengan semakin meningkatnya luas lahan garapan maka akan semakin terfragmentasi menjadi beberapa persil lahan garapan, dengan rata-rata penguasaan 2,9 persil. dengan semakin terfragmentasinya lahan garapan menjadi beberapa persil tentunya akan memberikan peluang pada ketidakefisienan dalam mengelola usahataninya apabila lahan yang terfragmentasi terletak pada hamparan yang berbeda dan lokasi yang berjauhan. keragaan penggunaan input produksi pada penggunaan benih, umumya petani menyemai benih lebih banyak daripada yang sesungguhnya ditanam. rata-rata penggunaan benih per hektar mencapai 29,95 kg/ha.selain untuk mengantisipasi kekurangan bibit akibat viabilitas (daya tumbuh) benih yang tidak pernah mencapai diatas 95 persen, hal itu juga dimaksudkan untuk mengantisipasi kebutuhan bibit untuk penyulaman. dalam kasus-kasus tertentu dimana bibit yang mereka semai sendiri tidak cukup maka petani tersebut biasanya membeli atau meminjam bibit dari petani lainnya. penggunaan varietas padi sawah diketiga lokasi penelitian juga telah mengalami pola pergeseran dimana sebelumnya varietas ir 64 merupakan varietas yang dominan digunakan hampir diseluruh provinsi bali. pada saat ini petani telah menggunakan varietas-varietas unggul baru seperti ciherang, cigeulis, cibogo, mekongga, inpari dan beberapa varietas unggul baru lainnya, hal ini dikarenakan varietas ir 64 telah mengalami penurunan daya hasil dan rentan terhadap hama dan penyakit, terutama tungro jika ditanam pada saat musim hujan yang tentunya akan memperbesar risiko produksi. pupuk anorganik/pupuk kimia yang banyak digunakan oleh petani pada umumnya adalah urea, sp 36, kcl, za dan npk. rata-rata penggunaan pupuk n sebanyak 248,88 urea per hektar, 97,16 kg per hektar sp 36 dan 96,17 kg kcl per hektar. penggunaan ketiga jenis pupuk makro tersebut sebenarnya sudah melebihi dari rekomendasi pemupukan spesifik lokasi, dimana untuk ketiga jenis pupuk tersebut takaran yang dianjurkan masing-masing 250 kg urea/ha, 75 kg sp 36/ha dan 50 kg kcl/ha. hal ini dikarenakan petani umumya masih berpersepsi bahwa semakin banyak input produksi diberikan akan semakin tinggi produksi yang dihasilkan. padahal sesungguhnya tanaman menyerap unsur hara (pupuk) sesuai dengan kebutuhannya, pemberian yang berlebihan justru akan berdampak negatif pada lingkungan dan peningkatan biaya produksi yang dikeluarkan. pupuk organik dalam bentuk yang telah dikomposkan ataupun segar berperan penting dalam perbaikan sifat kimia, fisika, dan biologi tanah serta sebagai sumber nutrisi tanaman. secara umum kandungan nutrisi hara dalam pupuk organik tergolong rendah dan agak lambat tersedia, sehingga diperlukan dalam jumlah cukup banyak. namun, pupuk organik yang telah dikomposkan dapat menyediakan hara dalam waktu yang lebih cepat dibandingkan dalam bentuk segar, karena selama proses pengomposan telah terjadi proses dekomposisi yang dilakukan oleh beberapa macam mikroba, baik dalam kondisi aerob maupun anaerob. sumber bahan kompos antara lain berasal dari limbah organik seperti sisa-sisa tanaman (jerami, batang, dahan), kotoran ternak (sapi, kambing, ayam). penggunaan pupuk organik pada usahaani padi sawah masih relatif rendah sekali yaitu rata-rata 195,74 kg per hektar. penggunaan pestisida ditingkat petani sangat bervariasi, rata-rata penggunaan pestisida oleh petani sebanyak 541,65 ml per hektar. semakin meningkatnya penggunaan pestisida tanpa memperdulikan ambang 74 jurnal agraris batas tentunya berdampak negatif. karena selain akan meningkatkan biaya produksi juga akan mengancam keberadaan musuh alami bahkan meningkakan resistensi hama dan penyakit. hasil kajian ameriana (2008) tentang perilaku petani dalam menggunakan pestisida kimiawi dapat disimpulkan bahwa : (a) semakin tinggi persepsi petani terhadap risiko maka semakin tinggi kuantitas pestisida kimia yang digunakan, (b) semakin rendah ketahanan suatu varietas terhadap serangan opt, semakin tinggi kuantitas pestisida kimia yang digunakan oleh petani dan (c) semakin rendah pengetahuan petani terhadap bahaya pestisida semakin tinggi pestisida yang digunakan. alokasi tenaga kerja mencakup tenaga kerja dalam keluarga dan tenaga kerja upahan (buruh). dalam pengelolaan tanah, penggunaan tenaga kerja ternak ataupun manusia semakin langka dijumpai dan sebagian besar menggunakan tenaga mekanis terutama traktor roda dua yang dibayarkan dengan sistem borongan. demikian halnya penanaman, untuk kegiatan penanaman dominan dilakukan oleh tenaga kerja luar keluarga yang diperhitungkan berdasarkan luas areal tanamnya. kelangkaan tenaga kerja akan sangat terlihat apabila musim panen mulai tiba, hampir secara keseluruhan tenaga kerja untuk panen merupakan tenaga kerja yang berasal dari luar bali (umumnya jawa timur). para tenaga kerja tersebut akan tiba menjelang musim panen raya dan biasanya kembali setelah masa panen selesai. rata-rata penggunaan tenaga kerja usahatani padi sawah per hektar selama satu musim sebanyak 56,3 hok. saptana et al., (2010) menyatakan bahwa penggunaan tenaga kerja yang intensif terkait juga denga usaha menanggulangi risiko secara interaktif dengan mengelola usahatani secara sungguh-sungguh. artinya penambahan penggunaan tenaga kerja akan bersifat mengurangi risiko kegagalan usahatani. risiko produksi analisis risiko produksi menggunakan koefisien variasi (cv) kemudian dilakukan perbandingan risiko produksi antara petani padi sawah pada musim hujan dan produksi padi sawah pada musim kemarau. nilai koefisien variasi produksi yang kecil menunjukkan variabilitas nilai rata-rata produksi yang rendah. hal ini menggambarkan risiko produksi yang dihadapi untuk mendapatkan hasil produksi tersebut kecil, demikian sebaliknya. perbandingan risiko produksi antara usahatani padi sawah antar musim dan status kepemilikan lahan dapat dilihat pada tabel 1. pada tabel 1 terlihat bahwa risiko produksi usahatani padi sawah pada musim hujan lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan usahatani padi sawah pada musim kemarau, hal tersebut sejalan dengan hasil penelitian ghani (2013) bahwa curah hujan termasuk faktor yang meningkatkan risiko. tingginya risiko produksi akan berpengaruh terhadap produksi usahatani padi sawah yang akan dihasilkan. lebih tingginya risiko produksi padi sawah pada musim hujan dibandingkan pada musim kemarau diduga bahwa pada musim hujan tingkat serangan penyakit lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan musim kemarau, selain itu pada musim hujan intensitas radiasi matahari juga lebih rendah dibandingkan musim kemarau yang tentunya kan berpengaruh terhadap proses fotosintesis. menurut satoto et al., (2013) beberapa upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk mengurangi senjang hasil antar musim antara lain mengetahui prevalensi serangan hama/penyakit, memetakan varietas spesifik, dan menerapkan teknik budi daya spesifik baik pada musim hujan maupun musim kemarau. misalnya rekomendasi pemupukan, jarak tanam, pengairan, dan pengelolaan hama/penyakit tanaman. sedangkan berdasarkan status kepemilikan lahan terlihat bahwa status lahan usahatani padi sawah dengan status lahan bukan milik memiliki risiko yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan denan lahan usahatani pada lahan milik sendiri. disamping mengusahakan lahan milik sendiri, sepanjang modal produksi dan penawaran lahan sewa tersedia, petani juga umumnya menyewa lahan tabel 1. produktivitas dan risiko usahatani padi sawah berdasarkan musim tanam 75 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 usahatani. menurut saptana et al, (2010) hal ini merupakan salah satu strategi pengendalian risiko, karena melalui diversifikasi hamparan petani juga dapat mengurangi kovariasi hamparan hasil dan variabilitas produksi agregat. demikian juga jika secara spasial lokasi hamparan tersebut tersebar, variabilitas produksi agregat yang diakibatkan oleh dampak spesifik lokasi (misalnya serangan opt dan kekeringan setempat) dapat diminimalisir. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi risiko produksi untuk mengetahui risiko produksi padi sawah pada penggunaan faktor-faktor produksi padi sawah dapat dianalisis menggunakan model fungsi produksi cobbdouglass menurut just and pope, dimana model tersebut menunjukkan adanya pengaruh faktor-faktor produksi terhadap produksi padi sawah. hasil analisis fungsi produksi cobb-douglas dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. tabel 2. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi padi sawah di provinsi bali, keterangan : *** = signifikan 1% ** = signifikan 5% * = signifikan 5% ns = tidak signifikan pada tabel 2 terlihat bahwa nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,925, hal ini berarti sebanyak 92,5 persen variasi dari produksi padi sawah dapat dijelaskan oleh variasi variabel independen dalam model, dengan kata lain 84,4 persen variabel independen secara bersamasama berpengaruh terhadap produksi dan sisanya 7,5 persen dipengaruhi oleh hal lain yang tidak diteliti. hasil uji f menunjukkan bahwa nilai f hitung (á = 1%) sebesar 165,22 yang secara statistik berpengaruh nyata, berarti bahwa variabel independen secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap produksi padi sawah. hasil uji t menunjukkan bahwa koefisien regresi yang berpengaruh nyata terhadap produksi padi sawah adalah lahan, benih, pupuk n, pupuk p, pupuk organik, tenaga kerja, musim tanam dan status lahan. hal ini berarti setiap penambahan atau pengurangan faktor produksi tersebut akan menaikkan produksi padi sawah. selanjutnya untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi risiko produksi padi sawah adalah estimasi dengan methode least square, dimana risiko produksi padi sawah (residual) digunakan sebagai variabel dependen. berdasarkan hasil pendugaan tersebut mempunyai nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) yang relatif kecil, sebesar 46,8 persen. beberapa hasil penelitian yang menggunakan persamaan fungsi variance produksi memberikan koefisien determinasi yang sangat kecil, bahkan negatif (walter et al. 2004). tabel 3. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi risiko produksi padi sawah di provinsi bali, tahun 2012 keterangan : *** = signifikan 1% ** = signifikan 5% * = signifikan 5% ns = tidak signifikan nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,468, hal ini bermakna bahwa sebanyak 46,8% variasi dari risiko produksi padi sawah dapat dijelaskan oleh variasi variabel independen dalam model, dengan kata lain 46,8 % variabel independen secara bersama-sama berpengaruh terhadap risiko produksi dan sisanya 53,2 % dipengaruhi oleh hal lain yang tidak diteliti yang merupakan variabel 76 jurnal agraris lain di luar model, hal tersebut antara lain adalah pengaruh cuaca, hama penyakit dan lainnya. sa’id dan intan (2001) mengemukakan bahwa risiko produksi karena bencana alam, serangan hama dan penyakit tanaman, kebakaran, dan karena faktor-faktor lainnya yang akibatnya dapat diperhitungkan secara fisik dapat ditanggulangi dengan membeli polis asuransi produksi pertanian. namun hal ini nampaknya baru sebatas wacana masih dalam taraf penelitian, dan belum diterapkan di indonesia. selanjutnya dikatakan risiko kemungkinan menurunnya kualitas produksi dapat ditanggulangi dengan penerapan teknologi budidaya dan pasca panen yang tepat. berdasarkan hasil analisis yang tersaji pada tabel 3 diketahui bahwa nilai f hitung (á = 10% ) sebesar 3,739 berpengaruh nyata, berarti bahwa variabel independen secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap risiko produksi. hasil uji t terhadap variabel independen menunjukkan variabel independen yang berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap risiko produksi usahatani padi sawah adalah luas lahan, pupuk organik dan pestisida. hal ini bermakna bahwa setiap penambahan faktor produksi luas lahan, pupuk organik dan pestisida maka akan menurunkan risiko produksi padi sawah. dengan penambahan lahan sampai batas tertentu akan meningkatkan skala usaha, produksi, dan efisiensi dalam usahatani, sehingga akan menurunkan risiko produksi padi. hal ini sejalan dengan hasil penelitian fariyanti et al., (2007); kurniati (2012); zakirin et al., (2013). walaupun pada kondisi riil penambahan areal tanam melalui ekstensifikasi usahatani padi sawah sudah tidak memungkinkan lagi untuk dilaksanakan di provinsi bali. tingkat partisipasi petani secara kuantitatif dalam menggunakan pupuk organik masih relatif rendah. hasil analsisis statistik menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan pupuk organic secara nyata dapat menurunkan risiko produksi padi sawah, hal ini diduga karna pemakaian pupuk kimia dalam waktu yang lama dan dalam jumlah yang tinggi sehingga apabila tidak diimbangi dengan penggunaan pupuk organik akan berdampak terhadap kualitas dan kesuburan tanah. sebagaimana hasil penelitian ghafar et al., (2011) bahwa dengan melakukan penambahan jumlah penggunaan pupuk organik dalam jangka panjang akan meningkatkan produksi dan menurunkan risiko pada usahatani kedelai. dari sisi efisiensi, penggunaan pupuk kimia dan pupuk organik dapat dipandang sebagai suatu pemborosan. namun demikian menurut saptana et al., (2011) jika dipandang dari aspek manajemen risiko hal ini juga dapat dikategorikan sebagai salah satu metode strategi manajemen risiko interaktif, karena petani dapat mengatur penambahan atau pengurangan pupuk sesuai dengan persepsinya menyangkut kebutuhan hara tanaman. berdasarkan hasil analisis sttistik seperti yang ditampilkan pada tabel 3, menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan pestisida berpengaruh nyata terhadap penurunan risiko produksi padi sawah. hal serupa juga diperoleh dari hasil penelitian villano dan fleming (2006) bahwa penggunaan input produksi herbisida berpengaruh mengurangi risiko produksi padi sawah. pada umumnya petani padi sawah menggunakan pestisida sebagai tindakan preventif sekaligus tindakan preventif. dengan kata lain, pengambilan keputusan pengendalian cenderung lebih diarahkan untuk mengantisipasi risiko terjadinya serangan opt dan sekaigus untuk mengatasi serangan opt tersebut secara actual. menurut saptana et al., (2010) efisiensi pengendalian opt sebenarnya tergantung pada kejadian yang bersifat acak, yaitu ada tidaknya srangan opt juka tidak ada serangan maka input tersebut tidak akan berpengaruh terhadap produksi, bahkan mungkin menimbulkan pemborosan serta menimbulkan resistensi dan surgerensi terhadap opt tertentu. hail observasi dilapangan juga menunjukan bahwa hampir secara keseluruhan petani menggunaan pestisida kimia dala pengendalian serangan opt artinya dalam menghadapi risiko dalam usahatani padi sawah petani lebih mengandalkan pestisida kimiawi, karena dipandang lebih efektif dan praktis dibandingkan pestisida nabati. walaupun beberapa petani juga telah memperoleh sl-pht padi namun belum diaplikasikan secara utuh sehingga keberhasilannya masih rendah karena masih kurangnya pengetahuan petani secara menyeluruh. kesimpulan dan implikasi kebijakan risiko produksi usahatani padi sawah yang diusahakan pada musim kemarau memiliki risiko produksi yang lebih rendah dibandingkan pada musim hujan. risiko produksi padi sawah juga lebih tinggi pada lahan bukan milik dibandingkan lahan dengan status milik sendiri. hal ini mengindikasikan variasi produksi yang lebih tinggi pada usahatani padi sawah diusahakan pada musim hujan dan status lahan bukan milik. faktor yang mempengaruhi risiko produksi usahatani padi sawah antara lain luas lahan, pupuk organik dan pestisida. sebagai implikasi kebijakan dari penelitian ini, maka 77 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 di sarankan beberapa hal sebagai berikut: (1) menambah penggunaan input produksi yang secara signifikan meningkatkan produksi dan menurunkan risiko antara lain pupuk organic, mengaplikasikan pendekatan pht dalam pengendalian opt secata utuh sehingga penggunaan pestisida dapat dioptimalkan, (2) upaya untuk penanganan risiko produksi dapat dilakukan melalui oenerapan diversifikasi usahatani atau pola tanam optimal dan (3) upaya mengurangi risiko juga dapat dilakukan melalui perbaikan dan perancangan teknologi yaitu dengan menggunakan varietas-varietas tahan opt dan memiliki stabilitas hasil yang tinggi serta daya adaptasi yang luas terhadap berbagai cekaman lingkungan. daftar pustaka ameriana, m. 2008. perilaku petani sayuran dalam menggunakan pestisida kimia. jurnal hortikultura 18 (1) : 95-106. badan pusat statistik provinsi bali. 2013b. luas lahan menurut penggunaannya di provinsi bali tahun 2013. badan pusat statistik provinsi bali. denpasar. 94 hal. coelli, t.j. d.s.p. rao and g.e. battese. 1998. introduction to efficiency and productivity analysis. kluwer academic plublisher. boston. fariyanti, a., kuntjoro, s hartoyo dan a. daryanto. 2007. perilaku ekonmi rumahtangga sayuran pada kondisi risiko produksi dan harga di kecamatan pangalengan kabupaten bandung. juarnal agro ekonomi 25 (2) : 178-206. ghani, m.a. 2013. dampak perubahan iklim terhadap hasil dan risiko produksi padi di indonesia. thesis program studi ilmu ekonomi. fakultas ekonomi. universitas indonesia. jakarta. (tidak dipublikasikan). greene, w.h. 2003. econometric analysis. fifth edition. upper saddle river, prentice hall, new jersey. kurniati, d. 2012. analisis risiko produksi dan faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhinya pada usahatani jagung (zea mays l) di kecamatanmempawah hulu kabupaten landak. jurnal sosial ekonomi pertanian 1 (3) : 60-68. pappas, j.m dan m. hirschey. 1995. ekonomi managerial. edisi keenam jilid ii. binarupa aksara. bandung. roumasset, j.a. 1976. risk aversion, indirect utility function market failure, in : roumasset, j.a, boussard, j.m, singh, i. (eds) risk and uncertainty an agriculture develop-ment. new york: agriculture development council. sa’id, e.g dan a.h. intan. 2001. pengelolaan agribisnis. penerbit ghalia indonesia. jakarta. saptana, a. daryanto., h.k. daryanto dan kuntjoro. 2010. strategi manajemen risiko petani cabai merah pada lahan sawah dataran rendah di jawa tengah. jurnal manajemen dan agribisnis 7 (2) : 115-131. satoto, y. widyastuti., u.susanto., dan m. j. mejaya. 2013. perbedaan hasil padi antar musim di lahan sawah irigasi. iptek tanaman pangan 8 (2) : 55-61 soedjana, t.d. 2007. sistem usahatani terintegrasi tanaman ternak sebagai respons petani terhadap faktor risiko. jurnal litbang pertanian 26 (2) : 82-87. sriyadi. 2010. risiko produksi dan keefisienan relatif usahatani bawang putih di kabupaten karanganyar. jurnal pembangunan pedesaan 10 (2) : 69-76. suryana a., s. mardianto, k. kariyasa dan i.p. wardhana. 2009. kedudukan padi dalam perekonomian indonesia dalam padi, inovasi teknologi dan ketahanan pangan. buku 1. balai besar penelitian tanaman padi. badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian. jakarta. hal 731. thahir, a.g., d.h. darwanto., j.h. mulyo dan jamhari. 2011. analisis risiko produksi usahatani kedelai pada berbagai tipe lahan di sulawesi selatan. jurnal sosial ekonomi pertanian 8 (1) : 1-15. villano, r dan e flemming. 2006. technical inefficiency and production risk in rice farming : evidence from central luzonphilippines. asian economc journal 20 (1) : 29-46. walter, j.t., r.k. roberts, j.a. larson, b.c. english and d.d. howard. 2004. effects of risk, disease, and nitrogen source on optimal nitrogen fertilization rates in winter wheat production. paper. southern agricultural economic association. tulsa, oklahoma. zakirin, m., e. yurisinthae dan n. kusrini. 2013. analisis risiko usahatani padi pada lahan pasang surut di kabupaten pontianak. jurnal social economic of agriculture 2 (1) : 75-84 vol. 8 no. 1 january-june 2022 agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june, and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with the agribusiness association of indonesia (aai) and indonesian society of agricultural economics (isae). agraris was indexed in scopus (q3) and got science and technology index (sinta) 1. editorial team editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57215538283) advisory international editorial board dr. ammar abdul aziz school of agriculture and food sciences, the university of queensland, australia (scopus id: 57191076222) assoc. prof. dr. juwaidah sharifuddin department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia (scopus id: 55915859300) prof. masateru senge united graduate school of agricultural science, gifu university, japan (scopus id: 57201942114) dr. anidah robani institute of technology management & entrepreneurship, universiti teknikal malaysia melaka, malaysia (scopus id: 55655498600) dr. pakapon saiyut department of agricultural economics, khon kaen university, thailand (scopus id: 57197711505) editorial board prof. dr. muhammad firdaus, s.p., m.si. department of economic, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57204838013) dr. triyono, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57193756455) suprehatin, sp, mab, ph.d. department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57220105545) dr. susanawati, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57194276960) subejo, s.p., m.sc., ph.d. department of extension and communication, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia (scopus id: 57191036623) dr. ir. indardi, m.si department of agribusiness. universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57208466949) dr. abdul mutolib department of agribusiness, siliwangi university, indonesia (scopus id: 57191584252) zuhud rozaki, s.p., m.app.sc., ph.d. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57192575625) issn 9772407814009 ii agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research assistant editor heri akhmadi, s.p., m.a. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57221847740) muhammad fauzan, s.p., m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57203142471) address secretariat of agraris: journal agribusiness and rural development research ground floor of f3 building (siti walidah) jl. brawijaya, tamantirto, kasihan, bantul, d.i. yogyakarta, indonesia 55183 telp.0274-387656 (ext.201) fax. 0274-387646 e-mail: agraris@umy.ac.id wa: +62 853-2873-7828 mailto:agraris@umy.ac.id iii vol.8 no.1, january-june 2022 table of contents agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january-june 2022 editorial team ....................................................................................................................................................................i table of contents ........................................................................................................................................................... iii preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. iv manuscript guidelines ................................................................................................................................................... iv article production performance among the restitution farm beneficiaries in waterberg district, south africa malose moses tjale, marizvikuru mwale, beata m. kilonzo ...……………………………………………………………………....1-19 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11276 the use of intervention approach in individual and aggregate forecasting methods for burger patties: a case in indonesia rendayu jonda neisyafitri, pornthipa ongkunaruk……………………………………………………………………………........20-33 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12842 the effect of price policy on price dynamics: empirical evidence in indonesian rice market at wholesale level bayu krisnamurthi, anisa dwi utami………………………………………………………………………………………………....34-45 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11546 the effect of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship on rice farming performance imelda, rakhmad hidayat, marisi aritonang...……………………………...…………………………........................................46-57 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11466 leverage factors affecting the sustainability of seaweed agro-industry development in central sulawesi, indonesia alimudin laapo, asriani hasanuddin, andi darmawati tombolotutu……………………………………………………...……...58-72 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11525 developing an ingredient branding strategy applied to pigmented rice commodity shafira wuryandani, dyah ismoyowati, endy suwondo…………………………………………………………………………….73-89 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12013 arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine the price volatility of red chili etty puji lestari, sucihatiningsih dian wisika prajanti, wandah wibawanto, fauzul adzim….……………………….…….....90-105 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12060 price volatility of ornamental plants in batu municipality hamidatul khofifah, tri wahyu nugroho, sujarwo………...…..........................................................................................106-122 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12342 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11276 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12842 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11546 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.7621 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11272 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12013 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11510 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.10126 iv agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research preface bismillahirrahmaanirrahiim. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 (january-june 2022) has been published. this edition consisted of eight articles from three focuses and scopes: agricultural economics, agricultural development dan policy, then entrepreneurship and management of agribusinesses. the study about agricultural economics consisted of four topics entitled production performance among the restitution farm beneficiaries in waterberg district, south africa (tjale et al.); the effect of price policy on price dynamics: empirical evidence in indonesian rice market at wholesale level (krisnamurthi et al.); archgarch analysis: an approach to determine the price volatility of red chili (lestari et al.); and price volatility of ornamental plants in batu municipality (khofifah et al.). the agricultural development dan policy study consisted of one topic, leverage factors affecting the sustainability of seaweed agro-industry development in central sulawesi (laapo et al.). in entrepreneurship and management of agribusinesses consisted of three topics entitled the use of intervention approach in individual and aggregate forecasting methods for burger patties: a case in indonesia (neisyafitri et al.); the effect of individual characteristics and entrepreneurship on rice farming performance (imelda et al.); and developing an ingredient branding strategy applied to pigmented rice commodity (wuryandani et al.). the various studies had been written from three countries that were indonesia, south africa, and thailand. the several discovering research, hope can be a base for the stakeholder and policymaker who relates to the wider agricultural development and encourage developing ideas for further studies. finally, we would like to thank all the contributors, such as the authors, expert reviewers, and all editors, for materializing this journal published. yogyakarta, indonesia june 2022 editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. v vol.8 no.1, january-june 2022 manuscript guidelines manuscript submission criteria: 1. the manuscript is a result of the agribusiness and rural development research. the manuscript should have a novelty/authenticity contribution or uniqueness for academic (science) development. 2. the manuscript contains original research work, free from plagiarism and other unethical attitudes. 3. the author must ensure that the manuscript has not been published in the other periodical journals at the time of manuscript submission. manuscript systematics: 1. title. the title should be brief, describe the uniqueness of the research, not exceed 20 words, and should begin with a capitalized letter for each word. 2. author’s name and affiliation. the author’s name should be included by affiliation (write completely) and email address, without the academic title. 3. abstract. the abstract is written in english, one paragraph with single spacing (maximum 250 words) without references or formulas. keywords consist of 3-5 words or phrases (alphabetically). the abstract contains a brief description of the research background (maximum two sentences), aims, methods, main results, and conclusion. 4. introduction. the introduction is written without numbers and/or pointers. this section consists of (i) nature and scope of the problem in a broader (national, regional, international) context, (ii) review of relevant literature, (iii) significance/novelty/contribution of this research on knowledge, (iv) aims of this research. if there is a hypothesis, declare it explicitly and not in an interrogative sentence. it should be written efficiently and supported by references. extensive discussion of relevant literature should be included in the discussion, not in the introduction. 5. research method. this section should explain how the research was conducted. it should be written clearly and completely containing a clear description of (i) population and sampling, (ii) data measuring and collecting, (iii) variable and data analysis. this research method should be sufficiently detailed. for qualitative research, please adjust this method to the scientific writing habits while considering the repeatability of the research. it was unnecessary to write analysis methods commonly (e.g., f-test formula, t-test) but just referred to your source. references of original methods/procedures must be stated, and all modifications of procedures (if any) should be explained. symbol description of the model was suggested to be written on narration. 6. result and discussion. the beginning of the results and discussion presents the data and found facts, calculated, and discovered. data should be presented in tables or figures when feasible. the table should be clear and stand-alone, giving complete information without text. the title of table and figure should briefly and clearly describe the described facts. symbols written in table and figure should be given complete information and allow the reader to interpret the results. each figure and table must be referred to in the narration. in the rest of the section, the author must discuss the research findings. 7. conclusion. this section summarizes the principal findings and is written briefly. conclusion related to the introduction and aims or hypothesis but did not repeat the discussion. conclusion written critically, logically, and honestly based on the existing fact, and full of cautions if there was a generalization. a recommendation showed the significance of the results/findings or practical application. this section, written in paragraph form, does not use numbering or bullets. vi agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 8. acknowledgments (if necessary). this section provided the authors with gratitude to the research funder, facility, or suggestion and for the statement if the article is part of the thesis/dissertation. 9. author contributions: for the article with several authors, please write each author's contribution in a brief paragraph. the authorship must be limited to those who have contributed, besides reading and agreeing on the final manuscript. 10. conflict of interest: the author should declare the conflict of interest or state "the authors declare no conflict of interest." the author must identify and state the circumstances that may influence the interpretation of the research results. 11. references. the reference contains the list of journals, books, or other publications referred to in this manuscript. each reference cited in the text must be listed in references, and vice versa. references of the manuscript must be traceable, no less than 25 pieces, should be a primary source (80%), and not exceed 10 years (80%). manuscript format: 1. the manuscript is written in quarto paper size, one column, and 1.5 spacing format. the new paragraph begins with six characters from the left side and uses time new roman font 12. 2. the manuscript is written in english. 3. the number of pages between 15-20, the margin on the left and upper sides is 3 cm, the right and bottom sides are 2.5 cm. 4. the title is written uppercase (except preposition) using font size 14 with center alignment. the subtitle is written uppercase and uses font size 12 if there is a sub-subtitle, written capital each word except conjunction. write capital for each word and italic model if there is a sub of sub-subtitle. subtitle, sub-subtitle, and sub of the sub-subtitle are written on the left side. 5. the citation is written by the american psychological association 6th edition. below are samples of citation: (wong, sharifuddin, teng, li, & song, 2020); (triyono, kamardiani, & prasetio, 2021); (debertin, 2004); (statistics indonesia, 2020). 6. the figure or table is made as close as possible to the explanation and put the number sequentially based on the site in the explanation. the source of data is better to be included. note: figure should be clear and fixed (good resolution) a sample of the figure can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. amount of order and shipping of leaf vegetables of pt. sfo in 2017 7. tables consist of title and content. the line of the table just on the top and the bottom to separate between the title and the content of the table. vii vol.8 no.1, january-june 2022 a sample of the table can be seen in table 1. table 1. food waste generated in malaysia, 2011 sources food waste ton/day ton/year household 8,745 3,192,404 wet and night market 5,592 2,040,929 food court/restaurant 5,319 1,941,608 hotels 1,568 572,284 food and beverage industries 854 311,564 shopping malls 298 108,678 hypermarket 291 106,288 institutions 55 26,962 total 22,723 8,308,973 source: ministry of housing and local government (mhlg), 2011 8. references are arranged alphabetically, beginning from the first author and followed by the co-author. if there are two or more references with the same author and year of publication, put the sign a, b, c...... etc. after the year of publication. in the reference that site from a journal, scientific magazine, and proceeding should be including the name of author, year, title, place of the seminar, publisher, page, and editor. the reference of agraris is written following american psychological association (apa) 6th edition. when referring is suggested to use the mendeley application. (the tutorial of mendeley can be accessed on http://bit.ly/2vyeqgz). below is the sample of apa 6th edition: article of journal wong, k. k. s., sharifuddin, j. b., teng, p. k., li, w. w., &amp; song, l. k. (2020). impact of urban consumers food consumption behavior towards food waste. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 6(2), 198–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62100 article of proceeding triyono, kamardiani, d. r., & prasetio, m. a. (2021). alocative efficiency of honey pineapple farm in pemalang regency, central java, indonesia. in international conference on agribusiness and rural development (iconard 2020) (vol. 232, p. 01016). e3s web of conferences. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202123201016 book debertin, d. l. (2004). agricultural production economics (second ed.). new jersey: pearson education. report of institution or corporation statistics indonesia. (2020). the statistics of farm wages in rural area. jakarta: bps-statisics indonesia. additional information template of the manuscripts can be downloaded at the website of agraris: (http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/index) vol. 6 no. 2 july-december 2020 agraris is a periodical of scientific journals on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published twice a year (january-june, and july-december) by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta in collaboration with agribusiness association of indonesia (aai). agraris accredited “b” by decree of the indonesian ministry of research, technology, and higher education (ristekdikti) no.51/e/kpt/2017 on 4th december 2017. editorial team editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57215538283) advisory international editorial board assoc. prof. dr. juwaidah sharifuddin department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia (scopus id: 55915859300) prof. masateru sange united graduate school of agricultural science, gifu university, japan (scopus id: 57201942114) dr. malose moses tjale institute of rural development, university of venda, south africa dr. anidah robani institute of technology management & entrepreneurship, universiti teknikal malaysia melaka, malaysia (scopus id: 55655498600) dr. pakapon saiyut department of agricultural economics, khon kaen university, thailand (scopus id: 57197711505) editorial board prof. dr. muhammad firdaus, s.p., m.si. department of economic, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57204838013) dr. aris slamet widodo, s.p. m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia suprehatin, sp, mab, ph.d. department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia dr. susanawati, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57194276960) subejo, s.p., m.sc., ph.d. department of extension and communication, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia (scopus id: 57191036623) dr. ir. indardi, m.si department of agribusiness. universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57208466949) zuhud rozaki, s.p., m.app.sc., ph.d. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57192575625) issn 9772407814009 ii agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research assistant editor heri akhmadi, s.p., m.a. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia muhammad fauzan, s.p., m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57203142471) reviewer available on: http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/about/ displaymembership/61 address secretariat of agraris universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta brawijaya street, tamantirto, kasihan, bantul, yogyakarta 55183 (ground floor of f3 building) telp.0274-387656 (ext.201) fax. 0274-387646 e-mail: agraris@umy.ac.id wa: +62 853-2873-7828 mailto:agraris@umy.ac.id vol.6 no. 2 july-december 2020 iii table of contents journal agraris vol. 6 no. 2 july-december 2020 editorial team ................................................................................................................................................................ i reviewer ......................................................................................................................................................................... ii address ........................................................................................................................................................................... ii table of contents ......................................................................................................................................................... iii preface ...........................................................................................................................................................................iv manuscript guidelines .................................................................................................................................................. v article muntok white pepper price transmission in bangka belitung island province yudi sapta pranoto, rati purwasih, eddy jajang jaya atmaja…………………………………………………………………...107-122 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6294 indonesian cinnamon competitiveness and competitor countries in international market puteri fadjria insan sa'diyah, dwidjono hadi darwanto………………………………………………………………………....123-135 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6295 factors influencing on entrepreneurial behavior of street vendor (a case of street food traders in pekanbaru city, riau province) marliati……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………….136-153 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6296 efficiency of rice farming in the corporate farming model in central java muhammad joni iskandar, jamhari…………………………………………………………………………………...................154-167 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6297 household dietary patterns in food insecurity areas oki wijaya, widodo widodo, riskhi lathifah, nur rahmawati, cahyo wisnu rubiyanto……………………………………..168-180 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6298 intervention strategy for enhancing livelihoods of land reform farmers in waterberg district, south africa malose moses tjale, marizvikuru mwale, beata m. kilonzo……………………………………………………………………..181-197 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6299 impact of urban consumers’ food consumption behavior towards food waste kelly kai seng wong, juwaidah binti sharifuddin, phuah kit teng, wong wang li, lai kok song………………….……….198-207 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62100 the supply chain efficiency of tilapia farming in floating net cage (fnc) in wonogiri regency yan eka dharmawan, endang siti rahayu, minar ferichani…………………………………………………………………......208-221 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62101 iv agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research preface bismillahirrahmaanirrahiim. with full gratitude to allah swt, journal agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2 of 2020 has published. the issue of this number consists of eight articles that discuss agricultural marketing, agricultural development and policy, entrepreneurship of agribusiness, agricultural economics, food security, and rural development. in the study of agricultural marketing consists of three topics that are muntok white pepper price transmission in bangka belitung island province by purwasih et.al, impact of urban consumers’ food consumption behavior towards food waste by wong et.al, and the supply chain efficiency of tilapia farming in floating net cage (fnc) in wonogiri regency by dharmawan et.al. the study of agricultural development and policy is consists of one topic that is indonesian cinnamon competitiveness and competitor countries in international market by sa’diyah et.al. the study of entrepreneurship of agribusiness consists of one topic that is factors influencing on entrepreneurial behavior of street vendor (a case of street food traders in pekanbaru city, riau province) by marliati. the study of agricultural economics, food security and rural development also consist of one topic, sequentially as follows efficiency of rice farming in the corporate farming model in central java by iskandar et.al, household dietary patterns in food insecurity areas by wijaya et.al, and intervention strategy for enhancing livelihoods of land reform farmers in waterberg district, south africa by tjale et.al. the several of discovering research, hope can be a base to the stakeholder of policymaker that relates to the wider agricultural development and encourage developing ideas on further studies. finally, we would like to thank all the contributors such as the author, expert reviewer, and all the editors for materializing this journal published. yogyakarta, december 2020 editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. vol.6 no. 2 juy-december 2020 v manuscript guidelines manuscript submission criteria: 1. the manuscript is a result of agribusiness and rural development research. the manuscript should have novelty/authenticity, contribution or uniqueness for academic (science) development or applications in real life or both of it. 2. the manuscript contains original research, free of plagiarisms, and others unethical attitude. 3. at the time of submitting the manuscript, the author should ensure that the manuscript has not or has not been in the process of publishing in another periodical journal. manuscript systematics: 1. title. the title should be clear, informative, and not exceed 15 words. 2. author’s name and affiliation. the author’s name should be included by affiliation and email address, without the academic title. 3. abstract. the abstract contains a brief description of the research background (maximum two sentences), aims, methods, results, and implication. abstract is written in english, one paragraph with single spacing (maximum 200 words) without any references or formulas. keywords consist of 3-5 words or phrases (alphabetically). 4. introduction. this section explains: (i) general background of research (brief), (ii) a review of the previous research that relevant and up-to-date, (iii) novelty statement (analysis of gap) that contains the urgency and novelty of the research, and (iv) the aims of the research. if there is a hypothesis, declare explicitly and not in an interrogative sentence. the introduction should be written without numbers and/or pointers. 5. research method. this section contains a research design that includes: population/sample of research, data, and techniques/instrument of data collections, tools of analysis, and models used. commonly methods no need to write in detail, but simply refers to the reference book (example: f test formula, t-test). the symbol of the description of the model is written in sentences. 6. result and discussion. this section contains the result of data analysis (in table or figure, not in a raw data, and not a print screen of analysis result), the connections between the result and basic concept and / or hypothesis (if there is), and conformity or contradiction with the result of previous research. this section can also contain an implication from the result of research, both theoretical and appropriately. every figure and table must be referred to in the text. 7. conclusion. conclusion written briefly, only answer the aims or hypotheses of the research, do not repeat the discussion. conclusion written critically, logically, and honestly based on the existing fact, and full of cautions if there is a generalization. this section is written in paragraph form, do not use the numbering or bullets. 8. acknowledgments (if necessary). this section provided for the authors to deliver their gratitude to the research funder, facility, or the suggestion, and for the statement, if the article is part of the thesis/dissertation. 9. references. the reference contains a list of journals, books, or the other publications that are referenced of published manuscripts in the last 10 years (80%). vi agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research manuscript format: 1. the manuscript is written in quarto paper size, one column, and 1.5 spacing format. the new paragraph begins six characters from the left side and uses time new roman font 12. 2. the manuscript is written in english. 3. the number of pages between 15-20, the margin on the left side and the upper side is 3 cm, the right side and the bottom side is 2.5 cm. 4. the title is written uppercase (except preposition) using font size 14 with center alignment. the subtitle is written uppercase and use font size 12. if there is a sub-subtitle, written capital each word except conjunction. if there is a sub of sub-subtitle, written capital each word and italic model. subtitle, sub-subtitle, and sub of the sub-subtitle are written begin on the left side. 5. the citation is written by the american psychological association 6th edition. below are samples of citation: (susanawati, jamhari, masyhuri, & dwidjono, 2015); (bayuriatiga, widodo, & sriyadi, 2015); (bps, 2014); (syaukat, 2011). 6. the figure or table is made as close as possible to the explanation and put the number sequentially base on the site in the explanation. the source of data is better to be included. note: figure should be clear and fix (good resolution) sample of figure: 7. tables consist of title and content. the line of the table just on the top and the bottom to separate between the title and the content of the table. sample of the table: table 1. random value index (ri) country value of export (000 usd) value trend of export (%) indonesia 17.598 2,658 prancis 4.040 4,114 swiss 2.858 -4,837 source: hakimi (2017) 8. references are arranged by alphabetical, begin from the first author and follow by co-author. if there are two or more references that have the same author and year of publication, put the sign a, b, c...... etc. after the year of publication. in the reference that site from journal, scientific magazine, proceeding are should be include the name of author, year, title, place of the seminar, publisher, page, and editor. vol.6 no.2 july-december 2020 vii the reference of agraris is written following american psychological association (apa) 6th edition. when making reference is suggested to use mendeley application. (the tutorial of mendeley can be accessed on http://bit.ly/2vyeqgz). below is the sample of apa 6th edition: article of journal susanawati, s., jamhari, j., masyhuri, & dwidjono, d. (2015). integrasi pasar bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk (pendekatan kointegrasi engle-granger). agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1(1), 43-51. http://doi.org/10.18196/agr.117 article of proceeding banyuriatiga, b., widodo, a. s., & sriyadi, s. (2015). persepsi dan evaluasi pengembangan jambu mete di desa wisata karang tengah, kecamatan imogiri, kabupaten bantul. in s. y. rusimah, i. indardi, m. fauzan, & a. fachruddin (eds.), prosiding seminar nasional optimalisasi potensi sumberdaya lokal menghadapi mea 2015 (pp. 82–90). yogyakarta: program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta. retrieved from http://repository.umy. ac.id/handle/123456789/10106 book debertin, d. l. (2004). agricultural production economics (second edi). new jersey: pearson education. report of institution or corporation bps. (2014). statistik indonesia 2014. jakarta. retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/index.php/publikasi /326 additional information template of the manuscripts can be downloaded at website of agraris: (http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/index) http://doi.org/10.18196/agr.117 http://repository.umy.ac.id/handle/123456789/10106 https://www.bps.go.id/index.php/publikasi/326 eni istiyanti1), uswatun khasanah2), arifah anjarwati2) 1) program studi agribisnis universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta; 2) program studi agribisnis universitas muhammadiyah purworejo; email : eniistiyanti@yahoo.com pengembangan usahatani cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai kecamatan temon kabupaten kulonprogo development of red chilli farming in coastal land of temon, kulonprogo abstract the objective of this research is determine the profit of red chili farming coastal land, the factors that influence of red chili production and efficiency used of production factors on red chili farming on coastal land in temon subdistrict kulon progo regency. selection of the location is used purposive method. fourty farmer sampling were taken as simple random sampling. the analysis method is used multiple regression analysis with ordinary least square (ols) method. the result showed that the income of red chili farming in coastal land is rp 9.278.430/0,38 ha and the profit is rp 3.094.504/0,38 ha. the production factors concists of the soil of area, number of seeds, amount of labors, manure fertilizer, dunk fertilizer, za chemic fertilizer, sp 36 fertilizer, npk mutiara fertilizer, phonska fertilizer, furadan insecticide, ampligo fungicide, anthracol fungicide, confidor insecticide, the kind of seeds and used of mulch aggregated influences to red chili production. the production factors number of seeds, amount of labors, manure fertilizer, npk mutiara fertilizer, ampligo fungicide, kind of seeds and used mulch partially influences to red chili production on coastal land. seed applied on red chili farming on coastal land is efficient keywords : coastal land, income, profit, efficiency pendahuluan lahan merupakan faktor produksi yang utama dalam usahatani. proses alih fungsi lahan menyebabkan pemilikan lahan oleh rumah tangga petani semakin sempit. dalam kurun waktu 1991 – 2020 diperkirakan sekitar 680.000 hektar lahan pertanian di jawa akan berubah menjadi lahan non pertanian. hal yang sama juga akan terjadi di luar jawa terutama di bali, sumatra dan sulawesi, sehingga dalam kurun waktu tersebut lahan pertanian berkurang seluas 807.000 hektar. mengingat masalah tersebut, salah satu alternatif yang dapat dilakukan adalah perluasan areal pertanian ke arah lahan marjinal. salah satu lahan marjinal yang potensial untuk dijadikan lahan pertanian adalah lahan pantai. lahan pantai yang telah dikembangkan menjadi lahan pertanian di propinsi diy tersebar di kabupaten bantul dan kulon progo. lahan pantai di kulon progo sebagian besar adalah milik negara dan paku alam ground, sedangkan di bantul merupakan lahan sultan ground. pemanfaatan lahan pantai di kedua daerah tersebut dapat mengatasi kehilangan tanah pertanian 1.337,7 hektar per tahun akibat konversi lahan pertanian menjadi permukiman. (dinas pertanian diy, 2007). kabupaten kulon progo merupakan daerah penghasil cabai di provinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta yang menunjukkan peningkatan produksi secara signifikan setiap tahunnya. peningkatan luas panen cabai berturutturut sebagai berikut (dinas pertanian kabupaten kulon progo,2008) : doi:10.18196/agr.112 7 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 tahun 2004 (527 ha), tahun 2005 (741 ha), tahun 2006 (943 ha), tahun 2007 (931 ha), tahun 2008 (1.027 ha). cabai merupakan tanaman hortikultura yang dapat tumbuh di berbagai jenis tanah, salah satunya di lahan pasir pantai. lahan dengan ciri utama bertekstur pasir, kandungan hara yang rendah, mudah tererosi oleh angin yang sangat kencang serta suhu udara yang tinggi merupakan kendala utama apabila dikembangkan untuk budidaya tanaman pangan maupun tanaman hortikultura. lahan diominasi oleh fraksi pasir (>95%) sedangkan fraksi debu dan lempungnya sangat rendah menyebabkan lahan pasir pantai memiliki daya meluluskan air yang tinggi. lahan pasir pantai dengan kandungan unsur hara yang rendah memerlukan pembenah tanah agar tercipta kondisi tanah yang mendukung untuk pertumbuhan tanaman pangan maupun tanaman hortikultura. kendala lain yang muncul di lahan pasir pantai adalah suhu tanah yang tinggi di siang dan sore hari. faktor lain di lahan pasir adalah adanya angin laut yang kencang dan membawa kandungan garam laut dapat merusak daun tanaman cabai. guna menanggulangi hal tersebut diperlukan tanaman keras atau penghalang yang berfungsi sebagai pemecah angin. tanaman keras yang ada di sekitar lahan pertanian yakni pohon jambu mete yang memberikan dampak langsung pada tanaman yang ada sebagai pelindung untuk mengurangi suhu udara yang tinggi. berbagai macam kendala yang muncul di lahan pasir pantai menuntut petani menggunakan faktor produksi yang lebih baik dalam kuantitas maupun kualitas. petani berharap dengan menggunakan faktor produksi yang lebih banyak produksi akan tinggi. di sisi lain produksi dan harga cabai sangat tergantung pada musim. pada musim penghujan hanya sedikit petani yang menanam cabai karena resikonya besar sehingga harga cabai di pasar cukup tinggi. musim kemarau banyak petani yang menanam cabai akibatnya harga cabai di pasar menjadi relatif rendah. penelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui keuntungan usahatani, faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi dan efisiensi usahatani cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di kecamatan temon kabupaten kulonprogo dan merupakan penelitian deskriptif (deskriptif research) yang pelaksanaannya menggunakan metode survai. penentuan lokasi penelitian menggunakan metode purposive sampling (nazir, 2002) dengan pertimbangan kecamatan temon mempunyai luas panen dan produktivitas cabai yang tertinggi di kabupaten kulonprogo. petani sampel berjumlah 40 orang yang diambil secara acak sederhana (simple random sampling) keuntungan usahatani merupakan pengurangan penerimaan total dengan biaya total (explicit dan implicit), suratiyah (2006) secara sistematis keuntungan dapat dirumuskan berikut : = tr – tc explicit + implicit keterangan : = profit (keuntungan) tr = total revenue (penerimaan) tc explicit = total cost explicit (biaya total eksplisit) tc implicit = total cost implicit (biaya total implisit) untuk menganalisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi digunakan fungsi produksi cobb – douglass. selanjutnya dengan model ordinary least square (ols) dari analisis regresi akan diperoleh koefisien regresi dari masing-masing faktor produksi (gujarati, 2006). untuk mengetahui pengaruh faktor produksi secara bersamasama digunakan uji f, sedangkan pengaruh masingmasing faktor produksi digunakan uji t. penggunaan faktor produksi dikatakan efisien jika perbandingan antara nilai produk marginal (npm) untuk suatu input (xi) dengan nilai harga input (pxi) tersebut sama dengan satu (npm/p=1), soekartawi (2003) hasil dan pembahasan pendapatan dan keuntungan usahatani cabai merah biaya produksi digolongkan menjadi dua macam yakni biaya implisit merupakan biaya yang tidak dikeluarkan oleh petani secara riil dan biaya eksplisit adalah biaya yang secara nyata dikeluarkan oleh petani dalam satu proses produksi. berdasarkan tabel 1, diketahui bahwa biaya eksplisit lebih besar dari biaya imlpisitnya. biaya tenaga kerja ada dua macam, yakni biaya tenaga kerja eksplisit dan biaya tenaga kerja implisit. biaya tenaga kerjadalam keluarga (implisit) tidak jauh berbeda dengan biaya tenaga kerja luar keluarga (eksplisit) karena dalam perawatan (terutama penyiraman) dilakukan setiap hari dan membutuhkan cukup banyak tenaga kerja yang dicurahkan dilakukan sendiri. biaya sewa lahan ada dua 8 jurnal agraris macam yakni biaya sewa lahan yang masuk kedalam biaya eksplisit dan biaya sewa lahan yang termasuk biaya implisit. biaya sewa lahan ekslipisit merupakan biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh petani yang menyewa lahan untuk usahatani cabai merah, baik yang menyewa seluruhnya atau sebagian. berdasarkan tabel 2 dapat diketahui bahwa produksi cabai merah di lahan pantai untuk luas lahan 0,38 ha sebesar 2.230,68 kg, yang diperoleh dari 10 sampai 20 kali panen. selama musim panen harga cabai merah berfluktuasi sekali berkisar antara rp 3.000,sampai rp 23.000,-. pendapatan total yang diperoleh selama satu musim tanam (6 bulan) sebesar rp 9.278.430,-, jadi tiap bulan rata-rata petani memperoleh pendapatan lebih dari rp 1.500.000,-. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi usahatani cabai merah untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi usahatani cabai merah di lahan pantai digunakan analisis regresi berganda dengan model ordinary least square. produksi cabai yang dianalisis adalah produksi pada saat penelitian dilaksanakan yaitu pada musim tanam 1. hasil uji ketetapan model berdasarkan nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,961 berarti 96,1% variasi variabel dependen (produksi cabai merah) dapat dijelaskan oleh variabel independent yang dimasukkan kedalam model (luas lahan, tenaga kerja, pupuk dasar, pupuk kimia, obat-obatan, benih, intensitas penyiraman dan jenis benih) sedangkan sisanya sebesar 3,9% tabel 1. biaya usahatani cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai kecamatan temon tabel 2. pendapatan dan keuntungan petani cabai merah di lahan pantai kecamatan temon per 0,38 ha 9 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 dijelaskan oleh faktor-faktor lain yang tidak dimasukkkan dalam model misalnya cara pemupukan, kualitas lahan dan kualitas benih. untuk menguji pengaruh dari variabel independen secara simultan terhadap variabel dependen digunakan uji f. berdasarkan hasil analisis, menunjukkan bahwa fhitung > ftabel pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. berarti produksi cabai merah dipengaruhi secara simultan oleh variabel independent (produksi cabai merah) dipengaruhi oleh luas lahan, benih, tenaga kerja, pupuk kotoran ayam, pupuk kotoran sapi, pupuk za, pupuk phonska, pupuk sp36, pupuk npk mutiara, insektisida furadan, abamectin & confidor, fungisida antracol & ampligo, jenis benih dan penggunaan mulsa diterima. berdasarkan uji signifikasi secara parsial, diketahui bahwa terdapat tujuh variabel yang berpengaruh signifikan terhadap produksi cabai merah yaitu benih, tenaga kerja, pupuk kotoran ayam, pupuk npk mutiara, fungisida ampligo, jenis benih dan penggunaan mulsa. nilai koefisien regresi benih sebesar 0,254 dan signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%, artinya setiap penambahan penggunaan benih 1% dan faktor lain tetap akan meningkatkan produksi cabai merah sebesar 0,254 %. hal ini menunjukkan semakin banyak benih yang digunakan dalam usahatani cabai merah, maka produksi yang dihasilkan semakin besar. sebelum penanaman, petani melakukan persemaian terlebih dulu. petani membuat persemaian sendiri menggunakan media tabel 3. analisis regresi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai kecamatan temon tahun 2012 10 jurnal agraris tanah yang dicampur dengan kotoran sapi, dengan perbandingan 1:7, media tersebut dimasukkan dalam plastik polybag. benih dimasukkan ke dalam media tanam, setiap plastik polybag berisi satu benih. pembenihan membutuhkan waktu kurang lebih selama 25–30 hari dan bibit siap ditanam. petani cabai lahan pantai di kecamatan temon menggunakan jarak tanam 40 x 40 cm. benih yang digunakan petani ada tiga jenis yaitu heliks, lado dan kiyo. tenaga kerja mempunyai koefisien regresi sebesar 1,029 dan signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 99%. artinya setiap penambahan penggunaan tenaga kerja sebesar 1% akan menambah produksi cabai merah sebanyak 1,029%, dengan faktor lain tetap. tenaga kerja dibutuhkan mulai dari proses pengolahan lahan, penyemprotan, penyiraman dan panen. kurangnya tenaga kerja dapat menghambat proses produksi cabai merah. sebagai contoh pada proses penyiraman yang harus dilakukan setiap hari, jika kekurangan tenaga kerja penyiraman dilanjutkan hari berikutnya dan akibatnya tanaman cabai menjadi layu, ada kemungkinan tanaman mati nilai koefisien regresi pupuk kotoran ayam sebesar 0,049 dan signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan 1% artinya apabila ada penambahan penggunaan 1% pupuk kotoran ayam dan faktor lain tetap maka produksi cabai akan berkurang sebesar 0,049 %. penggunaan pupuk kotoran ayam sebagai bahan pembenah atau penyubur tanah di lahan pasir pantai dan tidak akan menampakkan hasil secara langsung atau instant. penggunaan pembenah tanah menggunakan pupuk kandang kotoran ayam berpengaruh meningkatakan hara makro tersedia pada pasir pantai musim hujan, sehingga dapat menyuburkan tanaman cabai (purwantono, 2012) koefisien regresi pupuk npk sebesar -0,024 berpengaruh secara nyata pada tingkat kepercayaan 90% artinya apabila ada penambahan penggunaan 1% pupuk npk, maka produksi cabai akan berkurang sebesar 0,042 %. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan pupuk npk sudah berlebih atau kebutuhan unsur n, p dan k sudah terpenuhi dari pupuk lain, misalnya dari pupuk za, sp36 atau pupuk kandang. nilai koefisien regresi fungisida ampligo sebesar 0,032 signifikan pada á 0,1 artinya apabila ada penambahan penggunaan 1% pestisida ampligo, maka produksi cabai akan berkurang sebesar 0,032%. penggunaan fungisida ampligo disesuaikan dengan tingkat serangan hama. petani tidak hanya menggunakan satu macam pestisida, beberapa pestisida yang digunakan petani antara lain insektisida furadan, abamectin, confidor dan fungisida antracol. koefisien regresi jenis benih yang dipakai sebesar 0,012 dan signifikan pada á = 0,1 artinya penggunaan benih jenis helix produksinya lebih rendah dibandingkan benih lado maupun kiyo. padahal menurut responden, benih cabai jenis helix daya perkecambahannya lebih baik dibandingkan dengan dua jenis lainnya. nilai jenis mulsa koefisien regresi sebesar 0,019 dan signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 95%, hal ini menunjukkan produksi cabai merah yang menggunakan mulsa plastik perak hitam lebih tinggi dibandingkan menggunakan mulsa jerami. mulsa plastik mempunyai keuntungan dapat dipakai selama 2 musim tanam, meminimalisir penguapan dan menekan pertumbuhan tanaman pengganggu (rukmana,1996). mulsa jerami memiliki keunggulan dapat sekaligus dijadikan pupuk organik. petani cenderung memilih menggunakan mulsa jerami karena lebih murah dan penggunaanya mudah. variabel yang tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan adalah variabel luas lahan, pupuk kotoran sapi, pupuk za, pupuk phonska, pupuk sp36, pestisida furadan, insektisida abamectin dan antracol serta insektisida confidor. penggunaan luas lahan dalam usahatani sulit untuk dilakukan penambahan, karena keterbatasan modal dan penggunaan lahan juga diperuntukkan sebagai pemukiman, fasilitas umum dan pengembangan objek wisata tidak murni sebagai lahan pertanian saja, sehingga sulit dilakukan penambahan jumlah lahan. pupuk kotoran sapi yang digunakan sebagian berasal dari sapi yang dipelihara petani dan sebagian dibeli. pupuk kotoran sapi yang baik yakni pupuk kotoran sapi yang telah kering (dijemur terlebih dahulu). penjemuran yang tidak maksimal menyebabkan pupuk kotoran sapi masih bersifat basah dan panas sehingga kurang baik bagi perakaran tanaman. penggunaan pestisida akan bertambah saat terjadinya serangan hebat hama atau penyakit. penyakit trips (thrips parvispinus) merupakan penyakit yang paling banyak menyerang tanaman cabai pada musim kemarau (santika,1995). penggunaan pestisida secara berlebihan selain menambah biaya produksi juga dapat meningkatkan resisten penyakit terhadap pestisida tertentu. 11 vol.i no.1 januari 2015 efisiensi usahatani cabai merah efisiensi usahatani cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai kecamatan temon dapat diketahui dengan menghitung rasio npm suatu faktor produksi dengan harga masingmasing faktor produksi (npmx./px). terdapat tujuh variabel yang berpengaruh secara nyata terhadap produksi cabai merah yakni penggunaan benih, tenaga kerja, pupuk kotoran ayam, pupuk npk mutiara,fungisida ampligo, jenis benih dan mulsa. efisiensi usahatani akan memenuhi syarat jika faktor produksi berpengaruh secara signifikan dan pemakaiannya pada daerah rasional. daerah rasional adalah daerah dimana keuntungan maksimum tercapai dan elastisitas produksinya (koefisien regresi) bernilai 1>ep>0 (soekartawi,2003). variabel benih mempunyai nilai koefisien regresi sebesar 0,25 merupakan satusatunya variabel yang signifikan dan berada di daerah rasional. tabel 4. analisis efisiensi usahatani cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai kecamatan temon hasil analisis efisiensi menunjukkan bahwa nilai pmx/px variabel benih sebesar 6,28 dan t-hitung 0,84 < t-tabel 2,42 artinya penggunaan benih pada usahatani cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai sudah efisien dan penggunaanya tidak perlu ditambah atau dikurangi. harga benih cabai merah ini cukup mahal yaitu rp 100.000/bungkus, sehingga petani dalam menggunakan benih secara hati-hati agar biaya yang dikeluarkan tidak terlalu tinggi. kesimpulan 1. pendapatan usahatani cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai kecamatan temon tiap 0,38 ha adalah sebesar rp 9.278.430 per musim tanam dan keuntungannya sebesar rp 3.094.504 per musim. 2. secara bersama-sama faktor produksi luas lahan, benih, tenaga kerja, pupuk kotoran ayam, pupuk kotoran sapi, pupuk za, pupuk phonska, pupuk sp36, pupuk npk mutiara, insektisida furadan, abamectin & confidor, fungisida antracol & ampligo, jenis benih dan penggunaan mulsa berpengaruh terhadap produksi cabai merah di lahan pasir pantai. secara parsial faktor produksi yang berpengaruh terhadap produksi cabai merah adalah jumlah benih, penggunaan tenaga kerja, pupuk kotoran ayam, pupuk npk mutiara, fungisida ampligo, jenis benih dan penggunaan mulsa. 3. penggunaan benih pada usahatani cabai merah di lahan pantai sudah efisien. saran kondisi lahan pasir pantai yang miskin unsur hara, sebaiknya petani melakukan pembenahan tanah dengan menambah penggunaan pupuk organik sehingga diharapkan dapat membantu meningkatkan produksi cabai merah. pupuk organik yang dapat digunakan dalam pembenahan tanah ini antara lain: kotoran ayam, kotoran sapi, kotoran kambing, kotoran burung puyuh. daftar pustaka gujarati, dn. 2006. basic econometrics, third edition. new york: mc graw-hill inc. nazir, m. 2002. metode penelitian. jakarta: ghalia indonesia.. purwantono, d.a 2012. pengaruh pembenah tanah terhadap serapan hara makro, kerontokan daun dan hasil tanaman cabai lahan pasir pantai dearah istimewa yogyakarta pada musim hujan. disertasi : universitas gadjah mada yogyakarta rukmana r. 1996. cabai hibrida sistem mulsa plastik. jakarta : kanisius. santika a. 1995. agribisnis cabai. jakarta : penebar swadaya. soekartawi.2003. teori ekonomi produksi dengan pokok bahasan khusus analisis fungsi cobb – douglass. jakarta : pt. rja graffindo. suratiyah,k. 2006. ilmu usahatani. jakarta: penebar swadaya issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021, pages: 24-35 article history: submitted: december 4th, 2020 accepted: january 14th, 2021 mark buda* and zainalabidin mohamed department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, faculty of agriculture, universiti putra malaysia, 43400 upm serdang, selangor, malaysia *) correspondence email: markbuda@upm.edu.my impact of different importation policies scenarios on beef industry in peninsular malaysia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.10540 abstract the supply side of beef industry has not responded well to the rising demand for beef. this industry is still highly dependent on imported beef and feeder cattle for beef production to meet the local demand. the objective of this study is to analyse the impacts of different importation policy scenarios on beef industry in peninsular malaysia. a simulation model that based on estimated market model is used to analyse the policy. the findings imply that the number of import cattle for breeding (ictb) should be maintained, while import of cattle for slaughter or feeder cattle should be increased by 20%. this will improve beef self-sufficiency level while stabilizing beef retail price. keywords: beef industry, cattle importation, market model, policy simulation introduction beef industry is highly dependent on importation to deal with excess demand for beef. the importations are in the forms of live animal (cattle and buffalo) and processed meat. the imported live animals are used for slaughter or as feeder animals or for breeding purposes. the main volume of the importation usually is animal for slaughter. table 1 presents the live animal imports for the period of 1971-1975 to 2011-2015. during those periods, import of cattle for slaughter increased from 1,188 heads to 77,901 heads, while import of cattle for breeding increased from 1,566 heads to 32,621 heads. import of buffalo for slaughter increased from 411 heads to 1,516 and import of buffalo for breeding increased from 494 heads to 1,188 heads, during the same periods. table 1. average live animal imports of cattle and buffalo in peninsular malaysia, 1971 1975 to 2011 – 2015 (heads) year cattle for breeding (heads) cattle for slaughter (heads) buffalo for breeding (heads) buffalo for slaughter (heads) 1971 1975 1,566 1,188 494 411 1976 1980 5,021 5,263 151 150 1981 1985 6,818 6,529 251 299 1986 1990 1,719 2,121 99 215 1991 1995 13,792 13,377 638 2,451 1996 2000 41,593 25,901 357 2,148 2001 2005 21,085 53,808 711 1,361 2006 2010 22,170 59,803 103 2,039 2011 2015 32,621 77,901 1,188 1,516 sources: department of veterinary services (1970-1998), department of veterinary services (2011), department of veterinary services (2012), and department of veterinary services (2019) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:markbuda@upm.edu.my issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 25 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 2 shows import of beef for the period of 1971-1975 to 2011-2015. import of beef increased from 1,436 mt during the period of 1971-1975 to 151,689 mt during the period of 2011-2015. despite an increasing amount, the growth rate of beef import is slowing down from 34.86% to 9.26%. table 2. average import and average annual import growth rate of beef in peninsular malaysia, 1971 1975 to 2011 2015 (mt & %) year beef import (mt) growth (%) 1971 1975 1,436 34.86 1976 1980 7,081 21.08 1981 1985 11,820 36.34 1986 1990 28,800 17.41 1991 1995 52,427 8.09 1996 2000 69,353 5.52 2001 2005 96,133 8.11 2006 2010 103,956 0.41 2011 2015 151,689 9.26 sources: department of veterinary services (1970-1998), department of veterinary services (2011), department of veterinary services (2012), and department of veterinary services (2019) in term of local beef production, the beef animal population are still far below to provide sufficient number of animals for slaughter. the population growth rate is slow compared to growth rate of demand for slaughtered beef animal. table 3 presents the beef animal population from 1971-1975 periods to 2011-2015 periods. during these periods, total beef animal population increased from 552,517 heads to 733,778 heads. beef cattle constitute more than 50% of beef animal population with an increased share of 50.44% during the period of 1971-1975 to 86.65% during the period of 2011-2015. although the share of beef cattle to total beef animal population increased together with its population, the growth rate of beef cattle population is showing a declining trend. the growth rate of beef cattle population used to be 5.59% during the period of 1971-1975, but the rate was only 0.91% during the period of 2006-2010 and became negative (-2.86%) during the period of 20112015. for dairy cattle, the population number and share to total cattle population show a declining trend. the dairy cattle population growth rate was negative during the period of 1986-1990 to the period of 2001-2005. the same situation happened with buffalo population and share to total cattle animal population as it showed a declining trend with negative growth rate for the past forty-five years. basically, beef animal slaughtered for its meat are beef cattle, buffalo and some culled dairy cattle. approximately, only 7% of beef production in the last forty-five years came from buffalo and culled dairy cattle. as can be seen in table 4, recorded cattle slaughtered during the period of 1971-1975 to the period of 1996-2000 showed an increasing trend of beef cattle animal. the number of cattle slaughtered increased from 50,052 heads to 112,340 heads during that period. during the period of 2001-2005 and the period of 2006-2010, the number of recorded cattle slaughtered decreased from 102,417 heads and 101,679 heads. the number increased to 127,397 heads during the period of 2011-2015. based on this recorded number, the extraction rate from beef cattle population was within 13% to 21% for the past forty-five http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 26 impact of different importation policies ….. (buda et al.) years. the period of 2011-2015 recorded the highest extraction rate of 20.04% and the period of 1986-1990 recorded the lowest extraction rate of 13.84%. table 3. average population and average annual population growth rate of beef cattle, dairy cattle, and buffalo in peninsular malaysia, 1971 1975 to 2011 2015 (heads & %) year beef cattle (heads) % from beef animal growth (%) dairy cattle (heads) % from beef animal growth (%) buffalo (heads) % from beef animal growth (%) total beef animal (heads) 1971 1975 278,699 50.44 5.59 66,345 12.01 1.79 207,472 37.55 -1.71 552,517 1976 1980 366,107 55.93 3.99 81,752 12.49 8.93 206,720 31.58 -1.07 654,579 1981 1985 427,597 61.24 3.49 100,171 14.35 0.24 170,501 24.42 -3.80 698,268 1986 1990 479,562 66.85 2.31 99,384 13.85 -1.30 138,420 19.30 -4.40 717,366 1991 1995 564,149 75.07 2.62 74,821 9.96 -5.90 112,527 14.97 -4.71 751,497 1996 2000 591,108 80.79 2.39 49,002 6.70 -9.92 91,557 12.51 -2.65 731,667 2001 2005 671,455 85.40 1.56 33,308 4.24 -3.25 81,454 10.36 -1.92 786,217 2006 2010 732,939 86.93 0.91 32,682 3.88 1.55 77,483 9.19 -1.71 843,103 2011 2015 635,789 86.65 -2.86 33,471 4.56 0.02 64,517 8.79 -3.72 733,778 sources: department of veterinary services (1970-1998), department of veterinary services (1999-2009), and department of veterinary services (2019) the slaughtered number of buffalo was on a decreasing trend. as can be seen in table 4, the number of recorded buffalo slaughtered during the period of 1971-1975 to the period of 2011-2015 decreased from 34,859 heads to 8,257 heads. the extraction rate used to be 16.80% during the period of 1971-1975 compared to the extraction rate during the period of 2011-2015 which was only 12.80%. table 4. average recorded slaughtered and their extraction rates of cattle buffalo in peninsular malaysia, 1971 1975 to 2011 2015 (heads and %) year recorded cattle slaughtered (heads) extraction rates from beef cattle population (%) recorded buffalo slaughtered (heads) extraction rates from buffalo population (%) 1971 1975 50,052 17.96 34,859 16.80 1976 1980 55,005 15.02 29,051 14.05 1981 1985 66,838 15.63 23,786 13.95 1986 1990 66,353 13.84 16,253 11.74 1991 1995 85,754 15.20 17,113 15.21 1996 2000 112,340 19.01 15,997 17.47 2001 2005 102,417 15.25 10,800 13.26 2006 2010 101,679 13.87 10,333 13.34 2011 2015 127,397 20.04 8,257 12.80 sources: department of veterinary services (1970-1998), department of veterinary services (1999-2009), and department of veterinary services (2019) incapability to meet domestic demand remains as the main problem in beef industry. the slow growth rate of production of domestic cattle and buffalo in relation to the growth rate of its product demand still exists even after great interventions by malaysia government. low rates of multiplication and low effects of imported breeding animal caused the population base for beef animal to still be considered small. since the supply could not meet the demand, beef industry in malaysia has to depend on imports especially the imports of frozen and chilled beef. for the past forty years, more than 70% of beef requirement are supported by import of frozen and chilled beef. this type of import depresses the demand for http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 27 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research local beef as the price of imported beef is generally cheaper. the production of local beef is discouraged because of this stiff competition. previously, beef policy simulation in peninsular malaysia had been done by mohamed, hosseini & kamarulzaman (2013) and ibragimov et al. (2016). mohamed, hosseini & kamarulzaman (2013) analyse the policy using vintage approach simulation matrix model, while ibragimov et al. (2016) use system dynamic approach for the analysis. both of these studies did not apply robust econometric approach in developing the model. for the past 30 years there were three econometric analyses on beef industry in peninsular malaysia – by mohd jani, jaafar & senteri, (1989), mohd jani & ibrahim (1993) and sarmin (1998). however, these studies did not proceed with policy simulation analysis. for livestock commodities, the behavioural nature of the relationships between the major variables in the industries of interest have to be taken into account (vere & griffith, 2003). vere, griffith & bootle (1993) suggest that changes in inventory are independent of economic influences but primarily determined by biological lags. other studies that also include own lags population as the explanatory for cattle inventory are tryfos (1974), rucker, burt, & lafrance (1984), lianos & katranidis (1993), and buhr (1993). on the demand side, demand for beef may be sensitive to its own price. previous studies provide different findings on this topic. for example, baharumshah (1993), baharumshah & mohamed (1993) and mohamed & abdullahi (2004) have found that price elasticity of demand for beef to be inelastic, indicating that consumers are not sensitive to price change. meanwhile, mohd jani & ibrahim (1993) and tey et al. (2010), have found that the price elasticity of demand for beef is more than 1, which means consumers are sensitive to price change. previous studies have also stated that poultry meat is the most common substitute for beef (mohamed & roslan, 1989; baharumshah, 1993; baharumshah & mohamed, 1993; mohd jani, jaafar & senteri, 1989; mohd jani & ibrahim, 1993; tey et al., 2010). with respect to income, it was reported that demand for beef is not sensitive to income (baharumshah, 1993; baharumshah & mohamed, 1993; mohd jani & ibrahim, 1993; tey et al., 2010). in brief, the purpose of this study is to identify factors affecting beef production and demand in peninsular malaysia. the aims are to explain how breeding inventory affecting the supply of beef cattle for slaughter and to describe the expenditure of beef in peninsular malaysia meat market. this study provides elasticities for both supply and demand side of peninsular malaysia’s beef industry. then it analyses the impacts of different importation policy scenarios on beef industry in peninsular malaysia. research method for this study, a market model was utilized to perform the policy analysis. econometric approach was used to estimate the market model. the construction of market model begins with specifying the model structure and economic relationships before estimating the parameters from historical data (labys & pollak, 1984). to construct the framework in this http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 28 impact of different importation policies ….. (buda et al.) study, the basic structure of a market model by labys (1973) is used. the basic structure of the market model was as the followings. 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦, 𝑆𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑃𝑂𝑡 , 𝑃𝑆𝑡 , 𝑁𝑡 , 𝑍𝑆𝑡 ) (1) 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝐷𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑃𝑂𝑡 , 𝑃𝑆𝑡 , 𝑌𝑡 , 𝑍𝐷𝑡 ) (2) 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘, 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑡−1 + 𝑆𝑡 − 𝐷𝑡 (3) where, 𝑃𝑂𝑡 was price of the commodity in time t, 𝑃𝑆𝑡 was price of other commodity in time t (competitor), 𝑁𝑡 was natural factors in time t, 𝑌𝑡 was income in time t, 𝑍𝑆𝑡 was other supply shifters in time t, and 𝑍𝐷𝑡 was other demand shifters in time t. the structure of beef industry model in this study is almost similar to the model used by mohd jani & ibrahim (1993) and sarmin (1998). the difference is that in this model, price is not a determinant for beef cattle inventory. the beef cattle inventory which depends on breeding decision may be expected to be responsive to changes in price. however, vere, griffith, & bootle, (1993) suggest that changes in inventory are independent of economic influences but primarily determined by biological lags. therefore, in this model, the beef cattle inventory is mainly determined by its own lags and other categories of sex and age. the specific framework of beef industry is presented in figure 1. annual time series data from 1970 to 2015 were used for the beef industry model. most of the data especially the livestock population are from various issues of livestock statistic and population & slaughter of livestock published by department of veterinary services. retail price of livestock commodities are obtained from various issues of warta barangan published by federal agricultural marketing authority (fama). the estimation technique used in this study is two-stage least squares (2sls) regression as system of equations. the estimated data are transformed into log before being estimated. the beef industry policy simulation is conducted based of malaysian agricultural policy analysis (magpa) model framework. magpa is a multi-commodity forecasting and policy simulation model for malaysian agricultural sector (fatimah et al., 2012a; fatimah et al., 2012b). once the beef industry model is estimated, the coefficient or elasticities are inputted into magpa. in order to analyse the beef industry policy simulation, the rate of changes of import of cattle for breeding (ictb) and import of cattle for slaughter or feeder cattle (icts) are set. three different scenarios are defined; scenario 1, scenario 2 and scenario 3. scenario 1 assumes that the beef industry grows at current rates of 10% for ictb and 15% for icts. scenario 2 tries to analyse the effects of increasing the ictb while maintaining the number of icts. the rate of changes for ictb is 20% and icts is 0%. this scenario reflects the intention of improving the population base of the beef cattle rather than investing more on foreign supply of beef cattle for their meat. the focus of this policy is more on increasing the breeding activities. scenario 3, on the other hand, examines the effects of importing more cattle for slaughter or feeder cattle as the rate of changes of icts is set at 20% while ictb is set at 0%. this scenario reflects the intention of supplying more fresh beef to the domestic market in order to reduce the dependency on import of frozen and chilled beef. the investment on breeding animal are maintain as it is. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 29 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 1. specific diagram of beef industry in peninsular malaysia (modified from mohd jani & ibrahim, 1993, sarmin, 1998, and vere & griffith, 2003) domestic cattle slaughtered beef production total beef supply beef demand beef production beef market imported beef income imported cattle for breeding other meat price male cattle > 3 years male cattle < 3 years imported cattle for slaughter lagged male cattle < 3 years total cattle slaughtered female cattle < 3 years female cattle > 3 years artificial insemination lagged male cattle > 3 years lagged female cattle > 3 years lagged female cattle < 3 years legend: endogenous variables exogenous variables beef price culled female cattle > 3 years domestic buffalo slaughtered total buffalo slaughtered imported buffalo for slaughter male buffalo < 3 years male buffalo > 3 years beef price culled female buffalo > 3 years http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 30 impact of different importation policies ….. (buda et al.) result and discussions the estimated beef industry model in table 5, 6 and 7 indicate that there are significant relationship between the dependent variables and the independent variables. the signs of the estimated independent variables are consistent with the priori expectation. in term of r2, the estimates are quite satisfactory. jarque-bera statistic shows that the residuals for each equation are normally distributed. breusch–godfrey lagrange multipliers (bglm) and durbin-watson tests indicate that there is no autocorrelation bias appears in the estimation. table 5. estimated equations of beef cattle inventory female catle above 3 years fca3 = 2.5389 + 0.0020 ictb + 0.1964 fcb3-1 + 0.5594 fca3-1 + 0.0355 fca3-2 [3.3636]*** [0.3240] [2.6958]*** [3.3654]*** [0.2244] adjusted r-squared 0.9511 jarque-bera 3.2684 f-statistic 180.7467 bg lm χ² (2) 3.7872 durbin-watson 1.9883 female cattle below 3 years fcb3 = 0.5411 + 0.0010 ictb + 0.0065 aiba-1 + 0.9515 fcb3-1 [1.7535]* [0.1529] [0.8422] [24.6028]*** adjusted r-squared 0.9766 jarque-bera 0.2675 f-statistic 514.8010 bg lm χ² (2) 1.2194 durbin-watson 2.3232 male cattle below 3 years mcb3 = 11.4456 + 0.0602 aiba-1 + 0.0488 fca3-1 + 0.9693 mcb3-1 [4.9444]*** [0.6686] [0.2738] [35.9287]*** adjusted r-squared 0.9788 jarque-bera 0.3279 f-statistic 569.1498 bg lm χ² (2) 3.7811 durbin-watson 2.2434 male cattle above 3 years mca3 = 2.4073 + 0.1482 mcb3-1 + 0.6187 mca3-1 [2.6181]*** [2.3762]** [4.5362]*** adjusted r-squared 0.8268 jarque-bera 2.7459 f-statistic 89.2861 bg lm χ² (2) 2.0776 durbin-watson 1.6960 note: numbers in parentheses [ ] are t-values. ***, **, and * denote as significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% significance level. the estimated equations of beef cattle inventory are presented in table 5. in female cattle above 3 years (fca3) and female cattle below 3 years (fcb3) equations, one-year lagged of their own population are significance at 1% level. one-year lagged fcb3 also appears to be significance in fca3 equations. the results suggest the importance of fcb3 in the development of fca3. retaining female cattle for longer period in beef cattle farming will increase breeding cattle population. young female cattle are strictly retained for breeding purposes. in cattle breeding also, beef cattle operators need to explore more on artificial insemination (aiba) and imported cattle for breeding (ictb). the elasticities of fca3 with respect to imported cattle for breeding (ictb), fcb3-1, fca3-1, and fca3-2 are 0.0020, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 31 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 0.1964, 0.5594, and 0.0355 respectively. while for fcb3, the elasticities with respect to fcb3-1, aiba-1 and ictb are 0.9515, 0.0010 and 0.0065 respectively. male cattle below 3 years (mcb3) and male cattle above 3 years (mca3) equations also show the significance of their own one-year lagged population at 1% level. in mca3 equation, one-year lagged mcb3 is significant at 5% level. the elasticity between one-year lagged mcb3 and mca3 indicates that 1% increase in one-year lagged mcb3 will increase the mca3 by 0.1482%. with low elasticities between mcb3 and one-year lagged aiba (0.0602), and between mcb3 and one-year lagged fca3 (0.0488), aiba need to be explored more and the birth rate by female cattle needs to be increased in order to produce more male cattle. the estimated equations of beef supply are presented in table 6. in domestic cattle slaughtered (dscfs) equation, mcb3 is significant at 10% level, suggesting that young male cattle population is important to sustain the supply of cattle for slaughter. the elasticities of dscfs with respect to mca3 and mcb3 are quite close at 0.4128 and 0.4519 respectively. this suggests that most of the cattle being channeled for slaughter are males. slaughter of female cattle is being delayed for more than 3 years as fca3 enter dscfs equation with three-years lagged. the elasticity is 0.2542, indicating that 1% increase in three-year lagged fca3 will increase dscfs by 0.2542% which is almost half smaller than mca3 and mcb3. supply of cattle for slaughter is also influenced by price of beef (rpb). when rpb increase 1%, dscfs will increase by 0.1992%. table 6. estimated equations of beef supply domestic cattle slaughtered dscfs= -2.0580 + 0.4128 mca3 + 0.4519 mcb3 + 0.1992 rpb + 0.2542 fca3-3 [-0.4120] [1.0197] [1.7342]* [0.4050] [0.6599] adjusted r-squared 0.8672 jarque-bera 1.8687 f-statistic 37.8148 bg lm χ² (2) 1.2242 durbin-watson 1.8893 total cattle slaughtered scfs = dscfs + icts domestic buffalo slaughtered dsbfs= 2.1729 + 0.1536 mba3 + 0.1641 mbb3 + 0.0253 rpb + 0.4098 fba3-3 [0.8076] [0.6227] [0.4247] [0.0430] [1.6887]* adjusted r-squared 0.8390 jarque-bera 2.6400 f-statistic 29.6735 bg lm χ² (3) 5.0067 durbin-watson 1.7092 total buffalo slaughtered sbfs = dsbfs + ibos total fresh beef production tfbp = (scfs x 0.147 mt) + (sbfs x 0.181 mt) note: numbers in parentheses [ ] are t-values. ***, **, and * denote as significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% significance level. in contrast to dscfs, three year lagged female buffalo above 3 years (fba3) is significant at 10% level in domestic buffalo slaughtered (dsbfs) equation. this indicates that older female buffalo is an important determinant in supplying buffalo for slaughter. the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 32 impact of different importation policies ….. (buda et al.) elasticity between dsbfs and three-year lagged fba3 is 0.4098. the contribution of male buffalo to supply of beef animal for slaughter is insignificant because buffalo population has been shrinking since mid-1960s due to technological advancement in paddy farming (mohd jani & ibrahim, 1993). therefore, the elasticity of dsbfs with respect to male buffalo above 3 years (mba3) and male buffalo below 3 years (mba3) are only 0.1536 and 0.1641 respectively. dsbfs also does not respond to price as the elasticity between dsbfs and rpb is only 0.0253. the estimated equations of beef demand are presented in table 7. beef consumption per capita (cpcb) is significantly determined by own price of beef (rpb) and income per capita (gdppc) at 10% and 1% level respectively. own price elasticity is negative which is a priori to demand theory. increase in rpb by 1% will result in a 0.5651% decrease in cpcb. this result is consistent with the findings by baharumshah (1993), baharumshah & mohamed (1993) and mohamed & abdullahi (2004) which indicates that price elasticity of demand for beef is inelastic. the elasticity of cpcb with respect to gdp per capita (gdppc) is elastic at 1.1573, indicating that 1% increase in gdppc will increase cpcb by 1.1573%. the elasticities of cpcb with respect to price for chicken meat (rpc) and price for fish (rpf) are 0.2090 and 0.1089 respectively. chicken meat and fish are substitute products for beef. table 7. estimated equations of beef demand beef consumption per capita cpcb = -8.7003 0.5651 rpb + 1.1573 gdppc + 0.2090 rpc-1 + 0.1089 rpf [-4.5110] *** [-1.7588] * [9.9157] *** [1.0021] [0.6068] adjusted r-squared 0.9728 jarque-bera 2.7361 f-statistic 209.9547 bg lm χ² (2) 1.0478 durbin-watson 1.9603 total beef consumption tcb = cpcb x pop imported beef ibf = tcb – tfbp note: numbers in parentheses [ ] are t-values. ***, **, and * denote as significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% significance level. for beef industry policy simulation, beef production is projected to increase from 46,938 mt in 2011 to 96,472 mt in 2020 under scenario 1. this increase is caused by domestic cattle slaughtered which are projected to increase by an average of 0.38% annually. domestic buffalo slaughtered are projected to decrease by an average of 0.25% annually. on the other side, beef consumption is also projected to increase from 164,578 mt to 263,911 mt during the same period. beef consumption per capita is projected to increase from 7.11 kg to 9.46 kg. beef self-sufficiency level increase from 28.52% in 2011 to 36.55% in 2020. although the beef self-sufficiency level increases, beef import is still projected to increase by an average of 4.00% annually during the same period in order to stabilize the beef price. during the period of 2011 to 2020, beef retail price is projected to increase from rm19.15 to rm26.78. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 33 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research under scenario 2, there is only a slight increase in beef production (tfbp) from 44,543 mt in 2011 to 45,798 mt in 2020. this is mainly due to the characteristic of beef production which depends much on imports of feeder cattle or cattle for slaughter. although there are domestic cattle slaughtered (dscfs), it still has a limit because not all domestic cattle can be slaughtered. this can be seen in the small growth rate of domestic cattle slaughtered at 0.56%. as for domestic buffalo slaughtered, it keeps on decreasing from 11,147 heads in 2011 to 10,376 heads in 2020. on the demand side, beef consumption per capita (cpcb) increases from 7.01 kg to 8.15 kg during the same period. as the population grows, total beef consumption (tcb) increases from 162,183 mt to 227,417 mt. because of this rapid growth in beef consumption and only slightly increment in beef production, beef self-sufficiency level decreases from 27.46% to 20.14% during the same period. to fulfil domestic demand for beef, beef import grows annually at 4.86% rate during the same period. beef retail price increases drastically from rm19.62 to rm35.15. lastly, beef production (tfbp) under scenario 3 is projected to increase drastically from 47,728 mt in 2011 to 131,849 mt in 2020. the effect of such growth causes a slight increase in beef retail price, from rm19.00 to rm21.39. when the supply side of beef industry drastically increases, the demand side will also increase due substitutability effect as beef is substituted for mutton and chicken meat. consumer shifts to beef because beef retail price is declining in real term. beef consumption increases from 165,368 mt in 2011 to 299,289 mt in 2020. beef self-sufficiency level also increases from 28.86% to 44.05% during the same period. conclusions based on the estimated beef industry model, it can be said that the beef cattle population is still far from being able to supply sufficient amount of animal for slaughter because of low performance in breeding activities. this can be seen through the equations in the beef cattle inventory block. in beef cattle inventory block, beef cattle population are highly influenced by the population of its own lagged. female cattle are the most important component in beef industry. the elasticity of fcb3-1 in fca equation (0.1964) suggests that the mortality rate or death loss from female cattle is quite high as the elasticity is considered small. while the elasticity of fca3-1 in mcb equation (0.0488) indicates the female cattle do not perform well in breeding activities. the productivity (in term of producing calf) needs to be continuously improved in order to increase the calving rate. the good sign in beef industry is that producers tend to hold female breeders for longer period as shown by the elasticity of fca3-3 in slaughter equation. meanwhile, on the demand side, income elasticity of demand for beef is elastic, indicating that a 1% increase in income per capita (gdppc) will increase beef consumption per capita by 1.1573%. the substitutability of chicken meat and fish are not elastic as the elasticities of chicken meat price and fish price with respect to beef demand are only 0.2090 and 0.1089 respectively. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 34 impact of different importation policies ….. (buda et al.) from the estimation of beef industry equations, it can be summarized that death loss from female cattle contributes to low productivity of beef cattle. meanwhile, from the beef industry policy simulation, it can be seen that fresh beef supply significantly depend on import of cattle for slaughter or feeder cattle. to conclude, malaysia can still improve the beef self-sufficiency level. the importation policy of breeder cattle should be improved on the quality such as low mortality rate and high yield. if this could be done, in the long run, breeding activities could be improved and consequently the multiplication rate of beef cattle could be increased. at the same time, the government has to deal with the increasing demand for beef through increasing the supply of fresh beef by continue importing cattle for slaughter or feeder cattle. this will help to stabilize the price of beef as the price of beef not only affects the beef industry, but could affect the supply and demand for other meats. acknowledgements this work was supported by department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, faculty of agriculture and institute of agricultural and food policy studies, universiti putra malaysia. references baharumshah, a.z. & mohamed, z. (1993). demand for meat in malaysia: an application of the almost ideal demand system analysis. pertanika j.soc.sci.& hum, 1(1), 91-99. baharumshah, a.z. (1993). applying the almost ideal demand systems to meat expenditure data: estimation and specification issues. the malaysian journal of agricultural economics, 10, 23-37. buhr, b.l. (1993). a quarterly econometric simulation model of the u.s. livestock and meat sector. staff paper series p93-12, university of minnesota, minnesota. department of veterinary sevices. (1970-1998). livestock statisitic 1970-1998. department of veterinary services, malaysia. department of veterinary sevices. (1999-2009). population & slaughter of livestock 1999-2009. department of veterinary services, malaysia. department of veterinary sevices official website, http://www.dvs.gov.my [accessed on 5 february 2011] department of veterinary sevices official website, http://www.dvs.gov.my [accessed on 17 september 2012] department of veterinary services official website, http://www.dvs.gov.my [accessed on 18 july 2019] fatimah et al.. (2012a). malaysian agricultural policy analysis model (magpa) volume i: commodity market models, final report submitted to economic planning unit (epu), prime minister department, malaysia, 527 pp. fatimah et al.. (2012b). malaysian agricultural policy analysis model (magpa) volume ii: agricultural sector model, final report submitted to economic planning unit (epu), prime minister department, malaysia, 484 pp. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://www.dvs.gov.my/ http://www.dvs.gov.my/ http://www.dvs.gov.my/ issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 35 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research ibragimov, a., mohamed arshad, f., bala, b. k., bach, n. l. & mohammadi, s. (2016). management of beef cattle production in malaysia: a step forward to sustainability. american journal of applied sciences, 13(9), 976-983. labys, w.c. (1973). dynamic commodity models: specifications, estimation and simulation. massachusettes: lexington. labys, w.c., & pollak, p.k. (1984). commodity models for forecasting and policy analysis. new york: nicholas publishing company. lianos, t.p., & katranidis, s. (1993). modelling the beef market of the greek economy. european review of agricultural economics, 20, 49-63. mohamed, z. & abdullahi f.a. (2004). alternative estimation of meat supply and demand in peninsular malaysia’s beef sector: an application of cointegration and error correction model techniques. proceedings of agriculture congress: innovation towards modernized agriculture, kuala lumpur, malaysia. mohamed, z., hosseini, a., & kamarulzaman, n. h. (2013). analysis of malaysian beef industry in peninsular malaysia under different importation policies scenarios and rate management systems. pertanika j soc sci & hum, 21(s), 1-16. mohamed, z. & roslan, a.b. (1989). estimating the income and substitution effects on the demand for poultry meat. pertanika, 12(1), 119-123. mohd jani, m. f., & ibrahim, y. (1993). an econometric analysis of the beef market in peninsular malaysia. in f. mohd arshad, m.n. shamsudin, & m.s. othman (eds), malaysian agricultural commodity forecasting and policy modelling (pp. 101-120). malaysia: centre for agriculture policy studies (caps), universiti pertanian malaysia. mohd jani, m. f., jaafar, a. h. & senteri, z. (1989). an econometric analysis of the supply and demand of beef in peninsular malaysia. jurnal ekonomi malaysia, 19, 31-46. rucker, r.r., burt, o.r., & lafrance, t. (1984). an econometric model of cattle inventories. american journal of agricultural economics, 66(2), 131-144. sarmin, s. (1998). an econometric analysis of the peninsular malaysia beef market. unpublished master’s thesis, universiti putra malaysia, serdang. tey, y.s., shamsudin, m.n., mohamed, z., amin, m.a., & radam, a. (2010). demand analysis of meat in malaysia. journal of food products marketing, 16, 199-211. tryfos, p. (1974). canadian supply functions for livestock and meat. american journal of agricultural & applied economics, 56(1), 107-113. vere, d.t., & griffith, g.r. (2003). structural econometric modelling in australia's livestock production and marketing systems: the potential benefit of model integration for industry analysis. agricultural system, 81, 155-131. vere, d.t., griffith, g.r., & bootle, b.w. (1993). alternative breeding inventory specifications in a livestock market model. australian journal of agricultural economics, 37(3), 181-204. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& indardi program studi agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta indardiagri@yahoo.co.id pengembangan model komunikasi dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat tani abstract the aims of this study were to portrait and understand a communication model for farmer community empowerment in the field and development efforts for the success of the farming community in the future. this study use constructivistic qualitative-interpretive paradigm. by understanding the phenomena that occur in the communication process in lestari makmur mushroom farmer group, identify important categories and construct as a portrait communication model. based on the portrait of communication model, researchers tried to find alternative communication model for the future successfully of the farmer groups. this study has found an early model, which describes a communication model of mushroom farmer community empowerment that tend to be authoritarian. the leader of the farmer groups dominate in many things. it has been found two alternative community empowerment communication model: 1) communication model of farmer community empowerment with the professional assistance, 2) communication model of farmer community empowerment with democratic leadership. it was concluded that the communication model of empowerment should be directed at the professional assistance, and for the future sustainability of the group, they are directed at the communication model with democratic leadership. it is important to suggest to the farmer groups about the substantive of community empowerment, to understand on a mushroom farmer groups that responsibility is not only the cultivation of course, there are still many things to be done as a group of farmers to be more advanced in the future. keywords: communication model, farmers community empowerment, mushroom farmers intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memotret dan memahami suatu model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat tani di lapangan dan upaya pengembangannya untuk keberhasilan masyarakat tani ke depannya. kajian ini menggunakan paradigma kualitatif-interpretatif konstruktifistik, untuk memahami fenomena proses komunikasi yang terjadi di kelompok tani jamur merang lestari makmur, mengidentifikasi kategori-kategori penting dan mengkonstruksinya sebagai suatu potret model komunikasi. berdasarkan potret model komunikasi yang ditemukan, peneliti mencoba mencari alternatif model komunikasi untuk keberhasilan kelompok tani ke depannya. penelitian ini menemukan suatu model awal, yang menggambarkan suatu model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat tani jamur merang yang cenderung otoriter, k etua kelompok tani mendominasi dalam berbagai hal. ditemukan dua (2) model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat alternatif, yakni model doi:10.18196/agr.2128 76 jurnal agraris komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat tani dengan pendampingan profesional dan model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat tani dengan kepemimpinan demoktaris. disimpulkan bahwa model komunikasi pemberdayaan harus diarahkan pada pendampingan profesional, dan untuk keberlanjutan kelompok ke depannya diarahkan pada model komunikasi dengan kepemimpinan demokratis. penting disarankan memahamkan kepada kelompok tani tentang hakekat pemberdayaan masyarakat, memahamkan pada kelompok tani jamur merang bahwa tanggung jawabnya tidak hanya budidaya saja, masih banyak hal yang harus dikerjakan sebagai sebuah kelompok tani agar lebih maju ke depannya. kata kunci: model komunikasi, pemberdayaan masyarakat tani, petani jamur merang. pendahuluan program pembangunan diantaranya bertujuan untuk menghasilkan manusia berkualitas pembangunan; untuk itu “partisipasi orang banyak (masyarakat) sangat diperlukan”; dan keterbukaan adalah kunci memperoleh keterlibatan aktif masyarakat dalam pembangunan. rogers dan shoemaker (1971) mendefinisikan partisipasi sebagai tingkat keterlibatan anggota sistem sosial dalam “proses pengambilan keputusan”. partisipasi masyarakat semakin besar apabila mereka semakin banyak terlibat dalam pengambilan keputusan mulai dari perencanaan sampai akhir kegiatan pembangunan. pengertian partisipasi secara luas meliputi proses perencanaan, pelaksanaan, pengambilan keputusan, evaluasi serta akhirnya menikmati hasil pembangunan itu sendiri (levis, 1996). hal ini berarti bahwa berhasil tidaknya pembangunan pertanian di bantul, sangat ditentukan oleh sejauh mana keberhasilan membangun sumber daya manusianya, yaitu petani. karena petanilah yang menjadi pelaku utama dan pertama (produsen) dalam memproduksi berbagai komoditas yang ada. oleh karena itu, pemberdayaan masyarakat petani menjadi pendekatan pembangunan pertanian yang penting di era otonomi daerah. otonomi daerah telah mengubah secara mendasar penyelenggaraan pemerintahan, yang semula serba terpusat, kini ada pengaturan pembagian kewenangan antara pusat dan daerah secara terperinci untuk semua bidang. secara lengkap pembagian urusan pemerintah antara pemerintah, pemerintah daerah propinsi dan pemerintah daerah kabupaten/kota telah diatur dalam pp republik indonesia nomor 38 tahun 2007 (fokusmedia, 2007). peraturan ini mengatur pembagian urusan yang meliputi 31 bidang, mulai dari bidang pendidikan, kesehatan, perdagangan, koperasi dan usaha kecil, kehutanan, termasuk sektor pertanian. sektor pertanian dalam pp tersebut menjadi satu bidang dengan ketahanan pangan, dengan nama “bidang pertanian dan ketahanan pangan”. pertanian merupakan salah satu sektor yang kegiatannya diotonomikan di tingkat kabupaten. oleh karena itu bidang pertanian (dan ketahanan pangan) merupakan bidang pemerintahan yang kewenangannya juga diatur antara pemerintah, pemerintah daerah dan pemerintah daerah kabupaten/kota. pengalihan kewenangan ke daerah, menjadikan pemerintah daerah kabupaten memiliki tanggung jawab besar, sehingga upaya pemerintah daerah untuk memberdayakan masyarakat taninya merupakan masalah penting. di era yang sering disebut sebagai era informasi, aspek komunikasi dipercaya sebagai salah satu faktor penting untuk mencapai keberhasilan pembangunan, khususnya dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat tani. penguasaan informasi menjadi kebutuhan untuk keberhasilan usaha. keberhasilan suatu kegiatan atau usaha sangat ditentukan oleh kecepatan, ketepatan dan kebenaran informasi yang masyarakat tani kuasai. masyarakat tani dalam melakukan kegiatan usahataninya selalu dihadapkan pada berbagai alternatif atau pilihan yang mengharuskannya memutuskan dengan cermat, tepat, dan cepat terhadap berbagai alternatif kegiatan usahataninya. di era reformasi dan otonomi daerah kebebasan berusahatani seakan-akan diserahkan sepenuhnya kepada petani. petani menggunakan pemahaman, pengetahuan, pengalaman, dan keyakinannya dalam bertani (yang belum tentu lebih baik), untuk memberdayakan dirinya dan atau kelompoknya dalam rangka mencapai keberhasilan. berbagai model komunikasi dalam pembangunan pertanian dengan berbagai perspektifnya pernah terjadi di indonesia, seperti perspektif komunikasi linear, interaktif, maupun transaksional. setiap model komunikasi memiliki kelebihan dan kelemahannya masing-masing terkait dengan konteks masanya. pada masa orde baru, dominasi pemerintah cukup kuat, sehingga komunikasi cenderung top-down, sedangkan pada masa awal reformasi cenderung laize fairedemocratic, sepenuhnya diserahkan petani. pendekatan pembangunan pertanian di era otonomi daerah lebih 77 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 menekankan pendekatan pemberdayaan masyarakat, dan nampaknya lebih besifat bottom-up dan menekankan peran aktif petani. pertanyaannya adalah apakah program pemberdayaan masyarakat tani saat ini telah merubah paradigma? yang dalam implementasinya berarti proses komunikasi terjadi di dalam kelompok tani. berdasarkan fenomena tersebut, melalui studi kasus, kajian ini barmaksud untuk memotret dan memahami suatu model pemberdayaan masyarakat di lapangan dan upaya pengembangannya untuk keberhasilan masyarakat tani ke depannya. metode penelitian menurut salim (2006) paradigma adalah suatu kepercayaan utama atau metafisika dari sistem berpikir yang menjadi basis dari ontologi, epistemologi, dan metodologi. paradigma memberi representasi dasar yang sederhana dari suatu pandangan yang kompleks, sehingga orang dapat memilih untuk bersikap atau mengambil keputusan. dalam metodologi penelitian, paradigma merujuk pada seperangkat pranata kepercayaan bersama metode yang menyertainya (alwasilah, 2003). paradigma merupakan distilasi atau esensi yang menjadi kepercayaan ikhwal dunia dan alam sekitar. alwasilah mengungkapkan adanya dua paradigma besar, yakni paradigma naturalistik (kualitatif) dan paradigma konvensional (eksperimental). hal yang senada diungkapkan creswell (2002) tentang adanya paradigma kuantitatif dan kualitatif. paradigma kuantitatif dinyatakan sebagai paradigma tradisional, positivist, eksperimental atau empirisist. menurut lincoln & guba (creswell, 2002), pemikiran kuantitatif berasal dari tradisi empirisist yang dikembangkan oleh para ahli seperti comte, mill, durkheim, newton dan locke. sementara paradigma kualitatif dinyatakan sebagai pendekatan konstruktif atau naturalistik. simth 1893 (cresswell, 2002) menyebutnya sebagai pendekatan interpretif atau sudut pandang postpositivist atau postmodern menurut quant,1882 (creswell, 2002). terkait dengan pemahaman tersebut, maka kajian ini lebih merupakan penelitian dengan menggunakan paradigma kualitatif-interpretif konstruktifistik. penelitian “pengembangan model komunikasi untuk pemberdayaan masyarakat tani” lebih dimaksudkan untuk memahami fenomena proses komunikasi yang terjadi di kelompok tani jamur merang lestari makmur, dengan mengidentifikasi kategori-kategori penting dan mengkonstruksinya sebagai suatu potret model komunikasi. berdasarkan potret model komunikasi yang ditemukan, peneliti mencoba mencari alternatif model komunikasi yang pengembangannya untuk keberhasilan kelompok ke depannya. penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif, dengan metode studi kasus. studi kasus adalah uraian dan penjelasan komprehensif mengenai berbagai aspek seorang individu, suatu kelompok, suatu organisasi (komunitas), suatu program atau suatu situasi sosial (mulyana, 2001). studi kasus digunakan apabila fenomena yang akan dikaji menyangkut pertanyaan how dan atau why. yin (2005) mengilustrasikan penggunaan masing-masing pertanyaan penelitian tersebut dalam kajian yang berbeda. studi kasus digunakan jika sedikit peluang untuk mengontrol peristiwa-peristiwa yang diselidiki dan fokus penelitiannya pada fenomena kontemporer. studi kasus digunakan dalam kerangka mendeskripsikan fenomena-fenomena berupa kategorikategori yang berkaitan, dan berdasarkan fenomena yang ditemukan di lapangan (di wilayah penelitian) saat ini (era otonomi daerah), kemudian disusun model komunikasi dalam kegiatan pemberdayaan masayarakat. langkah penyelenggaraan penelitian dengan pendekatan studi kasus ini terutama mengacu pada apa yang disarankan oleh yin (2005), mulai dari kegiatan persiapan pengumpulan data, pelaksanaan pengumpulan data, tahap analisis bukti studi kasus, sampai pada penulisan laporannya. dengan demikian tipe studi kasus yang digunakan lebih merupakan studi kasus deskriptif-kualitatif, dan bukan deskriptif-kuantitatif. dalam hal ini, peneliti mencoba mendeskrepsikan kategori/konsep-konsep yang ada dan mencoba menatanya sehingga memiliki saling keterkaitan/hubungan antara kategori atau konsep yang satu dengan yang lainnya dalam kerangka menyusun suatu model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat secara induktif dan kemungkinan perbaikannya. subyek penelitian dalam kajian ini terutama ditujukan kepada 8 petani anggota kelompok dalam proses produksi jamur merang yang terlibat langsung dalam kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat tani di desa argorejo. subyek penelitian diambil secara purposif, yakni informan yang dipandang memahami, mampu memberikan penjelasan yang terlibat dalam kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat tani untuk melakukan kegiatan usahatani jamur merang, 78 jurnal agraris terkait dengan permasalahan yang akan dipecahkan dalam penelitian ini. kedelapan informan tersebut adalah: marjan, suwit, mujiman, subandi, martoyo, sastrodiyono, gabriel jefrianus naha, dan mujiono. informan lain yang penulis perlukan terkait dengan pendekatan pembangunan dan kebijakan pemberdayaan masyarakat antara lain para pejabat atau petugas yang terkait pada beberapa level (tingkat kabupaten, kecamatan dan desa) yang dipandang bisa memberikan penjelasan terkait konsep pemberdayaan masyarakat tersebut. informan tersebut adalah pejabat yang memiliki kewenangan dalam pengambilan keputusan pada levelnya, yakni dari pejabat dinas pertanian, pejabat dari uptd bipp (unit pelaksana teknis daerah balai informasi dan penyuluhan pertanian), pejabat kecamatan, pejabat desa setempat dan dipandang memahami kebijakan pemberdayaan masyarakat tani yang berada di wilayah kerjanya. informan tersebut adalah: kepala dinas pertanian dan kehutanan bantul, kepala uptd bipp bantul, camat sedayu dan, kepala desa argorejo. obyek dalam penelitian ini adalah kajian tentang aspek komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang menjadi anggota kelompok tani jamur merang lestari makmur di desa argorejo, kecamatan sedayu, wilayah kabupaten bantul. bahan penelitiannya meliputi berbagai informasi dan permasalahannya yang terkait dengan proses komunikasi dalam kegiatan kelompok pemberdayaan masyarakat tani jamur merang. data penelitian yang dikumpulkan terdiri dari data primer dan data sekunder. data primer diperoleh langsung dari sumber yang terlibat secara langsung terkait dengan objek penelitian, bisa berupa penjelasan verbal, non verbal, ataupun berbagai tindakan atau perilaku yang ditunjukkan (yang teramati) petani yang terlibat dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat. jenis data sekunder diperoleh dari pihak-pihak yang tidak terlibat secara langsung (baik verbal maupun non verbal) namun dipandang mengetahui atau memahami terkait dengan objek penelitian, ataupun berupa hasil-hasil laporan, dokumentasi, dan lainnya yang ada di sejumlah instansi yang terkait dengan objek penelitian yang dipelajari. penelitian dilakukan di kelompok tani jamur merang lestari makmur di desa argorejo, kecamatan sedayu, bantul, tepatnya di dusun polaman dan di dusun kepuhan, tempat rumah produksi jamur berada dan kegiatan usahatani dilakukan. hasil dan pembahasan banyak dikaji oleh ahli-ahli berkompeten tentang berbagai model komunikasi dalam berbagai perspektif, dan telah diteorikan dalam berbagai buku komunikasi. selanjutnya berbagai teori tentang model-model pemberdayaan masyarakat dan model-model komunikasi yang sudah ada pada hakekatnya hanya sebagai pemahaman dan hanya sebagai pembanding saja bagi peneliti di dalam menyusun suatu model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat. peneliti menyusun model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat secara induktif berdasarkan pada hasil kajian tentang kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat di desa argorejo, dengan proses komunikasi yang menyertainya. model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang tersusun sangat ditentukan dan tidak lepas dari konteks situasi dan kondisi yang ada di lapangan. berbagai kategori yang ditemukan dicoba disusun dan dianalisis untuk menemukan konsep-konsep (construct) yang dipandang penting sebagai bagian yang saling terkait. berdasar hasil kajian terlihat bahwa kondisi dalam kelompok tani yang penting mendapat perhatian adalah adanya gap yang cukup signifikan antara kemampuan ketua kelompok di satu pihak dengan anggota-anggota kelompoknya di pihak lain. ketua kelompok memiliki status ekonomi dan status sosial yang jauh lebih tinggi dibanding dengan anggotanya; memiliki berkarakter dan prinsip yang kuat dalam berbisnis; memiliki ciri pribadi yang jauh lebih cerdas, bersifat kosmopolit, dan kemampuan relationship yang jauh lebih baik dari pada anggota. anggota kelompok hanya memfokuskan pikirannnya ke teknis budidaya dan bersifat lokalit; kurang memiliki orientasi ke depan yang kuat, dan mudah “narimo ing pandum”. struktur kualitas sdm yang demikian ternyata memunculkan permasalahan tersendiri bagi kelompok tersebut, yang jelas adanya dominasi ketua dalam berbagai hal terhadap anggotanya dalam kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat. berdasarkan hasil kajian dan pembahasan, baik menyangkut pemaknaan petani terhadap pemberdayaan masyarakat, proses komunikasi yang terjadi di dalamnya, maupun bagaimana petani memaknai keberhasilan usaha dan keberhasilan dalam hidupnya, setidaknya peneliti ingin mengungkapkan 3 model komunikasi. ketiga model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang dimaksud adalah: i) model awal, yang cenderung otoriter; ii) model dengan pendampingan profesional; dan iii) 79 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 model dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan kelompok yang demokratis. ketiga model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat tersebut dapat dikategorikan sebagai model verbal (mulyana, 2007). model awal yang dimaksud yaitu potret model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang dibangun berdasarkan berbagai informasi yang digali dari lapangan sebagaimana adanya. model dengan pendampingan profesional yang dimaksud adalah model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang mendasarkan pada situasi dan kondisi yang ada untuk diarahkan pada berkembangya berbagai fungsi kelompok tani melalui intervensi dari luar. model ini menekankan peran dan fungsi pendampingan oleh lembaga yang berkompeten, baik oleh pemerintah, lsm, ataupun perguruan tinggi. adapun yang dimaksud model dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan kelompok yang demokratis adalah model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat yang lebih menekankan pada pembentukan kepemimpinan ke depan dengan nilai-nilai demokratis dengan tetap dilakukan pendampingan oleh lembaga yang berkompeten. ketiga model komunikasi pemberdayaan yang dapat dikonstruksi secara induktif tersebut, merupakan model verbal yang secara deskriptif dilengkapi dengan bagan tentang komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat dalam kelompok tani jamur merang di argorejo. model awal. berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan pembahasan dapat diungkapkan bahwa pemaknaan pemberdayaan akan mempengaruhi tindakan dan perilaku petani dalam keterlibatannya di usahatatani jamur merang. apakah petani hanya terlibat dalam arti fisik ataukah sampai terlibat dalam setiap tahapan kegiatan dari perancanaan, pelaksanaan sampai evaluasi kegiatan terutamanya ikut serta dalam pengambilan keputusan di setiap tahapan kegiatan tersebut. hal ini sangat dipengaruhi oleh bagaimana petani memaknai pemberdayaan masyarakat tersebut. realita di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa pemaknaan petani terhadap konsep pemberdayaan masyarakat dimaknai secara parsial saja. kebanyakan petani hanya memberikan makna praktis dan sebagian petani yang lain memberikan makna konseptual terhadap konsep pemberdayaan masyarakat. tenyata pada level pemerintah yang memiliki kewajiban untuk membimbing petani pun juga demikian keadaannya. pemberdayaan masyarakat dimaknai secara parsial, yang semestinya pemberdayaan haruslah dimaknai secara komprehensif baik makna konseptual maupun makna praktis sebagai satu kesatuan berpikir dari setiap pejabat pemerintah yang memiliki tanggung jawab untuk membimbing petani dalam kegiatan pembangunan masyarakat dengan pendekatan pemberdayaan masyarakat ini. persamaan persepsi harus ada pada level pemerintah, persamaan persepsi pun juga bisa dibangun pada level petani sebagai pelaku utama kegiatan pembangunan dengan pendekatan pemberdayaan masyarakat tersebut. pemaknaan terhadap pemberdayaan masyarakat secara parsial tersebut dalam realitanya di lapangan memberikan konsekuensi lanjutan. benar adanya bahwa pemaknaan keterlibatan petani anggota dalam usahatani jamur merang lebih merupakan sebagai tenaga kerja saja. lebih tepatnya anggota dan pengurus cluster adalah sebagai pihak yang melaksanakan teknis budidaya jamur merang. oleh karena itu proses komunikasi kelompok yang paling menonjol adalah dalam hal teknis budidaya jamur merang. hal ini di dukung oleh situasi dan kondisi yang menunjukkan dominasi ketua kelompok dalam berbagai hal. posisi ketua kelompok secara sosial ekonomi jauh lebih kuat dibanding anggota-anggotanya. norma/ aturanaturan kelompok lebih banyak ditentukan oleh ketua kelompok secara otoritas dari pada merupakan keputusan bersama melalui proses demokrasi, yakni musyawarah dan mufakat. banyaknya aturan-aturan yang ditentukan oleh ketua kelompok berdampak pada sempitnya potensi munculnya makna-makna baru yang tumbuh secara alamiah di antara anggota kelompok, yang pada gilrannya hal ini memberi makna penting dalam membangun kekohesifan kelompok. proses komunikasi kelompok tani jamur merang tereduksi sebagai proses komunikasi dalam konteks teknis budidaya jamur merang. jaringan komunikasi kelompok bisa berupa bintang, rantai ataupun segitiga dengan ketua kelompok sebagai pemeran utamannya. berbagai tipe dan gaya komunikasi anggota harus tunduk dibawah komunikasi linear secara top down dari ketua kelompok. disamping memiliki gaya komunikasi lugas, dengan komunkasi seperlunya juga dengan tipe komunikasi hati-hati dari seorang ketua kelompok, setidaknya memberi ruang munculnya norma-norma baru secara alamiah yang tumbuh di antara anggota kelompok. hal ini akan memberi spirit baru bagi anggota untuk ikut bertanggung jawab terhadap keberlangsungan kelompok tani jamur merang tersebut. dengan pemaknaan pemberdayaan masyarakat dari kelompok tani jamur merang lestari makmur yang 80 jurnal agraris demikian, dan proses komunikasi kelompok sebagai proses komunikasi seperlunya, linear top down, dalam proses budidaya jamur; maka pemaknaan keberlanjutan usahatani jamur merang menjadi lebih ditentukan oleh ketua kelompoknya dari pada hasil pemikiran bersama dari seluruh anggotanya. dalam prakteknya, proses produksi jamur tidak optimal, hanya sebagian kumbung yang berproduksi, alasannya sulit mendapatkan bahan baku. akhirnya hal ini berdampak pada kurang yakinnya/ skeptisnya anggota kelompok apakah ke depannya mereka akan meraih keberhasilan pemberdayaan masyarakat melalui usahatani jamur merang tersebut. petani anggota tidak begitu yakin terhadap keberhasilan usaha pemberdayaan masyarakat. lebih lanjut petani anggota pun juga semakin jauh dari harapan dalam mencapai keberhasilan hidupnya apabila hanya sematamata menggantungkan usahanya di jamur merang. diperlukan berbagai upaya baik itu menyangkut usahatani di dalam jamur merang itu sendiri maupun usaha-usaha lain di luar usahatani jamur merang, agar lebih memiliki keyakinan dan keberhasilan lebih mungkin bisa dicapai. secara lebih jelasnya diungkapkan dalam gambar model verbal seperti tersaji dalam gambar 1. model dengan pendampingan profesional. dengan melihat situasi dan kondisi kelompok tani jamur merang yang ada di argorejo dengan peran dan posisi ketua kelompok yang lebih kuat dan dominan dibanding para anggotanya, maka peran pendamping yang profesional menjadi sangat penting. p endampingan dari lembaga yang berkompeten baik dari pemerintah, lembaga swadaya masyarakat (lsm), perguruan tinggi (pt) ataupun dari lembaga lainnya secara total dari awal kegiatan pemberdayaan sampai akhir sehingga kelompok tani jamur merang benar-benar bisa berjalan sebagai mana mestinya menjadi urgen dilakukan. setiap tahapan kegiatan memerlukan pendampingan oleh lembaga tertentu yang profesional di bidangnya. pelaksanaan pembangunan dengan pendekatan pemberdayaan masyarakat ini harus segera dilakukan koordinasi oleh pihak yang berkompeten dan secara perlahan memberikan pemahaman yang benar dan persepsi yang sama di antara orang-orang atau pihakpihak yang yang terlibat tentang pemaknaan pemberdayaan masyarakat itu sendiri. di antara anggota kelompok ataupun dengan pengurus dan ketua kelompoknya secara hati-hati haruslah memberikan pemahaman yang benar dan persepsi yang sama di antara orang-orang atau pihak-pihak yang terlibat tentang pemaknaan pemberdayaan masyarakat itu sendiri. di antara anggota kelompok ataupun dengan pengurus dan ketua kelompoknya secara hati-hati haruslah gambar 1. model awal komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat melalui usahatani jamur merang (model komunikasi yang cenderung otoriter) 81 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 mendapatkan pengetahuan yang sama pada tataran teorinya dan juga memiliki persepsi yang sama pula dalam menterjemahkan pengetahuan tersebut dalam implementasinya pada berbagai kegiatan yang ada di lapangan. sosialisasi tentang pemahaman pemberdayaan masyarakat secara komprehensif ini harus dilakukan secara perlahan dan hati-hati, terutama kalau itu menyangkut perbaikan gaya kepemimpinan yang selama ini berjalan. harmoni dan hubungan yang baik di antara berbagai pihak, baik itu dari internal para petani dengan ketua kelompoknya maupun hubungannya dengan pendamping haruslah dijaga. intervensi dari luar, yakni peran pendamping sangat penting dalam membantu melakukan dinamisasi kelompok ke arah hal-hal baru yang lebih baik dengan tetap memelihara keseimbangan hubungan baik yang selama ini telah berjalan di antara anggota, pengurus dan ketua kelompok tani jamur merang. pendampingan yang profesional dalam mengarahkan berbagai kegiatan kelompok sangat dituntut demi keberhasilan model ini. sedemikian rupa sehingga komunikasi kelompok yang terjadi mengarah pada berbagai objek kegiatan yang seharusnya ada dalam suatu kelompok. komunikasi kelompok tidak hanya terfokus pada budidaya jamur merang saja, tetapi juga adanya keseimbangan objek-objek lainnya seperti komunikasi dalam pengambilan keputuan, komunikasi dalam perencanaan, pelaksanaan dan evaluasi, komunikasi dalam pengadaan bahan baku, komunikasi dalam pengelolaan keuangan, komunikasi dalam pembuatan administrasi yang baik, komunikasi dalam pembuatan laporan kegiatan dan sebagainya. melalui proyek-proyek kegiatan yang ada, yang biasanya juga disertai dengan petunjuk pelaksanaan (juklak) atau petunjuk teknis (juknis), maka juklak ataupun juknis tersebut diarahkan pada terwujudnya berbagai objek-objek kegiatan kelompok yang sudah diungkapkan tadi. dengan demikian akan terbentuk norma ataupun aturan-aturan kelompok baru yang lebih terarah. kegiatan kelompok tani jamur merang mengacu pada aturan-aturan yang sudah ada tersebut. aturanaturan baru yang muncul dengan adanya proyek kegiatan yang disertai sejumlah aturan berupa juklak dan juknis tersebut akan lebih mudah diterima oleh seluruh anggota kelompok khususnya bagi ketua kelompok yang cenderung mendominasi dan otoriter. penekanan dari model dengan pendampingan profesional ini adalah, bagaimana fungsi pendamping yang berkompeten untuk benar-benar bisa mengawal secara ketat berbagai kegiatan yang ada mulai dari awal sampai akhir sesuai dengan ketentuan dan aturan (juklak dan juknis) yang ada. hal terpenting yang harus dilakukan oleh pendamping adalah bagaimana menerapkan konsep pemberdayaan sebagai pilihan pendekatan pembangunan tersebut agar selaras mulai dari tataran konseptual sampai tataran praksisnya. praktek-praktek di lapangan, khsusunya dalam usahatani jamur merang yang dikelola secara berkelompok tersebut harus sesuai dengan substansi dari konsep dari pemberdayaan masyarakat. pendampingan yang profesional harus mampu berperan sebagai pengawal, sehingga ada kesatuan bahasa antara konsep dan prakteknya di lapangan. dengan pendampingan yang sunguh-sungguh dari pihak yang berkompeten pada berbagai kegiatan kelompok yang ada, maka keberhasilan usaha pemberdayaan masyarakat akan lebih terarah. pendampingan yang profesional juga diperlukan untuk pemeliharaan atau bahkan mengarahkan pada nilai-nilai individu (tentu saja yang positif). jadi penekanan dari model dengan pendampingan profesional ini adalah adanya regulasi atau pembentukan aturan-aturan sesuai dengan tuntutan proyek dengan pendekatan pemberdayaan masyarakat dan upaya-upaya mengarahkan berbagai kegiatan kelompok ke arah tujuannya. dengan demikian maka keberhasilan dalam jangka panjangnya, yakni keberhasilan hidup seluruh anggota petani akan lebih terarah dan lebh memungkinkan untuk dicapai. model dengan pendampingan profesional apabila diungkapkan dalam bentuk bagan, bisa dilihat seperti yang tersaji pada gambar 2. model dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan demokratis. model kedua, yakni model dengan pendampingan profesional lebih diorientasikan untuk memecahkan masalah yang ada pada kelompok yang ada saat ini yang memiliki kepemimpinan yang cenderung otoriter dan mendominasi dalam berbagai kegiatan kelompok. maka model ketiga, dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan demokratis lebih diorientasikan dalam pendampingan untuk keberlanjutan pemberdayaan masyarakat untuk kepemimpinan berikutnya/ke depannya. model kedua di atas dipilih sebagai salah satu alternatif mengingat bukan hal yang mudah untuk merubah gaya kepemimpinan seseorang, yang semula otoriter menjadi demokratis. apalagi apabila ketua kelompok memiliki banyak kelebihan dibandingkan anggotanya. 82 jurnal agraris kekuatan dan kemampuan yang jauh lebih tinggi dari ketua kelompok, baik dari aspek ekonomi, sosial, kekosmopolitan, akses terhadap sumber-smber informasi, akses terhadap sumber-sumber pendanaan, memiliki jarimgan bisnis yang kuat dari hulu sampai hilir, dan sebagainya akan membuatnya sebagai pengatur tunggal di kelompoknya. sesungguhnya permasalahan utamanya bukan terletak padanya, tetapi justru pada para anggota yang memiliki banyak keterbatasan. berbagai kekuatan dan kemampuan yang ada pada ketua kelompok tersebut sangat kurang dimiliki oleh anggota kelompok tani jamur merang yang ada di desa argorejo ini. juga kondisi sdm anggota yang memiliki keterbatasan berpikir atau kurang mau berpikir keras untuk kemamdiriannya sendiri. dengan keterbatan ekonomi, anggota lebih memilih memperoleh pendapatan kecil asal rutin dari pada melangkah dan berpikir besar ke depan dengan pendapatan yang belum jelas baginya. barangkali para anggota belum memiliki jiwa entrepereneurship (kewirausahaan) yang berkembang. hal inilah yang perlu diperhatikan oleh seorang pendamping untuk mengasah dan mengembangkan jiwa kewirausahaan para anggota secara team work dalam kelompok tani jamur merang. model dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan demokratis bukan berarti tidak perlu pendampingan yang profesional. pendampingan profesional tetap memiliki peran yang penting seperti halnya model kedua. disamping peran dan fungsi pendamping seperti yang telah dilakukan dalam model kedua tersebut, maka pendamping memiliki peran penting untuk membantu kelompok dalam mengembangkan kepemimpinan kelompok yang demokratis. dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan yang demokratis, maka sikap saling asah, saling asih dan saling asuh bisa dibiasakan menjadi nilai kolektif kelompok tani jamur merang tersebut. pendamping harus mampu membantu khususnya ketua kelompok dalam menciptakan iklim kerja yang demokratis dalam kelompok tersebut. pendamping harus mampu membantu kelompok untuk menciptakan kesadaran bagi seluruh angota kelompok tanpa terkecuali akan pentingnya kemandirian dan kerja sama serta jiwa kewirausahaan dalam berusaha. kesadaran tersebut harus gambar 2. model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat dengan pendampingan profesional 83 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 dikembangkan, sehingga pada akhirnya menjadi kebiasaan dalam bersikap dan bertindak sehari-hari dalam berusahatani atau bahkan dalam kehidupan yang lebih luas. hubungan antara ketua dengan pengurus dan anggota lebih merupakan hubungan fungsional yang didasarkan pada prinsip duduk sama rendah berdiri sama tinggi. pendamping juga harus bisa menanamkan pentingnya pemahaman bahwa semua elemen dalam kelompok adalah mitra kerja, semuanya memiliki peran yang penting dalam mencapai tujuan bersama dan untuk itu harus mampu bekerja sama secara sinergi dalam suatu team work yang baik. perbedaan posisi dalam kelompok (ketua, pengurus dan anggota) bukanlah mencerminkan kekuatan seseorang untuk mendominasi satu dengan yang lain. perlu ditumbuh-kembangkan kesadaran bahwa setiap anggota memliki kemampuan, kekuatan/daya yang harus dioptimalkan yang dalam implementasinya berupa partisipasi baik bentuk pemikiran (keterlibatannya dalam pengambilan keputusan) maupun ketrampilan teknis melalui kerjasama kelompok yang kompak. pada awalnya sama dengan model kedua (model dengan pendampingan profesional), penting adanya pemahaman yang benar dan kesamaan persepsi tentang pemaknaan pemberdayaan masyarakat itu sendiri. semula pada level pembimbing atau pendamping yang akhirnya diteruskan untuk level seluruh anggota kelompok tani, termasuk ketua dan semua pengurusnya. pemahaman pemaknaan pemberdayaan masyarakat secara komprehensif perlu dimengerti oleh semua pihak yang terlibat pemberdayaan, baik pendamping maupun petani. sama halnya dengan model kedua bahwa pendamping juga harus bisa memberikan bimbingan lapangan secara efektif. pendamping juga memberikan bimbingan berbagai objek kegiatan apa saja yang mestinya harus dilakukan dalam kelompok tani jamur merang dengan pendekatan pemberdayaan ini. pihak yang berkompeten harus mendampingi dalam pembelajaran pengambilan keputuan kelompok, belajar dalam perencanaan sampai evaluasi, memikirkan bersama dalam pengadaan bahan baku, belajar mengelola keuangan kelompok, belajar mendelegasikan tugas secara baik, memusyawarahkan sistem bagi hasil secara adil, belajar membuat laopran kegiatan, belajar membuaat administrasi yang baik, dan sebagainya. dengan demikian, komunikasi kelompok yang terjadi juga menyangkut berbagai objek kegiatan kelompok tersebut. aturan-aturan ataupun norma-norma kelompok yang mendukung berjalannya berbagai objek kegiatan beserta proses komunikasinya secara otomatis juga penting untuk dikembangkan secara musyawarah yang dipimpin oleh seorang ketua kelompok tani jamur merang yang demokratis. dengan musyawarah sebagai jalan utama dalam memecahkan berbagai persoalan kelompok, maka diharapkan setiap anggota akan lebih merasa memiliki dan ikut bertanggung jawab terhadap apa yang telah ia putuskan bersama. kekohesifan kelompok akan lebih baik. selanjutnya dengan berjalannya dan berkembangnya berbagai objek kegiatan yang dipandang penting melalui proses komunikasi kelompok yang lebih berkualitas tersebut, maka akan lebih memungkinkan bagi kelompok tani jamur merang mencapai keberhasilan usaha pemberdayaan masyarakat. keberhasilan usaha pemberdayaan pun akan lebih optimis untuk bisa dicapai. pendamping juga memiliki peran untuk mengembangkan nilai-nilai positif yang dimiliki secara personal dari setiap anggota kelompok. pendamping ikut serta membantu kelompok dalam mengkomunikasikan nilai-nilai individual seperti kerja keras, tolong menolong, tanggung jawab keluarga dan sebagainya di dalam diskusi/forum kelompok, sehingga menjadi isu bersama dan terjadilah proses konvergensi simbolik, yang pada akhirnya menjadi nilai-nilai kolektif. dengan demikian kelompok tani jamur merang tersebut akan semakin kaya dengan nilai-nilai kolektif yang bisa mendukung ke arah keberhasilan usaha pemberdayaan masyarakat. dalam model dengan pendampingan profesional (model kedua) peran pendamping lebih ditekankan dalam upaya mengarahkan dan menjamin agar regualasi (aturan main) bisa berjalan seperti yang seharusnya. hal ini ditujukan untuk membatasi kecenderungan dominasi ketua kelompok. dalam model ketiga ini, arahan dan aturan (regulasi) lebih ditujukan agar seluruh sistem berjalan dengan baik. tidak hanya itu, pendamping juga ikut serta mengawal dan membantu kelompok dalam berbagai proses pelatihan, pemecahan masalah (problem solving), dan berbagai bimbingan lapangan. sekali lagi dengan model ketiga ini, keberhasilan usaha pemberdayaan melalui usahatani jamur merang lebih optimis dicapai. akhirnya keberhasilan hidup ke depannya pun lebih mungkin dicapai. tentu saja model dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan demokratis ini tidak semata-mata untuk kepemimpinan kelompok tani jamur merang ke depan. juga sangat mungkin model ketiga ini diterapkan pada 84 jurnal agraris kepemimpinan yang sekarang. apabila pendamping bisa membantu kelompok untuk melakukan pendekatanpendekatan khususnya melakukan komunikasi persuasif kepada ketua kelompok saat ini (yang cenderung mendominasi), maka proses kemajuan kelompok tani jamur merang lestari makmur di desa argorejo akan lebih cepat berkembang dan maju ke arah keberhasilan dengan model ke tiga ini. model komunikasi dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan demokratis dalam bentuk bagan dapat dilihat seperti yang tersaji pada gambar 3. lebih jelasnya perbedaan antara model awal dengan model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat alternatifnya, yakni model dengan pendampingan profesional dan model dengan kepemimpinan demokratis tersebut dapat diungkapkan dalam matrik yang tersaji dalam lampiran 1. kesimpulan dan saran ditemukan adanya model awal, yakni potret model komunikasi yang ditemukan berdasarkan fenomena riil apa adanya yang ditemukan di kelompok tani jamur merang di desa argorejo. model komunikasi awal menggambarkan suatu model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat tani yang cenderung otoriter. terlihat bahwa pemaknaan petani terhadap konsep pemberdayaan masyarakat dimaknai secara parsial. keterlibatan petani anggota dalam usahatani jamur merang lebih merupakan sebagai tenaga kerja saja. anggota dan pengurus sebagai pihak yang melaksanakan teknis budidaya jamur merang. gambar 3. model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat dengan kepemimpinan demoktaris 85 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 proses komunikasi kelompok yang paling menonjol adalah dalam hal teknis budidaya jamur merang. posisi ketua kelompok secara sosial ekonomi jauh lebih kuat dibanding anggota-anggotanya. situasi dan kondisi menunjukkan dominasi ketua kelompok dalam berbagai hal. upaya pengembangan model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat alternatif dapat diarahkan ke “model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat dengan pendampingan profesional” ataupun “model komunikasi pemberdayaan masyarakat dengan mengembangkan kepemimpinan demokratis”. model dengan pendampingan profesional lebih menekankan peranan pendamping (seperti: lsm, pemerintah, perguruan tinggi) dengan aturan-aturan yang tegas yang mengarah pada keberdayaan anggota. aturan-aturan yang ketat dari pemerintah untuk menghindari pembiasan pemberdayaan karena terlalu kuatnya peran ketua kelompok. sementara itu pengembangan model dengan kepemimpinan demokratis lebih diarahkan pada kepemimpinan kelompok selanjutnya. hal mana diyakini bahwa keberdayaan akan dicapai dalam pengertian yang sesungguhnya apabila adanya atmosfer yang demokratis bahwa diarahkan pada kemandirian setiap anggota untuk berpartisipasi aktif khususnya dalam pengambilan keputusan. disarankan adanya upaya memahamkan kelompok tani tentang hakekat pemberdayaan masyarakat, memahamkan pada kelompok tani jamur merang bahwa banyak hal yang harus dikerjakan sebagai sebuah kelompok tani jamur merang (tidak hanya budidaya saja). daftar pustaka alwasilah, a.c. 2003. pokoknya kualitatif, dasar-dasar merancang dan melakukan penelitian kualitatif. jakarta: pustaka jaya. crain, w. 2007. teori perkembangan, konsep dan aplikasi. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. creswell, j.w. 2002. research design, qualitative & quantitative approaches. jakarta: kik press. team redaksi fokusmedia. 2007. pembagian urusan pemerintah antara pemerintah, pemerintah daerah propinsi dan pemerintah daerah kabupaten/kota. bandung: penerbit fokusmedia. hikmat, h. 2006. strategi pemberdayaan masyarakat, edisi revisi. bandung: humaniora utama. kartasasmita, g. 1996. pemberdayaan masyarakat: strategi pembangunan yang berakar kerakyatan. jakarta: bppn. levis, l.r. 1996. komunikasi penyuluhan pedesaan. bandung: citra aditya bakti. mcquail, d. and s. windahl, 1981. communication models. new york: longman inc. mulyana, d. 2001. metodologi penelitian kualitatif, paradigma baru lmu komunikasi dan ilmu sosial lainnya. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. ———————. 2007. ilmu komunikasi suatu pengantar. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. rogers, e.m & f f. shoemaker. 1971. communication of innovations, a cross-cultural approach, second edition. new york: the free press. sevilla, c.g. et al 1993. pengantar metode penelitian, cetakan pertama. jakarta: ui press. yin, r. k. 2005. studi kasus, desain dan metode, edisi revisi. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. 86 jurnal agraris lampiran 1. tabel 1. matrik perbedaan antara model awal, model dengan pendampingan arsy nur fadilah, widodo, aris slamet widodo program studi agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta email: arsyarsymedes@yahoo.co.id sikap konsumen terhadap produk donat berbahan mocaf sebagai pengganti tepung terigu abstract the aims of this research were to identify consumer attitude toward all kinds of donut atribute which made from wheat flour and mocaf; and to compare consumer attitude toward all types of subtitution phase of donut. the respondents of this research were 45 respondents which accidentally taken from the buyers. the method of this research was eksperimental with the object were donut with 30% and 50% mocaf substitution ingredients and without mocaf substitution as a control. the data was gained in march 2015. fishbein model was used to identify consumer’s attitude toward donut attribute which consist of taste, tekstur, shape, size, colour, and price; whereas friedman test was used to compare consumers attitude toward donut with all types of substitution. the result of this research were showed that taste attribute and tekstur attribute was more considered in choosing donut product; and there was no significant difference in consumer attitude toward donut with mocaf substitution. keyword: mocaf, donut attribute, comparison consumer attitude. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi sikap konsumen terhadap berbagai atribut donat berbahan tepung terigu dan mocaf; dan untuk membandingkan sikap konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai tingkatan subtitusi. responden pada penelitian ini berjumlah 45 orang yang diambil secara aksidental yaitu pada konsumen yang membeli donat. metode yang digunakan yaitu metode eksperimental dengan objek penelitian berupa donat berbahan subtitusi mocaf sebanyak 30 % dan 50% serta tanpa subtitusi mocaf sebagai kontrol. pengumpulan data dilakukan pada bulan maret 2015. model fishbein digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi sikap konsumen terhadap berbagai atribut donat meliputi atribut rasa, tekstur, bentuk, ukuran, warna, dan harga; sedangkan uji friedman digunakan untuk membandingkan sikap konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai tingkatan subtitusi. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa atribut rasa dan atribut tekstur dianggap lebih menjadi pertimbangan oleh konsumen dalam pemilihan produk donat; dan tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan dalam sikap konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai substitusi mocaf. kata kunci: mocaf, atribut donat, perbandingan sikap konsumen. pendahuluan tepung terigu menjadi komoditas yang sangat penting bagi masyarakat indonesia. tepung terigu banyak digunakan sebagai bahan dasar berbagai macam produk olahan seperti mie, roti, kue, bakso, dan berbagai aneka produk makanan kecil. tingkat konsumsi indonesia terhadap produk doi:10.18196/agr.1218 150 jurnal agraris tepung terigu sangat tinggi. konsumsi tepung terigu nasional naik 5,61% dari 1,15 juta ton pada tahun 2011 menjadi 1,22 juta ton pada tahun 2012 (aptindo, 2012). kenaikan konsumsi terigu terpacu oleh pertumbuhan industri produk hilir berbasis terigu seperti produsen biskuit, mie instan dan crumbed bread di indonesia. hal ini menggambarkan bahwa tingkat selera masyarakat yang tinggi terhadap makanan olahan berbahan terigu. indonesia sebagai negara dengan penduduk terbesar yang berada pada peringkat ke-4 di dunia dengan jumlah penduduk mencapai 253,60 juta jiwa dan wilayah yang sangat luas, ketahanan pangan merupakan agenda penting di dalam pembangunan ekonomi. salah satu upaya untuk membangun ketahanan pangan adalah dengan mengembangkan bahan-bahan substitusi yang mampu mengurangi komoditi impor. salah satu produk substitusi impor terigu adalah mocaf (modified casava flour). mocaf merupakan modifikasi tepung singkong biasa dengan melakukan fermentasi antara lain menggunakan bakteri asam laktat, asam asetat atau enzim. perlakuan fermentasi tersebut dihasilkan tepung singkong yang memiliki testur lembut, putih dan tidak berbau khas singkong. selain itu mocaf juga memiliki daya gelasi, viskositas yang lebih baik dari pada tepung singkong biasa, sehingga memiliki karakteristik yang mirip dengan terigu. tabel 1. produksi singkong di indonesia sumber: bps online 2014 ketersediaan singkong yang melimpah di indonesia ini dapat menjadi alternatif untuk mewujudkan ketahanan pangan. singkong merupakan tanaman yang sangat mudah dibudidayakan secara massal. tanaman singkong mempunyai adaptasi yang luas. tanaman ini dapat tumbuh dengan baik pada dataran rendah sampai tinggi, yaitu dari 0 sampai 2500 m di atas permukaan laut, maupun di daerah kering dengan curah hujan sekitar 500 mm/tahun, asalkan air tidak sampai tergenang diperakarannya (soenarjo,1979). tanaman ini cocok dengan kultur tanah indonesia yaitu cocok ditanam pada jenis tanah latosol dan aluvial yang banyak tersebar di wilayah indonesia seperti sumatera utara, sumatera barat, lampung, jawa barat, jawa timur, bali, kalimantan tengah, kalimantan selatan, sumatera bagian timur, pantai utara jawa dan masih banyak daerah yang lainnya. menurut data bps produksi singkong di indonesia dari tahun ke tahun semakin meningkat (tabel 1). kehidupan masyarakat indonesia yang menjadi semakin modern menyebabkan masyarakat mulai tertarik pada produk pangan yang praktis dalam penyajiannya. perubahan pola konsumsi masyarakat ini menyebabkan kebutuhan terhadap bahan pangan berbasis tepungtepungan meningkat pesat, salah satunya yang paling besar konsumsinya adalah tepung terigu. ketergantungan indonesia pada tepung terigu dapat dikurangi dengan mocaf. mocaf dapat menjadi substitusi atau komplementer dari bahan pangan terigu. mocaf dihasilkan dari singkong ini memiliki karakteristik mirip tepung terigu. mocaf juga memiliki daya gelasi, viskositas yang lebih baik dari pada tepung singkong biasa, sehingga memiliki karakteristik yang mirip dengan terigu. sebagai produk substitusi, tidaklah sulit bagi mocaf untuk mengganti tepung terigu (utomo,dkk. 2013), termasuk salah satunya donat. di daerah istimewa yogyakarta, mocaf sudah diproduksi di beberapa tempat, diantaranya di kabupaten kulon progo dan gunung kidul. akan tetapi pemasaran mocaf masih menemui banyak kendala karena pelaku industri kecil makanan olahan berbahan baku terigu belum menggunakan mocaf sebagai substitusi terigu. pelaku industri belum mempunyai informasi tentang respon konsumen terhadap makanan olahan yang disubstitusi dengan mocaf oleh karena itu, diperlukan penelitian tentang sikap konsumen terhadap makanan olahan yang bahan bakunya disubstitusi dengan mocaf. penelitian ini bertujuan mengidentifikasi sikap konsumen terhadap berbagai atribut donat berbahan tepung terigu dan mocaf serta membandingkan sikap konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai tingkatan substitusi. metode penelitian metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode eksperimental yaitu observasi dibawah kondisi 151 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 buatan yang dibuat dan diatur oleh peneliti. relawan dalam penelitian ini adalah konsumen donat yang kebetulan bertemu dengan peneliti dan bersedia dijadikan relawan. penelitian ini dilakukan kepada 45 orang konsumen yang membeli donat di berbagai kantin di lingkungan universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta. penelitian ini menggunakan donat yang bahan bakunya disubstitusi dengan tepung mocaf. donat yang akan diujikan kepada responden dibuat dalam 3 tingkat substitusi yang berbeda yaitu: (i) donat dengan substitusi 30% tepung mocaf, (ii) donat dengan substitusi 50% tepung mocaf, dan (iii) donat dengan 100% tepung terigu. donat yang digunakan sebagai obyek sikap pada penelitian eksperimen ini adalah donat yang dipersiapkan oleh peneliti. penelitian ini dilakukan di 3 kantin yang ada di kampus universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) yaitu di kantin yang terletak di bagian utara kampus umy, kantin yang terletak bagian selatan kampus umy dan kantin yang terletak di bagian tengah kampus umy.. analisis sikap konsumen terhadap produk diukur dengan menggunakan model multi atribut fishbein yang secara sistematis dituliskan : ao =” ( b i ) ( e i ) keterangan : b i : kepercayaan konsumen terhadap baik buruknya suatu karakteristik donat e i : evaluasi konsumen tentang kepentingan atribut donat analisis perbedaan sikap dalam penelitian ini menggunakan uji friedman. uji ini digambarkan dengan rumus keterangan : n : jumlah responden rj : jumlah keseluruhan jenjang k : jumlah ordinal atribut donat dalam penelitian ini meliputi rasa, tekstur, bentuk, ukuran, warna, dan harga. kategori sikap konsumen dibedakan menjadi 5 kriteria yaitu sangat buruk, buruk, cukup baik, baik dan sangat baik dengan berdasarkan skor keseluruhan atribut produk. hasil dan pembahasan karakteristik donat karakteristik donat yang diamati meliputi rasa, tekstur, bentuk, warna, ukuran dan harga. pada karakteristik rasa menurut pandangan peneliti tidak ada perbedaan antara rasa donat mocaf dengan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu sedangkan untuk karakteristik tekstur, bentuk, warna dan harga terdapat perbedaan. tekstur donat mocaf lebih lembut dibanding dengan terigu. donat mocaf memiliki tekstur yang lebih berminyak dibanding dengan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu. pada karakteristik bentuk, donat mocaf memiliki bentuk yang tidak rata dibandingkan dengan donat berbahan 100% terigu dan pada ketiga produk donat yang diteliti memunculkan warna donat yang berbeda yaitu warna kuning kecoklatan dimiliki oleh donat subtitusi 30% tepung mocaf, sedangkan warna kecoklatan dimiliki oleh donat subtitusi 50% tepung mocaf sementara warna kuning dan sedikit kecoklatan dimiliki oleh donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu. perbedaan bahan baku tepung dapat mempengaruhi karakteristik ukuran produk donat seperti donat yang disubtitusikan dengan mocaf yaitu ukuran donat menjadi lebih kecil dibanding dengan donat yang berbahan 100% tepung terigu. pada karakteristik harga jumlah hasil produksi donat sangat mempengaruhi dalam penentuan harga. pembuatan donat dalam penelitian ini dibuat dengan menggunakan bahan-bahan yang sama namun menghasilkan jumlah hasil produksi yang berbeda-beda sehingga pada keuntungan masing-masing donat menghasilkan keuntungan yang berbeda-beda pula dengan berdasarkan harga pokok produksi. keuntungan untuk donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf sebesar rp 472, sedangkan donat bersubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf sebesar rp 304 sementara donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu rp 307, dengan harga pokok masing-masing donat yaitu donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf mencapai harga sebesar rp 1.028 sedangkan donat bersubtitusi tepung mocaf 50% mencapai harga sebesar rp 1.196 sementara donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu memiliki harga sebesar rp 1.193. hal ini menunjukan bahwa harga donat yang disubtitusi 30% mocaf mendapatkan harga produksi yang lebih murah dibandingkan dengan donat bersubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf dan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu sehingga keuntungan yang lebih besar terdapat pada donat dengan subtitusi 30% tepung mocaf. 152 jurnal agraris deskripsi responden deskripsi karakteristik responden dapat memberikan gambaran mengenai identitas responden dalam penelitian ini. deskripsi identitas responden dalam penelitian ini dapat dikelompokkan menjadi beberapa kelompok yaitu : jenis kelamin, usia responden, tingkat pendidikan, jenis pekerjaan dan pendapatan. tabel 2. profil responden karakteristik konsumen ditemukan bahwa sebagian besar merupakan mahasiswa yang sedang menempuh perguruan tinggi dan mayoritas berumur 16th-20th. tabel 7 menunjukan bahwa responden sebagian besar berjenis kelamin perempuan 57,8 % dan mayoritas responden berpendapatan lebih rendah rp 1.500.000. sikap konsumen terhadap donat berbahan subtitusi tepung mocaf sikap konsumen terhadap donat berbahan subtitusi tepung mocaf dalam penelitian ini dianalisis dengan menggunakan model fishbein yang menggabungkan antara kepercayaan dan evaluasi terhadap atribut-atribut pada donat. atribut-atribut tersebut meliputi rasa, tekstur, bentuk, ukuran, warna, dan harga. kepercayaan konsumen terhadap donat berbahan subtitusi tepung mocaf kepercayaan adalah kekuatan kepercayaan bahwa suatu produk memiliki atribut tertentu (bi). konsumen akan mengungkapkan kepercayaan terhadap berbagai atribut yang dimiliki donat. semakin tinggi kepercayaan konsumen terhadap atribut yang dimiliki donat maka semakin menjadi pertimbangan utama konsumen memilih donat tersebut. secara keseluruhan rata-rata skor kepercayaan atribut pada donat yang diteliti menunjukan katagori yang cukup baik. total skor rata-rata keseluruhan kepercayaan atribut donat mencapai 20,25 dari kisaran skor 6-30 yang dikategorikan cukup baik. kepercayaan konsumen terhadap keseluruhan atribut donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu lebih baik dibandingkan dengan donat yang berbahan subtitusi tepung mocaf. skor donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu adalah 20,75 yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan skor donat berbahan subtitusi 30% tepung mocaf yaitu 20,24 dan skor donat bersubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf yaitu 19,77. kepercayaan konsumen terhadap atribut bentuk, ukuran dan harga pada donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf dianggap lebih buruk dibandingkan dengan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu, sedangkan pada atribut rasa, tekstur dan warna pada donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf lebih baik dibandingkan dengan donat bersubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf. kepercayaan konsumen terhadap atribut rasa, tekstur, warna dan bentuk pada donat bersubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf lebih buruk dibandingkan dengan donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf dan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu, sedangkan atribut ukuran dan harga pada donat bersubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf lebih baik dibandingkan dengan donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf. kepercayaan konsumen terhadap atribut rasa, bentuk, ukuran dan harga donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu lebih baik dibandingkan dengan donat yang bersubtitusi 30% dan 50% tepung mocaf. semua atribut pada donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu memiliki skor lebih tinggi dari skor rata-rata, namun jika dilihat dari skor atribut tekstur dan warna pada donat berbahan 100% tepung 153 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 terigu lebih buruk dibanding dengan skor pada donat yang disubsitusi 30% tepung mocaf. berdasarkan hal tersebut dapat menunjukan bahwa atribut tekstur dan warna dapat menjadi atribut unggulan yang perlu dipertahankan sebagai ciri khas donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf. tabel 3 tingkat kepentingan (e i ) atribut donat evaluasi konsumen terhadap donat berbahan disubtitusi tepung mocaf evaluasi atribut donat menggambarkan pentingnya suatu atribut donat bagi konsumen (e i ). konsumen akan mengidentifikasikan atribut–atribut yang dimiliki oleh donat yang akan dievaluasi. konsumen menganggap sangat penting semua atribut yang diteliti yaitu meliputi atribut rasa, tekstur, bentuk, ukuran dan harga. rata-rata skor evaluasi keseluruhan atribut donat mencapai 25,68 dari kisaran 6-30 yang termasuk dalam kategori sangat penting. tingkat kepentingan konsumen terhadap atribut warna dan ukuran adalah rendah. atribut warna dan ukuran tidak menjadi suatu kepentingan dalam memilih produk donat. rata-rata skor per atribut menunjukan bahwa dari keenam atribut produk donat yang dievaluasi konsumen atribut warna (4,13) dan ukuran (3,62) memiliki nilai terkecil dibanding dengan atribut lainnya. konsumen akan mempertimbangkan atribut internal dan eksternal sebagai faktor utama dalam memilih produk donat. atribut internal yang dianggap penting oleh konsumen yaitu atribut rasa dan atribut eksternal yang dianggap penting yaitu atribut harga. rata-rata skor per atribut menunjukan bahwa atribut yang memiliki nilai tertinggi adalah atribut rasa (4,60) dan atribut harga (4,48) adalah skor tertinggi kedua setelah atribut rasa. sikap konsumen terhadap donat yang berbahan subtitusi tepung mocaf tabel 2 tingkat kepercayaan terhadap atribut donat (b i ) 154 jurnal agraris sikap (attitudes) konsumen adalah faktor penting yang akan mempengaruhi keputusan konsumen dalam memilih sebuah produk. sikap merupakan kecenderungan yang dipelajari, ini berarti bahwa sikap yang berkaitan dengan perilaku membeli terbentuk sebagai hasil dari pengalaman langsung mengenai produk, informasi secara lisan yang diperoleh dari orang lain dan berbagai bentuk pemasaran langsung. sikap mungkin dihasilkan dari perilaku tetapi sikap tidak sama dengan perilaku. sikap dapat mendorong konsumen kearah perilaku tertentu atau menarik konsumen dari perilaku tertentu. sikap konsumen cukup baik terhadap donat. rata-rata skor sikap konsumen keseluruhan atribut donat mencapai (86,88) dari kisaran 6-150 yang termasuk dalam kategori cukup baik. sikap konsumen donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu lebih baik dibandingkan dengan donat yang disubtitusi tepung mocaf.pada sikap konsumen terhadap atribut bentuk, ukuran dan harga pada donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan donat yang disubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf dan donat 100% tepung terigu, namun pada atribut rasa, tekstur dan warna pada donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf lebih baik dibandingkan dengan donat yang disubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf dan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu. sikap konsumen terhadap atribut rasa, tekstur, bentuk pada donat yang disubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf lebih rendah dibanding dengan donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf dan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu, namun pada atribut ukuran dan harga pada donat yang disubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf. sikap konsumen terhadap atribut rasa, bentuk,ukuran dan harga donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu lebih baik dibandingkan dengan donat yang disubtitusi tepung mocaf, namun atribut tekstur dan warna donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu lebih buruk dibandingkan dengan donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf. berdasarkan respon konsumen tekstur donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf memiliki tekstur lebih lembut dibanding dengan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu dan warna donat memiliki warna yang lebih coklat dibanding dengan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu. pada atribut warna, semakin banyak menggunakan subtitusi tepung mocaf maka warnanya akan mengikuti dari warna tepung mocaf yaitu kecoklatan. hal ini dapat menunjukan bahwa tepung yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf dapat mempengaruhi kualitas tekstur menjadi lebih baik yaitu lebih lembut pada pangan olahan seperti donat dalam penelitian ini. hal tersebut juga dapat manjadi keunggulan tepung mocaf pada kualitas pangan olahan basah. tabel 4. hasil analisis sikap multi atribut fishbein untuk donat 155 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 perbedaan sikap konsumen terhadap donat berbahan subtitusi tepung mocaf penelitian ini menggunakan uji friedman untuk menguji perbedaan sikap konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai subtitusi tepung mocaf dan untuk memperkuat hasil karakteristik resonden maka peneliti menggunakan analisis chis suare yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui apakah terdapat perbedaan respon konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai subtitusi tepung mocaf. berdasarakan analisis uji friedman menunjukan bahwa tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan dalam sikap konsumen terhadap donat bersubtitusi mocaf. hal ini menggambarkan bahwa konsumen memiliki sikap kesukaan yang sama terhadap donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf, donat yang disubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf dan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu. perhitungan sikap model fishbein menunjukan bahwa konsumen memiliki sikap cukup baik terdapat donat yang diteliti. berdasarkan perhitungan uji friedman dan perhitungan model fishbein menunjukan bahwa sikap konsumen cukup baik dan tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan terhadap donat yang diteliti yaitu donat yang disubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf, donat yang disubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf dan donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu. kesimpulan dan saran kesimpulan 1. sikap konsumen terhadap produk donat menunjukan sikap yang cukup baik. ini dapat dilihat dari total skor sikap konsumen (86,88) dengan kategori sikap cukup baik. 2. diantara keenam atribut donat, atribut rasa dan atribut tekstur memiliki skor sikap tertinggi. ini artinya bahwa kedua atribut tersebut dianggap lebih penting dalam pemilihan produk donat. hal ini dapat dilihat pada skor total sikap konsumen yang menunjukan skor atribut tertinggi berada pada taribut rasa (16,65) dan disusul dengan skor atribut tekstur (15,891). 3. berdasarkan analisis sikap multiatribut fishbein konsumen lebih menyukai produk donat berbahan 100% terigu daripada donat bersubtitusi 30% dan 50% tepung mocaf. hal ini dapat dilihat pada skor total sikap masing-masing donat yaitu donat berbahan 100% tepung terigu memiliki skor (88.88) sedangkan donat berbahan 30% tepung mocaf (86,91) sementara donat bersubtitusi 50% teung mocaf (84,84). 4. berdasarkan analisis sikap multiatribut fishbein konsumen menganggap donat bersubtitusi 30% tepung mocaf lebih disukai dibandingkan dengan donat bersubtitusi 50% tepung mocaf. 5. berdasarkan uji friedman menunjukan bahwa tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan dalam sikap konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai subtitusi tepung mocaf.ini artinya menunjukan bahwa konsumen memiliki sikap kesukaan yang sama terhadap ketiga donat tersebut. saran 1. atribut bentuk pada donat bersubtitusi mocaf baik donat dengan tingkatan subtitusi tepung mocaf 30% atau 50 % mendapatkan nilai skor dibawah rata-rata. hal ini dapat dilihat pada skor atribut dalam kepercayaan dan sikap konsumen, sehingga perlu adanya perbaikan dalam teknis penggorengan yaitu dengan menggunakan alat cetakan yang ukurannya lebih besar namun dengan berat tetap 30gram per donat. 2. berdasarkan uji friedman menunjukan bahwa tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan dalam sikap konsumen terhadap donat dengan berbagai subtitusi tepung mocaf dengan dengan donat 100% berbahan tepung terigu. hal ini diharapkan dapat menjadi informasi dan referensi kepada industri makanan berbahan baku tepung terigu untuk mensubtitusikan bahan baku tepung terigu dengan mocaf. daftar pustaka achmad subagio, wiwik siti w, yuli witono, fikri fahmi.2008. prosedur operasi standar (pos) prosedur mocal berbasis klaster. aptindo.2014.overview industri tepung terigu nasional indonesia.online. http://www.aptindo.or.id/ pdfs/update%20overview%2011%20juli%202014.pdf. diakses 6april 2014 aptindo.2012. impor tepung terigu turun 34,92%. kementrian perindustrian republik indonesia. jakarta. online. http://www.kemenperin.go.id/ 156 jurnal agraris artikel/3199/impor-tepung-terigu-turun-34,92. diakses 4 april 2014 bps. 2013. produksi ubi kayu di indonesia. online. http://bps.go.id/ tnmn_pgn.php?kat=3&id_subyek=53&notab=0.diakses 10 april 2014 dewi suryani.2008. sikap konsumen terhadap produk pangan olahan berlabel perguruan tinggi pertanian (studi eksperimen pada mahasiswa universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta di luar fakultas pertanian).yogyakarta :fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta. dian ayu d, wiwik wahyuni, made wena. 2014. kajaian kadar serat, kalsium, protein, dan sifat organoleptik chiffon cake berbahan mocaf sebagai alternatif pengganti terigu.teknologi dan kejuruan, vol. 37, no. 1. hidayat ms.2012. menperin pastikan stok tepung terigu dan minyak goreng aman. jakarta: kementrian perindustrian republik indonesia.online.http:// www.kemenperin.go.id/artikel/6912/menperinpastikan-stoktepung-terigu-dan-minyak-gorengaman. diakses 4 april 2014. katwang,j. 2012. bisnis tepung mocaf, atasi krisis terigu impor. kompasiana. online. http:// www.kompasiana.com. diakses 3 april 2014 mahatama.e, afrianto, tim komoditi spesialis tepung terigu kementrian perdagangan republik indonesia. 2012.tinjauan pasar tepung terigu. kementrian perdagangan republik indonesia. edisi :04/trg/ tkspp/2012. online.http://ews.kemendag.go.id/ download.aspx?file=4.+terigu+april+2012.pdf&type=publication. diakses 2 april 2014. peter.j.p dan j.c olson.1996. consumer behavior perilaku konsumen dan strategi pemasaran. rahmi yulifianti, erliana ginting, dan joko susilo utomo,2012. t epung kasava modifikasi sebagai bahan subtitusi terigu mendukung diversivikasi pangan.buletin palawija. no. 23 soenarya,s.y. 2000. analisis preferensi konsumen terhadap produk dodol garut (studi kasus pada pd.citra). mb ipb repository.online. http:// repository.mb.ipb.ac.id/1335/1/ r16%2d01b%2dsrie_yuliawaty_soenarya%2dlembar_pengesahan.pdf. diakses 23 november 2014 shiffman, leon.g dan leslie lazar kanuk, 1997, consumer behavior, fifth edition, prentice hall, inc.,new yersey. simanura b. 2004. paduan riset perilaku konsumen. jakarta. pt gramedia pustaka utama. soenarjo, r. 1979. status ubi-ubian di indonesia; prospek penelitian dan pengembangannya. lembaga penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian. bp bimas nfcep. bogor. hlm. 26– 29. subagio a.2007.industrialisasi modified cassava flour (mocaf) sebagai bahan baku industri pangan untuk menunjang diversifikasi pangan pokok nasional. jember : fakultas teknologi pertanian, universitas jember. sumarwan ujang. 2000. analisis sikap multiatribut fishbein terhadap produk biskuit sandwich coklat. media gizi & kaluarga, desember 2000.xxtv(2):7985 utomo, priyo & avenida danni nugroho. 2013. tepung singkong dan hasil olahannya. kementrian pertanian. online. http://cybex.deptan.go.id/. diakses 2 april 2014 winarno, f.g.2004. kimia pangan dan gizi. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 58-72 article history: submitted : april 17th, 2021 revised : april 18th, 2022 march 15th, 2022 accepted : april 27th, 2022 alimudin laapo1,*, asriani hasanuddin2, and andi darmawati tombolotutu3 1 department of agribusiness, agriculture faculty, tadulako university, km.9 soekarno-hatta street, palu city, indonesia 2 department of animal science, faculty of animal husbandry and fisheries, tadulako university, km.9 soekarno-hatta street, palu city, indonesia 3 department of economics, faculty of economic, muhammadiyah university of palu, hangtuah street, palu city, indonesia *) correspondence email: alimudinlaapo@untad.ac.id leverage factors affecting the sustainability of seaweed agroindustry development in central sulawesi, indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11525 abstract there has been a decline in seaweed prices in central sulawesi in the last five years, particularly in the processing and marketing sub-systems. the processing problems have constrained the volume of market demand. in contrast, marketing problems have disturbed the fulfillment of industrial and consumer demand for raw materials, thereby declining economic activity and profit. this research aimed to examine the leverage factors affecting the sustainability of the seaweed agro-industry integrated between sub-systems in central sulawesi province. the collected numerical and non-numerical data were analyzed using the multidimensional scaling approach of the rap-seaweed technique. the results revealed that social conflict, labor absorption, the low value-added of the seaweed processing, and the high cost of raw material procurement caused the unsustainable development of the seaweed agro-industry. therefore, government policies are required to facilitate investment in the seaweed industry, supported by enhancing the quality of transportation infrastructure, the use of local workers, and the security stability of the local area. keywords: multidimensional factors; processing industry; seaweed sustainability introduction the seaweed industry in indonesia is still facing various problems, such as low productivity, low-quality standards of seaweed at the cultivator level, low bargaining power of cultivators against traders and processors, high transportation costs, low level of processing technology, and the issues of creating domestic value-added (nuryartono et al., 2021; sutinah, riniwati, sahidu, & suryani, 2020). fluctuation in fishery commodity prices becomes a phenomenon in production center areas. the problems of commodity price fluctuations are caused by the limited infrastructure for transportation, information, processing industries (hidayat & safitri, 2019), and commodity marketing institutions (nor, gray, caldwell, & stead, 2020). such problems also occur in the province of central sulawesi; seaweed production is the third largest and contributes 90.19% of the total production of marine and coastal aquaculture in indonesia. the data depict that the decline http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:alimudinlaapo@untad.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 59 leverage factors affecting the sustainability ….. (laapo, hasanuddin, and tombolotutu) in seaweed prices at the cultivator level in central sulawesi began in 2014, ranging idr 5,000 – 6,000 per kilogram, and then increased to idr 14,000 per kilogram in 2020 (dinas kelautan dan perikanan, 2021). total seaweed production in this province was 925,339 tons in 2019, lower than the 2018 production of 1,136,458 tons, with seaweed production centers covering banggai islands, morowali and parigi moutong regencies (bps-statistics of sulawesi tengah province, 2020). the infrastructure of seaports and airports in central sulawesi is still limited, being in the category of national scale and not international, resulting in the limited flow and volume of trade in goods. likewise, there is no seaweed processing industry on medium and large scales, except for the food and beverage processing industry on a household scale. the decline in seaweed prices at the cultivator level has also been triggered by the decreasing volume of exports to china, japan, korea and several other importing countries and the relatively low prices set by importing countries (saputro, nuryartono, arifin, & zulbainarni, 2021). the low seaweed prices are due to the goods being sold in raw material and not semi or refined carrageenan (purnomo et al., 2021). the low seaweed prices, especially eucheuma cottonii, have caused a decrease in the motivation of cultivators and seaweed production. the decline in production is also caused by the low quality of seawater around the cultivation area, triggering the development of pests and diseases of seaweed. the low quality of coastal water results from mining activities on land, which during the rainy season, surface water flows bring the soil to the coast and cause turbidity (campbell et al., 2019). these problems indicate that the inhibiting factors for the implementation of seaweed industrialization are caused by multidimensional factors, such as aquaculture environment, cultivation technology (buschmann et al., 2017), distribution channels and logistics, availability of processing industry, institutional support (government and marketing), and the unintegrated activities among seaweed business actors (picaulima, hamid, ngamel, & teniwut, 2016). in other words, increasing the value-added of the seaweed commodity through the development of processing industries is necessary to improve the welfare of seaweed business actors, especially cultivators. the obstacles to the seaweed agribusiness development are the upstream agribusiness sub-system, and cultivators do not obtain superior seeds (eranza, bahron, alin, mahmud, & malusirang, 2017). meanwhile, to develop appropriately, seaweed cultivation requires seeds with a high growth rate and are disease resistant (zamroni, laoubi, & yamao, 2011). in the cultivation sub-system, cultivators do not possess enough knowledge about cultivation methods (alemañ, robledo, & hayashi, 2019), including that of land suitability, cultivation construction, superior seed selection, cultivation techniques, prevention, and control of ice-ice disease, as well as harvest and postharvest methods. apart from that, the cultivators’ bargaining position for supporting subsystem is also weak due to the absence of the processing industry, weak trading, and marketing systems, as well as an unorganized logistics and distribution system causing price fluctuations (muthalib, putra, nuryadi, & afiat, 2017). the lack of integration between sub-systems in the seaweed agribusiness in central sulawesi demonstrates that the industrialization development of this commodity has not http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 60 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research been well planned. due to the decreased production and fluctuations in seaweed prices at the cultivator level, the low production value can affect the sustainability of the seaweed industry and the welfare of businesspeople, especially cultivators (hidayat & safitri, 2019). therefore, the development of the seaweed industry requires integration between upstream, production (on-farm), and downstream sub-systems to enhance the added value of the seaweed commodity (fao, 2018; yong, chin, thien, & yasir, 2014). in order for value-added from seaweed cultivation to be obtained from business actors in the downstream sub-system (processing and marketing) and mutual support between dimensions, studies are highly required to reveal the essential factors in the dimensions of ecological, economic, social, technological and institutional development (mulyati & geldermann, 2017), influencing the sustainability of seaweed industrialization in central sulawesi province with multidimensional scaling (mds) approaches. these essential factors are expected to be the basis for consideration for the government in planning programs and activities for the seaweed industry development. one of the mds approaches aimed at sustainable development is the rapid appraisal for fisheries (rapfish) technique, applied to sustainable management of fisheries resources in five dimensions of ecological, economic, social, technological, and ethical (lam, 2016; pitcher et al., 2013; pitcher & preikshot, 2001). meanwhile, studies on the sustainability of the seaweed processing industry are limited, except for those aimed at the sustainable aspects of seaweed cultivation management (irfan, abdullah, yuliana, samadan, & subur, 2020; marzuki, nurjaya, purbayanto, budiharso, & supriyono, 2014), aspects of seaweed product processing and semi-product processing (han, zhang, ma, & liu, 2012), and seaweed marketing network (fao, 2018). therefore, this study aimed to examine the leverage factors affecting the sustainability of the integrated seaweed agro-industry development between sub-systems and business actors in central sulawesi province. research method the study area included the producing and processing seaweed center regencies in central sulawesi province, comprising banggai islands, morowali, parigi moutong, banggai, and palu city. the research object included all stakeholders in the seaweed industrialization development in this province, such as seaweed cultivators, distributors (traders), product processors, and staff of the provincial and regency marine affairs and fisheries offices to dig up information about the regional seaweed agro-industrial development policies. given the breadth of the research study, the selection of research objects was carried out by purposive sampling by considering the representation of each research object, such as cultivators, traders, processors, industry, and the government. seaweed cultivators were selected to determine the production capacity in the field, represented by 20 cultivators. the selection of cultivator respondents employed a simple random sampling method. other respondents comprised two sample collectors from mepanga district, parigi moutong regency, five micro and small seaweed processing industries from palu city, one marine http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 61 leverage factors affecting the sustainability ….. (laapo, hasanuddin, and tombolotutu) affairs and fisheries office staff of central sulawesi province, and one staff each from the marine affairs and fisheries offices of parigi moutong and banggai regencies. research data were sourced from primary and secondary data, both quantitative (numeric) and qualitative (non-numeric). primary data were sourced from interviews with samples of cultivators and seaweed processors, while secondary data were obtained from the department and literature studies, especially those related to the distribution of results, types of processing industries, and supporting policies from the government. the data collected to answer the research objective were based on five dimensions: seaweed raw material management (stock, distribution, and logistics), economic, social, processing technology, and institutions formed or influenced by several attributes or factors affecting sustainability. some of these factors included the availability and price of seaweed industrial raw materials, technology types, the availability and price of production inputs for processing, warehousing and distribution, market availability, information on the price of processed products, industry and marketing actors, and the institutional role by the government in program implementation. the method used to analyze crucial factors influencing the sustainability of seaweed agro-industry development in central sulawesi province was the rapid appraisal for fisheries (rapfish) technique (kavanagh & pitcher, 2004; pitcher & preikshot, 2001). the use of the rapfish technique was modified in such a way that the attributes in each dimension were adjusted to attributes that conceptually and empirically could affect the sustainability of the seaweed processing industry. modification of the rapfish technique for the development of seaweed agro-industry was termed rap-seaweed. the dimensions used in the study of the sustainability of the development of the seaweed agro-industry were adapted from picaulima et al., (2016), consisting of the dimensions of raw material management (natural resources), economy, social, technology, ethics (lam, 2016) and institutions (irfan et al., 2020), derived into several levels of sustainability. the analysis stages in the rap-seaweed technique as proposed by (kavanagh & pitcher, 2004) were as follows: 1. determination of the leverage factors of each dimension was based on literature studies or the results of previous research for coastal resource management criteria (stelzenmüller et al., 2013), as well as logistics and processing. meanwhile, the attributes of each dimension were determined by selecting two to three attributes with a high level of importance (leverage). 2. scoring all factors in the categories of “bad”, “good”, and “intermediate”. the scoring of each attribute applied an ordinal measurement scale (de afus, 2022), divided into four categories: a score of 3 mean very good; 2 was indicate good; 1 was signify bad; and 0 imply very bad. 3. ordination of rap-seaweed included: (a) rating the main horizontal reference points for the “bad” category (0% score) and the “good” category (100% score), (b) determining other main reference points, namely the “midpoint”, and a vertical reference point or referred to as an “anchor” useful for stabilizers, (c) standardizing scores on each attribute http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 62 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research to have uniform weights to eliminate differences in measurement scale, and (d) calculating the distance between reference points using the euclidean distance square method (seuclied). 4. estimating the sustainability index of seaweed agro-industry development in the range of 0% 100% and dividing it into four categories of sustainability status. the four categories of sustainability status were poor or unsustainable (0 -25.0%), less sustainable (25.01 50.0%), moderately sustainable (50.1 75.0%), and good or sustainable categories (75.1 100.0%). 5. analysis of sensitivity was carried out to determine which factors were dominant in influencing changes in the sustainability index of seaweed agro-industry development. the sensitivity strength of each factor can be seen from the “root mean square” (rms) value on the x-axis. in simple terms, rms can be formulated as follows: rms=√∑ (vfi-vai) 2 n n i=1 (1) vai was the actual data value, vfi was the forecast value, and n showed the number of the attribute. 6. the scoring validity and the accuracy measurement of the rap-seaweed analysis results utilized three test tools: (1) based on the value of the standardized residual sum of the square (stress) calculated using the following formula (pitcher & preikshot, 2001): 𝑆tress=√ 1 m ∑ [ ∑ ∑ (dijk 2 -oijk 2 ) 2 ji ∑ ∑ oijk 4 ji ]mk=1 (2) where dijk was the squared distance; oijk was the origin point in dimensions (i, j, k); and m showed the number of dimensions. it is valid and accurate if the “stress” value is less than 0.20; (2) the coefficient of determination (r2) is above 50.00%; and (3) the results of the monte carlo ordinance are good if obtaining a narrow interval value. the results of the rap-seaweed analysis disclosed a “stress” value of 0.14 (stress<20%), a coefficient of determination (r2) of 95.28% (>50%), and the results of the monte carlo ordinance acquired almost the same value for both parameters, namely 47.79% for scatter, and 47.75% for scatter plots. thus, the scoring and results of the rapfish ordinance have met the statistical requirements of the leverage attribute built and implemented for further policies in the seaweed agro-industry development in central sulawesi province. result and discussions determination of the factors and scoring the results of scoring the attributes of each dimension of seaweed agro-industry development are exhibited in table 1. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 63 leverage factors affecting the sustainability ….. (laapo, hasanuddin, and tombolotutu) table 1. determination of the factors per dimension and scoring dimensions and factors existing data factor score dimension of raw material management production and adequacy of raw materials central sulawesi province ranks third for seaweed producers in indonesia 3 distribution and continuity raw materials the sea highway distribution is relatively smooth 2 environmentally friendly processing the industry is still on a household scale with a clear sop 1 economic dimension raw materials procurement cost the cost of procurement of raw materials is 75% of the total cost 1 value-added per unit type of processing limited atc chip processing and generally food processing 1 social dimension status and frequency of conflict around industrial sites frequency of conflict at industrial sites: twice in the last five years 2 absorption of labor around industrial locations employment of 1-2 people per home industry (10 20%) 1 technological dimension differentiation of processed products types of processed seaweed products: food, tortilla, and atc chip 1 research and development (r&d) ability to create new products two products are resulting from r&d in the last five years, namely seaweed flour and src-rc 1 institutional dimension agro-industry development program policies there are warehouses/depots and processing industries with warehouse receipt systems available 3 basic infrastructure development policies access to roads, electricity, telecommunications, and clean water 2 according to the statistical data on aquaculture listed in table 1, central sulawesi had become the third-largest seaweed-producing province in indonesia, thus having a score of 3. the availability of the coastal water area suitable for seaweed cultivation in parigi moutong regency (three districts) was 61,615 ha. the level of utilization of coastal water for seaweed cultivation merely reached 12.06 percent (7,429.49 ha). meanwhile, the use of seawater to support the availability of raw materials was 6,200 ha in banggai regency (in pagimana, west toili, and bualemo districts), and 670 ha in poso regency, specifically in poso pesisir. however, the distribution of cultivation products to industrial locations and marketing to java took longer, up to 1-2 weeks, thus obtaining a score of 2. the processing of seaweed products was on a household industrial scale with clear standard operating procedures (sop). regarding the economic dimension, the cost factor for the procurement of raw materials dominated the structure of processing production costs in the household industry. being on a household industrial scale, the value-added was also low. on the other hand, the seaweed cultivation business implied that it was feasible to serve as an economic source for coastal communities. it is related to the general seaweed harvest being relatively short (40-45 days), low in production costs, and technically easy to cultivate. the source of seaweed seeds and institutional strengthening of cultivator groups comes from the assistance of the indonesian government, resulting in a significant increase in yield. however, the decline and fluctuations in prices at the exporter level, due to the relatively long chain of seaweed commodity marketing in this region, where the marketing actors involved cultivators, village-level collectors, district collectors, district traders, wholesalers, and exporters, would lead to the low feasibility effort at the cultivator level. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 64 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research price conditions, where the purchase price of dried seaweed by collectors has fluctuated in the range of idr 6,000 13,500 per kg in the last five years, currently has reached idr 15,000 18,000 per kg. the price of the seaweed commodity can increase if the marketing chain is shorter or only involves cultivators and exporters or the processing industry as the final marketing agency (muthalib et al., 2017). in short, an increase in the value of profit at the processing industry level can provide a high multiplier effect in cultivation financial feasibility. regarding the social dimension, the status and frequency of conflict were relatively low. however, the labor absorption rate was still low at the processing industry level than at the cultivation level, which tended to be high because it involved family and outside workers (ginigaddara, lankapura, rupasena, & bandara, 2018; laapo & howara, 2016). the absorption of labor in the seaweed industry was extremely limited, considering the scale of the existing processing industry still being a home industry. seaweed processing training programs for home industries have also been carried out. however, limited consumers have caused the production capacity also to be limited. from the cultivators’ point of view, the increase in productivity and quality of seaweed is obtained from long experience in cultivation activities, as well as the introduction of technology from outside parties to change their mindset and skills (hussin, yasir, kunjuraman, & hossin, 2015). from the perspective of the technological dimension, the development of seaweed research and development by universities and other research and development institutions in central sulawesi province was limited in its types and applications to entrepreneurs, merely research on carrageenan content, making biscuits from seaweed flour and making fish feed (nuryartono et al., 2021). the quality factor of seaweed seeds could affect the quality of seaweed and processed seaweed. generally, cultivators used local seeds, while superior seeds could only be obtained from government program assistance. the limited micro, small and medium scale seaweed processing industries in the downstream sub-system have caused limited product diversification and value-added. on the other hand, from the government policy perspective, infrastructure such as electricity, telecommunications and water resources, transportation, licensing policies, and a special economic zone (sez) for the location of infrastructure development for the agricultural and fishery processing industry in palu city have been provided. however, in the last five years, fluctuations in production and pollution of the marine environment, extreme climate changes, earthquakes, declining prices for the seaweed commodity, the influence of global markets, and the covid-19 pandemic had caused delays in investment for processing industries, and some seaweed cultivators left this business for other works such as mining workers. sustainability of seaweed agro-industry the results of the rap-seaweed technique on the sustainability status of seaweed agroindustry development in central sulawesi province are displayed in figure 1. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 65 leverage factors affecting the sustainability ….. (laapo, hasanuddin, and tombolotutu) figure 1. sustainability index of seaweed agro-industry development figure 1 displays the sustainability index value of seaweed agro-industry development in central sulawesi province reaching 47.92%, indicating a less sustainable category. in other words, the implementation of the seaweed industrialization program has not been optimal. the economic and technological dimensions had an insufficient level of achievement (obtaining an average score of 1). the achievement of raw material and social management dimensions was in the moderate category, while the institutional dimension provided better achievement for supporting the improvement of the sustainability status or sustainable category. the development of the program was not only production-oriented but was also accompanied by the preparation of infrastructure and regulations for the seaweed processing industry, such as energy availability, optimizing the utilization of existing industrial areas and complicated investment licensing processes. several essential attributes influencing the sustainability index of the seaweed industry development in central sulawesi province are depicted in the following figure. figure 2 depicts one dominant factor influencing the sustainability of agro-industry development—the status and frequency of social conflict, a factor in the social dimension requiring serious attention from the government and all parties who play a role in maintaining regional security stability. the declined interest in investment in central sulawesi could be caused by a historical conflict in one regency affecting other areas. in addition to the social conflict factor, labor absorption has been a vital factor as well. it is related to the involvement of the surrounding community, which will be able to enhance employment and the community’s goodbad up down-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 o th e r d is ti n g u is h in g f e a tu r e s seaweed agro-industry status rapfish ordination real fisheries reference anchors anchors http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 66 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research economy to reduce social conflict between the community and agro-industry companies. it was in line with (fao, 2018), stating that the seaweed industry, through factory construction and the use of technology and innovation, was required to improve the regional and national economy by producing competitive and commercialized products in the international market. however, the labor absorption will be greater if followed by the growth of micro (household) and small-scale seaweed processing businesses by producing several products that consumers can consume directly. in order to increase the absorption of labor in this industry, both micro and small-scale businesses, it is necessary to increase the skills of local workers, especially female workers (swanepoel et al., 2020). it was supported by other leverage factors, such as the need to differentiate processed seaweed products or increase value-added through improved manufacturing (sarkar et al., 2017) to enhance industrial scale and employment. figure 2. leverage factors for the sustainability of the seaweed agro-industry in terms of the economic dimension, the factor of increasing value-added from processing has affected the sustainability of the seaweed agro industry. this condition requires efficient processing technology that can diversify the resulting products. on the technical side, increasing value-added requires the quality of seeds to improve the quality of processed carrageenan (yong et al., 2014), processed products and food safety. the lack of processing industry, the weak bargaining position of aquaculture in trade, as well as an irregular logistics and distribution system have led to fluctuations of seaweed prices (van den burg, dagevos, & helmes, 2021), especially with the large number of speculators appearing during the over production (marzuki et al., 2014; megyesi, kelemen, & schermer, 2011; voulgaris & lemonakis, 2013). diversification of processed seaweed products is 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 67 leverage factors affecting the sustainability ….. (laapo, hasanuddin, and tombolotutu) aimed at increasing added value in order to reduce the impact of fluctuations in seaweed commodity prices at the farmer level (rimmer et al., 2021). other research findings on the leverage factors of the institutional dimension indicate that the seaweed agro-industry development policy programmed by the local government requires consistency in its implementation to provide logistics infrastructure, transportation, and ease of investment. meanwhile, the leverage factor related to the high cost of procuring raw materials was caused by the long market distribution chain pattern from cultivators to processors. it greatly affected the bargaining position of the products produced by cultivators, resulting in an unaccepted added value of the products by cultivators (purnomo, subaryono, utomo, & paul, 2020). the five crucial factors above are mutually supportive, related to each other and can affect the sustainability status of the seaweed agro industry. other factors affecting the low sustainability of seaweed agro-industry development are market uncertainty and seaweed export policies, generally in raw materials causing the low commodity prices (muthalib et al., 2017). it has implications for increasing the government’s role in facilitating the market supply of processed seaweed products through investment cooperation (partnerships) between cultivators and medium and large-scale processing industries (laapo & howara, 2016). institutional roles in the seaweed industry were necessary both at the level of cultivators and processing industries. the role of the cultivator group through the group leader is to facilitate, motivate and mobilize its members to increase productivity and commodity marketing to help them become price takers in the market. on the other hand, social and communication relationships are formed as non-formal bonds between community members and providers of capital and as a container for seaweed harvests, commonly referred to as social capital(megyesi et al., 2011). furthermore, increasing knowledge and skills of seaweed processing for local communities requires collaboration with research institutions and the development of appropriate technology (blankenhorn, 2007; ginigaddara et al., 2018). it agrees with picaulima et al., (2016), stating that human resource development is required through formal and informal education programs directly associated with household-scale processing and processed products to help build business sustainability by avoiding nepotism and collusion. simultaneously, the government should accelerate the preparation of basic infrastructure such as electricity, transportation infrastructure improvements, industrial estates complete with facilities and infrastructure to support increased production (van den burg et al., 2021), ease of doing business regulations, and maintain regional security stability. in sustainable development, it is necessary to strengthen cooperation between the government as a facilitator, industrial workers, local communities, especially seaweed cultivators to monitor processing industry activities that will have an environmental impact in agro-industrial areas (picaulima et al., 2016). the sustainability of a production system, especially in the processing of agricultural products, according to (brissaud, frein, & rocchi, 2013), rests on three things: (1) production systems through the use of technological http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 68 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research innovations (research) to produce high added-value products; (2) linkages between subsystems in the production system; and (3) collaboration of actors, either directly or indirectly in the production system. while to rebours et al., (2014), collaboration between stakeholders in the seaweed industry throughout the project area is needed in all aspects related to seaweed production, research, ecosystem services, management of artisanal and small-scale aquaculture; traditional markets, and alternative economic sources. conclusion the essential leverage factors of the sustainable status of the seaweed agro-industry were security disturbances. the security disturbance caused social conflict between communities around industrial estates and household micro-scale seaweed processing businesses. increasing labor absorption from communities around the processing business was one of the measures to alleviate these issues. moreover, it was necessary to enhance distribution and transportation technology to reduce the cost of procuring raw materials and increase the value-added of products. government policy is immensely required to support preparing logistics, transportation infrastructure and easy investment in seaweed processing factories and small industries. acknowledgments: the authors thank bank indonesia makassar for holding a call for paper competition with the theme down streaming of agricultural products in the sulampua region (sulawesi, maluku, papua), and this paper was awarded as one of the five best papers. author contributions: al: conceptualized the idea, analyzed the data and discussed the results, reviewed the manuscript, and addressed the reviewer's comments, ah: data collection and analysis of results on the dimensions of raw material management and technology, and wrote and edited the manuscript, adt: data collection and analysis of results on social and economic dimensions, and wrote and edited the manuscript. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest reference alemañ, a. e., robledo, d., & hayashi, l. 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(2013). productivity and efficiency in the agri-food production industry: the case of fisheries in greece. procedia technology, 8, 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2013.11.067 yong, w. t. l., chin, j. y. y., thien, v. y., & yasir, s. (2014). evaluation of growth rate and semi-refined carrageenan properties of tissue-cultured kappaphycus alvarezii (rhodophyta, gigartinales). phycological research, 62(4), 316–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/pre.12067 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 72 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research zamroni, a., laoubi, k., & yamao, m. (2011). the development of seaweed farming as a sustainable coastal management method in indonesia: an opportunities and constraints assessment. wit transactions on ecology and the environment, 150, 505–516. https://doi.org/10.2495/sdp110421 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& sutrisno program studi agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta trizumy@yahoo.com predisposisi partisipasi masyarakat dalam perencanaan kampung wisata (studi kasus kampung wisata santan) abstract this study aimed to analyze predisposition (readiness), especially understanding and attitudes towards the tourist village program and to analyze community participation in the declaration and plan of participation in the program tourist village. the experiment was conducted in the village (kampung) santan village guwosari, pajangan bantul. respondents are determined by the census. the results showed general cognitive understanding people’s understanding of the tourist village, the knowledge of the planning and launching of kampung dusun santan as tourism is still largely lacking (only know a little bit). this is due to the constraints of socialization and domination of the village leaders in planning the tourist village less evenly involve villagers. once people get the socialization though still very limited, affective response was very positive and support the tourist village. they hoped that kampung santan be more advanced and increased economy. public participation in the tourist village program showed improved symptoms, ranging from participation since the planning, at the time of the declaration and the time after the launching. forms of participation can be seen from the amount of involvement of communities themselves and plan the most desirable programs. tourism village program were most interested in the community is the provision of infrastructure, because the program is expected to bring direct benefits to the community. it is recommended that the socialization and solidarity of citizens needs to be improved so that participation can be improved. keywords: predisposition, response, participation, tourist village. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis predisposisi (kesiapan), terutama pemahaman dan sikap masyarakat terhadap program kampung wisata, serta menganalisis partisipasi masyarakat dalam pencanangan dan rencana partisipasi dalam program kampung wisata. penelitian dilaksanakan di dusun (kampung) santan, desa guwosari, pajangan kabupaten bantul. responden ditentukan secara sensus. hasil penelitian menunjukkan, secara umum pemahaman kognitif masyarakat terhadap pengertian kampung wisata, pengetahuan akan perencanaan dan pencanangan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata masih kurang (hanya tahu sedikit). hal ini disebabkan terdapatnya kendala sosialisasi dan dominasi para tokoh kampung dalam perencanaan kampung wisata yang kurang melibatkan warga kampung secara merata. setelah masyarakat mendapatkan sosialisasi meskipun masih sangat terbatas, respon afektifnya sangat positif dan mendukung program kampung wisata. masyarakat berharap agar kampung santan bisa lebih maju dan meningkat perekonomiannya. partisipasi masyarakat dalam program kampung user typewriter doi: 10.18196/agr.2124 user typewriter user typewriter 37 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 wisata menunjukkan gejala yang meningkat, mulai dari partisipasi dalam perencanaan, pada saat pencanangan, dan pada saat pasca pencanangan. program kampung wisata yang paling diminati masyarakat adalah penyediaan sarana prasarana, karena program ini diharapkan mendatangkan keuntungan langsung pada masyarakat. pemerataan sosialisasi dan kekompakan warga perlu diupayakan agar partisipasi dapat ditingkatkan. kata kunci: predisposisi, respon, partisipasi, kampung wisata. pendahuluan dusun santan, merupakan salah satu pedusunan yang terletak di pusat desa guwosari, kecamatan pajangan, kabupaten bantul, propinsi diy; yang berjarak kurang lebih 6 km dari pusat kabupaten dan sekitar 25 km dari pusat propinsi diy. dusun dengan luas wilayah sekitar 14, 2115 ha, terdiri atas tanah pekarangan (10,1960 ha), tanah tegalan (10,905), tanah sawah (2,2115 ha) dan tanah wakaf (0,7135 ha); berbatasan dengan dusun karangber di sebelah utara, dusun wijirejo di sebelah selatan, dusun kalakijo di sebelah barat dan dusun gilangharjo di sebelah timur. penduduk dusun santan berjumlah 516 jiwa, yang terdiri atas 270 orang laki-laki dan 246 orang perempuan; terbagi dalam 138 kk, yang tersebar di 4 (empat) rt. pendidikan masyarakat di dusun santan relatif bagus, pada tahun 2013 terdapat 192 orang lulusan sd, 87 orang smp, 132 orang sma, 22 orang pt dan 83 orang tidak atau belum tamat sd. mata pencaharian penduduk terbanyak petani, disusul buruh dan wiraswasta. jenis ternak yang dominan dipelihara masyarakat dusun santan, antara lain sapi (11 ekor), kambing (42 ekor) dan ayam buras (sumber: kepala dusun santan). kerajinan tempurung kelapa, merupakan salah satu usaha kerajinan yang saat ini dikembangkan masyarakat di kampung santan. bermula dari satu rumah tangga yang merintis usaha kerajinan tempurung pada tahun 1992, sekarang terdapat 10 rumah tangga yang mengandalkan mata pencahariannya dari kerajinan tempurung kelapa (bathok). dimulai dari perdagangan yang hanya bersifat lokal, pada tahun 1995 salah satu pengrajin, yaitu ukm cumplung aji, melakukan terobosan ekspor ke beberapa negara yaitu jepang, timurtengah, perancis dan malaysia, meskipun masih menggunakan jasa trader internasional. banyaknya pembeli (buyer) dari dalam maupun dari luar negeri yang datang langsung ke dusun santan untuk membeli produk kerajinan tempurung telah menjadikan kampung santan terlihat ramai. ramainya orang yang datang ini telah memancing kesadaran warga untuk memanfaatkan monentum kunjungan tamu dengan menyediakan beberapa fasilitas seperti warung makan, penginapan dan fasilitas lain. kondisi ini menggugah keinginan warga untuk menjadikan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata berbasis kerajinan tempurung. bertepatan dengan kunjungan bapak fadel muhammad (menteri perikanan dan kelautan tahun 2010) muncullah gagasan untuk mensosialisasikan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata. pencanangan kampung wisata (soft lounching) baru dilakukan pada 29 mei 2011 dengan memanfaatkan media internet oleh pemda kabupaten bantul (dinas pariwisata). perbincangan tentang kampung wisata melanda seluruh elemen masyarakat baik di dusun santan, dusun sekitar bahkan meluas lewat media masa. kampung wisata santan mendapat respon yang sangat beragam. hal ini terlihat jelas adanya perbedaan partisipasi masyarakat mulai dari pencanangan sampai pasca pencanangan sebagai kampung wisata. apakah variasi partisipasi ini terjadi karena perbedaan pemahaman (persepsi) dan sikap berbagai elemen masyarakat tentang kampung wisata? secara teoritis pemahaman, persepsi dan sikap merupakan predisposisi seseorang sebelum melakukan tindakan partisipasi. perbedaan pemahaman dan sikap ini akan menimbulkan perbedaan perilaku (partisipasi) masyarakat dalam merespon gagasan pengembangan kampung wisata. tidak jarang perbedaan ini menimbulkan gagalnya komunikasi sosial terutama dalam pengelolaan sehingga merugikan pengembangan kampung wisata. oleh karena itu, kajian tentang predisisposisi atau kesiapan masyarakat menjadi penting dalam merencanakan kampung wisata. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis predisposisi (kesiapan) terutama pemahaman dan sikap masyarakat terhadap program kampung wisata serta menganalisis partisipasi masyarakat dalam pencanangan dan perencanaan program kampung wisata. jika gambaran predisposisi masyarakat dapat diketahui baik menyangkut pemahaman, persepsi dan sikap; maka perilaku masyarakat, dalam hal ini partisipasi masyarakat, dapat diarahkan pada tujuan program kampung wisata dengan cara memodifikasi berbagai faktor yang masih kurang dipahami atau dipersepsi dan disikapi secara negatif oleh masyarakat. jika perilaku masyarakat dapat 38 jurnal agraris diarahkan, maka perencanaan kampung wisata akan menjadi lebih mudah untuk mencapai tujuan yang diharapkan. meskipun penelitian ini merupakan studi kasus, namun hasilnya diharapkan dapat menjadi referensi pengembangan kampung atau desa wisata, mengingat di kabupaten bantul saja terdapat sekitar 26 desa wisata dengan tingkat perkembangan yang sangat bervariasi. secara keilmuan hasil penelitian diharapkan ini akan memperkaya wacana dan ilmu pengetahuan, khususnya tentang perencanaan dan manajemen pariwisata pedesaan atau kampung memiliki peluang yang besar jika dikembangkan menjadi obyek wisata, karena menjanjikan brand image yang berbeda. dimasa yang akan datang branding wisata akan lebih kompleks, setelah branding tempat menjadi mudah tergantikan dan sulit dibedakan (pike, 2005). pengembangan wisata pedesaan (rural tourism) sudah sejak lama menjadi topik kajian, termasuk di amerika (gartner, 2004) desa wisata adalah suatu wilayah yang menawarkan suasana keaslian pedesaan, baik dari segi sosial budaya, adat istiadat, arsitektur tradisional, serta mempunyai potensi kerajinan yang dapat dikembangkan menjadi sebuah tujuan pariwisata. desa wisata merupakan pengembangan suatu wilayah dengan memanfaatkan unsur–unsur yang ada dalam masyarakat desa yang berfungsi sebagai atribut produk wisata, menjadi suatu rangkaian aktivitas pariwisata yang terpadu dan memiliki tema. di dalam desa tersebut juga mampu menyediakan dan memenuhi serangkaian kebutuhan suatu perjalanan wisata, baik dari aspek daya tarik maupun berbagai fasilitas pendukungnya (nugroho, 2011) untuk menjadi tujuan wisata dan dapat menarik untuk dikunjungi oleh wisatawan, suatu daerah harus memiliki 3 syarat. pertama, suatu daerah harus mempunyai “something to see”, artinya di tempat tersebut harus ada objek wisata dan atraksi wisata yang berbeda dengan yang dimiliki daerah lain, yang menjadi daya tarik khusus. kedua, di daerah tersebut harus tersedia “something to do”, artinya di samping banyak yang dapat dilihat, harus pula disediakan fasilitas rekreasi yang dapat membuat wisatawan betah tinggal lebih lama di tempat itu. ketiga, di daerah tersebut harus ada “something to buy”, artinya di tempat itu harus ada fasilitas untuk dapat berbelanja, terutama souvenir kerajinan suatu daerah bisa menjadi objek pariwisata karena daerah tersebut mempunyai atraksi wisata, di mana dalam atraksi tersebut mempunyai beberapa aspek historis, aspek nilai, aspek keaslian, dan aspek handicraft. pasal 29 bab iv undang–undang no. 9 tahun 1990 tentang kepariwisataan menyebutkan bahwa kawasan pariwisata merupakan suatu usaha yang kegiatannya membangun atau mengelola kawasan dengan luas tertentu untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pariwisata. kampung wisata harus didesain mengarah pada sustainable tourism sehingga perlu direncanakan sebaikbaiknya dengan melibatkan masyarakat. menurut lansing dan de vries (2007) kampung wisata adalah konsep pariwisata berkelanjutan (sustainable tourism). konsep ini diklaim sebagai konsep baru yang mampu mengatasi persoalan pengembangan wisata secara konvensional. ada tiga hal penting dalam konsep kampung wisata, pertama pemanfaatan sumber daya lingkungan secara optimal dengan menjaga proses-proses ekologi utama dan memelihara warisan alam serta biodiversitasnya; kedua menghargai aspek sosial budaya masyarakat asli dan wisatawan; dan ketiga dalam jangka panjang menjamin kemudahan penyediaan manfaat sosial ekonomi bagi masyarakat (welford dan yttrhus, 2004; lansing dan de vries, 2007). wisata berbasis pedesaan sesuai dengan konsep community base tourism yang juga merupakan salah satu model sustainable tourism (blackstok, 2005). tourism adalah kegiatan besar dan bersifat global, sehingga diperlukan perencanaan yang spesifik. perencana harus mengumpulkan banyak pengalaman dalam pendekatan metode perencanaan. penelitian yang berkelanjutan dan percobaan dibutuhkan khususnya untuk menentukan bentuk optimum dari pengembangan yang dilakukan (inskeep, 1988). perencanaan tourism juga bisa dilakukan dengan pendekatan 4 a yaitu : attractions, actors, actions dan atmospheres (echtner, 2002). inskeep (1988) juga menyatakan bahwa komponen penting dalam proses perencanaan wisata antara lain: i) sajian dan aktivitas wisata; ii) fasilitas akomodasi dan pelayanan, fasilitas pendukung seperti biro tour & travel, rumah makan, fasilitas kesehatan, keamanan, pos, bank dan money changer, fasilitas transportasi, infrastruktur pendukung seperti penyediaan air, telekomunikasi dan sumber energi (daya listrik); iii) kelembagaan pemasaran, pendidikan dan pelatihan, kebijakan dan peraturan pemerintah, serta kebijakan dan bentuk investasi, baik pemerintah maupun swasta. dalam implementasi perencanaan model diperlukan monitoring dan evaluasi untuk perbaikan perencanaan. evaluasi dapat dilakukan dengan studi kelayakan yang memuat analisis tentang masalah yang mungkin terjadi 39 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 jika suatu perencanaan dijalankan dan kemungkinan untuk mengatasinya secara efektif. menurut warnell (1986) dalam damanik & weber (2006), studi kelayakan dilakukan untuk mengevaluasi kondisi nyata suatu produk atau jasa, mengevaluasi peluang pengembangannya, mengevaluasi peluang penciptaan produk dan jasa baru dan mengeidentifikasi penyandang dana yang potensial untuk suatu proyek. menurut steck (1999) dalam damanik & weber (2006), studi kelayakan kampung wisata dapat diarahkan untuk menjawab pertanyaan: tujuan apa dan kepentingan siapa yang harus dicapai dalam proyek dan pelaku kampung wisata? kelayakan menunjuk pada kepatutan secara ekonomi, sosial, budaya dan teknologi? apakah kondisi lingkungan, sosial dan budaya lokal benar-benar mampu mendukung pengembangan kampung wisata? apakah kondisi dasar sosial, politik dan kelembagaan setempat cukup kuat sehingga memungkinkan keuntungan kampung wisata dapat digunakan atau dinikmati oleh kelompok sasaran? undang-undang no. 25 tahun 2000 tentang program perencanaan nasional pariwisata mengamanatkan bahwa pariwisata diharapkan turut mempercepat pemulihan ekonomi nasional dan memulihkan citra indonesia di dunia internasional. namun, penugasan ini semakin sulit akibat terjadinya tragedi 11 september 2001 di amerika serikat dan ancaman terorisme. subsektor pariwisata diharapkan dapat menggerakan ekonomi rakyat, karena dianggap sektor yang paling siap dari segi fasilitas, sarana dan prasarana dibandingkan dengan sektor usaha lainnya. harapan ini dikembangkan dalam suatu strategi pemberdayaan masyarakat melalui pengembangan pariwisata yang berbasis kerakyatan atau community-based tourism development. prospek pariwisata ke depan memberikan peluang besar, terutama apabila menyimak angka-angka perkiraan jumlah wisatawan internasional (inbound tourism) berdasarkan perkiraan wto yakni 1,046 milyar orang pada tahun 2010 dan 1,602 milyar orang pada tahun 2020, masing-masing 231 juta dan 438 juta orang berada di kawasan asia timur dan pasifik. angka ini mampu menciptakan pendapatan dunia sebesar usd 2 triliun pada tahun 2020. berdasarkan angka perkiraan tersebut maka, para pelaku pariwisata indonesia perlu melakukan perencanaan yang matang dan terarah untuk menangkap peluang tersebut. diperlukan “re-positioning” pariwisata indonesia mulai dari pembuatan produk pariwisata, investasi, promosi, jaringan pemasaran internasional, dan penyiapan sumber daya manusia yang berkualitas. disamping jumlah wisman yang makin meningkat, saat ini telah terjadi perubahan consumers-behaviour pattern atau pola konsumsi dari para wisatawan. pergeseran ini terjadi dari wisata yang hanya bersantai (plesure), ke jenis wisata santai sambil menikmati produk atau kreasi budaya (culture) dan peninggalan sejarah (heritage) serta nature atau keindahan alam dari suatu daerah atau negara. perubahan pola wisata ini perlu disikapi oleh masyarakat dengan berbagai strategi pengembangan produk pariwisata. pemerintah daerah perlu melakukan perubahan skala prioritas kebijakan, sehingga peran masyarakat dan swasta lebih optimal. sejak bulan juli 2000, bank dunia melontarkan gagasan menanggulangi masalah kemiskinan melalui sektor pariwisata yang kemudian dikenal dengan community-based tourism (cbt). tiga kegiatan pariwisata yang dapat mendukung konsep cbt yakni adventure travel, cultural travel dan ecotourism. yang perlu mendapatkan perhatian khusus dalam konsep cbt adalah wisatawan domestik (wisnus). obyek-obyek wisata yang sering dan padat dikunjungi oleh wisnus akan memperoleh manfaat lebih besar. makin banyak wisnus berkunjung, makin terkenal obyek wisata tersebut dan pada akhirnya merupakan promosi untuk menarik datangnya wisman (santosa, 2002). metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kampung santan desa guwosari kecamatan pajangan kabupaten bantul. tahapan pertama dilakukan survei pendahuluan berdasarkan data atau informasi dasar. studi ekspolarasi dilakukan untuk penentuan lokasi dan penentuan responden penelitian. lokasi penelitian ditentukan secara sengaja dengan pertimbangan kampung tersebut akan dijadikan wilayah dampingan dalam program pemberdayaan masyaraka oleh pihak umy melalui program desa mitra yang akan dilaksanakan mulai tahun 2013 – 2017. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif ekploratif yang dilakukan dengan metode survei. penelitian dilakukan secara sensus terhadap kepala keluarga dengan pertimbangan bahwa kepala keluarga masih memiliki peran sentral dalam menentukan tindakan anggota keluarganya baik menyangkut kepentingan individu maupun kepetingan sosial kemasyarakatan. jumlah responden dalam penelitian ini adalah 137 orang, dengan sebaran 30 orang di rt 01, 35 40 jurnal agraris orang di rt 02, 35 orang di rt 03, dan 27 orang di rt 04. pengambilan data primer dilakukan dengan wawancara (interview) menggunakan kuisioner atau panduan pertanyaan. data primer yang diambil meliputi data tentang profil responden, pemahaman, sikap dan partisipasi responden terhadap program kampung wisata di lokasi penelitian. pengukuran data kualitatif dilakukan dengan metode skor yang kemudian dianalisis dengan bantuan tabel silang dan distribusi frekuensi yang dianalisis secara deskriptif. untuk melakukan konfirmasi atas data yang telah dikumpulkan dan untuk memantapkan kesimpulan dilakukan diskusi terfokus (fgd). hasil fgd akan menjadi dasar perencanaan program kampung wisata. secara skematis tahapan dan kerangka berpikir penelitian dapat dilihat pada bagan berikut. gambar 1. tahapan penelitian dan kerangka berpikir penelitian predisposisi partisipasi dalam perencanaan kampung wisata hasil dan pembahasan predisposisi partisipasi masyarakat terhadap pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan dianalisis dari pengetahuan (pemahaman kognitif) dan sikap afektif; sedangkan partisipasi dilihat dari keikutsertaan masyarakat dalam perencanaan dan pelaksanaan pencanangan desa wisata, serta bentuk-bentuk program yang diminati dalam pengelolaan kampung wisata. pengetahuan atau pemahaman (sikap kognitif) masyarakat tentang kampung wisata sikap kognitif berupa pengetahuan atau pemahaman masyarakat tentang kampung wisata dusun santan, secara umum masih kurang. dari tabel 1 dapat dicermati bahwa hampir separuh masyarakat hanya tahu sedikit bahkan tidak tahu sama sekali adanya musyawarah perencanaan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata (45%) maupun diresmikannya kampung wisata santan pada tahun 2010 (50%). berdasarkan tabel 1 diketahui bahwa 52 persen masyarakat dusun santan hanya tahu sedikit mengenai apa yang dimaksud dengan kampung wisata, 29 persen tahu sebagian besar, dan 10 persen tidak tahu sama sekali; sedangkan yang tahu secara lengkap hanya 9 persen. hal tersebut menandakan bahwa sebagian besar warga masih belum mengerti arti dari kampung wisata. masyarakat yang tahu secara lengkap (13 orang) arti dari kampung wisata adalah para tokoh penggagas kampung wisata, baik tokoh formal maupu tokoh non formal. jika dilihat lebih jauh lagi, dari 13 orang yang tahu secara mendetil arti kampung wisata, 9 orang diantaranya berdomisili di rt 03 yang menjadi pusat informasi dan kegiatan kampung wisata di dusun santan. hal ini berarti, masyarakat yang tinggal di dekat pusat kegiatan dapat menangkap informasi lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan warga yang tinggal atau berdomisili dengan jarak lebih jauh. sebagian besar masyarakat (44%) hanya tahu sedikit mengenai perencanaan pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan; sedangkan yang mengetahui secara lengkap hanya 11 persen. hal tersebut menggambarkan bahwa sebagian besar masyarakat dusun santan masih kurang informasi mengenai adanya musyawarah pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan. sebagian besar (8 orang) warga yang mengetahui secara lengkap mengenai adanya musyawarah pencanangan kampung wisata santan berada di rt 03, yaitu para pengrajin bathok kelapa yang menjadi pelopor gagasan berdirinya kampung wisata. pada awalnya, ide menjadikan dusun santan memang datang dari para pengrajin bathok kelapa yang kebanyakan tinggal di rt 03 dusun santan. sebanyak 36 persen masyarakat dusun santan mengetahui banyak tentang peresmian dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata, sedangkan 35 persen masyarakat mengetahui sedikit tentang adanya peresmian tersebut. hal ini menunjukkan masih banyak masyarakat dusun santan yang memperoleh sedikit informasi tentang adanya peresmian kampung wisata santan. jumlah terbanyak warga yang mengetahui secara lengkap mengenai peresmian kampung wisata santan berada di rt 03, yaitu 12 orang. hal ini terjadi karena pusat 41 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 tabel 1. distribusi frekuensi perolehan skor berdasarkan sikap kognitif keterangan skor: a. tahu secara lengkap b. tahu sebagian besar c. tahu sedikit d. tidah tahu sama sekali tabel 2. distribusi frekuensi perolehan skor berdasarkan sikap afektif keterangan skor: a. sangat senang / mendukung b. senang / mendukung c. kurang senang / mendukung d. tidak senang / setuju sama sekali 42 jurnal agraris kegiatan pencanangan kampung wisata berada di rt 03, informasi bersumber dari rt 03 kemudian menyebar ke rt yang lain. pencangan kampung wisata pada akhirnya diambil alih oleh pengurus kampung, sehingga melibatkan banyak elemen masyarakat mulai dari pengurus kampung, para pengrajin bathok, ibu-ibu pkk, kelompok kesenian dan lain sebagainya. yang disayangkan masih banyak masyarakat yang hanya tahu secara sekilas atau sedikit tentang pencanangan santan sebagai kampung wisata, yaitu anggota masyarakat yang kurang aktif, terutama yang jarak tempat tinggalnya cukup jauh dari pusat kegiatan peresmian tersebut. berdasarkan ketiga indikator sikap kognitif tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa informasi mengenai kampung wisata belum menyebar secara merata, yang dapat dilihat dari sebagian besar masyarakat dusun santan yang kurang tahu tentang kampung wisata, pencanangan kampung wisata sampai peresmian kampung wisata santan. warga yang mengetahui secara lengkap mengenai kampung wisata santan adalah para tokoh masyarakat atau mereka yang berdomisili di lokasi pusat informasi atau pusat kegiatan kampung wisata. masyarakat yang tinggal di lokasi lebih jauh memiliki informasi yang lebih sedikit dibandingkan dengan masyarakat yang berasal dari wilayah pusat informasi. sikap afektif masyarakat terhadap pencanangan kampung wisata sifat afektif dalam penelitian ini adalah perasaan atau emosi masyarakat terhadap pencanangan kampung wisata santan. walaupun masyarakat kurang mendapat informasi tentang pencanangan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata, hampir semua masyarakat (100%) mendukung bahkan sangat mendukung diresmikannya kampung wisata santan (tabel 2). berdasarkan tabel 2 terlihat bahwa 62 persen masyarakat setuju dengan pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan, sedangkan 36 persen yang lain sangat setuju, dan hanya 1 persen yang kurang setuju dan tidak setuju terhadap pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan. sebagian besar masyarakat dusun santan setuju dengan pencanangan kampung wisata santan, karena masyarakat berharap pencanangan kampung wisata akan memberikan dampak yang positif bagi warga dusun santan. masyarakat berharap dusun santan akan lebih maju dan mengangkat perekonomian masyarakat setempat. akan tetapi diantara banyaknya masyarakat yang setuju, tetap terdapat satu dua orang yang tidak setuju terhadap pencanangan kampung wisata santan. warga yang tidak setuju memiliki persepsi bahwa dengan menjadi kampung wisata, dusun santan akan menjadi ramai dan kurang bersih. masyarakat yang tidak setuju kebanyakan adalah pemuka agama yang merasa takut akan terjadi pergaulan bebas jika dusun santan menjadi kampung wisata. tabel 2 menunjukkan bahwa 70 persen masyarakat dusun santan senang dengan diresmikankanya dusun santan menjadi kampung wisata, bahkan ada 29 persen merasa sangat senang dengan pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan; sedangkan yang kurang senang hanya 1 persen saja. tidak ada satupun warga yang menolak atau tidak senang dengan adanya pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan. meskipun berdasarkan eksplorasi sebelumnya banyak warga yang belum tahu tentang pengertian kampung wisata, tetapi setelah mendapatkan gambaran pemahaman yang cukup, mereka setuju dan merasa sangat senang dengan pencanangan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata. masyarakat merasa senang karena dengan menjadi kampung wisata, dusun santan menjadi lebih maju dan masyarakatnya menjadi lebih produktif. hanya satu orang yang merasa kurang senang, yaitu salah satu warga rt 01 dengan alasan bahwa masyarakat dusun santan dianggap masih kurang kompak sehingga belum siap untuk dijadikan kampung wisata. dari tabel 2 dapat dilihat 68 persen masyarakat dusun santan setuju mengenai perlunya perencanaan kampung wisata yang sebaik-baiknya, sisanya 32 persen sangat setuju dengan hal tersebut. dengan kata lain warga dusun santan setuju dan tidak ada yang kurang setuju atau tidak setuju dengan perlunya perencanaan kampung wisata yang sebaik-baiknya. masyarakat dusun santan memiliki keinginan untuk membangun kampung wisata yang berhasil sehingga program-programnya pun harus direncanakan dengan sebaik-baiknya agar terkonsep dan tersusun dengan rapi. selain dari pada itu masyarakat ingin agar pendapat masyarakat dusun santan dapat ditampung dan didiskusikan dengan baik agar menghasilkan program-program berkualitas sesuai dengan keinginan dan kebutuhan masyarakat. tabel 2 menunjukan bahwa 100 persen warga mendukung pogram kampung wisata. masyarakat dusun santan memberikan dukungan terhadap program kampung wisata demi kemajuan kampung wisata santan, masyarakat juga bangga bahwa lokasinya telah 43 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 mengalami kemajuan dengan menjadi sebuah kampung wisata. masyarakat berharap jika kampung wisata santan maju, maka usaha masyarakatnya pun akan ikut maju sehingga perekonomian masyarakat setempat akan naik. berdasarkan keempat komponen sikap afektif masyarakat dusun santan mengenai pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar warga senang dan setuju terhadap dicanangkannya dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata. masyarakat merasa bahwa daerahnya berubah menjadi lebih baik setelah dusun santan diresmikan menjadi kampung wisata, baik dilihat dari segi ekonomi maupun sosial. pasca tragedi gempa bumi besar yang melanda kabupaten bantul pada tahun 2006 banyak masyarakat yang terpuruk dan menjadi malas bekerja, hal tersebut berangsur menjadi lebih baik setelah dusun santan dicanangkan menjadi kampong wisata. masyarakat santan cenderung menjadi lebih semangat bekerja dan aktif dalam berbagai kegiatan sosial. masyarakat dusun santan juga memikirkan akan keberhasilan kampung wisata di daerahnya, hal tersebut terbukti dengan banyaknya masyarakat yang setuju dengan perlunya perencanaan kampung wisata dusun santan yang sebaikbaiknya. partisipasi masyarakat partisipasi dalam penelitian ini adalah kecenderungan tindakan atau keterlibatan masyarakat dalam pencanangan kampung wisata. walaupun tidak banyak masyarakat yang terlibat secara penuh dalam pencanangan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata, namun nampak adanya peningkatan keterlibatan seiring berjalannya program. jika pada kegiatan perencanaan kurang dari 10% warga yang terlibat penuh, pada acara peresmian warga yang terlibat penuh meningkat menjadi 14%, dan menjadi 20% setelah program berjalan (tabel 3). tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar (36,7%) masyarakat tidak terlibat dalam musyawarah kampung wisata dusun santan, 25 persen masyarakat terlibat sedikit dalam musyawarah. hanya 9,6 persen warga yang secara penuh dan yang terlibat sebagian besar hanya 28,7%. sebagian besar ketidak ikut sertaan masyarakat dusun santan disebabkan karena sikap kognitif masyarakat yang rendah, masyarakat tidak tahu mengenai adanyanya musyawarah kampung wisata, sehingga masyarakat banyak yang tidak terlibat karena merasa tidak tabel 3. distribusi frekuensi partisipasi masyarakat dusun santan keterangan skor: a. terlibat secara penuh; b. terlibat sebagian besar; c. terlibat sebagian kecil; d. tidak terlibat 44 jurnal agraris diundang dalam musyawarah. sebagian yang lain mengetahui adanya musyawarah kampung wisata, tetapi memiliki kegiatan lain yang harus dilakukan sehingga tidak dapat turut andil dalam kegiatan musyawarah. masyarakat yang paling banyak terlibat dalam musyawarah adalah masyarakat yang berasal dari rt 03. hal tersebut disebabkan karena rt 03 adalah pusat informasi dan kegiatan, sehingga sikap kognitif masyarakat rt 03 cenderung lebih tinggi dari rt yang lain, yang akhirnya berdampak pada keterlibatan dalam musyawarah kampung wisata. masyarakat rt 04 banyak yang tidak terlibat dalam musyawarah karena lokasinya yang paling jauh dari pusat informasi dan kegiatan. keterlibatan warga dalam peresmian kampung wisata dusun santan berdasarkan tabel 3 menunjukan bahwa 31 persen masyarakat tidak terlibat dalam peresmian kampung wisata, 28 persen hanya mengikuti sebagian kecil, sedangkan yang terlibat sebagian besar hanya 27 persen dan yang terlibat secara penuh hanya 14 persen saja. j ika dilihat dari tabel distribusi frekuensi partisipasi masyarakat, maka akan terlihat bahwa masyarakat rt 03 mendominasi masyarakat yang terlibat dalam peresmian. hal tersebut karena lokasi rt 03 menjadi pusat informasi dan kegiatan, sehingga masyarakat yang berada di rt 03 memiliki informasi lebih banyak mengenai acara peresmian kampung wisata. masyarakat yang memiliki lokasi rumah lebih jauh akan lebih sedikit menerima informasi dan lebih segan untuk datang dibandingkan dengan masyarakat yang memiliki rumah dekat dengan lokasi informasi dan kegiatan. tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa 37 persen masyarakat terlibat sebagian besar, sedangkan 30 persen masyarakat hanya terlibat sebagian kecil, kemudian 22 persen terlibat secara penuh dan 11 persen tidak terlibat sama sekali pada program kampung wisata setelah pencanangan. berdasarkan dari ketiga komponen dapat disimpulkan bahwa masyarakat dusun santan kurang terlibat dalam pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan, baik ketika musyawarah untuk pencanangan maupun ketika peresmian kampung wisata itu sendiri. meskipun demikian, setelah program kampung wisata telah dilaksanakan masyarakat cukup banyak yang terlibat sebagian besar, begitu pula yang terlibat secara lengkap juga terbilang cukup banyak. hanya sedikit masyarakat yang tidak terlibat sama sekali. pemahaman kampung wisata yang kurang dapat menyebabkan masyarakat menjadi takut dan berpikiran buruk, sehingga banyak masyarakat yang tidak senang atau tidak setuju terhadap program kampung wisata. akan tetapi setelah program telah berjalan masyarakat mulai merasakan manfaat dari kampung wisata, sehingga masyarakat yang tadinya tidak senang atau tidak setuju dengan kampung wisata menjadi senang dan turut berpartisipasi. tabel 4. distribusi frekuensi program kampung wisata yang paling diminati tabel 4 menjelaskan bahwa 41 persen masyarakat lebih berminat berpartisipasi pada sarana wisata. partisipasi dalam sarana wisata tersebut meliputi pengadaan homestay bagi para pengunjung wisata. kemudian minat yang selanjutnya adalah kerajinan yang tidak lain adalah kerajinan bathok kelapa yaitu sebesar 22 persen, disusul dengan kuliner 16 persen dan pertanian 7 persen. banyaknya peminat terhadap sarana wisata dikarenakan masyarakat dapat memanfaatkan rumah pribadinya sebagai homestay, disaat ada pengunjung yang menginap di kampung wisata santan, sehingga dapat dijadikan sebagai pemasukan tambahan bagi keluarga di samping pekerjaan utama. masyarakat yang memilih kerajinan bathok kelapa adalah para perajin bathok kelapa, karena memang pekerjaan itulah yang menjadi pekerjaan pokok masyarakat tersebut. presentase minat yang paling kecil adalah terhadap pertanian, hal tersebut dikarenakan masyarakat yang masih menjadi petani murni memang sudah tidak banyak. harapan masyarakat harapan masyarakat pada penelitian ini adalah sesuatu yang ingin dicapai oleh masyarakat dengan adanya pencanangan kampung wisata. dalam hal ini harapan masyarakat dikelompokan menjadi tiga yang digambarkan dalam sebuah diagram ven (gambar 2). 45 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 masyarakat memiliki harapan bahwa dengan peresmian kampung wisata akan menimbulkan manfaat bagi penduduk dusun santan. berdasarkan data yang tertera pada gambar 2 dapat dilihat berbagai macam variasi pendapat masyarakat mengenai sumber keuntungan yang akan didapat dari pengunjung kampung wisata dusun santan. sebagian besar (63%) masyarakat memiliki harapan bahwa setiap orang yang datang untuk menikmati keindahan, kerajinan bathok, dan kebudayaan, akan menginap satu malam. sementara 23 persen masyarakat lainnya memiliki harapan, bahwa setiap orang yang datang untuk menikmati keindahan, kerajinan, dan kebudayaan kemudian pulang. terdapat 14 persen warga yang memiliki harapan, bahwa setiap orang yang datang hanya menikmati keindahan alam dan lokasi wisata kemudian langsung pulang. gambar 2. diagram ven persentase harapan warga terhadap pengunjung kampung wisata santan keterangan : a. orang datang menikmati keindahan alam dan lokasi wisata kemudian langsung pulang b. orang datang menikmati keindahan alam, kerajinan bathok, dan kebudayaan kemudian pulang c. orang datang menikmati keindahan, kerajinan bathok, dan kebudayaan dengan menginap 1 malam kemudian pulang d. orang datang menikmati keindahan alam, kerajinan bathok,kebudayaan dan kalau bisa terlibat dalam kegiatan masyarakat yang khas (unik) menginap lebih dari 1 malam merujuk kepada gambar 3, sebagian besar (73%) masyarakat mengatakan bahwa tarif biaya berwisata ke dusun santan perlu dilakukan, sedangkan 27 persen yang lain mengatakan tidak perlu menetapkan tarif biaya berwisata. dengan adanya pencanangan kampung wisata santan masyarakat tetap menginginkan timbal balik dari usaha yang telah dilakukan, pendapatan yang didapatkan dari kampung wisata diharapkan dapat kembali kepada masyarakat dusun santan. gambar 3. pendapat warga berkaitan dengan tarif berwisata ke kampung wisata santan gambar 4. harapan masyarakat tentang hak pendapatan kampung wisata gambar 4 menunjukkan bahwa 71 persen masyarakat memiliki harapan bahwa hasil dari pendapatan kampung wisata adalah untuk kas warga, 16 persen yang lain berpendapat hasil dari kampung wisata sebaiknya untuk warga yang terlibat saja, sedangkan 10 persen masyarakat yang lain lagi mengatakan bahwa hasil dari kampung wisata adalah untuk pengelola. berdasarkan hasil penelitian tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa masyarakat menginginkan keuntungan dari kampung wisata digunakan untuk kesejahteraan masyarakat dusun santan sendiri guna memperbaiki infrastruktur yang nantinya akan digunakan oleh warga setempat. hubungan faktor lingkungan fisik, sosial dan respon masyarakat dalam penelitian ini diteliti juga bagaimana hubungan faktor lingkungan fisik dan faktor lingkungan sosial terhadap respon masyarakat dusun santan. faktor lingkungan fisik dilihat dari jarak domisili rumah masyarakat dengan lokasi pusat kegiatan dan informasi. 46 jurnal agraris pusat kegiatan terletak pada rt 03, sehingga rumah warga yang berada di rt 03 memiliki jarak paling dekat dengan pusat informasi dan kegiatan. lokasi rt 03 berada di antara rt 01dan rt 02 sehingga lokasi yang paling jauh adalah rt 04. hubungan faktor lingkungan fisik terhadap respon masyarakat dusun santan dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. berdasarkan tabel 5 terlihat berbagai macam variasi jumlah skor respon sesuai dengan rumah warga berdasarkan rukun tetangga (rt). jumlah rata-rata sikap kognitif berkisar antara 1 sampai dengan 4, begitu pula dengan sikap afektif dan partisipasi. berdasarkan jumlah rata-rata skor respon, diperoleh total respon yang terdiri dari jumlah skor sikap kognitif, afektif, dan partisipasi. jumlah total skor respon masyarakat yang tertinggi terdapat pada rt 03, yaitu berjumlah 8,7; diikuti dengan jumlah skor respon rt 01 berjumlah 7,8; kemudian jumlah skor respon rt 02 berjumlah 7,4; dan yang terakhir sekaligus yang terjauh adalah jumlah respon rt 04 yaitu berjumlah 7,3. berdasarkan data tersebut, dilakukan pula analisis korelasi rank spearman untuk mengetahui korelasi antara faktor lingkungan fisik dan respon masyarakat. hasil korelasi dapat dilihat pada tabel 6. tabel 6. korelasi pengaruh faktor lingkungan fisik dan respon masyarakat dusun * correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). hasil korelasi menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan (korelasi) antara jarak domisili warga dengan respon masyarakat dalam hal ini sikap kognitif, afektif dan partisipasi. korelasi antara jarak domisili warga dengan sikap kognitif adalah negatif, demikian juga korelasi antara jarak domisili warga dengan sikap afektif dan partisipasinya. secara parsial dapat dinyatakan bahwa korelasi jarak domisili warga dengan sikap kognitif menunjukan nilai koefisien korelasi -0,200. artinya bahwa makin jauh jarak (skor semakin besar) maka sikap kognitifnya semakin rendah atau sebaliknya. dalam hal ini makin jauh jarak domisili warga dengan pusat kegiatan kampung wisata maka pengetahuan warga terhadap kampung wisata semakin rendah atau semakin kecil. hasil yang kedua menyatakan bahwa korelasi jarak domisili warga dengan sikap afektif menunjukan nilai koefisien korelasi -0,224. artinya bahwa makin jauh jarak (skor semakin besar) maka sikap afektif semakin rendah atau sebaliknya. dalam hal ini makin jauh jarak domisili warga dengan pusat kegiatan kampung wisata maka perasaan senang atau persetujuan warga terhadap warga terhadap kampung wisata semakin rendah atau semakin kecil. hasil analisis data yang ketiga menyatakan bahwa ada hubungan yang rendah antara jarak dengan partisipasi. hasil uji korelasi menunjukan nilai koefisien korelasi -0,299. berdasarkan hasil analisis korelasi tersebut menunjukkan terdapat hubungan negatif yang signifikan antara jarak dan partisipasi. berdasarkan penelitian yang telah dilakukan dapat disimpulkan bahwa jarak antara rumah warga dengan pusat informasi dan kegiatan desa wisata memiliki hubungan yang signifikan dengan arah korelasi negatif dengan keseluruhan respon masyarakat terhadap pencanangan kampung wisata dusun santan. keseluruhan respon yang dimaksud adalah sikap kognitif, afektif dan partisipasi. berdasarkan arah korelasi yang tabel 5. hubungan faktor lingkungan fisik dan respon masyarakat dusun santan 47 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 negatif dapat dijelaskan bahwa semakin dekat rumah warga dengan pusat informasi dan kegiatan kampung wisata maka sikap kognitif, sikap afektif dan partisipasi warga semakin tinggi. hal ini disebabkan karena masyarakat pedesaan masih menggunakan model komunikasi interpersonal, dalam model ini masyarakat memperoleh informasi secara langsung dari sumbernya dengan cara melihat, mendengar, atau merasakan sendiri secara lansung kejadian atau peristiwa yang menjadi pesan komunikasi. informasi yang didapat akan mempengaruhi pengetahuannya kemudian pengetahuan akan mempengaruhi sikap dan pada akhirnya akan mempengaruhi tindakan dalam hal ini adalah partisipasi. berbagai informasi yang kemungkinan didapat oleh warga berupa berbagai hal, mulai dari pengetahuan mengenai definisi kampung wisata, pengetahuan mengenai perencanaan pencanangan kampung wisata, pengetahuan mengenai peresmian kampung wisata sampai dengan informasi tentang program-program kampung wisata. meskipun sosialisasi telah dilakukan terhadap seluruh warga melalui pertemuan-pertemuan, namun mayoritas warga akan lebih memahami, merasakan dan timbul motivasi untuk berpartisipasi jika warga mengetahui atau mendapatkan informasi secara langsung. pengetahuan yang diperoleh masyarakat berdampak pada sikap afektif dan partisipasi masyarakat. semakin besar informasi yang diperoleh masyarakat, maka menimbulkan perasaan senang dan persetujuan yang semakin besar pula didalam diri para warga kampung dusun santan. masyarakat yang memahami makna kampung wisata akan mengetahui manfaat-manfaat yang akan ditimbulkan dengan adanya pencanangan kampung wisata. masyarakat akan memiliki pemikiran yang semakin maju seiring dengan adanya program kampung wisata dan memiliki keinginan untuk memperbaiki ekonomi keluarganya kearah yang semakin baik dari sebelumnya. pemikiran tersebut akhirnya memancing masyarakat untuk berpartisipasi dalam program kampung wisata santan. pada penelitian ini faktor lingkungan sosial dapat dilihat dari kekompakan masyarakat berdasarkan pandangan para tokoh dengan partisipasi pada kenyataannya. lokasi yang dinilai paling kompak adalah rt 03, kemudian diikuti oleh rt 01, rt 02, dan yang terakhir adalah rt 04. faktor lingkungan sosial dapat digambarkan pada tabel 7. berdasarkan tabel 7 terlihat jumlah skor respon sesuai dengan kekompakan masyarakat di tingkat rt menurut penilaian para tokoh. jumlah rata-rata sikap kognitif berkisar antara 1 sampai dengan 4, begitu pula dengan sikap afektif dan partisipasi. semakin mendekati tabel 7. pengaruh faktor lingkungan sosial terhadap respon masyarakat dusun santan tabel 8. hasil korelasi faktor lingkungan sosial dan respon masyarakat * terdapat korelasi lemah tapi pasti 48 jurnal agraris angka 1 maka respon yang ditunjukan semakin kecil, begitu pula sebaliknya, semakin mendekati angka 4 maka semakin tinggi respon yang ditunjukan. total respon adalah jumlah dari rata-rata skor sikap kognitif, sikap afektif dan partisipasi. jika ditarik kesimpulan secara garis besar berdasarkan tabel di atas, lokasi yang dinilai memiliki kekompakan paling tinggi adalah rt 03 memiliki total jumlah skor respon yang paling tinggi juga yaitu 8,7; kemudian diikuti oleh lokasi yang dinilai paling kompak selanjutnya rt 01 yaitu sebesar 7,8; dilanjutkan oleh rt 02 yaitu sebesar 7,4 dan yang terakhir rt 01 dengan penilaian kekompakan paling rendah yaitu 7,3. hasil korelasi menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan (korelasi) antara kekompakan warga dengan respon masyarakat dalam hal ini sikap kognitif, afektif dan partisipasi. korelasi antara kekompakan warga dengan sikap kognitif adalah positif, demikian juga korelasi antara kekompakan warga dengan sikap afektif dan partisipasinya. secara parsial dapat dinyatakan bahwa korelasi kekompakan warga dengan sikap kognitif menunjukan nilai koefisien korelasi 0,239 artinya bahwa semakin kompak (skor semakin besar) maka sikap kognitifnya semakin tinggi atau sebaliknya. dalam hal ini semakin kompak warga dalam sebuah rt maka pengetahuan warga terhadap kampung wisata semakin tinggi. hasil yang kedua menyatakan bahwa korelasi kekompakan warga dengan sikap afektif menunjukan nilai koefisien korelasi 0,215 bernilai positif. artinya bahwa semakin kompak (skor semakin besar) maka sikap afektifnya semakin tinggi atau sebaliknya. dalam hal ini semakin kompak warga dalam sebuah rt maka perasaan senang atau persetujuan warga terhadap kampung wisata semakin tinggi. hasil analisis data yang ketiga menyatakan bahwa ada hubungan yang rendah antara kekompakan warga dengan partisipasi. hasil uji korelasi menunjukkan nilai koefisien korelasi 0,257. hasil analisis korelasi tersebut menunjukkan terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan antara kekompakan warga dan partisipasi. berdasarkan analisis tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa kekompakan masyarakat dapat mempengaruhi penyebaran informasi diantara masyarakat dusun santan. lokasi yang dinilai memiliki kekompakan lebih tinggi di bandingkan lokasi lain memungkinkan masyarakatnya lebih sering bertemu dan bertegur sapa sehingga informasi akan lebih cepat menyebar luas. masyarakat pedesaan cenderung masih menggunakan sistem komunikasi interpersonal saja, sehingga informasi yang didapat adalah dengan cara saling bertemu dan berbicara secara langsung. pengetahuan dan pemahaman masyarakat yang kompak akan kampung wisata akan lebih matang dibandingkan dengan lokasi yang kurang kompak. dengan adanya kekompakan maka akan timbul kebersamaan, sehingga dengan adanya kebersamaan yang terjalin dapat menimbulkan rasa senang di kalangan masyarakat. masyarakat yang lebih kompak akan senang terhadap program dan agenda kampung wisata dusun santan dibanding dengan masyarakat yang kurang kompak. jika rasa senang dan persetujuan telah muncul, maka masyarakat akan lebih mudah untuk berpartisipasi tanpa adanya paksaan. rasa senang dan rasa segan yang muncul diantara individu akan mendorong masyarakan untuk lebih aktif dan simpati diantara sesama, selain dari pada itu rasa nyaman terhadap sesama akan menimbulkan sikap tenggang rasa dan toleransi diantara satu warga dengan warga yang lainnya. kesimpulan predisposisi atau kesiapan masyarakat dalam perencanaan kampung wisata ditunjukkan oleh pemahaman, sikap dan partisipasi masyarakat mulai dari perencanaan (persiapan), pencanangan (peresmian) maupun pasca pencanangan kampung wisata. secara umum pemahaman kognitif masyarakat terhadap pengertian kampung wisata, pengetahuan akan perencanaan dan pencanangan dusun santan sebagai kampung wisata sebagian besar masih kurang (hanya tahu sedikit). hal ini karena kendala sosialisasi dan dominasi para tokoh kampung dalam perencanaan kampung wisata yang kurang melibatkan warga kampung secara merata. sikap afektif masyarakat terhadap pencanangan kampung wisata santan menunjukkan kecenderungan persetujuan, rasa senang dan mendukung. setelah masyarakat mendapatkan sosialisasi meskipun masih sangat terbatas, respon afektifnya sangat positif dan mendukung program kampung wisata. masyarakat berharap agar dusun santan bisa lebih maju dan meningkat perekonomiannya. partisipasi masyarakat pada program kampung wisata menunjukkan gejala yang meningkat, mulai dari partisipasi sejak perencanaan, pada saat pencanangan dan pada saat pasca pencanangan. bentuk partisipasi dapat dilihat dari jumlah keterlibatan diri masyarakat dan rencana program yang paling diminati. program kampung wisata yang paling diminati masyarakat adalah 49 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 penyediaan sarana prasarana, karena program ini diharapkan mendatangkan keuntungan langsung pada pelaksana. terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara domisili dan kekompakan warga dengan respon masyarakat terhadap program kampung wisata. sosialisasi tentang program kampung wisata perlu terus dilakukan misalnya dengan penyebaran brosur, menempel pamflet atau secara langsung dalam forum-forum pertemuan masyarakat seperti pertemuan rt, atau pertemuan ibu pkk. peningkatan volume sosialisasi diyakini dapat meningkatkan pemahaman, sikap dan partisipasi masyarakat dalam program kampung wisata. predisiposisi (kesiapan) masyarakat dalam perencanaan kampung wisata menunjukan gejala yang positif dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai modal sosial masyarakat dalam perencanaan program kampung wisata dusun santan dimasa yang akan datang. kekompakan warga perlu ditingkatkan, terutama peningkatan peran para tokoh dalam mendorong partisipasi warga, misalnya dalam bentuk gerakan gotong royong. daftar pustaka awang, s.a.; h. santoso; w.t. widayati; y. nugroho; kustomo; sapardiono. 2001. gurat hutan rakyat di kapur selatan. yogyakarta: debut press. blackstock, k. 2005. a critical look at community base tourism. community development journal 40(1): 39 – 49. echtner, c. m. 2002. the content of the third world tourism marketing: a 4a approach. international journal of tourism research 4: 413-434. damanik, j. & h. f. weber. 2006. perencanaan kampung wisata: dari teori ke aplikasi. yogyakarta: pusat studi pariwisata dan penerbit andi. gartner, w. c. 2004. rural tourism development in the usa. international journal of tourism research 6: 151 – 164. lansing, p., and p. de vries. 2007. sustainable tourism: ethical alternative or marketing ploy?. journal of business ethics 72:77-85. nugroho, i. (2011). ekowisata dan pembangunan berkelanjutan. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. pike, s. 2005. tourism destination branding complexity. the journal of product and brand management 14(4): 258 – 259. pinel, d. p. 1998. create a good fit: a communitybased tourism planning model. pinel & association research & planning, canada. santosa, s. p. 2002. pengembangan pariwisata indonesia. www.google.com. diunduh pada tanggal 20 mei 2009. simon, h. 1999. pengelolaan hutan bersama rakyat (cooperative forest management). teori dan aplikasi pada hutan jati di jawa. yogyakarta: bigraf publishing. welford, r. dan b. ytterhus. 2004. suistainable development and tourism destination management: a case study of the lillahammer region, norwey. international journal of sustainable development and world ecology, 11:410 – 422. retno wulandari program studi agribisnis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta wulandari_fp@yahoo.com information needs and source information of agricultural extension workers in diy abstract one of the important factors that contribute to agricultural development is information. as such agricultural extension workers that link agricultural agencies to the farmers must have adequate and up-to-date information about agricultural practices before they could inform, educate and train the farmers in method and techniques of farming. this study aims to determine the types of information needed by agricultural extension workers; to determine the sources of information used by the agricultural extension workers; and to determine the comparison between types of information with information sources used by agricultural extension workers. the present study was a descriptive study using a survey design and conducted at daerah istimewa yogyakarta (diy) province. the populations of the study consists 181 agricultural extension workers divisible in the district level, namely sleman, kulon progo, gunung kidul dan bantul. sampling procedure in this study used cluster sampling. the method for gathering data from the respondents is based on a structured questionnaire. descriptive statistics was to describe the characteristics of the respondents and the dependent variables of the study. as a result, most of agricultural extension workers strongly needed the innovation information in seeking information followed by extension service information and extension role information. the result of information sources used by agricultural extension worker for extension service information, innovation information and extension role information indicates that agricultural extension workers used interpersonal source. most of them never sought information use internet, they use radio more frequently than television and video, agricultural extension worker also used mass media as information source. keywords: information need, information source, agricultural extension worker. intisari salah satu faktor penting yang berkontribusi terhadap pembangunan pertanian adalah informasi. sebagai penyuluh pertanian yang menghubungkan lembaga pertanian kepada para petani harus memiliki informasi yang memadai dan up-to-date tentang praktek-praktek pertanian sebelum mereka menyampaikan, mendidik dan melatih para petani dalam metode dan teknik pertanian. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui jenis-jenis informasi yang dibutuhkan oleh penyuluh pertanian; untuk menentukan sumber informasi yang digunakan oleh penyuluh pertanian; dan untuk menentukan perbandingan antara jenis informasi dengan sumber informasi yang digunakan oleh penyuluh pertanian. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif dengan menggunakan desain survei dan dilakukan di daerah istimewa yogyakarta doi:10.18196/agr.1212 86 jurnal agraris (diy). populasi penelitian terdiri 181 penyuluh pertanian dibagi di tingkat kabupaten, yakni sleman, kulon progo, gunung kidul dan bantul. prosedur pengambilan sampel yang digunakan yaitu cluster sampling. metode untuk mengumpulkan data dari responden berdasarkan kuesioner terstruktur. statistik deskriptif digunakan untuk menggambarkan karakteristik responden dan variabel penelitian. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar penyuluh pertanian sangat membutuhkan informasi tentang inovasi dalam mencari informasi yang diikuti oleh informasi tentang pelaksanaan tugas penyuluh dan informasi tentang sistem penyuluhan pertanian. sumber informasi yang digunakan oleh penyuluh pertanian untuk informasi tentang inovasi, informasi tentang pelaksanaan tugas penyuluh dan informasi tentang sistem penyuluhan pertanian, menunjukkan bahwa penyuluh pertanian digunakan sumber informasi interpersonal. sebagian besar dari mereka tidak pernah mencari informasi penggunaan internet, radio lebih sering digunakan daripada televisi dan video. penyuluh pertanian juga menggunakan media massa sebagai sumber informasi. kata kunci: kebutuhan informasi, sumber informasi, penyuluh pertanian. introduction efficacy of agricultural development is determined by the ability of human resources in managing agricultural system using scientific method and new technology. therefore, to improve the agricultural human resources, especially farmers, requires reaching them through education, training and agricultural extension (suryantini, 2003). the role of extension can also be seen from the diffusion of inxnovation view (rogers, 1995). according to this view, the role of the change agent is to diffuse innovations to the clients, in what might seem to be a one-way persuasion process. but for this change process to be effective, the change agents must provide the linkage with the clients’ needs and problems to the change agency. this information is crucial in determining which innovations are most appropriate for diffusion to the clients. in short, according to the diffusion of innovation’s view, one of the main roles of the change agents is to facilitate the flow of innovations from the change agency to the clients. for this type of communication to be effective, the innovations must be selected to match the clients’ needs and problems. according to rivera (2001), agricultural extension receives relevant information from the agricultural education system and feeds-back field observations to this system. extension is also professionally linked to the agricultural vocational and higher education systems in the sense that these systems also produce the agents who work in extension. the relationship between agricultural extension and agricultural research is even closer, because the knowledge that agricultural extension transfers is usually generated by agricultural research through applied and adaptive agricultural research development. according to van den ban and hawkins (1996), extension organizations obtain the information from agriculture research, agriculture policy, and also psychological and social research. this information used by extension organization to be taught to extension agent what to be told to farmer on the chance of that the message will bring the change in management of farming system. according to mawardi (2004), farmers still need agricultural extension activities. small-scale agriculture is still weak in many aspects, whereas the challenges faced are increasingly demanding; these farmers need extension activities which should be more intensive, sustainable and well directed. in indonesia, the existences of extension policy and services have significant contribution to various programs of agriculture development. extension agents have the special duty to conduct the technological development and disseminations result of study and also produce the extension materials. iskak (2005) found that almost 63 percent of the potato farmer studied, never received information from agricultural extension agents. meanwhile, more than 32 percent of the respondents stated that they occasionally received information from agricultural extension agents, even though, only 5 percent of the respondents obtained information from agricultural extension agents very frequently. these indicated that agricultural extension worker is still needed by farmers to increase the agricultural information and to assist farmers to solve their problems. according to sulaiman (2002), the implementation of decentralization policy in early 2001 has resulted in several fundamental changes in the organizational structure and management of government institutions dealing with agricultural innovation transfer. these changes have increased the ineffectiveness of extension organization and personnel. the implementation of decentralization policy has affected the number, position 87 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 and the workplace of extension personnel, especially at the district level. the integration of extension function into agricultural services among a variety of agencies with similar role and function at provincial, district and field levels in this decentralization era, weakened the extension role and function. according to mawardi (2004), starting in 2001, with the implementation of regional autonomy, authority over agricultural extension was delegated to the regional governments. the delegation of this authority was expected to boost the performance of agricultural extension. instead, the performance of agriculture extension has generally tended to deteriorate as well as showing signs of a loss of direction. the obstacles faced by agricultural extension in the regional autonomy era, include: (1) differences in opinion between regional governments and the members of local assemblies in understanding agricultural extension and its role in agriculture development. (2) the limited budget allocations for agricultural extension activities from the regional governments. (3) the availability and support from agriculture information (technology, market prices, farming opportunities, etc.) provided by the bpps (rural extension center) are very limited. (4) the continuing decline in the capacity and managerial capability of the workers. as a consequence, the extension activities are rarely carried out. according to setyorini et al. (2006), in their study involving 118 agriculture extension workers studied in bogor district, west java, indonesia, all of them never accessed the information through internet, 20.34% never go to the library, and 64.4% never go to the university. these indicate that the extension agents seldom visit the institute outside their job environment to obtain the information or consult experts to solve the problems faced in supporting their duty. this matter will affect the quality of extension workers, such that they cannot give the information needed by farmers and do not assist farmers to solve their problems. agricultural information can be obtained from interpersonal sources, print media, electronic media (rogers, 1960; giles and stansfield, 1990; weiss, van crowder, and bernardi, 2000), and organizational meeting (suvedi, campo, and lapinski, 1999). harun (2001) and irawan et al. (2001) found that extension agents, as well as, agricultural extension workers are major interpersonal source of information relating to farming system. however, they often provided out-of-date technical information to the farmers. extension workers did not provide useful assistance needed to solve farmers’ problems. as a result, the farmers were mostly dissatisfied with the extension system. to solve this problem, extension agents need to develop their information seeking strategies to meet the farmers’ information needs. by using strategy to seek information, they can have more up-to-date information to improve farmers’ knowledge and farmers’ needs. based on the above situation, the following questions are posed: 1. what are the types of information needed by extension workers? 2. what are the sources of information used by the agricultural extension workers? 3. how the comparison between types of information with information sources used by agricultural extension workers? the specific objectives of the study are as follows: 1. to determine the types of information needed by agricultural extension workers. 2. to determine the sources of information used by the agricultural extension workers. 3. to determine the comparison between types of information with information sources used by agricultural extension workers. method the study uses a survey design. survey can be a powerful and useful tool for collecting data on human characteristics, attitudes, thoughts, and behavior. the study was conducted at daerah istimewa yogyakarta (diy) province. diy was chosen as the location of this study for the following reasons: first, daerah istimewa yogyakarta has agricultural large agricultural area with good irrigation system. secondly, the area has a well developed agricultural extension organization and an intensive farming area where almost all of the villages are being served by the agricultural extension workers; and lastly there is an easy accessibility to all parts of the area. the populations of the study consisted of the agricultural extension workers in the location of the study. population of the study consisted of 338 the aews in daerah istimewa yogyakarta. daerah istimewa yogyakarta (diy) province has five districts (kota yogya, sleman, bantul, gunung kidul and kulon progo). from districts 88 jurnal agraris were selected for the study, namely sleman, kulon progo, gunung kidul dan bantul. kota yogya was not included as sample in this study because it ineligible as a sample as the number of agricultural extension workers is small, that is only seven agricultural extension workers. number of agricultural extension workers in kota yogya cannot be compared with the number of the agricultural extension workers from other districts. sleman district has 105 agricultural extension workers, kulon progo district has 49 agricultural extension workers, gunung kidul district has 132 agricultural extension workers and bantul district has 52 agricultural extension workers. a sample is a subgroup of a population from which the researcher makes an inference about the population. to achieve a valid generalization of the result, the sample must represent the population. the sample was considered representative when the characteristics of the sample are similar to the characteristics of the population. a representative sample means that the sample selected reflects the parameters of the population. therefore, the procedure of sample selection must provide an equal chance for each member of the population to be selected. this study used proportionate cluster sampling technique because the size in every cluster is different. first, the researcher obtained the list of agricultural extension workers in daerah istimewa yogyakarta province from provincial agricultural service office (dinas pertanian tingkat propinsi), data on february 15, 2008. the list of agricultural extension workers are 338 agricultural extension workers, in five districts (table 1). secondly, sampling procedure aews in every district used proportionate cluster sampling technique. this study only used four districts, because these districts as agricultural areas. kota yogyakarta has more industrial areas with very limited agricultural area. the number of all agricultural extension workers from four districts in diy, except kota yogya is 338. for random sampling, a list of agricultural extension workers was obtained from each district. based on the table presented by krejcie and morgan (1970), a sample size of 181 was considered appropriate for a population of 338 agricultural extension workers. for every district, respondents were randomly selected based on the sample size to the table 1. a structured-questionnaire was used as a means for data collection. babbie (2005) states that a standard designed questionnaire is an effective method to obtain data in the same form all respondents. the questionnaire is designed to measure the dependent and independent variables. the questionnaire was constructed in english (appendix a), and then translated into indonesian language (appendix b). the questionnaire consisted of six parts, namely, part i: characteristic of the agricultural extension workers, part ii: information needed by agricultural extension workers, part iii: information sources used by agricultural extension workers. questionnaires were distributed through the rural agricultural center for each district using drop and collect method, with instructions that the completed questionnaires were collected after three days. agricultural extension workers from each district as sample in this study was taken randomly appropriate the sampling procedure in methodology. descriptive statistics was used to describe the characteristics of the respondents and the variables of the study. the frequency distribution and the summary statistics used were, mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values. the characteristics of the respondents included gender, age, education, working experience and current position of agricultural extension workers. findings and discussions this chapter presets the characteristics of the agricultural extension workers, information needed by agricultural extension workers, information sources used by agricultural extension workers. characteristics of the agricultural extension workers this section consists of the descriptions of agricultural extension workers in terms of gender, age, education, working experience, and current position. table 3 presents the frequency distribution and the summary statistics of the agricultural extension workers in terms the above variables. table 1. probability sampling procedures of agricultural extension workers 89 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 table 2. distribution of the agricultural extension workers by gender, age, education, working experience and current position (n = 181) most of the respondents (85.6 percent) are males and 14.4 percent were females. the reason for this is related to the nature of work. the job of agricultural extension workers involves much travel, often over difficult terrain and with overnight stay to meet with farmers, and the agricultural extension workers usually deal with male rather than female farmers. the average age of respondents was 48 years old, ranging from 38 years to 60 years old. agricultural extension workers fell within the age group of 46 years to 50 years is 48.6 percent, while 26 percent were in the group of 50 years old and older. the age group 40 years to 45 years and that of 40 years and below contribute to 23.2 percent and 2.2 percent of the agricultural extension workers, respectively. this indicates the that respondents are in the late middle age group. the level of education of agricultural extension workers ranged from senior high school to master’s degree. a high percentage of the respondents (45.9 percent) have bachelor degree, 37.6 percent have diploma, and 15.5 percent have senior high school education. the highest level of education achieved by the agricultural extension workers is a master’s degree which constitutes more than one percent of the respondents. the agricultural extension workers have an average working experience up to 25 years, and the range is from 1 year to 37 years. a half (53 percent) of agricultural extension workers have working experience more than 25 years, 30.4 percent have working experience 21 years to 25 years, 10.5 percent had working experience 16 years to 20 years, 1.7 percent had working experience 10 years to 15 years. the agricultural extension workers who had less than 10 years of experience occupied 4.4 percent. this means that most of agricultural extension workers have long working experience. the position of the agricultural extension workers distinguish based on the in level of education and the type of work done by agricultural extension workers. it is found that the level of education increases with the complex its on the work kind that was carried out. the position of the agricultural extension workers could be distinguished from the highest level to the level lowest, namely, expert middle-level agricultural extension, expert young agricultural extension, expert first agricultural extension, skilled agricultural extension supervisor, skilled agricultural extension higher executive, and skilled agricultural extension executive. forty two percent of the agricultural extension workers have position of skilled agricultural extension higher executive, 39.2 percent had skilled agricultural extension supervisor position, 8.3 percent had expert young agricultural extension position, 5 percent had expert middle-level agricultural extension position, 4.4 percent had expert first agricultural extension position and 1.1 percent had skilled agricultural extension position. types of information needed by agricultural extension workers information that needed by agricultural extension workers are categorized into three information types, that is extension service information, innovation information, and extension role information. table 4 illustrates that all of the respondents needed and strongly needed the 90 jurnal agraris three types of information. there is no agricultural extension workers that do not need or slightly needed such information. table 3. distribution of the agricultural extension workers by information need (n = 181) scale: 1 = not needed, 2 = slightly needed, 3 = needed, 4 = strongly needed more than 50 percent of the agricultural extension workers mentioned strongly needed the innovation information (74 percent), extension service information (69.4 percent) and extension role information (61.3 percent). moreover agricultural extension workers also needed extension role information (38.7 percent), extension service information (30.4 percent), and innovation information (26 percent). this finding indicates that most of the respondents needed innovation information rather than extension service information and extension role information, since innovation information is related to the task of the agricultural extension workers that is give information to the farmers about new innovation and to resolve problems that are faced by the farmers. as mentioned by atkin (1973) individuals seek information to meet his or her information need to support his or her decision making and to reinforce his or her performance. this finding was consistent with havelock (1978) who asserted that the agricultural extension workers as change agent also serve as communications links between the professionals in the knowledge centers and the farmers. information sources used by agricultural extension workers sources of information which agricultural extension workers used in seeking information are interpersonal source, printed media source, electronic media, scientific meeting source and personal experience. information source used by agricultural extension workers also distinguished in appropriate with the type of information, which is extension service information, innovation information and extension role information. 1. extension service information extension service information is information about the implementation of agricultural extension by agricultural extension workers which were begun with preparing the extension material, coordinating with the farmers, giving information about price, infrastructure of agriculture, marketing, increasing quality of agricultural product, post-harvest; and evaluating the extension activities that has been carried out. table 5 presents the usage of information source by agricultural extension workers on extension service information. most of agricultural extension workers use interpersonal source followed by printed media, personal experience, scientific meeting and electronic media. a. interpersonal source the interpersonal sources consist of discussion with agricultural researchers, discussion with senior officers, discussion colleagues, discussion with farmers, and correspondence with researchers. more than 50 percent (56.4 percent) of the agricultural extension workers very frequently sought information by discussion with colleagues, 39.2 percent very frequently discussed with farmers, and 0.6 percent very frequently discussed with agricultural researcher and do correspondence with researcher. forty-seven percent of the agricultural extension workers frequently discuss with senior officers and 46 percent frequently discuss with farmers. forty-five percent of the agricultural extension workers seldom discuss with researcher and 68.5 percent never do correspond with researcher. most of agricultural extension workers very frequently sought extension service information by having discussion with colleagues, because almost every day they meet in the office and they discussion or sharing about their extension service information. b. printed media agricultural extension workers sought the information through printed media source from agricultural newspapers, agricultural magazines, brochures/ leaflets, textbooks, books published by aard, and journals. almost 60 percent (59.7 percent) of the agricultural extension workers seldom seek information via journals and only 0.6 percent of the agricul91 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 tural extension workers seek the information from journals. more than 40 (46.4) percent of the agricultural extension workers occasionally use brochure/ leaflet for seeking information. agricultural extension workers frequently use agricultural newspaper (30.9 percent). c. personal experience agricultural extension workers seek information by personal experience through own observation and experience, and own test and research. agricultural extension workers stated that they seldom get information through their own test and research (43.1 percent), and more than 30 percent (32.6 percent) of the agricultural extension workers never seek information through their own test and research and only 6.6 percent of them seek information through their own observation and experience, and 0.6 percent of the agricultural extension workers very frequently seek information through their own test and research. d. scientific meeting agricultural extension workers use scientific meeting source in seeking information. a total of 48.6 percent seldom seek information through seminar, 35.4 percent seldom seek information through training, and 39.8 percent seldom seek information through field research project. agricultural extension workers never seek information through field research project (42.5 percent) and only 0.6 percent of them seek information through the field research project. e. electronic media electronic media that agricultural extension workers use in seeking information consist of television, radio, video, and internet. agricultural extension workers never seek information using the internet (61.3 percent) and only 1.7 percent agricultural extension workers use internet in seeking information. agricultural extension workers frequently use television (23.2 percent); use radio (37.6 percent) and 29.3 percent of them seldom use video. 2. innovation information innovation information is information about new innovation, advantages and disadvantages of new innovation which were seen from technical, economic and social aspects; disseminating of new innovation and farmer’s responses on new innovation as well. table 6 presents the usage of information source by agricultural extension workers on innovation information. most of agricultural extension workers use interpersonal source followed by printed media, personal experience, electronic media and scientific meeting. table 4. distribution of the agricultural extension workers by frequency of using information sources for extension service information (n = 181) scale: 1 = never; 2 = seldom, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, 5 = very frequently 92 jurnal agraris table 6. distribution of the agricultural extension workers by frequency of using information source for innovation information (n = 181) scale: 1 = never, 2 = seldom, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, 5 = very frequently a. interpersonal source the interpersonal sources consist of discussion with agricultural researchers, discussion with senior officers, discussion with colleagues, discussion with farmers, and correspondence with researchers. agricultural extension workers frequently seek information by discussion with colleagues (47.5) and frequently discuss with farmers (44.8 percent). only 2 percent very frequently discuss with agricultural researcher, and 0.6 percent corresponds with researcher. agricultural extension workers frequently discuss with senior officer (49.7 percent). agricultural extension workers never discuss with agricultural researcher (30.4 percent) and never correspond with researcher (68 percent). b. printed media agricultural extension workers who are seeking for information through printed media sources do it through reading agricultural newspapers, agricultural magazines, brochure/leaflet, textbooks, books published by aard, and journal. agricultural extension workers seldom seek information by reading journals (55.8 percent) and only 0.6 percent of the agricultural extension workers seek information by brochure/ leaflet. agricultural extension workers occasionally use brochure/leaflet for seek information (50.3 percent). agricultural extension workers frequently use agricultural newspapers (36.5 percent). there is no agricultural extension workers use books published by the aard and journals in seeking information. c. personal experience agricultural extension workers that seeking information by personal experience consist of own observation and experience; and own test and research. agricultural extension workers stated seldom got information through own test and research (51.9 percent). they occasionally seeking information through own test and research (23.8 percent) and seeking information through own observation and experience. only 1.7 percent agricultural extension workers very frequently seeking information through own test and research. d. scientific meeting agricultural extension workers also use scientific meeting source in seeking information. agricultural extension workers seldom seek information through seminar (45.9 percent), 36 percent occasionally seek information through training and 44.2 percent seldom seek information through field research project. agricultural extension workers never seeking information through field research project (33.1), and only 0.6 percent agricultural extension workers seek information through field research project. e. electronic media 93 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 electronic media that the agricultural extension workers use in seeking information consist of television, radio, video, and internet. agricultural extension workers never seek information using internet (45.9 percent), 35.9 percent of the agricultural extension workers seldom use the internet and only 1.1 percent of the agricultural extension workers use the internet in seeking the information. agricultural extension workers occasionally use television (34.8 percent); use radio (38.7 percent) and 43.6 percent of them never use the video. 3. extension role information extension role information is information about new agricultural policy, farmer’s empowerment and management of agricultural institution as well as establishing good relationships between agricultural extension workers and the community. table 7 presents the usage of information source by agricultural extension workers on extension role information. most of agricultural extension workers use interpersonal source followed by printed media, personal experience, scientific meeting and electronic media. a. interpersonal source the interpersonal sources consist of discussion with agricultural researchers, discussion with senior officers, discussion colleagues, discussion with farmers, and correspondence with researchers. forty seven percent of the agricultural extension workers very frequently seek information by discussing with colleagues, 43.1 percent frequently discuss with farmers, and 1 percent very frequently discuss with agricultural researcher, and 1.1 percent correspond with researcher. they frequently discuss with senior officer (39.8 percent) and 43.1 percent frequently discuss with farmers in seeking information. agricultural extension workers seldom discuss with agricultural researcher (30.9 percent) and 56.9 percent never correspond with researcher. b. printed media agricultural extension workers who are seeking for information through printed media obtained it by reading agricultural newspaper, agricultural magazines, brochure/leaflet, textbooks, books published by aard, and journals. agricultural extension workers seldom seek information by journals (50.3 percent). agricultural extension workers occasionally use brochure/leaflet for seeking the information (46.4 percent). agricultural extension workers frequently use agricultural newspapers (35.4 percent). there is no agricultural extension worker using books published by the aard and journal in seeking information. c. personal experience agricultural extension workers seeking information by table 7. distribution of the agricultural extension workers by frequency of using information source for extension rule information (n = 181) scale: 1 = never, 2 = seldom, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, 5 = very frequently 94 jurnal agraris personal experience do it through own observation and experience; and own test and research. agricultural extension workers seldom got information through own test and research (47.5 percent), and 37 percent of the agricultural extension workers occasionally seeking information through own observation and experience, and 1.7 percent of the agricultural extension workers very frequently seek information through own test and research. they never seek information through own test and research (24.3 percent). d. scientific meeting agricultural extension workers, who use scientific meeting source in seeking information, got it through seminar (44.2 percent), 30.9 percent occasionally seeking information through training and 44.2 percent seldom seek information through field research project. thirty-four percent of the agricultural extension workers never seek information through field research project and only 0.6 percent of the agricultural extension workers seeking information through field research project. e. electronic media electronic media that the agricultural extension workers use in seeking information consist of television, radio, video, and internet. agricultural extension workers never use the internet (52.5 percent), and 33.1 percent agricultural extension workers seldom use internet and only 1.1 percent of the agricultural extension workers use internet in seeking the information. agricultural extension workers occasionally use television (33.1 percent); use radio (39.8 percent) and 45.9 percent of the agricultural extension workers never use the video. comparison between types of information with information sources used by agricultural extension workers table 8 below shows the comparison between types of information with information sources used by agricultural extension workers. most of the agricultural extension workers use interpersonal source in seeking information (mean = 3.13; sd = 0.774), followed by printed media (mean = 2.70; sd = 0.926) and personal experience source (mean = 2.52; sd = 0.939) for extension service information. table 8. comparison of use of sources of information by types of information (n = 181) scale: 1: never; 2: seldom; 3: occasionally; 4: frequently; 5: very frequently agricultural extension workers seldom used scientific meeting and electronic media source, but for innovation information more agricultural extension workers used electronic media than scientific meeting. this causes agricultural extension workers to need more information innovation and besides that new innovation is easier to be received through electronic media. for innovation information, most of agricultural extension workers use interpersonal source in seeking information (mean = 3.17; sd = 0.864), followed by printed media and personal experience. agricultural extension workers seldom used electronic media and scientific meeting. for extension role information, most of agricultural extension workers use interpersonal source in seeking information (mean = 3.15; sd = 0.915), followed by printed media and personal experience. agricultural extension workers seldom used scientific meeting and electronic media. from three types of information, most of the agricultural extension workers used all information sources for seeking the innovation information followed by extension role information and extension service information. the interpersonal sources are able to provide details information so as to allow individuals to change their strongly held attitude. agricultural extension workers most often used the interpersonal source because of the existence of the emotional nearness factor through interaction of contact in implementation of the task. this finding is consistent with suryantini (2003) who found source of information that most often used by agricultural extension workers is interpersonal source. the finding is in line with the previous study done by iskak (2005) that most the potato farmers used interpersonal source as a source of information. this finding was consistent with rogers (1995) that information source 95 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 used by agricultural extension worker can be divided into interpersonal, mass media. the interpersonal sources are able to provide details information so as to allow individuals to change their strongly held attitude. it involves face to face exchange between two or more individuals. in other words, mass media have been viewed as playing a significant role to distribute information during the knowledge stage, while the interpersonal sources are important as the evaluation stage before making decision to consider whether to adopt or not the new idea. conclusions based on findings and results of the study, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. agricultural extension workers needed extension service information, innovation information, and extension role information; which innovation information was the most required. innovation information was information about new innovation, advantages and disadvantages of new innovation which were seen from technical, economic and social aspects; disseminating of new innovation and farmer’s responses on new innovation as well. the innovation information was chosen because the farmers desired more up-to-date information about agriculture as agricultural extension workers also required much information to carry out their work. this means innovation information was used to increase farmer’s knowledge by introducing new agricultural innovation. meanwhile, extension service information was used by agricultural extension workers to facilitate extension such as extension preparation, giving agricultural information and evaluating the extension activities that have been carried out. in the meantime, extension role information was applied for formulating new agricultural policy. 2. agricultural extension workers utilized many sources of information in various types of information. interpersonal source of information was employed by means of discussing with colleagues, farmers and senior officers. they also made use of printed media, such as agricultural newspapers and agricultural magazines for extension service information, innovation information, and extension role information. personal experience as source of information which was obtained from own observation and own experience. electronic media, like television and radio, were mainly referred for innovation information. however, scientific meeting (training, seminar and field research project) was rarely applied for seeking information. recommendations based on the findings of the study, the recommendations are as follows: 1. the agricultural department a. the study found that agricultural extension workers were still limited in using facilities from inside the institution, such as the facilities of printed media and electronic media. therefore, it was recommended that the agricultural department give more facilities to the agricultural extension workers, such as agricultural magazines, agricultural newspapers, and computers which connect to internet so that the agricultural extension workers were easy to access newer and up-to-date information, and could follow the development in agricultural field. b. the study showed that merely a few agricultural extension workers had experience in training and seminar. hence, it could be recommended that the agricultural department intensified the training implementation for agricultural extension workers to increase their knowledge and experience. c. the study indicated that the agricultural extension workers needed to get innovative information. for that reason, it was recommended publishing the brochures or leaflets which contain up-to-date and the newest information about agriculture innovation before being sent to the farmers. d. the agricultural department should increase collaboration with the researchers, so that their research’s findings could be disseminated to agricultural extension workers. 2. the agricultural researchers a. results of the study showed that relationship between the agricultural extension workers and the 96 jurnal agraris agricultural researchers was not yet established well. consequently, it was recommended that the researchers increased the intensity of communication with the agricultural extension workers as well as distributed their research publications. b. the agricultural researchers should conduct study by involving the agricultural extension workers and the farmers in order to be able knowing the problems of agricultural extension workers. c. the researchers should frequently publish their research findings. the information provided in publications can be used as extension materials by subject matter specialist. 3. the agricultural extension workers a. the study showed that the agricultural extension workers rarely discussed and corresponded as well with the researchers. accordingly, it could be recommended activating of communication between the agricultural extension workers with the researchers, both through discussions and correspondence. this matter was done so that agricultural extension worker could be helped to get the newest research’s findings and new agricultural innovation. moreover agricultural extension workers could also be helped to solve the problems dealing with the farmers. b. the agricultural extension workers should actively search the up-to-date agriculture information through various media. c. the agricultural extension workers should routinely subscribe the newspapers and the agricultural magazines in order to widen the territory or area of seeking information from various information sources, and to get up-to-date information as well. references babbie, e. 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(2005). information seeking strategy among potato farmers in west java, indonesia. unpublished master’s thesis, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia. mawardi, s. (2004). the problem of agriculture extension in the regional autonomy era. from world wide web. retrieved july 20, 2007. available at http:/ /www.smeru.or.id/newslet/2004/ed12/ 200412field3.htm rivera, w.m. (2001). agricultural and rural extension worldwide: options for institutional reform in the developing countries. extension, education and communication service, research, extension and training division. sustainable development department. food and agriculture organization of the united nations) rogers, e.m. (1960). social change in rural society. a textbook in rural sociology. new york: appleton century crofts, incs. rogers, e.m. (1995). diffusion of innovations. third edition. new york: the free press. setyorini, e., suryantini, h., mulyani, e.k. (2006). persepsi manfaat warta penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian bagi penyuluh pertanian. jurnal perpustakaan pertanian. vol. 15, number 1. bogor: pusat perpustakaan dan penyebaran teknologi pertanian. sulaiman, f. (1998). poverty alleviation programs in agricultural sector: lessons learned and issues. agro economic forum, 16 (2):75–86. bogor: center for agrosocioeconomic research and development (caserd). sulaiman, f. (2002). assessment of agricultural innova97 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 tion transfer system in the decentralization era. agro economic forum, 20 (2: 24-50. bogor : center for agrosocioeconomic research and development (caserd). suryantini. h. (2004). pemanfaatan informasi teknologi pertanian oleh penyuluh pertanian : kasus di kabupaten bogor, jawa barat. jurnal perpustakaan pertanian vol. 3, number 1. bogor: pusat perpustakaan dan penyebaran teknologi pertanian. suryantini. h. (2003). kebutuhan informasi dan motivasi kognitif penyuluh pertanian serta hubungannya dengan penggunaan sumber informasi (kasus di kabupaten bogor, jawa barat). jurnal perpustakaan pertanian vol. 12. nomor 2. bogor: pusat perpustakaan dan penyebaran teknologi pertanian. suvedi, m., campo, s., & lpinski, m.k. (1999). trends in michigan farmers’ information seeking behaviors and perspective on the delivery of information. journal of applied communications, 83 (3), 33-50. van den ban, a.w. & hawkins, h.s. (1996). agricultural extension. 2nd ed. victoria: blackwell science pty ltd weiss, a., van crowder, l., & bernardi, m. (2000). communicating agrometeorological information to farming communities. agricultural and forest meteorology, 103, 185-196 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 225-240 article history: submitted : april 15th, 2021 revised : october 2nd, 2021 august 15th, 2021 accepted : october 7th, 2021 epsi euriga1, michael henry boehme2 and siti amanah3 1 yogyakarta – magelang agriculture development polytechnic, ministry of agriculture of republic of indonesia, yogyakarta, indonesia 2 humboldt university of berlin, faculty of life sciences, dept. horticultural plant systems, germany 3 department of communication and community development sciences, faculty of human ecology, ipb university, indonesia *) correspondence email: epsieuriga@gmail.com changing farmers' perception towards sustainable horticulture: a case study of extension education in farming community in yogyakarta, indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11510 abstract applying sustainable horticulture as an innovation in the special region of yogyakarta (diy) indonesia can be a commendable example in agricultural extension education. previous research has revealed that understanding farmers' perceptions of innovation is essential for appropriate interventions to change their behavior. in diy, the surveys were conducted in 2016 with 257 males and 93 females of farmers groups member from 21 villages in sleman, bantul, and kulonprogo regency. the objective of the survey was to determine the effects of farmer's internal factors on the perception of ecological, social economy, and ethical (ese) urgency as a component of sustainable horticulture practices. the findings from the ecological, social, and ethical dimensions among the farming community in diy indicated that, directly and indirectly, the farmers can acknowledge and practice sustainable horticulture. however, this was altering several factors, most notably, motivation and the prospect of increased income. the important thing in extension work was motivation, and a major motivating factor was the possibility of increased agricultural income. this study suggests that extension education of achieving horticultural sustainability in diy should be based on the motivation of farmers and thoughtfulness of their basic needs especially needs to have higher income. keywords: ecological, ethical, agricultural extension education, motivation, and sustainable horticulture. introduction moderate or severe food insecurity (based on the food insecurity experience scale) has been on the rise at the global level, from 22.6 percent in 2014 to 30.4 percent in 2020, the year the covid-19 pandemic spread across the globe (fao, ifad, unicef, wfp, & who, 2021). fao finds that the covid-19 pandemic has made it more challenging to achieve the sdgs by 2030 (food and agriculture organization [fao], 2020), especially progress was already stalled towards meeting sdg targets 2.1 and 2.2: ending hunger and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:epsieuriga@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 226 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research ensuring access to safe, nutritious, and sufficient food for all people all year round; and eradicating all forms of malnutrition (fao et al., 2021). the special region of yogyakarta (diy) has been experiencing food insecurity and lack of nutrition since 2014. it was 392 existing villages area where 16 have been observed as low food security and low nutrition villages and 26 as very low food security and very low nutrition villages (badan ketahanan pangan dan penyuluhan diy, 2014). however, the current situation is getting better, and by 2021 there are four low food security and low nutrition villages in diy (bappeda diy, 2021) despite the covid-19 pandemic. it is one indicator of the success of the agricultural extension in diy. even though the data were collected from 2015 to 2016, it provides evidence of changed farmer perceptions due to the high effectiveness of implementing sustainable horticultural extension in diy (euriga, amanah, fatchiya, & asngari, 2018) to alleviate food insecurity and malnutrition. law no.16 of 2006 on the agricultural, fishery and forestry extension systems play an essential role in balancing or integrating food safety, human needs, and environmental sustainability. agricultural extension education is not mentioned in sdgs 2 and 4 (about lifelong education), but it has a vital role in supporting sustainable horticulture by changing farmer perceptions (ramborun, facknath, & lalljee, 2020) to adopt innovations. this research can strengthen or depict the weaknesses of agricultural extension education to support sustainable agriculture. extension and research could simultaneously identify adaptations of agricultural innovations and monitor the evolution of complex systems under diverse conditions (davis, 2019). however, sustainable horticulture is one of the innovations of agriculture that can achieve the stated issues because its products, primarily vegetables and fruits, are believed to improve nutrition. horticulture as the branch of agriculture, especially fruits and vegetables, has high economic value. horticulture was prioritized in this research because of the higher decrease in productivity than other commodities in diy (statistics of d.i. yogyakarta province, 2014). previous research suggests focusing more on sustainable horticulture (lal, 2008; spina et al., 2021). in 2021, the attention to increasing the availability of more nutritious foods, such as fruits and vegetables, for healthy diets. the government has been implemented sustainable horticulture by issuing a decree of minister of agriculture no. 48/permentan/ot.140/10/2009 about good agricultural practices (gap) for fruits and vegetables for prima certification (prima 1, prima 2, and prima 3). therefore, for this study, the concept of sustainable horticulture is defined as farming practices including inputs (superior seeding, organic fertilizer), cultivation (conservation land, crop rotation, mulch, irrigation, integrated pest management, and labor), post-harvest, marketing, and partnerships, especially for vegetables and fruit. sustainable horticulture can be called an innovation because of the processes involved in its implementation (spina et al., 2021). however, the acceptance of any innovation depends on its perceived characteristics, and extension activities have been one of the main factors influencing farmers' perception of innovation. the extension workers influence the decision-making processes undertaken by farmers in adopting innovations (faruque-ashttp://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 227 changing farmers' perception towards sustainable ….. (euriga, boehme and amanah) sunny, huang, & karimanzira, 2018). they use appropriate extension methods to help farmers form opinions or perceptions and make correct decisions. the formation of perception has three mechanisms "selectivity, closure, and interpretation." it illustrates how they are generated to influence individual behavior (litterer 1975). perception is an active, not a passive, process, resulting both from what exists in the outside world and from people's own experiences, desires, needs and wants, loves and hatreds; it is so important in interpersonal communication and influences the communication choices (devito, 2013). according to bayesian theories of perception that prescribe how an agent should integrate prior knowledge and sensory information and investigate how current and future empirical data can inform and constrain computational frameworks that implement such probabilistic integration in perception (de lange, heilbron, & kok, 2018). in the domain of environmental psychology, the stimulus-organism-response (sor) model explains that various environmental aspects can act as a stimulus (s) that influences an individual's internal state (o), which subsequently derives the individual's behavioral response (r) (zhai, wang, & ghani, 2020). hence, two external factors, information and experience, have been influential in forming a perception. according to previous research, the adoption of innovation in this context was dependent on some internal factors such as age, formal and non-formal education, land tenure (ntshangase, muroyiwa, & sibanda, 2018), agricultural income (faruque-as-sunny et al., 2018), farming experience, and motivation (sapbamrer & thammachai, 2021). the learning process may be applied to initiate innovation initiatives efficiently (probst et al., 2019) by changing their perception. farmers have been observed to use their perception in accepting any innovations introduced to them, sustainable horticulture inclusive. several studies have revealed that farmers view this from its importance economically, environmentally, and socially for a specified period (de silva & forbes, 2016). innovation in horticulture has a multidisciplinary nature and a higher complexity and suggests further investigations, especially in socio-economic aspects of innovations (spina et al., 2021). the problem is how we can change farmer perceptions about sustainable horticulture practices as innovation? the previous research emphasized the importance of understanding sustainability under the relevance of farmers' perceptions (de olde, oudshoorn, sørensen, bokkers, & de boer, 2016). it is also essential to focus on understanding farmers and academics in agriculture on sustainability through the extensive use of factor analysis to assess farmers' perceptions of ecological, socio-economic, and ethical dimensions (dunlap, van liere, mertig, & jones, 2002). researchers need to see how farmers view sustainable horticulture from the three pillars of economic, environmental, and social importance over a given year (de silva & forbes, 2016). the attributes such as relative advantage, suitability, complexity, and perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of innovation affected its adoption rate (abdollahzadeh, sharifzadeh, & damalas, 2015). several other studies also agreed that farmers' perceptions of innovation affect the adoption rate (kabir & rainis, 2015; ntshangase et al., 2018; tey et al., 2014; van thanh & yapwattanaphun, 2015). therefore, this study aimed to analyze the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 228 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research influence of internal factors on farmers' perceptions of sustainable horticulture. this research provides policy recommendations to the government, extension agents, and university-based extension services to change farmer perceptions to implement sustainable horticultural practices. research method study area the research was conducted in 2016 in sleman regency (13 villages), kulonprogo regency (7 villages), and bantul regency (1 village). the highest population of horticultural farmer groups was in sleman regency, with snake fruit as the primary commodity. the main commodity in bantul was shallots, while in kulonprogo were varies from chili, watermelon, and melon. sleman regency is in the mountainous areas, while bantul and kulonprogo regency are around the coast. these topographic characteristics direct farmers to plant commodities that are following natural conditions. sampling procedure and data collection the population consisted of 2621 horticulture farmers in diy. the 350 respondents were chosen using the probability of multistage random sampling from 70 farmers' groups. it consisted of 17 farmer groups that have received prima certification, 13 women farmer groups, and 40 farmer groups that have not received prima. from each group, respondents were chosen that consist of two administrators and three members. primary data were collected using questionnaires with a likert scale based on the research objectives. statements and questions of each variable were based on the modification of previous studies. the variables measured were internal factors and farmers' perceptions of sustainable horticulture. internal factors included age, formal and non-formal education, agricultural income, farming experience, land tenure, and motivation (de silva & forbes, 2016; faruque-as-sunny et al., 2018; ntshangase et al., 2018; sapbamrer & thammachai, 2021; tey et al., 2014; van thanh & yapwattanaphun, 2015). the statements about the perception of this research were adapted from previous research, which is included the urgency of ecological, socio-economic, and ethical values (dunlap, beus, howell, & waud, 1993) with some modifications based on research location consideration (diy) and a new ecological paradigm (dunlap et al., 2002). in this research, the perception of sustainable horticulture is defined as farmers' response to the urgency of ecological, socio-economic, and ethical practices in cultivating vegetables and fruit. it was also determined through the same process as the perception of motivation but measured by only 14 items. the assessment was determined using the known mean (x̄) and standard deviation (sd). it was classified as low when x <(x̄-1sd), moderate if (x̄-1sd) ≤x < (x̄ + 1sd) and high when x≥ (x ̄ + 1sd). the age variable is the respondent's age when the data is measured by one item of an open question. formal education is the level of school activity in the number of years http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 229 changing farmers' perception towards sustainable ….. (euriga, boehme and amanah) measured by one open item question. non-formal education is the complete form of organized training outside the school level that follows the respondents for the past year as a group member measured by two items of an open question. agricultural revenue was assessed from the farming attempts as measured by one item of an open question. the duration of farming is the length of time a person has spent in the planting job based on the number of years measured by a question item. land tenure is the ownership status, extent, and location of cultivated/agricultural land used for vegetable and fruit cultivation as measured by two items of an open question. sustainable horticultural motivation is the factor that encourages an individual to continuously implement environmentally-friendly practices in cultivating vegetables and fruitbased on the needs identified (boersema & reijnders, 2009). these involve (1) survival needs such as safety, physiological needs, and subsistence, (2) social needs such as shared feeling, affection, and participation, (3) the need for personal growth such as recognition, selfactualization, understanding, identity, and freedom. they were measured with 20 statement items using 4 likert scales, i.e., strongly disagree = 1, less agree = 2, agree = 3, and strongly agree = 4. further, it is categorized into three parts, high category (2-3), moderate (1.1-1.99), and low (0-1), according to the quartile of mean and standard deviation score of all respondent's answers. analytical technique data obtained were analyzed through the use of descriptive and regression data analysis. the demographics (age, gender, formal education, non-formal education, land tenure, farming revenue, farming experiences) used a descriptive method including frequency, percentage, and mean. the descriptive method also applied for farmers' motivation variable and perceptions of sustainable horticulture, measured using the likert scale. factors that affect the perception were analyzed with multiple linear regression. it used independent variables (age, formal education, non-formal education, farming revenue, farming experiences, land tenure, and motivation) and dependent variables (farmers' perceptions of sustainable horticulture). results and discussion characteristics of respondents table 1 shows the general characteristics of the respondents. it was discovered that the majority of the horticultural farmers assessed were male under 48 years, which means they were mainly in the productive age with 7 to 12 years of formal education and no informal education. it was also discovered that most of them started cultivating after their retirement to support their families. the survey also revealed that the farmers had followed the extension activities in different forms, including (1) field school-integrated pest management (slpht), (2) field school-good agricultural practices (sl-gap) with various commodities; (3) field http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 230 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research school-good snake fruit handling practices (slghp), (4) integrated crop management field school (slptt), (5) field school-climate (sli), (6) organic training, (7) cultivation training, (8) processing training/post-harvest, (9) management training, and (10) marketing training. the modified farmer field school was a promising approach to training farmers (davis, 2019) and already applied in agricultural extension education in diy (euriga et al., 2018). most of the lands used are narrow in size (below 0.5 ha) and owned by the farmers. it was found that most respondents have income above idr 2,000,000 which is classified as a high category, and most of them have been engaged with farming activities for 7 to 29 years. table 1. distribution of respondent characteristics (n = 350) characteristics category freq. (%) mean age <48 years 160 45.7 48.97 48-54 years 95 27.1 >55 years 95 27.1 gender male 257 73.4 female 93 26.6 formal education 0-6 years 39 11.1 11.34 7-12 years 254 72.6 >12 years 57 16.3 non-formal education < 1 time 152 43.4 1.62 1-3 times 151 43.1 >4 times 47 13.4 land tenure narrow 245 70.0 0.43 wide 82 23.4 very wide 23 6.6 farming revenue low 94 26.9 moderate 124 35.4 high 132 37.7 1,855,110 farming experiences <7 years 59 16.9 18.41 7-29 years 224 64.0 >29 years 67 19.1 the motivation of farmers in adopting sustainable horticulture the results showed that most diy horticulture farmers were more motivated by personal growth and social needs than survival needs (table 2). table 2. the distribution of farmers' motivation to adopt sustainable horticulture (n=350) motivation high (score=2-3) (n) moderate (score=1.1-1.99) (n) low (score=0-1) (n) likert score survival needs 39 269 39 1.98 social needs 61 238 51 2.03 personal-growth needs 64 235 51 2.04 farmers in diy have been adopting sustainable horticulture because they need new technology. sustainable horticulture is a new technology, so that they want to go to training to get certification for good agricultural practices. scientific literature pointed to the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 231 changing farmers' perception towards sustainable ….. (euriga, boehme and amanah) relevance of the term technology in innovation horticulture. in contrast, high technology, digital, organizational, and product-related innovations can progressively support the multifunctionality of agricultural and food systems (spina et al., 2021). farmers in diy also had a high concern to protect customers by making sure of food safety and protecting the environment and agricultural ecosystem for the next generation. this motivation can result from the farmer field school. it can be inferred that extension education through farmer field school as new models of extension around evidence-informed pedagogies can promote learning and practice change (sewell et al., 2017). perceptions of farmers on sustainable horticulture the results showed that farmers perceive socio-economic urgency as more important with a likert score of 2.14 than ecological at 1.99 and ethical urgency at 1.98, as shown in table 3. it indicates that farmers prioritize socio-economic dimensions such as the villagers' well-being (health and welfare), improved agricultural income, development of privileges, enhanced attention to the environment, and marketing in sustainable horticulture. table 3. the distribution of farmers' perceptions toward sustainable horticulture (n=350) urgency high (score=2-3) (n) moderate (score=1.1-1.99) (n) low (score=0-1) (n) likert score ecological 44 257 49 1.99 social economics 80 239 31 2.14 ethical 58 227 65 1.98 the results also revealed that the respondents' highest motivation was to earn a higher income by practicing sustainable horticulture. the motivation to reach a higher income is categorized as survival needs (boersema & reijnders, 2009). our result confirmed previous findings, whereas increased revenue from the sales of crops and vegetables contributed to the greater likelihood of innovation adoption (faruque-as-sunny et al., 2018). therefore, in this case, an extension worker must take a rallying point on the ecological and ethical dimensions to make the farmers cognize the prominence of all the dimensions in sustainable agriculture and instigate them in their horticultural practices. table 4, figures 1, 2, and 3 show in detail the urgency of each dimension. in the ecological dimension, the most important indicators were the submission that the diversity of living creatures is important for sustainability. the farmers' low score was given to energy consumption, classifying the current fuel use as usual. in the socio-economic dimension, farmers emphasized increasing agricultural incomes but were less sure about their prerogative rights (privileges) to develop the indigenous of their village on their own. they point out that sustainable horticulture should increase agricultural income as measured from the highest score recorded after maintaining soil fertility. farmers gave the lowest value to the statement that they will retain indigenous plants if they do not produce. farmers tend to replace the plants with others when they are considered less productive or less profitable, not necessarily because of rotation. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 232 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 4. the distribution of farmers perceptions indicators toward sustainable horticulture (n=350) no. dimension strongly disagree less agree agree strongly agree freq. % freq. % freq. % freq. % ecological dimension 1. the use of chemicals significantly affects soil fertility 61.00 17.4 68 19.4 145 41.4 76 21.7 2. crop rotations shall be under the condition of the land 12.00 3.4 35 10 254 72.6 49 14 3. energy consumption (such as fuel, electricity) is too much 53.00 15.1 132 37.7 146 41.7 19 5.4 4. raw materials and agricultural equipment should utilize available resources 6.00 1.7 38 10.9 274 78.3 32 9.1 5. the diversity of living things is essential for sustainability 1.00 0.3 8 2.3 254 72.6 87 24.9 socio-economics dimension 6. the health/welfare of the villagers should always be considered 1.00 0.3 4 1.1 216 61.7 129 36.9 7. agricultural income should be increased 2.00 0.6 1 0.3 195 55.7 152 43.4 8. the village still has its privileges to develop 3.00 0.9 30 8.6 242 69.1 75 21.4 9. the number of farmers who pay attention to the environment should be upgraded 2.00 0.6 7 2 218 62.3 123 35.1 10. marketing is very important to make things easier 1.00 0.3 6 1.7 218 62.3 125 35.7 ethical dimension 11. soil fertility is very important to maintain 0.00 0 2 0.6 179 51.1 169 48.3 12. food supplies are very important to satisfy 0.00 0 5 1.4 209 59.7 136 38.9 13. my knowledge and skills in farming must be tailored to the available resources 0.00 0 20 5.7 256 73.1 74 21.1 14. indigenous plants should be maintained even if it is not yielded 28.00 8 101 28.9 172 49.1 49 14 figures 1, 2, and 3 show that attention should be placed on the ecological dimension, especially energy use (fuel, electricity) and farmers' perception that chemicals will decrease soil fertility. figure 1. farmers' perception of ecological dimension http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 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(euriga, boehme and amanah) figure 2. farmers' perception of socio-economic dimension figure 3. farmers' perception of ethical dimension factors affecting farmers' perceptions toward sustainable horticulture the factors affecting the perception of farmers to sustainable horticulture are presented in table 5. it was discovered that age has no effect, and the inconsistency of age effect on adoption is often observed in findings of this nature (sapbamrer & thammachai, 2021). there were reported results indicating a negative and positive association between age and adoption (faruque-as-sunny et al., 2018; ntshangase et al., 2018; sapbamrer & thammachai, 2021). it can be found that educational psychology offers andragogy and pedagogy learning methods that have implications for learning and teaching in further effective agricultural extension in the pedagogy group. the results also revealed that formal education significantly affects the farmers' perceptions of sustainable horticulture. however, an in-depth analysis of this factor showed it only has a significant positive effect on the perception of the ethical dimension. it supports previous research that reported a positive influence of education on perception (abdollahzadeh et al., 2015; ntshangase et al., 2018). other studies have shown that the higher http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 234 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research a person's education, the more they will have a heightened awareness of the environment (theodori & luloff, 2002; vaske, donnelly, williams, & jonker, 2001). table 5. factors affecting farmers' perceptions towards sustainable horticulture (standardized coefficient) factors farmers' perceptions towards sustainable horticulture (all dimension) ecological socio economics ethics r2 = 29.7% r2 = 26.9% r2 = 25.1% r2 =29 % β1 t-values sig sig sig sig age -.010 -.161 .872 .783 .338 .689 formal education .089 1.667 .096*) .345 .189 .059*) non-formal education .002 .039 .969 .449 .602 .819 farming revenue -.126 -2.257 .025**) .002***) .840 .009***) farming experiences -.036 -.583 .560 .289 .974 .815 land tenure .043 .786 .433 .824 .342 .176 motivation .263 4.952 .000***) .001***) .000***) .000***) ***) significance at 1% level **) significance at 5% level *) significance at 10% level non-formal education was found not to affect perception. it is possible because it only involves technical knowledge without creating awareness about the importance of horticulture's ecological, socio-economic, and ethical sustainability. previous research found that the past interventions were not coordinated and focused on technical challenges (probst et al., 2019). they suggest that the stakeholder mapping showed that dominant economic players and traditional means of communicating are essential to achieve innovation. however, knowledge is one of the key factors driving people to conduct proenvironment behaviors (amoah & addoah, 2021), although it was insufficient to change behavior (corace & garber, 2014). people with higher education have more access to threats and environmental problems than those with low education. in addition, they have a better capacity to understand and spread environmental messages. it shows that farmers who know the environment will have an attitude to support and conduct pro-environmental behavior. innovation consists of concepts including "knowledge," "diffusion," and "barriers," indicating that the focus of the literature is the adoption and constraints for the spread of innovation (spina et al., 2021). spina et al. (2021) argued that the concept of "knowledge" is not the same as information but includes perceptions, unconscious motivations, and behavioral habits. agricultural revenues have a significant positive effect on farmers' perceptions of sustainable horticulture. it is in line with previous research, which shows a positive influence of income on perceptions (abdollahzadeh et al., 2015). prosperous farmers are more environmentally friendly because they have achieved prosperity (wilson & hart, 2000). in contrast, organic farmers had lower incomes than conventional farmers (fairweather & campbell, 2003). the result also showed that farmers with high incomes in diy have a better perception of sustainable horticulture. from an in-depth analysis, it can be discovered that income does not affect socio-economic urgency. it means that a person's income will not affect their perception of socio-economic dimension indicators. the results also exposed that the farming experience does not affect the perceptions of sustainable horticulture. many research evidence showed inconsistency, and it is difficult to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 235 changing farmers' perception towards sustainable ….. (euriga, boehme and amanah) formulate a verifiable conclusion about farming experience's effect on adoption (sapbamrer & thammachai, 2021) and perception (ntshangase et al., 2018). perception also could be linked to the success or failure experienced (ntshangase et al., 2018) and risks to adopting an innovation (chen et al., 2018), including climate change (woods, nielsen, pedersen, & kristofersson, 2017). therefore three sectors, extension agents, farm associations, and the government, are key drivers for sustainable adoption (sapbamrer & thammachai, 2021). unique extension education needs to be formulated appropriately, based on the specific characteristics of each region (mariyono et al., 2018). understanding land tenure, including farm ownership and farm size, and how they influence adoption is important in developing strategies for promoting an innovation (ntshangase et al., 2018) and changing farmer perceptions. contrary, land tenure does not affect perceptions of sustainable horticulture. land tenure in diy is relatively small or not as extensive as in developed countries such as australia and the united states. therefore, it is not easy to implement mechanization. furthermore, there is not much variation in the area of land in the region. consequently, the farmers do not own most of the lands used for cultivation. some considerations should be given to future land ownership. the motivation was discovered to have a significant positive effect on perceptions of sustainable horticulture. it is in agreement with previous research that decision to apply proenvironment sustainable agriculture depends on various factors such as motivation and mental attitude (quinn & burbach, 2008) when it enables taking advantage of opportunities and can be made incrementally (woods et al., 2017). it was also discovered that the relevance of farmers' needs to sustainable horticulture affects their perception. it may explain why farming experiences and some other factors do not affect perceptions. these results support one societal model that indicated the determinants of behaviors (internal and external) to be needs, opportunities, and abilities or noa model (vlek, 2000). therefore, motivation can also be added to the litterer model mechanism (1975) because perception is not only influenced by experience and information but also by needs. previous studies (charatsari, lioutas, & koutsouris, 2017) suggest that integrating social psychology into extension/education research can paint a more detailed picture of how farmers interact with extension/ education services. agricultural extension education should consider the role of self-determined motivation in a different life domain of the farmers. it will help to increase farmers' participation in sustainable horticulture practices because it is guided by the most internal forms of human motivation (identified, integrated, and intrinsic motivation) (charatsari et al., 2017). the farmers' perception of sustainable horticulture practices was the primary motivation for its adoption. however, the other factors that acted as barriers (trialability, complexity, compatibility, and risk) should be considered (sewell et al., 2017). agricultural extensionists were expected to intervene after the factors influencing the perceptions have been identified. however, there are various theories of change in determining the proper intervention to be used. the need to increase behavioral changes will necessarily require the assistance of professionals in terms of quantity and skills. following http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 236 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the report of previous research works, the implementation of effective change was strongly influenced by groups (borek & abraham, 2018; ding, lin, & zhang, 2020). it was also reported that individual choice and independent actions are shaped and limited by a group (tennant, 2007; wei, zhao, & zheng, 2019). therefore, extension work will be best conducted through a farmer group. their shared value, aspirations, and diversity in age, farming systems, and academic/practice focus helped the group bond. it provided stimulation that motivated regular attendance and builds group cohesion (sewell et al., 2017). strategy and policy instruments can also influence change by modifying certain behaviors, applying regulations, providing economic incentives, information, education, communication, and using specific scenarios (boersema & reijnders, 2009). extension agents can implement it to accelerate the diffusion of innovation through non-formal education. the findings of previous research (ntshangase et al., 2018) confirm the important role of extension in promoting innovation, particularly the intensity of the extension services, for example, through training (sapbamrer & thammachai, 2021). extension agents can apply problembased learning (pbl), a relatively novel teaching and learning process in horticulture (abbey, dowsett, & sullivan, 2017). as abbey found that production and emotional intelligence competencies are invaluable in the horticulture industry because stakeholders interact with each other and the agro-ecological system. the findings from the ecological, social, and ethical dimensions among the farming community in diy showed that, directly and indirectly, the farmers can accept and practice sustainable horticulture. however, this is subject to several factors, but most importantly, motivation and prospect of increased income. the critical thing in extension work was motivation, and a major motivating factor is the possibility of increased agricultural income. it means that if farmers can get increased income which will improve their livelihood, and show the way to implement sustainable horticulture, they will do it. formal education was also essential because farmers can accept and understand the concept of sustainable horticulture better. however, it cannot be transferred through extension work, unlike informal education. therefore, the two most important factors were motivation and the prospect of increased income with other intervening variables such as understanding of the environment. conclusion formation of perception was significant because of its effect in adopting an innovation. however, it was discovered that farmers' perceptions of sustainable horticulture are dependent on ecological, social, and ethical urgency. more clearly, the perceptions were influenced by internal factors such as formal education, agricultural income, and motivation. it was found that ecological and ethical dimensions were significantly positively influenced by motivation and agricultural income, while socio-economic dimension was influenced only by motivation. the findings showed that extension education needs to be strengthened not only by providing technical knowledge but also through the communication and knowledge that can raise farmers' awareness about sustainable horticulture practices. it was also discovered that http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 237 changing farmers' perception towards sustainable ….. (euriga, boehme and amanah) the motivation of farmers should also be considered. another finding was that the behavior of farmers can be modified through the provision of economic incentives that can change their perceptions because agricultural income had been observed to be their highest urgency. the government should also make policies that support the sustainability of indigenous plants as well as village privileges. it can be implemented by supporting the establishment of agro-tourism village snake fruit based on the consideration that diy is a province in indonesia with the former royal realms united as a special region with snake fruit as indigenous plants. it is also following the observation that most farmers implemented sustainable horticulture for personal growth. the initial conclusions about how extension education changes horticulture farmer perceptions can adapt in different regions, especially in indonesia, because agricultural extension education has been coordinated under the ministry of agriculture of indonesia programs. although this research was done in 2016, the findings are still relevant because extension education can help diy decrease the number of low food security and low nutrition villages from 2014 until 2021. however, future studies need to be done regarding changed circumstances in the covid 19 pandemic era. references abbey, l., dowsett, e., & sullivan, j. 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(2020). the sor (stimulus-organism-response) paradigm in online learning: an empirical study of students' knowledge hiding perceptions. interactive learning environments, 28(5), 586–601. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2019.1696841 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203965474 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-013-0219-3 https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920290069128 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.08.010 https://doi.org/10.1080/089419201753210585 https://doi.org/10.1080/002075900399457 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00089 https://doi.org/10.1068/a3311 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.04.007 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 20-33 article history: submitted : october 1st, 2021 revised : november 24th, 2021 accepted : february 22nd, 2022 rendayu jonda neisyafitri1, pornthipa ongkunaruk2,* 1 department of agro-industrial technology, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia 2 department of agro-industrial technology, kasetsart university, bangkok, thailand *) correspondence email: pornthipa.o@ku.ac.th the use of intervention approach in individual and aggregate forecasting methods for burger patties: a case in indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12842 abstract the indonesian beef consumption increases sharply during ramadan and made a difference between supply and demand. the research aimed to study the demand pattern of burger patties and determine a suitable forecasting method compared between quantitative and intervention forecasting methods. the actual demand was intervened by experts based on reasons such as supply shortage, holidays, promotion, and government projects. the daily sales of burger patties were collected for a year. then, the data were divided into training and testing data. later, time-series forecasting was performed by software. then, the best forecasting method for daily data was selected between individual forecasting and top-down forecasting. similarly, for weekly data, the best forecasting method was compared between aggregate forecasting and bottom-up forecasting. then, repeat the process for the intervened sales data. the result revealed that the mean absolute percentage error was improved after intervention by about 3.64%58.83%. the combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches improved forecast accuracy. in addition, the aggregate level or weekly sales forecast had higher forecast accuracy than the disaggregated level. the bottom-up forecast performs better than the aggregate forecast. hence, we recommended the company plans based on weekly data and implement every low price to reduce the demand fluctuation. keywords: aggregate forecasting; burger patties; individual forecasting; intervention; time-series forecasting introduction indonesia is one of the largest beef markets in asia with a whole expenditure expected to grow 9% by 2022. beef is the third most consumed protein in indonesia after chicken and fish with a mean of meat consumption of 2.72 kg per capita per year (agus, budisatria, & ngadiyono, 2014). currently, there is a difference between the supply and the demand for beef. where domestic production can cover around 45% of the requirement. to fulfill the unsatisfied demand, the indonesian government has been importing frozen meat and live cattle from australia (nendissa, anindita, hanani, muhaimin, & henuk, 2019). beef consumption mostly increases sharply during some occasional events, such as ramadan and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:pornthipa.o@ku.ac.th https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12842 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 21 the use of intervention approach in individual ….. (neisyafitri and ongkunaruk) eid al-fitr. ramadan dates are established on a lunar calendar and change every season. therefore, the timing for beef demand always changes every year (australia, 2018). the food supply chain sustainability depends on accurate future demand prediction (petropoulos & carver, 2019). forecasting is one of the important activities in planning. it helps to estimate the demand and resources for production and service and control the planning to fulfill that level of activities (lewis, 2012). it can act as a tool to enhance the performance of the supply chain management process to fulfill customer requirements. for the company, forecasting is important because it helps to manage the production, inventory, and planning decisions (pennings & van dalen, 2017). according to fong, li, dey, gonzalez crespo, and herrera-viedma (2020), a forecast from one model is not enough. it has to be from a selection of several models. in addition, it is a challenge to create the most perfect forecasting model with only limited data available when using data mining (cantón croda, gibaja, & caballero, 2018). there are three standard approaches to building a forecast model from a small-scale dataset. first, to increase the training dataset by increasing further data onto the existing data. second, to use a collection of data to construct a forecast model, then the smallest error is chosen. third, to focus on a particular projection algorithm which frequently happens with various parameters to be modified (fong et al., 2020). however, according to chopra and meindl (2016), the facts of forecasts are always incorrect and they should contain the expected value and the error of the forecast. the short-term forecast is usually more accurate than longterm forecasts because the short-term forecast has a smaller standard deviation of error compared to that of the long-term forecasts. also, the aggregate forecast accuracy is usually more than the disaggregate forecast accuracy since it has a smaller coefficient of variation (athanasopoulos, hyndman, kourentzes, & petropoulos, 2017). according to li, yin, manrique, and bäck (2021), when aggregation is achieved using adequate product sales data, the aggregated model could give a better forecast than other aggregated models. wolters and huchzermeier (2021) mentioned that no forecasting method can accurately predict the mixture of seasonal sales variations and promotion-stimulated sales heights over forecasting horizons of many weeks or months. mor, jaiswal, singh, and bhardwaj (2018) mentioned that forecasting accuracy is very important because the existing demand patterns are volatile, and it is affected by the dynamic market. forecasting is sometimes complicated because the downstream supply chain stakeholders cannot share the information to support the forecast. many industries such as food, retail, mining, rail, energy, tourism, and cloud computing need to generate more accurate forecasts to provide a better foundation for determining short-term, medium-term, and long-term corporate targets (bandara, hewamalage, liu, kang, & bergmeir, 2021). one of the forecasting methods is the qualitative forecasting method which relies on personal judgment, intuition, and subjective evaluation (chopra & meindl, 2016). this method is appropriate when the historical data is limited or there is a change in the demand pattern. the forecast models with limited data will create different demand scenarios (lee & chiang, 2016). other than that, qualitative forecasting which relies on professional modification or http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 22 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research intervention is suitable for the demand that is responsive to sales promotion (pradita, ongkunaruk, & leingpibul, 2020). the top-down forecast approach is based on the aggregate or family product, then dispersed to the particular items in the family based on the past proportion (mirčetić, nikoličić, stojanović, & maslarić, 2017). meanwhile, the bottom-up forecast approach summarizes the individual item time series forecast to generate the aggregate forecasts. according to mirčetić et al. (2017) research in a beverage supply chain, it is found that the bottom-up forecasting generated more accurate forecasts. the forecasting method requires control and feedback to derive the best result. the principle for controlling forecasting is the forecast error must be normally distributed with a mean equal to zero (εi~nid (0,σ2)). the forecasting method can be evaluated by measuring the forecast accuracy. the mean absolute percentage error (mape) is used to measure a difference between actual and forecast demand especially for a different type of data (ha, seok, & ok, 2018). forecast accuracy is critical to a firm's effectiveness in planning and inventory control (davydenko & fildes, 2013). the combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches helps to increase forecast accuracy. the qualitative approach involves individual perception to figure out the unusual data points and adjust them before the data were processed quantitatively (pradita et al., 2020). kharfan, chan, and efendigil (2021) studied a data-driven methodology to improve the demand forecasting procedure for fashion retailers for recently launched products without historical data in a vigorous market situation. the results showed that the three-step model delivers visibility of core factors that influence demand through clustering and classification. the customized prediction is applied to provide the greatest results based on product characteristics such as life span length, sales quantities, retail price, and store location. this research was conducted in an abattoir located in bogor, west java. based on the previous investigation, it was found that the order cancellation affects demand planning in the abattoir. the problem of the burger patties demand is the order cancellation from the traders that affects demand planning in the abattoir. when a trader cancels the order to the abattoir, the scheduled time for producing the burger patties will be canceled. so, the worker will be idled. however, this situation is a loss for the abattoir since they have unutilized paid workers. moreover, the company loses the chance to serve another trader. demand planning is important for the company to protect from losing the chance to serve another customer. this research objectives were to study the demand pattern and determine the best forecasting method to improve forecast accuracy by comparing quantitative and intervention forecasting. research method the daily sales of burger patties were collected from the past year's abattoir and trader data (september 2018 – august 2019) because this company is just entering the industry. the data is split into two data including training and testing. the training data will be used to construct the forecasting model while the testing data will be used to verify how good the forecasting method is. there is no mandatory rule for the proportion of training and data. the common strategy is to split the data to 80% of the data into the training set and the rest for the testing set (joseph & vakayil, 2021). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 23 the use of intervention approach in individual ….. (neisyafitri and ongkunaruk) data collection from 2018-2019 end begin quantitative forecasting intervention forecasting separate two sets of data daily training: 1-235 and daily testing 236-245 weekly training: 1-47 and weekly testing: 48-49 training data testing data compare time series, arima, sarima forecasting models determine the best forecasting model (2) compare mape of intervention and no intervention forecasting methods adjusted actual data based on expert opinion (figure 5-6) repeat the process of quantitative forecasting determine the best forecasting model and calculate mape of 4 methods (i, b, a, t) calculate mape of a testing dataset for 4 methods (i, b, a, t) forecast based on forecast method from training set compare time series, arima, sarima forecasting models determine the best forecasting model (1) calculate mape of individual forecast (i) plot graph and pivot chart to analyze data (figure 2-4) daily (individual forecast) weekly (aggregate forecast) perform bottom-up forecast (b) calculate mape of aggregate forecast (a) perform top-down forecast (t) compare mape of individual forecast and top-down forecast compare mape of aggregate forecast and bottom-up forecast figure 1. flowchart of comparison the forecast error of 4 forecasting methods before and after intervention http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 24 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research several factors need to be considered by the decision-maker including characteristics, data type, and size of data. most researchers divide the data based on the rule. in our case study, the training daily data is between day 1st-235th and the testing daily data is day 236th-245th. similarly, the aggregate forecast of weekly data will be performed. the training weekly data is between week 1st-47th and the testing weekly data is week 48th-49th. next, the historical data was analyzed whether there was a trend or seasonal. then, the intervention forecast will be performed by adjusting the actual demand based on an in-depth interview with the abattoir manager and production supervisor considering the internal and external factors that affected the demand for burger patties. in the training data, the time-series forecasting methods were compared by using crystal ball software with the predictor function. the optimal forecasting method will be selected to use in the testing data. in addition, for an individual level or daily data, the individual forecasting will be compared with the top-down forecasting. top-down forecasting is from the multiplication of the proportion of daily data and the aggregate forecast. for an aggregate level or weekly data, the aggregate forecasting will be compared with the bottom-up forecasting. bottom-up forecasting is the sum of the individual forecasting to become the weekly sales forecast. for the intervention forecasting, the forecast can be adjusted according to the event on that day such as adding 20% to the forecast value if there is a promotion. the summary of our method could be visualized as in figure 1. the forecast accuracy was assessed by mape for training and testing data both actual and adjusted data or the intervention method. mape= ∑ | et dt |*100nt=1 n (1) the forecast error for period t is expressed in et, which comes from the formula: et = ft – dt (2) where ft is the forecast at time t, dt is the demand at time t, and n is the number of data. finally, the mape of each method was compared to figure out which method performs the best. the forecasting method can be evaluated by measuring the forecast accuracy. forecast accuracy is critical to a company's efficient planning and inventory control (box, jenkins, reinsel, & ljung, 2015). result and discussions the historical sales data for burger patties the historical sales data for burger patties were collected from a trader during september 2018 – august 2019. normally, there are 5 days in a week for a sales order. however, we separated two more days i.e. holidays and promotion days. the holidays have no sales while the promotion day will have high sales data. there were some days with peak orders without any reason due to fluctuated orders from the trader. it is quite difficult to check whether there is a trend or seasonal from figure 2. and figure 3. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 25 the use of intervention approach in individual ….. (neisyafitri and ongkunaruk) the ovals indicated the peak sales order which is far away from the average sales. according to the previous research by huber and stuckenschmidt (2020) about the daily demand forecasting in retail, one of the challenges is to forecast the demand on the special days since it has a different demand pattern than the regular day. hence, we use a pivot chart to show the average, standard deviation, maximum, minimum, and the number of data so that the data could be simply analysed as in figure 4. figure 2. the historical daily sales data for burger patties figure 3. the historical weekly sales data for burger patties figure 4. the analysis of daily sales of burger patties 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 t h e n u m b e r o f d a ta s a le s o f b u rg e r p a tt ie s average stddev maximum minimum number http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 26 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the results showed that the daily sales were seasonal on weekdays. there were higher sales on thursday and friday than those on monday to wednesday. the demand in may was increasing because of the ramadhan and eid al-fitr. however, the demand between may and june was not plotted because it is the eid al-fitr holiday, and the abattoir had to stop the operation according to the government regulation for 3 weeks. in addition, there might have a trend in daily data. the variances of weekdays sales were very high, and this resulted in high forecast error. the intervention of daily sales data the in-depth interview was conducted with the experts to justify the unusual pattern of the data. then, the intervention was performed to adjust the abnormal data back to normal. this implied that the data will be reduced if the data was too high. otherwise, the data will be increased if it was too low. hence, the expert should be able to justify when these two events happened. two major factors affect the unusual pattern in the supply chain called internal and external supply chain factors. the internal factors could be the supplier, the company’s condition, and customers. meanwhile, the external factors could be government regulations and policies, economic conditions, social trends, and natural disasters that affect the buying power of the customers. the data adjustment was done according to several events in the abattoir. on 7 september 2018, the abattoir started the project and sponsorship to increase the market coverage. hence, the sales data on this day will be deducted by 15%. besides, on 12 september 2018, there was an accumulated order as the effect of the islamic new year holiday. during this holiday the abattoir was closed. then, the adjustment of decreasing the demand should be pursued because this event did not happen every week. on 12-16 november 2018, a huge flood happened in several areas in jakarta. therefore, the number of customers who are mainly hotels, restaurants, and caterers were decreasing. the adjustment was performed by increasing demand by 10%. on 22 december 2018, there was a tsunami in sunda strait that happened because of an explosion and fractional breakdown of the anak krakatau volcano. several coastal regions in banten and lampung province were struck. this strait connects java and sumatera island. the cattle from the feedlot need to be transported through this strait and there is no other way to transfer these cattle. during this situation, the harbor was closed because it was not safe for the ship to pass through the straits. therefore, the feedlot was unable to send the cattle to the abattoir. this situation was affecting the supply shortage on 14-18 january 2019, since the raw material is the chilled beef that has already passed the aging time. therefore, the demand was increased in that period. after that, on 18-20 march 2019, the company signed a new contract with a big retailer to give a sponsorship to their events. hence, the sales were adjusted by decreasing it. at the end of the month, there was a generator set breakdown. so, the abattoir only has limited capacity to produce the burger patties. hence, the sales were adjusted by increasing it by 5%. on 1-5 july 2019, the sales were decreased due to supply shortages during the eid alfitr holiday. during this period, the government prohibited cargo shipping activity for 3 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 27 the use of intervention approach in individual ….. (neisyafitri and ongkunaruk) weeks. therefore, the abattoir was unable to do the operation activities normally. the materials that the abattoir used were just only the available stock in the warehouse. since it has a limited capacity, the sales were not high enough. hence, the sales were adjusted by increasing it. on 26 july 2019, the company signed a new project with the retailer to produce a huge quantity for the retailer. therefore, there was an irregular pattern. then, the data was adjusted by decreasing it. from the end of july until the beginning of august, the customer’s buying power was decreasing due to the economic condition. the sales were dropped and there were a lot of stocks in the warehouse. so, the demand in this period was adjusted by increasing it. two weeks later, there was a special occasion celebrated by muslims which is the eid al-adha. during these days, the muslims in the country will slaughter either cattle, buffalo, or sheep. since the abattoir provides the service to process the raw meat from the customer to produce a burger patty. the customers use this service, and it makes the sales increase. hence, the sales were adjusted by decreasing it. at the end of august, the sales of the burger patties were decreased since the customers still have their meat from the eid al-adha. therefore, the abattoir and the trader make promotions to push the sales. during this period, the sales were increased and need to be adjusted by decreasing it. on 27 and 30 august 2019, the sales were decreased due to supply shortage and need to be adjusted. the summary of the adjustment in the training data is shown in table 1. the contrast between the daily and weekly actual and the adjusted data of burger patties demand is shown in figure 5 and figure 6. table 1. details on the adjustment of training data date quantity reason 07 september 2018 -15% sales increased due to project/sponsorship 12 september 2018 -10% sales increased due to accumulated orders from islamic new year holiday 12 16 november 2018 10% sales decreased due to floods in several areas in jakarta 14 18 january 2019 20% sales decreased due to supply shortage effect from sunda strait tsunami 18 20 march 2019 -5% sales increased due to project/sponsorship 25 29 march 2019 5% sales decreased due to machine breakdown 24 may 2019 -50% sales increased due to the accumulated sales in eid al-fitr 1 5 july 2019 15% sales decreased due to supply shortage 26 july 2019 -10% sales increased due to project/sponsorship 29 july 2 august 2019 25% sales decreased due to low market demand/low buying power 13 14 august 2019 -20% sales increased due to eid al-adha 26, 28-29 august 2019 -20% sales increased due to promotion 27, 30 august 2019 20% sales decreased due to supply shortage figure 5. comparison of actual and adjusted (intervention) daily sales data for burger patties http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 28 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 6. comparison of actual and adjusted (intervention) weekly sales data for burger patties comparison demand characteristics before and after intervention the descriptive analysis of daily sales data showed that the average sales on weekdays were 234.02-433.32 pieces per day while there was no order on holidays and the average on promotion day was 480 items with lower variance compared to weekdays. the most fluctuation on orders was on friday and the highest average of sales was on thursday. the major performance indicators most frequently employed in forecasting literature are coefficient of variation (cv) and mape (sevlian & rajagopal, 2018). the cv of daily data was quite high due to the fluctuation of sales data and ten national holidays. after adjusting the data, the average sales on weekdays were 235.19-437.77 pieces per day. moreover, the variance after intervention could be reduced by 1.13-18.81%, especially on friday which has a very high variance. on weekly basis, the cv could be reduced by 62.01% and 63.64% compared between daily and weekly data for before and after the intervention, respectively. in addition, the intervention could reduce cv by 9.68% as shown in table 2. it implied that the aggregate forecast is more accurate and the intervention could increase the forecast accuracy. posch, truden, hungerländer, and pilz (2021) pointed out that most researchers on forecasting are focused on aggregate forecasting, which forecast on weekly sales rather than forecast individual item per day. hence, the company should require the trader to order on weekly basis. table 2. comparison of sales order before and after intervention for burger patties by pivot table day/week # of data actual data intervention data % cv reduction average cv range average cv range monday 47 234.02 0.706 695 235.19 0.698 695 1.13% tuesday 44 269.52 0.73 810 268.52 0.711 810 2.60% wednesday 46 292.7 0.787 1,040 289.32 0.749 932 4.83% thursday 47 433.32 0.625 1,040 437.77 0.617 1,040 1.28% friday 48 326.25 0.888 1,505 307.96 0.721 840 18.81% holidays 10 0 0 0 0 promotion 3 480 0.11 100 384 0.11 80 0.00% total 245 301.18 0.816 695 296.68 0.77 695 5.64% week 49 1,505.88 0.310 2,607 1,489.61 0.280 1,897.5 9.68% http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 29 the use of intervention approach in individual ….. (neisyafitri and ongkunaruk) comparison of actual and intervention forecasting methods the forecasting methods were compared based on a daily and weekly basis to understand the demand pattern and to plan for procurement, production, and distribution. these daily and weekly data enable abattoirs to track, monitor, and display demand for the short term and offer the capability to recap for the longer term such as months, quarters, and years (chase, 2009). from the analysis, the daily data had both trend and seasonal whereas the weekly data had a trend but no seasonal. however, the best forecasting methods for daily and weekly demand were autoregressive integrated moving average (arima). arima is the most common and fundamental entity for time series analysis. this method predicts the future demand values of a time series by calculating the future value's statistical likelihood (ford, nava, tan, & sadler, 2020). it implied that there was a trend in daily and weekly data. we did not accept the best method for daily data from the software since it contradicted our analysis. hence, we overlayed the arima with seasonal additive. for the intervention daily data, damped trend non-seasonal was chosen instead of arima. this led to high forecast error in the training data, but lower forecast error in the testing data. the best forecasting methods for actual and intervention of daily data are not the same. it implied that after adjusting the data, the seasonal pattern was removed. according to hamzah et al. (2021), the arima method is more accurate and can be used to predict chicken-based food products on weekly sales data. other than that, li et al. (2021) develop research using a two-step product lifecycle forecast approach for consumer technology products with inadequate sales data. it is found that to predict the lifecycle of a new product, models based on aggregated products usually outperform the models based on an individual product. the best forecasting method for weekly data was the same regardless of intervention which implied there was a trend but not seasonal as shown in table 3. table 3. best forecasting methods of daily and weekly sales data sales data pattern best forecasting method trend seasonal actual intervention daily data / / seasonal additive damped trend non-seasonal weekly data / x arima(1,0,0) arima(1,0,0) comparison of forecast error between the actual and intervention of daily sales data in the individual forecasting methods, the forecast errors of the training data without the intervention were 68.14%, and with the intervention was 60.91% while those of the testing data were 65.75% and 49.24%%, respectively. the intervention improved the forecast accuracy by 10.61% and 25.10% in the training and testing data, respectively. in the topdown forecasting method, the forecast errors of the training data without the intervention were 135.80%, and with the intervention was 128.93% while that of the testing data were 104.28% and 94.98%, respectively. the result showed that the training data forecast error was higher than that of the testing data which is not normal. the reason was that the best forecasting methods of the training data were overlayed by the other methods. after the intervention, there were some improvements in the training data for 5.06% and 8.92% which http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 30 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research was lower than the individual forecasting for the testing data as shown in table 4. individual forecasting performed better than the top-down forecasting method; however, the forecast accuracy was still very low. besides, the intervention would not help to increase the accuracy up to the acceptance level. this implied that the daily data should not be used to perform the short-term planning. the top-down approach performed poorly due to the fluctuation of the proportion of daily sales. table 4. comparison of forecast errors between the actual and intervention of daily sales data forecasting methods actual with intervention improvement training testing training testing training testing individual 68.14% 65.75% 60.91% 49.24% 10.61% 25.10% top-down 135.80% 104.28% 128.93% 94.98% 5.06% 8.92% comparison of forecast error between the actual and intervention of weekly sales data the weekly sales forecasts were compared between aggregate and the bottom-up forecasting methods. in the aggregate forecasting methods, the forecast errors of the training data without and with the intervention were 22.78% and 21.95%, respectively. the forecast errors of the testing data were 39.59% and 16.30%, respectively. according to pradita et al. (2020), in general, a forecast error in testing data will be higher than that of the training data since the forecasting model is based on training data. a method can be said overfitting if its error is low on the training data but high in the testing data, and it is an underfitting if its error is high on both training and testing data (ghasemian, hosseinmardi, & clauset, 2020). a model that can fit in multiple categories is more accurate when the fundamental data is adequate (van donselaar, peters, de jong, & broekmeulen, 2016). hence, if the gap error between training and testing data is small, it implied that the model fits the data well. after the intervention, there was an improvement in the forecast accuracy where 3.64% and 58.83% in the training and testing data, respectively. in the bottom-up forecasting methods, the forecast errors of the training data without and with the intervention were 31.85% and 29.50%, while those of the testing data were 20.48% and 8.81%, respectively. this implied that the forecasting method was suitable for the testing data. besides, the intervention could improve the forecast accuracy by 7.40% and 57.00% as shown in table 5. compared with the forecast errors of the daily data, it implied that the weekly data could increase the forecast accuracy. however, the error was still a bit high in the aggregate forecast while bottom-up was more suitable. table 5. comparison of forecast errors between the actual and intervention of weekly sales data forecasting methods actual with intervention improvement training testing training testing training testing aggregate 22.78% 39.59% 21.95% 16.30% 3.64% 58.83% bottom-up 31.85% 20.48% 29.50% 8.81% 7.40% 57.00% in summary, the bottom-up forecasting method performs the best. hence, the company should plan based on weekly data. besides, to reduce the daily sales order variance, everyday low-price promotion should be implemented. the company may try to find the causes of high http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 31 the use of intervention approach in individual ….. (neisyafitri and ongkunaruk) variance in sales data and remove them. the point of sales (pos) data sharing also could help to increase the forecast accuracy and reduce the bullwhip effect in the upstream supply chain. conclusion demand forecasting is an important activity in planning. this research determined the best forecasting method for burger patties products on a daily and weekly basis due to oneyear data availability. this study compared the individual and top-down forecasting methods for daily sales forecast and the bottom-up and aggregate forecasting methods for the weekly sales forecast. the time series forecasting, and intervention method were performed and compared. the demand pattern was analyzed based on sales data due to no point of sales data (pos) being available. the results showed that the daily sales data highly fluctuated on weekdays. this resulted in lower forecast accuracy on daily sales forecasts. we found that the intervention forecasting improves the forecast accuracy by 3.64%-58.83%. in addition, the aggregate sales data on weekly basis can improve the forecast accuracy. the best forecasting method is the bottom-up forecast by using the arima method. hence, it is recommended to perform the weekly sales forecast rather than the daily sales forecast and implement the intervention by the experts who realize the past and future situation. in addition, this research can be applied in other industries that need to forecast their products to increase service level and reduce inventory. acknowledgments: the authors would like to thank the company that kindly shares the data for this research. author contributions: rendayu jonda neisyafitri was responsible for data collection, literature review, forecasting analysis, and drafting the manuscript. pornthipa ongkunaruk was responsible for forecasting methodology, forecasting analysis, and editing the manuscript. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. reference agus, a., budisatria, i. g. s., & ngadiyono, n. 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(2021). joint in-season and out-of-season promotion demand forecasting in a retail environment. journal of retailing, 97 (4), 726-745. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2021.01.003 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& retno lantarsih fakultas pertanian universitas janabadra retnolantarsih@yahoo.co.id pengembangan “minapadi kolam dalam” di kabupaten sleman abstract “minapadi kolam dalam” is a new invention where rice farming was integrated with fish farming. the system that introduced by dinas pertanian of sleman district in 2011 was expected to increase the farmer’s income. this study aims to create the development strategy of “minapadi kolam dalam” on target group. the method of analysis that used in this study was swot analysis. the development strategy of “minapadi kolam dalam” on target group is in an aggressive position that means the development is concentrated in exploiting the opportunities and strengths. keywords: development strategy, mina padi, deep pool. intisari “minapadi kolam dalam” merupakan terobosan baru pada usahatani padi yang diintegrasikan dengan budidaya ikan. sistem yang diperkenalkan dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman tahun 2011 ini diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani. penelitian ini ditujukan untuk menyusun strategi pengembangan “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman. analisis yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisis swot. strategi pengembangan “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan berada dalam posisi agresif yaitu pengembangan yang tertumpu pada pemanfaatan peluang dan kekuatan. kata kunci: strategi pengembangan, minapadi, kolam dalam. pendahuluan sektor pertanian memiliki peran strategis dalam mewujudkan ketahanan pangan baik pada tingkat nasional, regional, sampai dengan tingkat rumah tangga. dari sekian banyak jenis bahan pangan, beras masih menjadi primadona bahan pangan pokok bagi sebagian besar masyarakat indonesia. produksi padi di daerah istimewa yogyakarta tahun 2011 mencapai 843 ribu ton atau mengalami pertumbunan sebesar 4,5 persen selama periode 2007 s.d. 2011 dengan produktivitas mencapai 60,51 ku/ha untuk padi sawah dan 44,24 ku/ha untuk padi ladang (badan pusat statistik diy, 2012). saat ini diperlukan upaya untuk mengembangkan teknologi budidaya padi yang mampu memberikan kontribusi positif terhadap kesejahteraan petani dan ketahanan pangan. berbagai konsep perbaikan dalam usahatani padi telah dilakukan agar produktivitas padi tetap tinggi, ramah lingkungan, dan berkelanjutan. upaya peningkatan pendapatan petani yang telah dilakukan diantaranya adalah: program prima tani, pengelolaan tanaman terpadu (ptt), minapadi dan pengembangannya. doi:10.18196/agr.2122 18 jurnal agraris prima tani merupakan program rintisan pemasyarakatan inovasi teknologi pertanian yang diharapkan dapat mempercepat waktu dan memperluas penyerapan teknologi inovatif dan dapat menjadi sarana umpan balik dari pengguna. hutapea et al. (2010) menyatakan bahwa tingkat penerapan teknologi usahatani padi pada petani peserta prima tani lebih mendekati teknologi inovasi dengan pendapatan yang lebih besar dibanding petani bukan peserta. namun demikian belum ada korelasi yang nyata antara penerapan teknologi dengan pendapatan usahatani. hasil penelitian wangke et al. (2011) menyebutkan bahwa tingkat penerapan teknologi usahatani padi sawah masih tergolong rendah. tingkat penerapan teknologi usaha tani padi sawah masih berkorelasi positif dengan luas lahan dan keikutsertaan petani dalam kegiatan penyuluhan. terobosan lain yang sudah dilakukan untuk meningkatkan pendapatan petani padi adalah pengelolaan tanaman terpadu (ptt) dengan menerapkan sistem tanam legowo. menurut suparwoto (2010) ptt dengan sistem tanam legowo mampu meningkatkan produksi padi berkisar 26-27 persen, dan teknologi ini secara ekonomi cukup menguntungkan dan layak untuk dikembangkan. sistem minapadi juga telah dikenal sebagai teknologi yang mampu memberi kontribusi positif terhadap petani padi. minapadi merupakan salah satu bentuk tumpang sari pemeliharaan padi di sawah bersama-sama dengan pemeliharaan ikan. pada dasarnya sistem ini cukup baik dan tidak membutuhkan banyak biaya (tim lentera, 2002; ampri, dan khairuman, 2008). pemeliharaan ikan dengan sistem minapadi ini disesuaikan dengan umur tanaman padi dan tujuan pemeliharaan ikan untuk pendederan atau untuk pembesaran (tiku, 2008). dalam perkembangannya sistem minapadi ini mengalami beberapa variasi dalam penerapannya, diantaranya: i) sistem minapadi yang dikelola secara organik dengan penanaman azolla (sutanto, 2002; hermawan dan setiawan, 2010); ii) sistem minapadi yang dipadukan dengan ternak bebek; iii) sistem minapadi dengan memodifikasi bentuk kolam atau dikenal dengan sistem “minapadi kolam dalam” seperti yang diterapkan oleh petani binaan dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman. sistem minapadi yang dikembangkan secara organik dilakukan dengan memadukan penanaman padi, azolla, dengan pemeliharaan ikan dalam petak yang sama. azolla dapat menggantikan sebagian pupuk nitrogen. selain itu, azolla dan lumpur yang dihasilkan oleh kegiatan ikan dapat meningkatkan kandungan bahan organik tanah sehingga kesuburan tanah menjadi lebih baik. pada sistem ini dapat digunakan varietas padi lokal dan tidak menggunakan pupuk kimia (sutanto, 2002). sistem minapadi yang pengelolaannya dipadukan dengan pemeliharaan bebek telah dilakukan oleh petani di jawa barat. bebek dilepas dan bebas berkeliaran di sawah minapadi. sistem ini dikenal dengan istilah perlabek. “minapadi kolam dalam” memiliki keunikan bila dibandingkan dengan minapadi pada umumnya yaitu adanya kolam penampungan dan sebagian dari kolam tersebut dibuat lebih dalam untuk memudahkan perawatan dan panen ikan (gambar 1). pengembangan budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam” ditujukan untuk meningkatkan produktivitas lahan, pendapatan petani, serta kualitas gizi masyarakat (dinas pertanian, perikanan, dan kehutanan, kabupaten sleman., 2011). selain itu, budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam” di kabupaten sleman dilakukan sebagai salah satu upaya untuk mengatasi masalah hama tikus yang menyerang tanaman padi di wilayah ini. selama tahun 2012, terdapat sekitar 1500 hektar lahan sawah di kabupaten sleman terserang hama tikus. kondisi ini telah menyebabkan terjadinya gagal panen (anonim, 2012). “minapadi kolam dalam” diperkenalkan oleh dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman pada tahun 2011 melalui demplot di 6 tempat yang berbeda dengan memberikan pembinaan, bantuan bibit dan pakan ikan. gambar 1. minapadi kolam dalam bagaimana menyusun strategi pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” di kabupaten sleman, khususnya pada kelompok binaan menarik untuk didiskusikan. 19 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan pada tahun 2013 dengan menggunakan metode survey terhadap petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan di kabupaten sleman yang berjumlah 6 petani. metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif analitis. metode ini memusatkan untuk memecahkan masalah-masalah aktual yang ada pada masa sekarang, selanjutnya dilakukan penyusunan data untuk kemudian dijelaskan dan dianalisa. kabupaten sleman, dipilih sebagai lokasi penelitian dengan pertimbangan kabupaten tersebut merupakan sentra produksi padi di daerah istimewa yogyakarta, memiliki ketersediaan air irigasi yang baik, dan adanya petani yang melakukan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” yang menjadi binaan dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman. data dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan metode wawancara, observasi, dan pencatatan terkait dengan aktivitas “minapadi kolam dalam” yang didefinisikan sebagai usahatani padi yang dilakukan bersamaan dengan pemeliharaan ikan pada lahan sawah yang sama, dengan ciri khusus adanya sebagian kolam yang dibuat lebih dalam yang ditujukan untuk memudahkan pemeliharaan dan pemanenan ikan. faktor internal dan eksternal yang dipertimbangkan terkait dengan strategi pengembangan minapadi kolam dalam meliputi aspek teknis, ekonomi, lingkungan, sosial, dan manajemen (tabel 1). penyusunan strategi pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” di kabupaten sleman dalam penelitian ini digunakan analisis swot melalui pendekatan matrik swot, yaitu suatu analisis yang menghendaki adanya suatu survey internal mengenai tabel 1. faktor internal dan faktor ekternal dalam usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” di kabupaten sleman 20 jurnal agraris strengths (kekuatan) dan weaknesses (kelemahan), serta survey eksternal yang meliputi opportunities (peluang/ kesempatan) dan treats (ancaman). analisis swot ini terdiri dari analisis kualitatif dan kuantitatif. analisis kualitatif digunakan untuk memperoleh informasi/ pendapat yang dapat menunjang pengambilan keputusan yang bersifat subyektif, sedangkan analisis kuantitatif digunakan untuk menganalisis kekuatan dan kelemahan, serta peluang dan ancaman yang dihitung dengan skor tertentu (rangkuti, 2006). hasil dan pembahasan analisis kualitatif faktor eksternal berdasarkan analisis kualitatif faktor eksternal usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan dapat didentifikasi lebih dari 10 item peluang dan 5 item ancaman (tabel 2). berikut ini, rincian faktor eksternal yang teridentifikasi sebagai peluang pengembangan minapadi kolam dalam, berdasarkan analisis terhadap evaluasi yang dilakukan terhadap informasi yang diberikan responden. transportasi. sarana dan prasarana transportasi di wilayah kabupaten sleman dinilai baik. kondisi jalan yang baik membantu terwujudnya transportasi yang aman, nyaman, lancar, dan efisien, sehingga kegiatan pengadaan input maupun pemasaran produk mampu menjangkau sebagian besar wilayah di kabupaten sleman maupun wilayah lain di sekitarnya. petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan memperoleh dukungan pemda (dinas pertanian) berupa bantuan bibit dan pakan ikan pada periode pertama produksi, dan pendampingan dalam berusahatani. informasi teknologi “minapadi kolam dalam dinilai baik”, karena petani kelompok binaan selain mendapat bantuan dana juga mendapatkan informasi terkini mengenai usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” melalui pendampingan yang dilakukan oleh penyuluh pertanian. harga jual padi maupun ikan dinilai baik, karena harga jual produk yang dihasilkan dari usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” mampu menjadi insentif bagi petani untuk meningkatkan kualitas dan kuantitas produksi. peluang pasar dinilai baik. terdapat beberapa faktor yang mampu menjadi faktor pendorong terbukanya peluang pasar bagi produk yang dihasilkan dari “minapadi kolam dalam” yaitu: i) kabupaten sleman merupakan wilayah yang memiliki jumlah penduduk terbanyak di diy, ii) meningkatnya minat masyarakat untuk mengkonsumsi ikan sebagai salah satu sumber protein hewani, sebagai dampak kenaikan harga daging ayam dan daging sapi, iii) semakin menjamurnya bisnis rumah makan, restoran, dan hotel di kabupaten sleman. peran serta penyuluh dinilai baik. peran serta penyuluh pada kegiatan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” sangat membantu petani dalam memperkenalkan teknologi “minapadi kolam dalam” dan melakukan pendampingan kepada petani secara periodik. jaringan penjualan dengan konsumen dinilai baik, karena petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan selain menjual hasil produksi kepada pedagang juga telah melakukan terobosan penjualan langsung kepada konsumen. ketersediaan air. sumber daya air merupakan faktor utama dalam mendukung keberhasilan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” di kabupaten sleman. ketersediaan air di wilayah kabupaten sleman cukup memadai untuk kegiatan ini dengan tetap menjaga keseimbangan kebutuhan air untuk kegiatan non pertanian. tidak terjadinya konversi lahan dinilai baik karena wilayah dimana petani melakukan kegiatan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” berada di wilayah pertanian. ketersediaan lahan dinilai baik, karena sebagian besar petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan memiliki lahan yang relatif luas. tidak terjadinya banjir dinilai sangat baik, karena lahan yang digunakan untuk usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” berada di daerah yang tidak pernah terjadi banjir. lahan yang digunakan untuk usahatani minapadi kolam dalam berada di dekat rumah petani, sehingga keamanan lahan relatif baik. kemudahan untuk memperoleh bibit ikan. petani “minapadi kolam dalam” kelompok binaan tidak mengalami kesulitan dalam memperoleh bibit ikan, karena bibit ikan dapat diperoleh dari wilayah sleman. sementara itu, ancaman yang dihadapi petani dalam pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” tidak begitu banyak, mengingat sistem ini baru diperkenalkan sehingga belum banyak pihak terlibat dalam kegiatan ini. akses kredit dinilai tidak baik, karena akses layanan kredit yang mampu menjangkau petani di kabupaten sleman masih sangat terbatas. kenaikan harga input (pakan dan bibit) menjadi ancaman bagi keberlanjutan pengembangan “usahatani minapadi kolam dalam”. kualitas air dinilai tidak baik, karena air yang digunakan untuk irigasi yang sekaligus menjadi tempat 21 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 hidup ikan masih tercampur dengan bahan kimia (pupuk/pestisida kimia) yang digunakan oleh petani lain yang tidak menerapkan minapadi. ketersediaan tenaga kerja luar keluarga dinilai tidak baik, karena petani mengalami kesulitan untuk memperoleh tenaga kerja dari luar keluarga. dukungan dari masyarakat sekitar dinilai tidak baik. budidaya minapadi kolam dalam yang diperkenalkan oleh dinas pertanian masih terbatas pada sebagian kecil petani yang mempunyai minat yang besar untuk mengusahakan sistem ini, sementara petani lainnya belum tertarik untuk mengikuti jejak petani “minapadi kolam dalam”. hal ini terjadi karena untuk menerapkan “minapadi kolam dalam” membutuhkan: biaya yang lebih besar, tenaga kerja yang secara rutin memantau perkembangan ikan, dan luasan lahan tertentu yang memenuhi syarat luas minimal. analisis kualitatif faktor internal faktor internal menggambarkan kekuatan dan kelemahan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” yang dihadapi oleh kelompok binaan sebagaimana disajikan pada tabel 3. berikut ini sejumlah kekuatan yang teridentifikasi berdasarkan informasi dari responden. pertumbuhan ikan dinilai baik. usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” merupakan pengelolaan bersama budidaya padi dan ikan secara terpadu dalam satu lahan yang sama dengan memodifikasi bentuk kolam. budidaya sistem “minapadi kolam dalam” mampu membantu pertumbuhan ikan menjadi lebih baik karena ikan memperoleh tambahan makanan dari gulma pada tanaman padi. peningkatan produksi padi dinilai baik karena dengan sistem minapadi kolam dalam, kotoran ikan dapat berfungsi sebagai penyubur tanah yang pada akhirnya berdampak pada peningkatan produksi padi. peningkatan pendapatan petani dinilai baik karena melalui sistem “minapadi kolam dalam” petani mendapatkan peningkatan pendapatan yang diperoleh dari peningkatan produksi ikan maupun produksi padi. kemampuan menghambat pertumbuhan gulma dinilai sangat baik karena dengan sistem ini gulma yang tumbuh di lahan justru menjadi makanan bagi ikan. kemampuan menghambat pertumbuhan hama dinilai baik karena hama pada tanaman padi seperti tikus tidak bisa menyerang padi. hal ini disebabkan karena terdapat ruang yang cukup lebar antara pematang dan tanaman tabel 2. faktor peluang dan ancaman usahatani minapadi kolam dalam pada kelompok binaan 22 jurnal agraris padi, sehingga hama tikus tidak dapat menyerang tanaman padi. kemampuan meningkatkan kesuburan tanah dinilai baik karena kotoran yang dihasilkan ikan justru berfungsi sebagai pupuk yang dapat menyuburkan tanah. kemampuan menjaga kelestarian lingkungan alam dinilai baik. pengelolaan pertumbuhan tanaman padi dengan sistem “minapadi kolam dalam” tidak menggunakan bahan kimia (pupuk maupun pestisida), hal ini dilakukan karena penanaman padi terintegrasi dengan pemeliharaan ikan. selain itu, limbah yang dihasilkan dari pemeliharaan ikan justru bermanfaat bagi kesuburan tanah yang dapat menunjang pertumbuhan tanaman padi. motivasi petani dalam berusaha dinilai baik. petani “minapadi kolam dalam” kelompok binaan merupakan petani yang memiliki jiwa yang selalu ingin maju. mereka mau menerima dan menerapkan teknologi baru budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam”yang diperkenalkan oleh dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman. bibit ikan yang digunakan oleh petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan relatif baik. hal ini bisa terlihat dari pertumbuhan bibit selama pemeliharaan, dan hasil panen yang diperoleh. kelompok binaan “minapadi kolam dalam” kelompok binaan memiliki keterampilan yang baik dalam menerapkan sistem ini. adopsi teknologi dinilai baik tabel 3. faktor kekuatan dan kelemahan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan 23 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 karena teknologi budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam: yang diperkenalkan oleh dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman telah diadopsi oleh petani pada kelompok binaan. kelancaran pembayaran penjualan hasil produksi dinilai baik karena sistem pembayaran hasil penjualan beras/ikan yang sudah berjalan dilakukan secara tunai. kesesuaian jenis padi dinilai baik. jenis padi yang digunakan petani dalam sistem “minapadi kolam dalam” adalah varietas lokal termasuk menthik wangi. padi jenis ini sesuai dengan rekomendasi dari dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman. padi jenis lokal memiliki harga yang relatif tinggi karena memiliki cita rasa yang enak. kesesuaian jenis ikan dinilai baik. jenis ikan yang dibudidayakan petani dengan sistem “minapadi kolam dalam” sudah sesuai dengan rekomendasi dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman. jenis ikan yang yang dibudidayakan sebagian besar adalah ikan nila. kesesuaian jenis tanah dinilai baik. jenis tanah yang cocok untuk budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam” adalah tanah lempung karena tanah jenis ini memiliki sifat tidak porous. penguasaan teknik budidaya dinilai baik karena sebagian besar petani sudah menguasai teknik budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam”. persyaratan minimal luas lahan dinilai baik karena petani kelompok binaan telah memenuhi persyaratan minimal untuk budidaya tabel 4. matrik faktor ekternal usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” kelompok binaan 24 jurnal agraris minapadi kolam dalam. pengelolaan usaha berorientasi keuntungan dinilai baik karena sebagian besar petani sudah memiliki orientasi bisnis dalam berusahatani. sementara itu, sejumlah kelemahan dalam budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok petani binaan yang dapat teridentifikasi meliputi hal-hal berikut. lokasi lahan dinilai tidak baik karena lahan yang digunakan untuk usaha “minapadi kolam dalam” meskipun dekat dengan rumah petani, tetapi tetap sulit untuk memantau keamanan ikan yang dibudidayakan. selain itu, lokasi lahan masih berada di bawah lahan milik petani lain sehingga berdampak pada kualitas air irigasi. kelengkapan peralatan yang dimiliki dinilai tidak baik karena petani hanya menggunakan peralatan yang mereka miliki. ketersediaan tenaga kerja dinilai tidak baik sehingga sebagian besar kebutuhan tenaga kerja untuk kegiatan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” hanya dipenuhi dari tenaga kerja dari dalam keluarga. ketersediaan modal dinilai tidak baik. kemampuan permodalan petani belum kuat karena masih bertumpu pada modal milik sendiri. penghematan biaya dinilai tidak baik karena budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam” ternyata belum mampu menghemat biaya meskipun dari aspek teknik budidayanya mampu memberikan suatu hubungan timbal balik yang positif antara tanaman padi dan ikan. kemampuan memenuhi kebutuhan pasar lokal dinilai tidak baik karena budidaya “minapadi kolam dalam” belum sepenuhnya dapat memenuhi kebutuhan ikan untuk wilayah kabupaten sleman. analisis kuantitatif faktor eksternal dan internal analisis kuantitatif faktor eksternal dilakukan dengan memberikan bobot pada masing-masing variabel eksternal. pembobotan merupakan kepentingan yang dilakukan oleh petani “minapadi kolam dalam” kelompok binaan yang ditujukan untuk mempertajam variabel strategis. untuk memperoleh faktor pembobotan diperoleh dengan cara mengalikan bobot dengan rating. hasil akhir berupa skor pembobotan untuk masingmasing faktor yang nilainya bervariasi mulai dari 4 (outstanding) sampai dengan 1 (poor), seperti terlihat pada tabel 4. dari penjumlahan skor pembobotan diperoleh total skor pembobotan faktor eksternal petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan dan diperoleh skor 1,83. nilai total ini menunjukkan bagaimana petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan bereaksi terhadap faktor-faktor eksternalnya. kriteria nilai tertimbang (total skor pembobotan) yang digunakan adalah sebagai berikut: i) nilai tertimbang d” 2, termasuk rendahl; ii) 2 < nilai-tertimbang d” 3, termasuk sedang; iii) 3 < nilai tertimbang d” 4, termasuk tinggi. dilihat dari kriteria nilai tertimbang (total skor pembobotan) tersebut maka dapat dikatakan bahwa usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan memiliki peluang yang sedang dan ancaman yang rendah. hasil analisis kuantitatif untuk faktor internal usahatani minapadi menunjukkan skor yang tidak jauh berbeda dengan hasil analisis faktor eksternal (tabel 5). dari penjumlahan skor pembobotan faktor internal diperoleh total skor pembobotan faktor internal dari petani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan yaitu sebesar 1,86. nilai total ini menunjukkan bagaimana petani minapadi kolam dalam pada kelompok binaan bereaksi terhadap faktor-faktor internalnya. gambar 2. diagram analisis swot pengembangan “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan berdasar analisis swot melalui penilaian hasil analisis faktor eksternal (tabel 4) dan faktor internal (tabel 5) dapat digambarkan melalui diagram x = (1,86) dan y = (1,83), maka pengembangan “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan berada dalam posisi agresif (seperti pada gambar 2). posisi agresif merupakan 25 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 strategi pengembangan yang tertumpu pada pemanfaatan peluang dan kekuatan yang ada. berdasar hasil diagram analisis swot terlihat bahwa posisi pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan berada pada wilayah i yang berarti terdapat peluang dan kekuatan untuk pengembangannya. strategi untuk pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan yang harus dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan: i) transportasi, dukungan pemda, informasi teknologi minapadi, harga jual produk, peluang pasar, kinerja penyuluh, ketersediaan air, jaringan penjualan dengan konsumen, idak adanya konversi lahan, ketersediaan lahan, tidak adanya banjir, keamanan lahan, kemudahan dalam memperoleh bibit ikan, dan ii) kekuatan yang meliputi pertumbuhan ikan, peningkatan produksi dan pendapatan petani, terhambatnya pertumbuhan gulma, terhambatnya pertumbuhan hama, peningkatan kesuburan tanah, kemampuan untuk menjaga kelestarian lingkungan alam, motivasi petani dalam berusaha, kualitas bibit ikan, ketrampilan petani, adopsi teknologi, kelancaran pembayaran penjualan hasil produksi, kesesuaian jenis padi, kesesuaian jenis ikan, kesesuaian jenis tanah, penguasaan teknik budidaya, persyaratan minimal luas lahan, dan pengelolaan usaha berbasis bisnis. formulasi strategi pengembangan usahatani minapadi kolam dalam pada kelompok binaan yang mengkombinasikan faktor-faktor internal (kekuatan dan kelemahan) dengan faktor-faktor eksternal (peluang dan ancaman) disajikan dalam lampiran 1. kesimpulan kekuatan dalam pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan meliputi pertumbuhan ikan, peningkatan produksi padi dan pendapatan petani, terhambatnya pertumbuhan gulma, terhambatnya pertumbuhan hama, peningkatan kesuburan tanah, kemampuan untuk menjaga kelestarian lingkungan alam, motivasi petani dalam berusaha, kualitas bibit ikan, ketrampilan petani, adopsi teknologi tabel 5. matrik faktor internal usahatani minapadi kolam dalam kelompok binaan 26 jurnal agraris kelancaran pembayaran penjualan produksi, kesesuaian jenis padi dan jenis ikan, kesesuaian jenis tanah, penguasaan teknik budidaya, persyaratan minimal luas lahan, dan pengelolaan usaha berorientasi bisnis. kelemahan dalam pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan meliputi lokasi lahan, kelengkapan peralatan yang dimiliki petani, keterbatasan tenaga kerja, ketersediaan modal, penghematan biaya, kemampuan memenuhi pasar lokal. peluang dalam dalam pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan meliputi transportasi, dukungan pemda, informasi teknologi minapadi, harga jual produk, peluang pasar, kinerja penyuluh, ketersediaan air, jaringan penjualan dengan konsumen, tidak adanya konversi lahan, ketersediaan lahan, tidak adanya banjir, keamanan lahan, dan kemudahan dalam memperoleh bibit ikan. ancaman dalam pengembangan usahatani “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan meliputi kurangnya akses kredit, kenaikan harga input, kualitas air, ketersediaan tenaga kerja luar keluarga, upaya diversifikasi, dukungan dari masyarakat, kemampuan mengatasi masalah pengangguran. kategori pengembangan “minapadi kolam dalam” pada kelompok binaan berada dalam posisi agresif untuk memanfaatkan peluang dan kekuatan yang ada. daftar pustaka ampri., k, dan khairuman. 2008. budidaya ikan nila secara intensif. jakarta: agromedia pustaka. anonim, 2012. setahun, 1500 hektar padi rusak diserang hama tikus. kedaulatan rakyat, 25 september 2012. badan pusat statistik diy. 2012. daerah istimewa yogyakarta dalam angka. yogyakarta: badan pusat statistik diy. dinas pertanian, perikanan, dan kehutanan, kabupaten sleman. 2011. standar operasional prosedur minapadi kolam dalam. yogyakarta: dinas pertanian, perikanan, dan kehutanan, kabupaten sleman. hermawan., i, dan w. setiawan. 2010. sukses pembibitan belut di lahan sempit. jakarta: agromedia pustaka. hutapea, y., t. thamrin, dan y. pandu. 2010. penerapan inovasi teknologi dan pendapatan usahatani padi. jurnal pembangunan manusia 4(10) di http:// balitbangnovda.sumselprov.go.id/data/download/ 20121227171813.pdf rangkuti, f. 2006. analsis swot teknis membedah kasus bisnis. jakarta: gramedia. suparwoto. 2010. sistem tanam legowo pada usahatani padi untuk meningkatkan produksi dan pendapatan petani. jurnal pembangunan manusia 10(1), tersedia pada: http://balitbangnovda.sumselprov.go.id/data/download/ 20121227172257.pdf suntanto., r. 2002. penerapan pertanian organik. yogyakarta: kanisius. tiku. 2008. analisis pendapatan usahatani padi sawah menurut sistem minapasi dan sistem non minapadi (kasus desa tapos i dan desa tapos ii, kecamatan tenjolaya, kabupaten bogor, jawa barat. skripsi, program studi manajemen agribisnis, fakultas pertanian ipb. tim lentera, 2002. kiat mengatasi masalah praktis pembesaran ikan mas di kolam air deras. jakarta: agromedia pustaka. wangke., w. m., b. o. l. suzana, dan h. a. siagian. 2011. penerapan teknologi usahatani padi sawah di desa sendangan kecamatan kakas kabupaten minahasa. ase 7(1):53-57. 27 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 lampiran 1. strategi pengembangan minapadi kolam dalam pada kelompok binaan di kabupaten sleman i issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 191-206 article history: submitted : march 3rd, 2021 revised : october 22nd, 2021 september 9th, 2021 accepted : october 28th, 2021 wiseman ndlovu*, marizvikuru mwale, and jethro zuwarimwe institute for rural development, university of venda, south africa *) correspondence email: wiseman.ndlovu@outlook.com challenges and critical success factors for rural agrarian reforms in limpopo province, south africa doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11272 abstract the need for rural land agrarian reforms has reached heightened levels in south africa in recent years. resultantly, the communal land use effectiveness is questioned due to persistent poor performance and declining agricultural output that fails to address rural poverty and food insecurity. this is one of the major causes of why south africa's rural economies are generally characterized by stagnant economic growth. this points to deep-rooted and unique challenges that need urgent attention if meaningful support and resilience systems are to be built for rural agrarian land reforms to be realized. the present study investigated challenges and characterized factors that lead to the prosperity of rural agricultural projects in communal land ownership. an exploratory study design was followed, and the data was collected using interviews and focus group discussions from communal farmers and key informants. data were analyzed thematically with the aid of atlas. ti version 8.1.4. “information challenges” and “water scarcity” describe some of the common challenges faced by rural farmers. six critical success factors were identified and found to be related. “effective project management and control” and “improved support from and partnership with local community stakeholders” are success factors that, if targeted first, could address most challenges faced in rural agrarian reforms. the results suggest that partnership with the private sector can help farmers commercialize and move swiftly towards agro-processing. identified threats and successes must be prioritized in designing and formulating region-specific rural agrarian support programs for communal farmers. keywords: agriculture, communal farmers, rural agrarian land reforms, rural development, success factors introduction the democratic south african government, after 1994, systematically introduced targeted programs to reduce the vulnerabilities of rural farmers and improve output. these include reconstruction and development program of 1994; and one household one hectare of 2015 (tshuma, 2012; netshipale, oosting, raidimi, mashiloane, & de boer, 2017). comprehensive agricultural support program introduced in 2004/2005 is in operation http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:wiseman.ndlovu@outlook.com https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 192 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research currently. the program aims to undo the inequalities in farming land access and use as inherited from the apartheid government planning. specifically, the program assists with, on and off-farm infrastructure support, information & knowledge management, technical support, advisory services, training, and capacity for rural black farmers. despite the wide support, fewer success stories are recorded (quinn, ziervogel, taylor, takama, & thomalla, 2011, vetter, 2013). it suggests a misdiagnosis of the problem and indicates the exisitence of unique challenges that face rural farmers despite the given support. this may also further indicate the adoption of a top-down approach in these support programs. studies (dung & jenicek, 2008; ha, bosch, & nguyen, 2015) show that although there are similarities, there are different success rates of rural agrarian reform programs across provinces and regions. it may further indicate use of top-down approach methods in the support programs. further to that, supported farmers lack resilience and sustainability competence to carry on after the withdrawal of support. expectedly, rural agricultural output continue to decline as recorded in recent years. this explain the rising levels of household food insecurity in most rural homes. for instance, recently, a report by statitics south africa (2019) on quarter to quarter annual growth rates by sector. agrculture, shows a negative growth (-7,6%) and contributed to -0,2 of a percentage point to gdp. the fall was a result of a decrease in the production of field and horticultural crops. rural farmers are reportedly the most affected. agriculture is a vital economic sector for most rural communities in sub-saharan africa and south africa. it is the heart of economic development. its success guarantees food and nutrition security, generates income for farmers, and creates jobs for sustainable rural livelihoods (sobczyk, 2014; balkrishna, 2021). in addition, it guards vegetation and animal diversity (sobczyk, 2014). moreover, agriculture releases labor, resources, and capital for other businesses (yuldashev, & sultonov, 2020; balkrishna, 2021). however, success in the sector is not achieved swiftly enough to produce important benefits to farmers and rural livelihoods. this indicates that the current agriculture development support programs have not addressed the sector’s sustainability and achieved desired results. it appears that there are unique challenges confronting communal farmers that need context and an area-specific combination of key factors important for the success of rural farmers. according to křičková (2015), rural farmers exhibit common triple challenges of limited growth, dependency syndrome, and consummate failure, however varied. this suggests uniqueness in the needs of farmers in different regions and settings. beckman (2001) contends that misdiagnosis and lack of contextualization of farmers’ challenges result in support systems rooted in the top-down and one-size-fits-all approach. such approaches ignore the fact that societal norms, systems, values, environment, and perceptions shape how the community views, supports, values, and practices agriculture in each region meijer, catacutan, ajayi, sileshi, & nieuwenhuis, 2015). commercial farmers enjoy economies of scale. hence, they have access to capital hence can harness the benefits of technological sophistication to adapt to the harsh and fast-changing farming conditions. this does not rue with smallholder and small-scale communal farmers. thus, any rural agrarian support program that ignores the uniqueness of challenges is poised to fail. this necessitates the need-to-know threats to the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 193 challenges and critical success factors for….. (ndlovu, mwale, and zuwarimwe) success of the intended agrarian reforms. it is in this way that success thrusts can be known comprehensively. this helps in devising region-specific strategies and programs that support the prosperity of rural agrarian reforms. this study was conducted in limpopo province. limpopo is a northern province of south africa that covers 123 600 km2 in area. its population is over 5.8 million (statistics south africa, 2020). limpopo is largely rural (de cock et al., 2013) and the province has approximately 10% of the arable land of south africa. as the main economic activity, common agricultural crops include grain sorghum, dry beans, soybeans, wheat, and sunflower constituting about 43%, 22%, 4%, 7%, and 10%, respectively (department of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries [daff], 2019). nuts, cotton, and stable foods like maize are also common farmer and market choice crops. the province has more people living in poverty of about 50% (statistics south africa, 2019). arguably, it is the poorest province in the country. despite the government's efforts to improve the situation and reduce poverty by supporting rural farmers, the province remains largely poor. the land redistribution schemes such as settlement land acquisition grant (1995 till 2000), land redistribution for agricultural development (2001 to 2010) as well as the proactive land acquisition strategy (2006 to date) (department of land affairs, 1997; 2006) sought after grooming and introducing a new generation of farmers to commercial farming from the previously disadvantaged past. this was part of the national rural agrarian land reform programs in south africa (macleod, mcdonald, & van oudtshoorn, 2008). despite, the introduction of more support programs such as comprehensive agricultural support program introduced in 2004/5, more than two decades later, relatively few farmers have risen to become successful commercial entrepreneurs (mafukata, 2015; mwadzingeni, mugandani, & mafongoya, 2020). this indicates multiple challenges that are unique to the province and hinder the successful transition and rural agrarian reforms. it is why, currently the provincial government initiatives seek to establish agri-parks, agriculture co-operatives, promote development of agro-processing industry, and support young farmers as a strategy to achieve intended rural agrarian reforms. the provincial government is committed to supporting agriculture as a tool for sustainable rural development. annually, over 1 000 farmers benefit from sector trainings to improve farmers’ skills and production capabilities (daff, 2019). with this support and commitment at the local level, rural agriculture projects still fail to yield desired outcomes and reduce poverty (mpandeli & maponya, 2014). it is for this reason why this study was commissioned to identify and isolate issues that hinder the success of rural agrarian reforms in the province targeted at rural agricultural projects. the methods and techniques used to conduct the study are described below. research method study design and area selection rationale a cross-sectional exploratory study design was used to obtain the lived practical contextual experiences for the threats and determinants of success among the rural http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 194 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research agricultural projects. ethical clearance was issued by the university of venda social research ethics committee (ethics certificate number: sardf/18/ird/06/2111). permission to conduct the study was further sought from three local municipalities located in vhembe (thulamela & collins chabane local minimality) and mopani (greater-giyani local municipality) district in limpopo province, south africa (figure 1). figure 1. study area in mopani and vhembe district of limpopo province, south africa study population and data collection one hundred and three (103) farmers and key informants participated in the study. these comprised of purposively selected communal farmers, operating in three local municipalities. furthermore, municipal local economic development practitioners specializing in agriculture, traditional leaders, and non-governmental organizations that work closely with farmers in studied areas were selected as key informants and to triangulate the findings. data were collected through focus group discussions and interviews using semistructured questions with farmers, and key informants, respectively. two (2) research assistants helped facilitate the data collection process and discussions in local languages (venda and xitsonga) to ensure that farmers understood issues better. detailed notes of interviews and audio records were used to enhance the accuracy of responses. rural agriculture projects in each municipality were purposively approached. the purpose of the study was presented to the owner, manager, or committee chairperson in the case of a cooperative. on agreement, agricultural projects were included. one project, in collins chabane, was included initially and later excluded due to its closure after the preliminary meetings were done. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 195 challenges and critical success factors for….. (ndlovu, mwale, and zuwarimwe) analysis procedure transcribed explorative data was cleaned and captured into microsoft excel. thereafter, it was imported into the atlas ti network version 8.1 to aid the thematic content analysis. in a series of coding, de-coding, and re-coding, major themes describing challenges and pertinent success factors for agricultural projects were identified. visual network diagrams showing relationships of identified factors with associated descriptive statements were used for the analysis and understanding of causation. results and discussion demographic composition table 1 illustrates demographic profile of 103 participants who took part in the study. more than half of the respondents were female 55 (53.4%) and over three quarters were above the age of 40. thus, there is low participation of youth in rural agricultural projects. among them, most of the participants had matriculated 63 (61.2%). table 1. participant’s demographic profile of the study (n = 103) category frequency percentage (%) gender female 55 53.4 male 48 46.6 age under 30 years 8 7.8 31 40 years 24 23.3 41 50 years 34 33.0 51 60 years 27 26.2 over 61 years 9 8.7 level of education up to secondary education 39 37.9 matric 36 35.0 tertiary 27 26.2 respondent type farmers 69 67.0 traditional leaders and council members 27 26.2 government institutions 4 3.9 non-governmental organization 3 2.9 characteristics of agricultural projects all participating farmers were horticultural producers in the studied agricultural projects. these included cooperatives and individually owned farms under the communal land ownership system. common crops produced included maize, sweet potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes, chinese cabbage, and pepper. nearly, 30% the of studied farms, were involved in mixed farming. mainly, poultry. more so, approximately 23% of the farms cultivated specialized crops. for example, apart from vegetables, a project in vhembe district focused on herbs and specialized in sweet potato. similarly, another farm in greater-giyani region, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 196 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research mopani district specialized herb production called lippia javannica [musudzungwane]. the herb produces oils that are commonly used for mosquito repellents as well as perfumes. the average size of farms was 5.81 ha. smallest farm was of 3 ha while the largest had 12 ha. threats to the success of agricultural projects themes describing major challenges for agricultural projects were categorized as illustrated in table 2. results revealed that limited and lack of access to relevant farming information timely was part of the reasons why rural agricultural projects fail. although extension and municipal officers, said information was given regularly. farmers were of the view that the information was generic and did not address their immediate unique farm to farm challenges (fgd 5, 6, 7, 9 [greater-giyani]; fdg 13 [thulamela]; fdg 17 [collins chabane]). farmers further explained that information given, lacked matter specificity and context-relevance. additionally, it did not consider real-time seasonal weather variations and was not regular enough to meet farmer information needs. table 2. threats to the success of rural agricultural projects in limpopo, south africa threats to success cause description effect on success limited support from local stakeholders • no real value is placed on agriculture & lack of interest • limited resources • role ambiguity and lack of accountability • no understanding of work done • stakeholder’s failure to see their role in agriculture • vulnerability to the internal and external environment • limited ability to mobilize resources • unbalanced representation of farmer’s interests • unfavorable and inappropriate support policies • lack of motivation unstable and inaccessible market • inconsistent quality of farm produce • far markets • reliance on free independent traders & buyers • inability to penetrate the market • low prices & vulnerability to clearance pricing • financial losses • loss of stock financial constraints and management • scarce information on funding opportunities • no collateral • little or no funding proposal writing skills • too much paperwork • inability to access grants • failure to access credit • no capital and reduced production • failure to access developmental funds lack of technical know-how and skills • low level of education • limited training opportunities • failure to adopt and operate new farming technology • failure to manage and run farm activities • failure to embrace new technologies • outdated use and application of farming techniques • low output unusable and unavailability information • generic information • no prompt information services and sources • an indifferent effect on the success • loss of stock water challenges • climate change • low rainfall • no money for drilling boreholes • loss of crops it was also brought to the fore that, farmers failed to reconcile the information given, due to challenges with comprehension and language-related barriers. this included online http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 197 challenges and critical success factors for….. (ndlovu, mwale, and zuwarimwe) information sources. limited contact with several farming experts that support farmers, also limited access to information services for farmers. in this vein, an led officer added that there is indeed lack of “prompt information and knowledge sharing between players” and “distant located technical services” on crop and animal production threatened farmers’ success. to indicate the severity of this challenge, a project member stated that, “it takes time for us to know some of the diseases or pests that infest our plants. after reporting our problems to the extension officers, they take time to visit and diagnose the problem. we need assistance because in most cases our plants die before we get help”. (interview b16: collins chabane municipal area). in support of this, an ngo representative, said, “… sometimes all their plants get infected or attacked while waiting. in my observation, … they have learned to uproot all the plants suspicious of diseases and infections” (key informant interview 22, thulamela municipal area). limited know-how coupled with, the absence of prompt information sources or services said they lose crops to disease infestation, the quality of the produce is also compromised and ultimately, they experience decreased farm output (two and three fgds in thulamela and collins chabane local municipality, respectively). as coping strategy, indigenous knowledge systems such as smearing “ashes” on tops of crops were used. also, farmers uprooted all infected crops to prevent the spread of the disease or pests’ attack. climate and capital inadequacy induced water challenges also hindered farmers’ success. climate variabilities such as “fluctuating seasonal rainfall” as well as “temperature” emerged as of major concern to most farmers. additionally, the problem of water access was aggravated by lack of capital. for instance, farmers were unable drill boreholes or erect proper functional irrigation systems and set up green houses. in their words, during a group discussion, one farmer narrated the extent of this challenge. “we need an irrigation system to have a meaningful harvest and currently, we cannot afford it. the one which was donated to us now requires maintenance and unfortunately, we are struggling to service it” (fgd 17: greater-giyani municipal area). a local economic development municipal officer in thulamela municipal area echoed these sentiments stating that most farmers cannot afford water access infrastructure on their own and most depend on donations by ngos, supermarkets and or on grants from the department of agriculture (interview 25: key informant). capital challenges directly affect the ability of farmers to purchase farming implements, inputs, and erect infrastructure. lack of financial management skills further impeded the ability of farmers to raise funds on their own. although the local government provided grant or proposal writing assistance, not all farmers got assisted due to limited funding targets. thus, most farmers miss out on other funding instruments and grants. permission to occupy (pto) land ownership or tenure system, also make it hard for rural communal farmers to access credit as stated by an led municipal official in thulamela and ngo representative located in the greater-giyani area. under this system, farmers are only given the permission to occupy the land for farming with no title deeds. as such, land cannot be used as collateral with most financial institutions. a project leader explained that, although they had access to grants, “most of these grants are not sufficient to buy some of the key equipment such as tractors and other inputs to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 198 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research increase our output” (interview 12: thulamela municipal area). financial challenges were also linked to another challenge of an inadequate number of farmworkers and skills challenges. for example, a project manager in the greater-giyani region said, “to produce enough in the farm, we need more workers however due to limited funds we now rely on temporary workers whom we pay from the little profit we make” (interview 8: greater-giyani municipal area). limited knowledge in farming and accompanying skills also threatens the success of rural farmers. amid climate variabilities in addition to the use of new breed varieties as a coping strategy, farmers revealed that they are not equipped with the right knowledge to manage and adapt to the new realities. “it will help us to understand the requirements for managing and taking care of these new breeds especially the ones, we get from the shops nowadays” a project (fgd 5: greater-giyani municipal area). two fdgs in thulamela and two collins chabane municipal areas also attested to this. although farmers said they sometimes attended training courses, it was not enough. only a “handful of workers or members” could attend and such opportunities were scarce (interview 8 & 16 in greater-giyani collins and chabane municipal area, respectively). as a coping strategy, farmers utilized online information services. however, lower levels of education and literacy, deterred comprehension of issues as most online information resources were in english. this affected how farmers adopted and adapted to new technologies and their ability to manage farm activities. inadequate support from local stakeholders such as extension services, ngos, and the private sector was also noted as a challenge inhibiting the success of projects. lack of interest, not seeing the value in the sector, limited resources, and poor working relations described the reasons for the limited participation of local stakeholders. these sentiments were true in all the municipal areas/regions studied (1 fgd in greater-giyani, 3 in collins chabane, and 2 in thulamela). an interview with an ngo official, in collins chabane municipal area, revealed that community, leaders, and local institutions were less involved in support of agriculture in the locality. results suggest that because of poor support, projects found it difficult to access the market, information, and mobilize resources for sustained growth. this could also explain why two ngo representatives, in thulamela and greater-giyani local municipal area, said communal farmers were generally discouraged. market access was another challenge for farmers. two project leaders, a key informant, and four fdgs in collin chabane and thulamela municipalities attested to this. unreliable crops and animal quality; distant markets; dependence on free independent market agents and consumers; and not being able to breach market entry barriers are factors that make it a nightmare for farmers to access the market. for instance, reliance on independent buyers or traders and the existence of distant markets reportedly forces farmers to sell their produce at clearance prices in most cases only to break-even. in some instances, crops particularly tomatoes, spinach, and cabbage lose freshness and or rot before reaching the market. determinants of success for rural agricultural projects respondents’ narratives on issues that may lead to success were analyzed to develop themes and sub-themes on critical success factors for rural agricultural projects. furthermore, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 199 challenges and critical success factors for….. (ndlovu, mwale, and zuwarimwe) success factors developed were juxtaposed and linked with how they directly respond to major challenges facing agricultural projects (figure 2). involved, proactive, and active stakeholder participation; open and accessible market; and access to the skilled workforce, and continuous training and learning; are examples of factors that need to be natured for rural agricultural projects to succeed. figure 2. critical success factors and descriptive items on challenges addressed facing rural agricultural projects in limpopo province, south africa the analysis revealed that improved participation, inclusion, and support of local stakeholders could improve the chances of success for projects. farmers in all the three municipal areas said, “poor service delivery” and detachment or lack of interest in agriculture by stakeholders such as traditional leaders, extension services, community, and private sector explained partly their lack of progress. it emerged that improved participation has the potential to improve access to finance, market, and information for farmers in the region. for instance, a project manager echoed these sentiments and said, “there is little involvement from extension officers and other players to partner with us in our farming activities” (interview 8: greatergiyani municipality). moreover, farmers indicated that partnership with the private sector and ngos could be useful in supplementing government support services which are currently strained. land access was another factor key to the success of rural farmers. it was revealed that land access issues encompassed fertility, ownership, adequacy, and arability. land inadequacy, for instance, was caused by high prices, and unwillingness as well as lack of agrarian planning success factors descriptive items/challenges key http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 200 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research by tribal authorities as land administrators. in terms of ownership, land owned by farmers belonged to the tribal authority and in most cases, it could not be used as collateral to obtain adequate funding to expand the farming enterprise. this result shows that land access is a key success factor that also strongly influences access to funding for farmers. a farmer said, “poor access to finance, the heartbeat of farming for projects, limited their ability to adapt their farming practices” (fgd 16: collins chabane municipal area). for example, a project manager in thulamela municipality stated that funding challenges, were the reason they could not drill a borehole; erect an irrigation system to deal with water challenges and train their members and workers for improved production. the ability to effectively manage and control farm activities is another factor that determines success for agricultural projects. inability to monitor, source funds, plan, organize, and prepare for unforeseeable setbacks explained the failures of most projects in all the municipalities (fgd 4, 16, 17, and 21). a farmer in collins chabane municipality was of the view that if farm managers and supervisors took full charge, presented a clear vision, and motivated members/workers, the goals of the project will be adequately met. the analysis revealed that effective management, could improve chances of success by improving access to information, finance, training, and strengthening of stakeholder relationships. results suggest that effective farm management is the most important factor for running successful rural agricultural projects. adequate numbers of members/workers and access to a skilled workforce together with training opportunities were identified as key success factors for agricultural projects. the challenges of failure to manage and monitor farming activities were linked to limited knowhow and basic skills for a successful farming enterprise. a farm manager indicated that due to lack of skills and low level of education, production was slowed down as few skilled individuals or managers are required to do extra monitoring of farmworkers or members (interview 18: thulamela municipal area). the municipal officer in thulamela, an ngo representative, and farmers in all three local municipalities, stressed the necessity and importance of continuous skills training and capacitation. the respondents emphasized the need for farmer to adapt to the changing nature of farming if agricultural projects are to achieve sustained success and growth. discussion of results results revealed that active project management and control; having skilled farm workers, access to continuous training, access to more farming land area, as well as supportive and involved local stakeholders are key factors that if managed and manipulated, intended rural agrarian reforms could be swiftly achieved in vhembe and mopane district of south africa. literature (mukwevho & anim, 2014; sjauw-koen-fa et al., 2016; yusoff, man, & nawi, 2016), supports that inability to penetrate the market is major problem among rural farmers however, it is manifested differently. in this study, market access challenges related to transport, inadequate marketing skills, and limited access market information. these findings http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 201 challenges and critical success factors for….. (ndlovu, mwale, and zuwarimwe) are similar those by khapayi & celliers (2016). in this light, findings point to the fact that capacitating farmers in skills like marketing, and developing market access strategies for rural farmers could potentially improve prospects of farmers’ success. simalteniously, this could address the multi-dimensional effect of farmers' challenges. effective project management and control are among the important factors needed for rural agriculture projects to succeed. like the findings of this study, the european network for rural development (enrd) (2015) notes ability to plan effectively and control the farm programs determine the successful implementation of rural development projects. similarly, continuous monitoring of financial and project operations is imperative for projects to survive (vukelić & rodic, 2014; yusoff et al., 2016). the authors argue that this factor differentiates between a successful and a failed farm. vukelić & rodic (2014) emphases the importance of record keeping as an effective tool for decisions making which was not common among farmers. in this way, farmers note problems and plan accordingly. based on this result, rural agrarian support programs must prioritize project management and leadership skills transfer as a sustainable strategy to achieve success for farmers. the empirical study demonstrated that access to workers with farming knowledge, continuous training as well as learning is an important element to the success of farming operations. yusoff, man, & nawi (2016) found that technical skills played a central role to the success of small ruminant farmers in malaysia. results further revealed that both workers and farm managers must not only have appropriate farming knowledge, but there must adopts a learning culture to adapt rapidly to changing agriculture environment. similarly, literature shows that both workers and managers must be aware and learn new and emerging farming techniques and methods (collier & dercon, 2014; salami et al., 2017). given the climate variabilities currently experienced and advances in farming technology, continuous training and learning is an imperative for quick adaptation. results of the study support that access to the skilled workforce and continuous training and learning is a critical factor important for rural agrarian reforms to succeed. linked to the need for skills, farmers said fewer workers hindered their operations and expansion goals. capital challenges was the main limiting factor in accessing adequate number of workers. this is a persistent challenge in most rural farmers. for example, etim & okon (2013), found simialr results. the author pointed out capital challenges were multifacated. authors revelaed thet this challenge did not only liimit accss to ideal farm workers but farmers could not access the alternative benefits from advanced technology for their operations. also, nuthall (2012) as well as akintayo & lawal (2016) in nigeria pointed out that overdependence on manual labour, makes adequate number of workers an important element of success for for rural farming. this could be the reason why farmers emphasises on more workers compared to commercial or well-off farmers that rely on technology to till and harvest for example. thus, adequate number of workers for rural farmers is a critical factor for success. findings suggest that active involvement and participation of local stakeholders is critical in building resilience and facilitating networking with various local, regional, and international partners to support agricultural projects. these findings are like those reported http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 202 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research in literature by vermeulen et al. (2012) and fan, geddes, & flory (2013). results further suggested that partnership with the private sector would complement government scarce extension services. equally, participants said the partnership with the private sector offered more opportunities in agro-processing compared to the government services. thus, an intimate relationship amongst farmers and local development support players such as the private sector is vital to realize success among the projects. correspondingly in this study, collaboration with stakeholders like farmers’ families; local community, and organization; advisory/extension services; non-governmental organizations; and local governance structures are regarded as key to the success of rural farming (vermeulen et al., 2012; raleting & obi, 2015). these results, show that the success of rural agrarian reforms lie on stakeholder participation and involvement to build a solid network of local support to farmers. access to land also emerged as an important factor that determines success for rural farmers. land access is major challenge to farmers global. however, in this study fewer farmers complained by physical access to land but rather were concerned by the technical access. absence of title deeds prevented farmers from using land as a guarantor for credit access with financial institutions (garnevska et al., 2011; sutherland & burton, 2011; white, 2012). these finding corroborates the claim globally and south africa rural farmers’ fail due capital shortages (gillah et al., 2012; heyi & mberengwa, 2012; kepe, & tessaro, 2014). thus, rural agrarian reforms program cannot achieve sustainable outcomes without addressing the land ownership question for rural farmers. any program that does not address this challenge is poised to fail from the onset. this could explain why most rural agricultural projects succeed only during the period of support and fail when the support is withdrawn. conclusion the study investigated challenges and determined important factors required to achieve success in rural agrarian reforms among agricultural projects. results show that lack of access to information, poor farm management, and low level of support for farmers were some of the main problems hindering success of the intended reforms. the analysis shows that through improving management and leadership, farm workers’ skills, availing opportunities for training and learning; and adapting technical access to land the agrarian reforms could be successfully realized. active support and participation of different stakeholders emerged as the missing critical factor for the success of rural agrarian reforms among rural projects. for instance, farmers stated that apart from inadequate and unreliable government services such as extension services, ngos and the private sector should get involved and partner with farmers in supporting rural agrarian reforms. this was also said to be the route towards successful commercialization and achieving agro-processing among farmers. effective project management and support for farmers appeared to be the most important as evidenced linkage to most factors and the ability to address multiple challenges facing projects. success factors revealed in the study are crucial for formulating apposite and applicable intervention measures to challenges facing rural farmers. identified challenges and success factors offer a distinct http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 203 challenges and critical success factors for….. (ndlovu, mwale, and zuwarimwe) multi-dimensional tool that can be applied to improve the likelihood of success to farmers. given these findings, it is recommended that in designing support programs for farmers, skills development programs should focus on farm management skills and seek to foster partnerships with various local stakeholders to build sustained resilience for projects. moreover, the study recommends involvement and development of a farmer support model that brings in the private sector to improve the marketing of farmer’s produce through engaging in agro-processing activities. acknowledgment: national research foundation, south africa: grant id number: 112388 references akintayo, o. i., & lawal, b. o. (2016). effect of land fragmentation on technical efficiency among farmers in southwest nigeria. international journal of science nature, 7(3), 2016. balkrishna, a. (ed.). 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(2016). exploring critical success factors for stakeholder management in small ruminant farming. journal of advanced agricultural technologies, 3(4), 239-246. https://doi.org/10.18178/joaat.3.4.239-246 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2012.00375.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2012.00375.x https://doi.org/10.18178/joaat.3.4.239-246 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 207-224 article history: submitted : april 7th, 2021 revised : august 2nd, 2021 july 4th, 2021 accepted : august 14th, 2021 simbarashe ndhleve1, clarah dapira2, hlekani muchazotida kabiti1,*, zibongiwe mpongwana3, elphina nomabandla cishe4, motebang dominic vincent nakin1, stephen shisanya2, keitirele patricia walker5 1 risk and vulnerability science centre, walter sisulu university, south africa 2 directorate of research and innovation, walter sisulu university, south africa 3 research chair in sustainable rural development, walter sisulu university, south africa 4 faculty of educational sciences, walter sisulu university, south africa 5 malotwana silvopastorall, botswana *) correspondence email: kabitihlekani@yahoo.co.uk household food insecurity status and determinants: the case of botswana and south africa doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11451 abstract this study used a survey questionnaire to investigate the state and determinants of household food security in south africa and botswana. in south africa, 1557 households in two district municipalities within eastern cape province participated in the study. in botswana, data was collected from 506 in southern kanye, southeast district, and gaborone households. the paper employed household food insecurity access scale and prevalence to investigate the state food security across the sample population. the household food insecurity access prevalence was used to determine the characteristics of and changes in household food insecurity of the sample households. the linear and ordinal regression analyses were carried out to outline determinants of food insecurity in the region. findings emanating from the current study show a high prevalence of food insecurity in both countries. meanwhile, geographical location, household size, and socio-economic infrastructure emerged as common determinants of food security for botswana and south africa. the paper recommends state-mediated intervention to improve access to basic socio-economic infrastructure and address unemployment rates in both countries as key areas to improve food security status. keywords: food access, food availability, food security, household food insecurity access score introduction globally, food insecurity is a serious socio-economic problem that manifests itself in the form of hunger, malnutrition, and stunting due to limited access to nutritious food. it is a problem that has received much scholarly attention for many decades and has been identified by various governments as a development priority area. however, it remains difficult to find long-lasting solutions to the problem. according to fao, ifad, unicef, wfp, & who (2019), 1 in 9 people, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:kabitihlekani@yahoo.co.uk https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 208 household food insecurity status and ….. (ndhleve et al.) corresponding to 821 million people, are regarded as not having access to enough nutritious food to eat. africa houses the most severely deprived people, currently estimated at three-quarters of the world’s extremely poor (fao et al., 2019; gonzalez, 2015; grobler, 2016; world bank, 2015). the world bank (2015) estimated that 56% of the world’s extreme poor are in africa. it is a finding that also resonates with a report by the grebmer et al., (2019) in 2019 global hunger index, which reveals that of the ten hungriest nations in the world, 6 of them are in africa. this implies a high prevalence of hunger and undernourishment in africa compared to the rest of the world. this food insecurity challenge is further exacerbated by the fact that the african continent has been experiencing fast growth in population size, which is projected to double by 2050 (world bank,2015) however, this population growth does not match per capita food production, which has declined by 20% between 1970 to 2000 in africa (abdulai, barrett, & hazell, 2004). godfray et al., (2010) caution that tremendous food production growth does not always translate to sufficient access to protein and energy as micronutrient malnourishment is shown to be prevalent in countries experiencing increased agricultural production. accordingly, if the challenge of food insecurity is to be successfully addressed, increased agricultural production should also be accompanied by interventions that directly address the key underlying structural issues responsible for food insecurity. for example, structural inequalities such as the unequal distribution of the means of production, especially land, limited access to agricultural inputs to grow food, and income inequality that curtails the poor's purchasing power to access food on the market all need to be addressed. as succinctly articulated by sen (1990), food insecurity is not a function of food production, considering that the world produces sufficient food to feed everyone. instead, it is a result of inherent socio-economic structural factors that disenfranchise the poor. other factors such as lack of meaningful employment opportunities, failure of small-scale agricultural production, uneven food landscape, ever-increasing food prices, failure to afford food, and lack of access to production resources are continuously negatively impacting food security (altman, hart, and jacobs, 2009; bahta, wanyoike, katjiuongua and marumo, 2017). the risk of food insecurity has multiple determinants framed around the four aspects, namely, accessibility, availability, utilization, and stability. also, these four aspects are affected directly and indirectly by various socio-economic factors. the impacts follow socio-economics lines and are significantly different both geographically and across different times. thus, in many african countries, hunger and malnutrition take place when there is plenty of food. this is mainly because most of the poor are not engaged in any meaningful economic activities that generate income and enable them to access nutritious food (ahmed, eugene, & abah, 2007; fao, ifad, unicef, wfp, & who, 2018; statistic south africa, 2019). it is a challenge that does not even spare the economically stable african countries such as south africa and botswana (asefa, 1991; human sciences research council, 2015; bahta, wanyoike, katjiuongua, & marumo, 2017). these two countries present striking similarities and differences that are significant in the analysis of food security. in terms of similarities, firstly, both countries have enjoyed high and sustained economic growth rates that are considered the best in africa over the past decades (acquah http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 209 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research et al., 2013; bahta et al., 2017). secondly, reported rapid economic growth in these two countries is widely blamed for the failure to change the face of food insecurity (bahta et al., 2017; van der berg, 2006). in botswana, significant variation in food access is widely reported across areas in the southern and southeast districts. in south africa, households that experienced severely inadequate food access were observed in the northern cape (13%), mpumalanga (13%), and the northwest (12%) (statistic south africa, 2019). meanwhile, in northwest (24.5%), northern cape (21%), eastern cape (20%), kwazulu-natal (19%), and mpumalanga (19%), households experienced the highest proportions of inadequate access to food. the values are above the national average of 15.8% for all provinces (statistic south africa, 2019). the unequal food security status in both countries is not moving with economic growth, as evidenced by the fact that the number of poor households threatened by food insecurity has been increasing. the global food security index that assessed food security across 113 countries in 2015 ranked south africa and botswana at 41 and 46, respectively. however, the food security status in the two countries has further retrogressed, as shown by their 2018 rankings; south africa has slipped by 4 points and botswana by 6 points. both countries are currently ranked at 45 and 52, respectively (the economist intelligence unit, 2018). although such changes do not represent a dramatic regression of the state of food security, in both countries, they do signal that people who are experiencing hunger are on the rise, albeit at a lower rate. botswana and south africa rank the highest on inequality levels in southern africa (bahta et al., 2017; statistic south africa, 2019; coates, swindale, & bilinsky, 2007; statistics botswana, 2018). regarding differences, south africa is a renowned net food exporter, producing enough staple food (statistic south africa, 2019) while botswana is a net importer of food products, with imports currently accounting for about 90% of the national food supply (bahta et al., 2017). these notable differences and similarities provide a comprehensive and deep base to critically examine the dynamics of food security as well as draw inferences that are widely applicable and can be used to inform future policy interventions. this deepening food insecurity crisis, as evidenced by the increasing number of food insecure households in south africa and botswana, served as a strong motivation for this study. central to this food insecurity challenge is the dearth of up-to-date scientific data that sheds a nuanced picture of the challenge and details the current state of food security within poor households. the existing information is limited to a few scattered quantitative and aggregate indicators at the national level that provide superficial reading, especially when it comes to the state of food security at the household /local municipality level, together with key determinants of food security. this is the gap that the author identified in this paper. accordingly, this paper intends to address this gap by sharing the findings of a study that was undertaken in south africa and botswana. the case study approach was employed to profile the state of food security in botswana and south africa and identify contextspecific indicators of food security in the two countries. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 210 household food insecurity status and ….. (ndhleve et al.) research method study site this study was undertaken in two countries known as the economic powerhouses of southern africa, which are south africa and botswana as shown in figure 1. in south africa, data collection took place in two district municipalities of the eastern cape province, namely or tambo, chris hani, and buffalo city, a metropolitan municipality. meanwhile, in botswana, data were collected in three geographical areas: southern (kanye), the south east district (ramotswa and tlokeng), and gaborone as shown in figure 1. the socio-economic profiles of the two study areas are presented below. figure 1. map showing study area sites south africa is known to be food secure at the country level as it produces enough food and even exports the surplus. however, these national figures often hide widespread hunger, especially at the individual household level. food availability varies from urban (formal) and informal areas, rural (commercial farms), and traditional homelands. the urban areas have well-pronounced food distribution networks that ensure the availability of food all the time when compared to rural areas. the number of food-insecure households has been gradually increasing over the years, especially in predominantly rural regions and host the former homelands, such as the eastern cape province. the province is chiefly rural, with 70% of its population residing in rural areas. it is ranked as one of the provinces experiencing the worst poverty in south africa. according to the general http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 211 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research household survey released by statistics south africa in may 2019, nearly 60% of households are reported to be receiving at least one social grant (statistic south africa, 2019). the province's unemployment rate is estimated at 35.4%, which is a figure that excludes individuals who have given up looking for employment. accordingly, the actual unemployment rate is even higher at 42.5% if the expanded unemployment rate is factored in (statistic south africa, 2019). in the district municipalities where data collection was undertaken, the unemployment rates are as follows: chris hani 32.3%, or tambo 26.5%, and in the metropolitan city buffalo city 22.4% (eastern cape socio economic consultative council (eastern cape socio economic consultative council, 2017). in terms of poverty intensity, chris hani district is ranked at 43.1%, or tambo at 43%, and buffalo city at 43%. access to basic social amenities shows a huge disparity between rural and urban households, with 91% of households in bcm having access to piped water; 80.7% have access to electricity, and over 70.0% have access to sanitation services (eastern cape socio economic consultative council, 2019). meanwhile, in district municipalities that are mainly rural, the proportion of households with access to basic social amenities is as follows: in chris hani, 72.7% of households have access to piped water, and 76.2% have access to electricity. in or tambo, 70.0% have access to electricity, only 11.6% of households have access to a flush or chemical toilet, and 37.7% have access to piped water. within these settings, only 36% and 43.3 of the households in chris hani and or tambo, respectively, are involved in some form of subsistence agricultural production targeting to improve household food security (eastern cape socio economic consultative council, 2017). both the two district municipalities and the province at large have great potential for agricultural production, which can contribute substantially to food security and employment. however, this potential remains relatively untapped. in fact, the study area has been experiencing some form of de-agrarian nation, and a recent research report by statistics south africa (2019) shows that only 27.9% of the province’s households are engaged in agricultural activities. meanwhile, in botswana, despite having high per capita income levels in africa, the country grapples with the food security challenge at the country and household level. unlike south africa, which is food secure at the national level, botswana is highly dependent on food imports, mainly because 70% of its total land comprises the kalahari desert. botswana imports approximately 90% of its gross food supply from south africa (bahta et al., 2017). the same publication reveals that approximately 3500 square kilometers on the eastern and northern margins of botswana is reported to be suitable for crop and livestock farming which is pursued by smallholder livestock producers. livestock farming is the dominant agricultural activity in botswana and it contributes about 70% of the agricultural gdp (bahta et al., 2017; statistics botswana, 2017). rainfall patterns are also sporadic and the country is plagued by water scarcity problems. these prevailing climatic conditions make the country susceptible to drought, thus dashing the hope of attaining food self-sufficiency (nephawe, mwale, zuwarimwe, & tjale, 2021). accordingly, yields are poor, thereby exposing the masses, especially those in rural spaces, to hunger and malnutrition. when compared to their urban counterparts, households located in rural areas are the most vulnerable to hunger as food prices are reported to be much higher in rural spaces (acquah et al., 2013; bahta et al., 2017). the same authors http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 212 household food insecurity status and ….. (ndhleve et al.) concur that the situation is further aggravated by the low income levels coupled with high unemployment rates prevailing in the rural areas, thereby limiting access to basic foodstuffs by the poor. inequality is reported to be rampant, with about 20% of the population living below the poverty datum line, while 30% are either unemployed or under-employed (statistics botswana, 2017). this is the socio-economic context in which this study was undertaken. according to the multi-topic household survey, while poverty has been reduced to approximately 16% of the population, some 30% remain slightly above poverty line and are susceptible to a wide range of shocks (statistic botswana, 2018). data collection a cross-sectional survey design was employed with the aid of a semi structured questionnaire tool. data was collected from 506 households in botswana and 1557 households in south africa. a stratified random sampling procedure aimed at stratifying households according to their socioeconomic circumstances, namely, poor, better off and developed, was followed. in south africa, data was collected from households in two district municipalities, namely or tambo (662), chris hani (640), and one metropolitan municipality (255) that is buffalo city, all located in the eastern cape province. in buffalo municipality majority of the participants resided in informal settlements. in botswana, data was collected in three geographical areas namely, southern-kanye (242) and south east district-ramotswa and tlokeng (108), and gaborone (156). respondents were the individuals responsible for food acquisition and preparations who were interviewed by trained enumerators. a pretested questionnaire was administered to collect data on household demographics,, socioeconomic and food accessibility data using the household food insecurity access scale (hfias). data was analysed using spss. descriptive statistical outputs such as: tables of frequencies, percentages and bar graphs on food security indicators covering accessibility, availability, utilisation and stability were generated. separate linear and ordered logistic regression analyses were run for the two countries. hfias score, which is a continuous measure was used as the dependent variable for the linear regression whilst the categorical variable hfias prevalence was used as the dependent variable for the ordered logistic regression measurement of food insecurity in this paper, household food insecurity status was measured by the hfias. the hfias measures the occurrence and frequency of food insecurity within households during the month prior to the survey (coates et al., 2007). four hfias indicators, namely household food insecurity access-related conditions (hfiaconditions), household food insecurity accessrelated domains (hfiadomains), household food insecurity access scale score (hfias score) and household food insecurity access prevalence (hfias prevalence)) were employed to unpack the characteristics of and changes in household food security (access) of the sampled household. the indicators were computed for each household through questionnaire responses in relation to the various domains of food insecurity experience. the hfias score is a continuous measure derived from the sum of http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 213 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the responses to measurement questions, ranging from 0 to 27. a high score, the more food insecure (access) the household experienced and vice versa. because hfias is a continuous measure, household food insecurity access prevalence (hfiap) was computed in order to classify households into food insecurity categories namely; food secure, mildly food insecure, moderately food insecure, severely food insecure. regression analysis the multiple linear regression was used to check for linear relationship between food security and the household socio economic factors. in this case, the assumption is that hfias score (dependent variable) have linear relationship dependent variables and is represented by the equation below where: yi=b0+b1 xi1+⋯+bz xiz+εi (1) whereby yi is the value of the i th case of the hfias score variable; z is the number of independent variables; bj is the value of the coefficient, j=0,1,...,z; xij is the value of the i th case of the jth independent variable and ↋i is the error term in the observed value. to ensure that all the determinants of household’ food insecurity status are captured accurately and conclusively, an ordered logistic regression was also used. the ordered categorical measure of household food insecurity namely hfias prevalence was used as a dependent variable. since the dependent variable was categorical with more than two outcomes (1= secure; 2= mildly insecure; 3= moderately insecure; 4= severely insecure), the use of ordered regression was justified (liu, 2009; jega, man, latiff, & wong, 2018). the same independent variables were used for both the linear and ordinal regression. the equation was modelled as follows: y*=αj+xβ+ε (2) where, y = observed ordinal variable which is a function of y* = that is unobserved or unmeasured variable. the measurement model assumes that category 4>3>2>1y =f(y*) x = is the vector of independent variables β = is the regression coefficients to be estimated ε = is the error term αj = is the threshold or cut points y* = is divided into some cut points or thresholds α1, α2, α3, α4, and α1< α2 < α3 < α4 y ranging from 1 to 4. the food insecurity status category in which each household falls is expressed as: y=1, y*≤α1 2, α1<y*≤α2 3, α2<y*≤α3; 4, α3<y*≤ ∞ http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 214 household food insecurity status and ….. (ndhleve et al.) as such, the probability that a household falls under a particular level of food insecurity can be expressed as: pr y ≤j/x1,x2,x3,x4 = αj + -β1 x1 -β2 x2 β3 x3 β4 x4 pr[ y ≤ j/x]= β0+ β1 x1+β2 x2+⋯+ βn xn+ ε results and discussion state of household food security in south africa and botswana: hfias and hfiap in south africa, 68% of the surveyed households were within the severely food insecure category. the bulk of these households were from or tambo district (30.4%) and chris hani district (24.7%). in contrast, only 22.5% of households which interviewed in botswana indicated that they were food insecure. most (14.6%) of the households in this category were from the southern district. indeed, households in botswana dominated the categories of food secure (21.3%) and mildly insecure (40.7%) as shown in table 1. table 1. household food insecurity access prevalence in south africa and botswana hfia prevalence south africa n (%) botswana or tambo chris hani bcm total gabarone south east southern total food secure 21(2.0) 32(2.1) 13(0.8) 66 (4.3) 33(6.5) 49 (9.7) 26 (5.1) 108 (21,3) mildly food insecure access 44(2.8) 113(7.3) 26(1.7) 183 (11.8) 30 (5.9) 82 (16.2) 94(18.6) 206 (40.7) moderately food insecure access 123(7.9) 110(7.1) 17(1.8) 250 (16.1) 27(5.3) 3(0.6) 48 (9.5) 78(15.4) severely food insecure 474(30.4) 385(24.7) 199(12.8) 1058 (68.0) 18(3,6) 22(4.3) 74 (14.6) 114 (22.5) total 662(42.5) 640(41.1) 255 (16.4) 1557(100) 108(21.4) 156(30.8) 242(47.8) 506 (100) nnumber of households meanwhile, under the category of moderately food secure access the results showed no significant difference as the proportion of respondents who answered in affirmative is almost equivalent; that is at 16.1% in south africa and 15.4% in botswana. in general, household distribution across various food security categories between the two countries is quite different. results from south africa are more skewed towards food insecurity while results from botswana are skewed towards a food secure population. a possible explanation that can be used to explain such observed differences has to do with different social welfare programmes in these two countries. botswana provides food parcels to poor families whereas south africa provide social grants. it might be inferred that households in south africa might use the social grants to buy non-food items leaving them vulnerable to hunger. alternatively, such findings might be interpreted as showing the inadequacy of the social grants in improving food accessibility in south africa. the nexus between the household food access insecurity score and access to socio-economic infrastructure also provides an interesting insight to observations made above (see table 2). the results show that more households in botswana had better access to basic socio-economic infrastructure (water, health care facility, energy and all weather roads) and had on average lower hfias, implying greater food security when compared to south africa. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 215 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the above results were further subjected to statistical testing to determine the accuracy of such findings. the independent sample t-test was applied and the findings show a statistically significant association of household food access insecurity score and access to socio-economic infrastructure is statistically significant. this finding shows that the prevalence of household food insecurity among the sample population in both countries was also influenced by access to socio-economic infrastructure. table 2. summary hfias and sei statistics for sampled households in south africa and botswana country and district n mean hfias score sd south africa: 1557 11.43 ±6.64 chris hani 640 9.69 buffalo city 255 11.61 or tambo 662 13.07 botswana: 506 8.13 ± 6.39 southern 242 10.53 gaborone 108 6.87 southeast 156 6.96 n mean sei sd south africa 1557 11.7238 2.82425 botswana 504 14.8849 2.17126 n number of households sdstandard deviation households food security status and socio-demographic factors the distribution of households according to the food insecurity access category and demographic characteristics is shown in table 3. results indicate that for almost all categories, the proportion of households increase with a shift towards severely food insecure households in both countries. these results are in line with overarching findings that a greater proportion of households are within the food insecurity category. however, more households from botswana were within the food secure category as compared to south africa. such an observation can be attributed to the various social security programs reported in botswana, which target poor households that are more likely to be food insecure. with regards to race, it is interesting to note that only one white household was within the severely food insecure category in contrast to 69.7% and 59.5% for black and coloured (respectively) counterparts in south africa. these results can be linked to the racial inequalities in south africa, where white households have access to more economic opportunities when compared to their black, coloured and asian counterparts (statistic south africa, 2019). with regards to the correlation between educational achievement of the head of household and its state of food security, it is astounding to note that for both botswana and south africa, there were households headed by individuals with tertiary education (49.4% and 33.5% respectively) and yet were food insecure. this result highlights a probable disconnect between the possession of higher education qualifications and food security status indicating a paradox. it is a paradox in the sense that in most cases where http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 216 household food insecurity status and ….. (ndhleve et al.) table 3. distribution of households according to the hfiap and demographic characteristics variables household food insecurity access categories south africa (n=1 557) botswana (n= 506) secure n (%) mildly secure n (%) mildly insecure n (%) severely insecure n (%) secure n (%) mildly secure n (%) mildly insecure n (%) severely insecure n (%) gender of household head male 36(6.7%) 94(17.4) 95(17.6) 314(58.3) 69(25.2) 133(48.5) 42(15.3) 42(15.3) female 30(2.8%) 89(8.7) 155(15.2) 744(73.1) 39(17.8) 73(33.3) 36(16.4) 71(32.4) race black 52(3.7) 141(10) 235(16.1) 984(69.7) 107(21.2) 206(40.8) 78(15.4) 114(22.6) coloured 11(9.1) 24(19.8) 14(11.6) 72(59.5) 1(100) 0 0 white 3(13) 18(78.3) 1(4.3) 1(4.3) age 16-29 years 14(5.5) 37(14.5) 47(18.4) 157(61.6) 18(34) 26(49.1) 5(0.9.4) 4(7.5) 30-50 years 34(5.4) 80(12.7) 103(16.3) 413(65.6) 46(23.4) 81(41.1) 28(14.2) 42(21.3) 51-60 years 8(2.6) 30(9.7) 52(16.8) 220(71.0) 17(18.6) 41(45.1) 18(19.8) 15(16.5) > 60 years 10(2.8) 34(9.5) 48(13.4) 267(74.4) 27(16.4) 58(35.2) 27(16.4) 53(32.1) education no education 4(2.2) 16(8.6) 25(13.5) 140(75.7) 12(8.8) 70(51.1) 12(8.8) 43(31.4) informal 0(0) 1(2.2) 7(15.2) 38(82.6) 6(13) 19(41.3) 9(19.6) 12(26.1) primary 8(1.7) 24(5.1) 58(12.3) 383(81.0) 16(17.6) 27(29.7) 28(30.8) 20(22.0) secondary 37(5.4) 83(12.1) 129(18.8) 437(63.7) 39(27.5) 54(38.0) 17(12.0) 30(21.1) tertiary 17(10.6) 59(36.6) 31(19.3) 54(33.5) 35(38.0) 36(39.1) 12(13.0) 9(9.8) higher education levels are better placed to acquire employment which provides financial resources to ensure food accessibility. this finding might also be interpreted as signaling limited economic opportunities in both countries, that is botswana and south africa resulting in graduates being unemployed. further clarification of this finding will be provided for by the regression analysis. key food security indicators the results of both linear and ordered logistic regression analyses with hfias and level of severity as the response variable and a set of indicator variables as explanatory variables for both botswana and south africa are shown in table 4. linear regression allowing for perceived categorical indicator and quantitative variables with the dependent variable being the hfias total score, which is a continuous http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 217 household food insecurity status and ….. (ndhleve, et al.) variable. the linear regression analysis was employed to identify variables that are related to food insecurity and in continuous form. ordered logistic regression representing the severity of food insecurity, and ranges from category secure (1) to severe insecurity (4), therefore ordinal variable implying the use of ordered logistic regression. table 4. regression analysis results for hfias, hfiap and socio-demographic characteristics variables south africa botswana hfias se prevalence categories se hfias se prevalence categories se chris hani (sa) and southeast (bo) -2.424*** (0.367) -0.239* (0.143) -0.672 0.719 -0.326 0.279 bcm (sa) and southern district (bo) 0.427 (0.526) 0.956*** (0.219) -1.128** 0.134 -5.859*** 1.142 gender female 1.276*** (0.332) 0.480*** (0.126) 0.788 0.526 0.196 0.223 race colored -1.543** (0.627) -0.865*** (0.233) white -2.688** (1.297) -1.179*** (0.392) other 1.044 (5.772) 13.87 (761.6) age 30-50 years 0.203 (0.455) 0.275 (0.170) 1.685* 0.995 0.490 0.367 51-60 years 0.389 (0.540) 0.330 (0.210) 1.840* 1.090 0.535 0.415 > 60 years -0.168 (0.551) 0.315 (0.216) 1.327 1.053 0.345 0.400 education informal -1.043 (0.570) -0.981 (0.578) -0.690 0.991 0.119 0.457 primary -0.908* (0.501) -0.458** (0.217) -1.129 0.793 0.0520 0.378 secondary -1.914*** (0.507) -0.321 (0.204) 02.209** 0.979 -0.547 0.431 tertiary -4.853*** (0.683) -1.137*** (0.249) -0.972 1.184 -0.217 0.502 income total income -1.76e-05*** 4.60e-06 -598e-06*** 1.84e-06 salaries/ wages -1.302** (0.542) -0.686*** (0.214) pension/ grants 0.463 (0.496) -0.00181 (0.208) other 0.118 (0.696) -0.0303 (0.288) disability status 0.910 (0.786) 0.990** (0.429) livestock cattle number -0.0790 (0.0562) -0.00321 0.0234) -0.0590** 0.0299 -0.0384*** 0.0126 number of goats -0.0573* (0.0304) -0.0362*** (0.0130) -0.0284 0.0233 -0.00181 0.00899 number of sheep_ -0.0241* (0.0123) -0.00910** (0.0043) -0.0383 0.0354 0.0184 0.0143 number of pigs -0.0356 (0.0392) -0.0154 (0.0129) -0.109 0.799 -0.323 0.254 number of chickens -0.0589** (0.0272) -0.0235** (0.0103) -0.00415 0.0145 0.00461 0.00618 number of donkeys 0.0275 (0.236) -0.126 (0.0792) -0.787 0.0606 0.00176 0.0233 number of horses 1.511 1.128 0.327 0.657 household size 0.129** (0.0560) 0.0246 (0.0230) 0.163* 0.0957 0.127*** 0.0469 seiaccess -0.450*** (0.0643) -0.118*** (0.0273) -0.886*** 0.146 -0.319*** 0.0661 constant 18.79*** (1.175) 19.97*** 2.587 r-squared 0.273 0.25 *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 218 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research firstly, household geographical location categorized according to district municipality explains a substantial variation in household food security across the investigated district municipalities. in south africa, a household residing in chris hani was less food insecure by 2.424 in contrast to a household in or tambo, based on linear regression analyses. similarly, the ordered logit for chris hani households being in a worse off food insecurity status category is 0.239 (p<1) less than or tambo households, while holding at constant the other variables in the model. the likelihood that households from buffalo city are in a worse off food insecurity status is 0.956 (p<0.01) more than that of or tambo district municipality. in summary, the results reveal that chris hani residents are more food secure (less insecure) in contrast to the comparator district, or tambo. bcm residents are on average more food insecure than or tambo residents. the study results reveal substantial food security variability across district municipalities than has been found in previous research surveys. in botswana, a household in the southern district was less food insecure by 1.128 in contrast to a household in the gaborone district, based on linear regression analyses. similarly, ordered logit regression results explain that southern district households are less severely food insecure (5.589; p<1) than gaborone district residents whilst holding other variables held constant. regarding geographical location, residing in the southern district of botswana significantly affects household food insecurity status under the order logit model and therefore is the only coefficient interpreted. this finding is inconsistent with existing empirical evidence that has established that households that are located further away from allweather roads that ensure access to markets are more food insecure when compared to those located close to better infrastructure (bahta et al., 2017). this finding highlights the rise of urban food insecurity, especially for those living within the low income neighborhoods (jonah & may, 2019). study participants from the urban settlement were mainly from the low income households as it was difficult to engage high income households due to security fences around the households. indeed, urban areas do have adequate availability of foodstuffs which are not always accessible to everyone within the settings. moreover, the cost of living in urban settlement is higher as compared to that of rural settlement. this affects the household food security status as some of the money is diverted to other household needs (chakona & shackleton, 2019). accordingly, this might explain the findings of this study that show households residing in gaborone and buffalo metropolitan were more food insecure when compared to other regions that are largely rural. meanwhile, the explanation that can be used to elucidate the finding that households in chris hani are more food secure when compared to those in or tambo region, despite the fact that both are largely rural districts, is that data collection in this area was done in locations that are close to rural towns. here, the food retail environment is more pronounced when compared to rural areas that are located further away from such small rural towns. secondly, gender emerged as another significant correlate of food insecurity in this study but this was only the case in south africa. female-headed households are 1.276 scores more food insecure compared to the male-headed households and the ordered logit for females being more food insecure is 0.480 more than males while holding mother model variables http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 219 household food insecurity status and ….. (ndhleve, et al.) constant. such an observation is agreement with previous studies that also observed the feminisation of poverty in south africa (statistic south africa, 2018). the feminisation of poverty in south africa implies that female headed households have limited and unequal access to resources, some of which affect food production and access. poverty and food insecurity are interlinked. this phenomenon is expressed more within the rural areas, wherein household head gender is a determinant of level of food security (tibesigwa and visser, 2016; kassie et al., 2012; altman, hart, & jacobs, 2009). size of household size was also a significant determinant of household food security in both botswana and south africa. a bigger household was found to be more food insecure than smaller household. this may be due to more members that are economically inactive possibly children and old people signifying that such households have a higher dependence ratio. larger households imply more people to feed and more resources needed in order to ensure food availability. in south africa, regarding race, coloureds and whites are more food secure than black africans. relative to black africans, coloureds are -1.543 less food insecure or -0.865 less likely to be food insecure, while whites are -2.688 less insecure or -1.179 less likely (odds) to be food insecure. the coefficients for white households are bigger (more negative) compared to coloureds thus, implying white households are way better off (more food secure) than other population groups. these results are in agreement with the report by statistic south africa, which revealed that white-headed households have a higher average expenditure (four times higher) as compared to that of-black headed households in south africa ( statistic south africa a, 2018). there were no observed significant differences in household food insecurity between different races in botswana. fourthly, a higher educational qualification increases the chances of being food secure, compared to lack of formal education in south africa but there were no observed significant effects of education status on household food insecurity in botswana. relative to the absence of formal education, households with primary education, secondary education and tertiary education are more food secure in that order. the results for informal education were insignificant. these findings were aligned with the observations by nwokolo, (2015) and (ruhyana, essa, & mardianis, 2020) that higher levels of education are associated with increased household income, livelihood opportunities and food security. when analysed as a quantitative variable, income level significantly reduces household food insecurity in botswana. high income levels are associated with increased household food security and vice versa (fraval, oosting, de boer, lannerstad, & van wijk, 2019). unlike botswana, household income data in south africa data was collected as a categorical variable. compared to households relying on agriculture as their main source of income, having salaries/ wages and trade income (i.e. non-agricultural income) reduces food insecurity by -1.3 points and this was significant at p<0.01 in south africa. this could be due to the structure of agricultural production among rural areas of south africa which is mainly seasonal and rainfed such that seasonal production must provide for the family needs for the rest of the year (du toit, 2019). in comparison to agricultural production, salaries and wages provide http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 220 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research income and the means of accessing food throughout the year. similarly, livestock ownership, such as cattle, goats, pigs and donkeys, reduces food insecurity in south africa. in botswana, only cattle ownership significantly reduces food insecurity. livestock ownership is known in africa for providing a hedge for small scale farmers against climatic risk and acting as a store of wealth which can be converted to required resources which include food and cash (gwiriri, bennett, mapiye, marandure, & burbi, 2019). households which own livestock are likely to dispose off in the event of food shortage in exchange for food. the results strongly show that food security dynamics have context specific manifestations mainly linked to household size and household food environment. the common determinants of food security for botswana and south africa that emerged from the analyses were household size, geographical location and socio-economic infrastructure (sei). the variables in the ordered logistic regression model accounted for about 27% (south africa) and 25% (botswana) of the variance in food insecurity. marsden and sonnino (2012), argued that food security has spatial attributes, since its production, distribution and consumption depend on household geographical location. access to socio-economic infrastructure reduces food insecurity; this resonates with sustainable livelihoods framework (scoones, 1998), which argue that access to many streams of assets is a pre-requisite for survival. conclusion this study provides a valuable baseline for critical insights and comparative analyses of household food security status for botswana and south africa and across different socioeconomic groups. the applicability of both the hfias and hfip scale cannot be overemphasized. there is a high prevalence of food insecurity in both countries; however, the determinants of food security are different between the two countries. and in cases when they are similar, the magnitude of the effect is not similar. geographical location, household size; gender, race, education; source of income; livestock ownership and socio-economic infrastructure (sei) emerged as significant factors in south africa and geographical location; household size; age; source of income; livestock ownership and sei significantly predict household food security in botswana. the list of significant indicators reveals similarities with previous studies on food security although differences in terms of magnitude can be observed. replicating this study at micro scale could allow a complete outline of determinants of food security and their magnitudes. attaining food security in both countries requires the adoption of strategies or programmes that are cognisant of these variables in order of their magnitude as they emerge from the analyses. the micro scale analyses should put emphasis on factors that emerged as significant predictors of household food security as per each country in order of their magnitude. policymakers and program administrators should desist from simulating outcome of food security indicators across southern africa or any geographical jurisdiction without due analyses. declaration of interest statement: there is no potential conflict to declare. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 221 household food insecurity status and ….. 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(2016). assessing gender inequality in food security among smallholder farm households in urban and rural south africa. world development, 88(c), 3349. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.07.008 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/ http://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/bmths%20poverty%20stats%20brief%202018.pdf http://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/bmths%20poverty%20stats%20brief%202018.pdf http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/report-03-10-02%20/report-03-10-02%202015.pdf http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/03-00-14/03-00-142017.pdf issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 224 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research van der berg, s. (2006). public spending and the poor since the transition to democracy. in h. bhorat & r. kanbur (eds.), poverty and policy in post-apartheid south africa. pretoria: human sciences research council press. world bank. (2015). ending poverty and hunger by 2030. an agenda for the global food systems. washington dc, world bank. accessed on march 21, 2019. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/700061468334490682/pdf/95768revised-wp-public-box391467b-ending-poverty-and-hunger-by-2030-final.pdf http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2: july-december 2020 article history: submitted: september 7th, 2020 accepted: november 18th, 2020 oki wijaya1*, widodo1, riskhi lathifah1, nur rahmawati1, cahyo wisnu rubiyanto2 1 department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia 2 united graduate school of agricultural science, gifu university, japan *) correspondence email: okiwijaya@umy.ac.id household dietary patterns in food insecurity areas doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6298 abstract dietary contributes to sustainable food security. accordingly, attempts to elevate dietary patterns should be simultaneous and comprehensive, especially to the farmer community living in rural areas, who have two roles, i.e., producers and consumers. in response to that situation, this research aims to analyze household dietary patterns and contributing factors. this research was conducted in wukirsari, imogiri, bantul. the data used in this research were primary data collected from 63 respondents selected using the cluster sampling approach. dietary patterns were analyzed using 2×24-hours dietary recall data with a household measure unit and a desirable dietary pattern (ddp). meanwhile, the contributing factors were analyzed using the double linear regression approach. findings indicate that the desirable dietary pattern in wukirsari was monotonous, confirmed by the resulted ddp score of 60.62. moreover, the significant factor with a partial impact on household dietary patterns was educational levels. meanwhile, other factors, e.g., the number of family members, the age of the head of the family, income per capita, rice prices, beneficiaries, and the main job of the head of the family had a simultaneous significant impact, which was also partially insignificant, on dietary patterns. keywords: dietary pattern, food insecurity, household, energy adequacy level introduction food, as one of the primary needs, has been always one of the most spotlighted issues (kuzmin, 2016). also, it has a big and significant portion of the sustainability of a nation. once the national food resilience is disrupted, social and political turmoil will inevitably happen and harm the national economic stability (badan urusan logistik [the indonesia logistics bureau], 2018). talking about food resilience, it is not only about food provision and price or food self-sufficiency (badan urusan logistik [the indonesia logistics bureau], 2018). rather, food resilience is also a condition in which physical and economic access to healthy and nutritious food can be acquired anytime (food and agriculture organization, 2007). food resilience, as mentioned in law number 18 of 2012 on food, is the condition of the fulfilment of food for the state and the individual, which is reflected by food availability which is adequate in terms of either its number or quality, secure, nutritious, equally distributed, and affordable, without violating the religion, belief, and culture held by the society, to sustainably live healthily, actively, and productively (badan urusan logistik [the indonesia logistics bureau], 2018). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 169 household dietary patterns….. (wijaya et al) issues in national food resilience remain unsolved if similar issues at the lowest level (household) are still there. one of the effective strategies to manifest household food resilience is to enhance food diversification (saputra et al., 2019). dietary pattern rectification is a long concern, and the government has made some attempts in regard to it, one of which is the presidential instruction (inpres) no. 20/1974, which was perfected with the issuance of inpres no. 20 of 1979 on diversification of people’s diets and improvement of community nutrition (andri, 2019). however, indonesia has homogenous dietary patterns which are also unbalanced in terms of nutrition, and the per food consumption is predominated by food with a high carbohydrate level. besides, the desirable dietary pattern (ddp) in indonesia is not considered ideal, where the energy adequacy level identified in indonesia was 90.4 kcal in 2017 (saputra et al., 2019). research findings indicate several factors which affect household expenditure on food, e.g., income, sex, age, marital status, domicile, and occupational status (kostakis, 2014). besides, an increase in food commodity prices also brings about a decline in the demand for the commodity (riyani et al., 2018). on the national workshop on food and nutrition seminar (widyakarya nasional pangan dan gizi seminar) in 2012, the government stipulated the target of achieving an output of food improvement, which was achieving the daily average energy consumption by 2,150 kcal/capita/day (badan ketahanan pangan [the food security bureau], 2017). to achieve the target, food dietary pattern improvement should be simultaneously implemented, starting from rural areas by concentrating on household behaviors, including farmer households as food producers and consumers (food and agriculture organization of the united nations, 2020). furthermore, it is notified that the most susceptible community to food insecurity is poor households who live in rural areas. according to the data from statistics indonesia in 2019, 15.15 million poor people lived in rural areas, with food expenditure contributing to the poverty line by 73.66% (badan pusat statistik [the central bureau of statistics], 2017). one of the food insecurity villages is located in wukirsari, imogiri, bantul, yogyakarta special region (badan ketahanan pangan dan penyuluhan diy [the food security and extension bureau diy], 2016). based on the administrative map, wukirsari village has 15,385.504 hectares with 16,837 people. the village is an arid area which only relies on rainfed rice fields, so the farmers can only plant the rice once a year. wukirsari is located far from the growth center or district or province. such geographical conditions affect the livelihoods and various aspects of the socio-economic life. most of the people who work as farmers only depend on nature for their livelihoods. the low level of farmers' income is one of the factors that can affect household food dietary patterns. most of the household's food dietary habits is used to fulfill the needs of carbohydrates. meanwhile, other nutritional needs such as protein, minerals and vitamins are still less. based on the research background, accordingly, this research aims to analyze household dietary patterns and the factors. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 170 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research research method the research was conducted in wukirsari, imogiri, bantul. the location was selected on purpose by considerating that the village is one of the food insecurity areas in special region of yogyakarta (badan ketahanan pangan dan penyuluhan [the food security and extension bureau diy] diy, 2016). the data used in this research were primary data with sampling method by using a cluster sampling approach. the sampling technique was carried out randomly to 97 groups of households in wukirsari. the results determined that the sample was in neighbourhood committee 2 dusun nogosari, with a total of 63 households as the respondents. the analysis of dietary patterns the analysis of food dietary patterns was carried out using food recall data of 2x24 hours with household measure unit. the data is then tabulated depends on the foodstuffs types, namely grains, tubers, animal foods, fatty oils, oily fruits/seeds, nuts, sugar, vegetables/fruit and others. the energy contained by each food consumed is quantified using the following formula (sirajudin et al., 2018): ej = (bj × kej/100 × (bddj/100)): jrt description: ej = the actual energy consumed from the food j (kcal/cap/day) bj = the weight of the food j (gram) kej = the energy content per 100 gram of the food j bddj = the percentage of the food j which is consumable (%bdd) jrt = the number of household members (person) j = the food to identify the energy content in the food (kej) and the percentage of food which is consumable (%bdd) in the respective types of food, we can refer to the list of food ingredients (daftar komposisi bahan makanan dkbm) and the list of food nutritional content (daftar kandungan gizi makanan dkgm). from the quantification result of energy contained by each food, we can quantify the total energy contained by the respective food groups using the following formula. ep = ∑ 𝐸𝑗𝑝𝑚𝑗=1 description: ep = the total actual energy in the food group p ejp = the energy from the food j which belongs to the food group p p = the food group, 1 j = the food 1, 2, …, m quantification of total energy consumed is then conducted by adding up the results of energy quantification for each food group. te = ∑ 𝐸𝑝9𝑝=1 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 171 household dietary patterns….. (wijaya et al) description: te = the total actual energy identified in the aggregate food group ep = the total actual energy in a food group p = the food group 1, 2, …, 9 the energy adequacy ratio (ear) which is referred to as the normative standard energy adequacy level was 2,150 kcal/cap/day. moreover, the energy percentage can show the energy which has been contributed by each of the food groups. it can be identified using the following formula: pp = (ep/ear) × 100% description: pp = the actual energy percentage of the respective food groups to ear ep = the total actual energy in the food group p ear = the energy adequacy ratio which is 2,150 kcal/cap/day p = the food group 1, 2, 3, ..., 9 the score of desirable dietary pattern (ddp) is quantified by comparing the ear score and the normative ddp score. therefore, we should quantify the ear score by multiplying the energy percentage to ear (%ear) by the determined weight of the food group (food security bureau [badan ketahanan pangan], 2015). ear score = pp × bp description: ear score = the score of energy adequacy ratio pp = the actual energy percentage of the food group p to ear bp = the weight of the food group p = the food group 1, 2, 3, …, 9 the score of desirable dietary pattern (ddp) is the reflection of ear score itself, it just needs to be compared with the limit of the maximum ddp score (normative ddp). in this case, the ear score is higher than the normative ddp score, so ddp normative can be taken as the actual ddp score. on the other hand, if the ear score is under the normative ddp score, the ear score will be taken as the actual ddp score. this quantity and quality are closely related in improving food diatery patterns. therefore, to check whether the quantity or quality of food diatery is in accordance with the recommended norms, each statistical difference test is used as follows: the actual average energy consumption quantity test this kind of t test is needed to see whether the actual average energy consumption has been fulfilled its normative energy quantity or not. t = x̄ − μ∘ 𝑠/√𝑛 description: �̅� = the average of household diatery s = standard of deviation from the samples n = the number of samples μ = the actual energy quantity parameter testing http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 172 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research hypothesis: hο: μ ≥ 2,150 h1: μ < 2,150 if tcount ≥ ttable at a certain level of significance, then h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted. if tcount < ttable at a certain level of significance, then h1 is rejected and h0 is accepted. the actual average of desirable dietary pattern score test the last stage is to do a statistical difference test on the average ddp score, that is to test whether the household actual ddp score has reached the normative ddp score or not. t = x̄ − μ∘ 𝑠/√𝑛 description: x ̄= the average score of desirable dietary pattern s = standard of deviation from the samples n = the number of samples μ = the actual ddp parameter testing hypothesis: hο: μ = 100 h1: μ < 100 if tcount ≥ ttable at a certain level of significance, then h0 is rejected and h1 is accepted. if tcount < ttable at a certain level of significance, then h1 is rejected and h0 is accepted. the analysis of the food dietary patterns factors to analyze the factors that influence food dietary patterns is using multiple regression. the regression model used in this research is as follows: y = β_0 + β_1 x_1+ β_2 x_2 + β_3 x_3 + β_4 x_4 + β_5 x_5 + β_6 x_6 + β_1 d_1 + e description: y = food dietary patterns (ddp score) x_1 = education (year) x_2 = the number of household members (people) x_3 = age (year) x_4 = the household income per capita (idr/month) x_5 = the rice price (idr/kg) x_6 = the recipient of government aids (idr/rt) d_1 = dummy variabel for the main occupation type of the household members d1 = 1 household which the main occupation is agricultural sector d0 = 0 household which the main occupation is out of agricultural sector β_0 = the constant β_i = the regression coefficient of each variable e = error http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 173 household dietary patterns….. (wijaya et al) to gain the best regression result, it must fulfill: 1. r² test (coefficient of determination): calculating the proportion or the total percentage of variation in y which is explained by the model. 2. f test: it was conducted to see the influence of the independent variables as a whole on the dependent variable. this kind of test was also carried out by comparing the value of fcount with ftable. 3. t test : it was conducted to see the significant effects of the independent variable partially on the dependent variable. this test was also carried out by comparing t count with ttable. result and discussions the analysis of household food dietary patterns food dietary patterns are the food consumed including energy sources and other nutrients in order to fulfill the food needs and the nutrients balance, both in terms of quantity and quality (food and agriculture organization of the united nations, 2020). the quantity is the total volume of food consumed per capita, which was calculated from the aspect of energy fulfilment. meanwhile, the quality is the food dietary in the aspect of food variety and it was also monitored by ddp score (sirajudin et al., 2018). the government has determined the target of output achieving for both quantity and quality food consumptions. the conceptual quantity was indicated to be successful if the average consumption of people per day is at least 2,150 kcal. meanwhile, the quality of food was measured by the achievement of the ddp score, which is 100 (food security bureau, 2015). however, a ddp score of 100 will not be reached when the quantity of food energy consumption has not fulfilled the minimum recommendation, that is 2,150 kcal (united nations environment program, 2012). thus, this research calculated the results of the assessment on food dietary not only for quality (ddp) but also for quantity (ear), to support the achievement of food consumption patterns improvement. 1. the analysis of household energy adequacy numbers the average of energy consumption at the research location, in table 1, it is 1,826.50 kcal / cap / day. this result was still under the normative energy consumption rate that is 2,150 kcal / cap / day. based on the results of the average difference test, it showed the significant results with a normative energy consumption, it is 2,150 kcal / cap / day (tcount (9.080) ≥ ttable (2.657) at 99% trust level. table 1. the energy consumption and the level of household energy variable energy consumption (kcal/capita/day) energy adequacy ratio (%ear) minimum 1,057.27 49.18 maximum 2,264.97 105.35 average 1,826.50 84.71 normative 2,150 100.00 t-test (ttable = 2.657) (tcount = 9.080) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 174 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research while in the calculation of the percentage level of energy consumption (% ear) the average of household has only reached 84.71% ear, it was still less 15.29% to be able to reach 100% ear as the recommendation. the analysis results of calorie quantity in this research area are still low. geographically, the condition of this research area is an arid area, that is why the agriculture cannot develop properly. as mentioned from the news (the public sovereignty newspaper [kedaulatan rakyat], 2019), it explained that the drought in wukirsari village at the end of 2019 attacked 19 households. according to wukirsari headman, this incident was the worst thing in recent years. furthermore, the head of farmer group association in wukirsari said that the long drought has caused a decrease of rice productivity which normally reached 6.8 tons per hectare, while in drought conditions it only reached 4.6 tons per hectare (tribun jogja, 2014). the change of rainfall and extreme climate, such as drought, has an impact to the risk of production decreasing up to 10 percent. the production decreasing will also affect the level of people's purchasing food power (ariani, 2014). moreover, it was also described that the household energy consumption in the insecurity areas are always lower than common households. the analysis results in previous studies indicated that the household energy consumption in the insecurity areas are not more than 72% of the adequacy standard (ariani & hardono, 2005). 2. the analysis of household desirable dietary pattern the average of the desirable dietary pattern at the research location, in table 2, is 60.62 with the results of the ddp score range from a minimum of 47.10 to a maximum of 79.19. this result was certainly different from the normative ddp, because the tests performed that tcount (36.63) was much higher than ttable (2.657) at the 99% trust level. the desirable dietary patterns in this research area has only reached 60.62 from the normative ddp of 100. this means that the quality of food dietary at wukirsari, as a food insecurity areas, is still far from the standard. table 2. the score of household desirable dietary pattern variable the score of actual desirable dietary pattern (ddp) minimum 47.10 maximum 79.19 average 60.62 normative 100 t-test (ttabel = 2.657) (tcount= 36.63) source: the primary data processed, 2019 food quality as indicated by the ddp score was influenced by income (babalola & isitor, 2014). this is appropriate to the conditions of wukirsari, where most of the population are still classified as poor. the findings during the research indicated the condition of the households. most of them worked as rainfed farmers, farm hands or seasonal traders at tourist sites. the uncertainty of the income caused them to be categorized as poor, indirectly it was influenced their ability to buy the various foodstuffs and fulfill the nutritional standards. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 175 household dietary patterns….. (wijaya et al) the analysis of factors affecting food dietary patterns the findings showed that the estimation of model used to get coefficient of determination (r2) is 0.235. it can be said that all the independent variable (x) which were put to the regression model were only able to describe the dependent variable (y) around 23.5%, while the remaining 76.5% were described as any other independent variables which were not included to the model. at the same time, the value of fcount (2.410) was greater than ftable (2.11) and the probability value was less than 0.05 at the 95% trust level, then h0 was rejected and accepted h1. it can be concluded that all the independent variables (x) in the model have a significant effect to the dependent variable (y) (table 3). thus, the model used in this research was described as follows: y = 11,691 + 2,272 x1 – 0,452 x2 – 0,042 x3 + 0,000 x4 + 0,005 x5 – 0,108 x6 +0,010 x7 + e tabel 1. estimated results of regression factors affecting food consumption patterns of households variable coefficient of regression 𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 sig. the constant 11.691 0.370 0.71 education (𝑋1) 2.272** 2.120 0.03 the number of household members (𝑋2) -0.452 -0.425 0.67 age (𝑋3) -0.042 -0.343 0.73 household income per capita (𝑋4) 0.000 0.488 0.62 rice price (𝑋5) 0.005 1.414 0.16 the recipient of government aids (𝑋6) -0.108 -0.405 0.68 main occupation (𝐷1) 0.910 -0.331 0.74 dependent variable : food dietary patterns (actual ddp score) r2 : 0.235 fcount : 2.410 prob : 0.032 *** : real at the level of trust 99% (α = 0.01), ttable = 2.669 ** : real at the level of trust 95% (α = 0.05), ttable = 2.004 * : real at the level of trust 90% (α = 0.10), ttable = 1.673 the influences of the education variable, number of household members, age of the head of the family, income per capita, price of rice, recipients of assistance and types of main work are partially explained as follows. education (x1) education had a significant influence on food security (mutisya et al., 2016). low education caused a lower possibility of getting a job. this factor affected the household income, which also directly influenced people’s purchasing power of nutritious food (bhandari & smith, 2000). the education variable affected the food dietary patterns at the 95% trust level. it can be said that the value of tcount (2.120) was greater in ttable (2.004). having a coefficient value 2.272 showed that the higher one year of formal education was achieved, the ddp score can be increased around 2.272. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 176 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the intervention of government to improve the quality of foods in the insecurity areas, especially in wukisari was by increasing the education both physically and nonphysically, such as adding more school facilities, and also providing public trainings. the number of household members (x2) the number of household members was the people in one household. based on the statistical test, the variable number of household members did not affected significantly to the household food dietary patterns. this happened because the value of tcount (0.425) was smaller than the value of ttable (1.673) at the 90% trust level. this reasearch findings was suitable to the previous research entitled the factors affecting family consumption patterns of civil servant teachers (asn) in south minahasa district, it was mentioned that the number of family members did not affected significantly the family food consumption. so, it can be concluded that the increasing of family members will not necessarily have an impact on the family's consumption pattern, thus the decreasing of family members will also not affect the consumption patterns that have been formed so far. it was related to the family income. the more family income, then the increasing family members will not significantly change the food dietary pattern, and the opposite happened (lintang et al., 2019). in addition, some of the family members in that village lived temporarily in the yogyakarta. they usually return to their village on weekends, or at least once every 3 days. the head of family age (x3) the age was the number of respondents age. based on the results of statistical tests, it showed that the age variable did not affect the household food dietary patterns significantly. it was happened because the value of tcount (0.343) was smaller than the value of ttable (1.673) at the 90% trust level. the findings of this research was related to the previous research entitled food dietary patterns in farmers' households in ruguk, ketapang, south lampung, which stated that the age variable partially has no effect on food quality or ddp value (arlin et al., 2017). in another study, the age has a significant negative effect on the income (ariska & prayitno, 2019), which directly influenced the quality of food. however, the actual conditions at the research location explained that the head of the family was already in an unproductive age (over 60 years), so the children were responsible for ensuring their parents food. in addition, food could also be obtained from the neighbors and relatives who were staying away. this phenomenon caused the age has no effect on the quality of household food dietary. the households income per capita (x4) the households income percapita variable number did not affected significantly to the household food dietary patterns. this happened because the value of tcount (0.488) was smaller than the value of ttable (1.673) at the 90% trust level. this findings did not related to the previous researches which said that the income affected the food quality (damora et al., 2008; sanjaya & dewi, 2017). this phenomenon happened because the actual condition of the research area. it has been described briefly in the age variable. the actual condition described http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 177 household dietary patterns….. (wijaya et al) that the food dietry patterns in that research area do not always come from the purchasing, but also from relatives, children, and closest neighbors. the rice price (x5) the rice price variable did not have a significant impact to the household food dietary patterns. this is also happened because the value of tcount (1.414) was smaller than the value of ttable (1.673) at the 90% trust level. this findings did not related to the previous studies which stated that the increasing of commodity prices will cause commodity demands (riyani et al., 2018). moreover, it also changed the food dietary patterns (saputra et al., 2019). however, the actual condition of the research location was different. the most rice that consumed by the people came from their own harvest which was stored for a period of a year. in addition, the people also received some assistances from their own family and also from the government. the recipient of government aids (x6) since the value of tcount (0.405) was smaller than the value of ttable (1.673) at the 90% trust level, it can be concluded that this variable did not have a significant effect. the aids provided by the government has not been able to increase the household consumption in the research location (nasution & zuraya, 2020). several respondents and village stakeholders explained that the amount of government aids could not significantly improve the food quality. furthermore, they also said that it was only used to cover their debts. the main occupation of the head of family (x7) the value of tcount (0.331) was smaller than the value of ttable (1.673) at the 90% trust level. thus, this variable did not have a significant impact to the food dietary patterns. it can be concluded that whatever their occupation, whether working in the agricultural or nonagricultural sectors, has no influence on their food consumption. it was caused by the income, which was not much different, around idr 600,000, to idr 1,000,000,each month. conclusions and suggestions based on the research findings, it can be concluded that the food dietary patterns in wukirsari has not yet diverse. this was proved by the results of the ddp score analysis of 60.62, while the normative ddp score was 100. the low ddp score was caused by the low energy quantity average, it was around 1,826 kcal / cap / day with an energy adequacy ratio (ear), 84.71 percent. the factors that has partially significant influences to the household dietary consumption patterns in food insecurity areas in wukirsari was the level of education. meanwhile, the other factors such as the number of household members, age of the head of the household, income per capita, price of rice, recipients of aids, and the main occupation of the head of the family have a significant effect on food consumption patterns, but not partially significant. the interventions that can be carried out based on the findings is the improving of the education quality for people in food insecurity areas, particularly in wukirsari, imogiri, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 178 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research bantul. improving the quality of education can be achieved by building some physical schools, subsidizing school fees and improving the quality of teaching and learning activities. in addition, other policy that can be carried out related to education is providing non-formal training in order to increase the chances of getting more jobs for the people there. acknowledgements the author would like thank to the ministry of research, technology and higher education, department of agribusiness universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, regional planning & development agency, yogyakarta, and residents of wukirsari, imogiri, bantul. references andri, k. b. 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(2012). the critical role of global food consumption patterns in achieving sustainable food systems and food for all. in unep (1st ed.). unep. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25186/1/food_consum ption_patterns.pdf http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 andi alatas magister manajemen agribisnis, universitas gadjah mada yogyakarta email: andy-28do@yahoo.com, trend produksi dan ekspor minyak sawit (cpo) indonesia abstract this study aims to determine the trend of palm oil production, the trend of the value of production, trends of cpo(crude palm oil) export volume, trend value of indonesian exports, as well as to determine the factors that influence the indonesian cpo exports and to know the benefits of indonesia’s cpo. the data that used are annual data which were analyzed using regression analysis to estimate the influential factors, the analysis of rca (revealed comparative abvantage) and ar (acceleration ratio) were used to determine the comparative advantage of the indonesian palm oil in international market. the results showed that the trend of indonesian palm oil production on average was increased, while the trend of the value of production, the export volume trend, and the trend of indonesian cpo export value also increased from year to year. the high productivity of indonesian palm oil production allows the state indonesia’s cpo to exports to neighboring countries, such as china, india, and the netherlands. from the results of research on the factors that influence the cpo exports to china state that the international cpo price, exchange rate, per capita income, population, and the price substitution (soybean). factors affecting the cpo exports to china were the cpo price international, capita income of, population, and the price substitution. factors that affecting cpo exports to netherland countries were the domestic price, capita income, population, trend, and subtitusi price. analysis to determine the comparative advantage to indonesian cpo market showed that indonesian cporca value was higher than the value of the rcacpo world wide average, while the world rca value of 1,06, this showed that the market share of indonesian cpo superior and capableto compete in international market. the growth of indonesian cpo export has accelerated and higher than other countries in the world (ar =1,009). keywords: production, export, cpo (crude palm oil). intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui trend produksi kelapa sawit, trend nilai produksi, trend volume ekspor, trend nilai ekspor cpo(crude palm oil) indonesia, serta untuk mengetahui factor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor cpo indonesia dan untuk mengetahui keunggulan cpo indonesia. data yang digunakan yaitu data tahunan yang dianalisis dengan menggunakan analisis regresi untuk mengestimasi faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh, analisis rca (revealed comparative advantage) dan acceleration ratio (ar) untuk mengetahui keunggulan komparatif cpo indonesia di pasaran internasional. hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa trend produksi kelapa sawit rata-rata mengalami peningkatan. sedangkan trend nilai produksi, trend volume ekspor, doi:10.18196/agr.1215 115 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 dan trend nilai ekspor cpo indonesia juga mengalami peningkatan dari tahun ke tahun. tingginya produktifitas produksi kelapa sawit indonesia memungkinkan untuk mengekspor cpo tersebut ke negara tetangga, seperti ke negara india, cina, dan belanda. dari hasil penelitian faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor ke negara india yaitu harga cpo harga cpo internasional, nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan per kapita, jumlah penduduk, dan harga substitusi. ekspor cpo ke negara cina dipengaruhi harga internasional, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, dan harga subtitusi. ekspor cpo ke negara belanda dipengaruhi oleh harga domestik, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, trend, dan harga substitusi. analisis untuk mengetahui keunggulan komparatif cpo indonesia ke pasaran dunia menunjukan bahwa nilai rca cpo indonesia lebih tinggi dari cpo di dunia internasional yaitu rata-rata 1,06, hal ini berarti bahwa pangsa pasar cpo indonesia lebih unggul dan mampu bersaing di pasaran dunia. cpo indonesia memiliki percepatan pertumbuhan ekspor yang lebih tinggi dari negara lain di dunia (ar = 1,009). kata kunci: produksi, ekspor, dan cpo. pendahuluan indonesia merupakan negara agraris yang perkembanganya didukung oleh sector pertanian. salah satu subsector pertanian tersebut adalah perkebunan. secara umum perkebunan mempunyai peranan yang sangat besar dalam penyedia lapangan pekerjaan, ekspor dan pertumbuhan ekonomi. ditinjau dari segi peningkatan produksinya perkembangan usaha perkebunan telah menunjukan kemajuan yang sangat pesat, seperti komoditas sawit, karet, kakao, kopi, teh, mapun perkebunan lainya. perkebunan tersebut telah menjadi andalan ekspor indonesia di pasaran dunia, sehingga untuk mencapai hasil ekspor yang maksimal diperlukan adanya kerjasama baik antara petani, perusahaan perkebunan dan pemerintah. tabel 1 menunjukkan dari tahun ke tahun perkembangan perkebunan di indonesia mengalami peningkatan yang sangat pesat, baik pr, pbn, maupun pbs. hal ini menunjukan bahwa indonesia memiliki prospek yang sangat besar untuk menjadi sentra pemasok produk-produk dari kelapa sawit terbesar di dunia, terutama minyak sawit. sementara, tabel 2 menunjukkan bahwa konsumsi minyak sawit mempunyai persentase yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan minyak nabati yang lain. hal ini disebabkan karena keunggulan komparatif yang terdapat pada minyak sawit, yang antara lain sebagai bahan baku minyak goreng, dan dapat digunakan sebagai bahan baku lainya, selain itu minyak sawit memiliki harga bahan baku termurah dibandingkan dengan bahan baku yang lain seperti minyak lobak, kedelai, dan bunga matahari. namun demikian, beberapa komoditas ekspor tersebut yang paling berpeluang untuk menjadi ekspor unggulan adalah kelapa sawit. hal ini dapat dilihat dari meningkatnya luasan area perkembunan sawit di sejumlah wilayah di indonesia, seiring dengan peningkatan kebutuhan akan cpo sebagai bahan baku industri dan makanan di negara tujuan ekspor. tabel 1. luas areal dan produksi kelapa sawit indonesia menurut penguasaannya sumber: dirjen perkebunan 2013, diolah perkebunan kelapa sawit banyak dikembangkan di luar pulau jawa seperti, sumatera, sulawesi dan kalimantan. pulau sumatera merupakan produsen kelapa sawit terbesar di indonesia. pada tahun 2008 produksi kelapa sawit di riau mencapai 24,40 persen dari total produksi kelapa sawit indonesia, sedangkan sumatera utara 21,4 persen, dan sumatera selatan sebesar 9,76 persen (bps pusat, 2008). penelitian mengenai komoditi cpo telah banyak dilakukan, sebagian besar penelitian tersebut menjelaskan mengenai perdagangan cpo terutama ekspor. abidin (2008) menganalisis faktor yang memengaruhi ekspor cpo indonesia. variabel yang digunakan yaitu volume ekspor sebagai variabel endogen, harga cpo domestik, harga internasional cpo, nilai tukar dan pertumbuhan produksi sebagai variabel eksogen. metode yang digunakan adalah 2sls (two stage least square). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa harga cpo domestik berpengaruh negatif terhadap ekspor cpo, sedangkan harga internasional cpo berpengaruh positif dan nilai tukar berpengaruh negatif. 116 jurnal agraris abidin (2008) menganalisis ekspor minyak kelapa sawit (cpo) indonesia dengan menggunakan regresi linier berganda 2ols (two stage square) dengan metode ols berdasarkan data time series 1996-2005. hasil penelitiannya menunjukkan bahwa variabel harga minyak sawit domestik berpengaruh secara signifikan dengan tingkat kepercayaan 99%, sedangkan minyak sawit internasional dan harga minyak kelapa berpengaruh signifikan dengan tingkat kepercayaan 95% terhadap volume ekspor minyak kelapa sawit. indonesia merupakan negara yang mempunyai sumber daya alam yang sangat besar dibandingkan dari negara lain, sehingga indonesia dapat menjadi sentra penghasil komoditas perkebunan terutama komoditas kelapa sawit, bahkan dapat menjadi negara pengekspor cpo terbesar di dunia. akan tetapi hal ini tidak dapat terlepas dari halhal yang dapat mendukung semua itu, seperti adanya peningkatan produksi, peningkatan kualitas cpo yang dapat menembus pasaran dunia, kebijakan pemerintah untuk dapat mendukung di semua sektor pertanian. berdasarkan uraian di atas maka perlu diteliti beberapa hal terkait dengan bagaimana trend perkebunan kelapa sawit di indonesia, bagaimana keunggulan komperatif cpo indonesia, dan apa saja yang memeengaruhi ekspor (internal dan eksternal) cpo indonesia ke pasaran dunia. permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh negara pengekspor minyak sawit adalah ada beberapa negara pengimpor utama minyak sawit yang menunjukkan grafik penurunan pada rentang waktu 2001 hingga 2008. keadaan ini harus segera dievaluasi oleh indonesia, terlebih lagi dalam menghadapi persaingan dengan negara lain, sehingga indonesia mampu memilih pasar tujuan ekspor yang tepat. kondisi seperti ini dapat menyebabkan ekspor minyak sawit indonesia tidak maksimal, sehingga indonesia dapat segera mengambil keputusan untuk masuk, mempertahankan, atau keluar dari pasar tersebut. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui trend produksi, trend nilai produksi, trend volume ekspor, trend nilai ekspor cpo indonesia; mengetahui faktor-faktor yang memengaruhi ekspor ke beberapa negara; dan mengetahui keunggulan cpo indonesia. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode kuantitatif dan metode deskritif analisis, yaitu penelitian yang memusatkan diri pada pemecahan masalah-masalah yang ada pada masa sekarang dan aktual dengan menggunakan program analisis regresi. jenis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data rangkaian seri, yaitu data dari tahun ke tahun sesuai dengan ketersediaan data untuk tiap-tiap tahun yang diteliti. data tersebut diperoleh dari berbagai sumber yaitu badan pusat statistika (bps), direktorat jendral perkebunan, departemen perkebunan pertanian, dan pusat penelitian kelapa sawit. untuk mengetahui trend produksi dan volume ekspor cpo indonesia digunakan persamaan trend dengan metode least square dengan persamaan sebagai berikut. y = a + bx dimana: y= volume ekspor cpo indonesia a= intersep b= koefisien regresi perubahan waktu x= trend untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang memengaruhi tabel 2. konsumsi minyak nabati dunia sumber: oilworld diolah (2013) 117 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 ekspor cpo indonesia digunakan regresi dengan persamaan sebagai berikut. dimana : y = volume ekspor cpo (ton/tahun) x5 = jumlah penduduk x1 = harga domestik cpo (us$/ton) x6 = trend ekspor x2 = harga cpo internasional (us$/ton) x7 = harga subsitusi x3 = nilai tukar rupiah (us$) x8 = pendapatan negara â = koefisien regresi μ = random error selanjutnya koefisien regresi diduga dengan metode kuadrat terkecil ols (ordinary least square). metode rca digunakan untuk melihat pangsa ekspor suatu komoditas suatu negara terhadap pangsa ekspor komoditas tersebut dari seluruh dunia. atau dengan kata lain menunjukkan keunggulan komparatif suatu komoditas dengan komoditas lainnya dipasar dunia. untuk penelitian ini indeks rca digunakan untuk melihat keunggulan komparatif cpo indonesia. besarnya indeks rca dapat dihitung dengan rumus: xop: nilai ekspor cpo dari negara lain xit: nilai total ekspor cpo negara lain wpt: nilai ekspor cpo indonesia wp: nilai total ekspor indonesia jika rca > 1, ekspor cpo indonesia lebih besar dari pangsa rata-rata ekspor komoditas cpo dari seluruh dunia; jika rca = 1, ekspor cpo indonesia sama dengan pangsa rata-rata ekspor komoditas cpo dari seluruh dunia; dan jika rca <1, ekspor cpo indonesia lebih kecil dari pangsa rata-rata ekspor komoditas cpo dari seluruh dunia. metode ini digunakan untuk melihat pertumbuhan ekspor cpo dunia dengan rumus matematika sebagai berikut ; dimana: ar = indeks ar a. jika ar > 1, indonesia dapat merebut pasar untuk ekspor cpo di dunia b. jika ar < 1, indonesia lemah dalam ekspor cpo dunia dibandingkan dengan negara lain. hasil dan pembahasan trend produksi produksi kelapa sawit indonesia mempunyai potensi untuk terus mengalami peningkatan, hal ini ditunjang dengan luasnya wilayah indonesia yang memungkinkan untuk memperluas area perkebunan terutama kelapa sawit. selain itu iklim di indonesia sangat cocok untuk mendukung tumbuh dan berkembangnya tanaman perkebunan kelapa sawit. pada gambar 1 diketahui bahwa trend produksi sawit di indonesia cenderung mengalami peningkatan setiap tahunnya. dari persamaan trend y=559130x dapat diartikan setiap 1 tahun produksi sawit mengalami peningkatan sebesar 559.130 ton. gambar 1. trend produksi sawit di indonesia trend nilai produksi harga cpo di pasar domestik merupakan patokan harga komoditi cpo yang terjadi di pasar dalam negeri di seluruh wilayah indonesia. harga tersebut juga akan terus berfluktuasi berdasarkan pergerakan harga minyak kelapa sawit (cpo) tersebu. berikut ini trend nilai produksi cpo indonesia. 118 jurnal agraris gambar 2. trend nilai produksi sawit di indonesia (000.000) pada gambar di atas diketahui bahwa trend nilai produksi sawit di indonesia cenderung fluktuatif setiap tahunnya. dengan meningkatnya harga kelapa sawit, nilai produksi juga akan meningkat; demikian juga terjadi hal yang sebaliknya. persamaan trend yang terbentuk adalah y=300.000.000x, yang berarti bahwa setiap 1 tahun akan meningkatkan nilai produksi sawit sebesar $ 300.000.000. trend ekspor cpo indonesia perkembangan ekspor kelapa sawit indonesia sangat dipengaruhi oleh produksi cpo dalam negeri dan ketersediaan stok cpo domestik. hal ini harus diperhatikan, karena jika stok domestik tidak mencukupi, maka tidak mungkin untuk melakukan ekspor. berikut ini dapat dilihat trend ekspor cpo indonesia. gambar 3. trend volume ekspor sawit indonesia pada gambar 3 diketahui trend volume ekspor cpo indonesia cenderung mengalami peningkatan setiap tahunnya. persamaan yang terbentuk adalah y=370540x, yang berarti bahwa dalam 1 tahun akan meningkatkan volume ekspor sebesar 370.540 ton. trend nilai ekspor cpo indonesia nilai ekspor ini merupakan nilai yang diproyeksikan dari hasil penjualan cpo yang diekspor oleh indonesia. harga tersebut merupakan patokan bagi perusahaan baik swasta, negara, maupun perkebunan rakyat yang melakukan ekspor. gambar 4. trend nilai volume ekspor sawit indonesia (000) pada gambar 4 diketahui bahwa trend nilai ekspor sawit indonesia cenderung mengalami peningkatan tiap tahunnya. persamaan trend yang terbentuk adalah y=300.000.000x, yang berarti bahwa setiap peningkatan 1 tahun akan meningkatkan nilai volume ekspor sebesar $ 300.000.000. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor cpo ke beberapa negara faktor ekspor cpo ke india faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor cpo indonesia ke india ditampilkan pada tabel 3 berikut. tabel 3. hasil regresi ekspor cpo ke india keterangan:**signifikan pada taraf 5%, ns = non significant berdasarkan output regresi linear di atas, model regresi berganda yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut. y = 337,901 + 0,261x 1 + 3,109x 2 + 5,838x 3 + 0,840x 4 + 0,506x 5 + 2,694x 6 + 6,257x 7 dari hasil persamaan regresi linier berganda di atas maka dapat dianalisis sebagai berikut 119 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 dari tabel 3 dapat dilihat, nilai koefisien regresi harga domestik x 1 sebesar 0,261 berarti bahwa setiap kenaikan harga domestik sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 0,261 satuan. nilai t-hitung sebesar 0,965 lebih kecil daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,338). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga domestik terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke india. nilai koefisien regresi harga internasional x 2 sebesar 3,109 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan harga internasional sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 3,109 satuan. nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,908 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,016). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga internasional terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke india. nilai koefisien regresi nilai tukar rupiah x 3 sebesar 5,838 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan nilai tukar rupiah sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 5,838. nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,115 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,043). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel nilai tukar rupiah terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke india. nilai koefisien regresi pendapatan negara india x 4 sebesar 0,840 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan pendapatan negara sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 0,840. nilai t-hitung sebesar 3,180 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,008). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel pendapatan negara india terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india. nilai koefisien regresi jumlah penduduk x 5 sebesar 0,506 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan jumlah penduduk sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 0,506. nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,405 lebih besar daripada ttabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,031). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel jumlah penduduk terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india. nilai koefisien regresi trend pertumbuhan eksporsebesar 0,070 berarti setiap penambahan trend pertumbuhan ekspor sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 0,070. nilai t-hitung sebesar 1,132 lebih kecil daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,277). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel trend pertumbuhan ekspor terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india. nilai koefisien regresi trend pertumbuhan ekspor sebesar 2,694 berarti setiap penambahan trend pertumbuhan ekspor sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 2,694. nilai t-hitung sebesar 1,132 lebih kecil daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,277). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel trend pertumbuhan ekspor terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india. nilai koefisien regresi harga substitusi x 7 sebesar 6,257 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan harga substitusi sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india sebesar 6,257. nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,406 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,031). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga substitusi terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india. berdasarkan hasil analisis regresi uji f di atas diketahui bahwa variabel harga domestic, harga internasional, nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, trend, harga substitusi berpengaruh secara bersama-sama terhadap variabel volume ekspor cpoindonesia ke negara india (p=0,000). hal ini berarti nilai probability uji f lebih kecil dari tingkat signifikansinya yakni sebesar 0,05, sehingga model dinyatakan fit. tabel 4. hasil regresi ekspor cpo ke cina keterangan:**signifikan pada taraf 5%, ns= non significan 120 jurnal agraris hasil estimasi model dengan metode ols menunjukkan nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,955. artinya variabelharga domestic, harga internasional, nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, trend, harga substitusi menjelaskanvolume ekspor cpoindonesia ke negara india sebagai variabel terikat (dependen) sebesar 95,5%. sisanya sebesar 0,45% dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor lain yang tidak dimasukkan dalam model regresi. faktor ekspor cpo ke cina faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina dapat dilihat pada tabel 4. berdasarkan output regresi linear di atas, model regresi berganda yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut : y = 0,399 + 0,016x 1 + 6,059x 2 + 1,031x 3 + 0,894x 4 + 0,600x 5 + 1,027x 6 + 3,886x 7 dari hasil persamaan regresi linier berganda tersebut di atas maka dapat dianalisis sebagai berikut: dari tabel dapat dilihat, nilai koefisien regresi harga domestic x 1 sebesar 0,016 berarti bahwa setiap harga domestic sebesar rp 1 , maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina sebesar 0,016 ton. nilai t-hitung sebesar 0,966 lebih kecil daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,379). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga domestik terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina. nilai koefisien regresi harga internasional x 2 sebesar 6.059 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan harga internasional sebesar $1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina sebesar 6,059 ton.nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,321 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,034).dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga internasional terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina. nilai koefisien regresi nilai tukar rupiah x 3 sebesar 1,031 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan nilai tukar rupiah sebesar rp1 , maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina sebesar 1,031 ton. nilai t-hitung sebesar 1,178 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,294). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel nilai tukar rupiah terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina. nilai koefisien regresi pendapatan negara cina x 4 sebesar 0,894 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan pendapatan negara sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina sebesar 0,894 ton. nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,484 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,030). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel pendapatan negara cina terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina. nilai koefisien regresi jumlah penduduk x 5 sebesar 0,600 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan jumlah penduduk sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina sebesar 0,600. nilai t-hitung sebesar 3,123 lebih besar daripada ttabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,026). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel jumlah penduduk terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina. nilai koefisien regresi trend pertumbuhan ekspor x 6 sebesar 1,027 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan trend pertumbuhan ekspor sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina sebesar 1,027. nilai t-hitung sebesar 1,302 lebih kecil daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,212). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel trend pertumbuhan ekspor terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina. nilai koefisien regresi harga substitusi x 7 sebesar 3,886 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan harga substitusi sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina sebesar 3,886. nilai thitung sebesar 2,096 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,048). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga substitusi terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara cina. berdasarkan hasil analisis regresi uji f di atas diketahui bahwa variabel harga domestic, harga internasional, nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, trend, harga substitusi berpengaruh secara bersama-sama terhadap variabel volume ekspor cpoindonesia ke negara cina (p=0,000). hal ini berarti nilai probability uji f lebih kecil dari tingkat signifikansinya yakni sebesar 0,05, sehingga model dinyatakan fit. hasil estimasi model dengan metode ols menunjukkan nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,757. artinya variabelharga domestic, harga internasional, nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan negara, 121 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 jumlah penduduk, trend, harga substitusi menjelaskanvolume ekspor cpoindonesia ke negara cina sebagai variabel terikat (dependen) sebesar 75,7%. sisanya sebesar 24,5% dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor lain yang tidak dimasukkan dalam model regresi. faktor ekspor cpo ke belanda faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda dianalisis dengan menggunakan uji regresi berganda. hasil uji regresi bergandadan diinterpretasikan pada tabel berikut. tabel 5. hasil regresi ekspor cpo ke belanda keterangan:*signifikan pada taraf 10%, **signifikan pada taraf 5%, ns = non significan berdasarkan output regresi linear di atas, model regresi berganda yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut : y = 214,020 + 0,905x 1 + 1,208x 2 + 0,026x 3 + 0,615x 4 + 0,880x 5 + 2,347x 6 + 4,279x 7 dari hasil persamaan regresi linier berganda tersebut di atas maka dapat dianalisis sebagai berikut: dari tabel dapat dilihat, nilai koefisien regresi harga domestic x 1 sebesar 0,905 berarti bahwa setiap harga domestic sebesar rp 1, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda sebesar 0,905 ton. nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,254 lebih kecil daripada ttabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,029). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga domestik terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda. nilai koefisien regresi harga internasional x 2 sebesar 1,208 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan harga internasional sebesar $1, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda sebesar 1,208 ton.nilai t-hitung sebesar 1,325 lebih kecil daripada ttabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,282).dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga internasional terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda. nilai koefisien regresi nilai tukar rupiah x 3 sebesar 0,026 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan nilai tukar rupiah sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda sebesar 0,026 ton. nilai t-hitung sebesar 0,898 lebih besar daripada ttabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,384). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada pengaruh signifikan variabel nilai tukar rupiah terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda. nilai koefisien regresi pendapatan negara belanda x 4 sebesar 0,615 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan pendapatan negara sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda sebesar 0,315. nilai t-hitung sebesar 2,497 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,025). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel pendapatan negara belanda terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda. nilai koefisien regresi jumlah penduduk x5 sebesar 0,880 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan jumlah penduduk sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda sebesar 0,880. nilai t-hitung sebesar 4,662 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,017). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel jumlah penduduk terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda. nilai koefisien regresi trend pertumbuhan ekspor x 6 sebesar 2,347 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan trend pertumbuhan ekspor sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda sebesar 2,347 satuan. nilai t-hitung sebesar 1,872 lebih kecil daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,081) tetapi signifikan pada taraf 10%. dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel trend pertumbuhan ekspor terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda. nilai koefisien regresi harga substitusi x 7 sebesar 4,279 berarti bahwa setiap penambahan harga substitusi sebesar 1 satuan, maka akan menaikkan volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda sebesar 4,279. nilai t-hitung 122 jurnal agraris sebesar 2,093 lebih besar daripada t-tabel sebesar 2,074 (p=0,042). dari hasil uji t ini disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh signifikan variabel harga substitusi terhadap volume ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara belanda. berdasarkan hasil analisis regresi uji f di atas diketahui bahwa variabel harga domestic, harga internasional, nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, trend, harga substitusi berpengaruh secara bersama-sama terhadap variabel volume ekspor cpoindonesia ke negara belanda (p=0,000). hal ini berarti nilai probability uji f lebih kecil dari tingkat signifikansinya yakni sebesar 0,05, sehingga model dinyatakan fit. hasil estimasi model dengan metode ols menunjukkan nilai koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,956. artinya variabelharga domestic, harga internasional, nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, trend, harga substitusi menjelaskanvolume ekspor cpoindonesia ke negara belanda sebagai variabel terikat (dependen) sebesar 95,6%. sisanya sebesar 0,4% dipengaruhi oleh faktorfaktor lain yang tidak dimasukkan dalam model regresi. analisis daya saing revealed comparative advantage (rca) indeks rca cpo indonesia dapat dilihat di tabel berikut tabel 6. nilai revealed comparative advantage cpo indonesia dari tabel diketahui bahwa nilai rata-rata rca indonesia di atas 1, hal ini berarti negara indonesia memiliki pangsa pasar ekspor lebih besar dari pangsa pasar ekspor cpo di dunia.hal ini dapt dilihat nilai rca dari tahun ke tahun selalu mengalami kenaikan ekspor ke beberapa negara, walau pada awalnya nilai rca rendah tetapi selalu mengalami kenaikan. accelaration ratio (ar) metode ar digunakan untuk melihat perbandingan antara percepatan pertumbuhan ekspor suatu negara terhadap percepatan pertumbuhan ekspor dunia.tingkat pertumbuhan ekspor cpo indonesia dan dunia sebagai berikut: tabel 7. pertumbuhan ekspor cpo indonesia berdasarkan tabel maka diperoleh hasil perhitungan acceleration ratio (ar) untuk produk cpo indonesia yaitu 1,009. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa percepatan pertumbuhan ekspor cpo indonesia lebih tinggi daripada percepatan pertumbuhan ekspor produk cpo dunia.indeks ar menggambarkan bahwa produk cpo indonesia memiliki keunggulan komparatif disbanding dengan produk serupa dari negara-negara lain di dunia. kesimpulan areal perkebunan kelapa sawit di indonesia dari tahun ke tahun mengalami peningkatan perluasan, sehingga hal ini berdampak langsung terhadap produksi dan nilai produksi kelapa sawit indonesia yang dari tahun ke tahun juga mengalami peningkatan, hal ini dapat dilihat dari trend produksi yang mengalami peningkatan setiap tahunnya, dengan meningkatnya produksi cpo, indonesia meningkatkan volume ekspor cpo ke beberapa negara. 123 vol.1 no.2 juli 2015 ekspor cpo indonesia ke negara india dipengaruhi oleh harga internasional,nilai tukar rupiah, pendapatan perkapita, jumlah penduduk, dan harga substitusi. ekspor cpo ke negara cina dipengaruhi oleh harga cpo internasional, pendapatan perkapita, harga subtitusi, dan jumlah penduduk.sedangkan ekspor cpo ke negara belanda dipengaruhi oleh harga cpo domestic, pendapatan negara, jumlah penduduk, trend, dan harga substitusi. minyak sawit (cpo) indonesia memiliki keunggulan komperatif yang lebih tinggi daripada negara-negara penghasil cpo di dunua.hal ini ditunjukan dengan adanya nilai rca (revealed comparative advantage)yang dia atas 1, yang artinya pangsa komoditas cpo indonesia lebih besar dari pangsa pasar ekspor komoditas cpo dari seluruh dunia. daftar pustaka abidin z. 2008.analisis ekspor minyak kelapa sawit (cpo) indonesia. jurnal aplikasimanajemen, vol. 6, no. 1, april 2008. akyuen, r. dan a. i. sulistyanto. 2010. tha dynamics of indonesia crude palm oil eksport. alexandries c.g. dan g.p. moschis. 1977. export marketing management. praeger publishers.usa amang, et al. 1996. ekonomi minyak goreng di indonesia. ipb press. bandung. anonim 2005.studi tentang prospek pasar dan investasi perkebunan kelapa sawit di indonesia. pt capricorn indonesia consult inc. jakarta ashiqin, z. a.2010. analisis daya saing dan faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor cpo indonesia ke cina, malaysia, dan singapura dalam skema asean cina free treed agreement. badan pusat statistik, 2010, jambi dalam angka tahun 2010. borensztein, e., khan, m.s., reinhart, c.m., and wickham, p. (1994).the behavior of nonoil commodity prices. occasional paper no.112, internation monetary fund, washington d.c. brodjonegoro, bambang p. s. 2006. antara liberalisasi vs proteksi pengembangan industri kelapa sawit indonesia.seminar.universitas indonesia. jakarta deaton, a. and laroque, g. 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sukirno, s. 2003. pengantar teori mikroekonomi. grafindo. jakarta. tim penulis ps. 2002. kelapa sawit usaha budidaya pemanfaatan hasil dan aspek pemasaran.pt penebar swadaya. jakarta tomek, w.g. dan kenneth l. robinson. 1990. .agricultural product prices. cornell university press. ithaca and london wahid, m.b. 2006.foreword for malaysian palm oil board 2006.mpob. malaysia susila wr. 2005. peluang pengembangan kelapa sawit di indoneisa: prespektif jangka panjang 2025. lembaga riset perkebunan indonesia. bogor. dian fauzi mahasiswa pascasarjana institut pertanian bogor program studi agribisnis lukman mohammad baga, netti tinaprilla program studi agribisnis, fakultas ekonomi dan manajemen, institut pertanian bogor dhi_fauzi20@yahoo.co.id strategi pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok abstract the purpose of this research was to formulate the strategy of developing agribusiness of red potato in solok regency. the research was conducted on the district which has highest production of red potato in solok regency, lembah gumanti district. the method used on this research was swot matrix analysis and architectural strategic analysis. based on swot analysis matrix, ten strategies were recommended in order to develop the agribusiness of red potato in solok regency. from those ten strategies, sixteen recommended program was formulated based on analytical research. these programs were divided into two, routine running program and gradually running program. keywords : red potato, agribusiness, swot, architecture strategy. intisari penelitian bertujuan untuk merumuskan strategi pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. penelitian berlokasi di kecamatan yang memiliki produksi kentang merah tertinggi di kabupaten solok, yaitu kecamatan lembah gumanti. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisis matriks swot dan analisis strategis arsitektur strategik. berdasarkan hasil analisis matriks swot maka diperoleh sepuluh strategi yang direkomendasikan dalam pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. dari sepuluh strategi yang telah dihasilkan tersebut, kemudian dijabarkan ke dalam enam belas program yang direkomendasikan berdasarkan hasil analisis. program tersebut dibagi dua, yaitu program yang rutin berjalan dan program yang bertahap dijalankan. kata kunci : kentang merah, agribisnis, swot, arsitektur strategik. pendahuluan komoditas kentang termasuk ke dalam komoditas yang bernilai ekonomi tinggi. oleh karena itu, banyak petani ataupun investor mulai menanamkan modal untuk membudidayakannya. penggunaannya yang cukup bervariasi ditambah perannya yang sangat penting bagi penderita diabetes membuatnya banyak dicari dan berharga cukup tinggi diantara komoditas pertanian yang lain (samadi, 2007). salah satu jenis varietas kentang adalah kentang merah. kentang merah mengandung karbohidrat lebih banyak dan berkadar air lebih rendah. hal ini membuat olahan kentang merah menjadi keripik dan makanan lain akan lebih gurih dan lezat. selain itu di dalam kentang merah terdapat beberapa kandungan natrium, sebagai sumber vitamin c dan b1, mineral fosfor, zat besi dan kalium. dari sisi pembudidayaan, kentang merah lebih tahan terhadap hama atau penyakit. kentang merah merupakan salah satu komoditas sayuran penting yang memiliki peluang bisnis prospektif (budiman, 2012). ferizal (2013) mengatakan meski memiliki keunggulan, saat ini produksi kentang merah masih terbatas. kentang merah baru doi:10.18196/agr.2129 88 jurnal agraris dibudidayakan di wilayah pegunungan dieng, jawa tengah, bengkulu dan kabupaten solok (sumatera barat). komoditas kentang merupakan salah satu komoditas unggulan di kabupaten solok. tanaman kentang menempati urutan kedua komoditas sayuran dengan luas pertanaman mencapai 1.462 hektar (dinas pertanian, perikanan dan perkebunan kabupaten solok, 2013). saat ini kabupaten solok sangat tepat untuk mengembangkan komoditi kentang merah melalui pembangunan sistem agribisnis kentang merah. di kabupaten solok, kentang merah mulai menjadi unggulan hasil pertanian. petani di kabupaten solok giat membudidayakannya sejak tahun 2012. berdasarkan hasil wawancara pra survey dengan kepala uptd kabupaten solok, budidaya kentang merah di solok sudah mulai terlihat dengan hasil produksi rata-rata mencapai 15 ton/ ha. namun, upaya ini belum mendapat dukungan berupa pemasaran yang baik, sejauh ini hasil panen kentang merah di jual petani ke tengkulak dengan harga jual yang relatif rendah. harga jual petani ke tengkulak berkisar rp 5.500/kg. padahal, harga di tingkat konsumen mencapai rp 12.000/kg rp 13.000/kg. kendala lainnya yang dihadapi petani yang menyebabkan produksi kentang merah di kabupaten solok masih rendah adalah belum optimalnya pengendalian sumber daya alam (sda), masih rendahnya sdm petani terhadap komoditas kentang merah, sulitnya mendapatkan benih kentang merah, harga benih kentang merah cenderung lebih mahal dibanding dengan harga benih kentang biasa. pada umumnya benih diperoleh petani dari sisa panen kentang merah yang kemudian dijadikan benih penanaman selanjutnya. disamping harga benih yang mahal, petani masih sulit memasarkan jenis kentang merah ini, karena masyarakat pada umumnya belum mengetahui manfaat dari kentang merah, sehingga masyarakat lebih cenderung membeli kentang biasa. oleh karena itu petani lebih cenderung menjual kentang merah kepada tengkulak yang kemudian disalurkan ke industri-industri olahan. selain itu, manajemen kelembagaan kelompok masih lemah padahal kentang merah memiliki prospek yang tinggi sehingga dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani dan pendapatan daerah. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk merumuskan strategi pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. metode penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan di kabupaten solok, sumatera barat, yang merupakan salah satu sentra produksi kentang di sumatera barat dan satu-satunya daerah pengembangan kentang merah di provinsi sumatera barat (dinas pertanian sumatera barat, 2013). pengambilan data dilakukan di kecamatan yang memiliki produksi kentang merah tertinggi di kabupaten solok, yaitu kecamatan lembah gumanti dengan produksi kentang merah sebesar 15.083,4 ton, pada bulan februari sampai dengan bulan maret 2015. sampel diambil dengan menggunakan purposive sampling yakni dengan menentukan stakeholders dan para pakar/ahli yang berkaitan atau berpengalaman serta mempunyai kemampuan memberikan penilaian terhadap faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap pengembangan komoditas kentang merah di kabupaten solok, yang terdiri atas: i) kepala bidang hortikultura kabupaten solok, ii) kepala bidang pengolahan dan pemasaran hasil produksi pertanian dinas pertanian kab. solok, iii) kasi pengembangan tanaman sayur dan buah, iv) kasi pembinaan usaha dan pemasaran hasil, v) kepala uptd kabupaten solok, vi) penyuluh pertanian. analisis swot digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi berbagai faktor secara sistematis untuk merumuskan tabel 1. matriks swot (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities) internal factor sumber: david, 2009 89 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 strategi kegiatan. analisis dilakukan untuk memaksimalkan kekuatan (strength), peluang (opportunities), serta meminimalkan kelemahan (weaknesses) dan ancaman (threats). proses pengambilan keputusan selalu berkaitan dengan pengembangan misi, tujuan, strategi, dan kebijakan. dengan demikian, perencanaan strategis harus menganalisis faktor-faktor strategi kegiatan (kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang, dan ancaman) sesuai kondisi saat ini (rangkuti, 2006). matriks swot terdiri dari sembilan sel. ada empat sel faktor kunci, empat sel strategi, dan satu sel selalu dibiarkan kosong (sel kiri atas). empat sel strategi, yang diberi nama so, wo, st, dan wt, dikembangkan setelah menyelesaikan empat sel faktor kunci, diberi nama s, w, o, t. dengan demikian terdapat delapan langkah yang harus dilalui dalam pembuatan matriks swot. arsitektur strategik adalah suatu gambar rancangan yang bermanfaat bagi perusahaan untuk merumuskan strateginya ke dalam sebuah roadmap untuk meraih visi dan misi perusahaan. dengan arsitektur strategik, pilihan yang akan diimplementasikan dapat dipetakan sehingga memudahkan pelaksana dalam membaca, memahami, melakukan, dan mengevaluasinya. arsitektur strategik dipilih sebagai alat analisis dengan alasan bentuk ini lebih mudah untuk dipahami karena strategi yang akan dijalankan dijabarkan dalam bentuk gambar. dengan demikian perusahaan akan lebih mudah dalam memahami perubahan dan konsekuensi yang harus dilakukan sehubungan dengan strategi yang dipilih. di samping itu perusahaan sampai saat ini belum memiliki suatu rancangan arsitektur startegik, sehingga suatu rancangan strategi nantinya yang akan digambarkan akan sangat bermanfaat bagi perusahaan (yoshida, 2006). hasil dan pembahasan identifikasi faktor kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang dan ancaman faktor kekuatan dan kelemahan faktor kekuatan dan kelemahan merupakan faktor internal yang menjadikan suatu usaha berbeda dari pesaingnya. tabel 2 menggambarkan faktor internal yang menjadi kekuatan dan kelemahan agribisnis kentang merah. agribisnis kentang merah dapat mengoptimalkan kekuatan yang dimiliki dan meminimalisir kelemahannya. faktor peluang dan ancaman faktor peluang dan ancaman merupakan lingkungan eksternal yang keberadaannya tidak dapat dikendalikan. kabupaten solok, terutama agribisnis kentang merah harus mampu memanfaatkan peluang yang ada serta selalu siap untuk mengantisipasi ancaman. berdasarkan hasil analisis lingkungan, tabel 3 menggambarkan faktor eksternal yang mempengaruhi perkembangan agribisnis kentang merah dengan menggunakan pendekatan analisis pest (politik, ekonomi, sosial budaya, dan teknologi). daftar di bawah ini adalah faktor kritis baik berupa peluang yang dapat dimanfaatkan kabupaten solok dan juga ancaman yang perlu dihindari atau diminimalisir. tabel 2. daftar kekuatan dan kelemahan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok 90 jurnal agraris tabel 3. daftar peluang dan ancaman agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok analisis matriks swot setelah mengetahui posisi agribisnis kentang merah dari hasil mengkombinasikan faktor kunci internal dan eksternal, maka dapat dirumuskan beberapa alternatif strategi bagi agribisnis kentang merah. strategi-strategi tersebut dikelompokkan dalam empat sel yaitu, strategi so, strategi s-t, strategi w-o, strategiw-t. hasil analisis dapat dilihat pada tabel 4. strategi s-o strategi s-o adalah strategi yang dirancang dengan menggunakan kekuatan untuk mengambil keuntungan dari peluang yang ada. berdasarkan analisis terdapat empat strategi yang dapat direkomendasikan untuk diterapkan petani kentang di wilayah penelitian. 1. meningkatkan pertemuan rutin yang menjembatani program pemerintah dengan kelompok tani mengadakan pertemuan rutin yang menjembatani antara kelompok tani dengan pihak dinas pemerintah sesuai dengan karakter kelompok tani yang menjunjung tinggi kekeluargaan, mempunyai keinginan yang kuat untuk maju dan peluang dukungan dari pemerintah, maka perlu memanfaatkan kelembagaan melalui pertemuan rutin. pertemuan rutin tentu saja akan memudahkan dan menyelaraskan koordinasi program dinas pertanian, dinas perindustrian perdagangan dan koperasi maupun pihak-pihak stakeholder dengan peningkatan aktivitas usahatani. strategi ini tentunya memerlukan pelaku perantara dalam memfasilitasi pertemuan rutin, diantaranya ppl dan ketua kelompok tani. 2. peningkatan produksi dan mutu hasil panen dalam rangka memenuhi kebutuhan konsumen, agribisnis kentang merah harus mampu menghasilkan produk yang unggul dari kualitas, kuantitas dan mutu produk. hal ini akan menciptakan kepuasan konsumen sehingga konsumen akan mengkonsumsi secara kontinyu. peningkatan daya saing dengan memperkuat daya saing produksi harus dibangun melalui pendekatan sistem agribisnis yang efisien. ciri usaha agribisnis yang efisien adalah usaha yang mampu memproduksi barang atau jasa yang bermutu tinggi, dalam jumlah besar, terjamin kontinyuitas produksi dengan biaya produksi yang relatif rendah. dengan adanya peningkatan permintaan kentang merah dari konsumen, maka kabupaten solok harus bisa menyesuaikan kondisi tersebut salah satunya dengan peningkatan hasil produksi. 3. memanfaatkan lahan kosong untuk budidaya kentang merah ketersediaan lahan kosong di kabupaten solok dapat dimanfaatkan oleh petani untuk membudidayakan kentang merah (tabel 4). pemanfaatan lahan kosong diharapkan dapat meningkatkan jumlah produksi kentang merah di kawasan kabupaten solok. 4. menambah daerah distribusi pasar strategi lain yang dapat diambil dengan memanfaatkan peluang dan kekuatan agribisnis kentang merah adalah dengan menambah daerah distribusi pasar kentang merah yang sekarang hanya terdistribusi ke lima daerah saja yaitu kabupaten solok, kota solok, sawahlunto, sijunjung dan kota padang. salah satu cara yang dapat ditempuh yaitu dengan menambah agen penjualan kentang merah di daerah-daerah lain. stratetgi w-o strategi w-o adalah strategi yang dipakai oleh perusahaan untuk mengatasi kelemahan dengan memanfaatkan peluang yang ada. beberapa strategi yang dapat diterapkan adalah sebagai berikut. 1. pengembangan usaha dengan pemanfaatan bantuan 91 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 modal dengan adanya lembaga keuangan, petani dapat melakukan pinjaman modal guna melakukan pengembangan usaha dengan cara memanfaatkan lahan yang masih kosong untuk dilakukan budidaya kentang merah. 2. kerjasama pemasaran baik dalam bentuk produk segar maupun olahan bentuk kerjasama pemasaran yang dapat diterapkan pada sistem agribisnis kentang merah adalah dengan memanfaatkan dukungan dinas pertanian melalui event pameran yang diadakan di luar daerah kabupaten solok. melalui event tersebut, pihak dinas dapat mempromosikan kentang merah, baik dalam bentuk segar maupun produk olahan, dengan begitu dapat menambah jumlah konsumen yang mengkonsumsi kentang merah. selain dukungan dari dinas pertanian, para petani ataupun kelompok tani dapat melakukan kerjasama dengan stakeholders untuk memasarkan kentang merah keluar daerah. para petani juga dapat memanfaatkan kemajuan teknologi gadget untuk melakukan promosi secara online. 3. meningkatkan teknologi produksi dan informasi dengan strategi peningkatan teknologi produksi dan informasi, pada agribisnis kentang merah, maka pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok dapat tercapai. produksi merupakan bidang yang terus berkembang selaras dengan perkembangan teknologi, karena produksi memiliki suatu jalinan hubungan timbal-balik (dua arah) yang sangat erat dengan teknologi. produksi dan teknologi saling membutuhkan. kebutuhan produksi untuk beroperasi dengan biaya yang lebih rendah, meningkatkan kualitas dan produktivitas, dan menciptakan produk baru telah menjadi kekuatan yang mendorong teknologi untuk melakukan berbagai terobosan dan penemuan baru. produksi dalam sebuah agribisnis merupakan inti yang paling dalam. sistem produksi merupakan sistem integral yang mempunyai komponen struktural dan fungsional. dalam sistem produksi modern terjadi suatu proses transformasi nilai tambah yang mengubah input menjadi output yang dapat dijual dengan harga kompetitif di pasar. upaya peningkatan teknologi produksi yang dapat dilakukan antara lain membuat penangkaran bibit kentang merah di kabupaten solok, yang diharapkan dapat menghasilkan bibit kentang merah yang berkualitas dan bersertifikat. hal ini bertujuan agar hasil panen lebih berkualitas, dan kuantitas panen pun mengalami peningkatan dari sebelumnya ketika petani menggunakan bibit dari hasil panennya sendiri. strategi s-t strategi s-t adalah strategi yang menggunakan kekuatan yang dimiliki oleh agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok untuk menghindari ancaman-ancaman yang ada. beberapa strategi yang dapat diterapkan diantaranya sebagai berikut. 1. mengembangkan sistem kemitraan yang telah dijalankan antar petani dan kelompok tani salah satu kekuatan yang dimiliki oleh petani kentang merah di kabupaten solok adalah kemitraan antar anggota dalam kelompok tani maupun dengan kelompok tani yang lain. kemitraan yang telah dibentuk dapat dimanfaatkan untuk kepentingan bersama seperti pemenuhan kebutuhan sarana produksi. untuk mempertahankan sistem kemitraan yang telah dijalankan, para petani diharapkan mampu melakukan hal-hal sebagai berikut. a. menumbuhkan gabungan kelompok atau asosiasi kelompok-kelompok yang sudah tumbuh didorong agar bekerjasama dengan kelompok lain dalam bentuk organisasi yang lebih besar yang disebut gabungan kelompok atau asosiasi. terbentuknya gabungan kelompok/asosiasi atas dasar kebutuhan atau kepentingan kelompok itu sendiri biaya produksi. b. menumbuhkan lembaga ekonomi formal gabungan kelompok/asosiasi didorong agar memiliki keinginan dan mampu menjadi satu lembaga ekonomi yang formal dan yang paling tepat adalah koperasi. agar tumbuh keswadayaan petani dan mampu berusaha dalam sistem pasar maka tabungan kelompok perlu ditingkatkan. c. pengembangan kemitraan dalam rangka memperkuat usaha diperlukan adanya kemitraan 92 jurnal agraris antara usaha ekonomi skala usaha kecil dan menengah dengan usaha besar. 2. membuat produk olahan yang berbahan baku kentang merah strategi ini dibentuk dengan latar belakang belum ada industri olahan kentang yang menggunakan kentang merah sebagai bahan baku. menjadikan kentang merah sebagai bahan baku produk olahan dapat menghasilkan nilai tambah terhadap komoditi kentang merah, yang sebelumnya hanya dijual dalam bentuk segar. strategi w-t 1. riset pasar dan lingkungan usaha hal ini sangat diperlukan oleh para pelaku agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok untuk mengetahui peluang bagi agribisnis kentang merah kabupaten solok untuk memasarkan produknya secara lebih luas. lingkungan usaha juga sangat penting untuk meminimalkan kelemahan yang ada pada agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. rancangan arsitektur strategik berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan para pakar mengenai pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok, maka sasaran yang ingin dicapai serta tantangan yang dihadapi oleh kabupaten solok dalam pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah adalah sebagai berikut: 1. sasaran yang ingin dicapai oleh kabupaten solok a. tersedianya benih kentang merah yang bermutu b. tersedianya penangkaran benih kentang merah di kabupaten solok c. tersedianya agroindustri kentang merah di kabupaten solok d. menjadikan kentang merah sebagai komoditi yang digunakan untuk bahan baku olahan kentang, seperti keripik kentang, stick kentang dan lain-lain 2. tantangan (strategic challange) yang dihadapi kabupaten solok dalam pencapaian sasaran a. keterbatasan sumber daya petani khususnya dalam budidaya kentang merah b. belum adanya riset atau penelitian tentang budidaya kentang merah yang menyatakan produktifitas kentang merah per hektar mampu menyaingi produkifitas kentang yang banyak dibudidayakan masyarakat yaitu granola dan cipanas c. belum adanya dukungan anggaran pemda kabupaten solok untuk mengembangan kentang merah tabel 4. analisis matriks swot agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok 93 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 d. ketersediaan benih kentang merah di kabupaten solok 3. tahapan arsitektur strategik rancangan arsitektur strategik pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok merupakan rekomendasi yang penulis berikan sebagai jawaban atas tantangan yang dihadapi agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. rancangan arsitektur strategik disusun dengan menggunakan input dari visi, misi dan tujuan dari kabupaten solok dalam mengembangkan agribisnis kentang merah, strategi-strategi dari hasil analisis swot, tantangan-tantangan yang dihadapi dan rentang waktu yang ditetapkan. rancangan ini merupakan peta strategi (blue print strategic) untuk mencapai sasaran atau citacita kabupaten solok dalam pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah. berdasarkan hasil diskusi dan wawancara dengan dinas pertanian kabupaten solok, rentang waktu pelaksanaan strategi dan program kerja yang ditetapkan akan dijalankan dalam kurun waktu 4 tahun. rentang waktu selama 4 tahun ini ditetapkan sesuai dengan sasaran dan cita-cita kabupaten solok dalam pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah yang akan dicapai pada tahun 2019 yaitu tersedianya benih kentang merah yang bermutu, tersedianya penangkaran benih kentang merah di kabupaten solok, tersedianya agroindustri kentang merah dan menjadikan kabupaten solok sebagai sentra produksi kentang merah dan pusat olahan kentang yang berbahan baku kentang merah. tantangan yang dihadapi oleh kabupaten solok dalam pengembangan sistem agribisnis kentang merah adalah keterbatasan sumber daya petani, belum ada riset atau penelitian tentang budidaya kentang merah, belum ada dukungan anggaran dari pemerintah daerah kabupaten solok dan ketersediaan bibit kentang merah. setelah melalui serangkaian tahapan pendekatan untuk membuat rancangan arsitektur strategik, hasilnya kemudian dipetakan ke dalam gambar yang disebut arsitektur pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. didalamnya terdapat langkah-langkah yang akan ditempuh untuk mencapai sasaran atau citacita tersebut. gambar 1 merupakan rancangan arsitektur strategik pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. pada gambar 1, sumbu x (horizontal) merupakan rentang waktu yang dipersiapkan dalam pengembangan usaha. sumbu y (vertikal) merupakan rentang strategi yang ingin dilakukan untuk mencapai sasaran kabupaten solok dalam pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah. berdasarkan tantangan yang dihadapi, terdapat serangkaian strategi dan program untuk menghadapi tantangan tersebut. terdapat dua kelompok strategi yang direkomendasikan untuk agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. kelompok pertama adalah rangkaian strategi yang dilaksanakan secara bertahap dan kelompok kedua adalah strategi yang dilaksanakan secara terus menerus. untuk strategi yang dilaksanakan secara bertahap dibagi kedalam rentang waktu 2016, tahun 2017, tahun 2018, dan tahun 2019. strategi yang masuk ke dalam kelompok ini adalah: (1) peningkatan produksi, kualitas dan mutu hasil panen, (2) pengembangan usaha dengan pemanfaatan bantuan modal, (3) meningkatkan teknologi produksi dan informasi, (4) memanfaatkan lahan kosong, (5) pengembangan wilayah pemasaran, (6) riset pasar dan lingkungan usaha, (7) membuat produk olahan berbahan baku kentang merah, dan (8) kerjasama pemasaran dalam bentuk produk segar dan olahan. strategi yang akan dijalankan, dilakukan secara bertahap yang diprioritaskan berdasarkan tahun. strategi yang pertama dilakukan adalah meningkatkan produksi dan mutu hasil panen, dan pengembangan usaha dengan pemanfaatan modal pada tahun 2016. strategi ini dilakukan sejalan karena dengan memanfaatkan bantuan modal berupa krediat yang diberikan oleh lembaga keuangan yang ada di kabupaten solok seperti bri, bni dan bank mandiri, maka petani kentang merah di kabupaten solok dapat mengembangkan usahataninya sehingga dapat menambah kuantitas produksi dan kualitas hasil hasil panen. setelah mendapatkan bantuan modal, strategi yang bisa diterapkan kabupaten solok adalah meningkatkan teknologi produksi dan informasi serta pengembangan wilayah pemasaran yang akan dijalankan pada tahun 2017 sampai 2018, dan menambah daerah distribusi pasar yang dulunya hanya terdistribusi ke-4 daerah yang dilaksanakan pada tahun 2017. strategi selanjutnya yang dapat diterapkan kabupaten solok adalah melakukan riset pasar. riset pasar ini dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk mengetahui bagaimana respon masyarakat terhadap komoditi kentang merah di kabupaten solok maupun di luar kabupaten solok. setelah melakukan riset pasar strategi selanjutkan yang dapat dilakukan adalah membuat produk olahan yang berbahan baku kentang merah, dan melakukan kerjasama pemasaran dalam bentuk produk segar dan produk olahan. 94 jurnal agraris kelompok kedua adalah strategi yang dilakukan secara terus menerus. strategi ini dijalankan sejak tahun pertama penetapan arsitektur strategik sampai tercapainya sasaran yang telah ditentukan oleh kabupaten solok. terdapat dua strategi yang akan dilaksanakan secara terus menerus yaitu strategi (1) mengadakan pertemuan rutin antara dinas terkait dengan petani dan kelompok tani, dan (2) mengembangkan sistem kemitraan yang sudah terjalin antar petani dan antar kelompok tani. diharapkan dengan dua strategi ini akan mendukung dan memperkuat kondisi internal agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. strategi-strategi yang diplotkan dalam arsitektur strategik merupakan rekomendasi dari peneliti kepada kabupaten solok. dalam pelaksanaannya, strategi-strategi tersebut dapat berubah sesuai dengan kondisi lingkungan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. 4. rekomendasi program kerja untuk memudahkan kabupaten solok mengimplementasikan arsitektur strategik yang direkomendasikan, peneliti mengekstraksi strategi-strategi yang dihasilkan dari analisis swot menjadi rekomendasi program-program kegiatan. programprogram kegiatan ini sifatnya merupakan tambahan, untuk pelaksanaannya jika ada tambahan atau kekurangan dapat dimodifikasi sesuai keadaan lingkungan. hasil ekstraksi strategi swot dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. pada tabel 3, dapat dilihat terdapat tiga belas program kerja yang direkomendasikan dari sembilan strategi yang diperoleh dari analisis matriks swot. keenambelas program kerja ini memiliki penanggungjawab yang berbeda-beda di setiap programnya. yang menjadi penanggungjawab pada program-program tersebut diantaranya, petani, ketua kelompok tani dan dinas pertanian kesimpulan dan saran kesimpulan berdasarkan hasil analisis matriks swot maka diperoleh sepuluh strategi yang direkomendasikan dalam 95 vol.2 no.1 januari 2016 pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. dari sepuluh strategi yang telah dihasilkan tersebut, kemudian dijabarkan ke dalam enam belas program yang direkomendasikan berdasarkan hasil analisis. program tersebut dibagi dua, yaitu program yang rutin berjalan dan program yang bertahap dijalankan. saran 1. diperlukan dukungan dari pemerintah, khususnya pemerintah kabupaten solok dan pihak-pihak terkait agribisnis kentang merah guna pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah ke depannya. selain itu kabupaten solok senantiasa memanfaatkan kesempatan atau peluang yang ada seperti kebijakan yang mendukung pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah. 2. diharapkan para petani kentang merah di kabupaten solok mengimplementasikan pemetaan strategi yang tabel 5. rekomendasi program kerja agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok telah dirumuskan dengan melakukan penyesuaianpenyesuaian terhadap kondisi agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. daftar pustaka budiman, y. 2012. faktor-faktor produksi dan analisis efisiensi usahatani kentang merah (solanum tuberasum) di desa talang lahat kecamatan sindang kelingi kabupaten rejang lebong. bengkulu (id): fakultas pertanian universitas bengkulu. [diunduh 2014 mei 25]. tersedia pada : http:// umb.ac.id/faperta/ david, f.r. 2009. manajemen strategis. sulistio p dan mahardika h, penerjemah; rahoyo s, editor; edisi dua belas. jakarta (id): salemba empat. terjemahan dari: strategic management ³concepts and cases, 10 th ed. dinas pertanian sumatera barat. 2013. sumatera barat 96 jurnal agraris dalam angka 2013. padang: dinas pertanian sumatera barat. dinas pertanian, perikanan dan perkebunan kabupaten solok. 2013. kabupaten solok dalam angka 2013. solok: dinas pertanian kabupaten solok. direktorat jenderal hortikultura. 2011. pedoman pengembangan hortikultura tahun 2012:2. [terhubung berkala]. [24 mei 2013]. tersedia pada: http:// hortikultura.deptan.go.id. ferizal. 2013. melirik peluang budidaya kentang merah. [diunduh 2014 mei 26]. tersedia pada: http:// jurnalasia.com/2013/12/17/melirik-peluang-budidayakentang-merah/#sthash.gyincd2n.dpuf rangkuti, f. (2006). analisis swot teknik membedah kasus bisnis. jakarta: pt. gramedia pustaka utama. samadi, b. 2002. usaha tani kentang. cetakan ke-8. yogyakarta: kanisius. yoshida, d.t. 2006. arsitektur strategik: solusi meraih kemenangan dalam dunia yang senantiasa berubah. jakarta: elex media komputindo issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 160-175 article history: submitted : april 26th, 2021 revised : august 23rd, 2021 july 22nd, 2021 accepted : august 24th, 2021 garist sekar tanjung*, any suryantini, and arini wahyu utami department agricultural socioeconomic, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia *) correspondence email: gstsekar57@gmail.com the priorities of leading sub-sector in the sector of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in economic development in bangka belitung province doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11615 abstract the aim of the study is to determine the priorities of the leading sub-sector in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries on economic development in the province of bangka belitung island. the descriptive-analytical method is used to describe and explain the dynamical performance of each sub-sector. the sub-sector performance is represented by grdp of bangka belitung province and gdp of indonesia based on constant prices in 2010 for the 2010-2020 periods. analysis of klassen typology, location quotient (lq), and dynamic location quotient (dlq) are conducted to determine the sub-sector and its position among other sub-sectors. the analysis results show that the plantation crop is a leading subsector priority for the economic development in the bangka belitung province. keywords: agriculture, bangka belitung, grdp, leading sub-sector introduction economic development is one of the national development goals in a country to encourage equitable distribution. this activity is closely related to implementing development at the regional level to achieve equitable development in all corners of the country. national development planning is a communication medium for national goals to external and internal stakeholders (chimhowu, hulme, & munro, 2019). regional economic development strategies can be carried out by physical/local development, business; human resource; and many other strategies to develop the community's economy. several indicators that can be used to measure the success of economic development are economic growth, per capita income, poverty rates, and others (chisadza & bittencourt, 2019). economic growth is a process of increasing the production of goods and services in people's economic activities, which describes the development of an economy in one year compared to the previous year (sjafrizal, 2016). gross regional domestic product (grdp) can be used as an indicator of the economic growth performance of a region. a large http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:gstsekar57@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.11615 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 161 the priorities of leading sub-sector ….. (tanjung, suryantini, and utami) percentage indicates the dependence on the production capacity of that sector. for example, agriculture, forestry, and fisheries are the leading sector and have a high contribution to the economy in the province of bangka belitung islands (yulianti, 2019). the agricultural sector is the basic in bangka belitung province (monica, mawra, & yulianita, 2017). this is supported by hu & blakely (2013) research shows that the local economies of more remote and smaller communities are more dependent on some specialized industries, such as tourism and agriculture. this illustrates that the business sector in agriculture is an important sector that plays a role in the regional economy. agriculture has a strong relationship with the business sector in other fields which positively affects the growth of regional output as a whole (abidin, 2015). in developing the country's economic growth, there needs to be a push to increase growth in the agricultural sector, where the smart agriculture economic growth in 2020 will be at 96% (li & zheng, 2021). with the existing potential, the provincial government of bangka belitung can take advantage of opportunities to increase the added value of agriculture which is reflected in regional development programs, strategic plans, and work plans of the fisheries, agriculture, and food offices in order to encourage economic growth and ensure food availability in an area (ali et al., 2020; marina et al., 2018). the policy that needs to be carried out by the government to achieve regional development goals is to prioritize regional development according to the potential possessed by each region so that the efforts made can be achieved optimally. the success of a region in carrying out its development is strongly influenced by the quality of planning based on the potential of its resources so that the region can manage existing resources to encourage economic growth as expected. so each region needs to know the basic and non-basic sectors as well as sub-sectors and leading commodities in their economic structure so that the implementation of development can be more focused. thus, the purpose of this study is to determine the relative position of each sub-sector in the context of accelerating grdp growth in the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sectors. in addition, this research was also carried out to improve previous research in analyzing the contribution and leading sub-sectors in the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sectors in the province of the bangka belitung islands, where previous research was discussed the basic sector in all business in the province of bangka belitung. however, this study is more specific to the agricultural sector in determining its superior sub-sector, so this research is more focused on discussing the determination of the agricultural sub-sector in bangka belitung province. research method the data used in this study is secondary data in 2010-2020. the types and sources of data collected are from the yearbook of indonesian statistics and statistics of the bangka belitung islands province which include data on gross domestic product (gdp) and gross regional domestic product (grdp) at constant prices in 2010; and various other scientific journals. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 162 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research data analysis overlay analysis determining the priority of the leading sectors is done by using the overlay analysis technique. overlay analysis is a technique used to conclude by combining several analysis results (kharisma & ferry, 2019). the results of the overlay analysis are used to determine the leading economic sub-sectors (kuncoro, 2012). this technique uses the calculation of lq, dlq, and typology klassen (ri). the five priority indicator predictions from the results of the overlay analysis can be seen in table 1. table 1. the priority indicator category no lq dlq ri category 1 + + + leading 2 + mainstay 3 + + potential 4 + developing 5 underdeveloped location quotient (lq) economic basis analysis often referred to as the economic basis theory, is usually used to identify grdp in determining the base sector. according to sjafrizal (2018), it is explained that the lq technique can divide the economic activities of an area into two groups, namely: 1) basic industries, namely economic or industrial activities that serve the regional market itself or outside the region concerned, and 2) non-basic industries, namely economic or industrial activities that only serve the local market. location quotient (lq) analysis can show the magnitude of the contribution of the economic sector of the bangka belitung islands province in terms of contribution by comparing the contribution of the same sector nationally. this analysis uses the grdp value approach with the formula: 𝐿𝑄 = 𝐸𝑖𝑗/𝐸𝑗 𝐸𝑖𝑛/𝐸𝑛 (1) note : lq : location quotient coefficient (lq) eij : grdp of sub-sector i in bangka belitung province ej : total of grdp in bangka belitung province ein : gdp of sub-sector i at national level en : total of gdp at national level criteria of the measurement: a. if the value of lq ≥ 1, sub-sector whose level of specialization is higher than the reference level b. if the value of lq< 1, sub-sector whose level of specialization is lower than the reference level. furthermore, dynamic location quotient (dlq) analysis was used to determine whether a sub-sector has the potential to become a leading sub-sector in the future with the following formula (widodo, 2006). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 163 the priorities of leading sub-sector ….. (tanjung, suryantini, and utami) 𝐷𝐿𝑄 = [ ( 1+𝑔𝑖𝑗 1+𝑔𝑗 ) ( 1+𝐺𝑖 1+𝐺 ) ] 𝑡 (2) note: dlq : index dynamic location quotient gij : the growth rate of sub-sector i in bangka belitung province gj : the average sub-sector growth rate in bangka belitung province gi : the growth rate of sub-sector i at the national level g : the average growth rate of the sub-sectors at the national level t : time of analysis criteria of the measurement: a. if dlq ≥ 1, the growth rate of sub-sector i in bangka belitung province is higher than the growth rate of the sub-sector at the national level b. if dlq < 1, the growth rate of sub-sector i in bangka belitung province is lower than the growth rate of the sub-sector at the national level. the combination of lq and dlq values is used to determine whether the economic sub-sector is classified as dominant, prospective, mainstay, and underdeveloped using table 2 (kuncoro, 2012). table 2. classification of sub-sectors based on the combination of lq and dlq nilai lq >1 dlq <1 dlq > 1 dominant mainstay dlq <1 prospective underdeveloped sources: kuncoro (2012) klassen typological analysis klassen’s typological analysis is used to identify the position of the agriculture, forestry and agriculture sub-sector in the province of the bangka belitung islands by taking into account the economic sub-sector in the national region as a reference area. the output of this analysis is expected to determine the position and structure of the economic sector of bangka belitung province which can be used as a supporting reference to determine priorities in the development of the agricultural sub-sector development. according to sjafrizal (2016), there are four classifications with different characteristics between subsectors, namely : a) quadrant i: mainstay sector is a sector in the quadrant where the grdp growth rate of certain sectors in bangka belitung province has an average growth rate above the national grdp growth and has a sector contribution value to grdp that is greater than grdp growth national. sector contribution at the national level (ri > r and yi > y). b) quadrant ii: potential sector is a sector that is in the quadrant where the grdp growth rate of certain sectors in bangka belitung province has an average growth rate that is smaller than the growth of national gdp but has a contribution value that is greater than its contribution. sector at the national level ( ri < r and yi > y). c) quadrant iii: developing sector, is a sector that is in the quadrant where the grdp growth rate of certain sectors in bangka belitung province has an average growth rate http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 164 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research above the national grdp growth but has a contribution value than the national level (ri > r and yi <y). d) quadrant iv: relatively underdeveloped sector, is a sector in the quadrant where the grdp growth rate of certain sectors in bangka belitung province has a growth rate and contribution value that is smaller than the growth rate and contribution of the same sector at the national level (ri < r and yi < y). the classification of each group can be seen in table 3. table 3. klassen typology classification contribution (y) growth (r) yi > y yi < y ri > r quadrant i dominant quadrant ii potential ri < r quadrant iii developing quadrant iv underdeveloped source: sjafrizal (2016) note: ri : growth rate of sub-sector i in bangka belitung province r : growth rate of the gdp agriculture sub-sector at the national level yi : contribution of sub-sector i in bangka belitung province y : contribution of the gdp agriculture sub-sector at the national level results and discussion concentration and potential of the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sub-sectors in bangka belitung islands province the location quotient (lq) and dynamic location quotient (dlq) methods are one of the most well-known analysis techniques of the economic base model to determine the basis or non-base sectors. the results showed that the agricultural sub-sector which has a superior sub-sector classification, is only in the plantation sub-sector with an lq calculation of 1.52 and dlq of 1.07. this shows that the plantation sub-sector has basic values, both now and in the future. plantation commodities that provide the largest contribution to the economy of bangka belitung province are oil palm (147.330.45 tons); rubber (56,629.01 tons); and pepper (33,457.64 tons) (statistics of kepulauan bangka belitung province, 2021). the subsector that has these basic values can be a driving force in encouraging economic growth in the bangka belitung province. not only meeting the needs of regencies/cities in their area, the sub-sector is also able to meet from outside the region (darma putra & yuli pratiwi, 2019). the fisheries sub-sector shows an lq value of more than one (1.99) which indicates that this sub-sector is a basic sub-sector in bangka belitung province. this is supported by the geographical factors of belitung regency as an archipelagic country, so that fishery production is abundant and can be exported outside the region (yulianti, 2019). this research is in line with ibrahim (2018) research which states that the fisheries sub-sector is able to absorb a very high workforce. however, the dlq value in the fisheries sub-sector in http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 165 the priorities of leading sub-sector ….. (tanjung, suryantini, and utami) this region is < 1; this indicates that this sub-sector does not have a baseline value in the future period. meanwhile, the food crops sub-sector; and forestry shows the results of the lq analysis < 1, so it is not a basic sector in the current period, but the dlq value shows that the food crops sub-sector (1.40); and the forestry and logging sub-sector (1.13) has a baseline. it shows that the sub-sector is included in the classification of the mainstay sector, so it still has the potential to be repositioned as a basic sector in the future. the analysis results were different from the horticultural crop sub-sector, farmland, and agricultural and hunting services, which show lq and dlq values < 1, so they are included in the category of relatively lagging sub-sectors. table 4 is the results of the calculation of the lq and dlq methods using grdp and data of grdp for the bangka belitung province in the 20102020 period. it was present to make the discussion easier to understand. table 4. average lq and dlq of agriculture sub-sector in belitung regency 2010-2020 sub-sector average conclusion lq dlq food crops 0.12 1.40 + mainstay horticultural crops 0.96 0.84 underdeveloped plantation crops 1.52 + 1.07 + dominant livestock 0.44 0.99 underdeveloped agriculture service and hunting 0.78 0.96 underdeveloped forestry/and logging 0.34 1.13 + mainstay fishery 1.99 + 0.83 prospective sources: statistics of kepulauan bangka belitung province, (2020) sub-sectors that have non-basic values should support the basic sector but still need to be strengthened again so that economic growth and the community's economy can increase. efforts and strategies are needed so that this sub-sector can have basic values in the future so that later it is hoped that these sub-sectors can become a leading sector that can be a driving force for other sectors to grow into the driver of regional. meanwhile, the basic sub-sector that drives the economy in the bangka belitung province needs to be further improved by providing convenience in business licensing, increasing investment, holding various training, and providing investment to the community (satrianto & sasongko, 2019). structure and position of the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sub-sectors in the province of the bangka belitung islands klassen typology is used to classify each sub-sector in the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sector in bangka belitung province based on its growth structure. local governments can use this analysis as a base decision-maker to determine priorities for regional revenue and expenditure budgets, especially those related to the expenditure side, to focus more on the sector, sub-sector, business, and commodity development (listya, ferrianta, & makki, 2018). based on the type of business field, each sub-sector during the 2010-2020 periods shows a different position. this approach compares each sub sector's average growth and contribution with the same economic activity at the national level. table 5 shows the analysis results. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 166 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 5. the average growth and contribution of the agricultural, forestry, and fisheries sub-sectors in bangka belitung regency and national indonesia sub-sector growth (r) contribution (y) (ri) (r) (ri/r) (yi) (y) (yi/y) food crops 75,6 19,7 > + 3,2 23,8 < horticultural crops 37,5 44,5 < 10,8 11,6 < plantation crops 92,0 53,1 > + 43,7 29,1 > + livestock 70,2 54,1 > + 5,1 11,8 < agriculture service and hunting 65,3 44,6 > + 1,1 1,5 < forestry/and logging 45,6 8,7 > + 1,7 5,2 < fishery 71,6 77,0 < 34,3 17,0 > + sources: statistics of kepulauan bangka belitung province (2020) table 4 shows the average value of the agricultural growth, forestry, and fisheries subsectors from the largest to the smallest values. respectively, which are plantation crops (92.0); food plants (75.6); livestock (70.2); agricultural and hunting services (65.3); and forestry / and logging (45.6). two sub-sectors have lower average growth rates at the provincial level when compared to the national average, namely fisheries sub-sector (71.6) and horticultural crops (37.5). meanwhile, judging from the value of its contribution, bangka belitung province shows a smaller contribution value of the sub-sector. only the plantation subsector (43.7); and fisheries (34.3) which have a higher average contribution value at the provincial level than at the national level. the contribution value to the fisheries sub-sector is inversely proportional to the value of its growth, where this sub-sector has a greater contribution to the regional economy, but its growth is still relatively smaller than the overall national growth. the results of the analysis can be grouped into four quadrants, as shown in figure 1. quadrant i dominant sub-sector plantation crops quadrant ii potential sub-sector food crops livestock agriculture service and hunting forestry and logging quadrant iii developing sub-sector fishery quadrant iv underdeveloped sub-sector horticultural crops figure 1. the grdp sub-sector classification of bangka belitung province is based on klassen typology the dominant sub-sectors indicated by quadrant 1 is the one that experienced growth and contribution that was higher than the average for the same sub-sector at the national level. this sector is the most developed in the bangka belitung province and is expected to grow rapidly in the future. the calculation results show that plantation crops are the dominant sector in bangka belitung province. meanwhile, the potential sub-sector in quadrant 2 is a sector with relatively large development potential but has not been fully http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 167 the priorities of leading sub-sector ….. (tanjung, suryantini, and utami) managed optimally. this sector has a great opportunity to become a sector that continues to grow in the future. the sub-sectors included in this category are the food crops sub-sector, cattle; agricultural and hunting services; and the forestry and logging sub-sectors. quadrants iii and iv are classified as developing and relatively lagging sub-sectors, where the developing sector is a relatively advanced sub-sector, but in recent years the growth rate has decreased. the sub-sector included in this category is the fisheries sub-sector. meanwhile, the sub-sector that is relatively lagging behind is the sector that has a growth rate and contribution below the average of the same sector at the national level, namely the horticulture sub-sector. in this grouping, it can be seen that in general, the economic sector in the bangka belitung province is classified as a potential sector, but there are still sub-sectors belonging to quadrants iii and iv, which indicate that regional policies have not been fully capable of having a significant accelerating effect on productivity growth in the sector. agriculture as a whole, although in general, the agricultural sector has quite potential (abidin, 2015). it shows that the growth rate and contribution of the agricultural sector are generally quite good. however, is a need for local government policies to change the position of the agricultural sub-sector which is still developing and relatively lagging behind. according to sjafrizal (2016), if increasing activities in the economic growth are the main target of regional development, then increasing activities in the economic sector included in quadrants i and ii must be prioritized. however, if equitable development is the main goal of the regional government, the development must be given to sectors that are included in quadrant iii or iv. one strategy to develop the fisheries sub-sector and horticultural crop sub-sector is to develop agro-tourism activities with an agro-industrial approach (pambudi, sunarto, & setyono, 2018). according to (barkauskas, barkauskienė, & jasinskas, 2015), when rural agrotourism has developed, it will affect local grdp. efforts to develop agro-industrial activities in this area are expected to be a trigger for the community to work on this subsector because of the certainty of the market that will receive the results (harvest) from the sub-sector. it is also expected to involve other sectors and have an impact on these economic sectors. one of the strategies to encourage agro-industry of the fishery sector in this province can be done with a development to the home industry in processed "seafood". in its marketing strategy, it is necessary to increase food diversity, food fortification, and supplementation with certain packaging designs (nurliza, suharyani, & nugraha, 2021). the home industry will develop community creativity in managing agricultural products into finished products. however, according to (budi, bhayangkara, & fadah, 2016), there are basic problems faced by small and home industries, including relatively short product durability; the limited use of technology, such as social media and websites as promotional media, is not given much attention; and the low quality of human resources is also an obstacle in doing business. intensive technology development can be made a top priority in developing agro-industry (timisela, masyhuri, & darwanto, 2021), especially the use of technology in the home industry (man, wang, zuo, & lin, 2020; saleh & hubeis, 2018). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 168 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research ranking of leading sub-sectors in the agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the province of bangka belitung the results of the typology analysis of lq, dlq, and klassen are given criteria to obtain a description of the leading sub-sectors in the province of bangka belitung. table 6 shows the ranking of development priorities for each sub-sector. from these calculations, it can be determined the priority scale in economic development planning in bangka belitung province by classifying the conclusions into five groups, namely leading sub-sectors; potency; mainstay; develop; and go with the following discussion. table 6. analysis of bangka belitung province economic leading sub-sector overlay 2010-2020 sub-sector lq dlq ri category food crops + + potential horticultural crops underdeveloped plantation crops + + + leading livestock + developing agriculture service and hunting + developing forestry/and logging + + potential fishery + mainstay sources: statistics of kepulauan bangka belitung province, (2020) leading sub-sector the sub-sector with the highest development priority ranking is the plantation subsector, the leading sector in bangka belitung province. the results of this study are in accordance with the statement from the statistics of bangka belitung province, which states that the plantation crops sub-sector is the largest contributor to the grdp value of the agricultural sector in the region (statistics of kepulauan bangka belitung province, 2020). the most widely cultivated commodities in bangka belitung province are oil palm, pepper, and rubber plants. rubber production continues to increase in line with the plan to develop 40,000 hectares of rubber land, but currently, the land used for rubber commodities is only ± 12,000 hectares (statistics of kepulauan bangka belitung province, 2020). meanwhile, in pepper plants, this commodity is one of the leading commodities which is widely known in the world because it has a distinctive taste and aroma. the use of certain enzymes in processing technology can improve the quality of pepper produced efficiently (siswanto, ardana, & karmawati, 2021). a popular type of pepper is white pepper with the name 'muntok white pepper'. this is because bangka belitung province is the first production center of the pepper development area in indonesia and has been the largest producer in the world since 2014 (mahdi & suprehatin, 2021). south bangka region is the largest pepper producing regency with the highest total production compared to other districts/cities in bangka belitung province. however, it turns out that pepper farmers in this area still have a weak bargaining position in making decisions to determine the selling price of white pepper, so that farmers have to sell their harvests collectively (purwasih, pranoto, & atmaja, 2020). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 169 the priorities of leading sub-sector ….. (tanjung, suryantini, and utami) the primary plantation sub-sector also contributes value-added of idr 61.1 trillion or 3.1 percent of the national gdp and has employed 13.4 million people, so this business field is very suitable to be used as a leading sub-sector to increase the grdp of the agricultural sector in general (susila & setiawan, 2016). the strengths of the plantation sector include high community motivation in looking for commodities in the plantation sub-sector, the availability of a large area of land, and the geographical and biophysical conditions of the land that are suitable for development plantation commodities. this can be an opportunity for the provincial government to turn this sub-sector into a leading sector (hendris & jani, 2016). so, the strategies that the government can take to encourage the development of this sub-sector are: increasing the amount of production, added value, and competitiveness of plantation products through efforts to develop agribusiness systems; improving the understanding of human resources in understanding the potential of the export market with various training; providing information and promotion facilities from various media and other agribusiness exhibition activities, as well as expanding the network of partnerships and cooperation with the private sector and other parties in order to attract more investors (helmi, sriartha, & sarmita, 2021). mainstay sub-sector the fisheries sub-sector is a mainstay sub-sector and can continue to be developed in bangka belitung province because of the area's characteristics, which is a coastal area and is very strategic and has the potential for abundant fisheries and marine resources. marine fishery production in the province of the bangka belitung islands is generally concentrated on belitung island rather than on bangka island. therefore, the development of fisheries investment can be carried out on belitung island specifically without ignoring bangka island by considering the amount of input used (mardyani & yulianti, 2020). the large potential of the fisheries sector is expected to create an increase in output, income, and job creation. the expansion of cultivation to various regions can play an important role in the development of this sub-sector (wang & wang, 2021). in addition, other potentials that can be developed from the fisheries sub-sector are developing marine recreation fisheries (mrf), which have a large socio-economic contribution for coastal communities but still need to pay attention to environmental regulations (especially fisheries) and marine spatial planning (williams, davies, clark, muench, & hyder, 2020). according to (kharisma & ferry, 2019), policy implementation can be carried out by accelerating infrastructure to support fisheries and marine connectivity and development, as well as developing fishery sector-based areas that need to be focused on locations that are centers of economic growth to provide a large multiplier effect (anggraeni, rustiadi, & yulianto, 2020). potential sub-sector this sub-sector has a relatively large development potential but has not been managed optimally, including the food crops sub-sector, forestry, and logging. this sub-sector has the potential http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 170 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research to become a leading sub-sector that can continue to be developed in the future. for example, the forestry sub-sector, according to national and international views, shows that the forestry and wood products sector has the potential to grow significantly in the future. (nambiar, 2021). the existence of cheap and abundant forest resources and available labor should be two positive factors for economic development (williams & kinard, 2003). in addition, by taking advantage of the increase in the tourism sector in several areas in bangka belitung province, it can be used as a driving factor in efforts to develop the agricultural subsector, especially in the potential sub-sector so that it can be developed further. local governments are expected to facilitate agricultural products to be advertised, promoted, and used in various accommodations and restaurants around visitor tourist destinations (cahyadi, sasongko, & saputra, 2018). some things that can be done, for example: strengthening agricultural organizations/institutions, improving the quality of human resources, and procuring other supporting facilities is also can be used as programs that can be developed in the development of the agricultural sector ( rozaki, wijaya, & wardana, 2021). according to adenle et al., (2019), technological development in agriculture is also very much needed to support local food production. however, on average, indonesian farmers, especially farmers in the food crop sub-sector, are usually elderly farmers, so the use of new technology or innovations is difficult to adopt in their agricultural activities (rozaki, 2020). according to matchaya (2020), policymakers must be able to increase and optimally manage public expenditure budgets in the agricultural sector but must continue to emphasize increasing intra-sectorial allocations, as well as targeting dominant areas to create sectorial growth in order to increase productivity and professionalism in managing potential sectors. government interventions to improve efficiency and productivity can be targeted at districts that still have low levels of efficiency and growth (ahmad, shankar, steen, verreynne, & burki, 2021). developing and underdeveloped sub-sectors this study shows the same results as research of listya et al., (2018) that horticultural crops are included in the lagging sub-sector category while developing sub-sectors include: livestock sub-sector; and agricultural services sub-sector, and hunting. if examined more deeply, livestock has a very important role in the economic and socio-cultural welfare of people in rural areas, for example as a source of income, creating employment in the livestock sector, increasing soil fertility, agricultural attractiveness, supply food, diversifying agriculture, and sustainable agricultural production. (bettencourt, tilman, narciso, da silva carvalho, & de sousa henriques, 2015). the low interest of the community in conducting livestock, horticulture, and agricultural services is one of the factors that cause these subsectors to be included in the category of developing and lagging sub-sectors. there needs to be an effort by the local government to shift the position of this subsector into a leading or mainstay sector with various strategies that can be carried out. for example, the provision of guidance in each region based on existing potential and increasing various training, especially for young breeders (pérez, sendra, & gelats, 2020), as well as increasing the efficiency of the livestock sector through sustainable intensification practices (herrero et al., 2013). basically, competitive advantage and agricultural potential in an area can affect the growth of the general agricultural sector. however, efforts are still needed to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 171 the priorities of leading sub-sector ….. (tanjung, suryantini, and utami) utilize and develop the potential of the sector in order to encourage more optimal regional economic growth (katti, pratiwi, & setiahadi, 2019). conclusion the growth of all agricultural sub-sectors in bangka belitung province is faster than the same sub-sectors at the national level, but only the horticulture and fisheries sub-sectors have smaller growth than the national level. the plantation sub-sector is a basic sub-sector in the present and in the future, so it is a leading sub-sector that can be prioritized as an economic driver in bangka belitung province. policymakers must be able to formulate a scale of development priorities based on regional economic needs and objectives. if the main objective of regional development in bangka belitung province is to focus on increasing economic growth, then development priorities must be directed at the plantation sub-sector as a leading sub-sector, for example by increasing the amount of production, added value, and competitiveness of plantation products through efforts to develop an agribusiness system from upstream, downstream and other related agencies; improve the understanding of human resources in understanding the potential of the export market with various training; providing information and promotion facilities from various media and other agribusiness exhibition activities, as well as expanding the network of partnerships and cooperation with the private sector to attract more investors. however, if equitable development is the main goal of the bangka belitung provincial government, then development priority should be given to sectors that include developing and underdeveloped sub-sectors, namely the horticultural crops; cattle; agricultural services and hunting. references abidin, z. 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(2019). potentials of leading sectors in bangka belitung island province on 2013-2017. jurnal ekonomi pembangunan, 18(01), 39–50. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& pengantar juli 2016.pmd nur elisa faizaty mahasiswa pascasarjana magister sains agribisnis, fem, ipb amzul rifin, netti tinaprilla staf pengajar departemen agribisnis, fem, ipb elisafaizaty@gmail.com proses pengambilan keputusan adopsi inovasi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air (kasus: labuhan ratu enam, lampung timur) abstract the expansion of crop land to suboptimal land (especially in the outside of java island) should be set up as source of agriculture crop production growth. saturated-soil cultivation (ssc) technology is able to improve the productivity of soybean plants up to 4.0 tons/ha in the suboptimal land. this research is aims to examine the decision making process on innovation adoption of soybean saturated-soil cultivation (ssc) technology, conducted in labuan ratu enam village, east lampung regency. main approaches were used in this research is rogers’ theory of innovation diffusion. decision process was divided into four main group of analysis: i) communication channel and general description of stages in the innovation decision, ii) influential variables of respondents’ characteristics on the knowledge stage using kruskall-wallis test, iii) influential variables of the innovation’s attributes on the persuasion stage using spearman correlation test, and iv) correlation between the stages of innovation decision process using spearman correlation test and mann-whitney test. the results shows that i) interpersonal channel is chosen as the way to diffuse ssc innovation to 25 potential farmer adopters through discussion, direct practice, and guidance; ii) the influential variables of individuals’ characteristics are leve of nonformal education and level of motivation, while level of formal education and farming experience is not significant difference in their knowledge level about ssc; iii) there is significant correlation between the level of respondents’ persuasion and their perception on the innovation complexity and triability, but not compatability and observability; iv) each stage of ssc innovation-decision, one stage to another in sequence, has significant positive correlation. keywordskeywordskeywordskeywordskeywords: innovation adoption, saturated-soil cultivation, soybean intisari perluasan areal panen ke lahan suboptimal (terutama di luar pulau jawa) dapat dijadikan sumber pertumbuhan pertanian yang produktif. teknologi budidaya jenuh air (bja) mampu meningkatkan produktivitas tanaman kedelai hingga 4,0 ton/ha pada lahan suboptimal. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkanbagaimana proses pengambilan keputusan adopsi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air berlangsung di desa labuhan ratu enam, lampung timur. pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini yaitu teori proses pengambilan keputusan inovasi (rogers). analisis tentang proses pengambilan keputusan dibagi ke dalam empat hal pokok: i) deskripsi jaringan komunikasi dan tahapan proses keputusan inovasi yang terbentuk, ii) variabel karakteristik responden yang berpengaruh pada tahap pengenalan, menggunakan uji kruskallwallis, iii) variabel karakteristik inovasi yang berpengaruh pada tahap persuasi, menggunakan uji korelasi spearman, dan iv) hubungan antar tahapan proses, menggunakan uji korelasi spearman dan mann-whitney. hasil penelitian doi:10.18196/agr.2230 98 jurnal agraris menunjukkan: i) saluran interpersonal adalah pendekatan yang dipilih untuk mengenalkan teknologi bja kepada 25 petani adopter potensial melalui diskusi, praktik lapang, dan pendampingan; ii) variabel karakteristik petani yang berpengaruh adalah tingkat pendidikan nonformal dan motivasi, sedangkan berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan formal dan pengalaman usahatani, tingkat pengenalan petani terhadap bja tidak berbeda nyata; iii) tingkat persuasi yang dirasakan oleh petani tentang bja ternyata berhubungan secara signifikan dengan aspek kerumitan dan kemungkinan dicoba, namun tidak dengan kesesuaian dan kemungkinan diamati; iv) antartahapan dalam prosees keputusan inovasi bja secara berurutan terbukti mempunyai hubungan positif yang signifikan. kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: adopsi inovasi, jenuh air, kedelai pendahuluan kedelai merupakan komoditas multi purpose dan multi user dalam proses produksi, perdagangan, maupun pemanfaatannya sehingga kedelai menjadi salah satu komoditas pangan yang berperan penting dan memegang arti strategis di indonesia (supadi, 2009). semakin meningkatnya jumlah penduduk dan meningkatnya kesadaran masyarakat akan kecukupan gizi, permintaan kedelai terus meningkat dari tahun ke tahun, dan berpotensi untuk terus meningkat di masa mendatang. areal panen kedelai terus mengalami penurunan disebabkan oleh areal panen yang terkonsentrasi di pulau jawa dan bali, yaitu sebesar 71,8%. urutan selanjutnya adalah sumatera (10,4%), nusa tenggara (9,0%), dan sulawesi (7,0%). tingkat kebergantungan produksi pangan indonesia yang sebagian besar (60%) diproduksi di pulau jawa menjadi cukup riskan, kerana areal pertanian di pulau jawa semakin kompetitif dengan komoditas lain yang lebih menguntungkan (ghulamahdi, 2009; adisarwanto dan wudianto, 2002), serta semakin tergerus seiring adanya konversi lahan. bagi negara berkembang, kemandirian pangan merupakan kunci utama untuk memperkokoh ketahanan pangan. ketergantungan pada impor pangan dapat mengancam stabilitas sosial, ekonomi, dan politik (rasahan, 1999 dan baharsjah, 2004; dalam supadi 2009). oleh karena itu, perluasan areal panen kedelai hendaknya diperluas ke lahan suboptimal (ghulamahdi, 2009; sudana, 2005; adisarwanto dan wudianto, 2002). lahan suboptimal antara lain lahan tidur, lahan kering, dan lahan rawa pasang surut. namun perluasan areal panen kedelai ke lahan rawa pasang surut bukan tanpa kendala. lahan suboptimal (termasuk di dalamnya lahan rawa pasang surut) sering mengalami kekeringan, memiliki kandungan bahan organik rendah (kesuburan tanah yang rendah), termasuk kandungan unsur kimia tertentu yang menghambat pertumbuhan tanaman seperti ph yang rendah, kandungan al, mn, fe yang bersifat racun bagi tanaman (ghulamahdi, 2009; makarim et. al., 2005). namun di sisi lain, lahan rawa pasang surut (rawa yang genangannya dipengaruhi pasang surut air laut) memenuhi unsur-unsur iklim dominan yang mempengaruhi produksi kedelai, yaitu kecukupan ketersediaan air, radiasi/intensitas sinar matahari dan suhu yang tinggi (irianto et. al., 2005; ghulamahdi, 2009). salah satu teknologi budidaya yang dapat menjadi alternatif untuk peningkatan produktivitas di lahan suboptimal (lahan rawa pasang surut) adalah budidaya jenuh air (bja). teknologi bja merupakan penanaman dengan memberikan irigasi terus menerus dan membuat tinggi muka air tetap tinggi, sehingga lapisan di bawah perakaran jenuh air (hunter et. al., 1980). pada beberapa penelitian skala demplot, potensi biologis kedelai bja mencapai 4,0 ton/ha (ghulamahdi, 2009). dengan memperhitungkan risiko dan bias penerapan paket teknologi bja, teknologi ini dapat meningkatkan produktivitas kedelai hingga 2,1 ton/ha-2,4 ton/ha. beragam inovasi pertanian yang didifusikan kepada petani tidak serta merta langsung diterima dan diterapkan oleh petani. ditinjau sebagai proses komunikasi, difusi inovasi adalah proses membawa ideide baru dari pencipta atau pembagi informasi kepada penerima informasi. sebagai sesuatu yang baru, seringkali difusi inovasi membawa suatu ketidakpastian bagi komunitas penerimanya. komunitas penerima inovasi tersebut kemudian akan melakukan adopsi atau bersikap resisten terhadap ide-ide baru tersebut (rogers, 1983). salah satu aspek dalam teori difusi inovasi adalah proses pengambilan keputusan inovasi. paradigma proses pengambilan keputusan yang dikemukakan oleh rogers (1981) merupakan teori yang paling banyak digunakan dan dinilai paling tepat (nordin et. al., 2014), serta menjadi koreksi dari konsep proses pengambilan keputusan klasik (mugniesyah, 2006). rogers (1983) mengemukakan bahwa proses pengambilan keputusan inovasi merupakan sebuah proses mental di mana seorang individu melalui serangkaian tahapan-tahapan yang dimulai dari mengetahui suatu inovasi sampai pada 99 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 pengambilan keputusan untuk menerima atau menolak dan dilanjutkan dengan mengukuhkan keputusan yang telah diambilnya. tahapan umum yang dilalui dalam proses pengambilan keputusan ada lima, yaitu: tahap pengenalan, tahap persuasi, tahap pengambilan keputusan, tahap implementasi, dan tahap konfirmasi. difusi teknologi bja untuk meningkatkan perluasan areal tanam kedelai di lahan pasang surut perlu dilakukan untuk meningkatkan produksi nasional kedelai yang secara jangka panjang dapat mengurangi ketergantungan indonesia terhadap kedelai impor. sebagai salah satu bentuk inovasi dalam bidang pertanian yang akan didifusikan secara luas pada petani, maka penelitian yang mengkaji proses pengambilan keputusan teknologi bja pada tanaman kedelai oleh petani adopter potensial melalui pendekatan difusi inovasi penting untuk dilakukan. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis proses pengambilan keputusan adopsi inovasi bja kedelai oleh petani adopter potensial di lahan pasang surut di desa labuhan ratu enam, kabupaten lampung timur. metode penelitian tahapan proses keputusan adopsi inovasi penelitian dilakukan di desa labuhan ratu enam, kabupaten lampung timur, sejak bulan oktober 2014 hingga oktober 2015. data yang digunakan adalah data primer dan sekunder. pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui teknik: studi pustaka, wawancara dengan panduan kuisioner yang terstruktur, dan observasi. responden penelitian ditentukan melalui sensus yaitu sejumlah 25 petani adopter potensial (calon adopter) yang merupakan petani sasaran difusi teknologi budidaya jenuh air pada tanaman kedelai di lahan pasang surut. penelitian ini menggunakan analisis kualitatif-deskriptif dan analisis statistika nonparametrik. analisis statistik deskriptif digunakan untuk memberikan gambaran proses pengambilan keputusan inovasi teknik budidaya jenuh air tanaman kedelai oleh petani. setiap tahap dan derajat persepsi adopter potensial akan dievaluasi melalui pertanyaan tertutup dan derajat kesukaan dengan menggunakan skala likert. data yang diperoleh akan disajikan secara deskriptif. uji kruskall-wallis digunakan untuk menganalisis perbedaan kategori pada karakteristik pengambil keputusan (pendidikan formal, pendidikan nonformal, pengalaman berusahatani, dan motivasi) terhadap tahap pengenalan. uji korelasi peringkat spearman digunakan untuk menguji hubungan antar tahapan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air, dan menguji hubungan karakteristik inovasi (kesesuaian, kerumitan, kemungkinan dicoba, dan kemungkinan diamati) dengan tahap persuasi. hasil dan pembahasan sebagai salah satu area pilot project program difusi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air, berbagai kegiatan telah dilakukan untuk menyebarkan informasi dan memberikan pengenalan kepada petani di desa labuhan ratu enam tentang inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air. saluran komunikasi yang digunakan adalah komunikasi antarpribadi. pada tahap awal pengenalan, inventor langsung turun ke lapang untuk memberikan pengetahuan mengenai inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air melalui diskusi klasikal, sekaligus praktik lapang di lahan petani. pada tahap selanjutnya, tim peneliti mengutus satu orang pendamping lapang untuk menjadi agen pembaharu (change agent) yang bertugas untuk: i) mendiagnosis masalah dan merencanakan tindakan perubahan, ii) mengadakan hubungan dengan masyarakat untuk perubahan, iii) membangkitkan kebutuhan dan motivasi berubah pada diri adopter, iv) memelihara pembaharuan dan mencegah dari kemacetan. dari proses komunikasi yang dilakukan, sebagian besar responden (68%) di desa labuhan ratu enam mendapatkan informasi dan pengenalan tentang budidaya kedelai jenuh air dari tim peneliti institut pertanian bogor (ipb), sedangkan sebanyak 24% mendapatkan informasi pengenalan budidaya kedelai jenuh air dari ketua kelompok tani atau anggota kelompok tani (sebagai opinion leader), dan 8% lainnya melalui petugas penyuluh lapang (ppl). berdasarkan pengamatan peneliti, terdapat dua orang yang menjadi opinion leader yang memberi pengaruh terhadap perilaku anggota dalam kelompok taninya. dalam proses difusi inovasi ini, 1 orang opinion leader mengajak 2 orang rekannya, sedangkan 1 orang opinion leader lainnya mengajak 3 orang rekannya, yang pada akhirnya menjadi petani adopter. agen pembaharu yang diutus kurang berperan dengan baik, sehingga menjadi salah satu kendala terbesar dalam proses difusi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air di desa labuhan ratu enam. hal tersebut disebabkan oleh agen pembaharu yang kurang bekerjasama dengan masyarakat, 100 jurnal agraris dan tidak menjalankan fungsinya dengan baik sehingga kredibilitas agen pembaharu kurang baik di mata masyarakat. dari pendekatan komunikasi yang dilakukan, berikut ini adalah lima tahapan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan yang dapat dipotret dari perilaku para petani calon adopter di desa labuhan ratu enam. implikasi yang bisa ditarik dari hasil penelitian ini hanya berlaku (seluruhnya ataupun sebagian) pada pendekatan komunikasi yang telah dilakukan. artinya, pendekatan komunikasi yang berbeda dapat menghasilkan dampak yang berbeda pula pada proses difusi teknologi baru dalam budidaya kedelai jenuh air. terdapat perbedaan dalam hal pengenalan responden terhadap sepuluh paket teknologi bja, seperti terlihat dalam tabel 1. pengetahuan responden tentang beberapa unsur dalam paket teknologi masih kurang, antara lain tentang kriteria lokasi, penanaman, dan pengairan. tahap persuasi merupakan tahap seseorang individu membentuk sikap suka atau tidak suka terhadap sebuah teknologi. dalam mengevaluasi tahap persuasi dan melihat pembentukan sikap suka atau tidak suka, responden ditanyakan persetujuan responden terhadap setiap unsur paket teknologi. pada tabel 1, diketahui bahwa tidak semua petani yang mengenal teknologi bja merasa nyaman terhadap unsur paket teknologi. tahapan keputusan sebagai tahap ketiga dari proses pengambilan keputusan adopsi teknologi bja menunjuk pada aktivitas mental di mana petani memutuskan untuk menerima atau menolak anjuran paket teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air. dalam tahap ini, petani yang mengadopsi teknologi yang dikenalkan dinamakan petani adopter, sedangkan petani yang menolak adopsi teknologi disebut petani nonadopter. sebanyak 10 orang petani memutuskan untuk mengadopsi, sedangkan sisanya sebanyak 15 orang memutuskan untuk menolak adopsi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air dan mempraktikkan usahatani dengan cara-cara lama yang dilakukan sebelumnya (tabel 2). petani yang memutuskan menolak adopsi beralasan merasa lebih merasa lebih nyaman dengan usahatani padi yang biasa mereka lakukan sebelumnya. namun, sebagian petani yang memutuskan untuk mengadopsi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air beralasan bahwa mereka tertantang untuk mencoba teknologi baru ini, sedangkan sebagian lainnya merasa membutuhkan inovasi bagi peningkatan produktivitas usahataninya. tahap implementasi adalah individu melaksanakan keputusan inovasi yang diambilnya dalam kehidupan nyata. jika seorang petani telah memutuskan untuk mengadopsi inovasi maka dia akan menggunakannya dalam usahataninya. sebaliknya, jika menolak, individu akan meneruskan cara-cara sebelumnya. penelitian ini membatasi lingkup kajian hanya pada tahap implementasi dan konfirmasi petani adopter teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air, sedangkan tahap tabel 1. jumlah dan persentase responden yang mengenal unsur dalam paket teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air di desa labuhan ratu enam no unsur dalam paket teknologi budidaya jenuh air (bja) responden yang mengenal responden yang menyukai jumlah persentase (%) jumlah persentase (%) 1 kriteria lokasi di lahan pasang surut tipe b/c. 23 92,00 22 88,00 2 waktu tanam yang tepat (april-agustus). 25 100,00 25 100,00 3 memilih benih unggul dan teruji (tanggamus, anjasmoro, cikuray). 20 80,00 24 96,00 4 persiapan lahan (pembuatan saluran l=30 cm t=25 cm, bedengan l=4 m). 17 68,00 20 80,00 5 pemupukan (kapur 1 ton, sp-36 200 kg, dan kcl 100 kg dicampur dan disebar ke lahan seluas 1 ha) 18 72,00 23 92,00 6 penanaman (jarak tanam 40x12.5 cm, tiap lubang 2 biji). 17 68,00 8 32,00 7 pengairan (air diberikan setinggi 10 cm dari dasar saluran atau 15 cm dari permukaan tanah sejak tanam hingga panen). 19 76,00 15 60,00 8 pemeliharaan (penyemprotan urea 10 gram/liter air, vol. semprot 400 liter air urea/ha. pada mst ke-3 s/d ke-6). 21 84,00 23 92,00 pengendalian opt (sesuai gejala). 23 92,00 24 96,00 10 panen (dipanen 10-15 hari lebih lama). 11 44,00 21 84,00 101 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 implementasi dan konfirmasi pada kelompok petani nonadopter tidak diamati. pada tahap implementasi petani adopter, analisis yang dilakukan adalah seberapa besar tingkatan implementasi petani adopter terhadap sepuluh unsur paket teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air. petani akan dikelompokkan ke dalam dua kategori, yaitu kategori implementasi rendah dan implementasi tinggi berdasarkan banyaknya elemen dalam paket teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air yang diterapkan sesuai anjuran. difusi teknologi bja dikategorikan tinggi ketika minimal 7 (tujuh) unsur telah diterapkan oleh petani, sedangkan difusi teknologi bja dikategorikan rendah ketika petani menerapkan kurang dari 7 (tujuh) unsur dalam paket teknologi bja. berdasarkan kriteria pengkategorian yang telah dibuat, sebanyak 7 orang (70%) petani adopter teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air masuk kategori implementasi tinggi, dan sisanya sebanyak 3 orang (30%) masuk kategori implementasi rendah. jika dilihat dari implementasi terhadap setiap elemen dalam paket inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air, terdapat elemen inovasi yang diimplementasikan oleh seluruh petani adopter, dan ada pula elemen inovasi yang hanya dilakukan oleh sebagian petani adopter. sebagaimana diperlihatkan pada tabel 4, elemen yang dilakukan oleh sepuluh atau sebagian besar petani adopter antara lain adalah pemilihan kriteria lokasi lahan pasang surut, penggunaan benih unggul, pemupukan awal, pembuatan saluran jenuh air, dan pengendalian opt. sementara itu, beberapa elemen inovasi, yaitu pengaturan jarak tanam, waktu tanam, pemanenan, dan pengairan hanya dilakukan oleh sebagian petani adopter. sebagian elemen teknologi tidak dijalankan oleh petani dengan alasan petani melakukan tindakan penyesuaian dari anjuran dalam paket teknologi, misalnya jarak tanam (karena dianggap terlalu rapat), dan waktu panen (karena menghindari risiko gagal panen akibat masuk musim penghujan). namun sebagian elemen inovasi tidak dilakukan karena petani merasa rumit dan mengeluarkan biaya dalam aktivitas tersebut, tanpa disertai sikap sabar untuk mengetahui hasil yang didapat dengan melaksanakan elemen teknologi tesebut sesuai anjuran. konfirmasi adalah pengukuhan, di mana individu mencari penguatan atas keputusan inovasi yang telah dibuatnya. pada tahap ini, kelompok petani adopter dimungkinkan menghadapi dua pilihan konfirmasi adopsi teknologi, yaitu melanjutkan adopsi dan berhenti mengadopsi. sementara itu, kelompok petani nonadopter akan dihadapkan pada kemungkinan mengadopsi kemudian dan menolak adopsi. kelompok petani adopter kategori implementasi tinggi kemungkinan besar melanjutkan adopsi, sedangkan petani adopter kategori implementasi rendah kemungkinan besar berhenti mengadopsi. sebanyak 6 dari tujuh petani adopter kategori implementasi tinggi mengukuhkan keputusan adopsi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air yang dilakukan sebelumnya. petani tersebut akan mempraktikkan kembali teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air di musim tanam selanjutnya. adapun ketiga petani implementasi rendah dan satu orang petani kategori implementasi tinggi pada tahap konfirmasi ini mengaku berhenti mengadopsi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air. petani yang melanjutkan adopsi menilai bahwa inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air meningkatkan produktivitas usahatani dan memberikan keuntungan relatif bagi mereka. petani yang berhenti mengadopsi menilai bahwa teknologi ini tabel 2. jumlah dan persentase responden yang mengadopsi dan menolak paket teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air di desa labuhan ratu enam keputusan jumlah orang persentase (%) mengadopsi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air 10 40,00 menolak teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air 15 60,00 tabel 3. jumlah dan persentase responden yang mengimplementasikan paket teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air menurut jumlah paket di desa labuhan ratu enam jumlah unsur teknologi bja jumlah persentase (%) petani adopter kedelai bja kategori implementasi tinggi 7 70,00 petani adopter kedelai bja kategori implementasi rendah 3 30,00 tabel 5. jumlah petani yang melanjutkan adopsi dan menolak adopsi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air di desa labuhan ratu enam jumlah unsur teknologi bja jumlah orang persentase (%) petani adopter yang melanjutkan adopsi 6 60,00 petani adopter yang berhenti mengadopsi 4 40,00 102 jurnal agraris sedikit rumit dibandingkan dengan usahatani padi yang dilakukan sebelumnya dan lebih nyaman dengan usahatani padi. uji beda variabel dalam karakteristik responden terhadap tahap pengenalan adopsi inovasi kedelai bja uji kruskal-wallis dalam penelitian ini digunakan untuk menguji hipotesis adanya perbedaan dalam tahap pengenalan karena adanya perbedaan kategori faktorfaktor dalam karakteristik responden terhadap tingkat pengenalan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan. diduga terdapat perbedaan pada tahap pengenalan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan adopsi inovasi kedelai bja karena perbedaan kategori dalam variabel tingkat pendidikan formal, tingkat pendidikan nonformal, motivasi, dan pengalaman berusahatani. variabel pendidikan formal, pendidikan nonformal, motivasi, dan pengalaman berusahatani dikelompokkan kedalam beberapa kelompok. tingkat pendidikan formal adalah jenis pendidikan sekolah tertinggi yang pernah diikuti oleh responden, dibedakan ke dalam kategori lamanya durasi pendidikan formal yang ditempuh, yaitu kurang dari 6 tahun, antara 7-9 tahun, antara 10-12 tahun, dan lebih dari 12 tahun. tingkat pendidikan nonformal adalah total skor kegiatan pendidikan di luar sekolah (pls) yang pernah diikuti oleh petani, baik pelatihan dan/atau kursus, seminar, lokakarya, pameran, mimbar sarasehan dan lainnya dilihat menurut tingkatan penyelenggaraannya (tingkat kampung, desa, kecamatan, kabupaten, provinsi dan nasional berturut-turut diberi skor 1, skor 2, skor 3, skor 4 dan skor 5). tingkat pendidikan nonformal dikelompokkan menjadi: i) skor pls antara 1-5, ii) skor pls antara 5-10, dan iii) skor pls lebih dari 10. tingkat motivasi atau kebutuhan petani terhadap inovasi bja adalah kombinasi motivasi atau alasan petani untuk mengadopsi inovasi bja, yang dibedakan ke dalam kategori yang diadaptasi dari teori motivasi maslow, yaitu: motivasi untuk meningkatkan produksi padi dan keuntungan, motivasi meningkatkan produksi dan keuntungan dan untuk menghindari risikorisiko produksi dari praktik budidaya kedelai terdahulu, serta bermotivasi meningkatkan produksi dan motivasi berkelompok atau untuk akumulasi modal. tingkat pengalaman berusahatani adalah lamanya (tahun) petani responden menjalankan usahatani, yang dikelompokkan menjadi: pengalaman usahatani < 15 tahun, pengalaman usahatani antara 16-30 tahun, pengalaman ushatani lebih dari 30 tahun. berdasarkan hasil uji kruskal-wallis, dapat disimpulkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan nilai tahap pengenalan responden berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan nonformal dan motivasi. hal tersebut dapat dilihat dari nilai signifikasi uji yang lebih kecil dari nilai á yang digunakan (0,011 dan 0,004). sementara itu, dari aspek pendidikan formal dan pengalaman usahatani tabel 4. jumlah dan persentase petani adopter yang mengimplementasikan unsur dalam paket inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air no unsur dalam paket teknologi budidaya jenuh air (bja) jumlah responden yang meng-implementasi persentase (%) 1 kriteria lokasi di lahan pasang surut tipe b/c. 10 100,00 2 waktu tanam yang tepat (april-agustus). 2 20,00 3 memilih benih unggul dan teruji (tanggamus, anjasmoro, cikuray). 10 100,00 4 persiapan lahan (pembuatan saluran l=30 cm t=25 cm, bedengan l=4 m). 9 90,00 5 pemupukan (kapur 1 ton, sp-36 200 kg, dan kcl 100 kg dicampur dan disebar ke lahan seluas 1 ha) 10 100,00 6 penanaman (jarak tanam 40x12.5 cm, tiap lubang 2 biji). 3 30,00 7 pengairan (air diberikan setinggi 10 cm dari dasar saluran atau 15 cm dari permukaan tanah sejak tanam hingga panen). 5 50,00 8 pemeliharaan (penyemprotan urea 10 gram/liter air, vol. semprot 400 liter air urea/ha. pada mst ke-3 s-d ke-6). 6 60,00 9 pengendalian opt (dg herbisida dan atau pestisida sesuai gejala). 100 100,00 10 panen (dipanen 10-15 hari lebih lama). 4 40,00 103 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tidak menunjukkan adanya perbedaan yang signifikan dalam tahap pengenalan, karena nilai signifikasi yang lebih besar daripada nilai á yang digunakan. secara terperinci output hasil uji kruskal-wallis ditampilkan dalam tabel 6. umumnya, tingkat pendidikan diasumsikan memiliki keterkaitan dengan pola pikir dan kemampuan seseorang dalam menyerap dan mengolah sebuah informasi. semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan formal maka semakin cepat pula menangkap dan mengolah informasi berupa inovasi teknologi baru, sehingga diduga perbedaan tingkat latar belakang pendidikan formal akan menyebabkan perbedaan dalam tahap pengenalan inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air. namun berdasarkan uji kruskal-wallis yang dilakukan menunjukkan hal yang berbeda. perbedaan tingkat pendidikan formal tidak menyebabkan perbedaan dalam tahap pengenalan. begitu pula dalam variabel pengalaman usahatani. pengalaman usahatani diasumsikan memengaruhi keterampilan seorang petani. petani yang memiliki pengalaman bertani yang cukup lama dianggap akan lebih baik dan cepat dalam mengenal teknologi baru dengan mempertimbangan keberhasilan dan kegagalan di masa lalu dibandingkan petani yang memiliki pengalaman yang lebih sedikit. namun, sama halnya dengan variabel pendidikan formal, berdasarkan uji kruskal-wallis yang dilakukan menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan tingkat pengalaman berusahtani tidak menyebabkan perbedaan dalam tahap pengenalan. uji korelasi peringkat spearman untuk menganalisis hubungan empat karakteristik inovasi kedelai bja terhadap tahap persuasi terdapat lima ciri atau karakteristik inovasi yang mendasari penerimaan atau persepsi individu terhadap inovasi menurut rogers (1983), yaitu: keuntungan relatif, kerumitan, kesesuaian, kemungkinan dicoba, dan kemungkinan diamati. di antara lima karakteristik inovasi tersebut, empat diantaranya ingin dilihat bagaimana hubungannya dengan tahap persuasi teknologi kedelai bja melalui analisis korelasi peringkat spearman. keempat karakteristik inovasi yang digunakan adalah kerumitan, kesesuaian, kemungkinan dicoba, dan kemungkinan diamati. aspek keuntungan relatif kedelai bja tidak dilibatkan dalam analisis hubungan terhadap tahap persuasi karena dalam bagian analisis usahatani dalam penelitian ini akan tergambar bagaimana keuntungan relatif dari inovasi bja ini secara ekonomi. diduga tiga karakteristik inovasi (kesesuaian, kemungkinan dicoba, dan kemungkinan diamati) tabel 6. mean rank dan hasil uji beda variabel dalam karakteristik responden terhadap tahap pengenalan adopsi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air variabel kelompok n mean rank chi-square asymp. sig. (2-tailed) pendidikan formal <6 tahun 8 8,81 5,997 0,112 6<x<9 tahun 5 11,30 9<x<12 tahun 9 15,94 12<x tahun 3 18,17 total n 25 pendidikan nonformal < 5 8 7,94 9,064 0,011 5<x<10 12 13,33 10<x 5 20,30 total n 25 motivasi 1* 17 9,85 10,590 0,005 2** 4 17,88 3*** 4 21,50 total n 25 pengalaman usahatani x<15 tahun 5 11,00 0,491 0,731 16<x<30 tahun 8 14,25 30<x tahun 12 12,83 total n 25 keterangan: *) meningkatkan produksi dan keuntungan **) meningkatkan keuntungan dan menghindari risiko ***) meningkatkan keuntungan, motivasi berkelompok, dan akumulasi modal 104 jurnal agraris mempunyai hubungan positif dengan tingkat persuasi, sedangkan kerumitan mempunyai hubungan negatif dengan tingkat persuasi. berdasarkan hasil output uji korelasi peringkat spearman pada tabel 7, dapat dilihat bahwa terdapat korelasi yang signifikan antara variabel kerumitan dan kemungkinan dicoba dengan tingkat persuasi dalam proses keputusan inovasi teknologi kedelai bja. kerumitan berkorelasi negatif terhadap tingkat persuasi dengan koefisien sebesar -0,423, sedangkan kemungkinan dicoba berkorelasi positif dengan koefisien 0,448. keduanya signifikan pada taraf nyata 5%. di sisi lain, dua variabel karakterik lainnya, yaitu kesesuaian dan kemungkinan diamati, tidak menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dengan tingkat persuasi. tabel 7. hasil uji korelasi spearman karakteristik inovasi dengan tahap persuasi dalam pengambilan keputusan adopsi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air variabel/aspek uji uji korelasi peringkat spearman koefisien korelasi nilai sigifikasi a kesesuaian-tahap persuasi 0,350 0,087 b kerumitantahap persuasi -0,423* 0,035 c kemungkinan dicobatahap persuasi 0,448* 0,025 d kemungkinan diamati-tahap persuasi 0,247 0,233 penerimaan (psikologis) para petani terhadap inovasi teknologi kedelai bja yang lebih berhubungan dengan aspek kerumitan dapat dipahami sebagai akibat dari banyaknya unsur yang perlu diimplementasikan. sifatnya yang merupakan kesatuan paket teknologi dapat dirasakan lebih rumit dibandingkan dengan teknologi yang lebih sederhana. hal ini terutama dapat terlihat (pada tabel 4 subbab sebelumnya) dari rendahnya persentase jumlah responden yang menyatakan suka terhadap unsur cara penanaman (32%) dan pengairan (60%) dalam teknologi bja. bagi sebagian besar petani yang biasanya cukup menebar benih untuk menanam padi (sebagai praktek usahatani sebelumnya), misalnya, teknik penanaman dengan jarak tanam tertentu dan dengan metode setiap lubangnya diberi 2 biji tentu saja cukup memberatkan. begitu pula dengan menjaga tingkat pengairan pada tinggi tertentu dari awal penanaman hingga panen. selain aspek kerumitan, tingkat persuasi dalam proses adopsi teknologi kedelai bja ini juga berkorelasi positif dan signifikan dengan aspek kemungkinan dicoba. aspek kemungkinan dicoba adalah kondisi ketika sebuah inovasi dapat dicobakan dalam skala kecil. hal ini karena dimungkinkan karena inovasi yang dapat dicoba dalam skala kecil akan menurunkan risiko bagi penerimannya jika inovasi tersebut dicobakan dalam skala yang lebih luas. hal tersebut karena prinsip kerja bja yang menitikberatkan pada pengelolaan air yang dapat mengoptimalkan daya kerja tanah, suhu, benih, dan radiasi sinar matahari untuk mengoptimalkan hasil usahatani yang didapatkan (melalui peningkatan produktivitas), sangat mudah diterapkan pada lahan petani. secara umum, penggunaan input dalam usahatani kedelai bja sama dengan input lain yang digunakan oleh petani dalam usahatani yang biasa dilakukan, seperti tanah, tenaga kerja, pupuk, benih, air, dan sebagainya. tidak ada input khusus dalam bja ini (yang belum pernah petani gunakan oleh petani pada usahatani sebelumnya). uji korelasi peringkat spearman dalam analisis hubungan antartahapan proses pengambilan keputusan inovasi proses pengambilan keputusan inovasi, secara teoritis, terdiri dari lima tahapan yang saling berhubungan. dalam proses adopsi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air, hubungan antartahapannya dianalisis dengan uji korelasi peringkat spearman. berdasarkan hasil output uji korelasi peringkat spearman, tahap pengenalan inovasi kedelai bja berkorelasi positif dengan tahapan persuasi inovasi kedelai bja. demikian pula terdapat hubungan positif antara tahap persuasi dengan tahap pengambilan keputusan, dan antara tahap implementasi dengan tahap konfirmasi. ketiganya signifikan pada taraf nyata 5%. hasil uji korelasi antar tahapan tersebut ditampilkan pada tabel 8. hasil di atas menunjukkan kecenderungan bahwa semakin baik tingkat pengenalan petani terhadap teknologi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air, semakin tinggi tingkat persuasi yang dirasakan, dan semakin tinggi pula kemungkinan keputusan adopsi paket teknologi tersebut. demikian pula sebaliknya. selain itu, semakin baik tingkat implementasi teknologi bja, semakin tinggi pula kecenderungan pengadopsian kembali teknologi ini. artinya, hasil yang diperoleh dari penerapan teknologi bja sesuai dengan yang dibayangkan oleh mayoritas petani adopter sehingga berkenan untuk melanjutkannya di masa mendatang. 105 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tabel 8. hasil uji korelasi spearman antartahapan inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air variabel/aspek uji uji korelasi peringkat spearman koefisien korelasi nilai sigifikasi a tahap pengenalan-tahap persuasi 0,457* 0,022 b tahap persuasi-tahap pengambilan keputusan 0,486* 0,014 c tahap implementasi-tahap konfirmasi 0,083** 0,001 catatan: **) signifikan pada taraf nyata 1%, *) signifikan pada taraf nyata 5% diskusi proses difusi inovasi dimungkinkan berlangsung karena ada unsur-unsur pendukungnya. terdapat empat unsur utama dalam difusi inovasi, sebagaimana diungkapkan oleh rogers (1983), yaitu: inovasi, saluran komunikasi, waktu, dan sistem sosial. pendekatan proses pengambilan keputusan adopsi inovasi yang telah dilakukan dan menjadi concern dalam penelitian ini, mengindikasikan bahwa dari aspek inovasi itu sendiri (yang dicirikan dengan empat karakteristik inovasi budidaya kedelai bja; kesesuaian, kerumitan, kemungkinan diamati, dan kemungkinan dicoba) menjadi elemen yang dominan dalam proses difusi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air di desa labuhan ratu enam, lampung timur. dilihat dari elemen proses difusi yang lain, yaitu pendekatan komunikasi, dapat dilihat bahwa saluran komunikasi yang digunakan dalam proses difusi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air dapat dikatakan berjalan tidak cukup efektif. hal ini terlihat dari persentase petani yang akhirnya mengadopsi teknologi bja hanya 40% (10 dari 25 orang). dalam proses komunikasi yang dilakukan, saluran komunikasi yang digunakan adalah komunikasi antarpribadi oleh tim peneliti lppm ipb dan agen pembaharu. namun dalam praktiknya, agen pembaharu yang diutus kurang bekerjasama dengan masyarakat, dan tidak menjalankan fungsinya dengan baik, sehingga mengakibatkan kredibilitas agen pembaharu kurang baik dimata masyarakat. sebagai implikasinya, agen pembaharu kurang berperan dalam proses difusi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air di desa labuhan ratu enam. jaringan sosial dalam sistem sosial merupakan sarana yang memungkinkan terjadinya penyebarluasan informasi tentang inovasi. dalam sistem sosial di desa labuhan ratu enam, terdapat peran beberapa opinion leader dalam proses difusi inovasi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air hingga akhirnya mempengaruhi perilaku beberapa petani untuk mengadopsi bja. namun demikian, sebagian besar petani adopter merasakan impresi yang baik dari usahatani baru mereka ini (budidaya kedelai jenuh air). hal itu terlihat dari tingkat konfirmasi mereka terhadap usahatani kedelai yang cenderung menjadi lebih tinggi pascaadopsi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air. salah satu faktor utama yang membentuk impresi baik tersebut adalah tingkat pendapatan atau keuntungan yang mereka peroleh, dimana pendapatan tersebut selaras dengan tingkat implementasi teknologi yang telah mereka lakukan. dengan kata lain, teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air ini sebenarnya dapat memenuhi ekspektasi (baik dari segi teknis maupun ekonomis) dari para petani adopter yang telah menerapkannya dengan baik. kendala yang dihadapi dalam proses difusi teknologi baru ini lebih kepada pendekatan saluran komunikasi yang dijalankan, sehingga keberhasilan dalam mengajak petani potensial untuk mengadopsi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air ini belum optimal. kesimpulan berdasarkan pendekatan komunikasi yang dilakukan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa saluran komunikasi yang digunakan dalam proses difusi berjalan tidak cukup efektif, yang dibuktikan dari rendahnya tingkat adopsi, hanya 40% petani yang akhirnya mengadopsi teknologi bja. tingkat pengenalan petani terhadap bja dipengaruhi tingkat pendidikan non formal dan motivasi, sedangkan tingkat pendidikan formal dan pengalaman berusaha tani tidak berpengaruh nyata. tingkat persuasi yang dirasakan oleh petani tentang bja ternyata berhubungan secara signifikan dengan aspek kerumitan dan kemungkinan dicoba, namun tidak dengan kesesuaian dan kemungkinan diamati. terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan antara tahap pengenalan dengan tahap persuasi, tahap persuasi dengan tahap pengambilan keputusan, dan tahap implementasi dengan tahap konfirmasi. sebagian besar petani adopter merasakan impresi yang baik dari usahatani baru mereka ini (budidaya kedelai dengan teknologi bja). hal itu terlihat dari tingkat konfirmasi mereka terhadap usahatani kedelai bja yang menjadi lebih tinggi 106 jurnal agraris pascaadopsi inovasi budidaya kedelai jenuh air. implikasinya, untuk mengefektifkan proses difusi teknologi budidaya kedelai jenuh air hendaknya, i) para petani yang menjadi target calon adopter di masa mendatang adalah mereka yang memiliki motivasi, keterampilan, dan pengalaman usahatani yang tinggi; ii) agen pembaharu yang menjadi salah satu instrumen kunci dalam proses adopsi inovasi agar dapat menjalankan fungsinya dengan baik; iii) proses difusi menggandeng opinion leader di masyarakat agar proses difusi inovasi dapat dilakukan lebih efektif sehingga tujuan difusi inovasi tercapai optimal. daftar pustaka adisarwanto, t. a., & wudianto, r. 2002. meningkatkan hasil panen kedelai di lahan sawah-kering-pasang surut. penebar swadaya, jakarta. ghulamahdi, m. 2014. standard operational procedure budidaya jenuh air tanaman kedelai. ghulamahdi, m., melati, m., & sagala, d. 2009. production of soybean varieties under saturated soil culture on tidal swamps. j. agron. indonesia 37(3): 226-232. hunter, m. m., de fabrun, p. l. m., & byth, d. e. 1980. response of nine soybean lines to soil moisture conditions close to saturation. australia journal exp. agricultural animals. husb. 20: 339-345. irianto, g. p., rejekiningrum, sumarni, e., & estiningtyas, w. 2005. pewilayahan dan pengembangan kedelai di lahan suboptimal. dalam pengembangan kedelai di lahan suboptimal. makarim, a. k., suharsono, arsyad, d. m., adisarwanto, t., marwoto, saleh, n., winarto, a., & kuncoro, b.s., (ed). malang, 26-27 jul. makarim, a. k., arsyad, d. m., & ghozi, a. 2005. model simulasi peningkatan produksi kedelai di lahan suboptimal. dalam pengembangan kedelai di lahan suboptimal. makarim, a. k., suharsono, arsyad, d. m., adisarwanto, t., marwoto, saleh, n., winarto, a., & kuncoro, b.s., (ed). malang, 26-27 jul. mugniesyah, s. s. 2006. penyuluhan pertanian. ipb, bogor. mugniesyah, s. s., & lubis, d. p. 1990. studi hubungan tipe pengambilan keputusan inovasi supra insus dengan adopsi supra insus di tingkat petani dan kelompok tani (studi kasus di wkpp tambakdahan dan wkpp mariuk, wkbpp binong subang, jawa barat). pusat studi pembangunan, lppm ipb. nordin, s. m., noor, s. m., & saad, m. s. 2014. innovation diffusion od new technologies in the malaysian paddy fertilizer industry. procedia-social and behavioral science 109: 768-778. rogers, e. m. 1983. diffusion of innovation: a ctoss-cultural aproach. the free press. collier macmillan publisher, london. sudana, w. 2005. potensi dan prospek lahan rawa sebagai sumber produksi pertanian. jurnal analisis kebijakan pertanian 3(2): 141151. supadi. 2009. dampak impor kedelai berkelanjutan terhadap ketahanan pangan. jurnal analisis kebijakan pertanian 7(1): 87-102. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 90-105 article history: submitted : june 22nd, 2021 revised : may 26th, 2022 april 28th, 2022 accepted : june 3rd, 2022 etty puji lestari1,*, sucihatinigsih d.w. prajanti2, wandah wibawanto3 and fauzul adzim4 1 department of economics, universitas terbuka, tangerang selatan, indonesia 2 department of economics, semarang state university, semarang, indonesia 3 department of visual communication design, semarang state university, semarang, indonesia 4 department of economics and development studies, diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia *) correspondence email: ettypl@ecampus.ut.ac.id arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine the price volatility of red chili doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12060 abstract red chili is an agricultural commodity with high price volatility. several previous studies stated that volatility was caused by weather effect on red chili production and shocks on public consumption. however, the other research stated that volatility was caused by the government’s import of red chili. this research aimed to analyze the price volatility of red chili in semarang regency on january 2019 to february 2020. the arch-garch method was applied in this study. this research showed that the price volatility of red chili occurred at the beginning, middle, and end of the year due to climate change, changes in public consumption patterns on religious holidays, and oversupply. however, the prevalence of indonesia’s imports of red chili did not affect the price volatility. the government is suggested to implement a mapping policy and planting patterns to ensure the supply of red chili. keywords: arch-garch; price; red chili; volatility introduction agricultural commodities, especially food, are essential in fulfilling national food. the existence of a commodity becomes a necessity that must be available every day to fulfill society’s food consumption. in its development, agricultural commodities often experience price fluctuations (antwi, gyamfi, kyei, gill, & adam, 2021; kumari, venkatesh, ramakrishna, & sreenivas, 2019; nigatu & adjemian, 2020; nugroho, prasada, putri, anggrasari, & sari, 2018; sativa, harianto, & suryana, 2017). von braun and tadesse (2012) stated that natural factors often fluctuate agricultural commodities. one of the commodities that often fluctuates is red chili. red chili is one of the seven national staples that have been established by the ministry of commerce of indonesia. this commodity has high price volatility because it relies sensitively on the weather. in addition to natural factors, volatility in red chili prices also is caused by consumption shocks due to changes in income, taste, or the consumption of other products (gilbert & morgan, 2010; wardhono, indrawati, qori’ah, & nasir, 2020; webb & kosasih, 2011). however, asgharpur, vafaei & abdolmaleki (2017) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:ettypl@ecampus.ut.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 91 arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine….. (lestari, prajanti, wibawanto, and adzim) and nugrahapsari & arsanti (2018) found that imports by the government to fill the domestic market demand caused the fluctuations in red chili prices. volatility is a rapid price change in a given year ( huchet-bourdon, 2011; rauch, spena, & matt, 2019). a phase of large price fluctuations followed by a period of low-price volatility and good returns indicates high price volatility. the timing of volatility is unpredictable (gozgor & memis, 2015; hashemijoo, ardekani, & younesi, 2012; wang, ma, liu, & yang, 2019; yip, brooks, do, & nguyen, 2020). red chili is one of the chili types that widely cultivated by farmers in indonesia due to its high economic value. semarang regency, located in central java, is one potential area in indonesia to cultivate red chili. in addition, semarang regency has a sub-agribusiness terminal (sta), which is the center of the horticultural commodity market. red chili is rather a volatile commodity when it comes to price development in semarang regency. from january 2019 to february 2020, the price of red chili increased several times at the beginning, middle, and end of the year. at the beginning of 2019, red chili prices were in the price range of idr 40,000 – idr 50,000 per kg. this fluctuation occurs due to high rainfall, which causes farmers to be reluctant to plant red chili due to the increased risk of crop failure. price fluctuations can positively impact inflation (babihuga & gelos, 2015). large changes have the potential to increase price volatility. the higher the volatility, the higher the future price uncertainty (fameliti & skintzi, 2022; he & serra, 2022). therefore, it is necessary to have a structured and systematic policy addressing the increased volatility in red chili prices. government interference is indispensable to stabilizing prices (huffaker, canavari, & muñoz-carpena, 2018; jannah, sadik, & afendi, 2021; putri & cahyani, 2016). complete and accurate information regarding red chili price volatility is necessary for a policy to be effective. the data can be a reference to formulate anticipated measures. considering that decision-making risks and uncertainty are closely tied to price volatility (carolina, mulatsih and anggraeni, 2016), the right price volatility forecast will improve pricing mechanisms in the future (hajkowicz et al., 2012; markelova, meinzen-dick, hellin, & dohrn, 2009; onour & sergi, 2011; sobti, 2020). prices that are volatile or not volatile can affect farmers when determining whether to plant a commodity, which will impact foodstuffs’ production and availability (kuwornu & mensah-bonsu, 2011). based on the empirical gap, this study will analyze the price volatility of red chili in the semarang regency so that it can provide recommendations to local governments in formulating policies to overcome these volatility problems. research method this research used time-series data of red chili daily prices from january 2019 to february 2020. this research focused on the red chili prices in semarang regency, central java province, indonesia as one of the largest producing centers (muflikh, smith, brown, & aziz, 2021; nasution, hanter and rahman, 2021). the data were collected from the department of agriculture and plantation of semarang regency. the arch-garch method was used in the analysis, which was conducted using the eviews 10 software. this http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 92 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research method was chosen because not all data met the assumption of homoscedasticity. data with different error term variants, which were more significant at several points in the data series, were heteroscedastic. the arch garch model views heteroscedasticity as a model variant (borkowski, krawiec, karwański, szczesny, & shachmurove, 2021; fufa & zeleke, 2018; jordaan, grové, jooste, & alemu, 2007; kumari et al., 2019). this study used the arch garch method. the use of this method was through several stages. the first stage was the identification of the arch effect. this stage aimed to identify heteroskedastic elements in the red chili price data. this stage can be accomplished by observing the kurtosis. if the kurtosis is >3, it can be concluded that the data were heteroskedastic. the second stage in this study was the model estimation. the box-jenkins method was used to determine the flattening model with the following procedures. the first step was the stationary data test. this test was performed to avoid estimating biased data. the augmented dickey-fuller (adf-test) was used to detect the presence of unit roots in this test. the data were shown to be stationary if they did not contain unit-roots. if the adf test tstatistic was less than mackinnon’s critical value, the data were not stationary and were not needed to be distinguished or differentiated. the second step was the determination of a tentative arima model. this model was determined using the data correlogram (acf and pacf pattern) that already determined the ar order (p) and ma order (q) of a tentative arima (p.d.q) model. data stationarity was used to determine the order (d). the best arima models were chosen after obtaining some preliminary arima models. the arima models with the lowest akaike information criterion (aic) and schwartz criterion (sc) values were chosen (durdu, 2010; madziwa, pillalamarry and chatterjee, 2022). the third stage involved identifying and determining the arch-garch model. if the flattened model obtained contains an arch effect, the arch garch model can be determined using the following stages: first, arch effect testing. the lagrange multiplier was used to test the arch effect (arch-lm). the arch-lm test assumed that there was no arch error (h0). if the test accepted the null hypothesis, the data contain no arch error and do not need to be modeled with the arch-garch. second, the arch-garch model must be determined. in this stage, several different models were simulated using the best arima models obtained. this was followed by testing different model parameters to find the parameters that best match the data. the next step was the selection of the best arch-garch model. a good model had the lowest aic and sc. other requirements of the arch garch model that must be met were that the coefficient was significant, the coefficient was not greater than one, and the coefficient was not negative. the fourth stage was the evaluation of the arch-garch model. model inspection can be performed using standardized residual analysis through residual components, residual freedom from autocorrelation and residual square functions, and the arch effect testing of residuals. the fifth stage was the calculation of the price volatility. the best model derived from the previous stage’s analysis can be used to forecast the volatility of red chili prices. the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 93 arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine….. (lestari, prajanti, wibawanto, and adzim) standard deviation, which is the square root of the estimated arch-garch model range, was used to measure volatility. the common form of the arch(m) model was: ht = ξ + α0ε2t + α1ε2t-1 + α2εt-2 +...+ αmε2t-m (1) where ht was variance at time t, is the average of the squared differences, also known as the standard deviation, of the mean. simply put, variance is a statistical measure of the scattered data points in a sample or data set. ξ was the constant, which is the value of variance when other variables are zero. ε2t-m was the previous period’s volatility (arch type), which is a volatility model for time series chili price. meanwhile, α0, α1,..., αm was estimated m-order coefficient, which is a number or numbers associated with and in front of a variable in a function. r was the previous volatility data. the common form of the garch (r, m) model was: ht = k + δ1ht-1 + δ2ht-2 + ...+ δrht-r + α1ε2t-1 + α2ε2t-2+...+ αmε2t-m (2) ht was variance at t time, which is the average of the squared differences, also known as the standard deviation, of the mean. simply put, variance is a statistical measure of the scattered data points in a sample or data set. k was constant variance, which is the value of variance when other variables are zero. ε2t-m was the previous period’s volatility (arch type), which is a volatility model for time series chili price data. ht-r was variance in the previous period (garch type), which is a more flexible time series of the chili price volatility model. α1, α2,...,αm was estimated m-order coefficient, which is a number or numbers associated with and in front of a variable in a function m. meanwhile, δ1, δ2,... δr was estimated order r coefficient, which is a number or numbers associated with and in front of a variable in a function r. result and discussions the ministry of commerce has established red chili as a staple commodity. red chili is needed in almost all indonesian cuisines, so the price is frequently known. the data used in this study was red chili price data in semarang regency from january 2019 to february 2020. semarang regency was known to have abundant red chili production potential that can supply various regions. this area also had a sub-agribusiness terminal (sta), one of the horticultural commodities’ marketing bases, including chili. examining the price development of red chili revealed that the commodity’s price was changing all the time, indicating high volatility, as shown in figure 1. figure 1 showed that the price of red chili in semarang regency was volatile in its development and tends to change constantly. agricultural commodities such as chili are susceptible and tend to be volatile like currencies (nasution et al., 2021). if growth is observed, it will be evident that the highest price of chili was relatively at the beginning and end of the year. due to the pattern of chili planting starting at the beginning of the rainy season, which means that the quantity of chili in the market was minimal, thus causing the price to soar. the price of chili in the semarang regency could also increase due to crop failure conditions. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 94 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research another cause of the increase in chili was the presence of big days such as ramadan and eid al-fitr. figure 1. development of the red chili price in semarang regency (2019-2020) the price of chili that tends to change makes people often fret when the price soars. the increasing price of red chili usually ranges from idr 20,000 – idr 30,000 per kg. however, an increasing price can reach idr 40,000 – idr 60,000 per kg. a significant rise in the value of red chili will typically raise food prices and cause inflation. the lowest price position of chili occurs during harvest. this was due to chili planting patterns in indonesia being still focused on simultaneous planting. therefore, there was often an oversupply during the crop season, thus causing the price to drop. arch effect identification this study’s initial analysis sought to identify the absence of arch effects in the data. the arch effect can be assessed by examining the heteroskedasticity in the data (kumari et al., 2019; monk, jordaan and grové, 2010). the arch effect can be determined by observing the kurtosis of the price of red chili. the kurtosis was the tendency of data to be out of the distribution. data with an arch effect were heteroskedastic data with a kurtosis >3 (li, 2021; sartorius von bach & kalundu, 2020). the results of the kurtosis calculation in this study are presented in figure 2. figure 2. kurtosis of the price of red chili http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 95 arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine….. (lestari, prajanti, wibawanto, and adzim) figure 2 showed that the kurtosis of the red chili price data was 3.56, which is >3; therefore, the red chili price data used in this study from january 2019 to february 2020 had an arch effect. model estimation the next step was to estimate the model after investigating the arch effect in the data. the model estimation process consisted of two steps: a stationary test and the arima model determination. stationary tests aimed to assess trends (erkekoglu, garang and deng, 2020; şahinli, 2020). data can be stationary if the process does not change as time changes. the augmented dickey-fuller (adf) test was used to perform the stationary test. the adf test was used to determine whether the data being analyzed contained a unit root. if the p-value > 0.05, then h0 was accepted, and the chili price data were not stationary. however, if the pvalue < 0.05, then h0 was rejected, and the chili price data were stationary. the stationary test results are presented in table 1. table 1. stationary test results at the level and the first difference level in adf test level (%) t-statistic prob.* adf test statistic -1.144414 0.6992 test critical values 1 -3.446083 5 -2.868370 10 -2.570474 adf test statistic -4.757063 0.0001 test critical values: 1 -3.446083 5 -2.868370 10 -2.570474 the stationary test results of chili price data at the level and the first difference level are shown in table 1. the stationary test results of chili price data at the level showed a probability value of 0.69 > 0.05, which means that the data were not stationary. if stationary test results at the level were obtained, the data results were still not stationary, and then it can be further tested using stationary tests at different levels. the stationary test results of chili price data at the first difference level show that the probability value of the stationary test of chili price data at the first difference level was 0.0001 < 0.05, which means that the red chili price data were stationary. once stationary data were obtained, the next step was to determine the tentative arima model in the study. the autocorrelation function (acf) and partial autocorrelation function (pacf) values from the correlogram results in table 2 can be used to generate a preliminary arima model. table 2 showed that the acf and pacf patterns were dying down, so it can be expected that the right model was an autoregressive (moving average) model. several arima models were used in this study based on acf and pacf patterns. the model was chosen according to the largest coefficient of determination (r-squared) and the smallest akaike information criterion (aic) and schwartz criterion (sc) (noriega, 2019). table 3 presents the results of the arima model determination test. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 96 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 2. acf and pacf behaviour data at the first difference level in arima model lag partial correlation autocorrelation q-stat prob lag partial correlation autocorrelation q-stat prob 1. -0.134 -0.314 7.6600 0.006 19. -0.058 -0.177 527.36 0.000 2. -0.303 -0.280 41.229 0.000 20. -0.100 -0.076 529.93 0.000 3. -0.163 -0.056 42.584 0.000 21. 0.154 0.615 699.39 0.000 4. -0.182 -0.031 42.995 0.000 22. 0.029 -0.057 700.84 0.000 5. -0.385 -0.212 62.305 0.000 23. 0.021 -0.203 719.46 0.000 6. -0.433 -0.076 64.788 0.000 24. 0.011 -0.036 720.05 0.000 7. 0.468 0.682 266.51 0.000 25. -0.013 -0.058 721.58 0.000 8. 0.068 -0.064 268.30 0.000 26. -0.046 -0.173 735.15 0.000 9. 0.123 -0.211 287.68 0.000 27. 0.017 -0.044 736.04 0.000 10. 0.096 -0.043 288.48 0.000 28. 0.038 0.553 875.31 0.000 11. 0.025 -0.039 289.14 0.000 29. -0.024 -0.063 877.15 0.000 12. -0.066 -0.199 306.57 0.000 30. 0.034 -0.170 890.39 0.000 13. -0.169 -0.089 310.09 0.000 31. 0.006 -0.027 890.72 0.000 14. 0.236 0.641 491.20 0.000 32. 0.027 -0.058 892.27 0.000 15. -0.014 -0.066 493.13 0.000 33. -0.017 -0.169 905.41 0.000 16. 0.026 -0.201 510.95 0.000 34. -0.051 -0.062 907.21 0.000 17. 0.035 -0.029 511.33 0.000 35. 0.032 0.529 1037.4 0.000 18. -0.089 -0.069 513.44 0.000 36. -0.011 -0.048 1038.4 0.000 table 3 showed that the arima model with the largest r-squared value was arima (1.1.2) at 0.201895. in addition, the model with the smallest aic and sc was also the arima model (1.1.2). therefore, the model was selected as the best model to estimate the price forecast of red chili in the semarang regency. table 3. autoregressive integrated moving average (arima) test results model criteria r-squared aic sc arima (1.1.1) 0.167417 19.33121 19.36942 arima (1.1.2) 0.201895 19.28958 19.32779 arima (2.1.1) 0.141216 19.36207 19.40028 arima (2.1.2) 0.131435 19.37369 19.41189 arch effect testing an arch effect test was conducted to examine the presence of an arch on previously acquired models in this arima model (1.1.2). the model used to detect heteroskedasticity can be determined by examining the significance of the probability values of the f-stat and the chi-squared at a significance level of 5% (das, paul, bhar and paul, 2020; deb, 2021; lakshmanasamy, 2021). arch effect testing can be performed using the lagrange multiplier (arch-lm test). the arch lm test was based on the null hypothesis (h0) that there was no arch error. the arch-lm test results are presented in table 4. table 4. arch lm test results in arima model f-statistic 6.551707 obs*r-squared 30.78764 prob. f 0.0000 prob. chi-square 0.0000 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 97 arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine….. (lestari, prajanti, wibawanto, and adzim) table 4 showed that the selected arima model (1.1.2) detected the absence of heteroskedasticity, which means an arch effect. this can be seen from the probability values of the f-stat and chi-squared of 0.0000 < 0.05; therefore, the model had an arch effect. thus, the model will be further analyzed using arch-garch analysis (jordaan et al., 2007; manogna & mishra, 2020) the best arch-garch model was chosen based on several criteria, including all significant coefficients in the diversity equation, the largest log-likelihood value, the smallest aic and sic, and positive values for all coefficients in the diversity equation (nugrahapsari & arsanti, 2018). the estimated results of each model are presented in table 5. table 5. estimation results for the arch-garch model model arch-garch arch garch log-likelihood aic sc arch-garch (1,0) 0.277477 -4064.304 19.24021 19.28805 arch-garch (1,1) 0.150000 0.600000 -4134.253 19.57566 19.63307 arch-garch (0,1) 0.293610 -4081.820 19.32303 19.37087 table 5 showed that the best arch-garch model was arch-garch (1.0) because it was the only model significant at the 5% level and had a positive coefficient, the largest loglikelihood value, and the smallest aic and sc. the amount of volatility in the price of red chili in semarang regency can be calculated using the best arch-garch model chosen, the arch-garch model (1.0). the small amount of volatility illustrates how much risk the future will face. this can be a reference for farmers and consumers to minimize the level of risk that they may experience (monk et al., 2010; thiyagarajan, naresh, & mahalakshmic, 2015). besides, predictions of future volatility levels can also be a basic reference for the government in drafting policies to stabilize chili prices. from the arch-garch model (1.0), the similarity of the price volatility of red chili in semarang regency is obtained as follows: ht = 11120103 + 0.277477 ε2t-1 the value of the arch coefficient illustrated the high volatility of red chili prices. the closer value of arch (1.0) coefficient is to zero, the smaller the volatility (monk et al., 2010; thiyagarajan et al., 2015). the estimated model obtained an arch coefficient value of 0.277477, which means that the volatility of red chili in semarang regency from january 2019-february 2020 is relatively small at close to zero. volatility is a measure of the price fluctuations or the predicted price movements over time (barbaglia, croux, & wilms 2020; onour & sergi, 2011; manogna & mishra, 2020; thiyagarajan et al., 2015). volatility also refers to unexpected price changes but still needs to be determined. some volatility and risk assessment measures can be based on the deviation, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation. the volatility of chili prices can be measured using the conditional deviation standard, which was the root of arch-garch (1.0). figure 3 showed that the price of red chili in semarang regency from january 2019-february 2020 was not very volatile. however, in certain months in 2019, relatively high fluctuations occurred several times in january, june, and october. the high volatility of red chili prices in january 2019 was due to the peak of the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 98 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research rainy season, which generally makes farmers reluctant to plant red chili because of the risk of damage and high crop failure rates, as seen in figure 4. figure 3. conditional standard deviation of the price of red chili figure 4. red chili prices in january 2019 in mid-june, a big day celebration in indonesia caused the volatility of red chili prices to increase. it was undeniable that the demand for almost all staples increased during the month, as seen in figure 5. figure 5. price of red chili in june 2019 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 99 arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine….. (lestari, prajanti, wibawanto, and adzim) people suddenly changed their consumption patterns, significantly impacting the price of red chili (gilbert & morgan, 2010). when public demand for red chili is high while red chili inventories are low, prices will soar (kornher & kalkuhl, 2013; shelaby, semida, warnock, & hahn, 2011). however, a large harvest will occur in the following month due to abundant inventories, commonly called oversupply. the red chili prices during july 2019 are shown in figure 6. figure 6. red chili prices during july 2019 red chili planting takes place in the entire indonesian region due to concurrent planting patterns run by farmers. as a result, there was often an oversupply during the harvest, and there was a scarcity when it was not the harvest season. as explained in comparative research by jannah et al. (2021) and nasution et al. (2021), red chili plants are still cultivated simultaneously, centered in several areas, and not yet evenly distributed. furthermore, the volatility in october was more due to the climate and the peak of the dry season, which causes some land to be unable to grow chili due to the lack of water supply. extreme climate change also impacted the occurrence of various natural events in semarang regency, including floods and droughts, as shown in figure 7. figure 7. natural disaster event in semarang regency in 2019 this condition caused farmers to be unable to plant red chili, resulting in a scarcity of chili. the continued import of chili also often affects the volatility of red chili prices. an escalating amount of imports usually decreases the price of domestic red chili (sativa et al., 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 fire flood landslide tornado drought etc n u m b e r o f d is a st e r type of disaster http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 100 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 2017). actually, the problem of red chili price fluctuation occurs in indonesia and some other countries (devi, srikala, & ananda, 2015). high volatility in red chili prices requires government intervention to stabilize them (huffaker et al., 2018). the picture of price volatility in semarang regency can be used as a reference for the government in developing policies to stabilize the price of red chili. farmers argue that fluctuations in chili prices, including the high price of red chili, were caused by several factors, including weather, reduced numbers of farmers who grow red chili due to switching to other crops, disease and pests, and the significant import of red chili. the government needs to formulate several policies to overcome the fluctuations in red chili prices every year (anwarudin et al., 2015; djomo et al., 2021; muñoz-concha et al., 2020). first, the government needs to review the marketing aspect of growing red chili on new land in connection with the existing supply chain management. new land clearing must also be efficient in its supply chain to keep chili prices low at the consumer level. applying supply chain management (scm) through partnership patterns can increase efficiency and competitiveness. second, during the rainy season, one should increase the chili planting area on new land in other production centers and on existing land. indeed, indonesia has diverse agroecosystem conditions. this means that when the production center cannot function, chili can be grown in other agroecosystems as production reserves. chili production technology in the rainy season also needs to be disseminated so that farmers can still produce chili in the rainy season. the third policy is to regulate the planting area and production of red chili in the dry season. to avoid plummeting chili prices and the loss of farmers due to the abundance of production, the government needs to make extensive arrangements to grow chili in the production center. if red chili prices rise too quickly, the government must intervene to prevent inflation which harms the producing farmers. finally, the government needs to develop reliable and sustainable institutional partnerships to develop chili agribusiness to deal with price fluctuation, bonding farmers, entrepreneurs, and the chili industry. the collaborations between farmers and businesses can boost efficiency, productivity, and the economic value of a commodity. conclusion the study showed that the price of red chili in semarang regency on january 2019 to february 2020 tended to be volatile. the highest price occurred at the beginning, middle, and end of the year. the results showed seasonal volatility that occurred at the beginning, middle, and end of the year due to climate factors and religious holidays. policymakers should be more concerned with red chili farmers and fluctuations in price. red chili farming often loses when chili’s price drops and does not retain the profit even though the price increase. strategies to cope with this price fluctuation are scheduling of plant areas, expanding and diversifying the market, and advancing chili production. partnership programs between red chili farmers and chili processing companies may offer a limited solution to the problems caused by price fluctuations. the partnership would encourage chili production throughout http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 101 arch-garch analysis: an approach to determine….. (lestari, prajanti, wibawanto, and adzim) the year. farmers who have been under contract must meet the quotas set in order for the company to continue to have trust in farmers. acknowledgments: this study is supported by the universitas terbuka’s research institutions and community service (lppm) (project no. 18557/un.31.lppm/pt.01.03/2000). author contributions: s.d.p. was contribute on conceptualization, methodology resources, writing original draft preparation, review and editing supervision. f.a. was contribute on conceptualization, methodology, software resources, writing original draft preparation, review and editing project administration. e.p.l. was contribute on conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis resources, writing original draft preparation, review and editing, supervision, and funding acquisition. w.w. was contribute on investigation and visualization. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest reference antwi, e., gyamfi, e. n., kyei, k., gill, r., & adam, a. m. 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(2011). analysis of price volatility in the indonesia fresh chili market. paper presented to the annual meeting of the international agricultural trade research consortium, december 11-13, 2011. retrieved from https://ei-ado.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/webbkosasih(2011)analysispricevolatilityindofreshchilimarket.pdf yip, p. s., brooks, r., do, h. x., & nguyen, d. k. (2020). dynamic volatility spillover effects between oil and agricultural products. international review of financial analysis, 69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irfa.2020.101465 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 231-247 article history: submitted : july 30th, 2022 revised : november 28th, 2022 november 8th, 2022 accepted : december 1st, 2022 jamhari1,*, muh amat nasir1, agus dwi nugroho1,2, ismiasih3, hitoshi yonekura4 1 department of agricultural socio-economics, faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia 2 doctoral school of economic and regional sciences, hungarian university of agriculture and life sciences, godollo, hungary 3 department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, institut pertanian stiper, yogyakarta, indonesia 4 graduate school of agricultural science, faculty of agriculture, tohoku university, sendai, japan *) correspondence email: jamhari@ugm.ac.id does the sleman chili auction market affect the local, regional and national market prices in indonesia? doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15654 abstract promoting the horticultural auction market as an alternative outlet is becoming more popular. the horticultural auction market has some benefits, such as reducing price volatility and controlling inflation. this research used a case study in sleman regency, which established a horticultural auction market to manage volatile chili prices. the daily price data with ecm-garch analysis was used to investigate market integration between the sleman chili auction market and other markets. the result showed that the sleman auction market had a beneficial impact on the price decline in the local markets. this impact indicated that the auction market controls inflation at the regional level. however, only 5% to 13% of daily variations of the long-term equilibrium of the auction market to other markets were adjusted. there was information efficiency of the chili prices in indonesia based on the garch model. this study proves that auction markets promote control of macro inflation. this study was the first to manage horticultural product price risk from a chili auction market perspective. moreover, the model applied in this study expands the ecm-garch model to improve the validity of an ecm's significance tests and the efficiency of standard ecm parameter estimation. keywords: auction market; chili; ecm; garch; market integration introduction low and stable inflation is one of the requirements for a country to experience sustained economic growth. therefore, several studies investigate the dynamics and factors of inflation in several countries (abbas & lan, 2020; bhattacharya & jain, 2020; bhattacharya, jain, & singh, 2019; iddrisu & alagidede, 2020). there is a lag between changes in supply and demand for food commodities resulting in domestic food commodity prices fluctuating. in addition, due to of the low elasticity of most food commodities, even slight changes in demand can result in significant price changes (sasmal, 2015). food prices also affect consumer preferences (widodo, rusimah, & choirunisa, 2018). in recent years, rising food commodity inflation has been the primary concern for several countries. for example, in indonesia, food http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:jamhari@ugm.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15654 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 232 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research commodities were the second-largest contributor to inflation in 2020, reaching 0.91% or increasing 0.05% from the previous year (bps–statistics indonesia, 2021b). food commodity inflation increase poverty and food insecurity in low-income households. this is due to food represents for a sizable portion of low-income households' overall expenses (ngarava, 2021). the risk of price volatility in food commodities has become an important issue and the main focus of various studies (bohl & sulewski, 2019; bórawski, belłdycka-borawska, & dunn, 2018; t. t. sun, su, mirza, & umar, 2021; y. sun, mirza, qadeer, & hsueh, 2021). one of the food commodities with very high price volatility in indonesia is chili (mariyono & sumarno, 2015; muflikh, smith, brown, & abdul aziz, 2021). food inflation has a terrible impact on the decline in welfare, especially for the poor (sekhar, roy, & bhatt, 2018). product and market characteristics strongly influence chili price fluctuation (mariyono, 2017; nuvaisiyah, nhita, & saepudin, 2019). therefore, the government has designated chili as a staple item by the presidential decree no. 71 of 2015 to manage its availability, supply, and stabilize prices. as a perishable commodity, chili is considered vulnerable to high transaction and storage costs, implying that when there is a decrease in supply. hence, prices increase and the government cannot stabilize them effectively because of a lack of chili reserves (muflikh et al., 2021). however, the opposite condition occurs during the harvest season between february and april. on the production side, increased chili harvests result in more supply and market availability and finally raise the chili price. on the demand side, chili consumption is known to be fairly constant throughout the year, implying that price fluctuations are influenced by supply. in addition, chili supply and price fluctuations can be influenced by unorganized and complicated value chains (muflikh et al., 2021). the dominance of value chain middlemen drives up prices (ranjan, 2017). the middlemen caused a gap between red chili price at the farmer level and final consumer increased by around 30.93% in 2019 (bps-statistics indonesia, 2020). so, a better understanding of these conditions is essential for designing policy mechanisms and effectively targeting intervention programs. one of the initiatives to solve the price gap is establishing an auction market to reorganize the value chains (feenstra & hardesty, 2016; johnson, fraser, & hawkins, 2016; muflikh et al., 2021; reid, simmonds, & newbold, 2019). the auction market is advantageous for farmers because it gets them closer to the market and increases their opportunity of engaging in commercial farming (mariyono, 2018). it will always set a price less than the retail market price, implying that the auction price will positively impact the market price. as auction volume rises, a large quantity of low-price chili enters the market and lowers the total price of the chili market (j. li, liu, & song, 2020). therefore, spatial chili price trends in regional markets can be considered an essential indicator of overall market performance. despite their ability to provide several benefits, not all indonesian auction markets operate at their optimal performance (mishra & kumar, 2011). this is due to the auction market's challenges, which include low-quality human resources, limited capital, a lack of infrastructure, and rivalry from other market participants (nugroho, prasada, & rosyid, 2021). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 233 does the sleman chili auction market affect…….. (jamhari, nasir, nugroho, ismiasih, and yonekura) the sleman chili auction market is one of the well-perform markets in indonesia (dewi, nugroho, & jamhari, 2021). this auction market was established in october 2017 to shorten the supply chain and reduce the price volatility of chili (hansen & stowe, 2018; kibler & thompson, 2020; marks & welsch, 2015; marshall et al., 2021). miyashita (2014) concludes tshat the auction market is beneficial for streamlining trade in perishable goods. further, the existence of the sleman chili auction market significantly impacts the selling price of chili farmers. nugroho et al. (2021) stated that farmers who sell chilies through the sleman chili auction market could expect a twofold price increase compared to those who do not. despite its positive results, no study has been conducted to demonstrate the economic interactions between this auction market and other local, regional, and national markets. this research focuses on integrating chili pricing across areas that considerably contribute to the development of good marketing management. furthermore, this study advances market integration theory, especially concerning the agricultural auction market. the authors use the chili price from 2018 to 2020 to empirically assess the shortand longterm impact of the sleman chili auction market on each market. most studies on price transmission between agricultural commodity markets have focused on grain markets (zakari, ying, & song, 2014). this research applied an ecm-garch model, which is a combination of the error correction model (ecm) and the generalized autoregressive conditionally heteroskedasticity (garch). the ecm-garch model was used due to some previous studies on price integration between agricultural markets only used the ecm model (akhter, 2017; arnade, cooke, & gale, 2017; baquedano & liefert, 2014; ganneval, 2016; zakari et al., 2014). meanwhile, john (2014) performed a vector autoregressive and jiang & wang (2013) used cointegration tests to estimate the co-integration relationship between international rice markets. according to nair (2021) ecm-garch can be used to test price transmission between markets. moreover, the model proposed for this study extends the ecm-garch model to obtain ecm parameter estimators in the presence of conditional heteroskedasticity. as a result, applying the ecm-garch model improves the validity of an ecm's significance tests and the efficiency of standard ecm parameter estimation (w. k. li, shiqing, & wong, 2001; sin, 2006). research method research context and case selection the research focuses on the sleman chili auction market as one of indonesia’s largest horticultural auction markets. this auction market is located in sleman regency, special region of yogyakarta province (indonesian: daerah istimewa (d.i.) yogyakarta) (figure 1). during the last three years, this province has been one of indonesia's largest red chili producers, with the second largest farmer's terms of trade in java's horticultural crops sector (bps–statistics indonesia, 2021a). farmer's terms of trade in the special region of yogyakarta have a surplus value, which indicates that the growth in farmers' income is greater than the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 234 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research increase in their expenditure. therefore, the study aims to maximize the impact of red chili auction price variation on price formation in the local, regional and national markets. the study determined pakem and gamping market as the local market. pakem market was chosen since it represents sleman’s central production, and gamping market was chosen due to its role as the wholesale horticultural market in sleman. meanwhile, the beringharjo market was designated the regional market, and the kramat jati central market was designated the national market. those markets were considered due to the indonesian central bank’s continuous monitoring to ensure price control. figure 1. map of sleman chili auction, local producer, local wholesale, regional, and national markets data collection this research used idaily red chili prices data from the auction, local, regional, and national markets from 1st march 2018 to 30th december 2020 (1,036 data). data from the auction market manager had to be manually gathered due to it was not provided in a machinereadable format. price information for local, regional, and national markets has been collected from the national strategic food price information centre of the bank of indonesia (available at https://hargapangan.id/) in machine-readable form. retail pricing data was used to examine price transmission from the customer's perspective. on the other hand, there are weaknesses in using retail price data because these prices are not inflation-adjusted and are higher than wholesale prices (akhter, 2017). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://hargapangan.id/informasi issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 235 does the sleman chili auction market affect…….. (jamhari, nasir, nugroho, ismiasih, and yonekura) data analysis the empirical results in this study begin with two preliminary statistical tests, namely the unit root and the co-integration tests. this study used the augmented dickey-fuller test (adf) technique to conduct the unit root test (fuller, 1976). the next step applied the johansen co-integration test to investigate whether there is a dynamic long-term relationship among the variables (johansen & juselius, 1990). however, the error correction model (ecm) was applied to discover variables' shortand long-term dynamic relationships (brooks, 2008). the ecm is a model that uses a compound of first difference and lagged values on cointegrated variables to determine the long-term relationship and short-term dynamics between variables. the ecm was applied due to it was appropriate to examine the change of one variable concerning the change of another variable (engle & granger, 1987): ∆yt=α+ (yt-1-β1*xt-1 ) *β 2 +γ*∆xt+et (1) where α was the constant, β1 displayed the long-term of the adjustment parameter, β2 presented the speed of adjustment back to equilibrium, and γ showed the short-term impact. in this paper, the ecm was formulated as follows: ∆marketst=α+ (marketst-1-β1*auctiont-1 ) *β 2 + γ*∆auctiont+et (2) where marketst as the dependent variable represents chili prices (idr per kg) at the local markets, represented by pakem market and gamping market; regional market represented by beringharjo market; and national market by kramat jati central market. the independent variable was chili price (idr per kg) at the sleman chili auction market. furthermore, the garch model was employed to discover the existence of chili price volatility in local, regional, and national markets due to the sleman chili auction market (bollerslev, 1986). the occurrence of volatility was known as a response to shocks. according to (brooks, 2008), the general mathematics of garch (p, q) model was: σt 2=α0+ ∑ αiut-i 2q i=1 + ∑ βjσt-j 2p j=1 (3) where 𝜎𝑡 2 was the conditional variance model, 𝛼0 was known as a constant, (𝛼𝑖𝑢𝑡−𝑖 2 ) presented the information about volatility during the previous period, and (𝛽𝑗𝜎𝑡−𝑗 2 ) showed the fitted variance from the model during the previous period. there were several formulated hypotheses in this research: first, the market integration between two markets inside the province was more integrated than in two provinces. second, two markets within the province adjust their prices more quickly (or fix them) than markets outside the province. the hypothesis was at least one long-term relationship (co-integration) between all three prices simultaneously. results and discussion the sleman chili auction market: an overview there are several chili auction markets in indonesia. one of the chili auction markets is the sleman chili auction market, located in sleman, special region of yogyakarta. it was http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 236 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research established in 2017 and served as a physical gathering place for fresh chili products from different agricultural regions in sleman to be auctioned to the highest bidder. through a better and more transparent trading system that benefits all parties, the sleman chili auction market can accommodate the various interests of chili agribusiness actors. the real benefit of an auction market is that farmers have certainty of selling prices and bidders can more easily obtain high-quality chilies. furthermore, the auction market plays a role in transferring ownership of chili from farmers to wholesalers, distributors, or retailers (tourte & gaskell, 2004). since its establishment, the sleman chili auction market has been essential in selling fresh chilies in sleman regency (dewi et al., 2021). farmers, managers, and bidders usually follow the auction process. sleman regency's chili farmers dominated the farmers who took part in the chili auction. there is no restriction on who can engage in the auction market as a bidder. before the auction begins, the farmer brings the chili to the auction location. next, the manager does the weighing, sorting, grading, and then re-weighing. based on the auction market policy, generally, all products brought by farmers with the best quality will be sold on that day. the auction market charges sellers (farmers) to cover the auction’s operating costs (bergefurd, 2011). for example, in the sleman chili auction market, the auction’s operating costs were determined based on the selling price on that day. generally, farmers’ auction operational costs range between idr100 to idr1,000 per kilogram. the agreement's results on the auction's operating costs were divided into two, for the auction manager and strengthening farmer associations. after the auction process was complete, the next stage was packaging and shipping to the destination area, with shipping costs paid by the bidder. meanwhile, the auction winner will not receive the product before payment (c.-h. sun, 2010). integration of the sleman auction market with other markets the line chart of all the price series can be applied to recognize price movements and the presence of price trends (akhter, 2017). figure 2 shows all price series fluctuations and upward trends from june to august 2019 and january to march 2020. the series can be attributed to non-stationary properties due to the increasing trend. the primary trigger of price volatility for chili in indonesia was production disruption. in the rainy season (october – november), several agricultural areas frequently encounter very high rainfall intensity, which causes many chilies plants to lead a failure. this condition implied a reduction in supply, so chili prices tend to increase in indonesia at the end and beginning of the year. during the research period, chili prices in the national market central market had a higher trend than in other markets. the trend might be attributed to differences in market structures between national market and other markets. the national market (kramat jati central market) is located in dki jakarta, one of indonesia's megacities with a population of over 10 million, and it serves as a barometer of the country's horticulture market (saragih, bahagia, suprayogi, & syabri, 2019). the massive population in dki jakarta helps to explain the strong demand for foods like chili. the national market highly depends on chili-producing http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 237 does the sleman chili auction market affect…….. (jamhari, nasir, nugroho, ismiasih, and yonekura) areas to meet the demand. unfortunately, the national market cannot meet the demand effectively and efficiently, one of which is caused by the transportation issue of traffic congestion (saragih, bahagia, suprayogi, & syabri, 2015). figure 2. trends of chili prices from march 2018 to december 2020 (idr/kg) in sleman chili auction, local producer, local wholesale, regional, and national markets meanwhile, the chili price at sleman chili auction market was lower than the local, regional, and national markets. the acts of sleman chili auction market as the physical gathering point of fresh chili commodities at the farm level, especially for those located far from the auction market, had affected this price. the rationalization of auction chili gathering points is essential in several ways. fewer auction chili gathering points imply that chili was distributed farther before being auctioned. after the chilies are collected, the managers will deliver chilies to the auction location. the auction market is expected to become an essential mechanism to streamline the supply chain to reduce retail pricing potentially (mason & villalobos, 2015). table 1. augmented dicky-fuller test markets levels first differences lag length t-value lag length t-value auction 0 -0.18 0 -32.17*** local producer 0 0.04 0 -31.66*** local wholesale 0 0.16 0 -34.43*** regional 0 0.05 0 -30.46*** national 0 0.06 0 -30.14*** note: *, ** and *** denote significance at 10%, 5% and 1% levels, respectively 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 1 38 75 11 2 14 9 18 6 22 3 26 0 29 7 33 4 37 1 40 8 44 5 48 2 51 9 55 6 59 3 63 0 66 7 70 4 74 1 77 8 81 5 85 2 88 9 92 6 96 3 10 00 auction local producer local wholesale regional national http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 238 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the stationary test was conducted due to the all-price series having an upward trend (table 1). the test results showed that the unit root null hypothesis could not be rejected at level but at first differences. a co-integration analysis can be performed since the result indicated that all the price series were stationary at first differences. the johansen and juselius maximum-likelihood multivariate co-integration approach will be used to investigate cointegrating vectors among the chili prices. table 2 represents the results of the johansen and juselius multivariate co-integration var (1). the trace and maximum eigenvalue tests identify two co-integrating vectors, indicating that the prices had a long-term co-integration relationship. the trace and maximum eigenvalue statistics were more significant than the critical value (5%). it indicated that all local, regional, and national retail markets were integrated with the sleman auction market. table 2. johansen co-integration test market trace maximum eigenvalue null statistic null statistic local producer– auction r = 0 140.17** r = 0 133.03** r ≤ 1 7.14** r = 1 7.14** local wholesale– auction r = 0 70.90** r = 0 65.55** r ≤ 1 5.35** r = 1 5.35** regional – auction r = 0 141.76** r = 0 133.79** r ≤ 1 7.97** r = 1 7.97** national – auction r = 0 110.55** r = 0 101.28** r ≤ 1 9.27** r = 1 9.27** 5% critical value r = 0 15.49 r = 0 14.26 r ≤ 1 3.84 r = 1 3.84 note: ** indicates significance at 5% level; lag length is set by minimizing schwarz bayesian information criteria (sbic): for all series lag length has resulted 1 the pairwise ecm (1) framework was employed to determine the price series’ long-term and short-term co-integrating relationships. before testing the ecm, the ec residual serial correlation lagrange multiplier (lm) test was used to assess autocorrelation between residuals. the results (table 3) showed that the null hypothesis of no serial correlation at lag 1 was accepted at a 1% significance level in most of the paired markets except national – auction market. however, the national – auction market at lag 2 indicates no autocorrelation at a 5% significance level. the ecm estimates for each retail market paired with the auction market showed that the coefficients on the long-term equilibrium were statistically significant at the 1% significance level in all markets. in the long term, all market pairs had the positive sign of price flexibility, conforming that retail prices would increase when auction prices rise and conversely. the long-term coefficient ranges from 0.57 to 0.84, indicating that about 57% to 84% of price changes were transmitted efficiently from the auction market to the retail market. these results showed that the auction market was spatially linked with retail markets longterm, indicating that all markets were in the same economic market. furthermore, based on the ecm estimation results, the price relationship between the auction and retail markets http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 239 does the sleman chili auction market affect…….. (jamhari, nasir, nugroho, ismiasih, and yonekura) reduces as distance increases. thus, this condition can consider the distance between markets as a factor affecting market integration (roman & kroupová, 2022). table 3. the error correction model test markets pair α β1 β2 γ lm test local producer – auction 0.0003 0.75*** -0.13*** -0.04* 6.34*** local wholesale – auction 0.0004 0.84*** -0.05*** -0.03* 3.84*** regional – auction 0.0003 0.79*** -0.13*** 0.04 1.11*** national – auction 0.0002 0.57*** -0.12*** 0.01 17.24 note: *, ** and *** denote significance at 10%, 5% and 1% levels, respectively; lm = lagrange-multiplier; lag length is set by minimizing schwarz bayesian information criteria (sbic): for all series lag length has resulted 1 the national market has a considerable distance from the sleman auction market compared to the local and regional markets. however, national market receives around 57% of the price changes in the auction market. the degree of separate market integration can be characterized by analyzing the product flow between different markets (hamulczuk, 2020). the auction market and national market’s trade volume were increasing yearly. this was understandable, provided dki jakarta was one of the special region of yogyakarta province's most important trading partners. the special region of yogyakarta province sold around 40.37% of its chili production to dki jakarta in 2019, an increase of approximately 11.06% over the previous year (bps-statistics indonesia, 2020). the acceleration of adjustment coefficients in market pairs was statistically significant at a 1% significance level. the estimated correction parameters range from 0.05 to 0.13 among the different market pairs, indicating that 5% to 13% of any divergence from long-term equilibrium was adjusted daily. at the local market, the results showed a difference in the rate of price adjustment between the local producer and local wholesale markets. this implied that the spatial efficiency of the auction market at the local level could change depending on the distance between marketplaces (see figure 1). thus, the local producer market's adjustment speed was much faster than in local wholesale market. meanwhile, the regional and national markets results indicated that the price adjustment of the regional market and the national market was worth higher than local wholesale market. this implied that regional and national markets had a greater intensity of auction chili trading due to those markets having a higher chili demand than local markets. furthermore, short-term price transmission analysis revealed that the auction market was not uniformly integrated. in the short term, only local markets were integrated with the auction market. this might be due to some bidders being local traders who already had a trading network at the regency. that implied the chili price changes in the auction market were transmitted effectively only to a limited market. the short-term coefficients of the local producer market (0.04) and the local wholesale market (0.03) were statistically significant at the conventional level of 10%. the results also showed a negative sign of the short-term coefficient, indicating that price declines in the local market outnumber price rises in the auction market. ceteris paribus, inter-region traders will respond to increased auction chili http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 240 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research prices by supplying chilies to sleman regency. it had implications for increasing the supply of chilies, thereby reducing the local retail market price and vice versa. meanwhile, the auction price of chili had no influence on price behavior in regional and national markets in the short term, possibly due to the limited volume of auction chili supplied compared to those market demands. this might explain why kulon progo regency dominates the supply of chili in the regional market as the largest chili surplus-producing region in the special region of yogyakarta province (susanawati, akhmadi, fauzan, & rozaki, 2021). the result may also reflect that the sleman chili auction market was small, so it cannot affect prices at the regional and national levels, implying that price changes in both markets may be influenced by price changes in other markets. table 4. the generealized autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity test parameter local producer local wholesale regional national mean equation constant 3.259 4.155 2.580 5.441 auction(-1) 0.706*** 0.617*** 0.771*** 0.529*** variance equation constant 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.002 arch(1) 0.960*** 1.031*** 0.719*** 0.678*** garch(-1) 0.076** 0.022 0.210*** 0.252*** r2 0.831*** 0.668*** 0.848*** 0.774*** note: *, ** and *** denote significance at 10%, 5% and 1% levels, respectively table 4 presents the results of the garch (1, 1) model, which showed the reliance of local, regional, and national markets on the sleman chili auction market. this study estimated and compared the chili prices volatility from the auction market to other markets, thereby assessing the auction price efficiency. the auction price behavior was statistically significant at the 1% significance level in conditional mean equations. furthermore, previous auction price movements impact present price changes in local, regional, and national markets. this indicated that the auction price could predict future prices in those markets, indicating the existence of information efficiency in indonesian chili pricing. in the conditional variance equation, arch coefficients were used to discover the price dependence, and garch coefficients were employed to measure the sensitivity of every market to its past volatility. the results showed that the estimated arch coefficients in all markets were statistically significant at the 1% significance level. the arch coefficients showed that unexpected shocks in the past generated changes in the current conditional volatility of chili prices. meanwhile, the result showed that the estimated garch coefficients were statistically significant, except in the local wholesale market. according to the garch coefficients, the national market was the most volatile. price fluctuation in the national central market might be caused by the chili supply that was strongly reliant on other regions. furthermore, there might be complexity in the chili supply chain to national market, which involves many actors. the national market also had a substantial volume of chili demand. as http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 241 does the sleman chili auction market affect…….. (jamhari, nasir, nugroho, ismiasih, and yonekura) a result, a chili supply shock will significantly impact national market pricing behavior (susanawati et al., 2021). the local market was the lowest volatile. it maybe was causes of its location, which was close to the chili surplus‐producing region, so it has an adequate volume of chili supply. the most reliable reason for this finding was that not all chili produced in the sleman regency got auctioned off. in reality, farmers who live further away from the auction market will directly sell their products to local middlemen. furthermore, local middlemen will distribute chili to the nearest retail market. it will potentially become another main variable in the local market's pricing behavior. moreover, the empirical evidence indicated that the arch coefficients were more significant than the garch coefficients in all markets, implying that the changes in past shocks highly affect conditional volatility. the past shocks were dominant in forecasting future chili price volatility in those markets. furthermore, the arch coefficients presented a significant positive sign in each market. thus, in case the great shocks of both signs will raise volatility. meanwhile, the sum of the arch and garch coefficients was worth at least one, which means that volatility persists in local, regional, and national markets. this finding suggested that the chili price fluctuated in each region. chili production in indonesia was affected by climate and plant damage caused by pests and diseases, making policy initiatives such as chili supply stabilization may be difficult to evaluate. the research discovered the efficiency of information in chili pricing, which includes the sleman chili auction market. as a result, market integration increases when a new auction opens in another producer area since direct sales prices become more comparable to auction sales prices. conclusion this study was conducted using the ecm-garch to estimate the price relationship between the sleman chili auction market with local, regional, and national markets. the results indicated a long-term relationship in which the auction market influenced the price development in the local, regional, and national markets. the speed of adjustment to the longterm equilibrium varies from 5% to 13%. the adjustment rates revealed the most significant integration between the sleman chili auction market with local and regional markets. meanwhile, the price adjustment at the national level indicated that the national market was more desirable than the local wholesale market. this implied that the national had a greater intensity of chili trading than the local market due to higher demand. furthermore, this study also showed that the sleman chili auction market was statistically significant in influencing the price change in local producer and local wholesale markets in the short term. meanwhile, the garch model captured the effects of volatility from the sleman chili auction markets to local, regional, and national markets. due to the results, it can be concluded that the sleman chili auction market was connected to the local market in the short and long terms. the result confirmed that the existence of the sleman chili auction market had the potential to control inflation in sleman. the government should increase the number of chili gathering points to foster the business http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 242 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research development of the sleman chili auction market. in addition, some efforts were required to increase the number of bidders, especially from outside the region, so the sleman chili auction market's marketing network may develop. increased auction participation was required to ensure stock and supply chain stability in the sleman auction market and to play a larger role in regulating chili price volatility at the regional and national levels. in addition, digitizing price and stock information were beneficial for making predictions of chili prices in the future. this study also revealed that the ecm-garch combination effectively determines price integration between markets; hence the authors recommend using both models for a similar study. as researchers, the authors recognize the limitations of this study. first, this study cannot assure the future recurrence of currently controlling chili price relations. additional uncertainties overflow: climate changes, farming models, new players in the supply chain, price integration among other markets, also other economic disturbances, including the consequences of covid-19, expose new uncertainties in the markets. second, the study considers the price data of only five markets in java, indonesia, for ecm-garch analysis. further study should include other agricultural markets from different regions in the sample and examine price transmission and volatility by multiple breaks to gain the robustness of price forecasts. authors’ contribution: jamhari: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, resources, software, validation, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing; muh amat nasir: conceptualization, data curation, visualization, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing; agus dwi nugroho: conceptualization, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing, supervision; ismiasih: conceptualization, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing; hitoshi yonekura: conceptualization, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest references abbas, s. k., & lan, h. 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(2018). factors affecting to consumers’ attitude towards halal label on nugget and sausage packaging: a case study on housewives at one residential in yogyakarta city. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.4158 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10010025 https://doi.org/10.1109/icevtimece.2015.7496660 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2018.11.026 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jefas.2015.01.005 https://doi.org/10.1007/s41775-018-0017-z https://doi.org/10.1016/s0731-9053(05)20005-1 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2010.00474.x https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pacfin.2021.101514 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102131 https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2021-0224 https://doi.org/10.1079/rafs200475 https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.4158 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 247 does the sleman chili auction market affect…….. (jamhari, nasir, nugroho, ismiasih, and yonekura) zakari, s., ying, l., & song, b. (2014). market integration and spatial price transmission in niger grain markets. african development review, 26(2), 264–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12080 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& layout juli 2016 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.1 januari 2017 syahrul ganda sukmaya1) 1) perhimpunan ekonomi pertanian indonesia (perhepi) syahrulganda@yahoo.co.id analisis permintaan minyak kelapa (coconut crude oil) indonesia di pasar internasional doi: 10.18196/agr.3138 abstract the world demand of coconut oil or coconut crude oil (cco) was 2.18 million tons per year in 2014. the market share of indonesian palm oil in international market was the second largest after the philippines. vegetable oil market fluctuations in international markets was influenced by economic conditions of cco consumer countries therefore influenced on oil exports. the purpose of this study was to analyze demand elasticity of indonesian palm oil in international market and it competition with other producers. this study used secondary data, i.e annual data of indonesian coconut crude oil exports and other exporting countries in international market from 1984 to 2015. the market demand analysis approach using aids (almost ideal demand system) and competition with the analysis of comparative advantage of revealed comparative advantage (rca) was used. results showed that indonesian coconut oil commodities has a comparative advantage in international market. moreover, increasing demand for imports of coconut crude oil in international market would be beneficial for indonesia since it may increase indonesian market share. kkkkkeywords: eywords: eywords: eywords: eywords: coconut crude oil, comparative advantages, export, market share. intisari kebutuhan minyak kelapa atau coconut crude oil (cco) dunia sebesar 2,18 juta ton per tahun di tahun 2014. pangsa minyak kelapa indonesia di pasar internasional terbesar kedua setelah philippina. fluktuasi pasar minyak nabati di pasar internasional tidak terlepas dari kondisi perekonomian di negara konsumen cco sehingga berpengaruh terhadap ekspor minyak kelapa. tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis elastisitas permintaan minyak kelapa indonesia di pasar internasional dan persaingannya dengan produsen lainnya. penelitian ini menggunakan data sekunder, yaitu data tahunan ekspor minyak kelapa indonesia dan negara eksportir lainnya dipasar internasional pada tahun 1984 sampai tahun 2015. pendekatan analisis permintaan pasar menggunakan aids (almost ideal demand system) dan persaingan dengan analisis keunggulan komparatif revealed comparative advantage (rca). hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa komoditas minyak kelapa indonesia memiliki keunggulan komparatif di pasar internasional. selain itu, peningkatan permintaan impor minyak kelapa di pasar internasional akan menguntungkan bagi indonesia dengan meningkatnya pangsa pasar indonesia. kata kkata kkata kkata kkata kunci:unci:unci:unci:unci: ekspor, minyak kelapa, keunggulan komparatif, pangsa pasar. pendahuluan kelapa merupakan salah satu tanaman khas yang tumbuh di wilayah tropis. pada daerah tropis, kelapa dapat tumbuh dengan baik dan optimal karena kondisi lingkungannya sangat cocok untuk tumbuh dan berkembangnya 2 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tanaman tersebut. tanaman kelapa memiliki banyak manfaat dan banyak produk unggulan ekspor yang dihasilkan dari tanaman tersebut. tiga bentuk yang paling penting dari konsumsi buah kelapa adalah kelapa segar, minyak kelapa dan kelapa kering. minyak kelapa merupakan bentuk penting dari konsumsi kelapa dan memiliki nilai ekonomi yang tinggi, sehingga dapat dijadikan alasan utama menjadikan kelapa sebagai komoditas yang komersil. produksi kelapa indonesia merupakan salah satu yang terbesar di dunia dengan produksi sebesar 18,30 juta ton per tahun serta pangsa pasarnya sebesar 30,24% dari produksi kelapa dunia (faostat, 2014). kelapa juga merupakan komoditas yang penting bagi rakyat indonesia dan dapat menjadi penggerak ekonomi rakyat. hal itu dapat dilihat dari pengelolaan pertanaman kelapa di indonesia yang sebagian besar dikelola oleh rumah tangga petani. sekitar 96,60% pertanaman kelapa dikelola oleh petani dengan rata-rata kepemilikan 1 hektar/kk (allorerung, et. al., 2005). oleh karena itu, pengembangan kelapa menjadi produk yang bernilai ekonomi tinggi dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat dan meningkatkan perekonomian nasional. saat ini, produk kelapa indonesia banyak diperdagangkan dalam bentuk kelapa segar, kopra atau minyak kelapa. peningkatan nilai tambah terhadap komoditas kelapa menjadi produk bernilai tambah tinggi seperti kopra dan minyak kelapa perlu ditingkatkan agar dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani kelapa di daerah sentra. masyarakat di sentra produksi kelapa di indonesia umumnya mengolah kelapa menjadi produk setengah jadi yaitu kopra. pengolahan kelapa menjadi kopra umumnya dilakukan pada perkebunan kelapa milik rakyat dan hal tersebut terbukti dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani kelapa (alviza, et. al., 2014 dan neeke, et. al., 2015). jika dibandingkan nilai ekonominya, produk kopra lebih rendah dari produk minyak kelapa. pelaku agribisnis produk-produk turunan kelapa, seperti minyak kelapa, mampu meningkatkan pendapatannya dibandingkan dengan hanya menjual produk kopra (balitbang kementan, 2005; arimbawa dan zani, 2013 dan pohan, et. al., 2014). peningkatan nilai tambah pada komoditas kelapa apabila dilakukan dengan baik dapat dijadikan sumber pendapatan utama bagi petani, jika dibandingkan dengan sumber pendapatan lainnya. hal tersebut terbukti pada sentra produksi kelapa di wilayah kabupaten gorontalo, perolehan pendapatan usahatani kelapa memiliki kontribusi yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan sumber lainnya dan dapat menurunkan koefisien nilai gini pada keluarga petani kelapa (bahua, 2014). pemberdayaan petani kelapa dalam upaya meningkatkan nilai tambah dan pendapatan perlu terus dilakukan. upaya yang dapat dilakukan yaitu dengan pengembangan perkebunan kelapa berwawasan agribisnis. pengembangan berwawasan agribisnis tersebut dapat dilakukan melalui: i) penyuluhan dan pelatihan dalam aspek teknis dan manajemen, ii) mengaktifkan dan memfungsikan kelembagaan petani, iii) pengembangan dan penerapan spesifikasi lokasi, dan iv) pemberian modal secara dana bergulir (supadi dan nurmanaf, 2006). produksi kelapa indonesia saat ini terkonsentrasi di beberapa pulau besar yaitu sumatera, jawa, dan sulawesi dengan rata-rata produktivitas pada tahun 2014 sebesar 11,36 ton/hektar (kementan, 2016). produktivitas ini sudah di atas rata-rata produktivitas kelapa dunia sebesar 5,20 ton/hektar. sebagian besar produk kelapa indonesia merupakan komoditas ekspor, penggunaan untuk konsumsi domestik lebih sedikit. usaha pengolahan produk turunan kelapa berpotensi untuk dikembangkan di daerah-daerah sentra produksi karena bahan bakunya yang melimpah. berdasarkan analisis finansial, usaha produk turunan kelapa layak dikembangkan dan menunjukkan keuntungan yang terus meningkat setiap tahunnya (kuswanto, 2012; boekoesoe, et. al., 2015; setyawan dan purwanti, 2016). gambar 1. porsi ekspor minyak kelapa negara eksportir di pasar dunia tahun 2014 (uncomtrade, 2016) pada tahun 2014, kebutuhan minyak kelapa dunia sebesar 2,18 juta ton per tahun dengan nilai pasar sebesar 3,11 milyar us dolar (uncomtrade, 2016). pangsa pasar minyak kelapa dunia dipasok oleh dua negara produsen yaitu indonesia dan philippina dengan total pangsa pasar sebesar 76,86%. pangsa pasar masing-masing negara produsen tersebut terhadap dunia pada tahun 2014 sebesar 35,31% untuk indonesia dan 41,55% untuk philippina, sisanya sebesar 8,58%; 8,59%; 1,44% secara berturut-turut dipasok oleh netherland (belanda), malaysia dan amerika serikat serta sisanya sebesar 4,53% dipasok oleh negara-negara lainnya. indonesia dan philippina 3 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 menjadi produsen minyak kelapa terbesar karena wilayahnya yang berada di wilayah tropis dan merupakan negara kepulauan terbesar di dunia yang mendukung untuk tumbuh dan berkembangnya tanaman kelapa. oleh karena itu, produksi minyak kelapa (cco) dari kedua negara ini dapat mendominasi pangsa pasar dunia (gambar 1). kontribusi dari komoditas cco terhadap ekspor kelompok hasil industri pengolahan kelapa/kelapa sawit terhadap total ekspor hasil industri indonesia tahun 2014 berada pada urutan kelima besar setelah cpo, minyak goreng sawit, margarine dan olein (kementerian perindustrian, 2016). letak geografis indonesia sebagai negara tropis menjadikan suatu keunggulan bagi pengembangan komoditas cco, karena bahan baku kelapa yang melimpah. potensi perluasan lahan perkebunan kelapa sebesar 10,70 juta hektar masih bisa dilakukan yang letaknya di papua, kalimantan, dan riau (abdurahman dan mulyani, 2003). tren back-to-nature pada sektor industri menjadi peluang pasar bagi permintaan minyak kelapa dunia. saat ini, permintaan minyak nabati dunia masih didominasi oleh minyak kelapa sawit, rapeseed dan kedelai. isu lingkungan serta persaingan antara bahan makanan dan energi menjadi isu yang cukup berpengaruh terhadap produksi minyak kelapa sawit dan kedelai dunia. perluasan perkebunan kelapa sawit yang berdampak pada pembukaan lahan hutan serta turunnya produksi kedelai menjadi hal yang sangat diperhatikan oleh negara-negara pengimpor, sehingga izin negara eksportir kedua produsen minyak nabati tersebut menjadi sangat ketat. minyak kelapa (cco) menjadi salah satu alternatif penghasil minyak nabati yang ramah lingkungan dan tidak terlalu bersaing sebagai bahan makanan pokok. permintaan impor komoditas cco terbesar saat ini yaitu uni eropa, amerika serikat, china dan malaysia (gambar 2). produk cco digunakan sebagai bahan baku industri farmasi, pembuatan sabun, kosmetik, bahan bakar biodiesel, dan lain-lain serta bahan baku untuk industri pangan. perkiraan permintaan minyak nabati dunia akan tumbuh sebesar 3% pada tahun 2016/2017 termasuk permintaan minyak kelapa (usda, 2016). peningkatan permintaan minyak nabati dunia dipicu oleh permintaan dari china dan negara-negara maju lainnya. peningkatan permintaan tersebut dipicu juga oleh bertambahnya populasi dan pertumbuhan gdp negara maju sebagai konsumen. minyak kelapa yang digunakan sebagai bahan baku industri pengolahan yang digunakan oleh masyarakat banyak akan selalu dibutuhkan. kandungan aktif yang terdapat pada minyak kelapa seperti tocopherols, phytosterols, dan polyphenols menjadikannya sebagai minyak yang sering digunakan sebagai bahan campuran makanan, obat dan kosmetik karena sangat bermanfaat bagi kesehatan dan perawatan kulit (carandang, e.v, 2008 dan marina, et. al., 2009). gambar 2. impor minyak kelapa (cco) di negara-negara konsumen (usda, 2016) indonesia mengekspor minyak kelapa ke negara-negara importir dalam bentuk barang setengah jadi sebagai bahan baku barang turunan lain yang bernilai tinggi. produk setengah jadi ini diolah oleh negara pengimpor untuk dibuat produk turunan yang bernilai tinggi untuk kemudian diekspor ke negara lain. oleh karena itu, permintaan minyak kelapa tidak terlepas dari permintaan produk turunannya yang berbahan baku minyak kelapa. peningkatan permintaan barang turunan dari minyak kelapa akan turut meningkatkan permintaan minyak kelapa mentah (cco) sebagai bahan baku. hal tersebut dapat dilihat pada pertumbuhan permintaan minyak kelapa mentah (cco) indonesia oleh jerman (uni eropa). jerman merupakan salah satu negara pengekspor produk olahan minyak kelapa ke negara-negara uni eropa lain seperti belanda, polandia, prancis, dan lainlain serta amerika serikat dan beberapa negara asia. kementerian perdagangan melalui indonesia trade promotion center hamburg (itpc) tahun 2013, menyatakan bahwa pertumbuhan nilai ekspor minyak kelapa indonesia ke jerman tumbuh sebesar 8,46% selama 2008-2012. pertumbuhan ekspor minyak kelapa mentah (cco) tersebut didukung oleh peningkatan ekspor barang olahan minyak kelapa jerman ke negara-negara uni eropa lain seperti belanda, polandia, dan prancis pada kurun waktu yang sama. indonesia bukan satu-satunya negara pengekspor minyak kelapa mentah dunia. negara eksportir minyak kelapa mentah terbesar yaitu philippina, indonesia, netherland (belanda), malaysia dan amerika serikat. akan tetapi, produksi saat ini masih didominasi oleh philippina dan indonesia. perdagangan minyak kelapa mentah dunia tahun 2016/2017 diperkirakan akan meningkat, peningkatan ini didukung oleh 4 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research peningk atan produksi dari philippina dan vietnam sedangkan produksi minyak kelapa mentah indonesia akan cenderung datar (usda, 2016). tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis permintaan minyak kelapa indonesia di pasar internasional dengan melihat elastisitas harganya serta melihat keunggulan komparatif ekspor komoditas minyak kelapa indonesia di pasar internasional. kedua analisis ini dapat menghasilkan informasi yang berfungsi untuk penentuan strategi pemasaran ekspor minyak kelapa indonesia dalam bersaing dengan negara-negara eksportir lainnya. metode penelitian data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini merupakan data sekunder bulanan perdagangan impor minyak kelapa mentah (cco) dunia dari lima negara pengekspor yaitu philippina, indonesia, netherland (belanda), malaysia dan amerika serikat serta digunakan data rest of world. sumber data tersebut berasal dari uncomtrade dengan kode sitc rev. 2 4243 (coconut (copra) oil) dalam bentuk data tahunan dari tahun 1984 sampai tahun 2015. data rest of the world diperoleh dengan mengurangi total volume ekspor minyak kelapa mentah (cco) dunia dengan volume ekspor cco dari lima negara pengekspor tersebut. harga yang digunakan dalam bentuk proksi yang dihitung dengan membagi nilai ekspor dengan volume ekspor cco dari masing-masing negara. penelitian ini menggunakan alat analisis revealed comparative advantage (rca) dan model almost ideal demand system (aids) untuk menjawab tujuan penelitian. model aids pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh deaton dan muelbauer (1980) untuk menganalisis suatu sistem permintaan konsumen. salah satu kelebihannya adalah memberikan kemampuan pendekatan orde pertama untuk sistem permintaan. selain itu, model aids juga mengakomodasi hambat an-hambat an dan konsisten terhadap teori permintaan seperti aditivitas, homogenitas dan simetri yang dapat diuji secara statistik (kahar, 2010). selain itu, model aids juga banyak digunakan untuk menganalisis analisis permintaan karena kekonsistenan secara teoritis dan f leksibilitas fungsinya (chang dan nguyen, 2002). pada penelitian ini model aids yang digunakan sebagai berikut (riffin, 2013): keterangan: s : share impor di pasar dunia p : harga dari minyak kelapa mentah (cco) (us$/ton) m : pengeluaran (expenditure) model aids yang dibangun harus memenuhi hambatan teoritis sistem permintaan seperti: adding up homogeneity dan simetry selain itu, elastisitas harga compensated, uncompensated dan pengeluaran akan dihitung berdasarkan parameter-parameter yang telah diestimasi dalam model. elastisitas harga compensated (hicksian) hanya mengakomodasi efek substitusi akibat perubahan harga. sementara itu, elastisitas harga uncompensated (marshallian) mengakomodasi efek pendapatan dan efek substitusi akibat perubahan harga. elastisitas harga compensated , elastisitas harga uncompensated dan elastisitas pengeluaran dihitung berdasarkan rumus sebagai berikut: analisis revealed comparative advantage (rca) telah banyak digunakan sebagai alat untuk menganalisis data perdagangan dan keunggulan komparatif suatu komoditas. konsep analisis rca diperkenalkan oleh balassa (1965) sebagai ukuran kinerja perdagangan relatif masing-masing negara pada komoditas tertentu. pada penelitian ini, dengan analisis rca dihitung ekspor minyak kelapa (cco) negara indonesia 5 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 relatif terhadap total ekspor dan terhadap kinerja ekspor dari suatu negara lainnya yang diperlakukan sebagai pesaing (kompetitor). penghitungan analisis rca dirumuskan sebagai berikut: rca = keterangan: xij: nilai ekspor negara i untuk komoditas j (minyak kelapa) xi: nilai total ekspor dari negara i xwj: nilai total ekspor dunia untuk komoditas j (minyak kelapa) xw: nilai total ekspor dunia hasil dan pembahasan indeks rca lebih besar dari 1 (satu) menunjukkan bahwa minyak kelapa (cco) indonesia di pasar internasional memiliki keunggulan komparatif (gambar 3). sejak tahun 1984 sampai 2015 nilai rca indonesia lebih dari 1 kecuali pada tahun 1986 berada dibawah 1 yaitu sebesar 0,33. nilai rca terbesar ditunjukkan pada tahun 2007 dengan nilai rca sebesar 40,76 kemudian tren-nya cenderung menurun hingga tahun 2015 sebesar 23,19 yang disebabkan penurunan ekspor minyak kelapa indonesia ke pasar internasional. hal ini menguatkan hasil penelitian sebelumnya yang menyatakan bahwa komoditas minyak kelapa indonesia memiliki keunggulan komparatif di pasar internasional (kaunang, 2013; kawa, et. al., 2016). gambar 3. hasil nilai rca indonesia dari tahun 1984-2015 keunggulan komparatif indonesia jika dibandingkan dengan negara-negara eksportir cco lain berada pada posisi kedua. indonesia memiliki keunggulan komparatif lebih besar dibandingkan malaysia, netherland (belanda) dan amerika serikat (usa) dengan rata-rata nilai rca sebesar 23,27. keunggulan komparatif indonesia masih tertinggal jauh dengan pesaing utama ekspor cco di pasar internasinal yaitu philippina dengan rata-rata nilai rca 155,53. gambar 4 menunjukkan tren nilai rca indonesia dan philippina yang cukup fluktuatif, hal ini dipengaruhi oleh ekspor cco kedua negara di pasar internasional. keunggulan komparatif indonesia menunjukkan tren menurun dari tahun 2007-2015. penurunan keunggulan komparatif komoditas minyak kelapa perlu diatasi agar tetap bersaing di pasar internasional. upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk meningkatkan daya saing yaitu mengatasi manajemen rantai pasok kopra ke industri pengolahan (budiman, et. al., 2015) dan pembangunan infrastruktur dekat dengan sentra produksi bahan baku dan akses bongkar muat minyak kelapa dari pabrik pengolahan ke pelabuhan (genifer, et. al., 2015). gambar 4. nilai rca negara-negara eksportir minyak kelapa dunia tahun 2005-2015 hasil analisis aids pada tabel 1 menunjukkan bahwa pangsa pasar ekspor cco indonesia di pasar internasional berada pada posisi kedua di bawah philippina, dengan pangsa pasar sebesar 23%. nilai elastisitas pengeluaran menunjukkan elastisitas permintaan yang disebabkan oleh berubahnya pengeluaran. data elastisitas pengeluaran dari kelima negara (tabel 1) menunjukkan bahwa pengeluaran indonesia bersifat elastis. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kenaikan pengeluaran terhadap impor cco akan menguntungkan indonesia yaitu akan meningkatkan ekspor cco indonesia. 6 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tabel 1. pangsa atau share negara eksportir minyak kelapa di pasar internasional dan nilai elastisitas pengeluaran negara pangsa pasar rata-rata elastisitas pengeluaran philippina 0,56 0,66 indonesia 0,23 1,81 netherland 0,05 2,50 malaysia 0,06 1,43 usa 0,01 0,56 rest of world 0,08 tabel 2. nilai elastisitas terkompensasi dan tidak terkompensasi negara-negara negara phil ina ndl mal usa row compensated phil -1,14 0,34 0,40 0,13 0,06 0,21 ina 0,82 -0,50 -0,85 0,39 0,15 -0,01 ndl 1,82 -0,33 -2,38 0,54 -0,09 0,44 mal 3,32 -0,16 0,26 -2,85 -0,31 -0,27 usa 0,85 0,15 1,34 0,20 -0,01 1,06 uncompensated phil -1,51 0,72 0,36 0,09 0,40 0,15 ina -0,19 -0,91 -0,95 0,27 0,13 -0,16 ndl 0,43 -0,91 -2,51 0,38 -0,12 0,22 mal 2,53 -0,49 0,18 -2,94 -0,32 -0,39 usa 0,53 0,03 0,24 0,16 -2,54 1,02 ket: phil: philippina; ina: indonesia; ndl: netherland; mal: malaysia; usa: amerika serikat; row: rest of world elastisitas harga terkompensasi (hicksian elasticity) atau disebut juga sebagai utilitas tetap yang menunjukkan perubahan permintaan (ekspor) dengan mengisolasi efek pendapatan sehingga perubahan yang terjadi merupakan akibat murni dari efek substitusi. hasil elastisitas harga sendiri minyak kelapa (cco) semua negara pada tabel 2, menunjukkan bahwa secara elastisitas terkompensasi (compensated elasticity) bernilai negatif (inelastis). hal tersebut menunjukk an bahwa ketik a harga komoditas cco meningkat, maka permintaan atau share terhadap produk cco akan turun. nilai elastisitas harga sendiri (indonesia-indonesia) bernilai -0,50. artinya, ketika terjadi kenaikan harga cco indonesia sebesar 1% akan menurunkan pangsa pasar ekspor indonesia di pasar internasional sebesar 0,50%. elastisitas silang indonesia dengan negara-negara eksportir cco lainnya menunjukkan bahwa berdasarkan elastisitas terkompensasi (compensated) dan tidak terkompensasi (uncompensated) hubungan komoditas cco indonesia dengan malaysia dan amerika serikat bersifat substitusi. artinya, apabila harga minyak kelapa (cco) malaysia dan amerika serikat naik, maka pangsa atau share ekspor minyak kelapa (cco) indonesia akan naik. hubungan antara ekspor indonesia dan netherland (belanda) bersifat komplementer baik secara elastisitas terkompensasi (compensated elasticity) dan tidak terkompensasi (uncompensated elasticity). artinya, apabila harga ekspor minyak kelapa (cco) netherland (belanda) naik maka pangsa atau share ekspor minyak kelapa (cco) indonesia akan menurun. sementara itu, hubungan antara indonesia dan philippina secara elastisitas terkompensasi (compensated elasticity) bersifat substitusi dan secara elastisitas tidak terkompensasi (uncompensated elasticity) bersifat komplementer. kesimpulan indonesia memiliki hubungan komplementer dengan netherland (belanda) dalam ekspor komoditas minyak kelapa (cco), sehingga perlu dilakukan kerjasama antar kedua negara untuk mengurangi dampak negatif perdagangan minyak kelapa. peningkatan permintaan minyak kelapa di pasar internasional akan meningkatkan pangsa atau share ekspor dan menguntungkan perdagangan komoditas minyak kelapa indonesia. indonesia memiliki keunggulan komparatif sebagai eksportir minyak kelapa di pasar internasional dibandingkan negara-negara eksportir lain seperti netherland (belanda), malaysia, dan amerika serikat. negara philippina memiliki keunggulan komparatif lebih besar jika dibandingkan dengan indonesia. daftar pustaka abdurachman, a., & mulyani, a. 2003. pemanfaatan lahan berpotensi untuk pengembangan produksi kelapa. jurnal litbang pertanian 22(1): 25. allorerung, d., mahmud, z., novarianto, h., & luntungan, h.t. 2005. prospek dan arah pengembangan agribisnis kelapa. badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian, departemen pertanian. alviza, m., sihombing, l., & ayu, s. f. 2014. analisis usahatani dan prospek pengembangan kopra (studi kasus: kecamatan silau laut, kabupaten asahan). journal on social economic of agriculture and agribusiness 2(12). arimbawa, p., & zani, m. 2013. analisis usaha pembuatan minyak kelapa skala rumah tangga 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(diakses 4 juni 2016) 8 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research lampiran 1. nilai rca negara-negara eksportir minyak kelapa di dunia tahun 1984-2015 tahun rca phl rca ina rca mal rca nld rca usa 1984 180,29 2,46 7,89 0,39 0,08 1985 176,40 14,38 5,68 0,44 0,08 1986 276,93 0,33 4,51 0,35 0,08 1987 233,36 22,96 4,39 0,44 0,21 1988 209,29 20,46 5,86 0,59 0,20 1989 209,05 18,84 4,81 0,87 0,20 1990 257,95 15,04 4,22 0,74 0,14 1991 235,22 17,52 3,54 0,78 0,19 1992 209,50 23,05 4,26 0,74 0,07 1993 190,24 17,03 3,41 1,27 0,06 1994 173,79 26,24 3,11 0,91 0,07 1995 212,19 9,23 2,33 0,98 0,06 1996 143,24 27,58 1,79 1,58 0,04 1997 114,60 32,26 1,39 1,28 0,03 1998 113,10 19,94 2,08 1,93 0,02 1999 70,43 31,01 2,87 3,78 0,06 2000 79,29 33,49 2,04 1,80 0,05 2001 116,19 17,74 1,99 2,11 0,05 2002 89,76 24,75 3,93 2,73 0,06 2003 110,21 19,90 5,92 2,77 0,08 2004 109,87 27,92 6,24 2,68 0,06 2005 114,01 34,57 6,01 2,35 0,11 2006 124,49 27,38 6,10 2,87 0,17 2007 118,56 40,76 5,79 1,91 0,09 2008 136,95 36,29 5,64 3,19 0,09 2009 135,78 29,18 6,20 3,06 0,17 2010 155,73 22,73 4,57 2,77 0,12 2011 157,72 24,50 6,11 3,69 0,15 2012 129,71 33,10 5,28 3,55 0,16 2013 152,47 24,84 4,90 4,15 0,17 2014 127,89 31,49 5,98 2,83 0,15 2015 112,78 17,57 5,30 3,59 0,27 rata-rata 155,53 23,27 4,50 1,97 0,11 keterangan: phil: philippina; ina: indonesia; ndl: netherland; mal: malaysia; usa: amerika serikat, 1 r-1 r-1 1 6-8 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 1-19 article history: submitted : march 5th, 2021 revised : june 8th, 2021 accepted : june 30th, 2021 malose moses tjale*, marizvikuru mwale and beata m. kilonzo university of venda, institute for rural development, private bag x5050, thohoyandou 0950, south africa *) correspondence email: malose.tjale@gmail.com production performance among the restitution farm beneficiaries in waterberg district, south africa doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11276 abstract farmland was regarded as the most important asset used to enhance agricultural productivity in developing countries to improve the livelihoods of restitution farm beneficiaries. most, unfortunately, recent reports show decreased agricultural productivity in most developing countries. in south africa, the land restitution program was introduced to restore land to people dispossessed by apartheid government after 1913. however, production in the restitution farms has declined. this study aimed to address the non-performance of the restitution farms in waterberg district and evaluate their production performance. a questionnaire was administered to gather quantitative data on the farms’ production and the benefits accrued from the farms. data was captured using geographic information system (gis), and then a remote sensing analysis method was used to map restitution farms to illustrate farms performance. statistical package for the social scientists (spss) version 25 was used to compute statistics on-farm production. about 83% of beneficiaries have not benefitted from the 32 farms, while 61.6% did not have markets, and 64% reported a lack of farms income. generally, lack of farm production impeded beneficiaries from receiving benefits and employment. the study recommended that private organizations and sector departments work together to assist beneficiaries with capacity building, marketing of farm produce, and funds to improve production. keywords: farm production; land restitution; rural livelihoods; trend analysis; waterberg district introduction farmland is one of the most important assets that can be used to address poverty and support livelihood systems among the rural population in the developing world (shackleton, shackleton, & cousins, 2001). south africa, like other countries, has implemented a land reform program as an intervention to deal with the challenges of poverty caused by unproductive land reform farms. however, in south africa, the land reform program aimed to address three sub-programs: land tenure, land redistribution, and land restitution to alleviate poverty and improve the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries in the country, including waterberg district. although south africa managed to implement the three subhttp://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:malose.tjale@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.11276 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 2 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research programs above, unfortunately, most authors have concluded that land reform program post1994 has been a dismal failure and disappointing to those who received land through the initiative of the government (cavanagh, 2014). in addition, more needs to be done by the government of south africa to ensure that farms allocated to the farm beneficiaries through land reform programs are productive to address poverty in the households of the beneficiaries. the productivity levels amongst land reform beneficiaries have been very low, and crop productivity also has been declining. besides, the south african agricultural economy is shrinking without meeting the expectations of the government in terms of economic growth, job creation, and improving farmers’ livelihoods (department rural development and land reform [drdlr] 2016). over the past 20 years, the trend in land reform programs has favored few beneficiaries who were given large pieces of land with the hope that they would bring farming skills and capital to develop the farms. however, little or no improvement has been achieved in terms of the farm beneficiaries’ livelihoods (binswanger-mkhize, 2014). gray, oss-emer, & sheng, (2014) indicated that agricultural productivity could be determined through farm yields, which include but are not limited to outputs, such as crops and livestock. recent reports show trends of a decrease in agricultural productivity in a number of sub-saharan african countries (mahule, 2015). it was also estimated that 2.6 million hectares of suitable agricultural land in malawi remains uncultivated in the estate sector, accounting for 28 % of the country's total land area lying idle (luwanda & stevens, 2015). unfortunately, the productivity levels amongst land reform beneficiaries in south africa have decreased while crop production in the farms has been declining drastically in the midst of an ever-growing population that needs to be provided with food. lack of production of land reform farms has been a trend of close to two decades in south africa, waterberg district included. one of the common factors causing low productivity amongst the new landowners is the lack of adequate support for the land reform farm beneficiaries (tshuma, 2013). over the past 20 years, the trend in land reform programs has been in favor of a few beneficiaries who were given large pieces of land with the hope that they would bring farming skills and capital to develop the farms. however, little or no improvement has been achieved in terms of the farm beneficiaries’ livelihoods (binswanger-mkhize, 2014). despite implementing a land restitution program in south africa post-1994 to address poverty and lack of sustainable livelihoods of farm beneficiaries, rural livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries in waterberg district remains a challenge. more disturbingly, the implementation of land reform has been poor in terms of the area of land transferred, agricultural production, and the creation of livelihoods (binswanger-mkhize, 2014; drdlr, 2016). more importantly, the land restitution initiative that aims to give the land back to the people who were dispossessed of their land under apartheid legislation will not be realized if the farms are not performing to uplift the livelihoods of poor people. hence, the study's objective was to conduct a trend analysis using maps to study the production performance of the restitution farms in the waterberg district, from 1995 to 2015, to determine whether performance has improved or not. according to mmbengwa (2009), it is very important that http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 3 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) small-scale farmers should start taking farming beyond the livelihood level. ultimately, this can improve farm performance, agricultural growth, and the livelihoods of farm beneficiaries. research method the study was anchored on the emancipatory research paradigm to focus on how to farm beneficiaries can be emancipated from poverty and improve their livelihoods by utilizing the restitution farms effectively. the true knowledge in this context lies in the collective meaning-making by the people, which can inform individual and group actions that improve the lives of the people (neuman, 1997). a quantitative approach was used, which concentrates more on percentages, numbers, and statistics of how many than concentrating on in-depth information. hence, a quantitative approach focuses on closed-ended questions during data collection. a questionnaire was used to collect data pertaining to the production performance of the farms from 1995 to 2015, while the observation method using an observation tool was used to observe the day-to-day activities. spss version 25 was used to analyze quantitative data, while transcribing was used to analyze activities of beneficiaries studied through observation. description of study area the study was conducted at waterberg district in limpopo province of south africa. according to statistics south africa (2019), the district covers an area of 44,913 km2, consisting of 4,951,882 hectares. the area falls within the summer rainfall season lasting from november to march, with average rainfall between 600 and 650 mm (waterberg district municipality, 2018). figure 1. map of waterberg district in limpopo province of south africa source: waterberg district municipality, (2018) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 4 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the unemployment rate is higher in the district at 28.1% as compared to 29% of the whole country (statsa, 2019). the district municipality consists of five local municipalities with 79 wards of which only wards where restitution farms are located will be concentrated (waterberg district municipality, 2018). as shown in figure 1, the local municipalities are mogalakwena, modimolle-mookgopong, belabela, thabazimbi and lephalale, and most of the farms are predominantly in mogalakwena and modimolle-mookgophong (waterberg district municipality, 2018). population and sampling methods the study was conducted between july 2016 and june 2017 to gather views from the study participants; that could bring solutions to farm production challenges faced by the farm beneficiaries within the restitution farms in south africa and waterberg district in particular. the target population for the study was 4,409 people who are farm beneficiaries from 32 restitution farms. stratified sampling methods based on convenient and probability type of sampling were used to select 448 respondents. the aim to choose a stratified sampling method was to conveniently study different types of restitution farms and their impact on improving the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries. the 32 restitution farms allocated are differentiated according to the following seven categories: (a) livestock farming, (b) crop farming, (c) game farming, (d) livestock and crop farming, (e) game and livestock farming, (f) game and crop farming as well as (g) game, crop and livestock farming. the aim of using the stratified sampling method was to study the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries who come from the seven different categories of restituted farms. out of the 448 respondents, 64 were executive members of the farms either as chairpersons or secretaries; hence, a chairperson and a secretary from each of the 32 farms formed part of the sampling size; the remaining 384 participants were ordinary farm beneficiaries. that means out of 448 participants; only 289 farm beneficiaries were interviewed, while 159 respondents did not honor the invitation to be interviewed, and other farm beneficiaries failed to participate because they were not available during the date of the study visit. validity and reliability of the study the data collection tools were pre-tested at three selected restitution farms before the data collection process. the farms for pre-testing were selected from three different municipalities, namely, makgae farm in mogalakwena municipality, lethlabile youth farm in mookgophong, and stirum farm in polokwane municipality, capricorn district. the three farms only served as pre-testing stations and were not included in the data collection process. pre-testing of the data collection tools was used to check the validity of the data collection instruments. some flaws were identified and corrected before the actual data collection for the study commenced. some of the flaws identified included spelling, the similarity of questions, and the sequence of the questions. these issues identified during pre-testing were addressed, and the final data collection tool was prepared. the validity and reliability of the study were done for all aspects of the entire thesis. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 5 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) data collection methods the collected data was quantitative data pertaining to the production performance of restitution from 1995 to 2015. a survey was used to collect data from the farm beneficiaries, using a structured questionnaire administered to the study participants on essential issues onfarm production. in addition, the observation method was also used through an observation tool to observe the day-to-day activities of the farm beneficiaries and their impact on farm productivity on the restitution farms. prior to the interviews, initial contact with all the research participants was made telephonically to prepare them for the data collection engagement. specific dates and times for engagement were agreed upon for each farm beneficiary and the associated leaders who participated in the study. before data collection, all participants were reminded that they were free to withdraw from the data collection process if they were not comfortable with the way the study questions were asked. fortunately, all research participants were able to continue until the end of the data collection process because of their interest in the production problems of land reform farms. data analysis method when analyzing data, researchers must ensure that they can do those things they intended to do in the study (de vos, 2002). prior to the actual data analysis, there are certain key preliminaries that should be done to qualify the management of the research data, such as accurate recording of data that was collected from the field and the storage of data thereof. during the recording of data, issues such as the number of completed questionnaires and how many were not completed, as well as valid reasons why some were not completed. after the recording, correcting errors for the collected data were corrected so that the final research report matched with the data collected. furthermore, data verification was conducted to verify all the views provided by the research participants during the research process. data measurement was also done whereby tables were used and for others frequency tables and maps to depict the relationship between land reform farms and their productivity to improve the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries. the statistical package for the social science (spss version 25) was used to analyze the quantitative data to sort by importance the factors that determined the performance or nonperformance of farms. spss was also used to compute descriptive statistics and crosstabulations of the farm beneficiaries within the restitution farms. spss was used to systematically reorganize raw quantitative data on a specifically developed form to analyze and interpret descriptive statistics. transcription of interviews, coding, and computer spreadsheet as data analysis techniques were used to develop correlation and cross-tabulations. it was also used to determine the relationships of certain variables, such as the year in which the farm was restored, the income of the farms, income of the individual beneficiaries, education levels, age of beneficiaries, number of dependents within the beneficiaries’ households, number of years working on the farm, producing frequencies and production percentages. then data collected through non-participatory observation using a checklist was also transcribed to understand discoveries from the farm beneficiaries. some information obtained through the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 6 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research questionnaire survey was analyzed through the remote sensing analysis method using a gis tool to develop plotted maps. added to this, variables that depicted trends in the production performance of the farms were analyzed through the remote sensing method that was used to map the restitution farms and to indicate graphs about their impact on the livelihoods of the restitution farms beneficiaries through the gis techniques. limitations of the analysis method used for the study one of the strengths of a questionnaire is that it is a flexible research tool in collecting quantitative data; however, they sometimes provide incomplete responses or little information due to respondents who do not have sufficient education and knowledge about the farms. nevertheless, this was solved by explaining the questions to respondents using their local language and then writing their responses. further, to complement any missing information, a feedback session was organized to interact with all the participants to respond to some questions that were not answered properly. out of 448 selected participants, 159 failed to participate because they were not available during the date of the study visit; however, more respondents from other restitution farms were interviewed to close the gap. ethical considerations ethics elaborated below were adhered to but not limited to respect, avoiding harm to respondents, confidentiality, avoiding deception during research, security of data storage, and permission to publish the study. any study should highly consider ethics in all research steps, and the researcher should be aware of the range of ethical obligations towards the participants in a research project (seale, 2012). the researcher further secured institutional clearance from the university of venda research ethics committee (uvrec) for permission to conduct the study. the rights of participants to withdraw from the research if they are not comfortable were highlighted to them by the researcher. then all respondents signed an informed consent letter for participating in the study prior to interviews. result and discussions performance of the farms the number of respondents, about 40.1%, strongly agreed that production levels of the farms have declined after the land was restored and given to the new owners. some factors contributing to the decline in production levels of restitution farms were lack of farming skills from the beneficiaries, conflicts, and lack of interest in working on the farms by the beneficiaries. furthermore, about 27% mostly representing youth beneficiaries aged between 26 and 30, and those aged between 31 and 35 agree that the farm's performance declined after land restoration. some 12.5% of farm beneficiaries who were also youth, aged between 20 and 25, remained undecided on whether the production levels declined or increased. some farm beneficiaries were undecided because they did not know the origin and history of the farms and how they obtained the farms (table 1). when they were called onto the farms, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 7 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) beneficiaries were not told about their responsibilities when working on the farms. other beneficiaries who are adults between 36 and 40 also added to the notion that farm performance deteriorated after land restoration. only 10.7% of the respondents strongly disagreed with the notion that they have not seen improvement due to a decline of the production levels of the farms since restoration, while 9.7% disagreed that farms performance has declined. beneficiaries who disagreed with the notion that farm production had declined are mostly elder people aged between 50 years because the elderly people enjoy working at the farms compared to the young people who cannot work at the farms that are not generating any income. above all, those respondents who strongly disagree are those working through the guidance of the farm mentors who always do farming within the restitution farms. table 1. performance of the restitution farms response frequency percentage (%) agree 78 27 strongly agree 116 40.1 undecided 36 12.5 disagree 28 9.7 strongly disagree 31 10.7 total 289 100.0 farm performance and level of education for farm beneficiaries the farmers' level of education is critical in farm performance, particularly for beneficiaries who are given back land through the land reform program. education would assist beneficiaries to easily understand how land or restitution farms can be used to increase production and income in their farms (rozaki, triyono, indardi, salassa, & nugroho, 2020). about 13.5% of the restitution farmers who had grades 1-7, supported by 16.2% of beneficiaries who had grades 8-12, 2.9% graduates, and 1.5% postgraduates agreed that they use the whole farm because of the skills or level of education they have (table 2). an estimated 10.7% who had grades 1-7, 22.7 with grades 8-12 supported by 2.4% graduates and 1.1% postgraduate confirmed using a portion of land. while 9% of farmers who had grades 1-7 and 7.5% of those who had grades 8-12 supported by 1.6% graduates and 0.2 who are postgraduates confirmed that the farms are not being utilized at all because of low level of education (table 2). table 2. cross tabulation on farm performance and farmers level of education farm performance level of education (%) no education grade 1-7 grade 8-12 graduate post-graduate total whole farm 0 13.5 16.2 2.9 1.5 34.1 portion of the farm 4.3 10.7 22.7 2.4 1.1 41.2 farm not utilized 4.4 9.0 9.5 1.6 0. 2 24.7 total 8.7 33.2 48.4 6.9 2.8 100.00 product markets of the restitution farms the map in figure 2 presents the scenario on product markets of the restitution farms. more than 56.0% of the restitution farms’ beneficiaries in waterberg district indicated a lack http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 8 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research of market, as reflected by the red color on the map. most of the farms that lacked market used a land size of between 20 and 300 hectares. they have no market for crops and livestock due to reduced farm production and poor products that could not meet the market demands. about 30.1% represented by the light green color on the map supplied or sold livestock to the local markets. the study revealed out of the 32 farms under study, 5.5% of the farms represented by an amber color on the map had accessed the national markets. however, slightly more than 8.3% of the farms presented in dark green color on the map had accessed the international markets; these were two farms in belabela and lephalale local municipalities that managed to utilize the whole farm with the size between 300 and 600 hectares of land whereby they sold beef, eggs, green beans and butternuts produced from their farms. the same farms are also involved in tourism, and as such, they attract tourists for game farming. figure 2. map indicating markets for the waterberg restitution farm products table 3 and figure 2 present a few restituted farms that supplied the international market. there were four-game farms: belabela cpa, mosima community trust, mabula mosima cpa, and seabi cpa that attracted international tourists who came and camped on some of the farms; consequently, income was generated and invested into the farm. during data collection, it was also discovered that restitution farms do not have a marketing strategy and officers to advise the beneficiaries on the product, prices, and places to sell products after harvesting. it was also difficult for the farmers to plan for the market, whereas the farms were not producing quality products. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 9 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) table 3. product markets of community property associations in waterberg district from 1995 until 2015 type of market frequency percentage (%) local market 87 30.1 national market 16 5.5 international market 24 8.3 no any market 162 56.0 total 289 100.0 product markets and education of restitution farm beneficiaries’ relationship table 4 presents the cross tabulation for access to market by the restitution farms based on the level of education of the farm beneficiaries. among the 56.0% of the farm beneficiaries who confirmed lack of market for the farm products, 46.9% of them are for the beneficiaries who have grades 8-12, while 34.0% are for the beneficiaries with grade 1-7 who are in majority. the majority of beneficiaries who also confirmed accessing international and national market are those with grade 8-12 followed by those with grade 1-7. the reason behind this confirmation was that the beneficiaries under those two categories of grades normally depend upon farming activities to survive, then graduates who depend upon other professional jobs rather than agriculture. the above scenario is supported by the low percentages of responses from the graduates and post-graduates. about 6.9 % of graduates and 2.8 % post-graduates responded as compared to 48. 1 % of those who have grade 8-12 and 33.2 % of beneficiaries with grade 1-7. there was no association between product market and education of respondents (ᵡ2 = 15.61 p> 0.05). most beneficiaries who have little education such as grade 1-7 and 8-12, who do not know much about farming, try to take initiatives to participate in farming matters. while beneficiaries who are highly educated as graduates and postgraduates, do not view farming as an important activity, because they rely on their education to access other job opportunities than farming. table 4. cross tabulation for product markets and level of education of farm beneficiaries product market level of education total no education grade 1-7 grade 8-12 graduate post-graduate local market 7 (8.0%) 32 (36.8%) 39 (45.9%) 5 (5.7%) 3 (3.4%) 88 (100%) national market 3 (18.8%) 5 (31.3%) 7 (43.8%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (6.3%) 16 (100%) international market 0 (0.0%) 4 (16.7%) 17 (70.8%) 3 (12.5%) 0 (0.0%) 24 (100%) we do not have market 15 (9.3%) 55 (34.0%) 76 (46.9%) 12 (7.4%) 4 (2.5%) 162 (100%) total 25 (8.7%) 96 (33.2%) 139 (49.2%) 20 (6.9%) 8 (2.8%) 289 (100%) income trends for the restitution farms the majority (64%) of the restitution farms were not generating income. the red color on the income map (figure 3) indicates no income. the study confirmed that the majority of farm beneficiaries (64%) do not generate income and cited reasons such as lack of production and funds to operate the farms. another reason given was that some members are not committed to working on the farm. about 21.7% of farm beneficiaries indicated that their farms represented by the color orange generated between zar1,000 zar20,000 (us$ 83.75 – 1,675.04 @ 1 usd= 11-94 zar) while 3.8% confirmed that their farms generated zar http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 10 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 50,000zar 100,000 (us$ 4,187.60 – 8,375.20 @ 1 usd= 11-94 zar) per month represented by the light green color (figure 3). figure 3. map showing the income trend for the restitution farms in waterberg district wages of farm beneficiaries almost all 84.6% farm beneficiaries from the 32 restitution farms have not benefitted from the restitution farms as represented by the color red on the map (figure 4). about 10.7% farm beneficiaries on two farms, mawela farm in belabela local municipality and dilokwaneng community property association (cpa) in thabazimbi local municipality confirmed receiving zar100zar1,000 (us$ 8. 37 – 83.75 @ 1usd= 11-94 zar) per month as represented by the color orange on the map. about 5% confirmed that only farm beneficiaries, represented by light green color; figure 3.4, from one farm called belabela cpa in belabela local municipality received wages between zar1,001 and zar 5,000 (us$ 83. 83 – 418. 76 @ 1usd= 11.94 zar) (table 5). the same results are also indicated in the map (figure 3 and 4). this farm is one of the examples of the restitution farms that has performed satisfactorily and is able to provide a better standard of living to the beneficiaries in waterberg district. table 5. wages of farm beneficiaries from 1995 until 2015 wages in rand (zar) income in us dollars (usd) @ 1usd= 11.94 zar exchange rate frequency percentage (%) nothing none 245 84.6 zar100zar1,000 usd 8. 37 – usd 83.75 31 10.7 zar1,001zar5,000 usd 83. 83 – usd 418. 76 13 4.5 total 289 100.0 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 11 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) figure 4. map for wages of farm beneficiaries per restitution farm in waterberg district the standard of living of restitution farm beneficiaries usually, unplanned changes in farms production that show declined production, decreased farm income, lead to minimal benefits for the restitution farms’ beneficiaries. hence, the majority of the farm beneficiaries have not received benefits as was expected by the government. the benefits that were expected from the restitution farms were not possible due to unproductive farms. about 68.8 % of the farm beneficiaries who received farms between 2005 and 2009 strongly agreed to the notion that their standard of living has not improved. about 20.4 % of the farm beneficiaries agreed that standard of living has not changed, while 7.3 % of the farm beneficiaries strongly disagreed, and 1.0 % disagreed that their standard of living has changed. a few famers (2.4%) remained undecided whether their lives had improved or not (table 6). table 6. the standard of living for restitution farmers response frequency percentage (%) agree 59 20.4 strongly agree 199 68.8 undecided 7 2.4 disagree 3 1.0 strongly disagree 21 7.3 total 289 100.0 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 12 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research discussions regarding the performance of the restitution farms in waterberg district, the majority of farm beneficiaries confirmed that their farms have performed poorly and have failed to generate sufficient income to improve livelihoods of the beneficiaries. the beneficiaries also agreed that farm production has declined after land was restored to the black owners. most of the farm beneficiaries who are mostly youth aged between 20 and 35 as well as farm beneficiaries who were adults between 36 and 40 also added to the notion that farm performance deteriorated after land restoration. the other reason why farm performance deteriorated is that many young people do not have interest to work in the farms. most of them want white-collar jobs like working in the offices than in farming. in support of the above statement, rozaki, (2020b) says that food production in indonesia is very difficult because most farmers are old people who experience difficulties in using technology to increase production in the farms. furthermore, manenzhe, zwane, & van niekerk, (2016) stated that 73 % of the restitution farms in south africa have become unproductive after being owned by black farmers because of inexperienced farming. although production of some farms improved, the overall trend shows deterioration in performance (kirsten, machethe, ndlovu, & lubambo, 2016). moreover, the value chain was not available for the restitution farmers to take their products to the good market. the only value chain available was for the commercial farmers who are already well established. this contributed to insufficient or no income in the restitution farms. poor performance of the land reformed farms was also experienced in uganda where the government implemented an agricultural sector program support (asps). the asps focused on poverty reduction and household food security (the world bank, 2004). these asps targeted the agricultural sector in a broad sense to provide the livelihoods of small-scale farmers through increased production levels, in the rural areas (the world bank, 2004). they also focused on gender mainstreaming, livestock research, and supporting farmers’ organizations with financial assistance however, the program has not yielded good results as anticipated by the government (the world bank, 2004). it is crucial that the productive capacity of the land is not compromised by the production systems it supports because both rural subsistence security and poverty reduction depend on the utilization of land. improving agricultural productivity in the african countries including waterberg district in south africa is not a new phenomenon (rantšo & seboka, 2019). during the colonial era, the government of south africa has implemented many agricultural projects to maximize productivity in the land reform farms to alleviate poverty and improve food security in the country. however, the level of education of the restitution farm beneficiaries plays a very critical role in farm performance, in particular for beneficiaries who received land through the process of land reform program. however, the majority of those farmers who have higher levels of education managed to use the whole farm others used a portion because of better levels of education they had that contributed to their understanding in land matters. most of the farms that were not utilized at all, most of the beneficiaries had low levels of education which made them not to know how to do farming. the study findings indicated http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 13 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) that farm beneficiaries try to take initiatives to participate in farming matters in order to improve farm production but with no positive results. the similar findings on the level of education and farming production were revealed by rantšo & seboka, (2019) on people participating in block farming in lesotho. according to the study by rantšo & seboka, (2019), it is confirmed that low agricultural productivity in lesotho is associated with lack of farming skills because of low educational background. the main reason behind this notion is that when agriculture is practiced by people with low levels of education, productivity is affected because they are not in a position to do research on modern farming practices and techniques (rantšo & seboka, 2019). the notion by rantso & seboka is supported by (hoang, 2020) that farmers with higher education had a greater tendency to adopt vietgap. in the study conducted in binh dinh province, (hoang, 2020) revealed young farmers with higher education and participated in credit and training programs were in better position than older and less educated farmers to adopt vietgap. this trend of low education among the farm beneficiaries, who are not producing adequately within their farms, is occurring in many countries where farming is regarded as the main contributor towards job creation and food security (peleo, 2018; rozaki, 2020a; winarno, 2016). ultimately, education would assist beneficiaries to easily understand how land or restitution farms can be used to increase production and income into their farms. market access is of critical importance in addressing poverty, sustainable development and poor livelihoods of people in the rural areas (mabuza, 2016). market trend of the restitution farms indicated that most of the farms do not have good markets for their products due to poor production of the farms. the main reason identified was that the majority of the farm beneficiaries lack innovative farming skills to deal with production in the restitution farms (mabuza, 2016). none of the 32 farms accessed national market and only four farms managed to supply the international market by receiving tourists and selling of red meat. it is imperative that restitution farms should have markets for their products. if increases in productive efficiency are matched with good market access, particularly where agriculture remains an important economic sector, then a large number of small farms will provide a greater contribution to economic growth than a small number of large farms (quan, 2000). added to this, improved access to input and output markets is a key precondition for the transformation of the agricultural sector from subsistence to commercial production (salami, kamara, & brixiova, 2010). according to the author, smallholder farmers must be able to benefit more from efficient markets and local-level value-addition and be more exposed to competition. in the 32 restitution farms under the study, the majority of the farm beneficiaries said that they have not benefitted from the farms. for instance, china, the far east and throughout west africa, small farmers supplied international market with cash crops such as cocoa and cotton, vegetables, staple foods and meat for urban market, that has contributed to agricultural growth (quan, 2000). career, technical and agricultural education (ctae), however, is facing the problem of low-quality raw material in benin. the bags of soya delivered by the traders to the market of glazoué often contained chaff, sand and not fully dry grains that turned black http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 14 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (dossou, aoudji, & adégbidi, 2017). the poor quality of the raw material not only affected the quality of the processed products ctae was putting on the market, but it also reduced the cooperative’s turnover while also damaging its equipment. with such a poor supply base, buyers have little control over the product they end up with (dossou et al., 2017). on the other hand, (rao & qaim, 2013) emphasize that the participation of farmers in the high value market is very important because it will increase income in the farms, this include farms that are allocated through land reform program. however, majority of the land reform farms do not participate in the high value market in south africa. once the turnover is reduced, benefits of the farm beneficiaries including livelihoods would not be adversely affected. according to luwanda & stevens, (2015), marketing availability and challenges were also experienced by community based rural land development project (cbrldp) farm beneficiaries in malawi. this was because the production inputs were only facilitated to bring out quantity not quality of produce, forgetting that products should meet certain standards at the market to have profitable margins (luwanda & stevens, 2015). the majority of the farm beneficiaries (84.2 %) in the cbrldp confirmed that marketing of agricultural produce was a major challenge. the authors further said that beneficiaries lack access to knowledge support and agricultural inputs, hence, the marketing challenges implied that few land settlement beneficiaries were involved in the cbrldp, and who consequently progressed into sustainable enterprises (luwanda & stevens, 2015). the majority of the farm beneficiaries in malawi, therefore, have not benefitted from the project. in tanzania, services generally focused on increasing production through short-term technical packages, without paying attention to farmers’ circumstances, markets, and sustainability (salami et al., 2010). between 2013 and 2015, the number of producers linked to ctae increased from 192 to 236, and local production from 82 to 228 tons because of the stronger business links. the producers’ commitment motivated ctae to deliver documents to them serving as a guarantee for obtaining a loan from micro-finance institutions (dossou et al., 2017). according to tshuma, (2013), smallholder farmers require information on current prices, forecast of market trends to assist farmers in planning markets for their products. this is in support of the advice given to farmers in the current study by the extension’s officers. as elsewhere in africa, institutions responsible for agricultural development need to be strengthened, with an emphasis on well-functioning markets and risk management (fao, 2009). support services or complementary development support should include assistance with productive and sustainable use of land, infrastructure, support, farm credit, agricultural inputs and access to markets for the farm outputs (luwanda & stevens, 2015). additionally, ozowa, (1995) asserted that information on improved marketing practices, such as improved harvesting methods, and information on group marketing would enable small-scale farmers to group themselves. out of the groups, farmers would have efficient sales through surplus and bulk transport of their products, however, in the waterberg district, most of the restitution farms were not utilized; out of 32 farms only two farms situated in belabela local municipality were successful. grouping of the farms for marketing http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 15 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) could not happen with two farms that are producing different products, although one similar activity that the two farms are doing is livestock, such as cattle. income from the restitution farms serves as one of the indicators for success, thus, agricultural productivity is one of the key determinants of high and sustained agricultural growth, and in fact a key determinant of its growth over a longer term (salami et al., 2010). the current study, however, revealed that most of the farms have not generated any income during the study visit because of lack of production, lack of commitment by the farm beneficiaries, lack of funds and resources; less than five from the thirty-two restitution farms in waterberg district has performed well. this trend of lack of production of the restitution farms has been ongoing from 1995 until 2015, hence most of the farm beneficiaries abandoned the farms and looked for the alternative jobs to get a stable income. these findings clearly show that something needs to be done to assist these farm beneficiaries. binswangermkhize, (2014) support the current study that there are few cpas and production cooperatives that operate successfully in farming. at least half of farms have not produced any benefits for the beneficiaries; apart from rental income, which is set well below the market rate, therefore it was not benefiting the farm beneficiaries. the main benefit to the community was in the form of profit-sharing that is not significant to the farm beneficiaries at all. in limpopo province, there is an example of a commercial farm, zebediela citrus farm. this citrus farm has been widely described as the largest citrus producer in the southern hemisphere and it has led to the establishment of a strategic partnership between the bjatladi community property association (cpa), the claimant, the current owner of the 5,903-ha property, the zebediela workers’ trust, and a strategic partner called henley farm properties (pty) ltd (hall, 2007). these three entities comprise of the operating company, in which bjatladi cpa owns 30 % of shares, while the other partners, the workers’ trust and the strategic partner own 15 and 55%, respectively. only the strategic partner was required to buy shares; the agriculture rural development corporation (ardc) transferred shares to the others. in terms of the restitution settlement agreement, the strategic partner will transfer 1% of the total shares to the bjatladi cpa each year for five years, until it owns only 50% and the cpa has 35 % (hall, 2007). the land was transferred with title to the claimant community but, as part of the settlement agreement, was subject to a 15-year lease agreement with a rental set at r1 million per annum. when the 15-year lease expires, the strategic partner was to transfer all its shares to the cpa. while ensuring a source of cash income for the cpa, this agreement precludes other potential non-financial benefits that might have been gained through direct use of the land by members of the claimant community. another example was the groenfontein case study which demonstrated an absence of post-transfer support and pre settlement planning, which led to the failure of the project in the first three years after settlement. the farm has not improved the livelihood of any claimant. instead, claimants pursued the lowest risk option of leasing out their land, first to the former owner, and later to a small group of its betteroff members to bringing about a small income stream to the trust, however, there are no tangible benefit for claimants (hall, 2007). this assertion was also noticed in the current study. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 16 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the study further revealed that most of the farms were not able to pay wages for their farm beneficiaries because of the poor income that the farms received. the majority of beneficiaries have not received any material benefit from the restitution farms (drdlr, 2017). matukane, (2011) added that, most of the farm beneficiaries across all the restitution projects have received no material benefit whatsoever from restitution, whether in the form of cash income or access to land. many have not moved onto the land, either because they are restricted from doing so, as in the case of leasing out of land or a result of delayed land-use plans or strategic partnerships that were not forthcoming post-transfer, as support to the new farmers. another example is the situation with the shigalo beneficiaries. only a small subgroup of community members have benefited through access to employment, as part of the benefits, instead of the entire community (matukane, 2011). generally, farm beneficiaries at waterberg district have not realized changes in their livelihoods while they have ownership of the land. many authors like jacobs, (2003) have argued that land reform beneficiaries should be able to improve their livelihoods to address some challenges that torment rural areas such as high unemployment, lack of income and poverty. however, the majority of the restitution farms in waterberg district in south africa were not productive, and this affected the socioeconomic status of the farm beneficiaries. moreover, even the benefits that were supposed to be received by the beneficiaries of the restitution farms were not realized due to unproductive farms. more poverty and lack of income among the beneficiaries were very high since the above two aspects depend upon the improved farm production. hence, most of the farm beneficiaries opted to concentrate on off-farm activities than practicing farming that does not bare fruits for them in terms of uplifting their standard of living in their households. policy implications the study findings have significant implications for policy makers or policy reviewers who are involved in land reform issues, to change or amend land reform policies to ensure that restitution farms are utilized efficiently and effectively by the farm beneficiaries to improve farm production in waterberg district in south africa to improve livelihoods of the beneficiaries. furthermore, the study contributed to the advancement of the vision 2030 of the national development plan (ndp), by developing an intervention strategy on land restitution that would ensures farm beneficiaries participate fully in the economic and social life of the south african country, africa and beyond (national development plan, 2012; (tjale, 2019). conclusion from 1995 to 2015, most of the restitution farms lacked market for their products due to poor production and lack of funds to manage the farms, therefore, beneficiaries should be provided with innovative farming skills such as conventional farming that would improve quality products in the restitution farms. if quality products are produced at the farms, products demand would increase; lack of quality products has caused beneficiaries not to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 17 production performance among the ….. (tjale, mwale, and kilonzo) receive any benefits in the form of income or employment. out of 32 farms understudy, only three accessed local market, while two of them in belabela area managed to access international market, as the farms attracted tourists from other countries. generally, the farms have not made any changes to the farmers’ livelihoods in the waterberg district. it is therefore recommended that both the government and private sectors should support restitution farmers through production, marketing strategies and capacitation for improved productivity and attraction of markets. furthermore, restitution farms should have marketing officers on each farm to assist in advising beneficiaries on how to produce quality products that are in high demand at the market and improve market access. when farm production is improved, there would be sufficient income coming into the farms that could create more job opportunities to benefit the farm beneficiaries who work on the farms. these findings have created an opportunity to introduce the next chapter which concentrates on the satisfaction of the restitution farms’ beneficiaries with performance of the farms in waterberg district. authors contributions: mmt: conceptualized the idea, collected data, analyzed data, wrote the manuscript and addressed review comments; mm: conceptualized the idea, guided and supervised data collection and analysis, reviewed and edited the manuscript; bmk: supervised data collection and reviewed the manuscript. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest on the article. reference binswanger-mkhize, h. p. 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(2017). processing of local agricultural products to meet urban demand: lessons from soybean cheese consumption analysis in southern benin. african journal of marketing management, 9(8), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajmm2017.0541 gray, e. m., oss-emer, m., & sheng, y. (2014). australian agricultural productivity growth: past reforms and future opportunities. canbera: abares research report 14.2. hall, r. (2007). the impact of land restitution and land reform on livelihoods (no. programme for land and agrarian studies research report no. 32). cape town. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 18 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research hoang, g. h. (2020). adoption of good agricultural practices by cattle farmers in the binh dinh province of vietnam. journal of agricultural extension, 24(4), 151–160. https://doi.org/10.4314/jae.v24i4.15 jacobs, p. 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(2001). the role of land-based strategies in rural livelihoods: the contribution of arable production, animal husbandry and natural resource harvesting in communal areas in south africa. development southern africa, 18(5), 581–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/03768350120097441 statistics south africa. (2019). statistics south africa annual report 2018/2019. pretoria. retrieved from http://www.statssa.gov.za/?page_id-3839 the world bank. (2004). world development report: making services work for poor people. washington dc. retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/5986/wdr 2004 english.pdf tjale, m. m. (2019). intervention strategy to improve livelihoods of restituted farms beneficiaries in waterberg district of limpopo province, south africa (university of venda). university of venda. retrieved from https://univendspace.univen.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11602/1294/thesis tjale%2c m. m.-.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y tshuma, m. c. (2013). an investigation of skills, knowledge and farmer support programmes of land reform beneficiaries :a case study of forest hill farmers in kenton-on-sea in the ndlambe local municipality (university of fort hare). university of fort hare. retrieved from http://www.secheresse.info/spip.php?article46011 waterberg district municipality. (2018). waterberg district municipality draft 2017/18 idp. modimolle. retrieved from http://www.waterberg.gov.za/docs/plans/draft 2017-18 idp.pdf winarno, b. (2016). neoliberal policy of indonesia’s agricultural revitalization. jurnal hubungan internasional, 5(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.18196/hi.2016.0083.30-39 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 1 january – june 2022, pages: 106-122 article history: submitted : july 18th, 2021 revised : may 30th, 2022 may 3rd, 2022 accepted : june 3rd, 2022 hamidatul khofifah*, tri wahyu nugroho, sujarwo department of agricultural socio-economics, faculty of agriculture, brawijaya university, veteran street 65145, malang city, indonesia *) correspondence email: hamidatul_k@student.ub.ac.id price volatility of ornamental plants in batu municipality doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12342 abstract the imbalance between supply and demand of ornamental plants in the market cause fluctuations that lead to price volatility. this study aimed to analyze the price volatility of ornamental plants with high economic value, such as orchids, adenium, aglaonema, anthurium, and palm. this study also analyzed the longterm and short-term relationship between the production and prices of these ornamental plants. the data used were the productions and prices of orchid, adenium, aglaonema, anthurium, and palm at the producer level from 2012 to 2020 obtained from the agriculture office of batu municipality. volatility analysis was carried out using the arch/garch method, the long-term relationship was analyzed using the johansen cointegration test, and the shortterm relationship was carried out using the error correction model. the results of volatility analysis showed that all the ornamental plants studied had low price volatility. in addition, the productions and prices of the ornamental plants were cointegrated in the long run, but only the orchid had a short-term relationship with an adjustment period of 2.6 months. keywords: arch/garch; cointegration; ecm; ornamental plants; price volatility introduction macroeconomically, the horticulture subsector ranks fourth in contributing to indonesia's agricultural sector's gross domestic product (gdp). according to bps-statistics indonesia (2020), the gdp value of the horticulture subsector was idr 33.7 trillion in the fourth quarter of 2019. this value increased in the second quarter of 2020 to idr 42.9 trillion, with a growth rate of 21.75%. java island has a total agricultural sector’s gross regional product (grdp) of 35.20%, the second largest of 34 provinces in indonesia. the largest contributor to the grdp of the agricultural sector on the island of java is east java. the horticulture sub-sector is in the fourth position with a contribution of 14.97% in 2015 and has decreased to 13.67% in 2019. due to the increase in the contribution value of the horticulture sub-sector, it is necessary to increase the horticulture production balanced with the amount of demand. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:hamidatul_k@student.ub.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i1.12342 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 107 price volatility of ornamental plant….. (khofifah, nugroho, and sujarwo) nowadays, ornamental plant agribusiness in indonesia is relatively developing. ornamental plants are horticultural sub-sector plants with aesthetic value in form, crown, leaves, color, scent, and flowers. the development of ornamental plant agribusiness is marked by the increasing production trends in ornamental plant cultivation (gonzález-gómez and marrero, 2009). this development is inseparable from the demands of the beauty of the environment, people’s lifestyles, the development of the agro-tourism sector, hotels, housing, offices, and increased community income. the increasingly varied use of ornamental plants, accompanied by increasing demand, has become a business opportunity and stimulus for producers to develop ornamental plant businesses. batu municipality is one of the suitable ornamental plant business areas. in east java, batu municipality is known as a center for ornamental plant production (manurung, 2011). there are 22 types of ornamental plants cultivated in batu municipality, such as roses, chrysanthemums, orchids, flower anthurium, aglaonema, anthurium, adenium, palm, and so on. these ornamental plants are generally used to redecorate both indoor and outdoor environments. orchids, adenium, aglaonema, anthurium, and palm are high economic value ornamental plants. these five types of ornamental plants are the top ten highest productions in batu municipality (badan pusat statistik kota batu, 2020). this implies that ornamental plant farmers in batu municipality have developed their businesses. on the producer side, these types of ornamental plants were prospective businesses when coupled with an increase in demand in quantity and quality. the increase in demand for ornamental plants usually occurs during particular events such as religious events, decorations, weddings, birth, deaths, and trends (suminah et al., 2021). one of the important concerns in floriculture agribusiness is the distribution or marketing patterns that impact the farmers. this problem is critical because it involves the sustainability of the farm business (suminah et al., 2021). distribution problems are closely related to the inefficiency of marketing chain from producers to consumers, which involves marketing actors. the price indicator can evaluate the problems in the efficiency of the marketing chain. price is an important indicator in measuring marketing efficiency because it can show the market information that is publicly available (assaf et al., 2021). price fluctuations characterize an inefficient marketing system. price fluctuations in horticultural commodities will be more detrimental to farmers. this condition is caused by the farmers’ inability to manage their time to sell their products for more profit (khan et al., 2022). price fluctuations cause uncertainty in farming revenue and indicate instability of market equilibrium. besanko and braeutigam (2014) explain that market equilibrium occurs when the amount offered is the same as the amount demanded. there is a difference between the actual conditions in the field and the theory statement. the actual conditions in the field often indicate instability in the supply and demand for ornamental plants. disturbances in the demand and supply transmit into price variability and cause price fluctuations. based on data from the agriculture office of batu municipality, the production of ornamental plants in batu municipality tends to be unstable. the increase and decrease in production cannot be separated from the agro-climate condition, cultivation technology, and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 108 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research harvest area. meanwhile, the demand for ornamental plants is difficult to predict because it is only based on demands for hobbies and decorations (suminah et al., 2021). this condition causes the demand for ornamental plants to differ from food. the increase in demand for ornamental plants can occur in line with the rise in the tourism sector, public appreciation of freshness and beauty, flower arrangement services, decoration services, and others (manurung, 2011). in contrast, the decrease in demand for ornamental plants can be caused by producers’ inability to maintain the continuity of qualified plant supplies. the price of ornamental plants in batu municipality from 2012 to 2020 tends to be unstable, according to the batu municipality agriculture office. the unstable condition of ornamental plant prices can be seen in figures 1a to j. the instability of ornamental plant prices impacts price volatility and causes higher uncertainty prices in the future. farmers also face a risk of uncertain income in the short and long term (jin et al., 2021). the ornamental plants' price fluctuation effect farmers' business. producers make a higher profit when prices increase. meanwhile, when prices decrease, producers take a lower profit or even a loss. considering the ornamental plant farming is a profit-oriented business (gonzález-gómez and marrero, 2009), it is important to investigate the price volatility of ornamental plants for price certainty. based on previous research, the fundamental difference with this research is the object under study. previous research on the price volatility of agricultural commodities was primarily aimed at analyzing price fluctuations for food crops (taghizadeh-hesary et al., 2019), vegetables (muflikh et al., 2021), and meat (hui-shang et al., 2021). this study enriches the knowledge of the price behavior of the ornamental plant. ornamental plants have various types and features (zheng et al., 2021) whose demand characteristics differ from groceries and depend on consumers’ likelihood which causes price fluctuation. based on this research, it can be seen how much price volatility of ornamental plants is widely circulated in the market. so, it can be a signal for producers to pay more attention to the availability of plants, referring to the trend of ornamental plants. the aims of this study were (1) to analyze producers’ price volatility of the ornamental plants, (2) to analyze both the long-term and short-term relationship between the price and production of ornamental plants in batu municipality. research method the location was determined to batu municipality as a city with high levels of ornamental plant production based on central bureau of statistics in 2019. batu municipality is one of the cities in east java, known as one of the centers of horticulture, especially ornamental plants (manurung, 2011; puspitasari et al., 2019; agustina et al., 2019). this research was conducted from april to may 2021. the data covered quarterly production and farm gate price of orchid, adenium, aglaonema, anthurium, and palm in batu municipality from 2012 to 2020. an arch-garch model was applied to analyze price volatility with the eviews 11 due to heteroscedasticity in the data. the johansen cointegration test was used to analyze the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 109 price volatility of ornamental plant….. (khofifah, nugroho, and sujarwo) long-term relationship between price and production of ornamental plants. meanwhile, the short-term relationship between price and ornamental plant production was analyzed using the error correction model (ecm) test method. price volatility analysis before analyzing price volatility using the argh/garch method, several steps must be taken. the steps were stationarity test, arima model selection, heteroskedasticity test, and arch effect, then arch/garch modeling. stationarity test gujarati (2011) explains that stationarity must be considered using time series data. the results of the stationarity test on the variable producer prices for all ornamental plants were stationary with different test levels using an intercept without a trend or with a trend. price data for orchid, adenium, anthurium, and palm have been stationary at the first difference level, and aglaonema price data were stationary at the second difference level. the stationarity test was carried out at the level of difference because the data was not stationary at the level. time series data that are not stationary at the level must be stationary through differencing (moledina et al., 2003). the t-statistic value of each ornamental plant price was greater than the critical value, which was at the 5% significance level in absolute terms or stationery at the 95% confidence level. arima model selection the arima model was chosen due to the data was stationary after the differencing process. selection of the best arima model was based on the f-statistic probability value, which was significant or close to zero, and the smallest akaike info criterion (aic) and schwarz criterion (sc) values. the arima order was determined based on the collerogram (acf and pacf patterns) to determine the ar and ma order. the best arima model was arima (3,1,1) for orchid, arima (3,1,3) for adenium, and arima (1,2,1) for aglaonema, which was significant at 95%. there was also the best arima model, namely arima (0,1,2) of anthurium at 90% significance level and arima (0,1,3) of palm at 85%significancy level. volatility analysis is applied arima model if the model is indeed good to use. the value of volatility is known through the sum of the ar and ma coefficients (piot-lepetit and m’barek, 2011). the arima equation was formed like equation 1. yt = μ + σpi=0 φiyt – i + σqj=0 θjεt – j + εt (1) where μ was mean, q was lagged error terms, p was lagged dependent variables, φ and θ were coefficients of ar and ma, εj was residual random with constant variants (white noise), and t–i, t-j was lag of a certain period. heteroskedasticity test and arch effect the white heteroscedasticity test was implied to examine the constant variance of data (wooldridge, 2013). the heteroscedasticity test results of the arima model of all ornamental http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 110 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research plants showed a probability value of 0.0000. it means the arima model of all plants rejected the h0 and showed a non-constant variant. meanwhile, the arch effect test was used to determine whether the arima model can be continued to the arch/garch analysis or not. the arch effect test was done by looking at the kurtosis value in the data. orchid price data had a kurtosis value of 1.869792, and palm had a kurtosis value of 1.918247. meanwhile, the value of kurtosis adenium was 14.52981, aglaonema was 3.097657, and anthurium was 14.65109. it means the price data for adenium, aglaonema, and anthurium had an arch effect. on the other hand, the price data for orchids and palms did not have an arch effect, so it was enough to analyze the volatility using the arima model. data with a kurtosis value of more than 3 indicates the data is heteroscedastic and has an arch effect, so arch/garch modeling can be done (puspitasari et al., 2019). arch/garch modeling the selection of the arch/garch model was based on the smallest aic and sc values, and the coefficient was not more than 1. the smallest aic and sc value is a criterion commonly used to determine the best model and widely used in the literature (lin, 2018). the arch and garch equations in this study were showed in equation 2 until 6: σ2pot = α0 + α1ε2pot-1 + β1σ2pot-1 + εt (2) σ2pat = α0 + α1ε2pat-1 + β1σ2pat-1 + εt (3) σ2pgt = α0 + α1ε2pgt-1 + β1σ2pgt-1 + εt (4) σ2pnt = α0 + α1ε2pnt-1 + β1σ2pnt-1 + εt (5) σ2ppt = α0 + α1ε2ppt-1 + β1σ2ppt-1 + εt (6) σ2 was a variation of residuals at the t-period and σ2t-1 for residuals from the previous period, α0 was constant, ε2t-1 was the volatility of the previous period (t-1), α1 and β1 were estimated parameters. pot-1, pat-1, pgt-1, pnt-1, and ppt-1 were producer prices in the previous period for orchid (idr/stalk), adenium (idr/pot), aglaonema (idr/pot), anthurium (idr/pot), and palm (idr/tree). the last, εt was a stochastic factor. in this study, the best arch/garch model for adenium was garch (1,1), for aglaonema was arch (1,0), and garch (0,1) for anthurium. piot-lepetit and m’barek (2011) explains that the value of volatility can be known through the sum of the arch (α) and garch (β) coefficients. if α+β < 1, it means that the price had low volatility. if α+β = 1, then it was classified as high volatility. while the result of α+β > 1, the price was indicated to have extremely high volatility. cointegration analysis the johansen cointegration test analysis is a strong procedure in the case of heteroscedasticity (kühl, 2010). on the other hand, this test was also applied considering using time-series data in this study. the johansen cointegration test uses the maximum likelihood (ml) method. the ml parameter estimation method is a consistent, symmetrically distributed, and unbiased median (cheung and lai, 1993). the steps taken in the johansen http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 111 price volatility of ornamental plant….. (khofifah, nugroho, and sujarwo) cointegration test were stationarity test, determination of optimal lag length, and cointegration test. stationarity test generally, the johansen cointegration test was carried out on non-stationary time-series data. the data on prices for all ornamental plants were stationary at different levels. similar to the price data, the production variables were stationary at the first difference level using an intercept both without or within a trend. in absolute terms, the t-statistic value of each ornamental plant production was greater than the critical value at the 5% significance level. determination of optimal lag length determining the optimal lag length is very important in cointegration tests. the optimal lag length (neither too long nor too short) allows us to retain sufficient and relevant information (kacou et al., 2022). the optimal lag length was determined based on the smallest aic and sc values and the largest likelihood ratio (lr) value indicated by a sign (*) in eviews. table 1. optimal lag length of ornamental plant prices and productions data price and production data aic sc lr optimal lag orchid 45.27332 45.95076 12.48137 3 adenium 37.22442 38.51115 10.85141 5 aglaonema 42.47844 43.34943 10.95761 4 anthurium 42.18463 42.47259 22.35792 1 palm 38.89486 40.54006 10.48536 8 table 1 shows differences in the optimal lag length of each ornamental plant data. it meant that production and price data from orchid, adenium, aglaonema, anthurium, and palm had different degrees of freedom and lags. cointegration test johansen’s cointegration test assumed that there was no interception and trend in the trend deterministic assumption test. this assumption is based on the aic and sc values indicated by the sign (*) in the eviews. the cointegration analysis between production data and ornamental plant prices was determined based on the trace statistic and maximum eigenvalue. the addition of the maximum eigenvalue can be used as a correction for the estimated number of parameters (mandala and kim, 1999) because, in many cases, the use of trace statistics tends always to indicate cointegration, so it must be confirmed using maximum eigenvalue (onatski and wang, 2019). if the value of the trace statistic and maximum eigenvalue is less than the critical value with a probability value above 5%, there is no cointegration between the two variables. meanwhile, suppose the value of the trace statistic and maximum eigenvalue is greater than the critical value with a probability value of less than 5%. in that case, two variables were cointegrated. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 112 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research error correction model analysis the ecm test was carried out since two time series variables had a long-term relationship or were cointegrated. according to gujarati (2011), two time series variables with a long-term equilibrium might also have a short-term equilibrium. the ecm equation was formulated in equation 7. ∆yt = α + b0xt + b1ect-1 + εt (7) yt and xt were, respectively the price and production of ornamental plants at the t-period, α was constant, b0 and b1 were estimated parameters, ect-1 was error correction term, and εt was stochastic factor. the ecm model was considered valid if the probability of ect-1 was less than the 5% significance level. that was, the production variable and the price of ornamental plants have a short-term balance. in order to achieve a short-term balance in the market, it takes time to adjust (poplavskaya et al., 2021). the adjustment time can be determined by dividing one year by the ect-1 coefficient, which will later be obtained when the adjustment period is in months. result and discussions trend of productions and prices of ornamental plants in batu municipality orchid production from 2012 to 2020 fluctuated but was generally increasing, as shown in figure 1a. the lowest orchid production occurred in the 4th quarter of 2014, which was 420,910 stalks. meanwhile, based on figure 1b, the price of orchids fluctuated. the lowest price was idr 23,333, and the highest was idr 13,300 per stalk. the average orchid price was idr 17,475 per stalk. fluctuations in agricultural product prices were caused by the output that depends on natural and human factors, land, time lags in using inputs, and market structure (xie and wang, 2017). the adenium production seems to fluctuate with a downward trend, as shown in figure 1c. the largest production occurred in the 3rd quarter of 2013, coming to 4,435 pots and the lowest production occurred in the 3rd quarter of 2016, where no adenium was produced. in figure 1d, the highest price of adenium occurred in the 3rd quarter of 2020. this increasing price is related to lockdown and quarantine policy to suppress the spread of covid-19; thus, a trend of ornamental plant cultivation emerged in the community. the trend increased the demand for ornamental plants, but farmers’ production, especially adenium, did not respond positively to it. the imbalance between supply and demand was caused by a decrease in the quarterly production of adenium to 352 pots in the second quarter of 2020 compared to the previous year. when the production does not respond to an increase in demand, the prices will increase (deng et al., 2021). the production of aglaonema fluctuated from 27,000 pots to approximately 57,000 pots, as shown in figure 1e. a significant increase in production occurred in the 1st quarter of 2015, which was also the highest production. during the last nine years, aglaonema production has decreased at a negative rate of -3.33 percent per quarter. meanwhile, figure 1f http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 113 price volatility of ornamental plant….. (khofifah, nugroho, and sujarwo) shows that the price of aglaonema has fluctuated with an increasing trend. the highest price is idr 91,700 per pot, which occurred in the second quarter of 2020. this phenomenon of price increases was inseparable from the growing interest in cultivating ornamental plants during the covid-19 pandemic. anthurium production seemed to fluctuate with an increasing trend, as shown in figure 1g. meanwhile, the lowest production occurred in the 2nd quarter of 2012, with only 760 pots. based on figure 1h, the price of an anthurium is around idr 80,000. the high increase in price reached almost idr 200,000 per pot in the 3rd quarter of 2020. the rise in demand for anthurium in 2020 during the covid-19 pandemic was not responded to positively by the production. in the 3rd quarter of 2020, anthurium production was 12,545 pots, 3,250 pots smaller than the previous period. it means the increase in production has not met market demand. therefore, there was the highest price increase, which was idr 183,350 per pot. figure 1i showed that the highest palm production occurred in the 4th quarter of 2013, which produced come to 47,450 palm trees with a productivity of 1.44%. however, in the next quarter, palm production tends to decline. in the 1st quarter of 2014, only 3,660 palms were produced, with a productivity of 1.09%. this condition reflects that the decline in palm production is not only caused by a decrease in the harvested area but also by productivity. the palm prices from 2012 to 2020 fluctuated but tend to be higher, as shown in figure 1j. since the 1st quarter of 2012 to the 1st quarter of 2017, the price of palm has fluctuated, under idr 80,000 per tree. however, from the third quarter of 2018 to 2020, the price of palm reached idr 110,000 per tree. (a) (b) (c) (d) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 114 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) figure 1. trend of production and price for (a) and (b) orchid, (c) and (d) adenium, (e) and (f) aglaonema, (g) and (h) anthurium, (i) and (j) palm ornamental plant price volatility analysis the analysis of price volatility of all ornamental plants at the farm gate in batu municipality is shown in table 2. the arima equation of the orchid price data showed that the ar and ma coefficients sum was -1.311958. the value was less than 1, which was included in the low volatility category. the probability value of ar showed that the previous price influences orchid prices within the 90% significance level. palm price volatility was relatively low, as indicated by the ma coefficient was less than 1 (-0.139455) with a probability value of http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 115 price volatility of ornamental plant….. (khofifah, nugroho, and sujarwo) 0.6811. palm price volatility was not influenced by the residual value of the previous data within the 95% confidence level. table 2. the equation of price volatility of ornamental plants in batu municipality variable equation volatility value (α + β) price of orchid yt = μ + σpi=0 φiyt–i + σ q j=0 θjεt–j + εt (-0.311958) (-1.000000) (0.0674) (0.9998) -1.311958 price of adenium σ2pat = α0 + α1ε 2pat-1 + β1σ 2pat-1 + εt (0.150000) (0.600000) (0.8357) (0.3976) 0.750000 price of aglaonema σ2pgt = α0 + α1ε 2pgt-1 + εt (0.171429) (0.6473) 0.171429 price of anthurium σ2pnt = α0 + β1σ 2pnt-1 + εt (0.171429) (0.9269) 0.171429 price of palm yt = μ + σqj=0 θjεt – j + εt (-0.139455) (0.6811) -0.139455 the volatility of the adenium price was also low, indicated by the sum of the arch and garch coefficients of 0.75000. the probability value of arch was 0.8537, and garch was 0.3976. adenium price volatility was not influenced by the previous price variance and the previous residual variance within the 95% confidence level. the garch model shows price volatility that depends on the previous residual and the previous volatility (berger et al., 2021). it means that the current price increase was not influenced by the price variation of the last quarter. meanwhile, based on the arch coefficient of the aglaonema, the price of 0.171429 was classified as low volatility. the arch probability value of 0.6473 indicates that the volatility of the aglaonema price was not influenced by the previous price variation within the 95% significance level. similar to other plants, the price volatility of anthurium was also relatively low, with an arch coefficient of 0.17129. the probability value of the arch coefficient was 0.9269, meaning that the previous residual variance did not influence the volatility of anthurium prices within the 95% significance level. the low volatility of ornamental plant prices indicates that the price increases and decreases were insignificant in the producer market. the price volatility of all ornamental plants was low because these plants were included in the top ten ornamental plants with high production in batu municipality. therefore, its existence was available throughout the year, although production tends to fluctuate. however, the production of these ornamental plants may also not meet the community’s demands. the rise in ornamental plant demand is difficult to quantify and predict accurately because it is only based on hobby and room decoration. on the other hand, the low price volatility of all ornamental plants is also caused that ornamental plants are not the primary necessity, such as food. therefore, there is no significant shock in supply and demand, although demand is difficult to predict. low price volatility is also related http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 116 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research to ornamental plants, which are heterogeneous commodities. it means various types and choices of ornamental plants can be cultivated in various landscapes (taib et al., 2019). therefore, the demand for ornamental plants relies not only on a type of plant. the low price volatility is included in transitory volatility. transitory volatility is caused by market uncertainty, such as market shocks from both the supply and demand sides and expectations (živkov et al., 2020). low volatility indicates that price volatility occurs relatively quickly (maguire et al., 2017). in this study, from 2012 to 2020, the prices of all ornamental plants fluctuated. on average, a significant price increase occurred in 2020 due to the covid19 pandemic, which hit almost all countries, including indonesia. since 29 february 2020, the indonesian government has implemented the large-scale social restrictions (psbb) policy. the policies restricted people’s mobility and transportation, locked all schools, universities, and offices (especially for non-essential services), and forbade public meetings (anugerah et al., 2021). this policy is intended to restrict people’s activities outside to suppress the spread of the covid-19. so, most of the community’s activities, including schooling and work, were carried out at home. then, the trend of ornamental plant cultivation emerged in the community. this activity is intended to fill the free time at home to stay productive. therefore, the demand for ornamental plants increased. in batu municipality, the low volatility of ornamental plant prices at the producer level is caused by producers cannot directly respond to the price. this is due to the existence of middlemen between producers and consumers. even though batu municipality is one of the cultivation and shopping centers for ornamental plants especially in east java, the business is inefficient due to marketing actors blocking the market (suminah et al., 2021). producers cannot directly get the price information, which causes producers to be disconnected from the market. when prices rise, the information not immediately and perfectly received by producers, but when the price decreases, the information will be quickly and completely received. this condition reflects the information asymmetry caused by parties manipulating information related to prices in the marketing chain (raungpaka and savetpanuvong, 2017). the low-price volatility of all ornamental plants aligns with research by bohl and sulewski (2019) and hau et al. (2020). the low-price volatility at the producer level is related to the producer’s position in the ornamental plants market, which acts as a price taker. therefore, producers typically receive low prices and do not benefit greatly when prices rise. the existence of price volatility makes poor producers unable to reduce the risk of falling prices and unable to take profits when prices rise (assouto et al., 2020). the position of producers as price takers makes producers unable to control prices (vadlamannati and de soysa, 2020). producers must accept the set price in the market mechanism, and it will affect the producers' revenue on their sales or service. therefore, producer revenues are likely to decline when the prices of ornamental plants decrease, and contrariwise. meanwhile, the categorization of price volatility of ornamental plants can be used by producers to increase their farming. therefore, information about price changes of ornamental plants in batu municipality is needed, especially when the price increase. it will support the producer to get higher profit by expanding their production. one of the causes http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 117 price volatility of ornamental plant….. (khofifah, nugroho, and sujarwo) of limited information on market prices of ornamental plants in batu municipality is still no information system that provides information about prices. information related to price changes is beneficial for producers (greenlaw and taylor, 2017) and is a horticulture agribusiness development strategy, especially in determining marketing strategies (muflikh et al., 2021). the price volatility of all ornamental plants is low but differs between each ornamental plant. adenium volatility value is closer to 1, which was higher than others. high volatility indicates that price volatility arises over a more extended period (ligot et al., 2021); that is called permanent volatility (ahmed et al., 2012). therefore, the price fluctuations in the future must be monitored. cointegration analysis johansen’s cointegration test results based on trace statistical values can be seen in table 3. the production and price data of all ornamental plants in this research were more than the critical values. in addition, the probability value of each of these types of plants was less than the 5% significance level. table 3. cointegration test based on trace test price and production data trace statistics critical value probability orchid 36.52491 12.32090 0.0000 adenium 40.63686 12.32090 0.0000 aglaonema 18.94827 12.32090 0.0034 anthurium 31.05909 12.32090 0.0000 palm 28.95083 12.32090 0.0000 meanwhile, the cointegration test results based on the maximum eigenvalue can be seen in table 4. the production and price of all data were above the critical value with a probability value of less than the 5% significance level. table 4. cointegration test based on maximum eigenvalue price and production data max-eigen statistic critical value probability orchid 22.79659 11.22480 0.0003 adenium 30.57413 11.22480 0.0000 aglaonema 16.58880 11.22480 0.0052 anthurium 24.00652 11.22480 0.0000 palm 26.73062 11.22480 0.0001 based on the trace statistic in table 3 and the maximum eigenvalue in table 4, the production and price of all ornamental plants were cointegrated or had a long-term balance. this long-term relationship indicates that the production will affect the price of these ornamental plants. therefore, in the long run, the production and price of ornamental plants will go hand in hand. however, the long-term relationship's direction has not yet been known, considering that in the cointegration test, all cointegrated variables are considered endogenous variables. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 118 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research error correction model analysis the results of the ecm test can be seen in table 5. this table shows that only the ect1 coefficient from the production and price data of orchids had a probability of less than 5%. it means that only the production and price of orchids had a relationship in the short term. table 5. ecm test for ornamental plants in batu municipality price and production data variable coefficient probability orchid xt 0.004555 0.2926 ect-1 -0.389955 0.0308 c -263.6226 0.6515 equation ∆yt = -263.6226 + 0.004555xt 0.38955ect-1 + εt adenium xt 1.495730 0.6978 ect-1 0.020976 0.8945 c 3739.355 0.2407 equation ∆yt = 3739.355 + 1.495730xt + 0.020976ect-1 + εt aglaonema xt 0.215615 0.0987 ect-1 -0.034364 0.6966 c 2103.421 0.1705 equation ∆yt = 2103.421 + 0.215615xt 0.034364ect-1 + εt anthurium xt 2.545652 0.1664 ect-1 -0.191589 0.3161 c 3331.644 0.4705 equation ∆yt = 3331.644 + 2.545652xt 0.191589ect-1 + εt palm xt 0.094705 0.2218 ect-1 0.184929 0.3317 c 796.1095 0.4090 equation ∆yt = 796.1095 + 0.094705xt + 0.1849295ect-1 + εt statistically, the orchid’s ect-1 coefficient value of -0.389955 deserves to be negative. the value of the ect-1 coefficient also shows that the adjustment time needed to achieve short-term equilibrium was 2.6 months (1/0.389955). conditions in the field indicate that orchid plants can generally be harvested between 2-3 months from mature plants. therefore, if there is a change in orchid production in the short term, it will be transmitted to the price of orchids within 2.6 months. based on table 5, the coefficient of xt for orchids was 0.004555 with a probability of 0.2926. if the production of orchids increases by 1%, the price will also increase by idr 0.004555. this short-term relationship was directly proportional to the value of the xt coefficient, which was positive with a significant level of 80%. therefore, when production increases, prices will rise. in other words, the increase in production was a positive response shown by producers responding to increased demand for orchids in the community. production that cannot keep up with demand will cause an increase in prices (rotta, 2021). orchid is one of the ornamental plants that has become a civilization for modern society. the lifestyle of people who use flowers to convey messages increases the demand for orchids, as does the number of important events such as weddings, eid, christmas, new year’s, and birthdays (al-sagheer, 2021). in addition, the rise in orchid demand equates to the increased http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 119 price volatility of ornamental plant….. (khofifah, nugroho, and sujarwo) demand for bouquets, congratulations, and table flower arrangements for hotels, restaurants, offices, and banks. meanwhile, the xt coefficient of adenium, aglaonema, anthurium, and palm also shows a positive sign. it means that if there is an increase in supply, the price will also increase. however, when viewed from the probability value, the production and price of adenium, aglaonema, anthurium , and palm had a probability value of more than the 5% significance level. that means the two variables in the plant did not have a short-term relationship. subsequently, the changes in the supply of these ornamental plants will not change the price significantly. conclusion the price volatility of all ornamental plants in batu municipality was low. the low volatility of these ornamental plant prices was due to ornamental plants are not a primary necessity. therefore, there was no significant shock in supply and demand, although the demand was difficult to predict. meanwhile, the results of the cointegration analysis showed that the production and price of all ornamental plants were cointegrated in the long term. however, only the production and price of orchids had a short-term relationship with an adjustment time of 2.6 months. based on this research, suggestions regarding the price volatility of ornamental plants in batu municipality are given to several stakeholders. the ministry of agriculture, the province and district offices of agriculture, and the statistics office are suggested to facilitate the producers an information systems of the ornamental plants market, especially prices. further research is recommended to conduct additional tests that support cointegration tests. the test such as causality tests, to determine the direction of relationship between all cointegrated variables. author contributions: hk: conceptualized the idea, collected data, analyzed data, discussed the results, wrote the manuscript, and addressed reviewer's comments; twn: guided and supervised script preparation, discussed the results; s: guided and supervised data collection and analysis, discussed the results and conclusion. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest reference agustina, t. p., nisyawati, & walujo, e. b. 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(2020). short and long term volatility transmission from oil to agricultural commodities – the robust quantile regression approach. borsa istanbul review, 20, 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bir.2020.10.008 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.04.010 layout juli 2016 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.1 januari 2017 nyoman ngurah arya1),i ketut mahaputra1), and suharyanto2) 1) assessment institute for agricultural technology (aiat) of bali e-mail: arya_ngurah66@yahoo.com 2)assessment institute for agricultural technology (aiat) of bangka belitung islands e-mail: suharyanto.bali@gmail.com the efforts for productivity and income improvement of rice farming through the use new superior variety (case study) doi: 10.18196/agr.3142 abstract various efforts to increase rice production have been done in order to achieve rice selfsufficiency and food security, one of which is the creation of some new superior varieties (nsvs) of paddy. this study aimed to analyze the productivity, income, and efficiency of rice farming of new superior varieties, including inpari 29, inpari 31, and inpari 32. this research was conducted on december 2014 until april 2015 in subakgubug i, gubug village, as one of the centers of rice production in tabanan regency. the study involved 30 farmers who planted those three new superior varieties in 9.38 hectares of wet land area. each farmer used as replicates. data were collected using interview and direct observation. data was analyzed by analysis of variance (anova). the results showed that inpari 31 variety have the highest productivity, the highest revenue, the most efficient, and significantly different from the inpari 29 and 32. multiplication and dissemination of inpari 31 variety to farmers can be done as soon as possible to increase rice production, achieve rice self-sufficiency and food security. kkkkkeywordseywordseywordseywordseywords: efficiency, inpari,paddy,productivity introduction efforts to achieve self-sufficiency and food security, particularly rice, ahead looks set to face tough challenges, due to rapid population growth and conversion of paddy fields.in another aspect, the paddy soil fertility declines as management intensifies less attention to the balance of nutrients in the soil. the success of efforts to increase production, productivity and income of farmers depend on the ability of the provision and adoption of production technologies that include improved varieties, seed quality, and other related technological innovations (jamal, 2009). sembiring and widiarta (2008) stated that, the success of increasing rice production was dominated by increasing in productivity than an increase in harvested area. various technological innovations have been produced as an effort to increase production, productivity, and income of rice farming, one of which is the creation of new superior varieties of paddy. high yielding varieties of paddy is believed to be one of the success key of increasing rice production (sembiring and widiarta, 2008; hossain et al., 2006). suwarno (2000) stated that, varieties of paddy have been able to increase the productivity of rice. similar disclosed by las (2002) insusanto et al. (2003) that, the role of varieties along with fertilizer and water to increase productivity reached 75%. furthermore, suhartatik and makarim (2010) revealed that the superior varieties have high yields because they have physiologicalcharacter in accordance with its environment. generally, the most farmers in bali have planted ciherang variety of paddy. a variety is used continuously in very long time can trigger an attack of pest is 34 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research increasing. ciherang productivity on average 6.2 t/ha. indonesianagency for agricultureresearch and development (iaard) until now been widely released several new superior varieties(nsvs) of paddy. there are several objectives of the creation and release of several varieties of rice, two of which are (1) an effort that the farmers can make rotation of varieties, which is expected to cut the cycle of pests and (2) to increase rice production.related to some nsvs of paddy being created by iaard, in which there are varieties inparitypes, three of which are inpari 29, 31, and 32. the new superior variety (nsv) of inpari 29 is suitable to be planted in irrigated rice lowlands paddy fields to an altitude of 400 m above sea level. this nsv is also resistant to immersion of flooding. the nsvs of inpari 31 and 32 are suitable to be planted in lowland paddy fields to a height of 600 meters above sea level. the nsv of inpari 29 was released in 2012, while the nsvs of inpari 31 and 32 were released in 2013. those varieties were introduced through assessments in subakgubug i in 2014 and not yet available at the market. this study aimed to analyze the productivity, income, and efficiency of those new superior varieties. method this study was conducted in subakgubug i, in the gubug village, tabanan regency, in december 2014 until april 2015. tabanan is the largest rice producer in bali province. the number of respondents in this study were 30 farmers who determined by random sampling. they were implemented the assessment of nsvs of inpari 29, 31, and 32. each variety is planted by 10 farmers. respondents were divided into three groups according to the nsv of paddy planted. each group consisted of 10 farmers. primary data were collected by a survey method, which interviewed respondents directly using a structured questionnaire (sangarimbun and effendi, 1989). the primary data include a land area, number and type of means of production, total costs of production, amount of production, price of grain/kg, etc. the secondary data were obtained from the results of previous research related to the research.the variables measured were limited to the amount of rice production whichwas obtained in the form of dry grain harvest and the amount of revenue and income are received by farmers. the average difference in production and revenues of those varieties were analyzed by analysis of variance (sugiyono, 2011). the rice farming profit can be determined by calculating the margin of the total revenue and total rice farming costs. total revenue is the amount of grain production multiplied by the price per kilogram of grain. total cost is all expenditure that used in the production process of rice farming, in the form of fixed costs and variable costs. mathematically, farming profits formulated (soekartawi, 1995), as follows: i = tr tc = p.q – (fc + vc) where, i = income (profit);p = the price of per unit rice production; q = total rice production;fc = fixed cost; vc = variable cost the level of efficiency of rice farming analyze using r/c ratio, mathematically is formulated as follows: tr r/c ratio = tc where, tr = total revenue; and tc = total cost the average difference of rice production and its incomes were analyzed by analysis of variance (anova) by f-test for more than two groups of samples. its hypothesisis: 1. h 0 : μ1 = μ2 = μ3, that means the average difference in grain production and rice farming income between groups is not significant. 2. h 1 :at least two average values are different,that means the average difference in grain production and rice farming income between groups is significant. the steps in to test the hypothesis by anova, include (wibisono, 2009): 1. variance between groups is formulated as follows: 1 s�2 = ∑ (�i – �)2 ……….…(1) (r – 1) r i=1 2. variance within groups is formulated as follows: 1 si2 = ∑ (xij -�i)2 ……………….. (2) ni 1 3. variance of population is formulated as follows: ∑ (ni – 1) si2 st2 = ………………….. (3) r (n – 1) 4. value of distribution f (f-count) can be obtained by the formula: n.s�2 f-count = ………………….... (4) st2 where, r = number of groups �i = mean of each group 35 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 y« = mean of all groups n = the number of samples in each group x ij = value of each observation furthermore, the value of the f-count compared with the f-table: if f-count > f-table: h 0 is rejected if f-count < f-table: h 0 is accepted if the f-test results show that between samples have an average difference is significant, then followed by least significant differences (lsd) test. value of lsd is obtained from the following equation: lsdα = (tα, dfe). 2 (mse) ……….... (5) r where, tα = distribution of t-student df e = degree of freedom error ms e = mean squares error results and discussion subakgubug i is located in the lowlands and the semi technical irrigated land.subakgubug i has 234 hectares of wet land and 749 farmers, so that every farmer managed 0.35 hectares wet land in average. the cropping pattern is applied in a year is paddy crops paddy. the first rice planting season is in rainy season, on november to february, the second rice planting is in dry season, on june to september, and on march to junethe farmers plant crops. the using of labor labor allocated in managing rice farming comes from farmer’s family and outside the family. the employment of family activities is generally devoted to sow, irrigate, fertilize, control pests and diseases, and clean up the embankment.the activities of tilling the soil, planting paddy, and weeding using labor from outside the family. weeding jobs are paid based on the number of working hours, while the paddy planting and tilling the soil is done in bulk by area (per hectare). tillage is done by a tractor. among three groups of samples, group of farmers who planted nsv of inpari29used the least labor (table 1).farmers who plant nsv of inpari 29 using the least amount of labor, because most of them are the main livelihood outside of the agricultural sector, such as hotel employees and construction workers. table 2. the type and number of production facilities per hectare source: primary data (analyzed) the using of urea more than recommended but using of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium (npk) less than recommended. department of agriculture tabanan regency recommended 100 kilograms per hectare for urea and 300 kilothe planting and weeding is done by workers from outside the family and most of them are women, because of the availability of labor in the family is very limited (an average of two people per farm household) and most of farmers also work in other sectors, such as in the tourism sector, buildings, etc. the harvesting carried out by workers coming from outside of bali, because the local harvest labor is limited. production facilities in rice farming, the type of production facilities that are used in addition to labor, are seed, fertilizer, and pesticides. the use of production facilities in the type, amount, and timing will be able to provide maximum production. the amount of seed which used an average of 38.75 kilogram per hectare for the farmers who planted nsv of inpari 29 (table 2). this amount exceeds the recommended, namely 30 kilograms per hectare. farmers tend to use beyond recommended because they anticipated for replanting if there are plants die. table 1. the using of labor per hectare source: primary data (analyzed) 36 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research grams per hectare for npk. improper using of fertilizers which will have an impact on rice production is not optimal. production cost the production cost of rice farming in the study site, consists of fixed cost and variable cost. the fixed cost includes property tax, subak dues, depreciation of equipment, and offerings. the variable cost consists of the purchase of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and labor (table 3). expenditures are calculated as cost of production in this paper is all expenses paid in cash, while no cash cost is not included in the analysis, such as labor within family. tillage and planting paddy are paid by the piece (one hectare = rp 1,200,000), while weeding is paid as a daily labor (one day = 8 hours) with a wage of rp 80,000 per person days. wages harvest is rp 60,000 per quintal of grain. among the production cost components, harvesting needed the highest cost that is in average 44.67% depending on the amount of rice production is obtained, while depreciation of equipment needed the lowest cost, so that in average 0.92%. the farmers group who planted nsv of inpari 31 needed the highest cost of production, while the farmers group who planted inpari 32 needed the lowest production cost. the total cost of rice farming is not determined by the variety of paddy, but depend on the habits of farmers. farmers in the research site seems to have not been able to manage his farm efficiently. the using of seeds and urea fertilizer were higher than the recommended. rice production the rice harvest was done in the early to mid-april 2015 after the rice plants aged 105-115 days after planting. the production is observed in real plot yields, in the form of dry grain harvest. the results showed that, nsv of inpari 31 have the highest productivity, while nsv of inpari 29 have the lowest productivity.productivityof inpari 31 is 7,698 kg/ ha;inpari 32 is 7,149kg/ha; and inpari 29 is 6,909 kg/ha. the results of this study differentwith jamil et al. (2015) whose states that, nsv ofinpari 29 has a higher yield than nsvs of inpari 31 and 32. according to jamil (2015), nsv of inpari 29 had an average yield of 6.5 tons/ha; nsv of inpari 31 has yield on average 6 tons/ha; and the yield ofinpari 32 on average 6.3 tons/ha. the differences are guessed to be affected by agro-ecosystem and farmer’s management. farmers who plant nsv of inpari 29 using a large excess of urea fertilizer, that’s why the intensity of pests and diseases is quite high and many plants are fall down. according to wahid (2003) the excess fertilizer n in rice can increase pests and diseases, plant fall down, and extend the life of the plant.kasniari and supadma(2007) stated that, excessive n fertilizer also have an impact on the increasing number of empty grain that affect rice production to be low. revenue and incomeof ricefarming the farming system is not only focused on the production and productivity aspects, but also on the revenue aspect. the production process of farming system combined various production factors under their control, basically aims table 3. the cost of rice farming per hectare in subakgubug i in december 2014 type of cost sum of cost (rp) inpari 29 inpari 31 inpari 32 fixed costs a. property tax 150,000 150,000 150,000 b. subak dues 100,000 100,000 100,000 c. depreciation of equipment 90,667 90,222 86,667 d. offerings 296,500 290,000 275,000 sub-total 637,167 630,222 611,667 variable costs a. seed 297,053 303,285 299,204 b. urea 487,680 440,440 448,445 c. nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium (npk) 642,633 650,644 645,583 d. pesticides 617,261 655,834 665,828 e. labor (tillage, plant, and weeding) 3,493,600 3,498,400 3,538,400 f. harvesting 4,145,538 4,619,125 4,289,491 sub-total 9,683,765 10,167,728 9,483,351 total cost 10,320,932 10,797,950 10,095,018 source: primary data (analyzed) 37 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 to acquire several outputs, revenue, and profit. farm revenue is the total value of farm products within a specified period, whether sold or not sold. farm income (profit) is margin between tot al revenues and tot al production costs (soekartawi, 1995). prices farmers receive an average rp 4,243 per kilogram, in the range of rp 4,100 to rp 4,500per kilogram. table 4. the revenue, cost, and profit of rice farming per hectare commentary amount (rp) inpari 29 inpari 31 inpari 32 revenue 28,948,329 33,231,471 30,258,280 cost 10,320,932 10,797,950 10,095,018 profit 18,627,397 22,433,520 20,163,262 rc ratio 2.81 3.08 3.00 source: primary data (analyzed) table 4 showed that, nsv of inpari 31 provides the highest revenue and income. the nsv of inpari 31 is also the most efficient. revenues, income, and efficiency of rice farming system are influenced by the number and types of production factors, the price of production factors, and product prices is received by farmers. the results of analysis by anova paddy productivity based on an analysis of variance is known that value of fcount is 8.361, while f-table is 5.488 (f-count > f-table) with a value of p = 0.001 (p < 0.01). there are differences in means productivity among those varieties (table 5). therefore, h 0 is rejected or h 1 is accepted. table 5. the result of anova analysis for paddy productivity sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 3,274,687 2 1,637,343 8.361 0.001 within groups 5,287,423 27 195,830 total 8,562,110 29 source: primary data (analyzed) based on the results of anova analysis (table 5), then followed by least significant differences (lsd) analysis. the results of lsd analysis showed that,means productivity of inpari 31 was significantly different with the two other varieties (p < 0.01). but, between nsvs of inpari 29 and inpari 32 had no significant which was showed by p = 0.236 (p > 0.05) (table 6). the result indicates (table 6) that, nsv of inpari 31 is the most appropriate variety with the agro-ecosystem in subakgubug i, so it has the best performance among those varieties.the nsv of inpari 31 has the greatest opportunities develop in areas that have the same agro-ecosystem with subakgubug i. table 6. the result of lsd analysis for paddy productivity (i) varieties and its mean productivity (kg/ha) (j) varieties and its mean productivity (kg/ha) mean difference (i-j) (kg/ha) sig. inpari 29 6,909 inpari 31 7,698 -789** 0.000 inpari 32 7,149 -240ns 0.236 inpari 31 7,698 inpari 29 6,909 789** 0.000 inpari 32 7,149 549** 0.010 inpari 32 7,149 inpari 29 6,909 240ns 0.236 inpari 31 7,698 -549** 0.010 source: primary data (analyzed) commentary: **= significant at level error 1% ns = non significantly the rice farming profit the result using analysis of variance (table 7) showed that, the average revenues ofinpari 31 were significantly different from the two other varieties. value of f-count is 8.788 but f-table is 5.488 (f-count > f-table) with a significance level (p) = 0.001(p < 0.01). table 7. the result of anova analysis for rice farming profit commentary sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 7.333e13 2 3.667e13 8.788 0.001 within groups 1.126e14 27 4.172e12 total 1.860e14 29 source: primary data (analyzed) 38 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research based on the results of anova analysis (table 7), then followed by lsd analysis. the results of lsd analysis showsthat, means income difference of inpari 31 and inpari 29 was significantly at level error 1% (p = 0.00; p < 0.01) means income difference between of inpari 31 and 32 was significantly at level erros 5% (p = 0.019; 0.05 < p < 0.01). but, between inpari 29 and inpari 32 had no significant is showed by p = 0.104 (p > 0.05) (table 8). table 8. the result of lsd analysis for rice farming profit (i) varieties and its mean profit (rp/ha) (j) varieties and its mean profit (rp/ha) mean difference (i-j) (rp/ha) sig. inpari 29 18,627,397 inpari 31 22,433,520 -3.806.000** 0.000 inpari 32 20,163,262 -1.535.900ns 0.104 inpari 31 22,433,520 inpari 29 18,627,397 3.806.100** 0.000 inpari 32 20,163,262 2.270.300* 0.019 inpari 32 20,163,262 inpari 29 18,627,397 1.535.900ns 0.104 inpari 31 22,433,520 -2.270.300* 0.019 source: primary data (analyzed) commentary: ** = significant at level error 1% * = significant at level error 5% ns = not significant conclusion inpari 31 has the highest productivity and significantly different with inpari 29 and 32. inpari 31 also provides the highest income and significantly different with inpari 29 and 32. among those varieties, inpari 31 is the most efficient, with its rc ratio is 3.08. multiplication and dissemination of inpari 31 variety can take immediately to improve rice production. the allocation of production factors to be carried out more carefully in order to improve the efficiency of rice farming system. references hossain, m., m.l. bose, & b.a.a. mustafi. 2006. adoption and productivity impact of modern rice varieties in bangladesh. journal of the developing economiesxliv(2): 149-166. jamal, e.2009. telaahan penggunaan pendekatan sekolah lapang dalam pengelolaan tanaman terpadu (ptt) padi: kasusdi kabupaten blitar dan kediri, jawatimur. jurnal analisis kebijakan pertanian 7(4): 337349. jamil, a., satoto, p. sasmita, y. baliadi, a. guswara, &suharna. 2015. deskripsi varietas unggul baru padi. badan penelitian dan penembangan pertanian. kasniari, d.a.n. & a.a.n. supadma. 2007. pengaruh pemberian beberapa dosis pupuk (n, p, k) dan jenis pupuk alternatif terhadap hasil tanaman padi (oryza sativa l.) dankadar n, p, k inceptisol selemadeg tabanan. jurnal agritrop 26 (4):168-176. sembiring, h., &widiarta, i.n. 2008. inovasi teknologi padi menuju swasembada beras berkelanjutan.dalam: a.k. makarimet al. (eds.): buku 2. inovasi teknologi tanaman pangan. prosidingsimposium v tanaman pangan. pusatpenelitian penelitian dan pengembangan tanamanpangan, bogor. singarimbun, m. dan s. effendi. 1989. metodepenelitian survey. lp3es, jakarta. soekartawi, a. 1995. analisis usaha tani. ui press, jakarta. sugiyono, 2011. metode penelitian pendidikan (pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r & d).edisi 12. alfabeta, bandung. suhartatik, e., & a.k. makarim. 2010. morfologi dan fisiologi tanaman padi. balai besar penelitian tanaman padi. susanto, u., a.a. daradjat, & b. suprihatno. 2003.perkembangan pemuliaan padi sawah di indonesia. jurnal litbang pertanian 22(3): 125-131. suwarno. 2000. orientasi penelitian plasma nutfah dan pemuliaan untuk menyongsong tantangan perpadian masa depan. apresiasi seminar hasil penelitian tanaman padi. balai penelitian tanaman padi, sukamandi, 10"11 november 2000. wahid, a.s. 2003. peningkatan efisiensi pupuk nitrogen pada padi sawah dengan metode bagan warna daun. jurnal litbang pertanian 22 (4): 156-161. wibisono, y. 2009. metode statistika. cetakan kedua (revisi). gadjah mada university press, yogyakarta. 5 r-5 r-5 r-5b binder35-36 35-36 layout juli 2016 revisi r-5 pengantar juli 2016.pmd widodo, diah rina kamardiani, lestari rahayu program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta pakw2007@yahoo.co.id minat konsumen terhadap beras organik di daerah istimewa yogyakarta dan jawa tengah abstract various cases of food poisoning has caused people to more selective in choosing food by taking into account the health and food safety. consumer awareness and preferences towards healthy food has resulted an increasing on consumption of organic food. this study aims to explain the consumer perceptions of organic rice, and its effect on consumer buying interest. the study was conducted by analized and interviewed 120 respondents. the binomial logit regression analysis was applied to explain the influence of consumer’s perception on agricultural products. this research shows the consumers of organic rice come from various groups of people, most of them are from fixed-income consumer, high level of education, and small size family. consumers of organic rice has a high concern on their family, has a perception on high level of purity, and has high concern on the health of agricultural environment. however, consumers perception on organic farming practices was in moderate category. organic agricultural products are still perceived as a high price product. consumer interest on consuming organic rice would increase due to an increasing on consumer concerns on the family, perception of purity, concern on agriculture environmental health, and perception of the practice of organic farming. kkkkkeywordseywordseywordseywordseywords: consumer concerns, consumer interest, consumer perception, organic rice intisari berbagai kasus keracunan bahan makanan menyebabkan masyarakat semakin selektif dalam memilih bahan pangan dengan mempertimbangkan kesehatan dan keamanan pangan. kesadaran dan preferensi konsumen terhadap pangan sehat mengakibatkan semakin meningkatnya konsumsi pangan organik. penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk mengungkap persepsi konsumen terhadap produk pertanian organik dan menjelaskan pengaruhnya terhadap minat beli konsumen. data primer dikumpulkan dari 120 responden, selanjutnya dianalisis menggunakanregresi logit binomial. hasil penelitian mengungkapkan konsumen beras organik berasal dari berbagai kelompok masyarakat, namun mayoritas berasal dari konsumen berpendapatan tetap, berpendidikan cukup tinggi, dengan ukuran keluarga yang kecil. konsumen beras organik dicirikan dengan kepedulian terhadap keluarga, persepsi terhadap tingkat kemurnian dan kepedulian terhadap kesehatan lingkungan pertanian yang tinggi. namun, konsumen masih mempunyai persepsi yang termasuk dalam katagori sedang terhadap praktek pertanian organik; hasil pertanian organik masih dipersepsikan sebagai produk yang mempunyai harga mahal. meningkatnya kepedulian terhadap keluarga, persepsi terhadap tingkat kemurnian, kepedulian terhadap kesehatan lingkungan pertanian, dan persepsi terhadap praktek pertanian organik akan meningkatkan minat beli konsumen terhadap beras organic. doi:10.18196/agr.2234 135 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: beras organik, minat konsumen, kepedulian konsumen, persepsi konsumen pendahuluan indonesia mempunyai potensi yang besar untuk mengembangkan produksi dan pemasaran produk pertanian organik, termasuk beras. areal lahan pertanian organik di indonesia meningkat dari 17.783 ha pada tahun 2005 menjadi 66.184 ha pada tahun 2007 (www.organic-world.net), namun belum semuanya dapat menghasilkan produk organik tersertifikasi organik. pertanian padi organik telah dikembangkan di beberapa sentra produksi padi, antara lain di jawa barat, jawa tengah, jawa timur dan bali. beras organik sekarang dapat dijumpai di banyak toko eceran (ifoam 2009) dengan beragam label yang menunjukkan sebagai produk pertanian organik. keputusan konsumen untuk membeli dan mengkonsumsi suatu barang dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor, seperti strategi pemasaran, lingkungan tempat tinggal konsumen, dan perbedaan individu. menurut engel et. al. (1993) faktor yang secara bersama-sama mempengaruhi keputusan konsumen dalam membeli, memilih dan mengkonsumsi produk barang dan jasa antara lain faktor lingkungan, faktor individu dan faktor psikologis yang terjadi pada diri seseorang. konsep pengambilan keputusan konsumen yang dikemukakan engel tersebut didukung berbagai studi empiris berikut. ricciuto et. al. (2006) yang menyatakan bahwa ukuran keluarga, komposisi, pendapatan, dan pendapatan secara bersama-sama memberikan penjelasan sebesar 21–29% variasi pembelian dan konsumsi pangan di kanada. berbagai kasus keracunan bahan makanan dan kasus keamanan pangan (misalnya wabah sapi gila di eropa dan pemberian formalin sebagai bahan pengawet makanan di indonesia) menyebabkan masyarakat semakin selektif dalam memilih bahan pangan, yaitu dengan mempertimbangkan kesehatan dan keamanan pangan (fotopoulos dan krystallis, 2002). kesadaran dan preferensi konsumen terhadap pangan sehat mengakibatkan semakin meningkatnya konsumsi pangan organik (connor dan douglas, 2002). produk organik, termasuk beras organik merupakan pangan yang dihasilkan oleh pertanian organik (biao, 2003). pangan organik diyakini lebih aman (canavari et. al. 2002) karena merupakan pangan alami yang dihasilkan tanpa menggunakan bahan kimia dan pupuk buatan (connor dan douglas, 2002). produk pangan organik dihasilkan dari pertanian organik, yaitu suatu sistem produksi yang mempertahankan kesehatan tanah, ekosistem dan manusia. dalam benak konsumen, produk organik lebih baik dan lebih sehat dibandingkan produk pertanian konvensional. citra produk yang lebih baik ini menjadi motif utama bagi konsumen yang bersedia membeli dengan harga lebih tinggi untuk membeli pangan organik. dari titik pandang ilmiah, adalah sulit untuk membenarkan kemanfaatan kesehatan dari produk organik. penelitian schumpbach menemukan bahwa terdapat perbedaan fakta antara produk organik dan konvensional terkait dengan pertimbangan residu pestisida. jika pangan diproduksi secara murni dengan menggunakan metode organik diuji, hasil adalah lebih bersih dari residu pestisida (schumpbach dalam baio, 2003). keunggulan produk pertanian organik masih menjadi perdebatan, namun diyakini bahwa proses produksi pertanian organik lebih ramah lingkungan. perilaku konsumen terkait dengan kualitas beras organik dan kepedulian konsumen pada lingkungan penting untuk mendapat penjelasan secara mendalam. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengenali minat beli konsumen terhadap beras organik. penelitian ini merupakan bagian dari penelitian jangka panjang yang bertujuan untuk meningkatkan konsumsi masyarakat terhadap pangan sehat yang ramah lingkungan dan dihasilkan secara domestik. metode penelitian penelitian dirancang sebagai penelitian deskriptif, yaitu penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan karakteristik konsumen (malhotra, 2004). dalam penelitian ini karakteristik pasar yang akan dideskripsikan mencakup perilaku pembelian beras organik, perilaku konsumen terkait dengan kualitas beras organik dan persepsi konsumen terhadap pertanian organik. penelitian dirancang dengan metode survei untuk mencapai tujuan yang diformulasikan sebelumnya (malhotra, 2004). penelitian dilakukan terhadap beras organik yang dihasilkan di kabupaten sragen, salah satu daerah sentra produksi beras organik di jawa tengah. pengambilan data dilakukan dengan pengambilan sampel secara nyaman. secara keseluruhan, 120 orang pembeli yang sedang 136 jurnal agraris melakukan pembelian beras organik di pengecer beras organik di surakarta, semarang dan yogyakarta dijadikan sampel. minat didekati dengan preferensi konsumen terhadap beras organik yang merupakan variabel binomial. untuk menganalisis faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap minat beli konsumen dilakukan analisis logit binomial, dengan model model sebagai berikut. y* = â 0 + â 1 fs + â 2 or + â 3 ass + â 4 ec + â 5 q l + å di mana p : preferensi beli konsumen terhadap beras organik = 1 jika konsumen lebih suka beras organik = 0 jika konsumen tidak lebih suka beras organik fs : kesadaran pada makanan keluarga (rata-rata skor) or: persepsi pada produk organik (rata-rata skor) ass : persepsi mutu beras organik (rata-rata skor) ec : kepedulian terhadap kesehatan lingkungan hidup (rata-rata skor) penyelesaian regresi model logit ordinal dilakukan dengan metode maximum likelihood estimation (mle) dengan bantuan program komputer eviews. dalam penyelesaian regresi ini digunakan: i) nilai mcfadden’s r2 untuk mengetahui ketepatan model yang dinyatakan sebagai persentase variasi variabel preferensi konsumen yang dapat dijelaskan oleh variabel bebas; ii) nilai likelihood ratio digunakan untuk menguji pengaruh variabel bebas secara bersama-sama; iii) nilai wald (statistik-z) untuk menguji pengaruh variabel bebas (independent variable) secara individual terhadap variabel tidak bebas (dependent variable). hasil analisis model regresi logit ordinal diinterpretasikan sebagai dampak perubahan variabel dependen terhadap probabilitas preferensi seseorang, dengan mempertahankan variabel lain konstan. hasil dan pembahasan konsumen beras organik perilaku konsumen berarti tindakan yang langsung terlibat dalam mendapatkan, mengkonsumsi, dan menghabiskan produk dan jasa, termasuk proses keputusan yang mendahului dan menyusuli tindakan ini. hal ini lebih menekankan bahwa perilaku konsumen (consumer behavior) sebagai studi tentang unit pembelian (buying units). profil responden sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 1 menunjukkan bahwa konsumen beras organik adalah kelompok keluarga dengan usia yang beragam, berpenghasilan yang tetap, dengan tingat pendidikan yang relatif tinggi. usia kepala keluarga konsumen beras organik relatif tersebar dalam kelompok usia muda, usia matang, usia tua dan usia lanjut. namun, kepala keluarga konsumen beras organik dari kelompok usia 36–50 tahun lebih dominan dibandingkan kelompok usia lainnya. pada umumnya keluarga dari kelompok usia ini mempunyai kondisi ekonomi yang telah mapan, sehingga kebutuhan terhadap konsumsi makanan yang memberikan dampak kesehatan yang baik bagi anggota keluarga sudah mulai mendapat perhatian.seperti halnya usia kepala keluarga, usia ibu rumah tangga keluarga responden konsumen beras organik juga didominasi oleh kelompok usia 36 – 50 tahun. tingkat pendidikan kepala keluarga dan juga ibu rumah tangga responden konsumen beras organik, didominasi dengan kelompok pendidikan serendahrendahnya setingkat slta. konsumen dengan tingkat pendidikan dasar dan lanjutan pertama merupakan kelompok yang sangat kecil, yaitu kurang 5%. tingkat pendidikan seseorang mempengaruhi cara berpikir, cara pandang, bahkan persepsi terhadap suatu permasalahan. kepala keluarga dan ibu rumah tangga konsumen beras organik merupakan kelompok masyarakat yang relatif mampu berpikir lebih rasional jika dilihat tingkat pendidikannya. pekerjaan kepala keluarga responden konsumen beras organik secara umum didominasi oleh kelompok pegawai negeri/tni/polri dan karyawan tidak tetap/buruh. ibu rumah tangga keluarga konsumen beras organik pada umumnya mempunyai pekerjaan. di antara ibu rumah tangga yang bekerja, kebanyakan ibu rumah tangga bekerja sebagai pegawai negeri dan karyawan tidak tetap. kualitas beras organik menurut penilaian konsumen kualitas beras bersifat multidimensi, yang mencakup karakteristik fisik yang berpengaruh pada penampilan dan karakteristik kemis yang berpengaruh pada kualitas tanakan. karakteristik fisik meliputi ukuran butiran, derajat putih, butir kepala, kejernihan butir, aroma, benda asing, dan butir pecah. kualitas kemis meliputi 137 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 kandungan amilosa, suhu gelatinisasi, dan konsistensi jel. kualitas beras ditentukan oleh varietas, keadaan proses produksi dan panen, penanganan pasca panen, penggilingan dan pemasaran. varietas secara langsung menentukan beberapa karakteristik kualitas dan berinteraksi dengan keadaan lingkungan dan pengolahan berpengaruh secara tidak langsung terhadap karakteristik lainnya. secara umum penanganan proses produksi padi organik sampai dengan pasca panen di sragen berbeda dengan pertanian konvensional, terutama pada kelompok tani yang telah bersertifikasi. perbedaan yang sangat nyata terletak pada fungsi kelompok tani yang sangat besar, mulai dari pengelolaan pergiliran penanaman, pemantauan proses produksi, pengelolaan dan penanganan panen, dan pemasaran beras organik. pengelolaan pergiliran tanaman dilakukan oleh kelompok tani untuk menjaga keberlanjutan ketersedian gabah organik dan menghindari terjadinya penumpukkan produksi pada waktu tertentu. walaupun tidak dengan jadwal yang terperinci, namun kelompok tani mengatur saat penanaman padi organik untuk suatu blok sawah tertentu, sehingga ketersediaan padi organik lebih terjaga dan tidak terjadi penumpukkan produksi. pemantauan proses produksi dilakukan untuk menjamin bahwa semua anggota kelompok tani melakukan standar pertanian organik yang telah ditetap oleh kelompok dan memantau perkembangan hama dan penyakit. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa konsumen mempunyai persepsi yang lebih baik terhadap banyaknya butir utuh dibandingkan dengan warna butiran beras (tabel 2). banyaknya butir utuh merupakan karakteristik utama yang digunakan oleh pedagang dan konsumen untuk menilai kualitas beras pada umumnya. tabel 2. evaluasi konsumen terhadap penampilan beras organik no. penampilan beras skor 1 banyaknya butir kepala 2,86 2 warna butiran 2,41 3 banyaknya butir kapur 3,35 4 banyaknya butir coklat 3,48 5 banyaknya benda asing 3,57 rata-rata 3,13 beras organik yang dipasarkan mempunyai kualitas yang beragam ditinjau dari banyaknya butir utuh. sebagian besar konsumen menilai beras organik yang dipasarkan mempunyai jumlah butir utuh dalam kategori sedang sampai dengan banyak. sebagian beras organik yang dipasarkan telah dilakukan penyortiran butir pecah, namun juga dijumpai beras organik yang masih bercampur antara butir pecah dengan butir utuh. pelaku pemasaran melakukan pemilahan butir utuh dari butir pecah bersamaan dengan penggilingan padi. penyortiran tabel 1. profil kepala keluarga dan ibu rumah tangga konsumen no uraian jumlah (jiwa) persentase (%) 1 usia kepala keluarga 20 35 tahun 32 27 36 50 tahun 57 47 51 64 tahun 24 20 65 tahun atau lebih 7 6 2 usia ibu rumah tangga 20 35 tahun 30 25 36 50 tahun 58 48 51 64 tahun 27 23 65 tahun atau lebih 5 4 3 pendidikan kepala keluarga sd 1 1 smp 5 4 sma 44 37 perguruan tinggi 70 58 4 pendidikan ibu rumah tangga sd 3 2,5 smp 3 2,5 sma 58 48 perguruan tinggi 56 47 5 pekerjaan kepala keluarga pns/tni/polri/pensiunan 38 31 karyawan swasta 7 6 karyawan tidak tetap/ buruh 50 42 wiraswasta 20 17 lainnya 5 4 6 pekerjaan ibu rumah tangga pns/tni/polri/pensiunan 25 21 karyawan swasta 8 7 karyawan tidak tetap/ buruh 32 27 wiraswasta 4 3 lainnya 3 2 tidak bekerja 48 40 138 jurnal agraris ini dilakukan oleh pemasok berdasarkan kesepakatan dengan pedagang pengecer beras organik. pedagang pengecer akan melakukan negosiasi ulang terhadap harga apabila ternyata beras yang dikirim oleh pemasok tidak sesuai dengan yang diharapkan. pemasok beras organik yang tidak mempunyai gabah yang baik, sehingga didapatkan butir pecah dengan jumlah yang tinggi, akan menjual beras tersebut tanpa dilakukan pemilahan terlebih dahulu. pedagang pengecer pada umumnya tidak mensyaratkan warna butiran beras organik pada saat melakukan pemesanan dan pembelian beras organik. sebagian besar konsumen menilai beras organik yang dipasarkan mempunyai warna butiran yang cukup putih dan kurang putih. keberagaman warna butiran beras tersebut disebabkan karena faktor cuaca yang menyebabkan petani mengalami kesulitan untuk segera menjemur gabah. pada umumnya konsumen masih mentolerir keadaan warna butiran beras organik. pemasok beras organik mengolah gabah organik untuk mendapatkan beras dengan warna butir yang terbaik yang mampu dihasilkan dari gabah yang tersedia dengan pertimbangan banyaknya butir utuh. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa konsumen menilai butir kapur dan butir coklat pada beras organik yang dipasarkan dalam jumlah yang sangat sedikit dan sedikit. butir kapur dan butir coklat diperoleh dari gabah yang tidak masak sempurna dan atau cacat akibat terserang hama. proses produksi padi organik yang dilakukan dengan pengawasan dan pemantauan secara intensif baik oleh kelompok tani maupun oleh penyuluh. kualitas beras yang rendah akibat tercampur butir kapur atau butir coklat sudah dapat diantisipasi saat pemantauan proses produksi. apabila ternyata gabah yang dihasilkan tidak masak keseluruhan atau ditemukan banyak butir hampa, maka petani diminta untuk menyortir gabah tersebut sampai memenuhi syarat kelompok tani. dengan demikian akan didapatkan beras organik dengan butir kapur dan butir hampa yang sangat sedikit. benda asing merupakan benda bukan beras yang terikut dalam beras. konsumen menilai benda asing yang terikut dalam beras organik yang dipasarkan dalam jumlah sedikit dan sangat sedikit. benda asing biasanya adalah batu kecil yang terikut dalam gabah ketika dipanen, dijemur atau digiling sampai pengemasan. penjemuran gabah dilakukan pada lantai jemur, baik oleh kelompok tani maupun perusahaan pengolah beras organik. penjemuran yang dilakukan demikian ini rawan terjadi kontaminasi benda asing. jika pengolah melakukan sortasi butir pecah, maka butir kapur, butir coklat dan benda asing akan tersortasi bersamaan dengan butir pecah tersebut, sehingga didapatkan beras organik dengan jumlah benda asing yang sangat sedikit. karakteristik hasil tanakan nasi dipengaruhi oleh sifat kimia beras. sifat kimia ini ditentukan oleh varitas padi dan kondisi lingkungan produksi. kandungan amilosa pada beras menentukan volume keterkembangan, konsistensi jel menentukan kekerasan nasi (unnevehr etal, 1992). beras organik yang banyak dipasarkan adalah menthik wangi, menthik susu, pandan wangi dan ir64. varitas menthik wangi merupakan varitas lokal yang dicirikan dengan aroma wangi yang khas, nasi pulen. beras menthik susu mempunyai warna putih seperti beras ketan, beraroma wangi sebagaimana menthik wangi, nasi pulen. pandan wangi merupakan varitas lokal yang beraroma pandan, nasi pulen, sedangkan ir 64 merupakan varitas baru yang tidak beraroma wangi. konsumen menilai beras organik yang dipasarkan mempunyai karakteristik tekstur dan katahanan simpan yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan karakteristik aroma, volume keterkembangan dan rasa manis (tabel 3). beras organik merupakan beras yang dihasilkan dari proses produksi pertanian dengan pengawasan yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan nonorganik. pengawasan proses produksi yang lebih baik tersebut akan menghasilkan butiran beras yang lebih baik, sehingga nasi yang dihasilkan dari beras organik mempunyai karakteristik ketahanan simpan yang baik. varitas padi organik pada umumnya merupakan varitas menengah sampai dengan varitas super, misalnya menthik, menthik wangi, atau menthik susu. dengan demikian nasi yang dihasilkan dari beras organik mempunyai tekstur yang pulen. tabel 3. evaluasi konsumen terhadap karakateristik hasil tanakan nasi beras organik no. karakteristik tanakan skor 1 kepulenan/tekstur nasi 2,72 2 aroma nasi 2,50 3 volume keterkembangan nasi 2,44 4 rasa manis nasi 2,64 5 ketahanan simpan nasi 2,84 rata-rata 2,63 139 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 persepsi konsumen terhadap beras organik salah satu fungsi keluarga adalah fungsi ekonomi yaitu fungsi untuk menyediakan kebutuhan fisik yang cukup dan memadai bagi semua anggota keluarga. keluarga berkewajiban untuk menyediakan makanan, minuman, pakaian, rumah, pemeliharaan kesehatan, pendidikan. dalam penelitian ini kepedulian konsumen didekati dengan 3 pernyataan yang diukur dengan skala likert. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa semua responden konsumen beras organik mempunyai kepedulian yang tinggi terhadap pentingnya makanan untuk memelihara kesehatan anggota keluarganya (tabel 4). tabel 4. persepsi konsumen terhadap peranan makanan bagi kesehatan keluarga no. pernyataan skor 1 makanan berpengaruh terhadap kesehatan keluarga 4,83 2 makanan bergizi penting bagi keluarga 4,74 3 makanan yang terbebas dari zat berbahaya penting bagi keluarga 4,20 rata-rata 4,59 menurut sni 6729-2010, pertanian organik dilakukan dengan mengelola ekosistem untuk mencapai kesuburan berkelanjutan. kesuburan tanah dijaga dan ditingkatkan dengan mengoptimalkan aktivitas biologi tanah, sedangkan manajemen hama dan penyakit dilakukan dengan merangsang hubungan seimbang antara inang/ predator, pengendalian biologi, dan peningkatan populasi serangga yang menguntungkan. dalam prakteknya pertanian organik dipahami sebagai pertanian yang tidak menggunakan pupuk dan pestisida sintesis. pertanian organik diyakini sebagai proses yang bersih sehingga menghasilkan produk yang bersih dari residu. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa beras organik dipersepsikan oleh konsumen sebagai produk yang terbebas dari zat berbahaya, menghasilkan produk yang berasa lebih enak dan lebih bergizi, walaupun penampilan secara fisik produknya kurang baik, bahkan konsumen merasa sulit untuk mendapatkan di pasaran dengan harga yang mahal pula (tabel 5). hasil penelitian ini sesuai dengan pernyataan sangkumchaliang dan huang (2012) bahwa produk organik dipersepsikan oleh sebagian besar konsumen sebagai produk yang ramah lingkungan, produk yang sehat, tidak membawa residu pestisida, pertanian organik tidak menggunakan pestisida sintesis. tabel 5. persepsi konsumen terhadap pertanian organik no. pernyataan persepsi konsumen skor 1 produk pertanian organik terbebas dari zat berbahaya 4,38 2 produk pertanian organik terasa lebih enak 4,26 3 produk pertanian organik lebih bergizi 4,29 4 produk pertanian organik lebih mahal 2,20 5 produk pertanian organik lebih sulit diperoleh 2,60 6 penampilan fisik produk pertanian organik lebih baik 3,62 rata-rata 3,56 produk pertanian organik tidak mudah dibedakan dengan produk pertanian konvensional, karena yang membedakan antara keduanya adalah proses produksi pertanian yang dilakukan oleh petani dan juga proses pengolahan pasca panennya. selama proses produksi pertanian organik sangat rentan terhadap penyimpangan standar yang dapat dilakukan oleh petani, pengolah hasil, dan juga oleh pedagang beras organik. berbagai penyimpangan yang mungkin dilakukan tersebut hampir tidak mungkin dapat diketahui oleh konsumen jika hanya mendasarkan pada produknya semata. oleh karenanya tingkat kemurnian produk organik didasarkan pada perkiraan konsumen terhadap proses produksi dan pengolahan pasca panen. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa konsumen beras organik petani, pedagang beras organik telah melakukan proses yang sesuai dengan standar praktek pertanian organik sehingga beras yang dihasilkan juga dipersepsikan telah memenuhi standar organik (tabel 6). tabel 6. persepsi konsumen terhadap tingkat kemurnian beras organik no. pernyataan persepsi konsumen skor 1 petani padi telah melakukan proses produksi sesuai standar organik 3,61 2 beras organik telah memenuhi standar produk organik 4,01 3 pedagang tidak melakukan pencampuran beras organik dengan nonorganik 3,47 rata rata 3,70 beberapa penelitian menunjukkan karakteristik etis produk pertanian organik merupakan faktor yang mendorong pembelian produk pertanian organik. gianluigi et al (2009) menyatakan pertimbangan etis adalah akibat yang lebih baik dari konsumsi produk 140 jurnal agraris organik, sedangkan zander dan hamm (2010) menggunakan pendekatan karakteristik etik sebagai keselamatan hewan, diproduksi secara regional, harga yang adil untuk petani, diproduksi pada usahatani yang berhati-hati, dan melindungi biodiversitas. dalam penelitian ini kepedulian konsumen terhadap kesehatan lingkungan, didekati dengan 4 pernyataan yang berkaitan dengan akibat yang baik dari praktek pertanian organik. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa konsumen beras organik mempunyai kepedulian yang tinggi terhadap kesehatan lingkungan pertanian (tabel 7). dengan membeli beras organik, konsumen berharap petani dapat mengurangi penggunaan pupuk an-organik dan pestisida kimia sintesis, meningkatkan penggunaan pupuk organik dan pestisida alami. konsumen berharap dapat membantu meningkatkan kualitas lingkungan lahan pertanian dan mengurangi resiko keracunan akibat penggunaan pupuk dan pestisida kimia sintesis. tabel 7. kepedulian konsumen terhadap kesehatan lingkungan pertanian no. pernyataan persepsi konsumen skor 1 hendaknya membantu petani mengurangi penggunaan pupuk kimia 4,13 2 hendaknya membantu petani memperbanyak pemakaian pupuk organik untuk meningkatkan kesuburan tanah 3,66 3 hendaknya membantu petani memperbanyak pemakaian pestisidahayati untuk meningkatkan kehidupan mikroba tanah 4,30 4 hendaknya membantu petani mengurangi pemakaian pestisida kimia untuk menurunkan risiko keracunan 4,24 rata rata 4,08 perilaku konsumsi beras organik proses pengambilan keputusan konsumen akan menghasilkan dua macam aktivitas pasca keputusan, yaitu perilaku pembelian dan evaluasi pasca pembelian. konsumen membuat tiga macam pembelian, yaitu pembelian coba-coba (trial), pembelian berulang, dan pembelian komitmen jangka panjang. pembelian cobacoba ditandai dengan jumlah yang lebih sedikit dari kebutuhan sesungguhnya, dilakukan pada saat pertama kali melakukan pembelian suatu produk yang digunakan oleh konsumen untuk menilai produk tersebut. jika konsumen merasa puas terhadap produk tersebut, maka konsumen akan melakukan pembelian ulang yang biasanya dilakukan dalam jumlah yang lebih besar. tabel 8. perilaku konsumsi dan minat konsumen beras organik no uraian jumlah (jiwa) persentase (%) 1 jumlah pembelian sebulan 5 10 kg 39 33 11 15 kg 50 42 16 20 kg 25 21 lebih dari 20 kg 5 4 2 proporsi konsumsi beras organik semua beras organik 46 39 lebih banyak beras organik 31 26 separoh konsumsi adalah beras organik 29 24 lebih sedikit beras organik 13 11 3 preferensi konsumen terhadap beras organik sama atau kurang suka 32 27 lebih suka beras organik 87 73 mayoritas konsumen mengkonsumsi beras organik sebanyak antara 5–15 kg (tabel 8). dilihat dari proporsi konsumsi beras organik dapat dikatakan bahwa lebih dari 60% konsumen masih membeli beras organik dan nonorganik untuk memenuhi kebutuhannya. namun demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa konsumsi beras organik lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan beras nonorganik. preferensi konsumen terhadap pangan secara umum dipengaruhi oleh faktor sosial demografis dan faktor psikologis. secara khusus preferensi konsumen terhadap pangan organik dipengaruhi oleh kepedulian terhadap gizi keluarga (rimal, 2002), faktor kepercayaan bahwa produk yang dikonsumsinya diproduksi secara organik (shepherd etal, 2005), dan juga kepedulian terhadap kesehatan lingkungan. hasil analisis preferensi konsumen disajikan dalam tabel 9 berikut. hasil analisis diperoleh nilai chi kuadrat model sebesar 78,995. analisis ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel yang dipergunakan dalam model preferensi secara signifikan berpengaruh nyata terhadap variasi preferensi konsumen. semua variabel mempunyai nilai koefisien regresi yang bertanda positif. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan nilai variabel akan menyebabkan peningkatan preferensi konsumen terhadap beras organik. hasil analisis menunjukkan nilai r2 sebesar 0,482 yang menyatakan bahwa variabel yang digunakan sebagai penduga dalam penelitian ini mampu 141 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 menjelaskan variasi variabel bebas sebesar 48,2%. hasil analisis menunjukkan juga bahwa variabel kepedulian terhadap keluarga mempunyai nilai koefisien regresi tertinggi, yaitu 2,684. nilai koefisien regresi ini menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan skor kepedulian terhadap keluarga sebesar 1 satuan akan meningkatkan nilai odds preferensi konsumen sebesar 14,651 kali. kesimpulan mayoritas konsumen beras organik berasal dari keluarga berpendapatan tetap, berpendidikan cukup tinggi, dengan ukuran keluarga yang kecil. konsumen memberikan penilaian terhadap kualitas tampilan dan kualitas hasil tanakan beras organik dalam katagori sedang. dengan demikian, beras organik tidak termasuk dalam katagori beras kualitas premium. konsumen beras organik mempunyai kepedulian yang tinggi terhadap keluarga, persepsi terhadap tingkat kemurnian yang tinggi, dan kepedulian terhadap kesehatan lingkungan pertanian yang tinggi. namun, konsumen masih mempunyai persepsi terhadap praktek pertanian organik yang dalam katagori sedang. hasil pertanian organik masih dipersepsikan sebagai produk yang mempunyai harga yang mahal. namun, mayoritas konsumen lebih suka beras organik dari pada beras anorganik. preferensi konsumen terhadap beras organik akan meningkat apabila terjadi peningkatan kepedulian konsumen terhadap keluarga, persepsi terhadap tingkat kemurnian, kepedulian terhadap kesehatan lingkungan pertanian, dan persepsi terhadap praktek pertanian organik untuk memperluas pasar beras organik diperlukan upaya untuk meningkatkan kepedulian konsumen terhadap berbagai dampak positif yang ditimbulkan dari praktek pertanian organik. untuk itu maka diperlukan upaya untuk lebih menyebar luaskan informasi tentang kemanfaatan pertanian organik secara terpadu dalam pemasaran beras organik. daftar pustaka badan standardisasi nasional. 2015. sni 6729-2010 sistem pangan organik (online). diakses 9 februari 2015. www.bsn.go.id biao, x., xiaorong, w., zhuhong, d., & yaping, y. 2003. critical impact assessment of organic agriculture. journal of agricultural and environmental ethics 16: 297-311. canavari, m., gazzani, g. m., spadoni, r, & regazzi, d. 2002. food safety and organic fruit demand in italy: a survey. british food journal 104 (3-5): 220-232. connor, r., & douglas, l. 2002. consumer attitudes to organic foods. nutrition and food science 31 (4/5): 254-258. engel, j. f., blackwell, r. d., & miniard, p. w. 1993. perilaku konsumen: edisi 6. binarupa aksara, jakarta. fotopoulos, christos, & krystallis, a. 2002. purchasing motives and profile the greek organic consumer: a countrywide survey. british food journal 104 (8/9): 730-765. gianluigi, g., prete, m. i., peluso, a. m., r. maloumby-baka, c., & buffa, c. 2009. the role of ethics and product personality in intention to purchase organic food products: a structural equation modeling approach. int rev econ. ifoam, 2009. the 2009 annual report (online). diakses 17 februari 2010. www.ifoam.org. malhotra, n. m. 2004. marketing research: an applied orientation, fourth edition. prentice hall, saddle river, nj. peter, & olson. 1996. consumer behavior. mcgraw hill co. ricciuto, l., tarasuk, v., & yatchew, a. 2006. socio-demographic influence on food purchasing among canadian koueholds. european journal of clinical science 60: 778-790. rimal, a. p. 2002. factors affecting meat preferences among american consumers. family economics and nutrition review 14 (2): 36-43. schiffman, l. g., & kanuk, l. l. 1997. consumer behavior: 6th edition. prentice hall international, inc. shepherd, richard, magnusson, m., & sjoden, p. 2005. determinant of consumer behaviour related to organic foods. ambio 34 (4/5): 352-359. sangkumchaliang, parichard, & huang, w. c. 2012. consumers’ perceptions and attitudes of organic food products in northern thailand. international foods and agribusiness management review 15: 87-102. unnevehr, l. j., duff, b., & juliano, b. o.1992. consumer demand for rice grain quality: introduction and major finding. dalam consumer demand for rice grain quality. irri, manila. tabel 9. analisis preferensi konsumen terhadap beras organik variabel koefisien regresi nilai z signifikansi eksponensial persepsi mutu beras organik 2,248 5,349 ,021 9,471 kepedulian terhadap kesehatan lingkungan hidup 1,961 6,168 ,013 7,105 kesadaran pada makanan keluarga 2,684 8,061 ,005 14,651 persepsi pada produk organik 2,072 3,538 ,060 7,941 constant -35,584 25,948 ,000 ,000 chi kuadrat = 78,995 cox & snell r2 = 0,482   142 jurnal agraris zander, katrin, & hamm, u. 2010. consumer preference for additional ethical attributes of organic food. food quality and preference 21: 495 – 503. pengantar juli 2016.pmd elvin desi martauli mahasiswa pascasarjana magister sains agribisnis, fem, ipb lukman m. baga, anna fariyanti staf pengajar departemen agribisnis, fem, ipb elvindesi@ymail.com faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja usaha wanita wirausaha kerupuk udang di provinsi jambi abstract the purpose of this research is to analyze the relationship of personal characteristics on the entrepreneurial behavior and factors affecting the business performance of prawn crackers women entrepreneurs in jambi province. this study was conducted using a survey in two regencies in the jambi province. the method of analysis used in the study is structural equation modelling (sem) with partial least square (pls) approach. the results shows i) training, business experience, education, and family background positively significant affect to the entrepreneurial behavior (including motivation, innovation and risk taking decision); ii) business performance is influenced by personal characteristics, entrepreneurial behavior, internal environment and the external environment. personal characteristic of women entrepreneur on prawn crackers business in jambi province is the most influence factor on woman business performance. keywordskeywordskeywordskeywordskeywords: business performances, internal and external environment, women entrepreneurs intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis hubungan karakteristik personal dengan perilaku kewirausahaan dan menganalisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kinerja usaha wanita wirausaha kerupuk udang di provinsi jambi. penelitian ini dilakukan dengan metode survey di dua kabupaten di provinsi jambi. metode analisis yang digunakan yaitu structural equation modelling (sem) dengan pendekatan partial least square (pls). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa i) pelatihan, pengalaman bisnis, pendidikan, dan latar belakang keluarga berpengaruh positif terhadap perilaku kewirausahaan (motivasi, inovasi dan berani mengambil risiko); ii) kinerja usaha dipengaruhi oleh karakteristik personal, kewirausahaan, lingkungan internal, dan lingkungan eksternal. karakteristik personal wanita wirausaha pada pada usaha kerupuk udang di provinsi jambi merupakan variabel yang paling penting dalam mempengaruhi kinerja usaha wanita wirausaha. kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: kinerja usaha, lingkungan eksternal dan internal, wanita wirausaha pendahuluan pengembangan sektor usaha mikro kecil dan menengah (umkm) merupakan salah satu upaya untuk dapat mempercepat pembangunan di suatu negara. di indonesia, meningkatnya peran dan kegiatan usaha sektor ini terlihat pada saat indonesia mengalami krisis ekonomi di tahun 1997. pada masa tersebut umkm mampu bertahan dan menunjukkan perkembangan yang pesat dalam membantu perekomian indonesia ke arah yang lebih stabil. hal ini sesuai dengan penelitian yang dilakukan oleh demirbag et. al. (2006) bahwa keberhasilan sektor usaha kecil dan menengah memberikan dampak yang postitif terhadap pembangunan doi:10.18196/agr.2232 119 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 ekonomi di negara maju maupun berkembang. sektor usaha kecil dan menengah akan memiliki kemampuan dalam menciptakan lapangan pekerjaan dengan biaya minimum. usaha kecil dan menengah dapat menjadi pelopor dalam berinovasi bagi dunia dengan memiliki fleksibilitas tinggi dalam memberikan pelayanan yang terbaik bagi konsumennya. jumlah usaha umkm yang ada di indonesia terus mengalami peningkatan, pada tahun 2013 berjumlah 56 juta unit usaha, namun tidak semua usaha diperhitungkan sebagai wirausaha. menurut penilaian kemenkop jumlah wirausaha di negara ini hanya 1,65% dari total seluruh penduduk indonesia sebesar 250 juta jiwa (sasongko, 2015). jumlah ini masih lebih rendah dari jumlah wirausaha minimal yang harus ada dalam suatu negara, yakni 2% dari total penduduk david mcclelland (kemenristek, 2012). dengan demikian indonesia masih perlu mendorong penduduknya untuk mengembangkan wirausaha. berdasarkan pengelompokan usaha, umkm pengolahan makanan dan minuman merupakan sektor usaha yang memiliki jumlah terbanyak dari total umkm, yaitu sebesar 34,94% (bps, 2014). pengolahan makanan dan minuman merupakan produk yang banyak diminati, memiliki daya serap pasar cukup tinggi, dan sampai pada saat ini belum mengalami titik jenuh walaupun pertumbuhannya lambat, hanya sekitar 4% (bukhari, 2013). usaha pengolahan hasil pertanian maupun perikanan berupa produk olahan makanan (pangan) merupakan usaha yang banyak digeluti oleh wanita wirausaha. menurut laporan kementerian luar negeri (2010), jumlah wanita wirausaha di indonesia berada pada urutan ketiga di wilayah asia pasifik. meningkatnya peran dan partisipasi wanita dalam dunia bisnis bukan sebuah fenomena baru, tetapi peran wanita telah terjadi di seluruh dunia (kumbhar, 2013). wanita wirausaha merupakan sumber daya manusia (sdm) yang berperan penting bagi suatu negara. peran wanita ini dapat dijadikan sebagai mediator dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi serta pembangunan ekonomi melalui kegiatan kewirausahaan (kumbhar, 2013). provinsi jambi merupakan salah satu provinsi di indonesia yang berada di wilayah sumatera, yang dikenal sebagai penghasil kerupuk udang. sentra pembuatan kerupuk udang di provinsi jambi berada di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur dan kabupaten tanjung jabung barat, dengan produksi perikanan laut (udang dan jenis ikan lainnya) yang cukup tinggi, sebesar 22.346,70 ton/ tahun di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat dan 26.907,62 ton/tahun di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur (dinas perikanan dan kelautan provinsi jambi, 2015). sejalan dengan tingginya produksi, jumlah dari wanita wirausaha di kedua kabupaten mengalami peningkatan, dari 60 orang wanita wirausaha pada tahun 2011 menjadi 105 orang pada tahun 2013 (desprindag kab. tanjung jabung timur dan barat, 2013). dengan ketersediaan bahan baku yang cukup, keinginan wanita untuk dapat menambah penghasilan bagi keluarga dan mencari kesibukan lain di luar kegiatan sebagai ibu rumah tangga, serta adanya dukungan pemerintah setempat melalui program wanita wirausaha, motivasi wanita untuk dapat berwirausaha di kedua kabupaten ini menjadi tinggi. hal ini ditunjukkan dari keterlibatan wanita dalam beberapa program yang telah dilakukan pemerintah, misalnya program pelatihan dan pendampingan. namun, fakta di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa kegiatan usaha yang ditekuni wanita belum mengalami perkembangan yang signifikan, sehingga perlu dikaji faktor-faktor apa yang mempengaruhi kinerja usaha yang ditekuni wanita. sementara ini, teknologi yang masih sederhana dan masih kurangnya wilayah pemasaran diduga menjadi faktor yang menyebabkan kinerja usaha wanita wirausaha belum berkembang. dalam mengembangkan usaha, wanita wirausaha membutuhkan kemampuan bersaing, kemampuan memanfaatkan teknologi, dan kemampuan berinovasi sehingga dapat meningkatkan kinerja usahanya. wanita wirausaha pada umumnya masih menggunakan teknologi yang sederhana/manual, mengalami keterbatasan modal, menghadapi pasar yang belum memadai padahal bahan baku tersedia cukup banyak. di sisi lain, keragaman jenis pelatihan yang diberikan oleh pemerintah tidak diimbangi dengan promosi, sehingga wanita wirausaha sulit untuk dapat memasarkan hasil produksinya. namun, pengalaman wanita wirausaha yang telah cukup banyak di bidang usaha yang digeluti, dapat menjadi asset yang dimiliki oleh wanita wirausaha. pengetahuan dan pengalaman dalam menjalankan usaha merupakan peluang besar dalam pengembangan usaha. melalui pengalaman seseorang dapat belajar banyak hal, karena bila hanya dengan satu pengalaman seorang wirausaha tidak akan sanggup menghadapi, memecahkan permasalahan, dan mencapai peluang yang akan dihadapi (dirlanudin, 2010). munizu (2010) melakukan penelitian pengaruh faktor eksternal dan internal terhadap strategi bisnis dan pertumbuhan umkm. faktor lingkungan 120 jurnal agraris eksternal terdiri dari aspek kebijakan pemerintah pada sektor usaha kecil dan menengah, aspek sosial, budaya, dan ekonomi, serta aspek peranan lembaga terkait; sedangkan faktor lingkungan internal terdiri dari aspek keuangan, aspek teknis produksi dan operasi, aspek pasar dan pemasaran, serta kinerja usaha terdiri dari pertumbuhan penjualan, pertumbuhan modal, pertumbuhan pasar, pertumbuhan laba. dari hasil penelitiannya munizu (2010) menemukan bahwa: i) karakteristik individu manajer/pemilik, karakteristik usaha, lingkungan eksternal bisnis, dampak kebijakan ekonomi dan sosial memiliki pengaruh langsung secara positif, dan signifikan terhadap strategi bisnis serta pertumbuhan usaha; ii) usaha kecil dan mikro akan tumbuh pada lingkungan usaha dengan aturan/kebijakan mendukung dan informasi yang dapat dipercaya. kebijakan yang mendukung memungkinkan usaha dapat dikelola dengan baik dan stabil. sementara informasi yang dapat dipercaya dan mudah diakses akan berdampak pada keberhasilan usaha. tulisan ini mencoba untuk menguji keterkaitan antara faktor-faktor faktor eksternal dan internal perilaku kewirausahaan dengan kinerja usaha pada usaha kerupuk udang di provinsi jambi. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di dua kabupaten di provinsi jambi, yaitu di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur dan kabupaten tanjung jabung barat, yang merupakan sentra pengolahan kerupuk udang di provinsi jambi. dari dua kabupaten yang dipilih sebagai lokasi penelitian, dipilih kecamatan muara sabak dan kecamatan tungkal ilir. kegiatan pengumpulan data dalam penelitian dilakukan pada bulan juni 2015-agustus 2015. jenis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data primer dan sekunder. sumber data primer diperoleh melalui wawancara langsung dengan wanita wirausaha pemilik usaha, serta penggalian informasi dari petugas pembinaan wanita wirausaha dari dinas desperindag setempat, sedangkan data sekunder diperoleh dari dinas desperindag, dan dinas perikanan dan kelautan, dinas koperasi dan umkm serta badan pusat statistik. seluruh wanita wirausaha yang mengusahakan udang di dua kecamatan terpilih, yakni sebanyak 105 orang dijadikan responden. data yang diperoleh dalam penelitian ini adalah data kualitatif dan kuantitatif. data kualitatif dianalisis secara deskriptif, yaitu mendeskriptifkan karakteristik responden; sedangkan data kuantitatif dianalisis menggunakan equation modelling (sem) dengan pendekatan partial least square (pls). pendekatan partial least square (pls) digunakan untuk melihat pengaruh dari variabel laten karakteristik personal, lingkungan internal, lingkungan eksternal, dan perilaku kewirausahaan terhadap kinerja usaha. metode structural equation modelling (sem) dengan pendekatan partial least square (pls) adalah metode analisis yang powerfull karena tidak didasarkan banyak asumsi. data yang digunakan tidak harus berdistribusi normal; dapat digunakan untuk data dengan skala pengukuran ordinal, interval dan rasio; dan sampel tidak harus besar (latan dan ghazali, 2012). metode analisis ini dapat digunakan untuk permodelan struktural dengan indikator yang bersifat reflektif maupun formatif. interpretasi hasil analisis data menggunakan pls-sem dilakukan berdasarkan dua tahapan model, yaitu dengan melakukan evaluasi model pengukuran dan evaluasi model struktural (latan dan ghazali, 2012). tujuan analisis sem dengan pendekatan pls dipergunakan untuk mengembangkan dan memprediksi teori, sedangkan structure equation model (sem) yang bersifat kovarian memiliki tujuan mengkonfirmasi dan menguji teori yang tersedia. selain itu, sem-pls dipergunakan untuk menguji variabel laten endogenous atau mengidentifikasi variabel dalam riset jika riset tersebut adalah riset eksploratori atau perluasan dari teori yang ada. hasil dan pembahasan profil responden usaha kerupuk udang usaha mikro kecil (umk) pangan olahan perikanan kerupuk udang yang terdapat di wilayah kabupaten tanjung jabung timur dijalankan oleh wanita wirausaha dengan usia lebih tua dibandingkan dengan wanita wirausaha yang ada di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat. wanita wirausaha kabupaten tanjung jabung timur mayoritas berusia di atas 40 tahun (44,83%); sedangkan di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat berusia di antara 2630 tahun (42,55%). perbedaan usia ini mengindikasikan terdapatnya perbedaan minat untuk berwirausaha di dua kabupaten tersebut, di kabupaten jabung timur wanita sudah berminat berwirausaha sejak berusia masih muda. wanita wirausaha kerupuk udang di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat memiliki tingkat pendidikan formal lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan wanita 121 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 wirausaha di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur. proporsi wanita wirausaha berpendidikan sma di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat lebih tinggi (53,19%) dari pada wanita wirausaha di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur (25,85%). lebih tingginya pendidikan formal wanita wirausaha di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat memungkinkan wirausaha di wilayah tersebut lebih mudah dalam mengadopsi teknologi. menurut welter dan smallbone (2011), pendidikan dan pengetahuan yang memadai dapat membantu seorang wirausaha untuk lebih mudah beradaptasi dengan lingkungannya. dengan modal pendidikan, wirausaha dapat mengeksploitasi variabel laten variabel indikator loading factor t-value karakterisik personal (kp) pendidikan (kp.01) 0,562 20,19 latar belakang keluarga (kp.02) 0,771 21,67 pengalaman (kp.03) 0,840 29,55 pelatihan (kp.04) 0,910 23,34 lingkungan internal (li) aspek keuangan modal sendiri (li.01) 0,863 23,31 modal pinjaman (li.02) 0,481 9,21 tingkat keuntungan dan akumulasi modal (li.03) 0,766 11,69 membedakan pengeluaran pribadi/keluarga (li.04) 0,775 17,06 aspek teknis dan operasional tersedianya mesin dan peralatan (li.05) 0,547 8,54 ketersediaan bahan baku (li.06) 0,895 25,12 kapasitas produksi (li.07) 0,649 15,41 aspek pasar dan pemasaran harga bersaing (li.08) 0,743 15,86 permintaan pasar (li.09) 0,856 17,54 kegiatan promosi (li.10) 0,561 10,32 saluran distribusi dan wilayah pemasaran (li.11) 0,605 9,45 perilaku kewirausahaan (pk) risiko (pk.01) 0,889 30,24 motivasi (pk.02) 0,921 35,94 inovasi (pk.03) 0,707 28,54 kinerja usaha (ku) pertumbuhan modal 0,682 68,09 pendapatan usaha 0,834 19,60 volume penjualan 0,870 22,52 wilayah pemasaran 0.605 8,54     lingkungan eksternal (le) aspek kebijakan pemerintah akses permodalan dan pembiayaan (le.01) 0,237 5,22 kegiatan pembinaan melalui skpd (le.02) 0,873 53,65 peraturan dan regulasi pro bisnis (le.03) 0,792 19,35 penyiapan lokasi usaha dan informasi (le.04) 0,320 14,06 aspek sosial budaya dan ekonomi tingkat pendapatan masyarakat (le.05) 0,832 22,74 tersedianya lapangan pekerjaan (le.06) 0,628 31,36 iklim usaha dan investasi (le.07) 0,874 26,34 pertumbuhan ekonomi (le.08) 0,598 14,06 aspek peranan lembaga terkait akses modal lembaga terkait (le.09) 0,036 4,31 monitoring dan evaluasi (le.10) 0,788 24,93 pendampingan (le.11) 0,770 16,76 kinerja usaha (ku) pertumbuhan modal (ku.01) 0,682 12,43 pendapatan (ku.02) 0,837 44,46 volume penjualan (ku.03) 0,871 39,21 wilayah pemasaran (ku.04) 0,605 13,93 table 1. hasil penilaian terhadap variabel manifest dan t-value faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja usaha 122 jurnal agraris peluang, lebih mudah menyesuaikan diri dengan struktur kelembagaan yang berubah-ubah, dan mudah melakukan kontak bisnis dalam membangun jaringan sosial untuk mengatasi hambatan dalam kelembagaan. secara keseluruhan jumlah tanggungan keluarga wanita wirausaha antara 4 sampai 8 orang merupakan jumlah tanggungan keluarga yang paling dominan, namun jumlah tanggungan keluarga wanita wirausaha di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur relatif lebih sedikit dibandingkan di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat. di kabupaten tanjung timur didominasi wanita wirausaha dengan jumlah tanggungan kurang dari 4 orang (41,38%); sedangkan di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat didominasi wanita wirausaha dengan jumlah tanggungan 4-8 orang (73,8%). pengalaman kerja berperan dalam mempengaruhi seorang wanita untuk dapat berwirausaha. sebagian besar wanita wirausaha belum pernah bekerja, yakni 58,62% di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur dan 69,05% di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat. artinya, pengalaman kerja wanita wirausaha di kabupaten tanjung jabung timur lebih tinggi dibandingkan di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat. sejumlah 41,38% wanita wirausaha di tanjung jabung timur pernah bekerja di sektor swasta, sedangkan di tanjung jabung barat hanya sebesar 28,57% yang pernah bekerja di sektor swasta, dan 2,38% lainnya pernah bekerja di sektor pemerintah. evaluasi model pengukuran evaluasi model pengukuran (outer model) merupakan tahap untuk memastikan bahwa konstruk yang digunakan pada penelitian ini memenuhi kriteria validitas dan reliabilitas. model pengukuran pls-sem digunakan untuk mengukur hubungan setiap indikator (manifest) dengan variabel latennya. evaluasi nilai nilai loading factor merupakan langkah pertama yang dilakukan dalam evaluasi model pengukuran. nilai dari loading factor (ë) yang diperoleh menjadi tolak ukur dalam melakukan penilaian kebaikan dari model, dengan mengeluarkan nilai loading factor yang kurang dari 0,5. hasil evaluasi model pengukuran yang dapat dilihat pada gambar 1, menunjukkan bahwa terdapat tiga indikator yang memiliki nilai loading factor kurang dari 0.5 yaitu modal pinjaman (li.02) dari lingkungan internal; penyiapan lokasi usaha dan informasi (le.04), akses permodalan dan pembiayaan (le.01) dari lingkungan eksternal. pada evaluasi model pengukuran (measurement model) untuk mengetahui apakah suatu indikator (variabel manifest) yang digunakan dalam penelitian benar-benar dapat mengukur variabel laten atau konstruknya, salah gambar 1. tampilan hasil pls-sem algorithm pada model tahap awal 123 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 satunya yaitu dengan menilai tingkat validitas indikator melalui loading factor (latan dan ghazali, 2012). pada tabel 1 ini akan ditampilkan hasil penilaian evaluasi model dengan melihat loading factor dan t-value dengan alat bantu software smart pls 2.0. evaluasi model strukutural evaluasi model struktural (inner model) dilakukan setelah dihasilkan model akhir yang telah dianggap valid dan reliabel. tujuan dari dilakukannya evaluasi model struktural yaitu untuk dapat melihat hubungan antar variabel laten, salah satunya dilakukan dengan melihat dari hasil estimasi koefisien parameter jalur dan tingkat signifikan (latan dan ghazali, 2012). uji signifikansi hubungan antar variabel laten merupakan tahap akhir dalam evaluasi model struktural. pengaruh karakteristik personal terhadap perilaku kewirausahaan hasil analisis pls-sem pada model struktural, menunjukkan bahwa masing-masing zona signifikan dibentuk oleh karakteristik ruang, karakteristik usaha, dan karakteristik pelaku usaha. hal ini karena, nilai tvalue yang diperoleh dari masing-masing karakteristik zona, lebih besar dari 1,96 (tabel 2). tabel 2. koefisien jalur dan t-value hipotesis nilai koefisien t-hitung ling. eksternal -> ling. internal 0,811 36,65* ling. eksternal -> kinerja usaha 0,452 8,99* ling. eksternal -> pk -0,161 1,25 ling. internal -> kinerja usaha 0,207 4,38* lingkungan internal -> perilaku 0,494 7,54* kp -> kinerja usaha 0,238 3,80* kp -> pk 0,564 5,35* pk -> kinerja usaha 0,133 2,78* *t(0,05): 1,96   hasil uji hipotesis pada tabel 5 menunjukkan bahwa hubungan antar laten yang dibangun memiliki pengaruh yang signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 0,05; pada kinerja usaha signifikan dipengaruhi oleh karakteristik personal dengan atributnya pendidikan (kp.01), latar belakang keluarga (kp.02), pengalaman (kp.03), pelatihan (kp.04). di antara atribut-atribut karakteristik personal tersebut, pelatihan dan pengalaman bisnis merupakan variabel yang dominan mempengaruhi perilaku kewirausahaan. hal ini dikarenakan kedua atribut tersebut memiliki nilai loading factor paling besar (ë=0,840; 0,910). dari pengalaman bisnis wanita wirausaha menjalankan kegiatan usaha kerupuk udang ini, rata-rata berkisar antara 5-7 tahun. dari pengalaman yang cukup ini, wanita wirausaha dapat lebih memahami manajemen dalam menjalankan usaha serta berhati-hati dalam mengambil sebuah keputusan untuk dapat menghidari risiko-risiko dalam usahanya. ini terlihat dari kualitas kerupuk udang yang dihasilkan oleh wanita wirausaha, sebagai dampak dari pelatihan yang diikuti misalnya memilih udang yang berkualitas, pengendalian pengendalian mutu kerupuk melalui proses produksi sebagai berikut: i) mixing yaitu pencampuran udang, tepung, dan bumbu-bumbu dengan perbandingan 1:1 untuk lebih dapat meningkatkan rasa, kekenyalan dan pengembangan volume adonan; ii) pemotongan menggunakan peralatan pisau dan talenan yang terbut dari kayu, karena wanita wirausaha telah mengetahui tebal tipisnya kerupuk udang yang diproduksi; iii) penebaran kerupuk udang untuk dijemur menggunakan rak-rak dari kayu dan bambu yang dilapisi kawat maupun plastik; iv) pengemasan menggunakan plastik standar sni untuk menjaga kerupuk agar tahan lebih lama. akan tetapi hanya sedikit dari wanita wirausaha yang telah menggunakan label irt. pelatihan memiliki nilai loading factor yang paling tinggi dalam mempengaruhi perilaku kewirausahaan (inovasi, motivasi dan risiko). pelatihan yang diikuti oleh wanita wirausaha antara lain “pelatihan kewirausahaan mitra binaan usaha kecil dan menengah (ukm)” yang dalam kegiatan tersebut wanita wirausaha dilatih dalam: i) pembuatan kerupuk udang; ii) pengendalian mutu; iii) pemilihan kualitas bahan baku yang benar. selain itu, latar belakang keluarga memiliki nilai loading factor (0,771) yang menunjukkan bahwa dukungan keluarga untuk menjalankan usaha menyebabkan motivasi wanita wirausaha menjadi tinggi. hal ini sesuai dengan penelitian sanputi (2010) yang mengungkapkan dorongan berbentuk motivasi yang kuat untuk maju dari pihak keluarga merupakan modal awal untuk menjadi seorang wirausaha. selain itu, terdapat sekitar 9% dari wanita wirausaha menjalankan usaha kerupuk udang ini merupakan turunan dari keluarganya. di sisi lain, wanita wirausaha memulai usaha untuk meningkatkan pendapatan yang tidak mencukupi untuk menopang kebutuhan keluarganya. sementara itu, pendidikan merupakan atribut yang paling rendah dari karakteristik personal yang mempengaruhi perilaku kewirausahaan 124 jurnal agraris dengan ë=0,562. ini berarti tingkat pendidikan wanita wirausaha di kabupaten tanjung jabung barat memiliki tingkat pendidikan sma dan kabupaten tanjung jabung timur yaitu tingkat smp. artinya dengan pendidikan wanita wirausaha yang cukup tinggi memudahkan dapat penerimaan informasi baru, seperti pada saat pelatihan wanita wirausaha dengan dengan dukungan rata-rata usia 31-35 tahun yang memiliki motivasi tinggi untuk maju dalam usahanya. menurut davidson dan honig (2003) pendidikan akan memberikan pengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan seseorang serta mampu untuk membaca peluang yang ada. melalui jenjang pendidikan yang tinggi, wanita wirausaha memiliki potensi sekaligus peluang lebih besar untuk dapat berkembang. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kinerja usaha kinerja merupakan hasil atau tingkat pencapaian keberhasilan seseorang secara keseluruhan baik secara kualitas maupun kuantitas sesuai dengan tanggung jawab yang diberikan selama periode tertentu untuk melaksanakan pekerjaan dibandingkan dengan berbagai kemungkinan seperti standar hasil kerja, target atau kriteria yang telah ditentukan (rivai dan basri 2005; mangkunagara 2002). menurut praag (2005) keberhasilan kinerja usaha dapat dilihat dari adanya keberlangsungan serta tingkat pertumbuhan usaha itu sendiri, penambahan jumlah tenaga kerja, dan peningkatan keuntungan dan pendapatan usaha. pada hasil analisis pls-sem pengaruh dari masingmasing variabel indikator terhadap kinerja usaha pada wanita wirausaha kerupuk udang di provinsi jambi menunjukkan bahwa lingkungan eksternal, lingungan internal, karakteristik personal, perilaku kewirausahaan berpengaruh signifikan terhadap kinerja usaha pada taraf nyata 0,05. hasil analisis data mengenai pengaruh dari variabel indikator terhadap kinerja usaha dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. tabel 3. pengaruh variabel indikator terhadap kinerja usaha hipotesis nilai koefisien t-hitung kp -> kinerja usaha 0,238 3,80* pk -> kinerja usaha 0,133 2,78* *t(0,05): 1,96 tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa karakteristik personal berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap kinerja usaha dengan nilai koefisien 0,238 dan nilai t-hitung 3,80. nilai koefisien 0,238 ini memberikan pengertian bahwa pada penelitian ini terdapat pengaruh positif karakteristik personal terhadap kinerja usaha, dalam arti peningkatan karakteristik personal akan meningkatkan perilaku kewirausahaan. ini berarti kinerja usaha wanita wirausaha hanya dipengaruhi oleh karakteristik yang melekat pada dirinya sendiri, seperti pendidikan, pelatihan, pengalaman bisnis dan latar belakang keluarga. ini dikarenakan selama ini wirausaha wanita selain mengandalkan kemampuan yang ada pada dirinya sendiri, wanita wirausaha juga memanfaatkan informasi yang diperoleh dari pelatihan yang diikutinya. hal ini sejalan dengan pendapat dalimunthe (2002) bahwa karakteristik personal akan mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan dan tindakan yang sangat erat kaitannya dengan peningkatan kinerja usaha. perilaku kewirausahaan pada tabel 3 berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap kinerja usaha dengan nilai koefisien 0,133 dan nilai t-hitung 2,78. perilaku kewirausahaan pada penelitian ini dilihat dari inovasi, motivasi dan keberanian mengambil risiko. hal ini berarti kinerja usaha juga dicerminkan dari perilaku kewirausahaan wanita wirausaha. pada perilaku kewirausahaan, motivasi (ë=0,921) merupakan faktor yang dominan dan kuat dalam mempengaruhi kinerja usaha. dalam kondisi ketersediaan bahan baku yang tinggi, sedangkan wilayah pemasaran terbata di lingkungan usaha atau di kota jambi, tidak membuat motivasi untuk berwirausaha menjadi rendah. wanita wirausaha kerupuk udang justru tekun dan mempunyai semangat agar usaha yang dijalankannya dapat bertahan. selanjutnya, perilaku kewirausahaan juga dicerminkan oleh indicator keberanian mengambil risiko (ë=0,889) yang memiliki nilai loading factor tinggi. umumnya risiko yang dihadapi oleh wanita wirausaha dalam menjalankan usahanya ini tergolong rendah. harga kerupuk udang yang cenderung stabil, ketersediaan bahan baku yang kontinyu, serta barang yang tidak cepat rusak memungkinkan wanita wirausaha meminimalkan risiko. hal ini juga dibuktikan dengan inovasi produk yang dilakukan seperti membuat kerupuk udang dalam bentuk stick yang siap makan. hal ini sesuai dengan hasil penelitian noersasongko (2005) yang mengungkapkan bahwa motivasi, inovasi, dan risiko merupakan faktor yang dianggap memiliki pengaruh dominan terhadap keberhasilan usaha, adanya motivasi yang tinggi akan meningkatkan kinerja usaha. selain itu juga, pendapatan yang diperoleh dari usahanya mengalami peningkatan dari tahun ke tahun yang 125 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 diimbangi dengan peningkatan volume penjualan. meskipun jika dilihat pendapatan yang diperoleh wanita wirausaha dari menjalankan usaha masih tergolong rendah yaitu rp1 juta – rp1.5 juta, namun pendapatan tersebut menambah dana untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup sehari-hari dibandingkan jika tidak memiliki usaha ini. pengaruh lingkungan eksternal dan internal terhadap kinerja usaha lingkungan usaha merupakan dinamika pergerakan lingkungan bisnis yang mempengaruhi kinerja usaha, yang terdiri dari lingkungan internal (mikro) dan lingkungan ekonomi yang merupakan lingkungan eksternal (makro). analisis lingkungan adalah suatu proses monitoring terhadap lingkungan organisasi yang bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi peluang (opportunities) serta tantangan (threats) yang akan mempengaruhi kemampuan sebuah perusahaan untuk mencapai tujuan perusahaan (dirgantoro, 2001). hasil analisis data pengaruh dari lingkungan eksternal dan internal terhadap kinerja usaha dapat dilihat pada tabel 4. tabel 4. hasil pengaruh lingkungan usaha terhadap kinerja usaha hipotesis nilai koefisien t-hitung ling. eksternal -> kinerja usaha 0,452 8,99* ling. internal -> kinerja usaha 0,207 4,38* *t(0,05): 1,96 tabel 4 menunjukkan bahwa lingkungan eksternal berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap kinerja usaha dengan nilai t-hitung sebesar 8,99. ini berarti lingkungan eksternal yang terdiri dari aspek kebijakan pemerintah, aspek sosial budaya dan ekonomi dan aspek peranan lembaga terkait mampu meningkatkan kinerja usaha. pada aspek kebijakan pemerintah yang memiliki nilai loading factor cukup tinggi yaitu kegiatan pembinaan melalui skpd (ë=0.873), kegiatan pembinaan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah daerah cukup terbilang rutin yaitu dalam setahun dilakukan beberapa kali. pembinaan dilakukan oleh beberapa dinas antara lain dinas perikanan dan kelautan dan dinas perindag. banyaknya dinas yang memberikan pembinaan membuat wanita wirausaha mempunyai wadah untuk mengkonsultasikan permasalahan yang dihadapinya seputar kegiatan usaha. peraturan dan regulasi pro bisnis dengan nilai loading factor cukup tinggi (ë=0,792) mengindikasikan pemerintah berperan serta dalam peraturan yang pro bisnis yang memberikan kesempatan kepada wanita wirausaha untuk dapat mengembangkan pengetahuannya melalui pembinaan dari instansi terkait. akan tetapi dalam hal penyediaan lokasi dan informasi (ë=0,320) serta akses permodalan dan pembiayaan (ë=0,237) masih dirasakan kurang, ini terlihat dari nilai loading factor yang dibawah 0,5. dari hasil observasi di lapangan, penyiapan lokasi usaha dilakukan oleh wanita wirausaha sendiri yang ratarata lokasi usaha sama dengan tempat tinggal; hanya sebagian kecil dari wanita wirausaha yang membedakan lokasi usaha dengan kediamannya. sementara itu, akses permodalan dan pembiayaan masih dirasakan sulit, karena dinas setempat hanya memberikan pembinaan. wanita wirausaha yang membutuhkan pinjaman modal harus membuat proposal terlebih dahulu yang dianggap wanita wirausaha sangat sulit. selain itu, banyak persyaratan untuk meminjam modal dari instansi tertentu dan membutuhkan proses yang cukup lama. selain aspek kebijakan pemerintah, aspek sosial budaya dan ekonomi juga merupakan bagian dari lingkungan eksternal. terkait dengan aspek sosial budaya dan ekonomi, tingkat pendapatan masyarakat (ë=0,832), iklim usaha dan investasi (ë=0,874) adalah faktor yang paling dominan mempengaruhi kinerja usaha. melalui usahanya, sebagian dari masyarakat yang ada di sekitar tempat usaha dipekerjakan sebagai tenaga kerja walaupun masih dalam kapasitas yang rendah (ë=0,628). pada umumnya wanita wirausaha mempekerjakan 1-2 orang masyarakat di sekitar untuk membantu dalam kegiatan produksi. jumlah volume penjualan yang meningkat dan terjadinya peningkatan pendapatan dari modal awal mengindikasikan iklim usaha kerupuk udang cukup menjanjikan. selain itu juga, terdapat aspek peranan lembaga terkait (ë=0,036), seperti peran perbankan yang masih kurang, karena untuk meminjam dana dari bank wanita wirausaha harus memiliki masa umur usaha tertentu, sehingga hanya beberapa dari wanita wirausaha yang memperolehnya. akan tetapi monitoring dan evaluasi (ë=0,788), serta pendampingan (ë=0,770) berpengaruh cukup baik, artinya ada pengawasan dari pihak bank terkait yang bekerja sama dengan pemerintah daerah dalam hal pengontrolan wanita wirausaha yang memperoleh dana pinjaman. hal ini sama seperti yang dikemukakan oleh abimbola dan agboola (2011) bahwa lingkungan usaha meliputi faktor seperti infrastruktur, budaya, ekonomi, sosial, dan lingkungan politik 126 jurnal agraris (lingkungan eksternal) terbukti dapat menghambat ataupun memfasilitasi kegiatan kewirausahaan dalam masyarakat manapun. lingkungan internal pada tabel 4 berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap kinerja usaha dengan nilai thitung 4,38. lingkungan internal terdapat aspek keuangan, yaitu modal sendiri (ë=0,863) merupakan modal awal wanita wirausaha mendirikan usahanya, ratarata modal awal dikelurkan wanita wirausaha masih rendah yaitu rp500 riburp1 juta sehingga dengan modal yang masih kecil ini maka perkembangan usahanya menjadi lamban. sedangkan untuk tingkat keuntungan dan akumulasi modal (ë=0,766), artinya wanita wirausaha berusaha untuk dapat mengakumulasikan keuntungan yang diperoleh untuk modal usaha berikutnya, tetapi dari hasil penelitan apabila ada kebutuhan yang mendesak untuk keluarga, maka wanita wirausaha akan menggunakan modal usahanya untuk kepentingan tersebut. wanita wirausaha di provinsi jambi ini telah mampu untuk membedakan pengeluaran pribadi/keluarga (ë=0,775) artinya wanita wirausaha belajar untuk dapat melakukan pencatatan arus kas masuk dan keluar dari usahanya untuk dapat memudahkan pemisahan antara kebutuhan pribadi maupun usaha sehingga usaha dapat berlanjut. pada aspek teknis dan operasional, ketersediaan bahan baku (ë=0,895) memiliki nilai loading yang tinggi, jika dilihat dari kondisi/lokasi yang berada di pesisir pantai dan banyaknya nelayan yang melaut sehingga ketersediaan bahan baku tidak menghawatirkan bagi wanita wirausaha untuk keberlanjutan usahanya terutama harga udang yang masih rendah antara rp5.000-rp15.000 per kilogramnya. akan tetapi permasalahan utama pada aspek teknis dan operasional terletak pada tersedianya mesin dan peralatan (ë=0,547) yang masih rendah karena wanita wirausaha memanfaatkan teknologi yang masih sederhana, yang akan berakibat pada kapasitas produksi yang masih rendah. walaupun sebagian dari wanita wirausaha telah mendapatkan bantuan mesin peralatan, tetapi mereka enggan menggunakannya karena mengakibatkan bertambahnya biaya listrik maupun gas (apabila menggunakan oven pengering kerupuk). selanjutnya jika dilihat dari aspek pasar dan pemasaran pada harga bersaing (ë=0,743) dimana masing-masing dari wanita wirausaha menerapkan harga sesuai dengan keinginan mereka, yaitu rp50.000. harga kerupuk udang wanita wirausaha di jambi ini tergolong tinggi, jika dibandingkan dengan kerupuk udang di daerah lain. hal ini dikarenakan campuran antara tepung dan udang di jambi 1:1 sedangkan di daerah lain 3:1. inilah yang mendasari mengapa harga kerupuk udang di jambi lebih mahal karena wanita wirausaha usaha menganggap bahwa kualitas produksi yang mereka hasilkan berbeda. jika dilihat dari sisi permintaan pasar (ë=0,856), permintaan kerupuk udang cukup tinggi walaupun wilayah pemasaran (ë=0,605) kerupuk udang yang masih terbatas. hal ini tidak menyebabkan wanita wirausaha menghadapi permasalahan, karena berapapun hasil produksi yang mereka buat selalu terserap pasar. jika dilihat dari kegiatan promosi (ë=0,561) masih rendah, promosi dilakukan hanya dari mulut ke mulut, eventevent yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah daerah masih terbatas hanya beberapa kali dalam setahun. munizu (2010) menyatakan bahwa faktor-faktor internal yang terdiri dari atas sumber daya manusia, aspek keuangan, aspek teknis produksi atau operasional, dan aspek pasar dan pemasaran berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap kinerja usaha. sementara itu, faktor lingkungan eksternal yang terdiri dari aspek kebijakan pemerintah, aspek sosial budaya dan ekonomi, dan aspek peranan lembaga terkait mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan dan positif terhadap faktor-faktor internal. ini mengindikasikan bahwa lingkungan eksternal mempengaruhi kondisi internal di dalam sebuah usaha atau bisnis yang dijalankan wirausaha. kesimpulan karakteristik personal yaitu pendidikan, latar belakang keluarga, pengalaman bisnis dan pelatihan berpengaruh positif terhadap perilaku kewirausahaan (motivasi, inovasi dan berani mengambil risiko). sementara perilaku kewirausahaan dan karakteristik personal berpengaruh terhadap kinerja usaha. motivasi wanita wirausaha merupakan indikator perilaku kewirausahaan yang memiliki pengaruh paling kuat, sementara pelatihan yang diikuti wanita wirausaha merupakan indikator karakteristik personal yang memiliki pengaruh paling kuat. lingkungan eksternal dan internal berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap kinerja usaha. lingkungan internal yang paling dominan mempengaruhi kinerja usaha adalah ketersediaan bahan baku, sedangkan lingkungan eksternal yang paling dominan mempengaruhi kinerja usaha adalah kegiatan pembinaan melalui skpd. 127 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilaksanakan, diperlukan adanya dukungan dari pemerintah untuk meningkatkan kinerja usaha melalui peningkatan kapasitas produksi, yakni kemudahan untuk mendapatkan teknologi yang tepat untuk membantu bagian produksi, kemudahan untuk mendapat label usaha sehingga kerupuk yang diproduksi dapat dikenali oleh konsumen, serta akses permodalan melalui kerjasama dengan pihan bank. disamping itu, untuk dapat meningkatkan keberhasilan usaha, diperlukan adanya suatu tempat penampungan hasil produksi kerupuk udang, sehingga akses pemasaran kerupuk tidak menjadi sulit dan dapat bersaing dengan kerupuk udang yang berasal dari daerah lain. daftar pustaka abimbola, o. h., & agboola, g. m. 2011. environmental factors and entrepreneurship development in nigeria. journal of sustainable development in africa 13(4). bukhari, a. 2013. industri makanan dan minuman salah satu penopang pertumbuhan. media industri, 40. dalimunthe, r. 2002. pengaruh karakteristik individu, kewirausahaan, gaya kepemimpinan terhadap kemampuan usaha serta keberhasilan usaha industri kecil tenun dan bordir di sumatra utara, sumatra barat dan riau. disertasi, universitas airlangga. davidsonn, p., & honig, b. 2003. the role of social and human capital among nascent entrepreneurs. journal of business venturing 18: 301-331. dinas perikanan dan kelautan provinsi jambi. 2015. jumlah hasil perikanan dan kelautan provinsi jambi 2014. pemerintahan kabupaten tanjung jabung timur dan kabupaten tanjung jabung barat, jambi. dirgantoro, c. 2001. manajemen stratejik: konsep, kasus, dan implementasi. pt. gramedia widiasarana indonesia, jakarta. dirlanudin. 2010. perilaku wirausaha dan keberdayaan pengusaha kecil industri agro: kasus di kabupaten serang provinsi banten. disertasi, institut pertanian bogor. demirbag, m., tatoglu, e., tekinkus, & zaim, s. 2006. an analysis of the relationship between tqm implementation and organizational performance: evidence from turkish smes. journal of manufacturing technology management 17(6): 829-847. dinas perindustrian dan perdagangan kabupaten tanjung jabung barat. 2013. jumlah unit usaha, industri kecil dan kerajinan rumah tangga kabupaten tanjung jabung barat. disperindag-kabupaten tanjung jabung barat, jambi. dinas perindustrian dan perdagangan kabupaten tanjung jabung timur. 2013. jumlah unit usaha, industri kecil dan kerajinan rumah tangga kabupaten tanjung jabung timur. disperindag-kabupaten tanjung jabung timur, jambi. kementrian riset dan teknologi. 2012. startup entrepreneurship (online). diakses 05 desember 2015. http://www.ristek.go.id kementrian luar negri republik indonesia. 2010. pengembangan kewirausahaan perempuan menghadapi komunitas ekonomi asean 2015 (online). diakses 05 desember 2015. http:// www.kemlu.go.id kumbhar, v. 2013. some critical issues of women entrepreneurship in rural india. european academic research 1(1):5. latan, h, & ghazali, i. 2012. partial least square konsep, teknik dan aplikasi menggunakan smartpls 2.0 m3. badan penerbit universitas diponegoro, semarang. munizu, m. 2010. pengaruh faktor-faktor eksternal dan internal terhadap kinerja usaha mikro dan kecil (umk) di sulawesi selatan. jurnal manajemen dan kewirausahaan 12(1): 33-41. noersasongko, e. 2005. analisis pengaruh karakteristik individu, kewirausahaan, dan gaya kepemimpinan terhadap kemampuan usaha serta keberhasilan usaha pada usaha kecil batik di jawa tengah. disertasi, universitas merdeka malang. praag, c. m. 2005. succesessful entrepreneurship.edward elgar publishing limited, united kingdom. rivai, v., & basri, a. f. 2005. performance appraisal: sistem yang tepat untuk menilai kinerja karyawan dan meningkatkan daya saing perusahaan. pt raja grafindo persada, jakarta. sanputi, s. 2010. analisis faktor-faktor yang memotivasi wanita berwirausaha (studi pada pengusaha salon kecantikan pada kecamatan medan tembung). jurnal keuangan dan bisnis 2(3): 258. sasongko, a. 2015. jumlah pengusaha indonesia hanya 1,65 persen (online). diakses agustus 2015. http://nasional.republika.co.id/ berita/nasional/umum/15/08/13/nl3 i58-jumlah-pengusahaindonesia-hanya-165-persen pengantar juli 2016.pmd sriyadi program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta sriyadi_s@yahoo.co.id model pengembangan agrowisata berbasis kearifan lokal (studi kasus di desa kebon agung kecamatan imogiri kabupaten bantul diy) abstract the purpose of this study is to provide an explanation of agrotourism development model, based on local wisdom. in the first year, the study aims to determine the impact of agrotourism development on increasing value-added agricultural products, farmers’ income level and distribution of farmers’ income. research carried out by survey and interviews with farmers and stakeholders as well as field observation. the result shows that the development of agrotourism can encourage farmers to do the processing of agricultural products and improve farming management both onfarm and off-farm, which in turn can increase the income of farm households significantly. the study recommends to optimize the processing of agricultural products and improve farming management both on-farm and off-farm. keywordskeywordskeywordskeywordskeywords: agrotourism, processing, farming intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memberikan penjelasan tentang model pengembangan agrowisata berbasis kearifan lokal. pada tahun pertama, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui dampak pengembangan agrowisata terhadap peningkatan nilai tambah produk pertanian, mengetahui dampak pengembangan agrowisata terhadap tingkat pendapatan petani dan mengetahui dampak pengembangan agrowisata terhadap distribusi pendapatan petani. penelitian dilakukan dengan survei wawancara dengan petani dan pihak terkait serta obervasi lapangan. pengembangan agrowisata mendorong masyarakat melakukan pengolahan hasil-hasil pertanian, meningkatkan pengelolaan usahatani dan pengelolaan di luar usahatani, dan dari hasil pengolahan hasil-hasil pertanian, pengelolaan usahatani dan pengelolaan kegiatan di luar usahatani dapat meningkatkan pendapatan rumah tangga petani yang cukup signifikan. direkomendasikan untuk mengoptimalkan pengolahan hasil-hasil pertanian, pengelolaan usahatani dan pengelolaan kegiatan di luar usahatani. kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: agrowisata, pengolahan hasil, usahatani pendahuluan pembangunan berkelanjutan adalah proses yang memiliki dimensi ekonomi, sosial, budaya dan lingkungan-ekologi. proses ini dianggap sebagai perkembangan dalam semua hal bagi masyarakat perkotaan maupun pedesaan. namun di sebagian besar negara berkembang, penduduk pedesaan makin berkurang, sementara lahan pertanian yang kehilangan produktivitasnya meningkat. situasi ini menjadi penyebab utama dalam peningkatan kemiskinan masyarakat pedesaan, juga menyebabkan masalah seperti kerugian deforestasi, erosi dan produktivitas dengan penyalahgunaan sumber daya alam. disisi lain, kerusakan sumber doi:10.18196/agr.2236 153 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 daya alam memunculkan masalah sepert imigrasi, kemiskinan dan kelaparan. (akpinar et. al., 2004) pengembangan kawasan pedesaan berbasis pertanian semakin digalakkan di berbagai wilayah. kegiatan ini dilakukan untuk mengembangkan potensi wilayah pedesaan, yang dalam kurun waktu sebelumnya telah mengalami ketimpangan wilayah pembangunan. di masa lalu pembangunan banyak diprioritaskan untuk wilayah perkotaan, sehingga wilayah pedesaan mengalami ketertinggalan di segala sektor, khususnya untuk sektor pertanian. padahal di wilayah pedesaan, pertanian merupakan sektor yang sangat dominan. gejala adanya ketimpangan antara lain ditunjukkan dengan banyaknya generasi muda pedesaan yang mengadu nasib di perkotaan, sehingga terjadi keterlantaran di sektor tenaga kerja di pedesaan (arifin, 2007). sementara itu, keterbatasan lahan menyebabkan skala usahatani kecil menjadi tidak efisien sehingga pendapatan petani rendah. kondisi ini menurunkan motivasi masyarakat pedesaan untuk bekerja di sektor pertanian. dalam upaya mengantisipasi ketimpangan wilayah dan mengembangkan wilayah pedesaan, pemerintah mulai menggiatkan pembangunan sosial dan ekonomi pedesaan, antara lain pengembangan agribisnis pedesaan dan program agrowisata pedesaan. pengembangan agribisnis pedesaan dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan nilai tambah produk pertanian dengan harapkan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani. adapun agrowisata merupakan salah satu cara pengembangan pertanian di pedesaan, dengan dilatarbelakangi adanya beberapa kendala pengembangan sektor pertanian skala besar, dan adanya potensi wilayah pedesaan yang menarik bagi wisatawan. kendala utama pengembangan sektor pertanian skala besar di wilayah pedesaan antara lain kondisi kepemilikan lahan sebagian besar petani sangat sempit dan sebagian besar petani miskin. di lain pihak ternyata wilayah pedesaan menyimpan potensi yang sangat menarik untuk dikembangkan dengan agrowisata melalui potensi agroekosistem, terutama yang menyangkut keaslian alam, keragaman komoditas pertanian, kekhasan adat istiadat, seni dan budaya. kondisi wilayah pedesaan yang khas ini ternyata sangat bervariasi untuk setiap wilayah, sehingga dapat memikat kalangan wisatawan (arifin, 2007). kondisi tersebut juga dimiliki oleh desa kebon agung, kecamatan imogiri kabupaten bantul yang tengah dikembangkan sebagai kawasan agrowisata sehingga mendapat peringkat iii nasional desa wisata tahun 2010 (www.desakebonagung.com). potensi tersebut tengah dikembangkan secara serius agar disamping dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat, khususnya para petani, juga agar dapat menjadi pioner pengembangan agrowisata di daerah lain yang belum terjamah atau tertangani. secara garis besar wilayah desa ini sangat menarik untuk dikembangkan karena menyimpan berbagai potensi yang dapat dijual kepada wisatawan. lokasi desa kebon agung terletak pada jalur wisata dari pusat kota yogyakarta ke arah makam raja-raja mataram dan pantai parangtritis. lahan pertanian di desa kebon agung didominasi dengan tanaman padi dan hortikultura, dan hampir seluruh masyarakat mempunyai lahan sawah karena tersedia saluran irigasi bendungan dan kondisi tanah subur. selain sebagai sumber irigasi, bendungan dapat dikembangkan sebagai wisata air. di samping berusaha tani padi, masyarakat sudah mengembangkan usaha di bidang perikanan, peternakan, pengolahan limbah ternak menjadi pupuk organik, dan pertanian organik. usaha pengolahan hasil pertanian telah dikembangkan dalam bentuk industri rumah tangga kerajinan dan kuliner. secara sosial masyarakat cukup antusias untuk mengembangkan wilayah pedesaan, khususnya untuk pengembangan agrowisata, yang memang selama ini telah sering didatangi oleh wisatawan domestik dan asing. kelembagaan pemerintahan dan kelompok tani sangat mendukung untuk pengembangan agrowisata karena daerah ini merupakan salah satu kawasan pengembangan agropolitan kabupaten bantul. selain itu di desa tersebut terdapat museum tani jawa yang menyingkap berbagai budaya dan kearifan lokal pertanian setempat. namun demikian keberadaan potensi agrowisata ini masih perlu dikembangkan mengingat jumlah wisatawan/pengunjung masih lebih rendah dibanding daerah lain pada jalur kawasan wisata di propinsi d.i. yogyakarta. kunjungan wisata di kabupaten bantul masih didominasi kawasan pantai khsususnya pantai parangtritis. sementara itu pendapatan obyek wisata kabupaten bantul tahun 2010 baru mencapai 5,41% (bps bantul, 2011). berdasarkan permasalahan tersebut di atas, maka perlu dilakukan kajian lebih mendalam tentang potensi wilayah untuk mendukung pengembangan agrowisata berbasis kearifan lokal. bagaimana dampak pengembangan agrowisata terhadap pendapatan masyarakat petani, serta bagaimana tingkat keberlanjutan model pengembangan agrowisata tersebut. 154 jurnal agraris tulisan ini mencoba untuk mengungkap bagaimana dampak pengembangan agrowisata terhadap peningkatan nilai tambah produk pertanian, pendapatan petani dan distribusi pendapatan petani. metode penelitian metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah deskriptif analitis, yang dirancang untuk mengumpulkan informasi-informasi tentang keadaan nyata sekarang yang sedang berlangsung (sugiyono, 2014; galo, 2002; azwar, 2000). penelitian model pengembangan agrowisata berbasis kearifan lokal di desa kebon agung kecamatan imogiri kabupaten bantul daerah istimewa yogyakarta dilakukan dengan metode survei pada petani/pelaku agribisnis dan pihak-pihak yang berkepentingan dengan agrowisata di wilayah kasus, sebagai obyek penelitian. desa kebon agung merupakan sentra pengembangan agrowisata di kecamatan imogiri kabupaten bantul yang berhasil meraih penghargaan sebagai juara iii desa wisata nasional tahun 2010. desa kebon agung terdiri atas lima wilayah pedukuhan, yang sebagian besar penduduknya bermatapencaharian sebagai petani dan pengrajin (industri rumah tangga). sampel petani/pelaku agribisnis sebanyak 100 diambil dari masing-masing pedukuhan secara proporsional random sampling. pengambilan data dilakukan dengan cara observasi dan wawancara dengan menggunakan kuesioner. observasi dilakukan ke titik-titik wilayah yang berpotensi atau mendukung agrowisata, meliputi kebun, perumahan petani, sarana dan prasarana pertanian seperti bendungan, kolam, saluran air pengairan, kandang, unit produksi, dan sarana-sarana lain yang mendukung terciptanya agrowisata, seperti penginapan, areal parkir, dan kondisi jalan. untuk menggali infromasi lebih dalam dilakukan focus group discussion (fgd) dengan kelompok tani, tokoh masyarakat dan pemerintah. teknik pengolahan data yang akan digunakan adalah dengan menggunakan teknik induktif, yaitu dari fakta dan peristiwa yang diketahui secara konkrit, kemudian digeneralisasikan ke dalam suatu kesimpulan yang bersifat umum yang didasarkan atas fakta-fakta yang empiris tentang lokasi penelitian. moleong (2000) mengatakan, bahwa dengan menggunakan analisis secara induktif, berarti pencarian data bukan dimaksudkan untuk membuktikan hipotesis yang telah dirumuskan sebelum penelitian dilakukan. untuk mengetahui dampak sosial ekonomi masyarakat petani dianalisis menggunakan analisis pendapatan, nilai tambah dan indeks gini ratio. dampak pengembangan agrowisata terhadap pendapatan masyarakat petani dapat dilihat dari peningkatan nilai tambah produk pertanian, tingkat pendapatan masyarakat petani dan distribusi pendapatan masyarakat. nilai tambah agroindustri pariwisata dapat dinalisis dengan format anaisis nilai tambah berikut. tabel 1. format perhitungan nilai tambah no ketarangan 1 bahan baku (kg/bln) a 2 harga bahan baku (rp/kg) b 3 hasil produksi (unit/bln) c 4 faktor konversi c/a = h 5 harga produk rata-rata (rp/unit) d 6 tenaga kerja (hok/bln) e 7 koefisien tenaga kerja e/a = i 8 upah rata-rata (rp/hok) f 9 input lain (rp/kg bahan baku) g 10 nilai produk (rp/kg) h x d = j 11 a. nilai tambah (rp/kg) b. rasio nilai tambah j – g – b = k k/j x 100% = l % 12 a. imbalan tenaga kerja (rp/kg) b. bagian tenaga kerja i x f = m m/k x 100% = n % 13 a. keuntungan (rp/kg) b. tingkat keuntungan k – m = o o/j x 100% = p% sumber: armand sudiyono (2004) pendapatan masyarakat adalah total pendapatan yang diperoleh dari usahatani, usaha pengolahan hasil pertanian dan luar usahatani. pendapatan usahatani dan pengolahan hasil pertanian dihitung berdasarkan analisis biayadan pendapatan dapat diketahui dengan menggunakan rumus sebagai berikut: a. biaya total biaya (tc) adalah biaya implisit total ditambah dengan biaya eksplisit yang dinyatakan dalam rumus sebagai berikut: tc = tic + tec keterangan : tc = total cost tic = total implisit cost tec = total eksplisit cost b. pandapatan dalam penghitugan pendapatan yang telah dicapai oleh petani padi dapat dihitung dengan rumus: nr = tr – tec keterangan : nr = pendapatan 155 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tr = penerimaan tec = biaya eksplisit c. total pendapatan keluarga = pendapatan usahatani + pendapatan pengolahan usahatani + pendapatan luar usaha pertanian untuk mengukur distribusi pendapatan digunakan indeks gini ratio yang dihitung sebagai berikutm. mulamula pendapatan petani diurutkan dari terendah sampai tertinggi, selanjutnya dibagi menjadi lima kelompok, masing-masing kelas dibuat persentase kumulatifnya. selanjutnya nilai gini ratio dihitung sebagai berikut : keterangan: fi = persentase kumulatif rumah tangga petani klas i yi = persentasi kumulatif pendapatan petani klas i y i 1 = persentase kumulatif pendapatan petani klas sebelumnya nilai gr berkisar antara 0 – 1, makin tinggi nilai gr, maka distribusi pendapatan makin tidak merata. hasil dan pembahasan nilai tambah produk pertanian (pendapatan industri) biaya produksi tempe biaya produksi adalah biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh pengrajin dalam proses produksi. dalam industri tempe, biaya yang digunakan meliputi biaya sarana produksi, biaya tenaga kerja, dan biaya penyusutan alat sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 2. rincian biaya menunjukkan bahwa untuk sarana produksi bahan baku kedelai memiliki prosentase paling besar (68,68%) dibandingkan sarana produksi lainnya, seperti bahan tambahan dan biaya penyusutan, bahkan untuk biaya tenaga kerja luar keluarga tidak ada (0,00 %). penerimaan dan pendapatan industri tempe penerimaan merupakan jumlah produksi dikalikan dengan harga jual persatuan output, sedangkan pendapatan adalah semua penerimaan yang diperoleh dari hasil produksi tempe setelah dikurangi dengan biaya produksi. dilihat dari penerimaan dan pendapatan ratarata yang diperoleh pengrajin, industri tempe dapat tabel 2. rata-rata biaya produksi tempe di desa kebon agung uraian kapasitas kedelai (kg) sekali (40 kg) per minggu (120 kg) per bulan (480 kg) per tahun (6.480 kg) 1. biaya (rp) b. baku kedelai b. tambahan b. penyusutan b. tenaga kerja total 2. biaya (%) b. baku kedelai b. tambahan b. penyusutan b. tenaga kerja total 272.000 113.280 10.783 0 396.063 68,68 28,60 2,72 0,00 100,00 816.000 339.840 32.349 0 1.188.189 68,68 28,60 2,72 0,00 100,00 .264.000 1.359.360 129.396 0 4.752.756 68,68 28,60 2,72 0,00 100,00 44.064.000 18.351.360 1.746.846 0 64.162.206 68,68 28,60 2,72 0,00 100,00 uraian kapasitas kedelai (kg) sekali (40 kg) per minggu (120 kg) per bulan (480 kg) per tahun (6.480 kg) 1. produksi (biji) 2. harga per biji (rp) 3. penerimaan (rp) 4. biaya produksi (rp) 5. pendapatan (rp) 2.200 250 550.000 396.063 153.937 6.600 250 1.650.000 1.188.189 461.811 26.400 250 6.600.000 4.752.756 1.847.244 356.400 250 89.100.000 64.162.206 24.937.794 tabel 3. rata-rata penerimaan dan pendapatan industri tempe di desa kebon agung 156 jurnal agraris dipandang sebagai usaha menarik untuk ditekuni sebagai tambahan pendapatan keluarga (tabel 3). tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa industri tempe menghasilkan rata-rata penerimaan sebesar rp6,6 juta per bulan atau rp89,1 juta per tahun; dengan rata-rata pendapatan per bulan mencapai rp1,85 juta atau rp24,9 juta per tahun. pendapatan tersebut diperoleh dengan mempekerjakan 3 tenaga kerja keluarga, sehingga pendapatan per orangnya mencapai rp8.3 juta per tahun atau rp693 ribu per bulan. biaya produksi emping melinjo biaya produksi adalah biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh pengrajin dalam proses produksi, yang meliputi biaya sarana produksi, biaya tenaga kerja, dan biaya penyusutan alat (tabel 4). tabel 4. rata-rata biaya produksi emping melinjo di desa kebon agung uraian kapasitas melinjo (kg) per bulan (145 kg) per tahun (1740kg) 1. biaya (rp) b. baku melinjo (klathak) b. tambahan b. penyusutan b. tenaga kerja total 2. biaya (%) b. baku melinjo (klathak) b. tambahan b. penyusutan b. tenaga kerja total 1.377.500 75.000 4.680 0 1.457.180 94,53 5,15 0,32 0,00 100,00 16.530.000 900.000 56.160 0 17.486.160 94,53 5,15 0,32 0,00 100,00 tabel 4 menunjukkan bahwa biaya sarana produksi bahan baku melinjo (klathak) memiliki prosentase paling besar (94,53 %) dibandingkan sarana produksi lainnya seperti bahan tambahan, biaya penyusutan, biaya tenaga kerja; sedangkan prosentase biaya terkecil adalah biaya tenaga kerja luar keluarga (0,00 %). penerimaan dan pendapatan emping melinjo penerimaan merupakan jumlah produksi dikalikan dengan harga jual persatuan output, sedangkan pendapatan adalah semua penerimaan yang diperoleh dari hasil produksi emping melinjo setelah dikurangi dengan biaya produksi. dilihat dari penerimaan dan pendapatan (tabel 5), industri tempe sedikit lebih tinggi dibandingkan industri emping melinjo. industri emping melinjo menghasilkan rata-rata penerimaan sebesar rp2,5 juta per bulan atau rp30 juta per tahun; dengan rata-rata pendapatan per bulan mencapai rp1 juta atau rp12,7 juta per tahun. tabel 5. rata-rata penerimaan dan pendapatan industri emping melinjo di desa kebon agung uraian kapasitas melinjo (kg) per bulan (145 kg) per tahun (1740kg) 1. produksi (kg) 2. harga per kg (rp) 3. penerimaan (rp) 4. biaya produksi (rp) 5. pendapatan (rp) 72 35.000 2.520.000 1.457.180 1.062.820 864 35.000 30.240.000 17.486.160 12.753.840 biaya produksi kue apem biaya produksi adalah biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh pengrajin dalam proses produksi, yang meliputi biaya sarana produksi, biaya tenaga kerja, dan biaya penyusutan alat (tabel 6). tabel 6. rata-rata biaya produksi kue apem di desa kebon agung uraian kapasitas beras/tepung (kg) per bulan (72 kg) per tahun (864kg) 1. biaya (rp) b. baku beras (tepung) b. tambahan b. penyusutan b. tenaga kerja total 2. biaya (%) b. baku beras (tepung) b. tambahan b. penyusutan b. tenaga kerja total 705.600 1.587.920 30.638 0 2.324.158 30,36 68,32 1,32 0,00 100,00 8.467.200 19.055.040 367.656 0 27.486.160 30,36 68,32 1,32 0,00 100,00 tabel 6 menunjukkan bahwa untuk sarana produksi bahan tambahan memiliki prosentase paling besar (68,32 %) dibandingkan sarana produksi lainnya, seperti bahan baku, biaya penyusutan, biaya tenaga kerja, sedangkan prosentase biaya terkecil adalah biaya tenaga kerja luar keluarga 0,00 %. penerimaan dan pendapatan kue apem penerimaan merupakan jumlah produksi dikalikan dengan harga jual per-satuan output, sedangkan pendapatan adalah semua penerimaan yang diperoleh dari hasil produksi kue apem setelah dikurangi dengan biaya produksi. untuk mengetahui penerimaan dan pendapatan industri kue apem dapat dilihat pada tabel 7. 157 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tabel 7. rata-rata penerimaan dan pendapatan industri kue apem di desa kebon agung uraian kapasitas beras/tepung (kg) per bulan (72 kg) per tahun (864kg) 1. produksi (kg) 2. harga per kg (rp) 3. penerimaan (rp) 4. biaya produksi (rp) 5. pendapatan (rp) 2.880 1.000 2.880.000 2.324.158 555.842 34.560 1.000 34.560.000 27.486.160 7.073.840 rata-rata penerimaan dari industri kue apem ini sebesar rp2, 9 juta per bulan atau rp34,6 juta per tahun; dengan rata-rata pendapatan per bulannya sebesar rp555 ribu atau sebesar rp7 juta per tahun. penerimaan dan pendapatan dari industri apem lebih rendah dari industri tempe maupun emping melinjo. nilai tambah tempe, emping melinjo dan kue apem untuk menghitung nilai tambah kedelai menjadi tempe, melinjo menjadi emping dan tepung beras menjadi kue apem pada skala industri rumah tangga di desa kebon agung harus diketahui terlebih dahulu nilai input yang mendukung kegiatan produksi tempe, kecuali nilai tenaga kerja pembuat tempe. hasil analisis nilai tambah, sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 8, menunjukkan bahwa nilai tambah industri emping melinjo lebih tinggi dari nilai tambah tempe dan kue apem. nilai tambah olahan kedelai menjadi tempe pada skala industri rumah tangga di desa kebon agung sebesar rp6.947 untuk setiap 1 kg bahan baku dengan rasio nilai tambah sebesar 29,95 %; artinya setiap nilai produk rp100 akan menghasilkan nilai tambah sebesar rp29,95. nilai tambah olahan melinjo menjadi emping pada skala industri rumah tangga di desa kebon agung sebesar rp7.483 untuk setiap 1 kg bahan baku dengan rasio nilai tambah sebesar 42,76 %; artinya setiap rp100 nilai produk yang didapat akan menghasilkan nilai tambah sebesar rp42,76. sementara itu, nilai tambah olahan beras/tepung menjadi kue apem pada skala industri rumah tangga di desa kebon agung sebesar rp8.146 untuk setiap 1 kg bahan baku dengan rasio nilai tambah sebesar 20,37 %; artinya setiap rp100 nilai produk yang didapat akan menghasilkan nilai tambah sebesar rp20,37. dari ketiga industri rumah tangga pengolahan melinjo menjadi emping memberikan nilai tambah yang paling besar. hal ini dikarenakan melinjo merupakan produk industri rumah tangga yang bernilai ekonomi tinggi. tabel 8. nilai tambah industri tempe di desa kebon agung keterangan nilai tambah tempe emping melinjo kue apem 1. bahan baku (kg/bln) 2. harga bahan baku (rp/kg) 3. hasil produksi (unit/bln) 4. faktor konversi 5. harga produk rata-rata (rp/unit) 6. input lain (rp/kg bahan baku) 7. nilai produk (rp/kg) 8. nilai tambah (rp/kg) 9. rasio nilai tambah 480 6.800 26.400 55 250 2.832 13.750 4.118 29,95 % 145 9.500 72 0,50 35.000 517 17.500 7.483 42,76 % 72 9.800 2.880 40 1.000 22.054 40.000 8.146 20,37 % pendapatan usahatani biaya usahatani usahatani merupakan kegiatan ekonomi yang memerlukan biaya produksi agar proses produksi dapat berlangsung. besar kecilnya produksi dipengaruhi oleh besar kecilnya biaya produksi yang digunakan. besarnya biaya produksi dipengaruhi oleh banyaknya input dan harga persatuan input. biaya produksi yang diperhitungkan dalam penelitian ini meliputi biaya sewa lahan, biaya penyusutan, pembelian benih, pupuk, pestisida kimia untuk pengendalian hama penyakit, upah tenaga kerja, dan biaya lain-lain. varietas benih padi yang ditanam oleh petani bermacam-macam diantaranya mentik wangi, sinta nuriya, dan pandan wangi. besarnya benih yang digunakan oleh petani rata-rata sebesar 40 kg per hektar. jenis pupuk yang digunakan oleh petani untuk usahatani padi meliputi pupuk organik yaitu pupuk kandang, dan pupuk anorganik yang meliputi pupuk urea, tsp, npk, kcl, za, granula cair dan ponska. besarnya pupuk yang digunakan oleh petani rata-rata untuk pupuk kandang sebesar 2.647 kilogram per hektar, pupuk urea sebesar 66 kilogram per hektar, pupuk tsp sebesar 139 kilogram per hektar, pupuk npk sebesar 1,5 kilogram per hektar, pupuk kcl sebesar 70 kilogram per hektar,pupuk za sebesar 92 kilogram per hektar,pupuk granula cair sebesar 90liter per hektar, dan untuk pupuk ponska sebesar 68 kilogram per hektar. hampir 92% petani dalam mengusahakan usahatani padi menggunakan pupuk organik, pupuk urea 22%, pupuk tsp 58%, pupuk npk 1%, pupuk kcl 34%, pupuk za 39%, pupuk granula cair 32% dan pupuk poska 29%. adapun pestisida yang digunakan oleh petani untuk menanggulangi hama penyakit tanaman padi meliputi score, recotd, dan puradan. hampir 39% petani dalam mengusahakan usahatani padi menggunakan pestisida. 158 jurnal agraris tenaga kerja yang digunakan untuk usahatani padi berasal dari dalam keluarga dan luar keluarga, dari total tenaga kerja yang dibutuhkan 53% berasal dari dalam keluarga. tenaga kerja ini digunakan untuk kegiatan persemaian, pengolahan tanah, penanaman, penyiangan, pemupukan, pemberantasan hama penyakit, pengairan, panen, dan pasca panen. tenaga kerja yang dibutuhkan untuk usahatani padi ini yang terbesar adalah untuk kegiatan pengolahan tanah dan penyiangan. adapun biaya lain-lain meliputi biaya selamatan, pajak, sakap, irigasi, sewa lahan, bensin, sewa diesel dan bawon. tabel 9 menunjukkan bahwa biaya produksi usahatani padi selama dua musim tanam sebesar rp32,4 juta per hektar. biaya produksi yang terbesar adalah biaya untuk tenaga kerja baik tenaga kerja luar keluarga maupun dalam keluarga. biaya produksi yang terkecil adalah biaya penggunaan pestisida yaitu sebesar rp207 ribu hektar atau sekitar 0,64%, kecilnya biaya pestisida karena petani hanya menggunakan pestisida kalau ada hama penyakit. pendapatan usahatani pendapatan usahatani padi dapat diperhitungkan dari selisih antara penerimaan dengan biaya usahatani kecuali biaya tenaga kerja dalam keluarga. penerimaan, biaya dan pendapatan usahatani padiselama dua musim tanam dapat dilihat pada tabel 10. tabel 10. rata-rata penerimaan, biaya dan pendapatan usahatani padi di desa kebon agung uraian gabah/beras per usahatani (1962 m2) penerimaan (rp) biaya (rp) pendapatan (rp) 8.370.503 3.921.555 4.448.948 per hektar penerimaan (rp) biaya (rp) pendapatan (rp) 42.663.114 19.987.491 22.675.623 berdasarkan tabel 10 diketahui bahwa pendapatan yang diperoleh petani dari usahatani padi selama dua musim tanam sebesar rp22,7 juta per hektar. petani dalam menjual hasilnya sebagian besar dalam bentuk gabah dan sebagian lagi dalam bentuk beras. untuk harga gabah berkisar antara rp3.000 sampai dengan tabel 9. rata-rata biaya usahatani padi per hektar di desa kebon agung rata-rata biaya padi i (rp) padi ii (rp) total (rp) % per usahatani (1962 m2) benih pupuk pestisida tenaga kerja luar keluarga tenaga kerja dalam keluarga lain-lain penyusutan 62.020 354.935 20.312 1.082.328 1.234.680 62.020 354.935 20.312 1.082.328 1.205.250 124.040 709.870 40.624 2.164.656 2.439.930 735.487 146.878 1,95 11,16 0,64 34,03 38,36 11,56 2,30 total 6.361.485 100,00 per hektar benih pupuk pestisida tenaga kerja luar keluarga tenaga kerja dalam keluarga lain-lain penyusutan 316.106 1.809.049 103.527 5.516.453 6.292.966 316.106 1.809.049 103.527 5.516.453 6.142.966 632.212 3.618.098 207.054 11.032.906 12.435.932 3.748.660 748.561 1,95 11,16 0,64 34,03 38,36 11,56 2,30 total 32.423.423 100,00 *) untuk tanaman polowijo saat penelitian belum menghasilkan 159 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 rp4.000 per kilo gram, sedangkan harga beras berkisar antara rp6.500 sampai dengan rp9.000 per kilo gram. pendapatan luar usahatani pendapatan luar usahatani berupa hasil pekarangan yang terdiri dari pisang, mangga, kelapa, kacang panjang dan home stay. pendapatan luar usahatani selama satu tahun dapat dilihat pada tabel 11. tabel 11. pendapatan luar usahatani di desa kebon agung jenis pendapatan rp pisang mangga kelapa kacang panjang home stay 162.850 71.200 188.250 29.200 1.008.000 total 1.459.500 berdasarkan tabel 11 diketahui bahwa pendapatan yang diperoleh petani dari luar usahatani sebesar rp1,5 juta per tahun. pendapatan luar usahatani yang terbesar adalah dari usaha menyewakan kamar untuk turis, baik turis manca negara maupun domestik. pendapatan sebesar rp1 juta berasal 60 responden yang menyewakan kamar untuk turis. pendapatan luar usahatani terkecil diperoleh dari hasil kacang panjang, yang ditanam petani di pematang-pematang sawah. pendapatan rumah tangga petani pendapatan rumah tangga petani adalah pendapatan yang didapat dan dihasilkan selama satu tahun, yang terdiri dari pendapatan pengolahan hasil atau industri rumah tangga, pendapatan usahatani, dan pendapatan luar usahatani. pendapatan pengolahan hasil atau industri rumah tangga adalah pendapatan yang diperoleh dari usaha pengolahan hasil pertanian, yang terdiri dari pengolahan hasil beras/tepung beras menjadi kue apem, melinjo menjadi emping melinjo dan kedelai menjadi tempe. pendapatan usahatani adalah pendapatan yang diperoleh rumah tangga petani selama satu tahun yang meliputi usahatani padi musim i dan usahatani padi musim ii. semetara pendapatan rumah tangga petani yang berasal dari luar usahatani meliputi penghasilan usaha home stay dan pekarangan yang terdiri dari hasil mangga, pisang, kelapa dan kacang panjang. untuk lebih jelasnya mengenai pendapatan rumah tangga petani dapat dilihat pada tabel 12. tabel 12. pendapatan rumah tangga petani di desa kebon agung kegiatan pendapatan rp % 1. pengolahan hasil a. indsutri tempe b. industri emping melinjo c. industri kue apem total 2. usahatani 3. luar usahatani 4.488.800 2.423.230 1.061.076 7.973.106 1.668.894 1.459.500 56,30* 30,39* 13,31* 71,82** 15,03** 13,15** total 11.101.500 100,00 sumber: * presentase terhadap pendapatan pengolahan hasil ** presentase terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga tabel 12 menunjukkan bahwa pendapatan rumah tangga petani yang paling besar berasal dari pengolahan hasil atau industri rumah tangga sebesar 71,82%. walaupun nilai tambah industri tempe lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan apem dan emping, pendapatan dari industri tempe lebih tinggi dari industri lainnya. hal ini terjadi karena tempe merupakan kebutuhan pokok seharihari bagi rumah tangga baik untuk bumbu masak maupun sebagai lauk, bahkan akhir-akhir ini berkembang industri yang mengolah tempe menjadi keripik tempe. sementara itu, emping melinjo maupun kue apem hanya dibutuhkan konsumen pada saat-saat tertentu, seperti jika ada hajatan atau pertemuanpertemuan. tabel 12 juga menunjukkan bahwa pendapatan rumah tangga yang paling kecil berasal dari pendapatan luar usahatani yang berasal dari hasil tanaman pisang, mangga, kelapa, kacang panjang dan home stay. distribusi pendapatan rumah tangga petani untuk mengukur distribusi pendapatan digunakan indeks gini ratio yang dihitung sebagai berikut mula-mula pendapatan petani diurutkan dari terendah sampai tertinggi, selanjutnya dibagi menjadi lima kelompok, masing-masing klas dibuat persentase kumulatifnya, kemudian dihitung nilai gini ratio. pendapatan yang dihitung atau dianalisis meliputi pendapatan dari pengolahan hasil atau industri rumah tangga, pendapatan usahatani dan pendapatan dari luar usahatani. hasil analisis diperoleh indeks gini ratio atau nilai gini ratio sebesar 0,739, yang berarti bahwa distribusi pendapatan rumah tangga petani di desa wisata kebon 160 jurnal agraris agung tidak merata. hal ini terjadi karena terdapat sebagian orang yang hanya mengusahakan usahatani dan menyewakan rumahnya untuk home stay para wisatawan, tetapi juga ada sebagian orang yang disamping mengusahakan usahatani dan menyewakan rumahnya untuk home stay, juga mengusahakan industri rumah tangga. kesimpulan setelah dilakukan bahasan hasil penelitian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa keberadaan agrowisata atau desa wisata kebon agung berdampak terhadap munculnya industri rumah tangga pengolahan hasil pertanian (tempe, emping melinjo dan apem), pengelolaan usahatani padi dan pemanfaatan lahan pekarangan yang lebih intensif untuk menunjang kegiatan agrowisata, yang pada akhirnya menambah sumber pendapatan dan meningkatkan pendapatan rumahtangga. di antara tiga jenis industri rumahtangga yang berkembang di desa wisata kebon agung, industri tempe memberikan pendapatan tertinggi, yakni 1,8 juta rupiah per bulan, diikuti pendapatan industri emping melinjo 1 juta rupiah per bulan dan industri apem sebesar 550 ribu rupiah per bulan. industri emping melinjo mempunyai rasio nilai tambah tertinggi, yakni hampir 43%; diikuti industri tempe 30% dan apem 20%. belum meratanya akses petani terhadap kesempatan berusaha yang berkembang sebagai dampak keberadaan agro wisata, mengakibatkan distribusi pendapatan masyarakat di desa wisata kebon agung tidak merata, dengan indeks gini ratio sebesar 0,739. berdasarkan hasil penelitian dapat direkomendasikan beberapa hal terkait dengan pengembangan agrowisata atau desa wisataberbasis kearifan lokal, yakni: i) dinas pariwisata, dinas pertanian dan dinas perindustrian kabupaten bantul perlu meningkatkan pendampingan secara sinergi, menyeluruh dan berkesinambungan, baik di bidang pengelolaan pariwisata, pengelolaan usahatani maupun pengelolaan industri rumah tangga; ii) masyarakat petani perlu untuk lebih aktif dan kreatif mengoptimalkan potensi industri rumah tangga yang dimilikinya untuk menunjang kegiatan atau pengelolaan agrowisata atau desa wisata. daftar pustaka akpýnar, n., talay, i., ceylan, c., & gündüz, s. 2004. rural women and agrotourism in the context ofsustainable rural development: a case study from turkey. kluwer journal 6: 473–486. arifin, m., ami, s., ananti, y., & bagus, w. 2007. model pengembangan agrowisata dalam rangka pemberdayaan kelompok tani tawangrejo asri. jurnal ilmu-ilmu pertanian 3(2). azwar, s. 2000. metode penelitian. pustaka pelajar, yogyakarta. badan pusat statistik bantul. 2011. (online). http://bantulkab.bps.go.id/ index.php/pelayan an-statistik/ galo, w. 2002. metodologi penelitian. pt gramedia widiasarana indonesia, jakarta. husein, u. 1999. metode penelitian untuk skripsi dan tesis bisnis. rajawali pers, jakarta. jamieson, w., & noble, a. 2000. a manual for community tourism destination management. canadian universities consortium urban environmental management project training and technology transfer program. ca lindberg, k. 1996. the economic impacts of ecotourism. moleong, l. j. 2000. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. pt. remaja rosdakarya, bandung. sudiyono, a. 2004. pemasaran pertanian. umm press, malang sugiyono. 2014. metode penelitian kuantitatif kualitatif dan r & d. alfabeta, bandung. layout juli 2016 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.1 januari 2017 yuliana1, t. ekowati2, m. handayani2 1 program studi s1 agribisnis universitas diponegoro 2 fakultas peternakan dan pertanian universitas diponegoro yulianaa696@gmail.com efisiensi alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi pada usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari kabupaten grobogan doi: 10.18196/agr.3143 abstract the purpose of this study wa stoanalyze the influence factors of rice production and analyze economic efficiency of production factor susage of rice in the wirosari district, grobogan regency. the research was conducted from october to november 2016 in wirosari district. the method used in the study was survey method. to determine researc hlocation this study used purposive method while the respondent was chosen using simple random sampling withthe number of respondents were 60 farmers. data were analyzed by multiple linier regressionwithcobb-douglas function and calculation of economic efficiency. the result showed that the production factor affecting rice production was seed and npk fertilizer. the usage of npk fertilizer had not been economically efficient yet. whilst the usage of seed was economically inefficient. kkkkkeywords:eywords:eywords:eywords:eywords: efficiency,production,productionfactors, rice. intisari penelitian bertujuan menganalisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi dan menganalisis efisiensi alokasi penggunaan faktor-faktor produksi pada usahatani padi dilakukan di kecamatan wirosari, kabupaten grobogan. pengumpulan data dilaksanakan pada bulan oktober-januari 2016 dengan metode survei. sebanyak 60 petani padi dipilih sebagai sampel dengan menggunakan metode simple random sampling. data dianalisis menggunakan regresi linier berganda dengan fungsi cobb-douglas dilanjutkan dengan perhitungan efisiensi harga. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa benih dan pupuk npk merupakan faktor produksi yang berpengaruhsiginifikan terhadap produksi padi. analisis efisiensi alokasi faktor produksi menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan faktor produksi pupuk npkbelum efisien, sehingga perlu ditingkatkan; sedangkan penggunaan faktor produksi benih tidak efisien, sehingga perlu dikurangi. kata kkata kkata kkata kkata kunci:unci:unci:unci:unci: efisiensi, faktor produksi, padi, produksi. pendahuluan penggunaan faktor produksi merupakan salah satu kunci utama dalam pembangunan pertanian. penggunaan faktor produksi yang tidak tepat dan tidak efisien akan menyebabkan penurunan produksi yang berakibat pada rendahnya pendapatan usahatani. pengelolaan penggunaan faktor produksi yang tepat dan efisien dapat meningkatkan produksi dan menjaga keberlanjutan usahatani padi. upaya peningkatan produksi tanaman pangan melalui efisiensi produksi menjadi salah satu pilihan yang tepat. dengan efisiensi, petani dapat menggunakan input produksi sesuai dengan ketentuan untuk mendapat produksi yang optimal(irawan et. al., 2006). pada umumnya petani menggunakan input atau faktor produksi tidak optimal, sehingga pemeliharaan aktivitas 40 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research usahatani tidak memadai (dewi, 2012). padahal, penggunaan faktor produksi seperti luas lahan, benih, pupuk, pestisida dan tenaga kerja secara tepat dan efisien akan memberikan keuntungan bagi petani. efisiensi faktor produksi meliputi efisiensi teknis, efisiensi harga dan efisiensi ekonomi. efisiensi ekonomi merupakan hasil kali antara seluruh efisiensi harga/alokatif dari seluruh faktor input. usahatani padi dengan menggunakan faktor produksi secara efisien maka akan meningkatkan keuntungan yang maksimum (soekartawi, 2003).petani diharapkan memiliki kemampuan dan penget ahuan mengenai pengelolaan tingkat penggunaan faktor produksi secara optimal agar dapat meningkatkan keuntungan dalam kegiatan usahatani terutama untuk komoditas padi. kecamatan wirosari merupakan salah satu kecamatan penghasil padi terbesar di kabupaten grobogan dengan kelompok tani cukup aktif. namun, produksi padi sawah di kecamatan wirosari tahun 2012, 2013 dan 2014 mengalami penurunan yang cukup besar (bps wirosari, 2015). penurunan produksi dapat disebabkan oleh beberapa hal meliputi faktor lingkungan, teknik budidaya yang kurang baik serta penggunaan faktor produksi yang tidak efektif maupun efisien. petani di kecamatan wirosari termasuk petani aktif dalam kegiatan usahatani padi yang dapat dilihat dari status kelas masing-masing kelompok tani, bahkan terdapat kelompok tani yang telah berbadan hukum. hal tersebut dapat mempermudah akses petani dalam penyediaan sarana produksi. namun, keadaan tersebut kurang dimanfaatkan secara baik oleh petani,ditunjukkan oleh produksi yang menurun. penurunan produksi diduga disebabkan kurang efisiennya alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi. penelitianyang dilakukan kusnadi et.al. (2011) dengan analisis fungsi produksi cobb-douglas dan analisis efisiensi faktor produksi diperoleh hasil bahwa penggunaan lahan, bibit, pupuk n, pupuk p dan tenaga kerja berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi. rata-rata efisiensi dari lima provinsi sentra padi sebesar 91,86%. dari penelitian rahayu dan riptanti (2010) dengan analisis pendekatan fungsi produksi cobb-douglas dan perhitungan ef isiensi ekonomi disimpulkan bahwa faktor produksi luas lahan berpengaruh terhadap produksi kedelai. penggunaan faktor produksi luas lahan, pupuk kandang dan pestisida padat secara ekonomi belum efisien; sedangkanpenggunaan faktor produksi benih, pupuk daun dan pestisida cair tidak efisien. laksmi (2012) menggunakan analisis pendekatan fungsi cobb-douglass dan analisis efisiensi produksi melalui efisiensi alokatif diperoleh hasil bahwa benih, pupuk urea dan pupuk npk berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi. penggunaan pupuk urea, pupuk npk, pupuk organk pestisida dan tenaga kerja belum efisien, sedangkan penggunaan benih tidak efisien. mahanantoet.al., (2009) menggunakan fungsi produksi transendental dan analisis optimasi (efisiensi ekonomis) diperoleh hasil bahwa luas lahan, tenaga kerja, pupuk, pestisida, jarak lahan garapan dengan rumah petani dan sistem irigasi berpengaruh terhadap peningkatan produksi padi sawah. pengalaman petani tidak berpengaruh terhadap peningkatan produksi padi sawah. penggunaan faktor produksi luas lahan dan pestisida belum optimum dan penggunaan tenaga kerja tidak optimum.dari penelitian sriyotoet.al.,(2007) yang menggunakan analisis efisiensi ekonomi dan analisa regresi berganda diperoleh hasil bahwa faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap tingkat efisiensi ekonomi usahatani padi adalah luas lahan, pendidikan non formal, penggunaan benih, penggunaan pupuk, dan tipologi lahan. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah menganalisis faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi produksi usahatani padi dan menganalisis tingkat efisiensi alokatif penggunaan faktorfaktor produksi usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari, kabupaten grobogan. hasil penelitian dapat dimanfaatkan petani sebagai bahan pertimbangan dalam penggunaan faktor produksi supaya lebih efisien. metode penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan di kecamatan wirosari dengan metode survei. data dikumpulkan melalui pengamatan secara langsung dan wawancara menggunakan kuesioner terstruktur untuk kegiatan usahatani padi pada musim tanam pertama, yaitu bulan oktober-januari 2016. kecamatan wirosaridipilih sebagai lokasi penelitian dengan pertimbangan: i) produktivitas padi yang dicapai cukup besar; dan ii) petani di wilayah tersebut aktif dalam usahatani, yang dicirikan dari sebagian besar kelompok tani telah berbadan hukum dan 41 kelompok tani memiliki status sebagai kelompok tani kelas madya dan utama. kelompok tani kelas madya dan utama menunjukkan kondisi usahataniyang telah terkoordinir dengan baik dan aktif dalam kegiatan usahataninya(dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan, 2016). dari kecamatan terpilih, ditentukan 2 desayang memiliki lahan pertanian terluas dan keaktifan petani serta kelompok tani dalam kegiatan usahatani tinggi,yaitu desa tambakrejo dan desa tambakselo. dari masing-masing desa dipilih 30 petani sebagai sampel secara acak(nawawi, 2001). data yang telah dikumpulkan dianalisis menggunakan fungsi linier model cobb-douglas, dilanjutkan dengan 41 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 analisis efisiensi harga.analisis fungsi linier model cobbdouglas dapat menjelaskan pengaruh penggunaan faktor produksi meliputi benih (x 1 ), pupuk kandang (x 2 ), pupuk urea (x 3 ), pupuk npk (x 4 ), pestisida (x 5 ), dan tenaga kerja (x 6 ) terhadap jumlah produksi usahatani padi (y) dalam satu kali musim tanam, dengan model persamaan sebagai berikut (sumodiningrat, 2001): y = ax 1 b1. x 2 b2. x 3 b3. x 4 b4. x 5 b5 x 6 b6. eu persamaan tersebut kemudian diubah dalam bentuk persamaan linier sebagai berikut: lny= lna + b 1 lnx 1 + b 2 lnx 2 + b 3 lnx 3 + b 4 lnx 4 + b 5 lnx 5 + b 6 lnx 6 keterangan: y = produksi padi (kg) a = konstanta b 1 ...b 6 = koefisien regresix 1 ...x 6 x 1 = penggunaan benih (kg) x 2 = penggunaan pupuk kandang (kg) x 3 = penggunaan pupuk urea (kg) x 4 = penggunaan pupuk npk (kg) x 5 = pestisida (liter) x 6 = penggunan tenaga kerja(hok) e = logarita natural (e=2,178) u = kesalahan/eror sebelum dilakukan analisis data dilakukan uji normalitas data menggunakan uji kolmogorofsmirnov, dengan kriteriadata berdistribusi normal jika signifikansi e” 0,05 dan tidak berdistribusi normal jika nilai signifikansi < 0,05 (sukestiyarno, 2008). uji asumsi klasik yang dilakukan meliputi uji heteroskedastisitas dan uji multikolinieritas (santoso, 2001). uji heteroskedastisitasbertujuan menguji model regresi terjadi ketidaksamaan varians dari residual satu pengamatan ke pengamatan yang lain. hal tersebut dapat dilihat dari pola pada grafik scattterplot. jika titik-titik pada grafik membentuk pola tertentu yang teratur seperti bergelombang, melebar kemudian menyempit berarti terjadi heteroskedastisitas. jika titik-titik menyebar di atas maupun di bawah angka 0 dan sumbu y serta tidak ada pola yang jelas maka tidak terjadi heteroskedastisitas(ghozali, 2005).uji multikolinieritas bertujuan untuk menguji apakah dalam model regresi terdapat korelasi antar variabel. hal tersebut dapat dilihat pada outputcoefficientcorrelation dengan melihat nilai varianceinflationfactor (vif). nilai vif menunjukkan setiap variabel independen menjadi variabel dependen dan diregresikan terhadap variabel independen lainnya. jika nilai vif <10 maka tidak terjadi multikolinieritas(gujarati, 2003). untuk menguji apakah faktor produksi benih, pupuk kandang, pupuk urea, pupuk npk, tenaga kerja dan pestisida secara serempak berpengaruh terhadap produksi dilakukan menggunakan uji serempak (uji f) dengan kriteria sebagai berikut: a. jika nilai signifikansi d” 0,05, maka h 1 diterima (h 0 ditolak) berarti variabel independen secara serempak berpengaruh terhadap variabel dependen. b. jika nilai signifikansi> 0,05, maka h 1 ditolak (h 0 diterima) berarti variabel independen secara serempak tidak berpengaruh terhadap variabel dependen. untuk menguji pengaruh faktor produksi benih, pupuk kandang, pupuk urea, pupuk npk, tenaga kerja dan pestisida secara parsial terhadap produksi dilakukan digunakan uji parsial (uji t) dengan kriteria sebagai berikut: a. jika nilai signifikansi d” 0,05, maka h 1 diterima (h 0 ditolak) berarti masing-masing variabel indepeden berpengaruh terhadap variabel dependen. b. jika nilaisignifikansi>0,05, maka h 1 ditolak (h 0 diterima) berarti masing-masing variabel independen tidak berpengaruh terhadap variabel dependen analisis efisiensi hargadigunakan untuk menganalisis tingkat efisiensi alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi usahatani padi. efisiensi harga tercapai bila nilai produk marginal (npm) sama dengan biaya korbananmarginal (bkm) sehingga dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut (mubyarto,1995): atau kriteria pengujian sebagai berikut: a. penggunaan faktor produksi tidak efisien jika b. penggunaan faktor produksi sudah efisien jika c. penggunaan faktor produksi belum efisien jika hasil dan pembahasan gambaran umum usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari kecamatan wirosari terletak di sebelah timur kabupaten grobogan yang berbatasan dengan kecamatan ngaringan di 42 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sebelah timur; kecamatan pulokulon dan kecamatan kradenandisebelah selatan; kecamatan tawangharjo disebelah barat; dankecamatan tambakromo, kabupaten patidi sebelah utara. kecamatan wirosari merupakan salah satu kecamatan dengan produktivitas padi yang cukup besar di kabupaten grobogan, yakni sekitar 6 ton per hektar. namun, produktivitas padi sawah di kecamatan wirosari tahun 2012, 2013 dan 2014 mengalami penurunan (tabel 1). selain tanaman padi, kecamatan wirosari juga memproduksi tanaman pangan lainnya, meliputi jagung, kedelai dan kacang hijau (bps wirosari, 2015). tabel 1. luas panen, produksi dan produktivitas padi sawah kecamatan wirosari tahun luas panen produksi produktivitas ---ha-----ton-----ton/ha-- 2011 7.337 49.711 6,77 2012 7.692 44.081 5,73 2013 7.556 42.749 5,65 2014 7.126 39.501 5,54 2015 9.829 62.625 6,37 sumber: dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan, 2016. kecamatan wirosari terbagi dalam 14 desa/kelurahan meliputi sambirejo, tanjungrejo, kunden, tambaharjo, kropak, kalirejo, dapumo, mojorebo, wirosari, gedangan, tambakselo, karangasem, dokoro dan tegalrejo. setiap desa di kecamatan wirosari memiliki satu gapoktan yang terdiri dari beberapa kelompok tani. setiap desa memiliki jumlah kelompok tani serta anggota kelompok yang berbeda. kecamatan wirosari memiliki kelompok tani yang telah berbadan hukum dan 41 kelompok sudah menjadi kelompok tani kelas utama dan madya. pengelompokkan kelompok tani tersebut berdasarkan keaktifan kelompok serta anggota dengan adanya pertemuan rutin, adanya kemitraan dan kegiatan lain yang dapat menunjang kegiatan usahatani. penentuan kelas pada kelompok tani ditentukan oleh dinas pertanian setempat melalui penyuluh pertanian yang mendampingi masing-masing desa. identitas responden identit as responden dapat digunak an untuk menggambarkan latar belakang responden. petani yang menjadi responden secara umum berusia tua, berpendidikan rendah, dan sudah memiliki pengalaman usahatani yang cukup lama (tabel 2). secara umum petani yang dijadikan berada pada usia produktif dengan umur rata-rata 49 tahun. umur dapat mempengaruhi kemampuan fisik seorang petani dalam melangsungkan kegiatan usahatani. tingkatan umur mempengaruhi perilaku petani terhadap pengambilan keputusan dalam kegiatan usahatani. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat hasyim (2006) yang menyatakan bahwa umur petani merupakan salah satu faktor yang berhubungan dengan kemampuan kerja petani dalam melaksanakan kegiatan usahatani. petani yang bekerja dalam usia produktif akan lebih baik dan maksimal dibandingkan usia non produktif. selain itu, umur juga dapat dijadikan tolak ukur untuk melihat aktivas petani dalam bekerja. tabel 2. identitas responden petani padi di kecamatan wirosari kabupaten grobogan no. indikator rata-rata 1. umur (tahun) 49 2. tingkat pendidikan sd 3. jumlah tanggungan keluarga (orang) 2 4. lama usahatani (tahun) 25 5. luas lahan yang dimiliki (ha) 0,51 rata-rata tingkat pendidikan responden adalah tamat sd. tingkat pendidikan petani akan berpengaruh dalam perilaku petani dan penerapan teknologi. petani yang memiliki tingkat pendidikan rendah dapat menyebabkan keterbatasan kemampuan dalam penerapan teknologi. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat soeharjo dan patong (1999) bahwa tingkat pendidikan akan berpengaruh pada penerapan inovasi baru, sikap mental dan perilaku tenaga kerja dalam usahatani. tingkat pendidikan yang lebih tinggi akan lebih mudah dalam menerapkan inovasi. pendidikan petani tidak hanya berorientasi terhadap peningkatan produksi tetapi mengenai kehidupan sosial masyarakat tani. rata-rata jumlah tanggungan keluarga responden sebanyak 2 orang. jumlah tanggungan keluarga merupakan jumlah beban tanggungan petani dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan sehari-hari. jumlah tanggungan keluarga petani harus diperhatikan karena berkaitan dengan pendapatan petani dalam memenuhi kebutuhan.hal tersebut sesuai pendapat soekartawi (2003) yang menyatakan bahwa jumlah tanggungan keluarga berhubungan dengan peningkatan pendapatan keluarga. petani yang memiliki jumlah anggota banyak sebaiknya meningkatkan pendapatan dengan meningkatkan skala usahatani. jumlah tanggungan keluarga yang besar seharusnya dapat mendorong petani dalam kegiatan usahatani yang lebih intensif dan menerapkan 43 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 tekonologi baru sehingga pendapatan petani meningkat. rata-rata pengalaman petani berusahatani 25 tahun, artinya petani sudah berpengalaman dalam mengelola usahatani. lama usahatani akan berpengaruh terhadap tingkat penget ahuan dan pengalaman petani dalam menjalankan kegiatan usahatani. hal tersebut sesuai pendapat suharyantoet.al. (2015) bahwa pengalaman yang dimiliki petani dapat digunakan sebagai peluang untuk mengarahkan penggunaan input produksi secara efisien karena petani melaksanakan kegiatan usahatani berdasarkan pengalaman. rata-rata luas lahan yang dimiliki petani padi di kecamatan wirosari 0,51 ha. status kepemilikan dan penguasaan lahan petani adalah pemilik sekaligus penggarap. irigasi yang dilakukan di kecamatan wirosari adalah tadah hujan dan pompanisasi. adanya irigasi menggunakan pompa memudahkan petani dalam pemeliharaan tanaman.jenis lahan yang dimiliki petani adalah lahan sawah. teknik pengolahan lahan yang dilakukan petani adalah dengan menggunakan traktor. pola tanam yang diterapkan di kecamatan wirosari yaitu padi-padi-jagung dalam satu tahun. alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi faktor produksi yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah benih, pupuk kandang, pupuk urea, pupuk npk, pestisida dan tenaga kerja. alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. berdasarkan dari tabel 3 dapat diperoleh hasil bahwa penggunaan faktor produksi benih dalam satu kali musim tanam rata-rata 23,35 kg per usahatani 0,51 ha atau 46,7 kg/ha. penggunaan benih terlalu banyak dan tidak sesuai anjuran yakni 25 kg/ha (dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan, 2017). rata-rata penggunaan pupuk kandang sebanyak 214,5 kg per usahatani 0,51 ha atau 429 kg/ha dalam satu musim tanam. pupuk kandang perlu ditambah karena penggunaan pupuk kandang yang baik sebanyak 2 ton/ha (badan litbang, 2007). lahan sawah yang ada di kecamatan wirosari merupakan sawah tadah hujan sehingga penggunaan pupuk kandang perlu ditambah agar kandungan unsur hara dan bahan organik pada tanah tinggi. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat arafah (2009) yang menyatakan bahwa penggunaan pupuk kandang pada lahan sawah tadah hujan sangat penting, karena lahan sawah tadah hujan memiliki kandungan unsur hara dan bahan organik yang rendah, serta tingkat kesuburan tanah yang kurang optimal. hal tersebut juga sesuai dengan pendapat kariadaet.al. (2008) bahwa penambahan pupuk kandang meningkatkan porositas tanah, c-organik, kadar n, p, k, ca, mg dan dapat memperbaiki struktur tanah, sehingga pertumbuhan akar baik. tabel 3. alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari kabupaten grobogan no. faktor produksi satuan rata-rata 1. benih kg 23,350 2. pupuk kandang kg 214,500 3. pupuk urea kg 146,960 4. pupuk npk kg 156,100 5. pestisida liter 0,795 6. tenaga kerja hok 81,000 penggunaan pupuk urea dalam satu kali musim tanam rata-rata 146,96 kg per usahatani 0,51 ha atau 293,92 kg/ha dan pupuk npk sebanyak 156,1 kg per usahatani 0,51 ha atau 312,2 kg/ha.rekomendasi penggunaan pupuk urea dan pupuk npk di kecamatan wirosari adalah 150-250 kg/ha pupuk urea dan 300-400 kg/ha pupuk npk (dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan, 2017). penggunaan pupuk ureasebaiknya dikurangi karena penggunaan pupuk urea yang berlebihan akan mengakibatkan tanah menjadi masam, sehingga penyerapan unsur hara akan terhambat dan biaya usahatani menjadi lebih banyak. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat triyonoet.al., (2013) bahwa efisiensi penggunaan pupuk n dilakukan dengan pemberian sesuai dengan rekomendasi. pupuk ureayang berlebihan akan menghambat penyerapan unsur hara dan tanaman akan mudah terserang hama dan penyakit. rata-rata penggunaan pestisida dalam satu kali musim tanam sebanyak 0,795 liter per usahatani 0,51 ha atau 1,59 liter/ha. serangan hama dan penyakit yang biasa terjadi di kecamatan wirosari adalah hama penggerek batang, wereng coklat dan hawar daun.penggunaan pestisida harus disesuaikan dengan hama dan penyakit yang ada di lahan agar tidak merugikan petani. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat purwono (2007) yang menyatakan bahwa pestisida sangat dibutuhkan petani untuk mencegah serta membasmi hama dan penyakit tanaman, tetapi dapat merugikanpetani jika pemakaian baik dari cara maupun komposisi yang diaplikasikan ke tanaman tidak sesuai.tenaga kerja yang digunakan dalam satu kali musim tanam rata-rata sebanyak 81 hok per usahatani0,51 ha atau 162 hok/ha. penggunaan tenaga kerja terlalu berlebihan dari standar penggunaan tenaga kerja yaitu 159 hok/ha (hernanto, 1991). 44 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research analisis fungsi produksi cobb-douglass analisis fungsi produksi cobb-douglass digunakan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara faktor produksi dengan jumlah produksi. hubungan tersebut dapat diketahui dengan melihat koefisien regresi dari regresi linier berganda dengan mengubah model fungsi produksi cobb-douglass ke dalam bentuk logaritma natural.sebelum dilakukan analisis data perlu dilakukan uji normalitas data dan uji asumsi klasik. berdasarkan uji normalitas data dengan menggunakan uji kolmogorofsmirnovmenunjukkan nilai signifikansi masing-masing variabel dependen yaitu x 1 = 0,970; x 2 = 0,162; x 3 = 0,210; x 4 = 0,213; x 5 = 0,594 dan x 6 = 0,119 dan variabel independen nilai signifikansinya 0,695maka data tersebut berdistribusi normal karena nilai signifikansi e”0,05. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat sukestiyarno (2008) yang menyatakan bahwa jika hasil pengolahan data dengan spss menunjukkan nilai signifikansi e”0,05 maka data normal sedangkan nilai signifikansi <0,05 maka data tidak normal. berdasarkan uji heteroskedastisitas melalui scattterplot diperoleh hasil bahwa penyebaran variabel dependen menyebar secara acak, tidak membentuk gelombang dan pola lain maka tidak terjadi heteroskedastisitas(ghozali, 2005). berdasarkan nilai vif tiap variabel diperoleh hasil x 1 = 7,253; x 2 = 3,938; x 3 = 6,967; x 4 = 5,496; x 5 = 1,731 dan x 6 = 2,782 berarti nilai vif tiap variabel<10 maka tidak terjadi multikolinieritas. model regresi yang dihasilkan bebas dari uji asumsi klasik. hal tersebut juga sesuai dengan pendapat gujarati (2003) bahwa model regresi yang baik seharusnya tidak terjadi heteroskedastisitas, autokorelasi dan korelasi antara variabel. berikut merupakan model persamaan linier: lny = 4,181 0,397lnx 1 + 0,066lnx 2 0,211lnx 3 + 0,614lnx 4 + 0,068lnx 5 + 0,104lnx 6 keterangan: y = produksi padi (kg) x 1 = penggunaan benih (kg) x 2 = penggunaan pupuk kandang (kg) x 3 = penggunaan pupuk urea(kg) x 4 = penggunaan pupuk npk (kg) x 5 = penggunan pestisida (liter) x 6 = tenaga kerja(hok) tabel 4. hasil analisis regresi faktor produksi usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari kabupaten grobogan variabel b t-hitung signifkansi (constant) 5,158 benih (x1) -0,397 -3,022 0,004 ** pupuk kandang (x2) 0,066 0,563 0,576 ns pupuk urea (x3) -0,211 -1,870 0,067 ns pupuk npk (x4) 0,614 5,202 0,000 ** pestisida (x5) 0,068 1,600 0,115 ns tenaga kerja (x6) 0,104 1,307 0,197 ns r-square 0,868 f-hitung 58,292 0,000 keterangan ** = berpengaruh nyata pada taraf kepercayaan 95% ns = tidak berpengaruh nyata berdasarkan tabel 4diketahui pengaruh penggunaan faktor produksi terhadap produksi padi sebagai berikut. a. nilaikoefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,868 berarti 86,8% variasi hasil produksi dapat dijelaskan oleh faktor produksi yang dimasukkan dalam model, sedangkan sisanya yaitu 13,2% dijelaskan oleh faktor lain yang diluar model regresi yang digunakan. b. berdasarkan analisis uji f diperoleh hasil yaitu nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,000. nilai signifikansi d” 0,05 hasil tersebut menunjukkan bahwa faktor produksi meliputi benih, pupuk kandang, pupuk urea, pupuk npk, pestisida dan tenaga kerja secara serempak berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi. c. berdasarkan analisis uji tdiperoleh hasil bahwa faktor produksi yang digunakan dalam usahatani padi, yaitu benih dan pupuk npk merupakan faktor produksi yang berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi. hal tersebut dilihat dari nilai signifikansi dari faktor produksi tersebut yaitu d” 0,05. faktor produksi pupuk kandang, pupuk urea, pestisida dan tenaga kerja tidak berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi karena nilai signifikansi >0,05. faktor produksi benih berpengaruh terhadap produksi karena penggunaan benih padi yang unggul ak an meningkatkan kualitas dan kuantitas produksi. koefisien regresi faktor produksi benih sebesar -0,397 yang berarti penambahan penggunaan benih sebesar 1% maka akan menurunkan produksi sebesar 0,397%. hal tersebut terjadi karena penggunaan benih terlalu banyak sehingga pertumbuhan kurang optimal dan produksi juga akan menurun. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat respika45 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 sarietal. (2014) bahwa penggunaan benih yang terlalu banyak menyebabkan populasi per lubang tanaman tinggi,sehingga terjadi persaingan dalam penyerapan unsur hara, oksigen dan sinar matahari yang mengakibatkan penurunan produksi padi. faktor produksi pupuk npk berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi, sehingga penambahan penggunaan pupuk npk sebesar 1% maka akan meningkatkan produksi sebesar 0,614%. kandungan unsur hara yang ada di pupuk npk meliputi n, p dan k merupakan unsur hara makro yang dibutuhkan tanaman padi. pupuk npk mudah larut dalam air sehingga unsur hara dapat segera diserap dan digunakan oleh tanaman untuk menghasilkan produksi yang optimal. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat pirngadi dan abdulrachman (2005) yang menyatakan bahwa pupuk npk merupakan salah satu pupuk anorganik yang dapat digunakan dalam meningkatkan ketersediaan unsur hara makro (n, p, dan k) dan dapat menggantikan pupuk tunggal seperti urea, sp-36, dan kcl. faktor produksi pupuk kandang, pupuk urea, pestisida dan tenaga kerja tidak berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi karena nilai signifikansinya>0,05. namun jika dicermati lebih lanjut, terdapat perbedaan nilai signifikansi di antara faktorfaktor produksi tersebut, yang menunjukkan perbedaan pengaruhnya. nilai signifikansi pupuk urea (0,067), pestisida (0,115) dan tenaga kerja (0,197) menunjukkan faktor-faktor produksi tersebut berpengaruh dengan tingkat kesalahan 20%. sementara itu, nilai signifikansi penggunaan pupuk kandang mencapai 0,576 yang dapat diartikan faktor produksi pupuk kandang sama sekali tidak berpengaruh terhadap produksi. fakta ini dapat dijadikan bukti empirik yang menjelaskan mengapa petani enggan menggunakan pupuk kandang. secara teoritis, pupuk kandang merupakan faktor produksi yang tidak berpengaruh langsung terhadap peningk atan produksi. penggunaan pupuk kandang berpengaruh terhadap perbaikan kualitas tanah yang dalam jangka panjang akan berpengaruh terhadap produksi. efisiensi alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi petani perlu mengetahui analisis efisiensi harga untuk membantu dalam pengalokasian penggunaan faktor produksi, sehingga tidak terjadi pemborosan karena berpengaruh terhadap hasil produksi dan keuntungan usahatani. efisiensi harga atau alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi terjadi jika nilai produk marginal dari setiap faktor produksi sama dengan harga setiap faktor produksi yang digunakan (soekartawi, 2003). efisiensi harga dapat diketahui dari perhitungan produk marginal, harga input dan harga produk. perhitungan nilai efisiensi dilakukan setiap faktor produksi dan tidak secara bersamaan. nilai input (x), harga input (px), marginal produk (mpp), produksi (y), harga padi per kg (py) dan hasil perhitungan efisiensi harga disajikan pada tabel 5. berdasarkan tabel 5 dapat diperoleh hasil bahwa nilai efisiensi harga penggunaan faktor produksi benih sebesar 18,45 berarti <1 maka penggunaan faktor produksi benih usahatani padi secara ekonomi tidak efisien sehingga perlu pengurangan input. rata-rata penggunaan benih dalam satu kali musim tanam sebanyak 23,35 kg per usahatani0,51 ha at au 46,7 k g/ha. anjuran penggunaan benih yang bersertifikat adalah 25 kg/ha sehingga penggunaan perlu dik urangi (dinas per t anian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan, 2017). penggunaan benih tepat akan meningkatkan produksi pertanian. produksi padi yang dihasilkan secara kualitas dan kuantitas akan lebih baik dibandingkan benih yang tidak bersertifikat. nilai efisiensi penggunaan faktor produksi pupuk npk sebesar 20,44 berarti >1 maka belum efisien sehingga perlu penambahan. rata-rata penggunaan pupuk npk dalam satu kali musim tanam yaitu sebesar 156,10 kg per usahatani 0,51 ha atau 312,2 kg/ha. standar penggunaan pupuk npk di kecamatan wirosari sebesar 300-400 kg/ha (dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan, 2017). penggunaan pupuk npk perlu ditambah untuk memperoleh hasil yang maksimum melalui waktu tabel 5. perhitungan efisiensi harga usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari kabupaten grobogan faktor produksi b x px mpp efisiensi ekonomi benih (kg) -0,397 23,35 12000 -67,10 -18,45 pupuk npk (kg) 0,614 156,10 2500 15,49 20,44 produksi (y) 3.795 harga padi per kg(py) 3.300 46 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pemupukan yang tepat dan sesuai dengan kebutuhan tanaman. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat pirngadi dan abdulrachman (2005) yang menyatakan bahwa penggunaan pupuk npk harus diberikan sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan tahap pertumbuhan tanaman meliputi pemberian pada umur 7 hari setelah tanam (hst), umur 21 hst dan saat primordial bunga.pengaruh pupuk sangat penting dalam pertumbuhan dan produksi tanaman. semakin tepat kandungan unsur hara untuk tanaman maka pertumbuhan dan produksi akan semakin baik. kebalikannya jika kandungan hara tidak dapat menyuplai kebutuhan hara tanaman maka pertumbuhan akan terhambat dan produksi akan akan jelek (lingga dan marsono, 2007). kesimpulan dari sejumlah variabel yang dianalisis dapat disimpulkan bahwa penggunaan faktor produksi benih dan pupuk npk berpengaruh terhadap produksi padi; sedangkan penggunaan faktor produksi lain sepertipupuk kandang, pupuk urea, pestisida dan tenaga kerja tidak berpengaruh terhadap produksi. di antara faktor-faktor produksi yang tidak berpengaruh terhadap produksi, pupuk kandang merupakan yang nilai signifikasinya paling besar. artinya, pada usahatani padi di wilayah kasus, pupuk kandang merupakan faktor produksi yang tidak mempunyai pengaruh langsung terhadap produksi. analisis efisiensi harga menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan faktor produksibenih tidak efisien. artinya, petani harus mengurangi jumlah penggunaan benih dan meningkatkan kualitas benih dengan menggunakan benih bersertifikasi. sementara itu, penggunaan pupuk npk belum efiisien, artinya petani harus meningkatkan penggunaan npk sesuai dengan yang direkomendasikan pemerintah. daftar pustaka arafah. 2009. pengelolaan dan pemanfaatan padi sawah. bumi aksara, bogor. badan pusat statistik kabupaten grobogan. 2015. kabupaten grobogan dalam angka 2015. badan pusat statistik kabupaten grobogan, grobogan. badan pusat statistik kabupaten grobogan. 2015. wirosari dalam angka 2015. badan pusat statistik kabupaten grobogan, grobogan. badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian. 2007. pengelolaan tanaman terpadu (ptt) padi sawah, pedoman bagi penyuluh pertanian. badan penelitan dan pengembangan pertanian, jakarta. darwanto. 2010. analisis efisiensi usahatani padi di jawa tengah (penerapan analisis frontier). jurnal organisasi dan manajemen6(1): 46-57. dewi, i.g.a.c. 2012. analisis efisiensi usahatani padi sawah studi kasus di subak pacung babakan, kecamatan mengwi, kabupaten badung. jurnal agribisnis dan agrowisata1(1): 1-10. dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan. 2016. https://dinpertan.grobogan.go.id/category/basis-data/. diakses pada tanggal 12 desember 2016. dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura kabupaten grobogan. 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pengaruh kombinasi dosis pupuk majemuk npkphonskadanpupukn terhadap pertumbuhan dan hasil tanaman padisawah(oryzasativa). jurnal agrologia2(1): 43-50. kusnadi, n., tinaprilla,n., susilowati, s.h.,&purwoto, a. 2011. analisis efisiensi usahatani padi di beberapa sentra produksi padi di indonesia. jurnal agro ekonomi29(1): 25-48. laksmi, n.m.c.a. 2012. analisis efisiensi usahatani padi sawah studi kasus di subak guama, kecamatan marga, kabupaten tabanan. jurnal agribisnis dan agrowisata1(1): 34-43. lingga, p., & marsono, 2007. petunjuk penggunaan pupuk. edisi revisi. penebar swadaya, jakarta mahananto,s., sutrisno, &ananda, c. f. 2009. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi padi (studi kasus di kecamatannogosari, boyolali, jawa tengah). jurnal wacana12(1):179-191. mubyarto. 1995. pengantar ekonomi pertanian. edisi ketiga. lp3es, jakarta. nawawi, h.h. 2001. metode penelitian bidang sosial. cetakan kesembilan. gadjah mada university press, yogyakarta. pirngadi, k., &abdulrachman, s. 2005. pengaruh pupuk majemuk npk terhadap pertumbuhan dan hasil padi sawah. jurnal agrivigor4(3): 188-197. purwono. 2007. budidaya 8 jenis tanaman pangan unggul. penebar swadaya, jakarta. rahayu, w., &riptanti, e. w. 2010. analisis efisiensi ekonomi penggunaan faktor-faktor produksi pada usahatani kedelai di kabupaten sukoharjo. jurnal caraka tan25(1): 119-125. respikasari, t. ekowati, & setiadi, a. 2014. analisis efisiensi ekonomi faktorfaktor produksiusahatani padi sawah di kabupaten karanganyar.fakultas peternakan dan pertanian universitas diponegoro, semarang. santoso, s. 2001. analisis parametrik dengan spss. exelmultimedia, jakarta. singarimbun, m., & effendi, s. 1991. metode penelitian survei. lp3s, jakarta. soeharjo, a., &patong, d. 1999.sendi-sendi pokok ilmu usahatani. departemen ilmu-ilmu sosial ekonomi. fakultas pertanian, institut pertanian bogor. soekartawi. 2003. teori ekonomi produksi dengan pokok bahasan analisis 47 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 fungsi cobb-douglass. pt raja grafindo persada, jakarta. sriyoto, w.,harveny, &sukiyono, k. 2007. efisiensi ekonomi usahatani padi pada dua tipologi lahan yang berbeda di provinsi bengkulu dan faktorfaktor determinannya. jurnal akta agrosia12(2): 155-163. subagyo, p. j. 1997. metode penelitian dalam teori dan prkatek. rineka cipta, jakarta. suharyanto, k.,mahaputra, & arya, n. n. 2015. efisiensi ekonomi relatif usahatani padi sawahdengan pendekatan fungsi keuntungan pada program sekolah lapang-pengelolaan tanaman terpadu (sl-ptt)di provinsi bali. jurnal informatika pertanian24(1): 59–66. sumodiningrat. 2001. metode statistika. pustaka sinar harapan, jakarta triyono, a., purwanto.,& budiyono. 2013. efisiensi penggunaan pupuk n untuk pengurangan kehilangan nitrat pada lahan pertanian. prosiding seminar nasional pengelolaan sumber daya alam dan lingkungan 2013. isbn978-6002-179001-1-2: 526-531 6 r-6 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 261 article history: submitted : july 14th, 2022 revised : november 21st, 2022 november 18th, 2022 accepted : november 22nd, 2022 mohammad yusof ahmad, kelly wong kai seng*, nitty hirawaty kamarulzaman department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, faculty of agriculture, universiti putra malaysia,43400 upm serdang, selangor, malaysia correspondence email: kellywong@upm.edu.my selected factors influencing china's palm oil import demand from malaysia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15511 abstract the export of palm oil from malaysia to china has declined since 2013, although the malaysian ringgit has depreciated. the malaysian palm oil market has also struggled against the indonesian palm oil and soy oil in china. hence, this study aimed to identify the significant factors influencing china's demand for malaysian palm oil by adopting the auto-regressive distributed lag (ardl) analysis. the finding revealed that the currency rate of exchange, the foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china, and the international soy oil price significantly influence malaysian palm oil demand in china. nevertheless, china's real gdp per capita showed a positive and significant influence only in the long run. the demand for malaysian palm oil in china was not significantly impacted by the palm oil price offered by indonesia, neither in the long run nor short run. thus, the authorities related to this industry need to strategize the stock management system to control the price and currency stabilization to maintain its competitive power. keywords: ardl; china's demand; currency rate of exchange; palm oil; international soy oil price introduction china has a vast economic market and plays a major role in affecting the surrounding countries' economies. china has enjoyed explosive economic growth for the last 30 years since the 1979 free-market reformed policy in the country. after the market reform, china's gross domestic product (gdp) grew, on average, by 10 percent per annum from 1979 to 2014 (morrison, 2009). this economic expansion in the country has improved their households' disposable income and purchasing power. in 2001 china strengthened its international trade relation after joining the world trade organisation (wto) and the asean-china free trade area (acfta) in 2005. through these participations, china’s import of palm oil grew from 2.1 million tons in 2001 to 3.2 million tons in 2005 as palm oil is highly demanded by various industries in the country due to its affordable price (nambiappan et al., 2018). china's economic development plan, such as china's road and belt initiative, has opened a trade opportunity for asian countries, including malaysia, which was known as one http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:kellywong@upm.edu.my https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 262 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research of the important global palm oil exporters. china was the largest export destination for malaysian palm oil in the last twelve years (2002−2013), which holds about 20 percent of the total exported malaysian palm oil (malaysian palm oil board [mpob], 2014). however, since 2009, china's demand for malaysian palm oil has been unstable and significantly dropped by about 24.3 percent, 17.86 percent, and 21.74 percent in 2014, 2015, and 2016 (mpob, 2018). china is no longer considered malaysia’s largest palm oil export destination even though its economy is growing. thus, this scenario had against the demand theory, which states that when the importing country's gdp grows, the local purchasing power increases and leads the palm oil demand to increase in the market (awad, arshad, shamsudin, & yusof, 2007), and macroeconomic stability will trigger a greater import demand as opposed to the downturn period (arnade & liefert, 2022). hence, the gdp per capita is a vital representation of income with a positive relationship with the palm oil demand. the findings by wong & ahmad (2017); wong, shamsudin, mohamed, & sharifuddin (2014); and zakaria & salleh, kamalrudin mohamed balu (2017) strongly supported this theory. the exchange rate between the malaysian ringgit (myr) to chinese yuan (cny) was recorded as depreciated in 2012 however, it did not encourage china to demand more volume of malaysian palm oil (mpob, 2018) even though they can enjoy a larger volume of imported goods at a lower cost due to exporter country’s depreciation. this is against the finding by girsang, sukiyono, & asriani (2018) and hameed & arshad (2012), through their ecm model, which discovered that the increase in indonesian cpo export volume is significantly driven by the rupiah's devaluation against the u.s. dollar and indirectly expands its market share. the currency appreciation will reduce the cost of purchasing intermediate goods, increasing output supply and reducing the export demand (dincer & kandil, 2011). in addition, the malaysian palm oil industry faces two main challenges in china. first is competing with indonesian palm oil due to the major expansion of palm oil plantation areas of the country that allows them to become a dominant palm oil market player replacing malaysia (awalludin, sulaiman, hashim, & nadhari, 2015). the second is the china edible oil demand behavior pattern which was switched to soy oil. since 2014, malaysia has faced intense competition with indonesia when malaysia started to lose its palm oil market share in china’s market to indonesia due to the lower price of indonesian palm oil (mpob, 2015). indonesia has a cost advantage in its palm oil production since they have cheap labor costs and larger oil palm plantations than malaysia (ramadhani & santoso, 2019). rifin (2010) also mentioned that a significant market share gained by the indonesian palm oil in asia, africa, and europe, is due to its price which is cheaper than malaysian palm oil. a country will import more malaysian palm oil if malaysia's price is lower than indonesia's, and vice versa (suherman, suharno, & harianto, 2016). this is due to the agri-food sector is more sensitive toward price than other sectors like manufacturing (grübler, ghodsi, & stehrer, 2022). thus, it seems to be important to study the influence of palm oil trade price from indonesia on china’s palm oil demand from malaysia, hence, this study included this factor in the regression model to complement the past studies where this factor is found absent. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 263 selected factors influencing china's palm ….. (ahmad, seng, and kamarulzaman) the demand for malaysian palm oil in china has also been affected by the soybean crushing industry’s expansion to fulfill the higher demand for soy-based animal feed. the byproducts from the process indirectly produce soy oil, which can be utilized as an edible oil for daily consumption and substitute palm oil (gale, 2015). from 2014 to 2017, china increased its soybean import by about 20 percent and consequently caused a 10.3 percent decline in malaysian palm oil imports (mpob, 2018; united state department of agriculture [usda], 2018). the demand for malaysian palm oil in china was indirectly affected by their population consumption pattern. according to awad et al. (2007); bentivoglio, finco, & bucci (2018); and othman & alias (2000) in their study agreed that the price of soy oil positively determines the demand behavior of palm oil consumers within several markets, especially china. this is because palm oil in china is highly substitutable for soy oil (zakaria et al., 2017). the higher price of palm oil will easily trigger china's households to shift their demand to soy oil (hameed, arshad, & alias, 2016; santeramo & searle, 2018). hence, to attract more demand for malaysian palm oil from china, policymakers must identify the control variables related to china's palm oil import demand. thus, this study investigated the significant internal and external factors determining china's palm oil import decision from malaysia. besides, this study contributes ideas to the policymakers based on its outcomes in constructing a future-ready policy in uncertain market conditions. research method source of the data the sets of time series data were collected from different sources covering the year 1980 to 2017. data on malaysian palm oil export volume to china, the foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china, and the international trade price of soy oil were gathered from the malaysian palm oil statistic book published by the malaysian palm oil board (mpob). the international trade price of indonesian palm oil was retrieved from the un comtrade website (https://comtrade.un.org), china real gdp per capita based on the year 2010 compiled from the world bank development indicator by world bank (https://data.worldbank.org), and the exchange rate of malaysian ringgit per chinese yuan (rm/cny) achieved from bank negara malaysia monthly bulletin by bank negara malaysia (http://www.bnm.gov.my). model specification in this study, the demand theory is an appropriate reference theory to analyze china’s palm oil market demand (hameed et al., 2016; suherman et al., 2016). the market demand theory was explained by the product price (p), disposable income (y), and other related prices, such as complement and substitution prices. the expression of the theory of demand in a mathematical equation appears as equation 1: qd=f(pown, y, pother) (1) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://www.bnm.gov.my/ issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 264 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research as the study examined the export demand of malaysian palm oil to china, a derived demand function was formed. this function was associated with china's demand pattern, where palm oil imported to the country was not consumed as final products but utilized as an intermediate product or input to produce other products. thus, the derived demand function includes the quantity demand (qd) proxied by the malaysian palm oil export volume to china (expdc) and the commodity's price, which was proxied by the foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china (mexpr). the substitute product’s price was denoted by the international price of soy oil (psybo) and the indonesian palm oil trade price (iexpr), and the income is delegated by china's real gdp per capita (rgdpc). additionally, the exchange rate of malaysian ringgit per chinese yuan (exrmy) was also considered a "price of complement" for a trade product, when the country's currency appreciates, the export demand increases (khalighi & fadaei, 2017). this means the exchange rate can be the demand switcher that affects the import price in the destination market (zhang, 2020). hence, in general, the primary demand function for the export demand of malaysian palm oil to china was expressed as a double-log regression and written as equation 2: lnexpdct= β0+ β1lnmexprt+ β2lnpsybot+ β3lnrgdpct+ β4lnexrmyt+ β 5 lniexprt+ μt (2) model estimation methods at the beginning of the analysis, the stationarity of the tested variables was checked by adopting the augmented dickey-fuller (adf) and phillip-perron (pp) test procedures. the auto-regressive distributed lag (ardl) model bounds cointegration test was adopted for the cointegration testing. this procedure had its specialty in dealing with a small number of observations and irrespective integration order, such as i(0) or i(1), and variables with nonuniform optimal lags. it is also relevant to the case when the independent variable is dependent (alam & quazi, 2003). therefore, the export demand model of malaysian palm oil in china was adapted to the ardl model as equation 3: ∆lnexpdct=c+β1lnexpdct-1+ β2lnmexprt-1+ β3lnpsybot-1+ β4lnrgdpct-1+ β 5 lnexrmyt-1+ β6lniexprt-1+ ∑ α1i p i=1 ∆lnexpdct-i+ ∑ α2i p i=0 ∆lnmexprt-i+ ∑ α3i p i=0 ∆lnpsybot-i+ ∑ α4i p i=0 ∆lnrgdpct-i+ ∑ α5i p i=0 ∆lnexrmyt-i+ ∑ α6i p i=0 ∆lniexprt-i+εt (3) once the cointegration was established, the elasticity of the long run was estimated by adopting the ardl model proposed by pesaran, shin, & smith (2001) as equation 4: lnexpdct=ĉ1+ ∑ β̂1i p i=1 lnexpdct-i+ ∑ β̂2j q j=0 lnmexprt-j+ ∑ β̂3k r k=0 lnpsybot-k+ ∑ β̂4m s m=0 lnrgdpct-m+ ∑ β̂5n u n=0 lnexrmyt-n+ ∑ β̂6w v w=0 lniexprt-w+εt (4) where the coefficients of the tested variables represent the long-run elasticities. the lag selection criterion was based on a general to a specific schwartz-bayesian criterion (sbc) approach. the expression of the short-run was as equation 5: http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 265 selected factors influencing china's palm ….. (ahmad, seng, and kamarulzaman) ∆lnexpdct= c(1-β̂1j) ectt-1+ ∑ α̂1i p i=1 ∆lnexpdct-i+ ∑ α̂2j q j=0 ∆lnmexprt-j+ ∑ α̂3k r k=0 ∆lnpsybot-k+ ∑ α̂4m s m=0 ∆lnrgdpct-m+ ∑ α̂5n u n=0 ∆lnexrmyt-n+ ∑ α̂6w v w ∆lniexprt-w+ εt (5) where 𝛼1̂, 𝛼2̂, 𝛼3̂, 𝛼4̂, 𝛼5̂, and 𝛼6̂ symbolize the dynamic coefficients of the variables in the short run. let (1�̂�1) = φ, which represents the speed of adjustment parameter. results and discussion the outcomes from both cointegration tests are presented in table 1. the entire series of variables were stationary at order one or i(1), and it had fulfilled the ardl bounds test pre-requirement where all of the series should be stationary at order below than two or i(2). table 1. summary of the results for unit-root tests test adf pp variables i(0) i(1) i(0) i(1) expdc -1.292 -5.375*** -1.322 -5.307*** mexpr -2.318 -6.666*** -2.217 -8.324*** psybo -1.743 -5.428*** -1.791 -8.774*** rgdpc 0.358 -3.569** 1.079 -3.569** exrmy -2.650* -5.553*** -2.666* -5.582**** iexpr -2.156 -7.386*** -2.118 -7.615*** notes: expdc = malaysian palm oil export volume to china. mexpr = foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china, psybo = international price of soy oil, rgdpc = china's real gdp per capita, exrmy = currency rate of exchange malaysian ringgit per chinese yuan, iexpr = indonesian palm oil trade price. the entire variables are transformed into a logarithmic form and *, ** and *** denotes 10 percent, 5 percent, and 1 percent significance level, respectively. after the stationary of the tested variables was confirmed, the ardl bounds cointegration test was adopted to test for the long-run cointegration relationship between variables. the f-test statistics with a 5 percent significance level mean the independent and dependent variables were cointegrated in the long run (table 2). table 2. ardl bounds cointegration test model: expdc = f (exrmy, iexpr, mexpr, psybo, rgdpc) {1, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0} f-statistic: 4.485** critical level significant level lower bound upper bound 1% 4.045 5.898 5% 2.962 4.338 10% 2.483 3.708 notes: ** denotes significance at 5 percent significance levels. the critical values are referred to in table case iii: unrestricted intercept and no trend for without trend models (narayan, 2005) since all the variables were proven to be cointegrated, the procedure continues with the long-run elasticity estimation. based on the long-run regression, all the independent variables follow the prior expected signs in which the foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 266 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (mexpr) was the only variable holding a negative sign (table 3). this finding was in parallel with hassan, mazlan, kami, salleh, & chioma (2018) who found that the demand will drop significantly due to price hikes in the netherlands. table 3. ardl long-run elasticity variables coefficient standard error p-value c 17.069*** 5.874 0.007 mexprt -7.075** 2.632 0.012 psybot 4.967** 2.356 0.044 rgdpct 0.819** 0.303 0.011 exrmyt 2.809*** 0.682 0.000 iexprt 0.267 0.687 0.700 notes: mexpr = foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china, psybo = international price of soy oil, rgdpc = china's real gdp per capita, exrmy = currency rate of exchange malaysian ringgit per chinese yuan, iexpr = indonesian palm oil trade price. the entire variables are transformed into a logarithmic form ** and *** denotes, 5 percent, and 1 percent significance level, respectively. based on the summarized estimation results, the coefficient of the (ermy) was estimated at around 2.809, which indicated that the appreciation of the malaysian ringgit by 1 percent would cause china to reduce its demand for malaysian palm oil by 2.809 percent without any changes on other factors. this finding was identical to dewanta, arfani, & erfita (2016), who also found exchange rate and income positively influence the palm oil export demand in the long run. this finding somehow strengthened the exchange rate theory where the depreciation of the local currency against the foreign exchange will cause the export to rise as a result of the lower price of the commodity product in the international market (alatas, 2015). similar to the trade relationship between india and china, bahmani-oskooee & saha (2021) found that the depreciation of indian rupee against chinese yuan will increase india’s export to china. the result revealed that the (iexpr) was estimated at the magnitude of 0.267, which means when indonesia increases its palm oil price by 1 percent, it will influence china to increase its demand for malaysian palm oil by 0.267 percent, ceteris paribus. this finding was consistent with what has been found by zheng, saghaian, & reed (2012) where the competitor’s price positively influences the quantity demanded. however, this factor was found insignificant in this study, which means the trade price of indonesian palm oil was an uncritical factor impacting the malaysian palm oil demand in china. this means malaysian palm oil was substitutable for indonesian palm oil in china, but it did not give a significant trade challenge to malaysian palm oil demand in the past. yet, in the future, indonesia may give a major influence on malaysian palm oil demand in china. unlike malaysia, a minor palm oil exporter like ghana, its palm oil export demand is majorly affected by the palm oil price from indonesia (kuwornu, darko, osei-asare, & egyir, 2009). therefore, this study provided a new perspective to the palm oil trade study where the competitor’s price will give a different impact based on the market being studied. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 267 selected factors influencing china's palm ….. (ahmad, seng, and kamarulzaman) the (mexpr) was estimated at -7.075, which was relatively high. it demonstrated that if the foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china increases by 1 percent with no changes in other factors, the demand decreases by 7.075 percent. this was acceptable as niemi (2001) also found that the malaysian palm oil price determines the european union’s demand at the elasticity of -6.670 percent. this rate was relatively high, reflecting that the demand for malaysian palm oil in china was susceptible to price changes. the results strongly agreed with rifin (2010) who highlighted that the palm oil demand in asia is receptive to the price changes of that commodity. turner & buongiorno (2004) through the pooled ols method also revealed that country’s import demand is highly elastic toward price changes. as referred to malaysia’s closest competitor which is indonesia a unit increase in its palm oil export price will turn down the export demand by 0.33 percent (jafari, othman, witzke, & jusoh, 2017). thus, it proves that export is highly elastic toward price changes (hussain, hussain, & alam, 2020). the highly elastic value revealed the large composition of the china consumers’ total expenditure on palm oil. the change in quantity demand for malaysian palm oil in the country was influenced by the purchasing power which depends on the price changes. moreover, there was a huge effect of substitution price, suggesting that goods to be consumed as an alternative to malaysian imported palm oil in china were diverse. the (psybo) was found to be elastic, where a 1 percent decrease in the international price of soy oil traded in the market will cause china to switch its demand toward soy oil rather than malaysian palm oil at the elasticity rate of 4.967 percent, while other factors were constant. this means the changes in the demand for palm oil are sensitive to the changes in the soy oil price and it indicates that an increase in the soy oil price will result in a more than proportional increase in palm oil supply (santeramo & searle, 2018). it is shown that soy oil is a long-term competitor for palm oil, where an increment in its price will cause the consumer to switch to palm oil (khalid, hamidi, thinagar, & marwan, 2018). similarly, (hameed et al., 2016) found that soy oil price influences malaysian palm oil demand in china at an elasticity of 3.041 percent with a 1 percent significance level. thus, the development in china’s soybean crushing industry has affected the demand for malaysian palm oil in the country. in addition, this study also aligns with a recent study by asri, rahman, & janor (2020) who also found that the malaysian crude palm oil (cpo) export demand is elastic to the changes in the international price of soy oil at the magnitude of 2.227 percent and it is significant at 10 percent significance level. china’s economic performance, which was proxied by its gdp per capita (rgdpc), somehow influences its demand for malaysian palm oil. it was found that with a 1 percent improvement in the gdp per capita, the demand alleviated by 0.819 percent, while other factors were considered unchanged. the positive and significant influence of income on demand has also been revealed by ngoma (2020) through the adopted gravity model. the income coefficient is found to be more elastic in this study as compared to zakaria et al. (2017) who show that china will increase the palm oil demand from malaysia by 0.452 percent when the income increases by 1 percent and is significant at a 5 percent level. the significant influence of gdp on demand for malaysian palm oil was also discovered by (zakaria et al., http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 268 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 2019) through the ardl model in their study of malaysian palm oil demand in balkan countries. thus, it is confirmed that trading partners’ income significantly determines their demand for palm oil products (nkang, abang, akpan, & offem, 2007). it also agreed with the previous findings which disclose that the higher purchasing power will stimulate higher demand for indonesian agriculture commodity exports to china (purnomowati, darwanto, widodo, & hartono, 2015; riyani, darsono, & ferichani, 2018). in the short-run analysis, the error correction term lag one-year (ectt-1) coefficient was estimated at around -0.224, with a 5 percent significance level (table 4), which directly means the variables were cointegrated in the short run. subsequently, the market had a slow rate speed of adjustment where it takes approximately four years and a half (1/0.224) to eliminate the disequilibrium back to the equilibrium point. table 4. ardl short-run elasticity variables coefficient standard error p-value ectt-1 -0.224** 0.083 0.011 ∆mexprt -0.986*** 0.002 0.002 ∆mexprt-1 0.485** 0.175 0.010 ∆psybot 1.114*** 0.351 0.003 ∆rgdpct 0.183 0.112 0.115 ∆exrmyt 0.630** 0.301 0.046 ∆iexprt 0.059 0.156 0.704 r2 0.985 adjusted r2 0.980 f-statistic 223.106*** 0.000 serial correlation 0.893 0.639 jarque-bera 0.257 0.878 breusch-pagan godfrey 10.647 0.222 reset 1.688 0.205 notes: mexpr = foreign trade price of malaysian palm oil to china, psybo = international price of soy oil, rgdpc = china's real gdp per capita, exrmy = currency rate of exchange malaysian ringgit per chinese yuan, iexpr = indonesian palm oil trade price. the entire variables are transformed into a logarithmic form ** and *** denotes, 5 percent, and 1 percent significance level, respectively. at the same time, the elasticities of the (∆exrmy) and (∆mexpr-1) were significant at a 5 percent level. the coefficient (∆exrmy) which was estimated at around 0.630 means demand from china will increase by 0.630 percent as a result of the 1 percent depreciation of myr against the cny. the elasticity found in this study was closest to matlasedi (2017) who discovered that the demand would be affected by 0.414 percent for every 1 percent appreciation or depreciation of the exporter’s currency in the short term. the result also corresponded with the finding by kuwornu et al. (2009) in their study of palm oil export in ghana and it is consistent with yazici (2012) who found there is a significant influence of exchange rate and price towards the agricultural export demand. the (∆psybo) and (∆mexpr) were significant at a 1 percent level. it was in line with hameed et al. (2016), who found that both palm oil and soy oil price are the two crucial factors determining the demand http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 269 selected factors influencing china's palm ….. (ahmad, seng, and kamarulzaman) for malaysian palm oil in china in the short run, with both being significant at a 1 percent level. (baiyegunhi & sikhosana (2012) in their study on the african agriculture trade market had the same result which showed that the african wheat demand is responsive to price changes and it is significant in the short run. the (∆iexpr) remained insignificant in the short run, which directly explains that the trade price of palm oil from indonesia had no instant effect on the export demand for malaysian palm oil in china. it matches with putra & sudirman (2014), who unveiled that the indonesian palm oil export performance to china is not directly affected by the price, but it is significantly influenced by the changes in the export tariff set at 0% based on the aseanchina free trade agreement (acfta) scheme 2001-2012. consequently, other than the price factor, government policy in the competitor countries could be a significant factor that determines the demand. furthermore, the (∆rgdpc) was found insignificant in the short run after it was significant in the long run. hence, income did not instantly impact the export demand for malaysian palm oil to china. these findings clarified that a different factor could influence the export demand in a different period which is in the short term or long term. the insignificant relationship between the importer country’s income and the palm oil demand in the short run has also been found by dewanta et al. (2016) in their study. the insignificance of these two factors was still acceptable since both factors were shown to be less elastic in the short run when compared with the long run. it indicated that consumers need a longer time to respond and adapt to the new demand habit. hence, the export price of indonesian palm oil and china’s income could be considered uncritical factors to influence the export demand for malaysian palm oil in china in the short run. the most elastic factor found in the short run was (∆psybo) which was estimated to affect the demand at the magnitude of 1.114 percent. it reflects that china will increase its demand for soy oil by 1.114 percent to substitute palm oil from malaysia which was priced higher by 1 percent in the short run. this finding was strongly supported by egwuma, shamsudin, mohamed, kamarulzaman, & wong (2016) who found that the soy oil price brings more significant effects on china’s palm oil demand in the short-term compared to its gdp. figure 1. cusum test figure 2. cusum sq test http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 270 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research in verifying the freedom from the ardl estimation bias, this study adopted some crucial diagnostic checking procedures, including r-squared. the estimated r-squared of this model showed high enough, with only 1.5 percent of the variation remaining unexplained in the estimated regression. then, this regression was confirmed to be unbiased and stable by considering the results of the jarque-bera normality test, auto-serial correlation test, heteroscedasticity (breusch-pagan godfrey) test, ramsey regression equation specification error test (reset) (table 4), cumulative sum of recursive residuals (cusum) test, and cumulative sum of squares of recursive residuals (cusumsq) test (figure 1 and 2). conclusion this study found that malaysia’s exchange rate was a significant and influential factor in determining china’s palm oil demand from malaysia. this signifies that the local palm oil industry players were advised to be more responsive toward the currency changes since it shows an elastic relationship with the demand. in addition, the price of palm oil exported from malaysia to china showed a significant impact on china's demand for malaysian palm oil, and it was highly elastic. it implied that the price reduction can boost its market share in the china. besides that, the international price of soy oil and china's economic growth were important to determine its palm oil demand. the reduction in palm oil prices accompanied by a stable economic condition of the country will improve the palm oil demand. indonesian palm oil trade prices in the market positively influence china’s palm oil demand from malaysia. even though this factor was considered uncritical as tested in the past, this did not indicated that the local industry can ignore its rivals. the current policies need to be updated to prevent any effects from the competitor's price factor in the future and the monetary authorities need to impose an effective mechanism to stabilize the malaysian ringgit exchange rate. in terms of the price, the policymaker is advised to revise the export tax and trade policy as an instrument to control the price. a satisfying volume of stocks should be prepared during their steady-state economic condition and prepare the best for their economic downturn. efficient stock control can ensure no surplus to avoid a severe price drop when the stocks are overproduced and flowing excessively into the market. finally, extended and enriched findings covering this topic through the adoption of other theories such as the supply theory or complete market equilibrium theory were strongly recommended since fewer studies were covering the topics related to malaysian palm oil trading in recent years. acknowledgments: this work is supported by the research grant – putra [vot. 9480000] sponsored by the research management centre, universiti putra malaysia, and the graduate research fellowship (grf) scheme awarded by the school of graduate studies, universiti putra malaysia. authors contributions: mya: collecting data, analysing the data, wrote the manuscript and response to the reviewer’s comments; kwks: develop, conceptualised the main ideas, and supervised the project; nhk: guided the write up organisation, review and edited the manuscript. all authors are discussed and contributed to the final manuscript. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 271 selected factors influencing china's palm ….. 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(2012). factors affecting the export demand for u.s. pistachios. international food and agribusiness management review, 15(3), 139–154. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580410030127 https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?country=cn&commodity=soybean-oilseed&graph=imports https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?country=cn&commodity=soybean-oilseed&graph=imports https://doi.org/https:/doi.org/10.26666/rmp.ijbm.2017.2.31 https://doi.org/10.1080/10454446.2014.946194 https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677x.2012.11517544 https://doi.org/10.17576/jem-2019-5301-12 https://doi.org/10.1080/08853908.2019.1631916 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022, pages: 139-159 article history: submitted : february 22nd, 2022 revised : may 19th, 2022 may 5th, 2022 accepted : august 24th, 2022 meriko dian candra iwana1, ar. rohman taufiq hidayat1,*, dian dinanti1, kenichiro onitsuka2 1 regional and urban planning department, universitas brawijaya, malang, indonesia 2 laboratory of sustainable rural development, graduate school of global environmental studies, kyoto university, kyoto, japan *) correspondence email: a.r.taufiq.h@ub.ac.id the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migrating intentions of young villagers: evidence from rural indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14045 abstract indonesian’s government attempts to build internet infrastructure covering all rural areas of which most internet users are young. youths refer to a generation who intuitively able to operate internet device and are supposed to take an important decision about their future careers, occupations, and living places. this study aimed to identify effects of internet on rural-to-urban migrating intentions of rural youths. the structural equation model-partial lease square (sem-pls) approach was applied. this study involved 866 of 15 to 24 years villagers of tumpukrenteng village, malang regency. this village reflects an ordinary village which is characterized high rural-to-urban migration. a randomized of 213 respondents were taken but 193 respondents were analyzed due to internet users. the independent variables covered internet infrastructure, internet usage, collecting information on prospective destination activity, and the dependent variable covered migrating intention. the results demonstrated that internet accelerated young villagers’ rural migrating intention. internet allowed their users to access information of prospective destination. this research suggested young villagers to apply internet into economic benefits activity, such as e-commerce and to reduce adverse impacts of internet usage and rural youth’s emigration. keywords: internet; migrating intention; rural; young villagers introduction internet penetration is increasing enormously in developing countries and closing the gap between developed countries (international telecommunication union, 2021). an improved internet connection allows government and its user benefits more and reduces rural disadvantages, such as improving information flow to compensate for remoteness (forman, goldfarb, & greenstein, 2005) and broadening the market network of agricultural production (galtier, david-benz, subervie, & egg, 2014). indonesia is one of the developing countries that commit to provide internet for all citizens. the internet infrastructure development, commencing in 1980, has allowed more than half of indonesia’s population (about 132.7 million) to access the internet (hardono, 1988; indonesian internet service provider association (apjii), 2016). internet penetration reached 73.7% in 2019, and 95.4% http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:a.r.taufiq.h@ub.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14045 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 140 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research of them utilize smartphones to support rowing internet penetration (indonesian internet service provider association, 2020). the ministry of communication and informatics of indonesia has attempted to boost national connectivity through the 2014-2019 indonesia broadband plan. the main target of this program is to build internet infrastructure to reach 100% of the urban population and 52% of the rural population in indonesia (ministry of telecommunication and information technology, 2015) and the target was achieved successfully in 2018 (indonesian internet service provider association, 2018). the program will continuously develop to serve many rural areas with internet connectivity. the government intends to pursue this plan seriously due to effect of internet on various aspects of human life. the internet offers communication and interaction alternatives, economic benefits, and disaster risk reduction (bargh & mckenna, 2004; kraut & kiesler, 2003; rini & rahadiantino, 2020; yulianto, utari, & satyawan, 2020). internet penetration increases annually. among internet users, the young people have the highest share of other age groups and are considered digital natives (indonesian internet service provider association, 2018, 2020). digital natives refer to a generation born after 1980 when access to technology was relatively easy and digital social networking was already available (palfrey & gasser, 2008). moreover, digital natives intuitively can operate information and communication technology and internet without manual instructions. they are in a transitional period from childhood to adulthood, a period of dependence toward independence and interdependence (global migration group, 2014). this period marks a stage in which most people must make big decisions in their lives, including the decision to live (work and reside) in their origin or other areas. the dynamic population of developed and developing countries, including indonesia, is currently facing similar demographic issues, that is the declining rural population. statistics indonesia (2020) projected rural population will decline to 33.4% of the total of indonesian residents in 2035. the declining rural population is also inline to the declining number of agricultural households (ministry of agriculture, 2014; statistics indonesia, 2013, 2018). concerning to urbanizing rural area due to development and classification, rural emigration is predicted to contribute declining of rural population of indonesia (pardede, mccann, & venhorst, 2020; wilonoyudho, rijanta, keban, & setiawan, 2017). this situation indicates that rural areas will be increasingly deprived of human resources and find more challenging conditions to realize the vision of sustainable village development and food security. the sustainable rural livelihoods framework of carney et al. (1999) proposes five necessary capital assets to accomplish sustainable village development and food security. they are social, human, financial, physical, and natural capital. human capital is deemed to be the backbone of the other approach. a person reflects human capital and is considered the only asset that can own the five capital assets. therefore, rural-urban migration can deplete the five capital assets, especially human resources living off the agricultural land and residing in rural areas (muta’ali, 2013) . however, disadvantage of village conditions (i.e., limited economic opportunity and public services) encourage villagers to emigrate to other areas that offer better conditions to secure livelihoods (hidayat, onitsuka, sianipar, & hoshino, 2022; nguyen, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 141 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migration ….. (iwana, hidayat, dinanti, and onitsuka) raabe, & grote, 2015). urban areas offer villagers' needs (i.e., job opportunity) and eventually attracts villagers to move in (lyu, dong, roobavannan, kandasamy, & pande, 2019). nowadays, internet penetration in rural areas is increasing (indonesian internet service provider association, 2018, 2020) and offers alternative communication methods (bargh & mckenna, 2004; kraut & kiesler, 2003). the internet resolves communication barriers that will affect migration (lee, 1966). information source is essential in forming migration intention of rural youth (hidayat et al., 2022). however, a study indicated that effect of information depends on the distance between rural and urban. further, the other study showed that young villagers who are active as internet users have less intention to stay in village. the prospective migrants commonly use internet to communicate with their social networks who live in a prospective destination (dekker & engbersen, 2014; dekker, engbersen, & faber, 2016; hidayati, 2017; priatama, onitsuka, rustiadi, & hoshino, 2020). this study aimed to investigate the effects of internet usage on rural youth’s migrating intentions. this youth’s migration holds up rural development due to less of superior human resources of young villagers. this research is beneficial to predict the acceleration of young villagers' migration and to formulate a prevention policy. internet has an essential role to accelerate migration process by providing access to information that is beneficial in migrating preparation and decision (kotyrlo, 2020; thulin & vilhelmson, 2014). since evidence of internet impacts on migration intention in indonesia is fragmented, this study is the first research directly investigating the effect of internet on early migration stage. research method this study was conducted in tumpukrenteng village, turen district, malang regency, east java as shown in figure 1. the population of this village was 5,256 villagers (bps-statistics of malang regency, 2021). most of land in this village is used for agriculture, and most people work as smallholder farmers. the bps-statistics of malang regency (2016) reports that 1,331 residents left turen district, and it predicts that the leaving will not stop in forthcoming years (kustanto & sholihah, 2020). turen was the fourth most populous district after singosari, kepanjen, and pakis and had the most extensive arable land of 2,434 ha. onitsuka, hidayat, & huang (2018), discovered that young residents of tumpukrenteng village plan to live or work outside their village. internet access, broadband, and wi-fi hotspot were available in tumpukrenteng village. those allow users to access internet easily and obtain information regarding their prospective destination. according to tumpukrenteng village’s government officials and residents, the telecommunication infrastructure, such as cellular phone network had been available in tumpukrenteng village since 2002. the villagers had accessed internet since 2005 through internet cafes. base transceiver station (bts) towers as a provider and transmitter of cellular’s signal were located outside tumpukrenteng village, which was in sukolilo village, wajak district, kedok village, and turen district. the bts towers located two kilometers away from tumpukrenteng village and have provided a 4g mobile service for internet users of internet service providers, such as telkomsel, indosat, and xl axiata. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 142 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 1. location of study area of internet on rural-to-urban migrating intentions of young villagers some variables of this research were derived from literatures and summarized in table 1. internet’s infrastructure was a determinant factor of internet use. it consisted of device and available internet’s connections in the case study area. improving internet infrastructure was a resulting usage pattern. table 1. variables and indicators latent variables and indicators references internet infrastructure (infras) (moon, park, jung, & choe, 2010; taipale, 2016) a1 number of devices (pc, laptop, smartphone, or combination of them) to access internet a2 types of networks (mobile data, fixed line, or combination of them) to access internet internet penetration (use) (aker, clemens, & ksoll, 2011; gigler, 2015; tsitsika et al., 2009; ukwandu & iroh, 2011) b1 average daily duration of internet’s usage b2 the first time of usage’s period (accumulation of duration) b3 frequency of communication with friend who lives in city, per week b4 frequency of communication with family member who live in city, per week b5 difficulty levels on operating device b6 frequency of receiving and sending e-mail per week b7 frequency of using search engines to find information per week b8 frequency of accessing social media per week b9 frequency of watching video per week information through internet (content) (demiralp, 2009; jones, 1981) c1 frequency of obtaining information about job vacancy in city c2 frequency of obtaining information about income rate in city c3 frequency of obtaining information about health care in city c4 frequency of obtaining information about education in city c5 frequency of obtaining information about living conditions in city migrating intentions (intention) (agadjanian, nedoluzhko, & kumskov, 2008; moon et al., 2010; thissen, fortuijn, strijker, & haartsen, 2010) y1 intention to leave village and live in city y2 firm plans to leave village and live in city http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 143 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migration ….. (iwana, hidayat, dinanti, and onitsuka) researchers commonly observed usage in measuring impact of internet on a particular issue. this research addressed to regular internet usage such as browsing, gaming, chatting, and social media, along with information received regarding prospective destinations. the usage reflects some daily activities internet. users receive information regarding prospective destinations accidentally and intentionally during internet usage. increasing internal usage may increase possibility of receiving information about prospective destinations. research data was obtained from a field survey by using a questionnaire. the prospective respondents were young villagers who were 15 to 24 years old. during the preliminary field survey, it was found 866 young villagers. this research employed a simple random sampling and was followed jacob cohen's calculation to determine the sample size as recommended in cohen (1977, 1992) and sholihin & ratmono (2013). the sample size of this research was 213 respondents. this research was only focused on the respondent of internet user. due to this requirement, the authors excluded 20 non-internet user respondents and proceeded 193 eligible respondents to be analyzed. then, this research distributed a set of questionnaires to eligible respondents and achieved a 100% return rate. analysis this research employed a quantitative approach of structural equation modeling – partial least square (sem-pls) to estimate the cause-effect relationship of latent variables. it could process models of different scales (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) from small sample sizes that were less than 100 simultaneously. the sem-pls aimed to predict relationships or develop a theory (ghozali & latan, 2012; sholihin & ratmono, 2013). meanwhile, the reliability and validity tests were employed in the analysis and model building process to overcome weak theoretical supports. to develop the questionnaires, latent variables were operationalized based on a review of relevant literature. the questionnaire employed the likert scale (1-5) to collect data for indicators b1-b9, c1-c5, y1, and y2. a ratio scale was applied for indicators a1 and a2. three latent-exogenous variables representing the internet were a, b, and c. the variable a or infras referred to the internet infrastructure composed of two formative indicators: a1 and a2. the variable b or use referred to the internet penetration or usage consisting of nine formative indicators b1-b9. meanwhile, variable c or content referred to information obtained from the internet comprising five formative indicators c1-c5. y variable or intention was a latent-endogenous variable that referred to migration intentions measured by two reflective indicators: y1 and y2. the variable reflected the maturity intention (agadjanian et al., 2008) and covered two intention dimensions. firm plans to leave denoted a deep meaning of intention in their life. the interrelation of the latent variables with each indicator was unidimensional. the unidimensional aspect was a construct composed of formative and reflective indicators. the first step was assessing the construct validity and indicators. migration in this study refers to rural-to-urban migration. hypothetical model of the variable can be shown in figure 2. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 144 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 2. hypothetical model variable of note: infras was internet infrastructure; use was internet penetration; content was attainable information; intention was latent-endogenous variable before employing sem-pls, this study conducted a reliability and validity test which was adopted to suggestion of kock (2021). all indicators of latent variables were reflective and formative types. each type had an individual approach to assessing data validity and reliability. reflective indicators of latent variables used composite reliability and cronbach’s alpha in measuring reliability. observed reflective indicators of latent variables must have scored more than 0.7 for both composite reliability and cronbach’s alpha tests. this research employed average variance extracted (ave) to measure the validity. reflective indicators of latent variables are valid if they surpassed minimum score of 0.5; otherwise, observed variable faced validity issues. conversely, formative indicator of latent variables used a different test. this study measured variance inflation factors (vif). kock (2021) suggested, formative indicators of latent variables should have a vif score less than 2.5 and p-loading less than 0.001. otherwise, formative indicators of latent variables should be deleted from the model. this research also tested the multicollinearity of all indicators of latent variables. this test was applied to ensure that all indicators were free from collinearity problems by observing average block variance inflation factor (avif) and average full collinearity variance inflation factor (afvif). the maximum score for both tests was 3.3. after conducting sem-pls analysis, this research measured model fitness by observing average full collinearity vif (afvif), tenenhaus gof (gof), average path coefficient (apc), average r-squared (ars), average adjusted r-squared (aars). table 2 showed the standard score of those indices. table 2. model fit indices measurement standard score average full collinearity vif (afvif) acceptable if <= 5, ideally <= 3.3 tenenhaus gof (gof), small >= 0.1, medium >= 0.25, large >= 0.36 average path coefficient (apc), p< 0.05 average r-squared (ars), p< 0.05 average adjusted r-squared (aars). p< 0.05 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 145 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migration ….. (iwana, hidayat, dinanti, and onitsuka) result and discussions characteristics of internet users according to indonesian internet service provider association (2018, 2020), internet penetration in indonesia annually increases. this study found that 193 (91%) young villagers were internet users. this figure demonstrated high internet’s penetration in this village (table 3). compared to young male villagers, fewer young female villagers were non-internet users. this finding supported a previous study discovering that young villagers were the most active internet users (onitsuka et al., 2018). table 3. composition of internet users and non-internet users based on gender gender user non-user total n % n % n % male 75 35.2 11 5.2 86 40.4 female 118 55.4 9 4.2 127 59.6 total 193 90.6 20 9.4 213 100 table 4. respondents' demographical characteristic demography classification number of respondents percentage (%) age 15 – 16 years old 73 37.82 17 – 18 years old 56 29.01 19 – 20 years old 28 14.51 21 – 22 years old 18 9.33 23 – 24 years old 18 9.33 place of birth in tumpukrenteng 143 74 in other villages 45 23 in municipality 5 3 marital status unmarried 165 85.86 married 27 13.64 divorced 1 0.51 educational level no formal education 1 1 elementary school 51 26 junior high school 97 50 high school 42 22 undergraduate 2 1 post graduated 0 0 occupation junior high student 31 16 senior high student 81 42 undergraduate student 10 5 entrepreneur 11 6 government official 2 1 private company worker 16 8 farmer 2 1 freelancer 8 4 housewife 19 10 unemployed 13 7 note: internet users only http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 146 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research all of young villagers in this study did not achieve a minimum education level of 9 years formal education (table 4). lower education levels will hinder penetration rate and digital literacy (luthfia, wibowo, widyakusumastuti, & angeline, 2021; rozaki, 2020; ünver, 2014). therefore, some young people did not use the internet. further, it will affect the quality of human capital and rural development. most of the respondents were students who aged 15 to 18 years (62%). this result corresponded to age composition. some of the school-age respondents (5%) were not students but workers to help their families fulfill their livelihood’s need. the unemployment rate in tumpukrenteng village was 7%, eventually contributing to regency’s unemployment rate (bps-statistics of malang regency, 2020). characteristics of devices’ usage internet’s infrastructure refers to all essential components to support distribution of access and internet services to public. the infrastructure includes transmissions (signals or network cabling), network receivers and transmitters (routers, modems, and wap), and devices (smartphones or laptops) (kraut & kiesler, 2003). table 5 showed types of devices which were operated by youths in tumpukrenteng village to access internet. more than half of the respondents (74%) used smartphones to access the internet. the smartphone offered various advantages at an affordable, flexible, light, and mobile. table 5. internet infrastructure of respondents categories number of respondents percentage (%) device ownership* personal computer 5 2.5 laptop 36 18.7 tablet 13 6.6 smartphone 141 73.2 cell phone 5 2.5 blackberry 34 17.7 not own any 1 0.5 type connection’s usage* free wi-fi hotspot 67 34.9 internet café 20 10.6 mobile data package 159 82.3 fixed line 3 1.5 modem 17 8.6 others 15 7.6 number of connection’s usage 1 121 62.7 2 53 27.5 3 15 7.8 4 4 2.1 * multiple answer allowed possessing more than one device to access internet was a common phenomenon (indonesian internet service provider association, 2020). according to the survey, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 147 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migration ….. (iwana, hidayat, dinanti, and onitsuka) approximately to 74.61% of internet users had one device to access internet. it implied that the common phenomenon only happens urban areas. internet users in rural areas could not afford multiple devices because of economic limitations. respondents with two devices had smartphones and laptops because they offered a flexibility feature to support learning and working activities. table 5 showed that mobile data package was the most favorable device for respondents because it supported their mobility. mobile internet data charged different prices depend on providers and loaded data package. most mobile’s internet users in tumpukrenteng village use services from telkomsel and indosat (i.e., internet service providers) due to their excellent signal quality and internet speed access. geographical constraints made wireless internet’s connections more favorable to increase internet’s penetration (puspitasari & ishii, 2016). this postulation was relevant to the conditions of tumpukrenteng village. most of the respondents operated a single connection (62.69%). this study discovered that not all respondent's schools or workplaces provided free wi-fi hotspots. the survey result indicated that most students had a single internet network’s connection and relied on mobile data package to access internet because their schools did not provide free internet access. unfortunately, the students could not afford more internet network’s connections because they had limited economic capacity. students with more than one internet network’s connection, except for the mobile data package, utilized a free wi-fi hotspot provided by their school. the limited internet’s connection might indirectly affect educational attainment and reduce students' opportunity to obtain knowledge from different sources. shahibi & rusli (2017) argue that using internet improves students' educational achievement. non-student respondents with better economic capacity than students with poor economic capacity could afford more multiple internet network’s connections. however, mobile data package was the most favorable for student and non-student respondents. table 6. internet usage duration categories number of respondents percentage (%) dailly usage duration 1-4 hours 143 74.1 5-8 hours 42 21.8 9-12 hours 5 2.6 13-16 hours 1 0.5 more than16 hours 2 1.0 duration accumulation 1-3 years 71 36.8 4-6 years 70 36.4 7-9 years 41 21.2 10-12 years 11 5.6 majority of respondents spent one to four hours daily internet’s accessing. hence, the respondents' average daily internet usage duration was 6 hours 27 minutes (table 6). in contrast, the survey of indonesian internet service provider association on 2016 and 2020 reports that more than 67% of indonesian internet users spent less than four hours a day http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 148 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research accessing the internet. it implies that young internet users in rural areas spend more time on the internet. however, the current usage duration is increasing because nearly 43.3% of indonesian internet users have spent one to four hours on the internet (indonesian internet service provider association, 2020). fewer respondents spent more than 16 hours on the internet. meanwhile, the interview and observation discovered that the active internet’s users did not access internet non-stop, but they accessed it several times in an hour though they carried their phones with them. the users with high intensity of internet access were those with personal devices and various internet access options. residents of tumpukrenteng village have started to use internet since 2005. this study found that accumulation usage duration was associated with age. older respondents tend to use internet longer than younger users. commonly, they operated internet for the first time in the final year of primary school or the first year of their secondary education. this survey’s result denoted that 95% of the respondents had no difficulty in operating devices to access internet. they just dealt with basic steps in operating the device, such as turning device on and off and connecting it to the internet network. in contrast, 3% of the respondents faced trouble on accessing internet because they were new users and did not have a device. table 7 illustrated that a number of 40% of respondents communicated with friends or acquaintances of city daily using online messenger applications, such as whatsapp, blackberry mesanger, and line. on the contrary, 18% of the respondents never utilized internet for communicating with relatives, friends, or acquaintances of city. respondents more frequently communicated with friends who live in city than their relatives. this result implies that interaction with friends was more intense. table 7. communicating’s intensity with city’s people intensity communication with friends (%) communication with relatives or family (%) everyday 40.40 22.22 2-6 times per week 16.16 15.15 once per week 9.09 14.14 once in several weeks 13.64 19.19 never 18.18 26.77 total 100.00 100.00 table 8. intensity of online activities frequency receiving and sending e-mail (%) using search engines (%) accessing social media (%) watching videos (%) everyday 5 28 58 12 2-6 times per week 8 23 15 21 once a week 7 17 9 13 once in several weeks 20 23 8 28 never 61 9 9 26 total 100 100 100 100 the users' highest percentage of daily internet activity was accessing social media, such as facebook and instagram. internet offers supplemental information sources, and search http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 149 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migration ….. (iwana, hidayat, dinanti, and onitsuka) engines are important tools for collecting information. table 8 demonstrated that 91% of respondents operated search engines, such as google to gain information. however, only 28% of them interacted with search engines daily. search engines support work activities, education, and entertainment, such as songs, online games, and movies. this result did not fully reflect internet users’ information collection. social media and online videos can be served as an alternative search engine and information’s source. the respondents frequently accessed social media, such as facebook and instagram. the opposite pattern was found in using internet for watching online videos. the lite version of social media applications is available on google play store or ios app store. in addition, internet service providers give free access to social media. therefore, the internet was the most frequently operated to access social media. in contrast, fewer respondents accessed online videos, such as music performance, comedy, and news, concerning they required more data credit. using the internet to receive and send e-mails was least frequently performed by the respondents. their e-mails were only used to register on particular websites, mainly social media. however, students utilized e-mail more often, mainly for academic purposes. migrating intentions tumpukrenteng residents had continually left their village. unfortunately, no data reported the number of people’s migration to other areas, such as cities and countries. the declining population, especially young people, threatened village’s development. the number of people’s migration can be predicted by knowing their migrating intentions (de jong, root, gardner, fawcett, & abad, 1985; wanner, 2021). figure 3. intentions to migrate to a city the youth's migrating intentions were characterized by their levels of intention and a firm plan to migrate to a city in the future. those constructs represented the mature migrating intention. without a firm plan, migrating intention was just a wish. the research’s result http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 150 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research explained that cities refer to urban areas, such as turen and kepanjen, and cities, such as malang, surabaya, and jakarta. figure 3 demonstrated respondents' patterns’ answer. the number of respondents with strong intentions and no intentions to migrate was slightly different. however, most of the respondents considered who interested to migrate, though at a low level by answering “somewhat”. this result demonstrated that the number of respondents who interested to migrate was higher than those did not interest. figure 4. firm plan to migrate to a city for future figure 3 illustrated a similar pattern to figure 4. respondents with a firm migration plan (30%) were slightly higher than those without a firm plan (25%). most of respondents (45%) had a firm migration plan. the "somewhat" answer implied that respondents had an incomplete firm plan but had formulated it. to conclude, the number of respondents with a firm plan to migrate was higher than those without a firm plan. furthermore, 67.8% of the respondents with a firm and very firm migrating intention were students. it implies that students have more intentions to migrate than non-students who have been working. this intention was assumed to be driven by their desire to work or continue their education in the city. this result agrees with priatama et al. (2020) finding that young villagers less interest to stay in their village. as conclusion, young villagers have strong intentions to migrate and have a firm plan to realize their migrating intention. the effects of the internet on migrating intentions measurement model test 1. formative indicators validity test indicators of formative latent variables had a p-score less than 0.001. simultaneously, the vif values ranged from 1.182 to 2.499. that result implied that all formative indicators were valid to measure the variables in the question. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 151 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migration ….. (iwana, hidayat, dinanti, and onitsuka) 2. reflective indicators validity and reliability test y1 and y2 had an estimated composite reliability coefficient of 0.873 and an estimated cronbach's alpha of 0.708. further, those indicators also had an ave value of 0.774. briefly, y1 and y2 satisfied the reliability and validity standards. those results imply that y1 and y2 indicators of the reflective latent variable were reliable and valid. 3. multicollinearity test the average block variance inflation factor (avif) and average full collinearity vif (afvif) were 1.293 and 1.347, respectively. the results satisfied to standard. it implied that the model did not encounter a vertical collinearity problem of latent prediction variables and lateral collinearity between the prediction and criterion latent variables. structural model test to determine the strength and direction of interaction among latent variables, authors observed path coefficient, p-values, effect size, and r2. figure 5 demonstrates that each exogenous variable of internet positively and significantly affected migrating intentions. internet also allowed user to improve their information exchange flow. this finding of this model denoted three points. 1. the existing internet’s infrastructure was positively associated to migrating intentions. 2. internet usage was positively associated to migrating intentions. 3. the collected information from the internet was positively associated with migrating intention. figure 5. results of structural equation model’s analysis note: infras was internet infrastructure; use was internet penetration; content was attainable information; intention was latent-endogenous variable http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 152 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the result showed that internet’s infrastructure, use, and information’s content significantly affected to migrating intention. observed variables could explained 17.3% of the total variance of migrating intention. this result supported moon et al. (2010) finding that internet significantly impacts migration intention. however, the observed variables in this study could explained the total variance of migrating intention more than moon et al. (2010) observed variables. authors argued that this research addressed not only daily internet use but also the content of obtained information which did not observe in moon et al, (2010) research. mobile internet’s networks and several public internet’s facilities had been available in tumpukrenteng. this study revealed that the internet’s infrastructure was associated with one’s migration intention. an amount of 73.7% of internet users accessed internet using smartphones, and 83.8% used mobile internet’s connections. it denoted that the youths had flexible access to internet regardless of when and where they accessed it using multiple devices. the flexibility of accessing internet can encourage them to migrate to cities for better internet’s access and free public internet’s facilities in public places, such as restaurants, city parks, offices, and government facilities. otherwise, the flexibility of accessing internet and growing the internet’s infrastructure in village area can discourage the youths’ migration to cities. approximately 74.1% of users accessed internet for 1-4 hours in a day. this number exceeds the national users’ daily use duration rate (indonesian internet service provider association, 2020). some internet users faced difficulty operating devices and insufficiently mastered english content. nonetheless, the village youths could access the internet for various purposes, such as socializing on social media, collecting information through search engines, and watching online videos. students could access internet to collect data for their school projects, while entrepreneurs utilized the internet for advertising their products or seeking business inspiration. these beneficial internet activities influenced the youths to migrating intention. moreover, some youths accessed internet information to build intentions of getting a job or to migrate to cities. a particular internet’s usage for various activities can inspire youths to get information from every part of the world, including cities they want to migrate (boas, 2017). the result indicated that respondents frequently operated internet, especially to access social media and to communicate with friends who live in a city (table 7 and table 8). those activities eventually provide information regarding prospective destinations. engaging information about job vacancies, high salary levels, health insurance, good education, and cordial environments in destined cities also encourage youths to migrate (dekker & engbersen, 2014; dekker et al., 2016). on the other hand, some information about tough life in urban areas can discourage them to migrate and to convince them to stay in the village (onitsuka & hidayat, 2019). in this sense, internet helps its users increase their knowledge of prospective destinations, which is necessary for the migration decision process. the result demonstrated an adverse impact of internet usage. improving internet’s infrastructure, collecting information regarding prospective destinations, and using internet for general uses are likely increase migrating intention of rural youth. of the rural http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 153 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migration ….. (iwana, hidayat, dinanti, and onitsuka) development point of view, the migrating intention of the youth adversely impact rural activities due to a declining labor force, especially agricultural labor forces. further, food production in the rural area is disturbed. oppositely, this adverse impact is also beneficial for the household to ensure household income. a study reported that migration produces remittances beneficial for household economy (eversole & shaw, 2010) and simultaneously rural development by providing financial contribution in rural activities (hidayati, 2020; rempel & lobdell, 1978). however, remittance cannot fully replace human capital loss in rural development (rempel & lobdell, 1978). sustained rural emigration leads to agricultural abandonment and environmental degradation in some severe cases (massey, axinn, & ghimire, 2010; xu, deng, guo, & liu, 2019). the government currently attempts to provide internets for all indonesian citizens across country (faizah, yamada, & pratomo, 2021; ray & ing, 2016). it expects that better internet’s infrastructure in the upcoming year. the result of this research showed that improving infrastructure increase internet usage and migrating intention. regardless internet’s infrastructure improvement accelerates migrating intention and produce rural’s labor force loss, internet allows prospective migrants to better connect with active migrants as a social network. this social network is a safety net in migrating by social and economic support at the destination (comola & mendola, 2015). implication to address adverse impact of internet usage, policy and regulation regarding internet’s penetration should fully address this adverse impact. further, internet’s infrastructure improvement is expected to accelerate in the upcoming years and has no option of halting the progress. economic aspects mainly cause villagers to migrate (marta, fauzi, juanda, & rustiadi, 2020; meitasari, 2017). promoting internet gains economic benefits and would become a possible solution. studies have shown that villagers have successfully adopted the internet to gain economic benefits (fahmi & sari, 2020; kusumadinata, 2016). besides economic motivation, pursuing higher education has motivated young villagers to migrate due to limitation of education’s facility in a village. long-distance learning development is improving but still limited (siahaan & rivalina, 2013). the youth’s migration will benefit village development because they improve human capital. however, their return must avoid brain-drained incidents. a ready e-commerce village is one of the possible solutions. several studies suggest that government should develop better e-commerce facilities, such as internet’s infrastructure, village tele-center, and logistic systems (islam, kazal, & rahman, 2016; zeng, 2019). the availability of these facilities still varies in each rural area. however, the current condition shows that the facilities are improving (gunawan, 2020; rahayu & day, 2015). conclusion tumpukrenteng had many internet’s users with relatively high intensity for various activities. these internet’s users actively access to operate social media, watch online videos, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 154 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research and browse information through search engines. however, few users were familiar with e-mail usage. a few users acquire either direct or indirect information about living in urban areas. the internet had accelerated migrating intention of users in tumpukrenteng village. this research’s result enriches previous findings that internet has an essential role in migration process, particularly to accelerate migrating intention. most of them have a moderate level of internet’s access. this number was related to the village’s relatively stable social, environmental, and economic conditions, which trigger the residents to think that migrating was less urgent. in this digital era, internet use is inevitable. this result demonstrated that internet contributes to migrating intention. this study was the first attempt to investigate direct impacts of internet on the early stage of migration in indonesia. further research needs to consider different migration types, such as rural to rural migration and international labor migration, to enrich indonesian rural migration discussions. the main limitation of this research was only addressing internet and migrating intention. socio-economic aspects were considered as control variables. those were likely to affect internet use and migration decisions separately. acknowledgment: this research is partially funded by kyoto university. authors contributions: m.d.c.i.: study concept, data acquisition, data analysis, and writing the manuscript. ar.r.t.h.: study concept, review and writing manuscript. d.d.: study concept and review manuscript. k.o.: review study concept and design, and data acquisition. conflict of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. reference agadjanian, v., nedoluzhko, l., & kumskov, g. 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(2002) examined the impact of regional economic integration on exports of agricultural commodities of the united states (u.s.) revealed that the membership on free trade agreement showed positive value and statistically significant effect on export. another study about the effect of free trade agreement on turkish agricultural exports was conducted by erdem and nazliogrlu (2008), the results showed that turkish agricultural exports to the turkish-european union fta countries shows positive and significant which means that turkish exports to the fta countries were higher than non-fta members. and the latest research conducted by oktaviani et al. (2008) on the impacts of asean agricultural trade liberalization also showed positive effect on export of several commodities such as rice, sugar, plant based fiber and animal products. despite many potential benefit, trade liberalization gets much criticism regarding its effect on economy, particularly the liberalization in agriculture sector since agriculture still becomes major sector by many countries especially developing countries. for indonesia, agriculture sector is still considered as the economic backbone due to the contribution of this sector to country’s gross domestic product (gdp) and supply around two fifth of country’s labor force. based on statistics indonesia or badan pusat statistik (bps), the share of agriculture sector to indonesian gdp are around 14.43%15.29% in the last 15 year since 2000 to 2014 (statistics indonesia, 2016a). in term of employment, according to statistic of indonesia, agriculture sector provides 38,291,111 employments or about 31.74% of indonesian workforce (statistics indonesia, 2016b). a recent study about the impact of free trade agreement on indonesia’s agriculture trade was conducted by dianniar (2013). using the gravity model, this research showed that indonesia’s participation in afta and asean china free trade agreement (acfta) did not have a significant impact on indonesia’s agricultural trade flows. however, this does not necessarily mean that become a member of fta would not favorable for indonesia. trade liberalization undertaken by indonesian government through the membership in asean free trade area (afta) on the one side may encourages economic growth and increases trade because indonesia’s commodity would have larger market and get more efficient trade procedure within afta. however, in the same time the participation in afta also gave more access to another asean countries into indonesian market which may threaten domestic agriculture commodity. within asean agreement, agriculture commodity would compete with another asean countries imported product which may cheaper and better in quality. according to above exploration, it is interesting to investigate whether indonesian agricultural exports are influenced by indonesia’s membership in afta. it is also appeal to find out whether these facts effect on indonesia’s decision to participate in free trade agreement. hence the objective of this study is to assess the economic impact of asean free trade area (afta) on indonesia’s agriculture exports. methodology the assessment of the impact of free trade agreement on indonesian agricultural exports could be analyzed using gravity model. the gravity model is widely used tool to analyze factors affecting agricultural trade flows such as free trade agreement, exchange rate, common border, language commonality and arable land (erdem and nazlioglu, 2008). the traditional basic gravity model established by tinbergen (1962) underlying the value of exports from country i to country j. exports as dependent variable is a positive function of countries gross domestic product (gdp), but negatively related to the distance between countries. while many literatures agree to the empirical model that gdp and distance is the main explanatory variable, many studies uses other variable to be included as another explanatory variable. ghosh and yamarik (2004) showed a list of 48 independent variables that has been used in literatures to estimate the gravity model in various combinations such as economic development (gdp), trade policy, common language, common border, currency exchange rate, landlock and area. sohn (2005) concluded that in gravity model, the most common dependent variables are exports and bilateral trade flows. while the explanatory variables are factors indicating demand and supply of trading countries, and impedance factors of trade flow between countries. the proxies for demand and supply are measures of countries economic and market size such as income level, population, area size and gdp per capita. greene (2013) on his paper about export potential for u.s. advanced technology goods to india using a gravity model approach said that the most often used as dependent variable in gravity model are total trade (exports + imports), exports and imports. while on the right-hand side as independent variable, most researcher include country income level, geographical distance, land area, population, real exchange rate, market openness, fta membership and other geographic characteristic (island, landlocked, etc.). 11 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 to this end, this research follows erdem and nazlioglu (2008) and greene (2013) gravity model specification, the model is as follows: lneijt = β0 + β1gdpit + β2gdpjt + β3lndistij + β4lnpopjt + β5lnlandjt + β6lnexit + β7exjt + β8aftaij + εijt where: e ijt is total agricultural export from indonesia (i) to partner countries (j) measured in current us$ dollar. agriculture exports commodity in this paper are refer to the afta agreement on the common effective preferential tariff scheme (cept). according to the agreement, agricultural products were defined as non-processed product rounded up on chapter 01 to chapter 24 harmonized system and other product which were similar to unprocessed agricultural material (asean secretariat, 1992). furthermore, on the right-hand side, gdp it and gdp ij were the sum of real gross domestic product (gdp) of indonesia (i) and partner (j) countries which was measured in 2010 u.s. dollars. gdp was a proxy of country’s income and stage of development. income effect on export was expected to be positive (amin et.al, 2009). dist ij was geographical distance between capital cities of indonesia and partner countries in kilometers. distance was hypothesized to be negative effect on agricultural export (karemera, 1999). therefore, the further distance between exporter and importer countries, the higher in cost will take which reduce importer profit. pop jt was indonesian partner country population. population is represented country’s market size and potential domestic consumption. partner countries population as an importer is expected to have positive impact on indonesian agriculture export for the reason that larger market tends to consume more importer goods (lambert and mccoy, 2009). land jt represents total irrigated land of indonesian partner country in hectare. the partner countries irrigated land variable was expected to have negative effect on indonesian agricultural exports since the extent of irrigated land may interfered importing country’s ability to produce more agricultural product (erdem and nazioglu, 2008). the next variables were exc it and exc jt which were indonesian currency real exchange rate and partner countries currency real exchange rate per us$ dollar. the literature suggested that the appreciation of exporter currency can decrease exports due to increasing export price (greene, 2013). on the contrary the depreciation of exporter currency could enhance export (karemera et.al, 1999). afta ijt is dummy variable if indonesia and partner country are member of asean free trade agreement (afta). the formation of free trade agreement by indonesia and partner countries was expected to boost the volume and value of indonesian agriculture export in the reason of fta would reduce or even remove tariff and nontariff barriers (kristjánsdóttir, 2005). panel data was used in this study. the reason for using this type of data was because panel data could give empirical analysis in a way that is not feasible if just use a cross-section or time series data. according to wooldridge (2013), there are four types of panel data estimation model: pooled ols, fixed effect model (fem), random effect model (rem) and first difference (fd). in order to choose which is the best effective model for this research among estimation models, hausman test is applied. the null hypothesis that underlying the hausman test is that rem is more preferable. the test statistic developed by hausman has an asymptotic ÷2 distribution. by testing the model, we are able to choose the best estimation model based on the available data set and eventually we will make the proper analysis. (wooldridge, 2013). egger (2000) pointed out that the random effects model (rem) would be more appropriate when estimating trade flows between randomly drawn samples of trading partners from a larger population. while, the fixed effects model (fem) would be a better choice than rem when one is interested in estimating trade flows between a predetermined selection of nations. since the sample of this study includes trade exchanges between indonesia and its trading partners, the fem might be the most appropriate estimation. however, hausman test is also conducted to check whether the rem is more efficient that the fem estimation. the yearly data of agricultural export commodities were obtained from united nation commodity trade database (un-comtrade, 2016). the data on gdp (real value in the 2010 base year), population and exchange rate are obtained from the database of the world bank (world bank, 2016). data of free trade agreement (fta) were from world trade organization (wto) regional trade agreement database, asean secretariat and the official website of afta. while the data on distance were collected from centre d’etudes prospectiveset d’informations internationales (cepii, 2016) and the data of irrigated land were collected from food and agriculture organization (fao, 2016). this study used panel data that covered for periods 2000-2014. this period was selected as it covers the time when the liberalization on agriculture product under afta were enforced. 12 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research result and discussion table 1 and table 2 demonstrated the estimation results of gravity model of indonesian agricultural exports with their trading partners for year 2000 to 2014. the hausman test and wald test showed that the fixed effect model (fem) was found to be the most suitable model for this study. table.1. gravity model using fixed effect model independent variable coefficient standard error p-value constant -97.379*** 5.803 0.000 lngdpj 1.943*** 0.222 0.000 lngdpj 1.331*** 0.239 0.000 lndistij omitted omitted omitted lnpopj 1.677*** 0.357 0.000 lnlandj 0.285 0.194 0.142 lnexci -0.647** 0.327 0.048 lnexcj 0.057 0.065 0.384 afta -0.040 0.146 0.785 r-squared 0.928 f-statistic 149.485 prob.(f-statistic) 0.000 no. observations 495 estimation method fem note: ***/**/* significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% level. n is number of observations. dependent variable: ln (indonesian agricultural exports) source: author’s calculation using e-views.8 table 1 indicates the result of panel data estimation of 495 observations of indonesian agricultural exports with their trading partners for year 2000 to 2014. the r2 value presented in the table i shows 0.928 value means that 92.8 percent of the variation on indonesian agricultural exports across the data set could be explained by the model. the estimated coefficient of the lngdp i denotes indonesian national income (gdp) was positive and statistically insignificant effect on export. the magnitudes for this variable was 1.943 bear a meaning that 1 percent increase on indonesian gdp would increase indonesian agricultural export by 1.9 percent. this result revealed that the positive growth on indonesian economy has positive impact on indonesian agricultural exports. lngdp j as a proxy for the income effect of the partner country size of economy also show positive sign as expected and statistically significant on exports. the coefficient of partner countries gdp was 1.331 means that 1 percent increase on importer income would boost indonesian agricultural exports by 1.3 percent. this result indicates that the growth of partner countries income leads to increase exports. this result in line with other study which was concluded that big country trade more than small countries in agricultural commodities (grant and lambert, 2005). table 2. individual effect regressed with time-invariant variable independent variable coefficient standard error p-value lndistij 2.169*** 0.012 0.000 r-squared 0.552 495 fem no. observations estimation method note: ***/**/* significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% level. source: author’s calculation using e-views.8 the estimation result of distance as mentioned on table 2 surprisingly showed unexpected positive value and statistically significant impact on indonesian agricultural export. the positive effect of distance on exports was happened may due to some reasons. according to dreyer (2014), the variable of distance could have a positive effect on agricultural trade because of distance are not only represent transportation cost but also the differences on climate, land and agriculture products among partner countries. the misaligned of distance also revealed that distance was not an obstacle factor for indonesia to develop trade with partner countries around the world. regarding with the result on distance effect, from 33 partner countries in this study, around 80.50 percent of indonesian exports (value $ 190.22 billions) over the year 2000-2014 are not to neighboring asean countries but spreads over the globe from asian countries like india (4,998 km) and china (5,221 km), to european countries netherland (11,362 km) and the farthest partner countries united stated of america (16,371 km). one of the reason is the development in transportation and technology which is leads to the more efficient and cheaper transportation cost. nowadays transportation cost is not a big portion of trade cost since the marginal cost of land and shipping transportation is low (wu, 2015). furthermore, the population of partner country as represent in coefficient lnpop j shows as expected in positive sign and statistically significant effect on indonesian agricultural exports. partner countries population as an importer is expected to have positive impact on agriculture export for the reason that larger market tends to consume more importer goods (lambert and mc.coy, 2009). the magnitudes for this variable was 1.677 bear a meaning that 1 percent increase on indonesian partner countries population would rise indonesian agricultural export by 1.7 percent. 13 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 the next variable is partner countries irrigated land. this variable has an unexpected positive sign but statistically insignificant effect on agricultural exports. this means that the extent of irrigated land owned by partner country does not effect on indonesian agricultural export. the insignificant effect of land on export may due to the difference on climate, which is caused by different types of agriculture commodities (wu, 2015). so, even the importing countries have larger irrigated land but they still need agriculture product from indonesia. moreover, the variable real exchange rate of indonesia (exci) shows negative sign and statistically significant. real exchange rate of indonesia represented the fluctuation of indonesian currency rupiah. the negative result of indonesian rupiah exchange rate indicated that price competitiveness was important factor on indonesian agriculture exports (greene, 2013). the coefficient of real exchange rate of indonesia was -0.647 means that 1 percent appreciation of rupiah would lower indonesian agricultural exports by 0.65 percent. whilst real exchange rate of importer countries (excj) showed positive value but statistically insignificant, meaning that fluctuation of partner country’s currency exchange rates did not effect on exports. the insignificant effect of change in partner countries real exchange rate indicated that low exchange rate risk was not the determinant factor for importer countries to buy indonesian agricultural products (folaweo and olokojo, 2010). the dummy variable asean free trade area (afta) as a proxy of country’s economic integration within asean shows unexpected negative value but statistically insignificant impact on indonesian agriculture commodity exports. the insignificant effect of the formation of afta on agricultural export might because the liberalization on agriculture commodities was growing slowly since agriculture commodities often excluded from the reduction on tariff within fta and even included in the agreement, tariff reduction on agriculture commodities often takes longer time than other commodities. for instance, the agriculture liberalization on afta, even afta agreement been in effect since 1993, but agricultural commodities were excluded on reduction tariff in afta agreement (agricultural product were included in the sensitive and highly sensitive list). trade liberalization on agricultural commodity within afta start in 1 january 2003 for asean-6 (indonesia, malaysia, singapore, thailand, the philippines and brunei) and completed in 1 january 2010 for all member countries. another reason may because asean has small market size in the global economy and most international trade by indonesia are with non-asean countries. indonesian agricultural export to 10 asean partner countries on the data set in this study only 21.4 percent (value $ 51.75 billions) compare with non-asean countries counted more than 78.6 percent (value $ 190.22 billions) of total indonesian agriculture export over the year 2000-2014. hence, the expected gain from tariff reductions under the afta scheme was very small since the tariff reduction was applied only to asean members. this result is in line with other study by dianiar (2013) which was pointed out that the participation on afta did not bring significant effect on indonesian agricultural exports commodities. conclusion the objective of this study is to employ an “augmented” gravity model of international trade to empirically analyze the impact of asean free trade area (afta) on indonesia’s agricultural exports during the years 2000-2014. the gravity equation included standard gravity variables plus dummy variable afta. the results are based on the study of 33 indonesian trading partners over 15 years’ period. regression analysis was performed on panel data in three ways: pooled ols, the random-effect model, and the fixed-effect model. the fixed-effect model was selected because it fits the data and more efficient than either pooled or the random-effect models. the result shows that conventional variable of the gravity model (i.e. gdp as size of economy and population) has significant impact on indonesian agricultural exports. unexpected sign is shown also by independent variable distance which has positive and significant effect on exports. the other variables partner countries irrigated land (land) has positive sign but statistically insignificant. the variable of indonesian real exchange rates shows as expected in negative sign and bring significant impact on indonesian agricultural exports. while partner countries real exchange rates were positive but insignificant impact on export. an unexpected result was found on the participation on afta. trade liberalization within afta was not significant and profitable on indonesian agriculture exports. the policy implication that can be suggested from this research is that indonesia should explore more benefit from their membership in afta, particularly related to agricultural products trading agreements. lattermost, this research 14 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research employed few on its explanatory variable. hence, for further development of this study it is obligatory to consider include more explanatory variable that already proved by other previous research, such as dummy variable common language, colonial link and investment. references amin, r. m., hamid, z., & saad, n. m. 2009. economic integration among asean countries: evidence from gravity model. working paper. east asian development network; p-79. asean secretariat. 1992. agreement on the common effective preferential tariff scheme for the asean free trade area (online). accessed: 7 december 2016. http://www.asean.org centre d’etudes prospectiveset d’informations internationales (cepii). 2016. cepii’s distance and geographical database (online). accessed: 3 december 2016. http://www.cepii.fr/anglaisgraph/bdd/ distances.htm. dianniar, u. 2013. the impact of free trade agreements on indonesia’s agricultural trade flows: an application of the gravity model approach. thesis, international institute of social studies. the hague, the netherlands. dreyer, h. 2014. misaligned distance: why distance can have a positive effect on trade in agricultural products. institute of agricultural policy and market research, university of giessen, germany. selected paper prepared for presentation at the agricultural & applied economics association’s 2014 aaea annual meeting, minneapolis, mn, july 2729, 2014. egger, p. 2000. a note on the proper econometric specification of the gravity equation. economics letters, journal austrian institute of economics research 66: 25-31. erdem, e. & nazlioglu, s. 2008. gravity model of turkish agricultural exports to the european union. working paper. international trade and finance association 2008. the berkeley electronic press (bepress). food and agriculture organization (fao). 2016. area equipped by irrigation data. accessed 17 december 2016 http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/index.stm. folawewo, a. o., & olokojo, s. a. 2010. determinants of agricultural exports in oil exporting economy: empirical evidence from nigeria. journal of economics theory: 84-92. ghosh, s. & yamarik, s., 2004. “are preferential trade agreements trade creating? an application of extreme bounds analysis”. journal of international economics: 369-395. grant, j. h. & lambert, d. m. 2005. regionalism in world agricultural trade: lesson from gravity model estimation. selected paper prepared for presentation at the american agricultural economics association annual meeting, providence, rhode island, july 24-27, 2005. greene, w. 2013. export potential for u.s. advanced technology goods to india using a gravity model approach. office of economic working paper. office of economics u.s. international trade commission. no. 2013-03b. washington dc. karemera, d., smith, w. i., ojah, k., & cole, j. a. 1999. a gravity model analysis of the benefits of economic integration in the pacific rim. journal of economic integration 14(3): 347– 367. kristjánsdóttir, h. 2005. a gravity model for exports from iceland. working paper. centre for applied microeconometrics university of copenhagen. copenhagen, denmark. lambert, d. & mckoy, s. 2009. trade creation and diversion effects of preferential trade associations on agricultural and food trade. journal of agricultural economics 60 (1): 17–39. ndulu, b., kritzinger-van, l., & reinikka, r. 2005. infrastructure, regional integration and growth in sub-saharan africa. working paper. africa in the world economy the national, regional and international challenges, fondad, the hague, december 2005. pp.101-119. oktaviani, r., puspitawati, e., & haryadi. 2008. impacts of asean agricultural trade liberalization on asean-6 economies and income distribution in indonesia. working paper. asia-pacific research and training network on trade (artnet), an initiative of unescap and idrc, canada. sohn, c. h. 2005. does the gravity model explain south korea’s trade flows. the japanese economic review 56(4): 417-30. statistics indonesia. 2016a. gdp at 2000 constant market prices by industrial origin, 2000-2014 (online). accessed 2 december 2016. https://www.bps.go.id/linktabelstatis/view/id/1206 statistics indonesia. 2016b. population 15 years to top who worked by main industry 1986-2016 (online). accessed 2 december 2016. https:/ /www.bps.go.id/linktabelstatis/view/id/970 tinbergen, j. 1962. shaping the world economy, suggestions for an international economic policy. twentieth century fund, new york. un-comtrade. 2016. international trade statistic database. united nation commodity trade database (online). accessed 7 august 2016 http://comtrade.un.org/data/ wooldridge, j. m. 2013. introductory econometric, a modern approach. south western cencage learning, canada. world bank. 2016. world development indicators (online). accessed 2 august 2016 http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators world trade organization (2016). regional trade agreement database (online). accessed: 2 december 2016. https://www.wto.org/english/ tratop_e/region_e/region_e.htm. wu, haonan. 2015. revisiting the distance coefficient in gravity model. cornel university library. usa. accessed: 2 december 2016. https:// arxiv.org/abs/1503.05283 zahniser, s.s., pick, d., pompelli, g., & gehlhar, m.j. 2002. regionalism in the western hemisphere and its impact on u.s. agricultural exports: a gravity-model analysis. american journal of agricultural economics 84(3): 791-797. 2 r-2 layout juli 2016 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.1 januari 2017 susanawati1) 1)prodi agribisnis fakultas pertanian universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia e-mail: susanawati@umy.ac.id/ nagribis@yahoo.co.id jamhari, masyhuri, dwidjono, h.d.2) 2)jurusan sosial ekonomi pertanian fakultas pertanian ugm, yogyakarta, indonesia identifikasi risiko rantai pasok bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk doi: 10 .18196/agr.3140 abstract this study was conducted in nganjuk regency in the reason that this region is the second largest shallot production centre in indonesia after brebes regency. around 40 percent of shallot from nganjuk are marketed to jakarta including kramatjati central market of jakarta (kcmj), therefore this study aims to determine actor of the shallot supply chain from nganjuk to jakarta and identify the type of risk in the shallot supply chain. the respondents were expert from goverment representatives, academician, and actors of the shallot supply chain. the analytical hierarchy process (ahp) model was used to identify risk of the shallot supply chain. the result showed that there were seven actors involved in the shallot supply chain from nganjuk to jakarta, namely farmer, buyer, wholeseller, bandar, centheng, retailer, and consumer. the ahp model showed that risk of market was the main risk in the shallot supply chain from nganjuk to jakarta, following by risk of partnerships and information, and price risk. kkkkkeywordseywordseywordseywordseywords: : : : : ahp model, risk, shallot, supply chain. intisari penelitian ini dilakukan di kabupaten nganjuk karena merupakan sentra produksi bawang merah terbesar kedua di indonesia setelah kabupaten brebes. sekitar 40 persen bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk dipasarkan sampai ke jakarta termasuk ke pasar induk kramatjati jakarta (pikj), sehingga penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pelaku yang terlibat dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta dan mengidentifikasi jenis risiko dalam rantai tersebut. responden yang digunakan adalah pakar yang terdiri dari wakil pemerintah, wakil akademisi, dan praktisi yaitu pelaku rantai pasok itu sendiri. model ahp (analytical hierarchy process) digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi risiko rantai pasok bawang merah. hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat tujuh pelaku yang terlibat dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta yaitu petani, penebas, pedagang pengumpul skala besar, bandar di pikj, centheng di pikj, pedagang pengecer, dan konsumen. model ahp menunjukkan bahwa risiko pasar merupakan risiko yang paling utama dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta, kemudian diikuti risiko kemitraan dan informasi serta yang terakhir risiko harga. kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci: bawang merah, model ahp, rantai pasok, risiko. pendahuluan tanaman bawang merah merupakan salah satu komoditas hortikultura yang cukup potensial. hal ini dikarenakan hingga saat ini jenis komoditas bawang merah secara luas dan umum telah banyak dikembangkan oleh masyarakat dan mempunyai peluang pasar yang cukup baik. komoditas ini juga merupakan sumber pendapatan dan kesempatan kerja serta mampu memberikan kontribusi 16 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research yang cukup tinggi terhadap perkembangan ekonomi wilayah. bawang merah dapat dikonsumsi dalam bentuk segar maupun umbi yang sudah matang (thompson dan kelly, 1987). manfaat dari bawang merah adalah sebagai sumber karbohidrat, vitamin a, b, dan c (anyanwu, 2003). menurut rahayu dan berlian (2008), dalam umbi bawang merah terdapat komponen lain yang dinamakan allin, yaitu suatu senyawa yang mengandung asam amino tidak berbau, tidak berwarna, dan dapat larut dalam air. manfaat utama dari bawang merah yang sebenarnya adalah sebagai bumbu penyedap rasa makanan. (rahayu dan berlian, 2008). menurut data bps dan direktorat jenderal hortikultura (2012), wilayah di pulau jawa yang menghasilkan bawang merah adalah provinsi jawa barat, jawa tengah, diy, jawa timur, dan banten. kabupaten brebes merupakan wilayah penghasil bawang merah terbesar di provinsi jawa tengah, karena mampu memberikan kontribusi sebesar 67,83% terhadap produksi bawang merah di provinsi tersebut dan sisanya (32,17%) berasal dari kabupatan/kota bukan penghasil bawang merah. produksi bawang merah di provinsi jawa timur pada tahun 2012 mencapai 222,862 ribu ton atau naik sekitar 24,47 ribu ton (12,3%) dibandingkan tahun 2011 yang hanya berkisar 198,388 ribu ton. dari jumlah tersebut, sebanyak 168,220 ribu ton berasal dari kabupaten nganjuk, sisanya dari kabupaten probolinggo 42,07 ribu ton dan kabupaten pamekasan sebesar 12,57 ribu ton. kondisi tersebut menunjukk an bahwa k abupaten nganjuk merupakan sentra produksi bawang merah di provinsi jawa timur. waktu tanam bawang merah di daerah sentra produksi nganjuk terjadi dua kali dalam satu tahun yaitu pada bulan juni-juli dan september-oktober dengan pola pergiliran tanaman padi-kedelai-bawang merah-bawang merah. kondisi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa pada bulan-bulan tertentu terjadi produksi yang melimpah dan bulan-bulan yang lain produksi sedikit, sehingga menimbulkan masalah jumlah pasokan di pasar termasuk pasar induk kramatjati jakarta (pikj). sekitar 40% bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk didistribusikan ke arah barat termasuk pikj, sehingga penelitian ini fokus pada rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke pikj. risiko rantai pasok dapat didefinisikan sebagai kerusakan yang mempunyai kemungkinan terjadi yang disebabkan oleh suatu kejadian dalam sebuah perusahaan, dalam rantai pasok atau lingkungannya sehingga menimbulkan pengaruh negatif terhadap proses bisnis pada lebih dari satu perusahaan dalam rantai pasok (kersten, et al., 2007). risiko dalam rantai pasok juga dapat didefinisikan sebagai terganggunya arus informasi dan sumberdaya dalam jaringan rantai pasok karena adanya penghentian dan variasi yang tidak pasti (juttner et al., 2003) serta sumber risiko yang tidak dapat diramalkan secara pasti. menurut chapman et al. (2002) risiko dalam rantai pasok dapat terjadi dari internal (relasi antara organisasi dengan jaringan pemasok) dan eksternal (antara jaringan pemasok dengan lingkungannya). banyaknya pelaku yang terlibat dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta dapat membuat rantai tersebut kurang baik kinerjanya karena masing-masing pelaku memiliki tingkat kepentingan sendiri-sendiri, sehingga memunculkan sejumlah persoalan tidak proporsionalnya pembagian risiko antar pelaku. berdasarkan kondisi tersebut maka penelitian ini ingin mengidentifikasi pelaku-pelaku yang terlibat dan risiko dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta. hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat digunakan sebagai informasi untuk perbaikan rantai pasok dalam hal ini meminimalisir risiko yang terjadi di sepanjang rantai tersebut metode penelitian metode dasar yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah deskriptif analisis. metode deskriptif memiliki beberapa kelebihan, yaitu (1) pengukuran yang cermat terhadap penelitian sosial (singarimbun dan effendi, 1989), (2) mampu menggambarkan hubungan antar fenomena, uji hipotesis dan implikasi kebijakan (nazir, 1989), (3) analisis data dilakukan dengan pendekatan analitik secara deskriptif untuk menghasilkan hubungan atau perbandingan antar variabel (widodo dan mukhtar, 2000), dan (4) hasil penelitian dapat berupa kesimpulan yang bersifat deduktif (subyantoro dan suwarto, 2007). penentuan lokasi penelitian dilakukan secara sengaja yaitu kecamatan rejoso kabupaten nganjuk karena kecamatan tersebut menjadi sentra produksi bawang merah terbesar di kabupaten nganjuk, seperti terlihat pada tabel 1. penelitian ini dilakukan pada tahun 2014. responden dalam penelitian ini merupakan responden pakar yang terdiri dari pemerintah, akademisi, dan pelaku rantai pasok dari kabupaten nganjuk sampai ke pikj. responden pakar digunakan untuk keperluan identifikasi dan penilaian risiko setiap pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah. jumlah responden pakar yang digunakan di dalam penelitian ini adalah akademisi (1 orang), pemerintah/birokrat 1 orang, dan praktisi yang terdiri dari pelaku rantai pasok dari kabupaten nganjuk ke pikj masing-masing 1 orang. responden pakar dipilih secara purposive dengan kriteria sebagai berikut: 17 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 a. mempunyai reputasi kepakaran dan telah menunjukkan kredibilitas sebagai pakar yang berpengalaman di bidang rantai pasok produk pertanian. b. mengetahui kondisi umum budidaya, pasca panen, dan pemasaran bawang merah. c. mengetahui pengetahuan tentang sumber risiko dan risiko yang mungkin dihadapi oleh pelaku rantai pasok produk pertanian khususnya bawang merah. tabel 1. produksi bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk tahun 2011(ton) k e c a ma ta n p r o du k s i k e c a ma ta n p r o du k s i s a w a h a n 9 3 , 0 3 b a r o n 1 1 , 2 0 n g e r t o s 3 7 , 8 0 g o n d a n g 2 3 . 8 8 5 , 3 0 b e r b e k 8 8 , 3 0 s u k o m o r o 1 1 . 2 4 2 , 4 0 l o c e r e t 1 5 0 , 0 0 n g a n j u k 2 . 2 9 1 , 0 0 p a c e b a g o r 2 8 . 7 5 2 , 0 0 t a n j u n g a n o m 1 9 8 , 4 0 w i l a n g a n 1 0 . 4 7 7 , 0 0 p r a m b o n 2 3 7 , 7 0 r e j o s o 3 5 . 5 1 7 , 0 0 n g r o n g g o t n g l u y u 9 1 9 , 2 0 k e r to s o n o 2 7 , 1 0 l e n g k o n g 4 5 7 , 7 0 p a ti a n r o w o 7 5 , 7 0 j a ti k a l e n sumber: kabupaten nganjuk dalam angka tahun 2011. terdapat dua metode utama untuk mengevaluasi risiko rantai pasok yaitu metode berdasarkan pendapat pakar dan secara statistik (klimov dan merkuryev, 2006). metode evaluasi risiko berdasarkan pendapat pakar biasanya disebut sebagai model evaluasi risiko kualitatif dan metode evaluasi secara deterministik dan statistik disebut sebagai model evaluasi risiko kuantitatif. beberapa model evaluasi risiko kualitatif yang telah dilakukan adalah wu et al. (2008) dan schoenherr et al. (2008) yang menggunakan ahp untuk memilih lokasi off-shore dalam jaringan rantai pasok dengan berbasis risiko internal dan eksternal. sedangkan beberapa model kuantitatif manajemen risiko rantai pasok telah juga dikembangkan oleh nagurney et al. (2005), li dan hong (2007) dan lee (2008) yang menggunakan optimasi linear programming untuk memaksimalkan keuntungan dengan pertimbangan risiko. selain itu telah dikembangkan juga model gabungan antara kualitatif dan kuantitatif seperti yang dilakukan oleh wu dan olson (2008) yang menggunakan sistem simulasi dinamik dalam model manajemen risiko rantai pasok. dalam penelitian ini risiko rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta dianalisis secara kualitatif dengan model ahp melalui software expert choice versi 9. data yang diolah untuk analisis ahp berupa data-data risiko yang dihadapi setiap pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah yang berjumlah 12 jenis risiko. data-data tersebut dapat diperoleh dari studi literatur dan interview mendalam dengan beberapa pakar yang terdiri dari akademisi, praktisi, dan pemerintah. contoh literatur berbagai jenis risiko diantaranya menurut klimov dan merkuryev (2006) mengkategorikan risiko rantai pasok menjadi lima yaitu risiko strategi, risiko permintaan, risiko pasar, risiko implementasi dan risiko kinerja. hal senada juga disampaikan oleh xiaohui, et al (2006). menurut suharjito (2011) terdapat 11 jenis risiko dalam rantai pasok komoditas jagung yaitu risiko lingkungan, risiko teknologi, risiko harga, risiko pasokan, risiko transportasi, risiko pasar, risiko produksi, risiko informasi, risiko kualitas, risiko penyimpanan, dan risiko kemitraan. menurut irawan (2007) dan marimin (2013), prinsip kerja ahp adalah sebagai berikut: a. mendefinisikan persoalan dan merinci pemecahan yang diinginkan. hal pertama yang harus dilakukan yaitu mengidentifikasi persoalan dengan melakukan analisa atau pemahaman yang mendalam terhadap persoalan yang akan dipecahkan. proses selanjutnya adalah pengidentifikasian dan pemilihan elemenelemen yang akan masuk komponen sistem, seperti goal, tujuan, aktor, dan alternatif dalam struktur ahp nantinya. b. membuat struktur hirarki hirarki merupakan suatu abstraksi struktur suatu sistem yang mempelajari fungsi interaksi antar komponen dan dampaknya terhadap sistem. struktur hirarki disusun berdasarkan jenis keputusan yang akan diambil berdasarkan sudut pandang dari tingkat puncak sampai ke tingkat dimana dimungkinkan campur tangan untuk memecahkan persoalan tersebut. struktur hirarki dapat diperoleh dengan cara studi literatur penelitian sebelumnya dan atau melalui pendapat pakar. struktur hirarki dalam penelitian ini terdiri dari 4 tingkat meliputi fokus atau goal, tujuan yang dipertimbangkan, aktor/kriteria, dan alternatif. goal berupa identifikasi risiko pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah. tujuan terdiri dari tiga yaitu kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi (t1); efisiensi rantai pasok (t2); dan keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai pasok (t3). aktor atau kriteria merupakan pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten cirebon, brebes, dan nganjuk sampai ke jakarta. alternatifnya berupa jenis risiko yang dihadapi oleh pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah yaitu risiko produksi (r1), risiko lingkungan (r2), risiko kualitas (r3), risiko harga (r4), risiko pasokan (r5), risiko transportasi (r6), risiko kebijakan (r7), risiko informasi (r8), risiko pasar (r9), risiko penyimpanan (r10), dan risiko teknologi (r11), dan risiko kebijakan (r12). 18 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research a. penilaian setiap tingkat hirarki proses penilaian ini dilakukan untuk menentukan elemen yang paling berpengaruh terhadap tujuan secara keseluruhan. langkah yang dilakukan adalah membuat penilaian tentang kepentingan relatif dua elemen pada suatu tingkat tertentu dalam kaitannya dengan tingkat diatasnya. hasil penilaian disajikan dalam bentuk matriks yaitu matriks perbandingan berpasangan berukuran nxn. pertanyaan yang bisa diajukan dalam menyusun skala kepentingan adalah: (1) elemen mana yang lebih (penting, disukai, mungkin) dan (2) berapa kali lebih (penting, disuk ai, mungkin). guna menilai perbandingan tingkat kepentingan suatu elemen terhadap elemen lain, saaty menetapkan skala 1 sampai dengan 9 (tabel 2). tabel 2. skala perbandingan menurut saaty n i l ai k et e r an g an p e n jel a s a n 1 k e du a e le me n s a m a p e n ti n g d u a el em en me m pu n y ai p en g a r u h y a n g s a m a b es ar t er h a d a p tu ju an 3 e l em en y an g s at u s e d i ki t l e bi h pe nt in g d a r i p a d a el em en l a i nny a p e n g al a m an d a n pe n i l ai a n s e d i ki t m en yo k on g s at u e l em en d i b an d in g k an e l e men l a inn y a. 5 e l em en y an g s at u l e b ih p en t in g d a r i p a d a el em en l a i nny a p e n g al a m an d a n pe ni l ai a n s a n g at k u a t me ny o k on g s at u e l em en d i b a ndi n g k an e le me n l a in ny a 7 s a t u el e me n j e l as l e b ih p en t in g d a r i p a d a el em en l a i nny a s a t u el e me n s an g a t ku a t d is o k on g, d a n do m ai n n y a t e l ah te r l ih a t d a la m p r a k te k. 9 s a t u el e me n mu t l a k p e n ti n g d ar i p a d a e l e me n l a inn y a b u k ti y an g m en du ku n g e l em en y an g s a tu t er h a d a p e le m en l ain m em i li k i t i n g kat p en e g as a n ter t in g g i y a n g m u n gk in m en g u at k a n. 2 , 4, 6, 8 n i l ai -n i l ai a nt a r a 2 n i l ai p er ti m b an g an y a n g b er d e k at a n n i l ai in i d i b er i k a n bi l a a d a 2 k o m pr om i di a nt a r a 2 pi li h an. sumber: saaty, 1989 b. penentuan bobot atau prioritas elemen untuk setiap tingk at hirarki, perlu dilakuk an perbandingan berpasangan (pairwise comparisons) untuk menentukan prioritas. sepasang elemen dibandingkan berdasarkan kriteria tertentu dan menimbang intensitas preferensi antar elemen. hubungan antar elemen dari setiap tingkatan hirarki ditetapkan dengan membandingkan elemen itu dalam pasangan. hubungan tersebut menggambarkan pengaruh relatif elemen pada tingkat hirarki terhadap setiap elemen pada tingkat yang lebih tinggi. dalam konteks ini, elemen pada tingkat yang lebih tinggi tersebut berfungsi sebagai suatu kriteria dan disebut sifat (property). hasil dari proses pembedaan ini adalah suatu vektor prioritas atau relatif pentingnya elemen terhadap setiap sifat. perbandingan berpasangan diulangi lagi untuk semua elemen dalam tiap tingkat. langkah terakhir adalah dengan memberi bobot setiap vektor dengan prioritas sifatnya. proses perbandingan berpasangan dimulai pada puncak hirarki (goal) yang akan digunakan untuk melakukan perbandingan yang pertama. kemudian dari tingkat tepat dibawahnya (kriteria), ambil elemen-elemen yang akan dibandingkan. tabel 3. nilai random index (ri) u k u r a n m a tr i ks r i u k u r a n m a tr i ks r i 1 0 9 1 , 45 2 0 1 0 1 , 49 3 0 , 58 1 1 1 , 51 4 0 , 90 1 2 1 , 48 5 1 , 12 1 3 1 , 56 6 1 , 24 1 4 1 , 57 7 1 , 32 1 5 1 , 59 8 1 , 41 sumber: hakimi (2007) c. konsistensi logis penilaian yang mempunyai konsisten tinggi sangat diperlukan dalam persoalan pengambilan keputusan, agar hasil keputusannya akurat. konsistensi dilakukan untuk memperoleh hasil-hasil yang shahih dalam dunia nyata. ahp menguk ur konsistensi menyeluruh dari berbagai pertimbangan melalui suatu rasio konsistensi. nilai rasio konsistensi harus 10% atau kurang. apabila lebih dari 10%, penilaiannya masih acak dan perlu diperbaiki. rasio konsistensi dihitung dengan rumus: ci = 1n nλmax − − dan cr = dimana: ci = indeks konsistensi cr = rasio konsistensi ri = random indeks n = ukuran matriks hasil dan pembahasan identifikasi pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah dalam hal ini adalah lembaga atau para pelaku yang terlibat dalam rantai pasok mulai dari petani di kabupaten nganjuk hingga konsumen 19 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 akhir di jakarta. pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta dibentuk oleh tujuh pelaku yaitu petani, penebas, pedagang pengumpul skala besar, bandar di pikj, centheng di pikj, pedagang pengecer, dan konsumen akhir. hubungan pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah selengkapnya dapat dilihat pada gambar 1. petani nganjuk bandar pikj centheng pikj pengecer konsumen penebas pengumpul skala besar gambar 1.struktur hubungan rantai pasok bawang merah identifikasi risiko rantai pasok bawang merah identifikasi risiko diawali dengan pembuatan struktur hirarki dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk sampai ke jakarta seperti tersaji dalam gambar 2. tabel 4 menunjukkan hasil perbandingan berpasangan antar kriteria dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta. tabel tersebut menunjukkan bahwa menurut pakar dari pemerintah, efisiensi rantai pasok menjadi prioritas utama, kemudian baru diikuti oleh kriteria kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi, serta yang terakhir keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai. kondisi berbeda ditunjukkan oleh penilaian pakar akademisi, dimana ketiga kriteria yang digunakan dinilai sama pentingnya. pakar petani menilai bahwa kriteria keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai menjadi prioritas utamanya, kemudian baru diikuti kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, aliran informasi, dan prioritas terakhirnya efisiensi rantai pasok. penilaian ini sama seperti petani di kabupaten cirebon. petani di kabupaten cirebon dan brebes memiliki penilaian yang demikian karena petani merasa keuntungan yang diperoleh dalam usahatani bawang merah selama ini sangat timpang dibandingkan dengan pelaku lainnya terutama pedagang. pakar penebas memberikan penilaian bahwa kriteria kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, aliran informasi menjadi prioritas utama untuk diperhatikan, kemudian baru diikuti keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku dan yang terakhir efisiensi rantai pasok. penilaian ini sama seperti halnya penebas di kabupaten brebes. kondisi ini dapat terjadi karena penebas berhubungan langsung dengan petani selaku penghasil bawang merah, sehingga yang penting aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi. kriteria keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai menjadi prioritas utama menurut pakar pedagang pengumpul skala besar, kemudian kriteria efisiensi rantai pasok dan kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, aliran informasi merupakan dua kriteria yang sama pentingnya setelah keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai. penilaian ini sama dengan pengusaha lapak di brebes, dimana keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku menjadi prioritas utama, karena memang selama ini masih terjadi ketimpangan. pak ar bandar memiliki penilaian bahwa kriteria kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi menjadi prioritas utama, kemudian baru diikuti oleh keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai, dan yang terakhir adalah kriteria efisiensi rantai pasok. menurut centheng di pikj kriteria kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, aliran informasi menjadi prioritas utama yang harus diperhatikan, kemudian kriteria efisiensi rantai pasok dan keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku menjadi dua kriteria yang prioritasnya sama. penilaian bandar dan centheng di gambar 2. struktur hierarki pada rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke pikj 20 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pikj berbeda dalam hal prioritas kedua dan ketiga. pakar pedagang pengecer menilai kriteria keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai menjadi prioritas utama.yang harus diperhatikan, kemudian kriteria kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi serta efisiensi rantai pasok memiliki prioritas yang sama. penilaian ini berbeda dengan pedagang pengecer dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten brebes ke jakarta. konsumen menilai kriteria kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, aliran informasi menjadi prioritas utama, kemudian diikuti kriteria efisiensi rantai pasok dan yang terakhir kriteria keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku. penilaian ini sama dengan konsumen dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten cirebon dan brebes ke jakarta. hasil penilaian gabungan antar pelaku dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jak ar t a menunjukkan bahwa kriteria keseimbangan keuntungan pelaku rantai menjadi prioritas utama, kemudian diikuti kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi, serta yang terakhir efisiensi rantai pasok. keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku juga menjadi kriteria utama untuk penilaian gabungan pelaku rantai pasok dari kabupaten brebes ke jakarta, tetapi urutan kedua dan ketiganya berbeda posisi. tabel 5 menunjukkan bahwa nilai indeks konsistensi semua penilaian antar sub keriteria di bawah 10%, sehingga sudah konsisten. untuk sub kriteria kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi, pelaku yang paling berkepentingan adalah petani, kemudian baru diikuti bandar di pikj, centheng di pikj, penebas, pedagang pengecer, konsumen, dan pengumpul skala besar. petani di kabupaten cirebon dan brebes juga menjadi pelaku yang paling berkepentingan dalam kelancaran aliran barang, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi. penebas di kabupaten nganjuk dinilai paling berkepentingan untuk sub kriteria efisiensi rantai pasok, kemudian baru diikuti oleh bandar di pikj, pedagang pengumpul skala besar, centheng di pikj, petani, pedagang pengecer, dan konsumen. penilaian ini berbeda dengan rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten cirebon dan brebes ke jakarta, tabel 5. perbandingan berpasangan antar sub kriteria dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta p e l a ku r an t ai p a s o k t u ju a n k el a nc ar a n al ir an b ar an g, a l ir a n u an g, al ir an in f or m as i e f is i en s i r a n t a i pas o k k es e im b an g a n ke u n tu n g an a n t ar p e l a ku r an t a i p aso k p e t an i 0 , 18 4 0 , 12 2 0 , 12 7 p e n e ba s 0 , 13 4 0 , 21 1 0 , 16 9 p e n gu m p u l be sa r 0 , 11 5 0 , 15 8 0 , 19 1 b a n d ar 0 , 16 1 0 , 21 0 0 , 17 6 c en th en g 0 , 14 7 0 , 13 5 0 , 12 8 p e n g ec er 0 , 13 1 0 , 08 9 0 , 13 1 k on su m en 0 , 12 9 0 , 07 6 0 , 07 8 i n d e k s k ons i st en si 0 , 01 0 , 00 3 0 , 02 sumber: analisis data primer, 2014 tabel 4. perbandingan berpasangan antar kriteria dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta k r i te r i a p e m er i nt ah a k a d e m is i p e t an i p e n e ba s p e n gu m p u l b e s ar b a n d ar c en th en g p e n gec er k on su m en g a bu n g an k el a nc ar a n alir an b ar an g, a l ir a n u an g, d an a lir a n i n f or m a si 0 , 31 9 0 , 33 3 0 , 20 7 0 , 48 7 0 , 14 3 0 , 63 7 0 , 60 0 0 , 143 0 , 58 4 0 , 37 2 e f is i ens i r a nta i p as o k 0 , 46 0 0 , 33 3 0 , 05 8 0 , 07 8 0 , 14 3 0 , 10 5 0 , 20 0 0 , 143 0 , 28 1 0 , 17 1 k es e im b an g an ke u n tu n g an a n t ar p e l a ku 0 , 22 1 0 , 33 3 0 , 73 5 0 , 43 5 0 , 71 4 0 , 25 8 0 , 20 0 0 , 714 0 , 13 5 0 , 45 8 i n d e k s k ons ist ens i 0 , 03 0 , 00 0 , 01 0 , 01 0 , 00 0 , 04 0 , 00 0 , 00 0 , 00 0 , 00 6 21 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 dimana pelaku yang berkepentingan dalam efisiensi rantai pasok adalah pengusaha lapak. penebas di kabupaten nganjuk berkepentingan dalam efisiensi rantai pasok bukan pedagang pengumpul besar seperti halnya di cirebon dan brebes, karena penebas tersebut menjadi anak buah dari pedagang pengumpul skala besar. pelaku yang paling berkepentingan untuk keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai pasok adalah pedagang pengumpul skala besar, kemudian baru diikuti oleh bandar di pikj, penebas, pedagang pengecer, centheng di pikj, petani, dan konsumen. penilaian ini sama dengan rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten brebes ke jakarta, dimana pengusaha lapak menjadi pelaku yang paling berkepentingan untuk keseimbangan keuntungan antar pelaku rantai. kondisi ini dapat terjadi karena baik pedagang pengumpul besar di nganjuk maupun pengusaha lapak di brebes sam-sama memiliki anak buah yang langsung membeli bawang merah petani, sehingga pelaku tersebut diharapkan mampu menyeimbangkan keuntungan yang diperolehnya. tabel 6 menunjukkan hasil sintesa identifikasi risiko pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta. hasil sintesa tersebut sudah mempertimbangan kriteria dan sub kriteria. menurut pakar akademisi lima risiko terbesar yang perlu mendapat perhatian dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta adalah risiko harga, risiko kualitas, risiko pasar, risiko kemitraan, dan risiko kebijakan. sedangkan menurut pakar dari pemerintah adalah risiko kemitraan, risiko pasar, risiko informasi, risiko harga, risiko kemitraan, dan risiko kualitas. tabel 6 juga menunjukkan bahwa lima risiko terbesar dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta menurut petani adalah risiko produksi, risiko harga, risiko lingkungan, risiko kualitas dan risiko transportasi. menurut penebas di kabupaten nganjuk, lima risiko terbesar dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta adalah risiko pasar, risiko informasi, risiko harga, risiko kemitraan, dan risiko kualitas. lima risiko terbesar menurut pedagang pengumpul skala besar di kabupaten nganjuk adalah risiko pasar, risiko informasi, risiko kualitas dan kemitraan, serta risiko harga. pedagang pengumpul skala besar di kabupaten nganjuk langsung menjual bawang merah ke bandar di pikj. dalam penjualan tersebut jumlah pasokan atau penawaran yang ada di pikj tidak menentu dan harga jual dari pedagang tersebut ditentukan jumlah pasokan yang masuk hari itu, sehingga kondisi pasar khususnya penawaran tidak dapat diprediksi. kondisi tersebut yang menyebabkan pasar menjadi faktor risiko. informasi juga menjadi faktor risiko karena tidak ada keterangan atau informasi yang jelas mengenai kepastian jumlah pasokan yang masuk ke pikj setiap harinya. kualitas dan kemitraan menjadi faktor risiko yang sama posisinya yaitu pada urutan ketiga. menurut bandar di pikj lima jenis risiko terbesar dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta adalah risiko pasar, risiko informasi, risiko kemitraan dan risiko harga, serta risiko kualitas. penilaian bandar untuk jenis risiko urutan satu dan sama dengan pedagang pengumpul skala besar, yaitu risiko pasar dan risiko informasi. centheng di pikj menilai bahwa jenis risiko pasar dan kemitraan menjadi dua risiko yang sama-sama tingkat kepentingannya, kemudian baru diikuti oleh risiko harga, risiko informasi, dan risiko kualitas. lima jenis risiko terbesar menurut pedagang pengecer di jakarta adalah risiko pasar, risiko kemitraan, risiko harga dan tabel 6. penilaian risiko antar pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta p e l a ku r an tai j e ni s r is i k o r 1 r 2 r 3 r 4 r 5 r 6 r 7 r 8 r 9 r 1 0 r 1 1 r 1 2 p e t an i 0 , 13 8 0 , 11 3 0 , 11 0 0 , 13 1 0 , 04 6 0 , 09 3 0 , 05 8 0 , 05 1 0 , 05 5 0 , 07 3 0 , 06 9 0, 06 3 p e n e ba s 0 , 06 9 0 , 06 1 0 , 09 4 0 , 10 6 0 , 06 9 0 , 04 0 0 , 10 1 0 , 11 2 0 , 12 7 0 , 06 8 0 , 07 2 0, 08 0 p e n gu m p u l b e sa r 0 , 08 5 0 , 05 7 0 , 10 4 0 , 10 2 0 , 06 8 0 , 04 5 0 , 10 4 0 , 10 9 0 , 12 4 0 , 07 0 0 , 09 9 0, 07 3 b a n d ar 0 , 08 2 0 , 05 0 0 , 10 1 0 , 10 8 0 , 07 3 0 , 04 8 0 , 10 8 0 , 13 0 0 , 13 3 0 , 05 7 0 , 04 3 0, 06 6 c en th en g 0 , 06 4 0 , 04 6 0 , 09 4 0 , 11 4 0 , 07 8 0 , 04 4 0 , 13 2 0 , 10 1 0 , 13 2 0 , 06 5 0 , 04 8 0, 08 3 p e n g ec er 0 , 06 3 0 , 05 4 0 , 09 8 0 , 10 9 0 , 07 2 0 , 04 2 0 , 11 1 0 , 10 9 0 , 12 6 0 , 07 3 0 , 05 8 0, 08 2 k on su m en 0 , 07 8 0 , 05 4 0 , 10 0 0 , 10 7 0 , 07 1 0 , 04 6 0 , 10 2 0 , 12 2 0 , 12 9 0 , 06 6 0 , 05 4 0, 07 2 p e m er i nt a h 0 , 06 3 0 , 05 6 0 , 09 5 0 , 11 1 0 , 07 3 0 , 04 2 0 , 10 6 0 , 12 0 0 , 13 1 0 , 06 5 0 , 06 2 0, 07 8 a k a d e m is i 0 , 06 7 0 , 04 7 0 , 11 3 0 , 14 1 0 , 07 1 0 , 03 4 0 , 10 1 0 , 08 5 0 , 11 3 0 , 08 8 0 , 04 3 0, 09 8 g a bu n g an 0 , 06 7 0 , 05 4 0 , 09 7 0 , 10 9 0 , 07 3 0 , 04 3 0 , 11 1 0 , 11 1 0 , 12 8 0 , 07 0 0 , 05 8 0, 08 0 sumber: analisis data primer, 2014 keterangan : r1 = risiko produksi; r2 = risiko lingkungan; r3 = risiko kualitas; r4 = risiko harga; r5 = risiko pasokan; r6 = risiko transportasi; r7 = risiko kemitraan; r8 = risiko informasi r9 = risiko pasar; r10 = risiko penyimpanan; r11 = risiko teknologi; r12 = risiko kebijakan 22 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research informasi, dan risiko kualitas. menurut konsumen lima jenis risiko terbesar dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta adalah risiko pasar, risiko informasi, risiko harga, risiko kemitraan, dan risiko kualitas. risiko pasar sama-sama menjadi jenis risiko yang menempati urutan pertama baik menurut pedagang pengecer maupun konsumen. penilaian gabungan pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta menunjukkan bahwa tiga risiko terbesar yang harus diperhatikan dan diatasi adalah risiko pasar, risiko kemitraan dan informasi, serta risiko harga. risiko pasar bersumber dari struktur pasar, fluktuasi harga, penolakan konsumen dan standarisasi mutu di pasar. risiko kemitraan bersumber dari pemilihan mitra, putusnya jaringan komunikasi, putusnya jaringan transportasi dan komitmen mitra. risiko informasi bersumber dari ketersediaan informasi, distorsi informasi, dan metode transfer informasi. risiko harga disebabkan oleh inflasi, bunga bank, fluktuasi harga dan distorsi informasi harga serta pasokan. kesimpulan pelaku rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk sampai ke jakarta terdiri dari tujuh pelaku yaitu petani, penebas, pedagang pengumpul skala besar, bandar di pikj, centheng di pikj, pedagang pengecer, dan konsumen. hasil perbandingan berpasangan dalam model ahp menunjukkan bahwa keseimbangan keuntungan rantai pasok menjadi hal yang paling penting untuk identifikasi risiko, kemudian diikuti kelancaran aliran produk, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi, serta yang terakhir efisiensi rantai pasok. hasil identifikasi risiko dengan model ahp menunjukkan bahwa terdapat tiga jenis risiko yang perlu diperhatikan dalam rantai pasok bawang merah dari kabupaten nganjuk ke jakarta yaitu risiko pasar, risiko kemitraan dan informasi, serta risiko harga. ucapan terima kasih peneliti mengucapkan terimakasih kepada dr. witono adiyoga, ms dari balai penelitian sayuran lembang bandung; prof. dr. ir. siti subandiyah, ms; dan prof. dr. ir. masyhuri dari fak ultas per tanian ugm yang telah memberikan kesempatan untuk mengikuti proyek dari aciar (australian centre for international agriculture research) tahun 2012-2015. peneliti juga mengucapkan terima kasih untuk aciar yang telah memberikan dukungan dana guna pelaksanaan kegiatan penelitian ini. daftar pustaka anyanwu, b.o. 2003. agricultural science for school and college. africa first publisher, onistha, nigeria. chapman, p., christopher, m., juttner, u., peck, h., & wilding, r. 2002. identifying and managing supply chain vulnerability. logistic and transport focus. journal institute of logistics and transport 4: 59-64. hakimi, r. 2007. strategi peningkatan daya saing industri nata de coco di kota bogor dengan pendekatan fuzzy. tesis, institut pertanian bogor. juttner, u., peck, h., christopher, m. 2003. supply chain risk management: outlining an agenda for future research. international journal logistic: research and applications 6(4): 197-201. kersten, w., hohrath, p., & boger, m. 2007. an empirical approach to supply chain risk management: development of a strategic framework. proceeding poms 2007 conference. klimov r.a, & merkuryev, y.a. 2006. simulation model for supply chain reliability evaluation. technology and economic development of economy 14(3): 300-311. lee, t.y.s. 2008. supply chain risk management. international journal information and decision sciences 1(1): 98-114. li, j, dan hong, s.j. 2007. towards a new model of supply chain risk management: the cross-functional process mapping approach. international journal electronic customer relationship management 1(1): 91-107. marimin, djatna.t, suharjito, hidayat. s, utama, d.n, astuti.r, dan martini.s. 2013. teknik dan analisis pengambilan keputusan fuzzy dalam manajemen rantai pasok. ipb press, bogor. mubyarto. 1989. pengantar ekonomi pertanian. lp3es, jakarta. nagurney, a., cruz, j.m., & dong, j. 2005. global supply chain networks and risk management: a multi-agent framework. publish in multiagentbased supply chain management, b. chaib-draa, & j.p. muller, (ed). springer, berlin. rahayu, e., & berlian, n. 1998. bawang merah. penebar swadaya, jakarta. saaty, t.l. 1989. decision making, scalling, and number crunching. decision science 20(2): 404-409. schoenherr, k.j, rao, t.v.m., harrison, t.p. 2008. assesing supply chain risk with analytic herarchy process. providing decision support for the offshoring decision by a us manufacturing company. journal of purchasing and supply management, doi: 10.1016/j.pursup. 2008.01.008. singarimbun, m., & s. effendi. 1989. metode penelitian survei. lembaga penelitian dan pendidikan dan peneangan ekonomi sosial, jakarta. subyantoro, a., & f.x. suwarto. 2007. metode dan teknik penelitian sosial. andi yogyakarta, yogyakarta. suharjito. 2011. pemodelan sistem pendukung keputusan cerdas manajemen risiko rantai pasok produksi/komoditi jagung. disertasi, institut pertanian bogor. thompson, h.c., & kelly, c.n. 1987. vegetable crops. fifth edition. mcgraw hills book coompany, new york, toronto london. widodo, e., & mukhtar. 2000. konstruksi ke arah penelitian deskriptif. avyrous. yogyakarta. wu, d., & olson, d.l. 2008. supply chain risk, simulation, and vendor selection. international journal production economics doi: 10. 1016/ j.ijpe.2008.02.2013. xiaohui, w., xciaobing,z., shiji, s., chenf, w. 2006. study on risk analysis of supply chain enterprises. journal systems engineering and electronics 17(4): 781-787. 3 r-3 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.2 juli 2017 anisah, mardiyah hayati program studi agribisnis, universitas trunojoyo madura mardiyah@trunojoyo.ac.id pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto, kabupaten sumenep h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3251 abstract this research aims to determine the factors that influence farmer decision to keep his long pepper farming in bluto district. this research was conducted in 5 villages of the long pepper production center. a samples of 86 farmers was analized by an analysis of binary logistic. the result showed that factor influencing the farmer decision to keep his long pepper farming was the experience of farming. increasing experience of farming will upgrade farmer knowledges in minimizing failure on long pepper farming. keywords: binary logistic analysis, decision making, district of bluto, long pepper. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. penelitian ini dilakukan di lima desa sentra produksi cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto, dengan jumlah sampel sebanyak 86 petani. data dianalisis dengan metode analisis binary logistic. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pengalaman usahatani menjadi faktor yang mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan petani tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto. peningkatan pengalaman usahatani akan meningkatkan pengetahuan petani dalam mengurangi kegagalan dalam berusahatani cabe jamu. kata kunci: analisis binary logistic, cabe jamu, kecamatan bluto, pengambilan keputusan. pendahuluan indonesia termasuk salah satu negara yang kaya plasma nutfah tanaman obat. tanaman obat yang potensial untuk dimanfaatkan sebagai bahan baku jamu dan obat tradisional berjumlah lebih dari 300 dari 1000 jenis tanaman obat di indonesia (rukmana, 2003). pengembangan budidaya tanaman obat memiliki dampak positif bagi masyarakat yaitu meningkatkan produksi pendapatan petani, dan pelestarian sumber daya hayati (biodiversitas) dari tanaman obat itu sendiri (djauhariya & rosihan, 2009). rata-rata ekspor tanaman obat indonesia ke hongkong setiap tahun sebesar 730 ton, disusul singapura 528 ton, kemudian jerman 155 ton, taiwan, jepang, korea selatan, dan malaysia (dinarwi, 2007). salah satu tanaman obat yang saat ini sedang dikembangkan adalah cabe jamu (piper retrofactum vahl). buah cabe jamu banyak dibutuhkan oleh industri obat herbal yaitu sekitar 5.920 ton per tahun (herlina, 2008). selain itu, cabe jamu menjadi salah satu komoditi ekspor tanaman obat yang cukup diminati di pasaran internasional (arifiyanti, melati, & ghulamahdi, 2009). indonesia telah mengekspor cabe jamu sejak penjajahan belanda. kebutuhan cabe jamu dunia saat ini sekitar 6 juta ton dan indonesia baru bisa memenuhi sepertiganya (taryono & agus, 2004). mailto:mardiyah@trunojoyo.ac.id 113 vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 cabe jamu banyak ditemukan di indonesia terutama di jawa, lampung, sumatera, bali, nusa tenggara, dan kalimantan. sentra produksi cabe jamu adalah propinsi jawa timur dan lampung. dinas perkebunan propinsi jawa timur (2013), mencatat pada tahun 2010 luas areal cabe jamu seluas 4.211 ha dengan produksi 1.329 ton buah kering dan produktivitas sebesar 481 kg/ha. di jawa timur, daerah sentra produksi utamanya adalah di madura. areal perkebunan terbesar di semua kabupaten terutama yang terdapat di pulau madura yaitu di kabupaten sumenep (1.709 ha), sampang (1.017 ha), pamekasan (715 ha), dan bangkalan (356 ha). permasalahan umum dalam usahatani cabe jamu adalah belum banyaknya masyarakat yang membudidayakan tanaman ini secara intensif. dengan demikian, tidak ada perencanaan produksi yang tepat yang mengakibatkan potensi produksinya tidak tercapai. rata-rata produksi cabe jamu kering hanya sekitar 1,48 ton/ha/tahun, padahal potensi produksi seharusnya mencapai 2,5 ton/ha/tahun (djauhariya & rosihan, 2009). selain itu, budidaya cabe jamu tidak didukung oleh teknik budidaya yang baik. k abup aten sumenep ber p elua ng seba ga i tempa t pengembangan tanaman cabe jamu ditinjau dari sumber daya dan kondisi tanah yang sangat cocok dengan pertumbuhan tanaman cabe jamu. berdasarkan data dari dinas kehutanan dan perkebunan kabupaten sumenep (2015), kecamatan bluto merupakan sentra penghasil cabe jamu di kabupaten sumenep. produksi cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto mengalami peningkatan dari tahun 2011-2015. akan tetapi, produktivitas cabe jamu cenderung stagnan selama kurun waktu tersebut, bahkan mengalami penurunan pada tahun 2015 (tabel 1). tabel 1. luas lahan, produksi, dan produktivitas tanaman cabe jamu tahun 2011-2015 di kecamatan bluto no tahun luas lahan (ha) produksi (ton) produktivitas (kg/ha) 1 2011 568,57 2.095,40 5.131 2 2012 582,75 2.179,26 5.131,48 3 2013 613,83 2.179,63 5.131,56 4 2014 663,83 2.407,03 5.131,56 5 2015 667,83 2.455,17 4.798,54 jumlah 3.096,81 11.316,49 25.324,14 sumber: dinas kehutanan dan perkebunan kabupaten sumenep, 2015 rendahnya produktivitas cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto disebabkan oleh banyak faktor, antara lain saluran irigasi yang kurang memadai, terserangnya hama dan penyakit serta kurangnya pengetahuan petani terhadap perkembangan teknologi terutama dalam teknik budidaya cabe jamu (zuchri, 2008). namun pada fakta di lapang, meskipun terdapat beberapa masalah yang menyebabkan rendahnya produktivitas cabe jamu pada tahun 2015, petani tetap memasukkan komoditas cabe jamu dalam usahataninya. padahal pada waktu yang bersamaan, masyarakat kecamatan bluto juga menanam komoditas jagung sebagai penambah pendapatan rumah tangga dan pemenuhan kebutuhan pangan keluarga. komoditas jagung di kecamatan bluto merupakan komoditas pangan yang memiliki produksi paling tinggi di antara komoditas pangan lainnya, yaitu sebesar 5,21 ton/ha pada tahun 2015 (bpp kecamatan bluto, 2015). salah satu penyebab dari tingginya produksi tersebut adalah dengan adanya program penyuluhan dalam mendukung upsus pajale (upaya khusus padi, jagung, dan kedelai) pada tahun 2015 yang juga diterapkan oleh bpp kecamatan bluto kepada petani padi, jagung, dan kedelai. namun, pendapatan petani cabe jamu sebesar rp. 3.817.342/musim (ningsih, 2012) lebih besar dibandingkan dengan pendapatan usahatani lain yang ditanam oleh masyarakat kecamatan bluto. petani sebagai manajer harus memilih komoditas untuk diusahakan (suratiyah, 2008). keputusan petani untuk mengusahakan komoditas tertentu dipengaruhi oleh faktor sosial ekonomi. beberapa studi kasus menunjukkan bahwa pendapatan usahatani dan harga jual komoditas merupakan faktor yang mempengaruhi kep utusan p etani untuk mengusahakan komoditas tertentu (evayanti, rusmadi, & ratina, 2004); (apriliana & mustadjab, 2016); (theresia, fariyanti, & tinaprilla, 2016). faktor lainnya seperti luas lahan, tingkat pendidikan, keaktifan dalam kelompok tani, cenderung tidak signifikan dalam mempengaruhi keputusan dalam studi-studi kasus tersebut. berbaga i studi sebelumnya menunjukkan ada nya perbedaan faktor yang berpengaruh dalam pengambilan keputusan petani dalam mengusahakan komoditas tertentu. hal ini menunjukkan perlunya studi yang bertujuan mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan petani tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto, agar diperoleh masukan dalam upaya meningkatkan areal usahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto. metode penelitian lokasi penelitian di kecamatan bluto, kabupaaten sumenep. lokasi penelitian ditentukan secara sengaja dengan pertimbangan produksi cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto paling tinggi dibandingkan dengan kecamatan lain di kabupaten sumenep. data yang digunakan adalah data primer yang 114 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research diperoleh dari hasil observasi dan wawancara dengan bantuan kuesioner. data dari hasil observasi adalah data sosial ekonomi petani, sedangkan data hasil wawancara adalah pendapatan usahatani dan faktor-faktor yang diduga berpengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani unruk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. responden dalam penelitian ini yaitu 43 petani cabe jamu yang memiliki tamanam berumur lima sampai tujuh tahun dan 43 petani jagung yang juga pernah atau sedang menanam cabe jamu serta aktif dalam kelompok tani di kecamatan bluto. teknik pengambilan sampel menggunakan accidental sampling, dengan pertimbangan tidak ada kerangka sampel petani cabe jamu yang memiliki umur tanaman lima sampai tujuh tahun. selanjutnya, analisis data yang digunakan adalah analisis regresi binary logistik. secara matematis model penelitian yang digunakan sebagai berikut: y = ln (pi/1-pi)= β0+β 1x1+β 2x2+β 3x3+ β 4x4 + β 5x5 + β 6x6 + β 7d7 + β 8d8 +e y adalah keputusan petani (p i =1, tetap berusahatani cabe jamu, p i =0, tidak berusahatani cabe jamu), x 1 adalah umur (tahun), x 2 adalah tingkat pendidikan (tahun), x 3 adalah pendapatan usahatani (rp), x 4 adalah pengalaman usahatani (tahun), x 5 adalah luas lahan (ha), x 6 adalah frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain (kali/bulan), x 7 adalah tingkat kesulitan budidaya (1 = mudah, 0 = sulit), x 8 adalah keikutsertaan kelompok tani (1 = ikut serta, 0 = tidak ikut serta). hasil dan pembahasan karakteristik responden petani di kecamatan bluto tanaman cabe jamu merupakan tanaman yang saat ini banyak diusahakan oleh masyarakat kecamatan bluto. kondisi tanah yang sangat cocok menjadi salah satu pendukung petani untuk tetap mengusahakan usahatani cabe jamu. mengusa hakan cabe jam u sudah m enja di hobi dari kebanyakan petani di kecamatan bluto. selain pendapatan yang dihasilkan tinggi, cabe jamu juga merupakan tanaman tahunan yang tahan terhadap serangan penyakit. selain menanam cabe jamu, mayoritas masyarakat bluto juga menanam jagung untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pangan dan juga dijual untuk mendapatkan tambahan pendapatan. jagung merupakan komoditas pangan dengan produksi tertinggi di kecamatan bluto (bpp kecamatan bluto, 2016). tingginya produksi tersebut juga didukung oleh adanya program upsus pajale yang diadakan oleh bpp kecamatan bluto. masyarakat kecamatan bluto tidak hanya menanam cabe jamu, melainkan juga menanam jagung karena kondisi tanah yang cocok ditanami oleh kedua komoditas tersebut. menurut (theresia, 2016), ciri spesifik dari seseorang seperti umur, tingkat pendidikan, pengalaman usahatani, dan luas lahan berpengaruh terhadap keterampilan petani dalam mengelola usahatani. umur mayoritas petani di kecamatan bluto termasuk pada kategori umur produktif, yaitu sebanyak 99% petani berumur. hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa umur yang produktif akan lebih cepat menerima inovasi dan informasi untuk diaplikasikan pada usahataninya. tingkat pendidikan formal sebagian besar petani adalah tingkat pendidikan sma/sederajat, yaitu sebanyak 53,5% petani. petani yang mempunyai tingkat pendidikan smp/ sederajat sebanyak 24,4%, sd/sederajat sebanyak 16,3%, diploma sebanyak 2,3%, dan sarjana sebanyak 2,3%. persentase terbesar adalah tingkat pendidikan sma/ sederajat. tingkat pendidikan ini sudah cukup, karena sesungguhnya petani sudah memiliki dasar dan pemikiran kearah pertanian yang berkelanjutan, hanya saja masih harus lebih diasah untuk menimbulkan kesadaran tersebut (kurniati, 2005). sedangkan tingkat pendidikan di atas sd akan lebih mudah mengikuti pembinaan yang dilakukan dan mengolah informasi yang diterima dengan cepat. sebanyak 46,5 % petani di kecamatan bluto memiliki lahan antara 0, 250,50 ha, dan sebanyak 2,3 % petani yang mempunyai luas lahan >1 ha. pendapatan usahatani yang diperoleh petani di kecamatan bluto diperoleh dari hasil usahatani tembakau, kacang hijau, jagung, dan cabe jamu. namun ada juga yang diperoleh dari hasil usahatani jagung dan cabe jamu saja. sebanyak 20 orang petani cabe jamu dan 29 orang petani jagung di kecamatan bluto mempunyai pendapatan sebesar rp 1.000.000-rp 10.000.000. petani yang berpendapatan kurang dari rp1.000.000 ditemukan sebanyak 1% petani cabe jamu. sedangkan petani yang memiliki pendapatan rp. 10.100.000 – rp 20.000.000 ditemukan sebanyak 18 orang petani cabe jamu dan 33% petani jagung. pendapatan lebih dari rp 20.000.000 diperoleh oleh petani cabe jamu dan jagung sebanyak 6%. perbedaan pendapatan tersebut disebabkan oleh hasil produksi yang berbeda-berbeda di antara petani satu dan petani lainnya di kecamatan bluto. pengalaman usahatani setiap orang berbeda-beda, begitu pun pengalaman usahatani petani cabe jamu dan jagung di kecamatan bluto. mayoritas petani (67,4%) di kecamatan bluto melakukan usahatani cabe jamu dan jagung dalam jangka waktu kurang dari 10 tahun, yaitu sebanyak 43 orang petani cabe jamu dan 15 orang petani jagung. sebanyak 27 orang petani cabe jamu dan jagung yang melakukan usahatani dalam jangka waktu 10-30 tahun. sedangkan yang lebih dari 30 tahun ditemukan sebanyak 1,2% petani cabe jamu dan 115 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 jagung. perbedaan lamanya berusahatani tersebut dapat dijadikan bahan pertimbangan agar tidak melakukan kesalahan yang sama sehingga dapat melakukan hal-hal yang baik untuk waktu-waktu berikutnya (hasyim, 2006). frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain sebanyak kurang dari 10 kali/bulan dilakukan oleh 64% petani. usahatani jagung tidak membutuhkan pengawasan setiap hari, sehingga frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain kurang dari 10 kali/ bulan didominasi oleh petani jagung. sedangkan 34 % petani melakukan kontak dengan petani lain dengan frekuensi 1020 kali/bulan yang didominasi oleh petani cabe jamu dengan jumlah 24 orang dan 5 orang petani jagung. dapat dikatakan bahwa petani cabe jamu lebih sering berinteraksi dengan petani lain karena petani cabe jamu setiap hari mengontrol tanaman di tegalan dan bertemu dengan petani lain selain di rumah petani masing-masing. mayoritas petani (72%) ikut serta dalam kegiatan kelompok tani dan sebesar 28% tidak ikut serta dalam kegiatan kelompok tani. dalam kegiatan kelompok tersebut hadir pula ppl yang bertindak sebagai narasumber untuk memberikan penjelasan mengenai budidaya tanaman. dalam kegiatan kelompok, kadangkala terjadi diskusi dengan petani lain yang pernah mengalami persoalan dalam usahatani. dengan demikian keikutsertaan petani dalam kelompok tani memberikan manfaat memberikan informasi terkait dengan permasalahan pertanian atau informasi mengenai teknologi baru di bidang pertanian (watemin & sulistyani, 2015). tingkat kerumitan budidaya cabe jamu dikategorikan mudah. sebanyak 86% petani menyatakan bahwa tingkat kerumitan budidaya cabe jamu dikategorikan mudah. mayoritas petani di kecamatan bluto tidak mengalami kesulitan untuk melakukan usahatani dan menerima informasi yang berkaitan dengan cabe jamu dan jagung. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto dipengaruhi oleh banyak faktor. faktor yang diduga mempengaruhi keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu dalam penelitian ini adalah umur, tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan usahatani, pengalaman usahatani, luas lahan, frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain, tingkat kesulitan budidaya, dan keikutsertaan kelompok tani. hasil analisis pengaruh faktor variabel tersebut terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu dengan menggunakan regresi binary logistic dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. tabel 2. hasil analisis regresi binary logistic faktor yang mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto tahun 2017 variabel � wald sig exp (�) umur (x1) .049 .315 .575 1.050 tingkat pendidikan (x2 ) -.410 2.227 .136 .664 pendapatan usahatani (x3) .000 .248 .618 1.000 pengalaman usahatani (x4) -2.068 5.073 .024*) .126 luas lahan (x5) 7.385 2.536 .111 1.611e3 frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain (x6) .158 1.304 .254 1.171 tingkat kerumitan budidaya (x7) -18.687 .000 .998 .000 keikutsertaan kelompok tani (x8) -20.288 .000 .998 .000 konstanta 49.972 .000 .997 5.043e21 chi square hitung = 98.642 negelkerge r square = .910 overall percentage =94.2 sumber: data primer diolah, 2017 keterangan :*) nyata pada á = 0.05 variabel independen umur, tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan usahatani, pengalaman berusahatani, frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain, luas lahan, tingkat kesulitan budidaya cabe jamu, dan keikutsertaan dalam kelompok tani mampu mempengaruhi variabel dependen keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto. keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto sebesar 91% mampu dijelaskan oleh faktor umur, tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan usahatani, pengalaman usahatani, frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain, luas lahan, tingkat kesulitan budidaya, dan keikutsertaan kelompok tani. sedangkan sisanya, sebesar 9% dijelaskan oleh variabel lain di luar model. tabel 2. menjelaskan bahwa nilai overall percentage sebesar 94,2 yang menunjukkan bahwa model regresi binary logistic yang digunakan sudah baik karena mampu menduga dengan benar sebesar 94,2 %. pengaruh secara parsial atau individu dari variabel independen terhadap variabel dependen dalam penelitian ini dapat dilihat dari hasil uji wald. dari tabel 2. tersebut dapat dilihat bahwa umur, tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan usahatani, frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain, luas lahan, tingkat kesulitan budidaya, dan keikutsertaan kelompok tani tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan, sedangkan pengalaman usahatani berpengaruh signifikan terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. umur. berdasarkan analisis logistik secara parsial, diketahui bahwa variabel umur (x 1 ) tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto. berbagai kelompok usia petani, baik muda maupun tua tetap memiliki 116 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research kemampuan yang sama dalam mengadopsi inovasi dan menyerap informasi tentang usahatani cabe jamu. bahkan dalam hal tanggung jawab, semakin tua usia tenaga kerja tidak akan berpengaruh karena justru semakin berpengalaman (suratiyah, 2008). hal ini sejalan dengan penelitian (apriliana & mustadjab, 2016) bahwa variabel umur tidak berpengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani dalam menggunakan benih jagung hibrida di kabupaten malang. tingkat pendidikan, petani yang berpendidikan tinggi adalah relatif lebih cepat dalam melaksanakan adopsi inovasi. begitu pula sebaliknya petani yang berpendidikan rendah akan sedikit mengalami kesulitan untuk melaksanakan adopsi inovasi dengan cepat (soekartawi, 1988). namun secara statistik variabel tingkat pendidikan (x 2 ) tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. berusahatani cabe jamu tidak memerlukan tingkat pendidikan yang tinggi, karena petani mendapatkan banyak ilmu tentang berusahatani cabe jamu di luar pendidikan formal, yaitu dengan mengamati usahatani petani lain, melakukan inovasi sendiri secara terus-menerus dan belajar kepada sesama petani. hasil analisis ini sejalan dengan penelitian (evayanti, rusmadi, & nita 2004) bahwa dalam pendidikan formal petani tidak diajari tentang tata cara menanam nenas dengan baik dan benar. pendapatan usahatani. variabel pendapatan usahatani tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. petani di kecamatan bluto menganggap bahwa tinggi atau rendah pendapatan usahatani yang dimiliki petani tetap melakukan usahatani cabe jamu. pemilihan petani atas hasil produksi berdasarkan pendapatan yang petani harapkan dan penjualan produksi yang diusahakan (theresia, 2016). sebelum memilih dan mengusahakan suatu komoditas, petani mempertimbangkan besar kecilnya pendapatan yang diperoleh dari pengusahaan komoditi tersebut. semakin tinggi tingkat pendapatan maka semakin cepat kemampuannya menghadapi inovasi (hanafie, 2010). komoditas cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto merupakan komoditas yang memiliki harga jual paling tinggi di antara komoditas lainnya yaitu sebesar rp. 55.000/kg. harga cabe jamu yang tinggi ini menjadi daya tarik petani. oleh karena itu, pendapatan usahatani cabe jamu tidak berpengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. hal tersebut sejalan dengan penelitian (santika, arik, & titin, 2014) yang menemukan variabel pendapatan tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani berusahatani kacang panjang di kabupaten jember. pengalaman b erusahat ani. variabel pengala man berusahatani (x 4 ) berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto. sejalan dengan penelitian (santika, arik, & titin, 2014), yang menyatakan bahwa variabel pengalaman berusahatani merupakan faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap keputusan petani berusahatani benih kacang panjang di desa angdongsari k abupaten jember. variabel pengalaman berusahatani ini, memilik nilai exp (?) sebesar 0,126 yang artinya setiap peningkatan pengalaman usahatani meningkatkan peluang pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. semakin lama petani berusahatani cabe jamu maka semakin terampil dan cepat dalam menangani risiko usahataninya. karena petani yang mempunyai penga la man lebi h lam a c enderung lebi h c ep at mengambil keputusan dengan keterampilan, kemampuan, inovasi, dan permasalahan usahatani yang pernah dialami tidak diulangi lagi (becot, jane, & ernesto, 2014). luas lahan. variabel luas lahan (x 5 ) tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto. petani tetap menanam cabe jamu meskipun pada lahan yang sempit. produksi cabe jamu yang tinggi dapat dilakukan dengan pemeliharaan dengan baik. selain itu cabe jamu juga dapat ditanam dipekarangan rumah yang petani miliki. suatu usahatani yang dijalankan dengan tertib dan administrasi yang baik serta teknologi yang tepat, tetap tercapai efisien meskipun dilakukan pada lahan yang sempit (daniel, 2004). tidak berpengaruhnya luas lahan terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu, sejalan dengan penelitian (adeogun, ajana, ayinla, & yahere, 2008), bahwa luas lahan tidak berpengaruh terhadap penggunaan benih lele hibrida di nigeria. frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain. variabel frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. hal tersebut terjadi, karena petani lain belum tentu membahas tentang cabe jamu dalam setiap berinteraksi. terkadang petani lain lebih banyak membahas usahatani lain dan permasalahan sosial ekonomi di luar pertanian. oleh karena itu, frekuensi kontak dengan petani lain tidak berpengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. hasil penelitian tersebut bertolak belakang dengan hasil penelitian (adeogun, ajana, ayinla, & yahere, 2008), yang menyatakan bahwa variabel frekuensi kontak dengan petani berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani dalam menggunakan benih lele hibrida di nigeria. 117 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 tingkat kesulitan budidaya. variabel tingkat kesulitan budidaya cabe jamu (d 7 ) secara statistik tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. pelaksanaan usahatani dengan mudah dapat dimengerti oleh petani. semakin mudah dipahami dan dimengerti petani maka semakin baik dalam meningkatkan produktivitas pertaniannya (cepriadi & roza, 2012). cabe jamu merupakan tanaman yang tidak manja, mudah dijalani, bisa ditinggalkan dan tahan terhadap penyakit sehingga dalam memelihara cabe jamu hanya membutuhkan pengawasan saja. dalam menjalankan usahatani cabe jamu, petani menganggap sebagai pengisi waktu luang dan hobi yang sedang dijalani, sehingga tingkat kesulitan dalam membudidayakan cabe jamu tidak berpengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. hasil penelitian ini bertolak belakang dengan hasil penelitian (rachman, jani, & sudarko, 2014), yang menyatakan bahwa tingkat kemudahan budidaya kubis menjadi faktor penentu petani berusahatani kubis di kabupaten bondowoso. keikutsert aan dalam kelompok tani . va ri a bel keikutsertaan dalam kelompok tani (d 8 ) secara statistik tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap pengambilan keputusan petani untuk tetap berusahatani cabe jamu. hal tersebut sejalan dengan penelitian (apriliana & mustadjab, 2016) mengenai pengambilan keputusan petani terhadap penggunaan benih jagung hibrida di kabupaten malang. penelitian tersebut menyatakan bahwa keikutsertaan petani dalam kelompok tani juga tidak berpengaruh terhadap penggunaan benih jagung hibrida di kabupaten malang. berdasarkan fakta di lapang, untuk memperoleh informasi tentang cabe jamu tidak harus aktif dalam kelompok tani tetapi belajar pada petani lain dan mengamati petani lain. selain itu, mayoritas kelompok tani di kecamatan bluto tidak membahas tentang permasalahan yang terjadi pada usahatani cabe jamu melainkan lebih fokus pada pertanian pangan. kesimpulan faktor ya ng ber p enga ruh terha da p pengam bi la n keputusan petani tetap berusahatani cabe jamu di kecamatan bluto adalah pengalaman berusahatani petani. petani diharapkan tetap melakukan usahatani cabe jamu untuk meningkatkan pengalaman petani dalam berusahatani cabe jamu. selain itu, stakeholder di kecamatan bluto perlu memberikan pelatihan dalam upaya peningkatan produksi cabe jamu. daftar pustaka adeogun, o.a., ajana, ayinla, & yarhere. 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(2015). pemberdayaan petani melalui penguatan modal kelembagaan petani di kawasan agropolitan kecamatan belik kabupaten pemalang. agriekonomika, 4 (1): 50-58. zuchri, a. (2008). habitus dan pencirian tnaman cabe jamu (piper retrofractum vahl) spesifik madura. agrovigor, 1(1): 39-44. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.2 juli 2017 kartika wulandari1, rita nurmalina2, dan netti tinaprilla2 1 program studi agribisnis, poltana mapena tuban 2 departemen agribisnis, fem, institut pertanian bogor kartika.w21@gmail.com strategi pengembangan unit usaha bioetanol pt perkebunan nusantara xi dengan pendekatan a’wot h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3247 abstract the objectives of this study were (i) to analy ze external and internal factors of bioethanol business unit in pt perkebunan nusantara xi and (ii) to evolve its development strategy. the study used a’wot analysis, a combination of analytical hierarchy process (ahp) and swot analysis. the results of a’wot analysis are internal factors of company: strength is availability of raw materials (0.383) and weakness is high production costs (0.536). external factors of company: opportunity is market opportunity (0.340) and threat is the low market index prices (0.305). strategy prioritized in the development of bioethanol business unit is reducing the cost of production to cut costs that are not important and increasing the efficiency of production facilities in order to gain more profit (0.271). keywords: agroindustry, a’wot, bioetanol, strategy intisari tujuan kajian ini adalah (i) menganalisis faktor internal dan eksternal unit usaha b ioetanol pt perk ebunan nusantara xi d an (ii) menyusun strategi pengembangannya. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian adalah metode a’wot yaitu kombinasi ahp (analytical hierarchy process) dengan analisis swot. hasil analisis a’wot menunjukkan faktor internal perusahaan yang menjadi kekuatan adalah ketersediaan bahan baku (0,383), sedangkan yang menjadi kelemahan yaitu biaya produksi yang tinggi (0,536). faktor eksternal perusahaan yang menjadi peluang yaitu peluang pasar yang masih besar (0,340) dan ancaman bagi perusahaan yaitu harga indeks pasar bioetanol yang masih rendah (0,305). strategi yang diprioritaskan dalam pengembangan unit usaha bioetanol yaitu menekan biaya produksi dengan memangkas biaya-biaya yang tidak penting dan efisiensi sarana produksi untuk meningkatkan laba (0,271). kata kunci: agroindustri, a’wot, bioetanol, strategi. pendahuluan sektor transportasi merupakan sektor yang banyak menggunakan bahan bakar fosil terutama jenis premium. penggunaan premium di indonesia pada tahun 2006 sebesar 15.941.837 kiloliter semakin meningkat pemakaiannya hingga di tahun 2014 menjadi 28.822.039 kiloliter. pertumbuhan penggunaan bahan bakar premium dari tahun 2006 sampai dengan 2014 mencapai 87% dengan pertumbuhan rata-rata pertahun sebesar 8%. penggunaan premium pada sektor transportasi akan mengalami peningkatan seiring pertumbuhan dan peningkatan jumlah penduduk dan jumlah transportasi di indonesia (handbook of energi & economic statistic of indonesia, 2016). penggunaan bahan bakar fosil yang terus meningkat dan tidak dapat diperbaharui menyebabkan jumlahnya semakin lama semakin berkurang. menurut sambodo (2008), bahan bakar fosil mempunyai dampak negatif terhadap lingkungan karena menyebabkan meningkatnya polusi udara, sehingga diperlukan solusi penyediaan bahan bakar alternatif renewable yang ramah mailto:kartika.w21@gmail.com 77 vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 lingkungan yaitu biofuel. pemerintah indonesia melakukan tindakan untuk mengatasi krisis energi dengan dikeluarkannya perpres no. 5 tahun 2006 tentang kebijakan energi nasional dan inpres no. 1 tahun 2006 tentang penyediaan dan pemanfaatan bahan bakar nabati. pemerintah juga mengeluarkan dektrit presiden no. 10 tahun 2006 tentang pembentukan tim nasional untuk pengembangan biofuel agar target dan tujuan pemerintah tercapai. pengembangan sumber bahan bakar alternatif dari bahan nabati semakin meningkat di dunia internasional baik amerika, brasil, cina, india, maupun negara-negara asia lainnya. brasil merupakan salah satu contoh negara yang telah sukses mengembangkan bioetanol dari tebu dan menggunakannya untuk bahan bakar (biofuel). bioetanol selain dimanfaatkan sebagai campuran bahan bakar kendaraan, dapat juga dipakai sebagai bahan dasar minuman beralkohol, bahan kimia dasar senyawa organik, antiseptik, antidote beberapa racun, pelarut untuk parfum dan banyak produk lain yang dapat dihasilkan dari pengolahan lanjutan bioetanol. bahan baku bioetanol dapat berasal dari ubi kayu, tetes tebu/molases, jagung, tebu, sorghum, nipah, dan bahan lainya yang mengandung pati, gula atau selulosa. konversi bahan baku untuk mendapatkan bioetanol tiap biomassa akan berbeda-beda tergantung pada kandungan gula pada biomassa tersebut. molases merupakan produk sampingan yang di ha si lk an dari proses pengolahan tebu (saccharum officinarum) menjadi gula kristal putih. molase yang dihasilkan dalam tiap ton tebu pada proses produksi gula sekitar 45 kg (prihandana & hendroko, 2008). pengembangan industri bioetanol di indonesia saat ini disesuaikan dengan potensi yang terkait ketersediaan bahan baku di daerah tersebut. penelitian bustaman (2008) mempunyai objek yaitu pengembangan bahan bakar nabati (bioetanol) yang berbahan baku sagu di maluku. erlina (2011) meneliti potensi pengembangan bioetanol berbahan bahan baku singkong di lampung dan pattiasina (2011) meneliti pengembangan nipah dalam mendukung desa mandiri energi teluk bintuni di provinsi papua barat. tersedianya pasokan bahan baku diharapkan dapat menjaga agroindustri bioetanol untuk tetap terus berproduksi. penelitian nurmalina, sarianti, & feryanto (2012) menjelaskan bahwa pasokan bahan baku molases untuk usaha bioetanol di kabupaten sukoharjo dan kabupaten pati sangat penting untuk menjaga keberlangsungan usaha bioetanol sehingga perlu dilakukan kerja sama dengan para pemasok molases. data dinas perindustrian provinsi jawa timur tahun 2012 menunjukkan ba hwa areal kebun seluas 195.891 ha menghasilkan molases sebanyak 682.723 ton molases. tersedianya bahan baku molases di jawa timur mendukung berdirinya empat agroindustri bioetanol molasses, yaitu pt malindo raya (kapasitas 51.000 kl/tahun), etanol ceria abadi (kapasitas 12.000 kl/tahun) dan pt perkebunan nusantara xi atau ptpn xi (kapasitas 7.000 kl/tahun) dan yang baru beroperasi ptpn x (kapasitas 30.000 kl/tahun). di antara keempat perusahaan tersebut, ptpn xi merupakan perusahaan pertama yang membangun bioetanol, yaitu sejak tahun 1982. usaha inti ptpn xi yaitu memproduksi komoditi gula dengan basis produksi di pabrik gula djatiroto. namun molases yang dihasilkan dari proses pembuatan gula potensial untuk dimanfaatkan lebih lanjut. unit usaha bioetanol pabrik alkohol dan spritus (pasa) didirikan ptpn xi untuk mengolah molases menjadi bioetanol berupa alkohol dan spiritus. lokasi pasa tidak jauh dengan pabrik gula djatiroto. luas areal kebun tebu ptpn xi pada tahun 2012 mengalami peningkatan 13,7% atau sebesar 9.685,4 ha dari tahun sebelumnya. hal ini diikuti pula peningkatan total produksi gula ptpn xi sebesar 35,5 persen atau 107.550 ton dan diikuti peningkatan hasil samping produksi gula berupa tetes sebesar 20,07 persen atau sebesar 47.981 ton. ketersediaan molases yang cukup dan peluang pasar yang besar, sangat potensial bila usaha bioetanol dikembangkan lebih lanjut. namun demikian peningkatan dari produksi gula dan ketersedian molasses yang cukup tidak menjadikan unit usaha bioetanol ptpn xi meningkat (laporan tahunan ptpn xi, 2012). kesimpulan yang diperoleh dari laporan tahunan perusahaan yaitu produksi bioetanol pasa pada tahun 2012 tidak mencapai target yang direncanakan. meskipun penjualan gula dan molases mengalami peningkatan dari tahun sebelumnya penjualan produk alkohol dan spiritus mengalami penurunan dan masih jauh dari target yang ditetapkan. kondisi ini berbeda jauh saat awal mula perusahaan didirikan pada tahun 1982, pasa mampu mengekspor produk alkohol primanya ke beberapa negara asia terutama jepang untuk beberapa tahun dan menjual produk spirtus dan alkohol tehnis untuk pasar domestik. berdasarkan perumusan masalah penelitian ini bertujuan: (i) menganalisis faktor internal dan eksternal unit usaha bioetanol pt perkebunan nusantara xi dan (ii) menyusun strategi pengembangannya. 78 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research metode penelitian data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini bersumber dari data primer dan data sekunder. data primer merupakan data yang belum tersedia sehingga dikumpulkan secara khusus dari lapangan baik melalui pengamatan langsung maupun wawancara menggunakan kuesioner. responden penelitian yaitu para pakar yang expert di perusahaan dan instansi terkait. d a ta sek under ya ng tela h tersedia dan tela h didokumentasikan diperoleh melalui riset-riset terdahulu yang berkaitan dengan penelitian dan data dari instansi terkait serta data dari instansi yang terkait dengan penelitian. pengumpulan data terkait dengan penelitian dilakukan beberapa tahap yakni diawali dengan pengumpulan data yang dilakukan melalui wawancara dengan staf ahli pemberi kebijakan dan manajer perusahaan bioetanol ptpn xi serta stakeholder yang terkait dengan perusahaan. tahap pertama ini bertujuan menyaring persepsi dan informasi responden terhadap faktor internal (kekuatan dan kelemahan) dan faktor eksternal (peluang dan ancaman). pada tahap kedua, hasil wawancara tahap pertama diolah untuk menyusun kuesioner kedua. wawancara kedua merupakan penilaian responden dengan menggunakan metode ahp yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor swot yang paling penting dan beserta rumusan strateginya. selain teknik wawancara tersebut, pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan penelusuran dokumen terkait dengan penelitian. metode yang digunakan dalam penentuan responden adalah metode purposive sampling dengan sengaja memilih satu pakar yang kompeten berasal dari masing-masing lingkungan internal perusahaan, yaitu bagian pemasaran dan penjualan, keuangan/a kuntansi, p roduksi /operasi serta bagi an personalia. data dan informasi yang diperoleh selanjutnya diolah dan dianalisis secara kuantitatif deskriptif. analisis deskriptif digunakan untuk menjelaskan kondisi secara faktual yang dijumpai dilapangan tentang profil perusahaan, mengidentifikasi dan menganalisis faktor-faktor lingkungan eksternal dan ininternal perusahaan bioetanol ptpn xi. analisis kuantitatif digunakan dalam penilaian terhadap perumusan strategi untuk perusahaan. perumusan strategi dengan mengunakan metode a’wot. a’wot merupakan perpaduan dua alat analisis yakni swot (strenght, weakness, opportunity threat) dan ahp (analitical hierarchy process). analisis swot merupakan alat analisis kualitatif untuk menghasilkan alternatif startegi dengan pempertimbangkan faktor eksternal ma upun internal p erusahaan. ahp digunakan dalam pemberian bobot dari tiap tingkatnya dan memberikan penilaian untuk mengetahui strategi tepat dari alternative-alternatif strategi yang dihasilkan dalam matriks swot (k angas, pesonen, kurttila, & kajanus, 2001; gorener, toker, & ulucay, 2012). selanjutnya, nilai skor yang diperoleh dari penyebaran kuesioner ke para ahli kemudian dianalisis dan diproses dengan menggunakan aplikasi expert choice 2000. analisis a’wot pada prinsipnya sama dengan proses analisis ahp secara umum. langkah metode a’wot sebagai berikut (pesonen, ahola, kurttila, kajanus, & kangas, 2001): 1. analisis swot. pada langkah ini faktor internal dan faktor eksternal yang mempengaruhi pengembangan perusahaan diidentifikasi dan dimasukkan dalam analisis swot. 2. perbandi ngan ber pa sa nga n anta ra faktor swot dilakukan dalam setiap kelompok swot. 3. perbandingan berpasangan antara empat kelompok swot. faktor dengan prioritas tertinggi lokal dipilih dari masing-masing kelompok untuk mewakili kelompok. 4. menggunakan hasil dalam perumusan strategi (hasil analisis swot) dan proses evaluasi. hierarki dalam penelitian terstruktur pada gambar 1 terdapat 4 tingkat yakni tingkat pertama, tujuan yang ingin dicapai oleh keputusan; tingkat kedua didasari oleh faktor swot : kekuatan (s), kelemahan (w), peluang (o) dan ancaman (t); tingkat ketiga didasari oleh faktor-faktor yang termasuk dalam masing-masing dari empat kelompok tingkat sebelumnya, dan akhirnya, tingkat keempat didasari oleh strategi yang harus dievaluasi dan dibandingkan. (kangas, pesonen, kurttila, & kajanus, 2001; pesonen, ahola, kurttila, kajanus, & kangas, 2001; osuna & aranda, 2007; gorener, toker, & ulucay, 2012; oreski, 2012). gambar 1. struktur hirarki a’wot sumber: kangas, pesonen, kurttila, & kajanus (2001) 79 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 pada gambar 2 menunjukkan hierarki strategi pengembangan pasa djatiroto, di mana pada level satu menunjukka n tujuan da ri pasa d ja tiroto. pada level dua menunjukkan komponen dari lingkungan internal dan eksternal perusahaan. level tiga menunjukkan faktor-faktor yang terdapat pada kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang dan ancaman pasa. pada level akhir yaitu alternatif strategi pengembangan pasa djatiroto. hasil dan pembahasan lingkungan internal perusahaan merupakan lingkungan dimana pasa mengelola usahanya. analisis lingkungan internal pasa dilakukan dengan pendekatan fungsional perusa haa n di ba gi an ma na jem en, sdm, produksi, pemasaran serta administrasi keuangan. analisis lingkungan internal untuk mengidentifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan dari pasa. selain itu dilakuakan identifikasi lingkungan eksternal perusahaan merupakan lingkungan di luar mana jemen yang mempengaruhi usaha pasa untuk mengidentifikasi peluang dan ancaman untuk pasa. penilaian ahp dilakukan oleh para pakar, yaitu menilai faktor yang paling penting diantara faktor kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang dan ancaman. diantara empat faktor dari lingkungan internal dan eksternal perusahaan, faktor yang paling penting adalah faktor peluang (0,4). faktor kedua yang dianggap penting adalah faktor kekuatan diikuti faktor ancaman dan faktor kelemahan (tabel 1). pada sub faktor yang dianggap penting di faktor kekuatan pengembangan unit usaha bioetanol pada pt perkebunan nusantara xi s w o t 1. tidak ada biaya transportasi dalam pengadaan molases 2. bahan bakar lebih hemat karena memanfaatkan uap proses pengolahan tebu 3. kualitas produk bersaing 4. pemanfaatan limbah bioetanol sebagai pupuk perkebunan tebu 5. kerjasama pihak akademisi dalam pengelolaan limbah bioetanol 6. posisi perusahan yang strategis 7. ketersediaan bahan baku 1. persaingan yang ketat tidak hanya dari dalam tapi dari produk luar negeri 2. pajak beacukai yang tinggi 3. lokasi perusahaan yang dekat dengan pemukiman 4. harga tetes yang fluktuatif 5. harga indeks pasar yang rendah 6. perijinan dan birokrasi 1. peluang pasar bioetanol yang masih besar 2. infrastruktur yang mendukung 3. demografi wilayah memberikan sumber daya alam yang mendukung pengoperasian pabrik 4. hubungan distributor yang baik 5. teknologi baru dalam pengolahan memanfaatkan limbahnya 6. kebijakan pengembanga n energi baru terbarukan 1. kapasitas mesin kecil 2. biaya produksi tinggi 3. umur teknis mesin yang tua 4. tenaga kerja (sdm) masih banyak berpendidikan rendah strategi 1 strategi 2 strategi 3 strategi 4 strategi 5 strategi 6 strategi 7 gambar 2. struktur hirarki a’wot pasa djatiroto 80 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research adala h ketersediaa n baha n bak u yang c ukup untuk perusahaan (0,383). lokasi pasa tidak jauh dari pabrik gula djatiroto. pabrik gula tersebut menghasilkan molases dan mampu menyediakan bahan baku bioetanol untuk pasa. bustaman (2008) menjelaskan bahwa salah satu kekuatan dalam pengembangan bioetanol di maluku didukung ketersediaan bahan baku berupa sagu. pada studi kelayakan industri kecil bioetanol berbahan baku molases di jawa tengah disimpulkan bahwa usaha layak untuk dilaksanakan, namun ketersediaan bahan baku molases yang semakin sulit diperoleh dan terjadinya peningkatan harga bahan baku yang tidak dapat diimbangi dengan ketersediaan modal yang dimiliki oleh para pelaku usaha (nurmalina, sarianti & feryanto, 2012). pada faktor internal yang menjadi kelemahan perusahaan, para pakar menilai sub faktor yaitu tingginya biaya produksi dari biaya yang dibebankan pasa menjadi faktor yang penting untuk diminimalkan (0,536). tingginya biaya produksi karena harga molases yang fluktuatif, pasa yang belum mencapai titik efisien dalam produksinya. selain itu sub faktor yang menjadi kelemahan adalah umur teknis mesin yang sudah cukup tua yaitu 32 tahun beroperasi, rendahnya kualitas sdm karena masih banyak yang berlatar pendidikan rendah serta kapasitas produksi pasa yang kecil dibanding kapasitas produksi pesaing sehingga terbatas produksinya. kelemahan utama dari pasa tersebut diperkuat dengan penemuan nurmalina, sarianti & feryanto (2008) bahwa kendala pada usaha bioetanol molases skala rumah tangga adalah peningkatan harga bahan baku molases tidak diimbangi dengan ketersediaan modal serta belum ada teknologi proses produksi yang mudah untuk diadopsi oleh para pelaku usaha. faktor peluang yang dianggap penting oleh pakar untuk dimanfaatkan adalah masih besarnya peluang pasar bioetanol (0,34). dimana pemanfaatan bioetanol ini tidak hanya dimanfaatkan untuk bahan bakar tapi bisa digunakan dalam farmasi, kosmetik, maupun campuran produk lain yang membutuhkan etanol dan masih terbuka peluang untuk diekspor. peluang pasar bioetanol yang digunakan sebagai subtitusi bahan bakar menjadi peluang pt panca jaya raharja (suhendri, 2008). faktor internal pasa inconsistency global lokal kekuatan 0,267 1. tidak ada biaya transportasi dalam pengadaan molases 0,02 0,014 0,051 2. bahan bakar lebih hemat karena memanfaatkan uap proses pengolahan tebu 0,025 0,092 3. kualitas produk bersaing 0,052 0,196 4. pemanfaatan limbah bioetanol sebagai pupuk perkebunan tebu 0,031 0,118 5. kerjasama pihak akademisi dalam pengelolaan limbah biotanol 0,019 0,070 6. posisi perusahan yang strategis 0,024 0,090 7. ketersediaan bahan baku 0,102 0,383 kelemahan 0,166 1. kapasitas mesin kecil 0,01 0,019 0,115 2. biaya produksi tinggi 0,089 0,536 3. umur tehnis mesin yang tua 0,035 0,211 4. tenaga kerja (sdm) masih banyak berpendidikan masih rendah 0,023 0,139 faktor eksternal pasa inconsistency global lokal peluang 0,400 1. peluang pasar bioetanol yang masih besar 0,02 0,136 0,340 2. infrastruktur yang mendukung 0,033 0,083 3. letak demografi memberikan sumber daya alam yang mendukung dalam pengoperasian pabrik 0,033 0,084 4. hubungan distributor yang baik 0,064 0,159 5. teknologi baru pengolahan memanfaatkan limbahnya 0,068 0,171 6. kebijakan pengembangan energi baru terbarukan 0,065 0,163 ancaman 0,167 1. persaingan ketat tidak hanya dari dalam tapi dari produk luar 0,03 0,018 0,198 2. pajak beacukai yang tinggi 0,033 0,110 3. lokasi perusahaan yang dekat dengan pemukiman 0,006 0,039 4. harga tetes yang fluktuatif 0,046 0,281 5. harga indeks pasar yang rendah 0,051 0,305 6. perijinan dan birokrasi 0,011 0,067 tabel 1. penilaian ahp faktor swot 81 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 selanjutnya para pakar menilai dari faktor eksternal yang menjadi ancaman yang paling penting untuk dihindari perusahaan adalah harga indeks pasar yang masih rendah (0,305). rendahnya harga pasar bioetanol, banyak industri ya ng mem ilih untuk mengeksp or produk dari pa da menjualnya di dalam negeri. harga bioetanol di pasar luar negeri lebih mendukung industri untuk mendapatkan harga yang layak. menurut nurmalina, sarianti & feryanto (2008), harga jual bioetanol lebih peka dibanding dengan harga bahan baku karena disaat harga bahan baku mengalami peningkatan pelaku usaha masih dapat beroperasi dan menutupi biaya produksi. selain itu harga molases yang fluktuatif menjadi ancaman untuk pasa dalam memproduksi etanol. persaingan yang ketat di industri bioetanol menjadi ancaman bagi pasa karena pesaing memiliki kapasitas produksi yang lebih besar. persaingan ini tidak hanya persaingan di kalangan industri tapi juga masuknya bioetanol dari luar negeri yang memiliki harga yang lebih rendah dibandingkan produk dalam negeri sendiri. faktor ancaman berikutnya bagi pasa yaitu pajak cukai yang dibebankan pada industri tinggi, perijinan dan birokrasi yang terkadang menjadi kendala perusahaan dalam beroperasi misal peraturan tentang baku mutu limbah. ancaman terakhir pasa adalah dekatnya lokasi pabrik dengan pemukiman, akan tetapi ancaman ini sangat kecil pengaruhnya terhadap pasa. alternatif strategi alternatif strategi disusun dengan menggunakan analisis swot. ana lisis ini merupa kan perumusan strategi konvensional yang mendasari bentuk strategi yang disesuaikan dengan kondisi lingkungan perusahaan dan lingkungan diluar perusahaan. alteratif strategi yang disusun dari swot yakni strategi s-o, s-t, w-o, dan w-t. strategi s–o (strenght-opportunity) alternatif strategi so merupakan strategi yang dirumuskan dengan mempertimbangkan kekuatan yang dimiliki perusahaan untuk memanfaatkan peluang-peluang yang ada seoptimal mungkin. strategi so yang dirumuskan yaitu: 1. meningkatkan kapasitas produksi dan mempertahankan kualitas produk sehingga dapat memperluas pangsa pasar (s3, s7, o1). dengan mempertimbangkan ketersediaan bahan baku yang ada dan kualitas yang mampu bersaing, perusahaan perlu memperbesar kapasitas produksi agar dapat memperluas pangsa pasar baik pasar dalam negeri maupun luar negeri. 2. mengembangkan produk dengan menjadikan bioetanol campuran (s7, o1, o4, o6), dengan memanfaatkan bahan baku yang ada, peluang dari kebijakan pemerintah terkait pengembangan bioetanol sebagai sumber bahan bakar alternatif, hubungan dengan distributor yang baik dan peluang ekspor yang baik untuk bioetanol campuran bahan bakar. luasnya peluang ekspor karena makin banyak negara diluar yang telah menggunakan bioetanol sebagai campuran bahan bakar untuk mengurangi penggunaan bahan bakar fosil. strategi s t (strenght-threat) strategi st yang dihasilkan merupakan strategi yang digunakan untuk menghindari ancaman yang datang dari lingkungan eksternal dengan memanfaatkan kekuatan yang dim i liki , ya i tu denga n p em a nfa a t an lim ba h untuk diversifikasi produk (s4, s5, t1, t5). dengan pengalaman pemanfaatan limbah etanol untuk perkebuna n tebu didukung dengan rencana kerjasama dengan pihak akademisi dalam pengolalaan limbah perusahaan diharapkan mampu menciptakan produk baru yaitu pupuk cair. dengan adanya produk baru pendapatan perusahaan bertambah, sehingga dapat mengatasi tingginya pajak beacukai yang dibebankan di perusahaan, harga pasar bioetanol yang masih rendah serta permasalahan rumitnya perijinan tentang baku mutu limbah. strategi w-o (weakness-opportunity) alternatif strategi wo merupakan strategi yang dapat dilakukan untuk mengurangi efek yang muncul dari beberapa kelemahan pada perusahaan dengan memanfaatkan peluangpeluang yang ada. alternatif strategi w-o untuk perusahaan yaitu melakukan perawatan dan perbaikan mesin secara rutin dan berkala agar mutu tetap terjaga dan tetap berproduksi untuk memenuhi permintaan distributor dan peluang pasar (w1, w3, o1, o4). dalam pemasaran bioetanol pasa dilakukan dengan kontrak untuk periode tertentu. hal ini menjadi peluang pasa dalam menjual produk secara kontinu walaupun kapasitas produksi kecil. pasa perlu melakukan perawatan dan perbaikan mesin produksi secara rutin agar dapat memproduksi bioetanol untuk memenuhi permintaan distributor. strategi w-t (weakness-threats) strategi wt merupakan alternatif strategi yang sifatnya defensif, artinya strategi ini mampu meminimalisasi kerugian akibat dari kelemahan yang dimiliki sekaligus bagaimana 82 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research menghindari ancaman-ancaman yang datang yaitu dengan: 1. berproduksi hanya untuk permintaaan (w1, w2, t1, t2). dengan kecilnya kapasitas produksi pasa dan tingginya biaya produksi, alternatif strategi yang dilakukan adalah memenuhi permintaan dari unit usaha pg sesodara maupun permintaan pelanggan tetap dari pasa. hal ini dilakuk an untuk menga tasi tingginya pajak yang dibebankan dan ketatnya persaingan yang tidak hanya datang dari dalam negeri, tapi datangnya produk bioetanol dari luar negeri yang harganya lebih murah. dengan memproduksi sesuai permintaan, hal tersebut akan mengurangi kerugian akibat adanya ancaman. 2. menekan biaya produksi dengan memangkas biaya-biaya yang tidak penting dan mengefisienkan sarana produksi agar memperoleh laba yang lebih. (w2, w4, t4, t5). penekanan biaya dapat dilakukan dengan pengurangan tenaga kerja yang tidak dibutuhkan atau mengurangi biaya-biaya yang dianggap terlalu berlebihan dan berusaha mengefisiensikan produksi. hal ini dilakukan untuk mengatasi harga tetes yang fluktuatiatif dan cenderung tinggi dan harga indeks pasar bioetanol yang masih kurang memihak industri bioetanol. 3. fokus pada segmen kecil yaitu dalam negeri (w1, w2, t5, t6). dengan kapasitas produksi kecil dan tingginya biaya produksi, strategi yang dapat dilakukan adalah pasa tetap pada posisi sekarang yaitu fokus pada segmen kecil yaitu melayani permintaan retailer kecil maupun industri kecil pengguna bioetanol misal pabrik rokok. penilaian ahp (tabel 2) dalam penentuan prioritas alternatif strategi, prioritas strategi dengan bobot sebesar 0,271 menurut pakar adalah dengan menekan biaya produksi dengan memangkas biaya-biaya yang tidak penting dan mengefisienkan sarana produksi agar memperoleh laba yang lebih. pada prioritas kedua yaitu memanfaatan limbah untuk diversifikasi produk. prioritas ketiga yaitu mengembangkan produk dengan menjadikan bioetanol campuran. alternatif strategi dengan melakukan perawatan dan perbaikan mesin secara rutin dan berkala agar mutu tetap terjaga dan tetap berproduksi untuk memenuhi permintaan distributor. prioritas kelima dari alternatif strategi yaitu meningkatkan kapasitas produksi dan mempertahankan kualitas produk sehingga dapat memperluas pangsa pasar. sedangkan alternatif strategi berikutnya adalah berproduksi hanya untuk permintaaan dan fokus pada segmen kecil pada prioritas terakhir. kesimpulan berdasarkan hasil penelitian dapat disimpulkan bahwa: i) kekuatan (s) dari faktor internal yang menjadi prioritas adalah ketersediaan bahan baku (0.383) dan kelemahannya (w) adalah biaya produksi yang tinggi (0.536). selanjutnya faktor eksternal yang menjadi prioritas di peluang (o) adalah peluang pasar bioetanol yang masih besar (0,340), faktor yang menjadi ancaman (t) adalah harga indeks pasar bioetanol yang masih rendah (0.305). ii) prioritas strategi adalah pemanfaatan limbah untuk diversifikasi produk (0.266), strategi menekan biaya produksi dengan memangkas biayabiaya yang tidak penting dan mengefisienkan sarana produksi agar memperoleh laba yang lebih (0.217), strategi mengembangkan produk dengan menjadikan bioetanol campuran (0.141), strategi melakukan perawatan dan perbaikan mesin secara rutin dan berkala agar mutu tetap terjaga dan tetap hasil pembobotan strategi inconsistency bobot prioritas 1. meningkatkan kapasitas produksi dan mempertahankan kualitas produk sehingga dapat memperluas pangsa pasar (s3, s7, o1) 0,01 0,114 5 2. mengembangkan produk dengan menjadikan bioetanol campuran (s7, o1, o4, o6) 0,141 3 3. melakukan perawatan dan perbaikan mesin secara rutin dan berkala agar mutu tetap terjaga dan tetap berproduksi untuk memenuhi permintaan distributor (w3, o4). 0,129 4 4. fokus pada segmen kecil (w1, w2, t5, t6) 0,057 7 5. pemanfaatan limbah untuk diversifikasi produk (s4, s5, t1, t5). 0,266 1 6. berproduksi hanya untuk permintaaan (w1, w2, t1, t2) 0,074 6 7. menekan biaya produksi dengan memangkas biaya-biaya yang tidak penting dan mengefisienkan sarana produksi agar memperoleh laba yang lebih. (w2, w4, t4,t5) 0,217 2 tabel 2. penilaian dalam penentuan prioritas strategi 83 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 berproduksi untuk memenuhi permintaan distributor (0.129), strategi meningkatkan kapasitas produksi dan m emp ert a hank a n k uali t as p roduk sehi ngga dap a t memperluas pangsa pasar (0.114), strategi dengan berproduksi hanya untuk permintaan (0.074) dan strategi fokus pada segmen kecil dalam negeri (0,057). dalam kemajuan agroindustri bioetanol perlu adanya manajemen perusahaan yang baik dan hubungan yang baik antara stakeholder. perusahaan diharapkan dapat mempertimbangkan strategi pengembangan perusahaan pasa djatiroto sesuai dengan hasil analisis a‘wot. ucapan terimakasih penulis mengucapkan terima kasih kepada pt perkebunan nusantara xi, dinas perindustrian surabaya, dan semua pihak yang telah membantu penelitian. daftar pustaka anonim. (2012). laporan tahunan 2012: pt perkebunan nusantara xi. surabaya. tersedia pada: https://ptpn11.co.id/page/annual anonim. (2016). handbook of energy & economic statistics of indonesia (final edition). tersedia pada: https://www.esdm.go.id/ bustaman, s. (2008). kebijakan pengembangan bahan bakar nabati (bioetanol) di maluku. jurnal ekonomi dan pembangunan, 16(1), 3545. jakarta: lipi press. bustaman, s. (2015). strategi pengembangan bio-etanol berbasis sagu di maluku. perspektif, 7(2), 65–79. http://ejurnal.litbang.pertanian.go.id/ index.php/psp/article/view/2737 erlina, r.r. (2011). strategi pengembangan agroindustri bioetanol di provinsi lampung. inst itut per tanian bogor. ters edia pad a: www.repository.ipb.ac.id/jspui/bitstream/123456789/52904/1/ 2011rer.pdf gorener, a., toker, k., & ulucay, k. (2012). application of combined swot and ahp: a case study for a manufacturing firm. procedia-social and behav ioral scie nces, 58, 1525–1534. tersedia pada: ht tp:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1877042812046010 kangas, j., pesonen, m., kurttila, m., & kajanusm, m. (2001). a’wot: integrating the ahp with swot analysis. in proceedings of the sixth international symposium on the analytic hierarchy process isahp (pp. 2-4). tersedia pada: www.isahp.org/2001proceedings/papers/037p.pdf nurmalina, r., sarianti, t., & feryanto. (2012). kelayakan industri kecil bioetanol berbahan baku molases di jawa tengah. jurnal manajemen dan agribisnis, 9(2), 127-136. http://journal.ipb.ac.id/index.php/ jmagr/article/view/7884 oreski, d. (2012). strategy development by using swot–ahp. croatia tem journal, 1(4), 283-291. tersedia pada: www.temjournal.com osuna, e.e., & aranda, a. (2007). combining swot and ahp techniques for strategic planning. economic journal. instituto de estudios superiores de administración (iesa) avenida iesa, san bernardino, caracas–venezuela. tersedia pada: www.isahp.org pattiasina, t. a. (2011). analisis investasi pengembangan nipah (nypa fruticans) dalam mendukung desa mandiri energi di kabupaten teluk bintuni provinsi papua barat. institut pertanian bogor. tersedia pada: www.repository.ipb.ac.id/jspui/bitstream/123456789/46928/1/ 2011tap.pdf pesonen, m., ahola, j., kurttila, m., kajanus, m., & kangas, j. (2001). investment strategies of finish forest industry in north america: a case study using a’wot (ahp in swot analysis). lappeenranta university of technology, department of business administration. tersedia pada: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ prihandana, r., & hendroko, r. (2008). energi hijau, pilihan bijak menuju negeri mandiri energi. jakarta: penebar swadaya. sambodo, m.t. (2008). energy sector in indonesia and environmental impacts: from fossil to biofuel. jurnal ekonomi dan pembangunan, 16(1), 1-19. suhendri. (2008). analisis strategi pengembangan usaha bioetanol berbahan baku ubi kayu (manihot esculenta crantz) pada pt panca jaya raharja sukabumi jawa barat. institut pertanian bogor. tersedia pada: www.repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/2892 https://ptpn11.co.id/page/annual https://www.esdm.go.id/ http://ejurnal.litbang.pertanian.go.id/ http://www.repository.ipb.ac.id/jspui/bitstream/123456789/52904/1/ http:// http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1877042812046010 http://www.isahp.org/2001proceedings/papers/037http://journal.ipb.ac.id/index.php/ http://www.temjournal.com http://www.isahp.org http://www.repository.ipb.ac.id/jspui/bitstream/123456789/46928/1/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ http://www.repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/2892 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 sevi oktafiana fortunika1, eni istiyanti2, sriyadi2 1program studi magister sains agribisnis, fakultas ekonomi dan manajemen, sekolah pascasarjana, institut pertanian bogor 2program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta sevioktafianafortunika@gmail.com kontribusi sektor pertanian terhadap perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3252 abstract the economics development in banjarnegara regency have not maximum undertaken, therefore, the sector analysis is needed to formulate appropriate strategies. this study aims to know contribution, linkage and diffusion of agriculture sector to the other sectors, multiplier effect, and the priority sector in the economy of banjarnegara regency. this research used input-output table of domestic transaction based on producer prices of banjarnegara regency in 2013. the results showed that the agriculture sector which was dominated by subsector of food crop has high contribution to the economy of banjarnegara regency. the agriculture sector has the highest forward linkage value after the industrial sector, but the backward linkage value is very low. the agricultural sector has the high enough for diffusion sensitivity value but the diffusion coefficient is very low. the highest sensitivity and coefficient in agricultural sector are the food crop. multiplier income and employment in agricultural sector have the highest value while multiplier output is the second rank after industrial sector. the priority sector is industrial sector, then followed by agricultural sector which has subsector priority in food crop. keywords: agricultural sector, contribution, diffusion, input-output, priority sector. intisari pembangunan ekonomi di kabupaten banjarnegara belum dilakukan secara maksimal, oleh karena itu analisis sektor diperlukan untuk merumuskan strategi yang tepat. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kontribusi, keterkaitan dan penyebaran sektor pertanian dengan sektor lainnya, efek angka pengganda dan sektor prioritas dalam perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara. penelitian ini menggunakan tabel input-output transaksi domestik atas harga dasar produsen kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sektor pertanian yang didominasi oleh subsektor tanaman bahan makanan, memiliki kontribusi besar terhadap perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara; memiliki nilai keterkaitan ke depan tertinggi setelah sektor industri namun nilai keterkaitan ke belakangnya sangat rendah; dan memiliki nilai kepekaan penyebaran cukup tinggi namun koefisien penyebarannya sangat rendah. multiplier pendapatan dan tenaga kerja sektor pertanian memiliki nilai tertinggi, sedangkan multiplier output berada pada peringkat kedua setelah sektor industri. sektor prioritas dalam perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara adalah sektor industri, kemudian diikuti dengan sektor pertanian di mana subsektor prioritasnya adalah tanaman bahan makanan. kata kunci: input-output, kontribusi, penyebaran, sektor pertanian, sektor prioritas. pendahuluan indonesia yang dikenal sebagai negara agraris seharusnya mengandalkan mailto:sevioktafianafortunika@gmail.com 120 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sektor pertanian sebagai sumber ekonomi maupun sebagai penopang pembangunan. peranan sektor pertanian dalam pembangunan ekonomi sangat penting, karena sebagian besar anggota masyarakat indonesia menggantungkan hidupnya pada sektor tersebut. jika para perencana dengan sungguhsungguh memperhatikan kesejahteraan masyarakatnya, maka satu-satunya cara adalah dengan meningkatkan kesejahteraan sebagian besar anggota masyarakatnya yang hidup di sektor pertanian (arsyad, 2010). sektor pertanian masih merupakan bagian dari sumber daya pembangunan yang potensial untuk dijadikan sebagai sektor strategis perencanaan pembangunan saat ini dan ke depan, baik di tingkat nasional maupun di tingkat daerah (anugrah & ma’mun, 2003). struktur perekonomian indonesia berdasarkan tinjauan makro-sektoral hingga tahun 1990-an masih agraris, namun sekarang sudah mulai berstruktur industri (dumairy, 1996). industrialisasi ini belum didukung oleh penyerapan tenaga kerja yang tinggi. hingga saat ini, sektor yang mampu menyerap tenaga kerja yang tinggi adalah sektor pertanian (khoyanah, bakce, & yusri, 2015). kabupaten banjarnegara sebagai salah satu kabupaten di provinsi jawa tengah merupakan daerah dengan pola perekonomian agraris. sebagian besar masyarakat banjarnegara menyandarkan hidupnya dari sektor pertanian. berdasarkan data bps jawa tengah tahun 2015, bahwa dari 464.000 penduduk yang bekerja, 50% di antaranya bekerja di sektor pertanian (tabel 1). tabel 1. jumlah penduduk kabupaten banjarengara berumur 15 tahun ke atas yang bekerja menurut lapangan kerja utama tahun 2015 lapangan pekerjaan utama tenaga kerja jumlah laki-laki perempuan 1. pertanian, kehutanan, perburuan dan perikanan 135.506 96.964 232.470 2. industri pengolahan 20.015 30.512 50.527 3. perdagangan besar, eceran, rumah makan dan hotel 46.022 43.112 89.134 4. jasa masyarakat 14.686 17.445 32.131 5. lainnya 57.866 1.916 59.782 jumlah 274.095 189.949 464.044 sumber: bps jawa tengah 2016 (diolah) pola perekonomian agraris kabupaten banjarnegara juga dapat dilihat dari tingginya kontribusi sektor pertanian terhadap pembentukan produk domestik regional bruto (pdrb). pola seperti ini masih dominan selama kurun waktu 2009 sampai 2013 (tabel 2). rata-rata kontribusi sektor pertanian dari tahun 2009–2013 sebesar 35,07% dari total pdrb kabupaten banjarengara memberikan dasar yang kuat untuk menyatakan kondisi tersebut. tabel 2. peranan setiap sektor ekonomi dalam perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2009 2013 lapangan usaha distribusi pdrb per tahun (%) 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 pertanian 36,91 35,85 34,98 34,26 33,33 pertambangan dan penggalian 0,53 0,53 0,53 0,52 0,52 industri 13,59 13,15 13,02 12,83 12,94 listrik, gas dan air bersih 0,46 0,48 0,49 0,50 0,51 bangunan 6,75 6,66 6,78 6,85 7,01 perdagangan 12,70 12,68 12,65 12,67 12,90 angkutan 4,31 4,51 4,62 4,78 4,81 bank dan lembaga keu lainnya 5,92 6,11 6,17 6,36 6,69 jasa-jasa 18,83 20,03 20,76 21,24 21,29 pdrb 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 sumber : bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 pendapatan per kapita kabupaten banjarnegara sebesar rp 3.773.323,lebih rendah dibandingkan provinsi jawa tengah, yaitu sebesar rp 6.706.874,pada tahun 2015. persentase penduduk miskin kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2012 sebesar 18,87%, lebih besar dibandingkan presentase penduduk miskin provinsi jawa tengah, yaitu sebesar 14,98% dan persentase nasional yaitu sebesar 11,66% (bps, 2013). uraian tersebut membuktikan bahwa tujuan pembangunan ekonomi di kabupaten banjarnegara belum sesuai dengan yang diharapkan, sehingga dibutuhkan kebijakan pembangunan ekonomi yang dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat. pendekatan secara sektoral atas perekonomian wilayah secara komprehensif mampu melihat keterkaitan antar sektor ekonomi di wilayah tersebut secara keseluruhan. keterkaitan antar sektor tersebut memunculkan sektor pemimpin (leading sector), sehingga dapat dilakukan kebijakan terhadap sektor tersebut (tarigan, 2005). dari hasil berbagai penelitian yang ada, sektor pertanian memegang peranan yang tinggi di antara sektor ekonomi lainnya sebagaimana terjadi di kabupaten rokan hilir (khoyanah, bakce, & yusri, 2015), provinsi riau (isbah & iyan, 2016), provinsi jawa timur (oktavia, hanani, & suhartini, 2016), dan kabupaten sarolangun (syahroni, 2016). penelitian tersebut menunjukkan bahwa walaupun sektor pertanian berperan besar dalam pembanguan ekonomi suatu daerah, namun pembangunan ekonomi yang hanya bertumpu pada sektor pertanian belum cukup. kajian 121 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 mengenai peran sektor ekonomi dimana sektor pertanian sebagai fokus utama di kabupaten banjarnegara diperlukan mengingat peran sektor pertanian di kabupaten banjarnegara sebagai pembentuk terbesar pdrb dan penyerap tenaga kerja terbesar. peran sektor pertanian yang perlu diketahui dalam permasalahan di atas mencakup keterkaitan antar sektor, dampak pengganda dan penyebaran dari sektor pertanian sehingga dapat dibentuk kebijakan pembangunan dalam sektor pertanian yang tepat untuk meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi kabupaten banjarnegara. beberapa penelitian hanya dibahas dari sudut pandang sektor ekonomi saja, namun dalam penelitian ini akan dibahas secara detail hingga sampai subsektor dalam sektor pertanian. selain itu, kabupaten banjarnegara juga belum memiliki penelitian tentang analisis kontribusi sektor pertanian terhadap perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara. kemudian dengan alat analisis yang terintegrasi secara urut dan lengkap diharapkan dapat dijadikan bahan pengambilan kebijakan oleh pemerintah daerah dalam membangun perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara, khususnya perekonomian berbasis pertanian. berdasarkan uraian di atas, tujuan penelitian ini meliputi: i) menganalisis peran sektor pertanian terhadap perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara; ii) menganalisis keterkaitan sektor pertanian dengan sektor-sektor lainnya di kabupaten banjarnegara; iii) menganalisis dampak penyebaran sektor pertanian dalam perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara; iv) menganalisis multiplier output, pendapatan, dan tenaga kerja sektor pertanian dalam perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara; v) mengidentifikasi sektor kunci dalam perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara. metode penelitian metode dasar yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif analitik. pengambilan daerah penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten banjarnegara, provinsi jawa tengah, dengan pertimbangan bahwa kabupaten banjarnegara merupakan daerah dengan perekonomian agraris serta kontribusi terbesar pdrb kabupaten banjarnegara berasal dari sektor pertanian. data yang digunakan meliputi data transaksi total atas dasar harga produsen kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013 klasifikasi 45 sektor yang diagregasikan menjadi 9 sektor, yaitu sektor pertanian; pertambangan dan penggalian; industri; listrik, gas dan air bersih; bangunan; perdagangan; angkutan; bank dan lembaga keuangan lainnya dan jasa-jasa. dari 9 sektor tersebut, sektor pertanian didiagregasi menjadi 5 subsektor untuk mempertajam hasil analisis dalam sektor pertanian. klasifikasi 5 subsektor sektor pertanian tersebut adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan, tanaman perkebuan, peternakan, kehutanan, dan perikanan. alat analisis yang dipakai adalah analisis keterkaitan ke belakang dan keterkaitan ke depan, koefisien penyebaran dan kepekaan penyebaran, dampak angka pengganda dan analisis sektor pemimpin. analisis keterkaitan ke belakang dan keterkaitan ke depan adalah alat analisis yang digunakan untuk mengetahui tingkat keterkaitan suatu sektor/subsektor terhadap sektor lain dalam perekonomian (daryanto & hafizryanda, 2012). koefisien penyebaran digunakan untuk mengetahui distribusi manfaat pengembangan suatu sektor/ subsektor terhadap perkembangan sektor lainnya melalui mekanisme transaksi pasar input. kepekaan penyebaran digunakan untuk mengetahui tingkat kepekaan suatu sektor/ subsektor terhadap sektor lainnya melalui mekanisme pasar output. analisis dampak angka pengganda digunakan untuk melihat yang terjadi terhadap variabel endogen yang dinyatakan sebagai permintaan antara apabila terjadi perubahan variabel eksogen, seperti permintaan akhir, yang meliputi konsumsi rumah tangga, konsumsi pemerintah, pembentukan modal tetap bruto, perubahan stok dan ekspor dalam perekonomian. analisis pengganda terdiri dari 3 jenis, yaitu pengganda produksi, pengganda pendapatan rumah tangga, dan pengganda jumlah tenaga kerja. analisis sektor pemimpin digunakan untuk melihat sektor prioritas pembangunan yang seharusnya dilakukan untuk meningkatkan perekonomian suatu daerah. sektor pemimpin dilakukan dengan meranking keterkaitan antar sektor dan nilai penggandanya, kemudian kedua ranking tersebut dijumlahkan. hasil dan pembahasan peran sektor pertanian terhadap perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara berdasarkan analisis input–output, peran sektor pertanian terhadap perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara dideskripsikan melalui struktur permintaan, struktur rumah tangga pemerintah, ekspor-impor, investasi dan nilai tambah bruto (ntb) baik dalam lingkup sektor ekonomi secara luas ataupun sektor pertanian secara khusus. pada aspek struktur permintaan, sektor pertanian berada pada peringkat kedua tertinggi setelah sektor industri baik untuk permintaan akhir maupun permintaan total (tabel 3). kedua sektor ini mendominasi lebih dari 50% permintaan total. tingginya nilai permintaan akhir ini menunjukan bahwa output dari sektor 122 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pertanian lebih banyak dikonsumsi langsung oleh konsumen daripada digunakan sebagai input oleh produsen. pada aspek struktur rumah tangga pemerintah, konsumsi rumah tangga sektor pertanian menduduki peringkat ketiga setelah sektor industri dan perdagangan yaitu sebesar rp 810,0 milyar atau 13,81%. sektor industri mendominasi 47,84% dari total konsumsi rumah tangga. di sisi lain, konsumsi pemerintah hanya kepada sektor jasa. pada aspek ekspor-impor, sektor pertanian merupakan sektor dengan nilai ekspor tertinggi, yaitu sebesar rp 2.759,5 milyar atau 50,71% dari total ekspor sedangkan nilai impor sektor pertanian hanya sebesar rp 831 milyar. angka tersebut menunjukkan bahwa sektor pertanian memiliki nilai net ekspor cukup besar. namun, ekspor-impor kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013 secara keseluruhan menunjukkan net ekpor bernilai negatif. nilai impor tertinggi disumbangkan oleh sektor industri, yaitu hampir 65% dari total impor. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa belum ada kemandirian dalam pengadaan bahan baku atau peralatan di sektor industri. pada aspek investasi, investasi terbesar berada di sektor bangunan yaitu 68% dari total investasi. sektor industri dan sektor pertanian berada di urutan kedua dan ketiga dengan proporsi yang relatif kecil, yaitu masing-masing sebesar 21% dan 6%. keadaan ini berbeda dengan yang terjadi di kabupaten rokan hilir, investasi di sektor pertanian menduduki urutan pertama (khoyanah, bakce, & yusri, 2015). aspek yang terakhir yaitu nilai tambah bruto (ntb), meliputi upah dan gaji, surplus usaha, rasio w/s, penyusutan, pajak tak langsung. komponen ntb yang memiliki kontribusi terbesar adalah surplus usaha, yaitu rp 5.043,3 tabel 3. struktur permintaan, struktur rumah tangga pemerintah, ekspor-impor, investasi dan nilai tambah bruto sektor ekonomi kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013 (dalam milyar rupiah) sektor struktur permintaan struktur rumah tangga pemerintah ekspor impor investasi ntb antara akhir total konsumsi rt pemerin-tah ekspor impor 1. pertanian 296 3.724 4.019 810.015 0 2.760 831 154.236 3.430 2. pertamba-ngan & penggalian 761 11 772 1.541 0 4 718 4.621 5 3. industri 2.385 4.681 7.066 2.806.969 0 1.359 3.892 515.191 1.130 4. listrik, gas dan air bersih 68 97 165 97.549 0 0 0 0 44 5. bangunan 195 1.663 1.858 0 0 0 0 1.663.008 625 6. perdaga-ngan 553 1.637 2.190 839.268 0 720 275 78.087 1.240 7. angkutan 240 970 1.210 580.511 0 359 282 31.176 437 8. bank & lembaga keuangan lainnya 359 456 815 216.718 0 240 38 4 614 9. jasa-jasa 658 1.985 2.643 514.379 1.470.413 0 0 77 1.626 total 5.515 15.228 20.738 5.866.949 1.470.413 5.441 6.035 2.446.400 9.190 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) tabel 4. struktur permintaan, struktur rumah tangga pemerintah, ekspor-impor, investasi dan nilai tambah bruto sektor pertanian kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013 subsektor struktur permintaan struktur rumah tangga pemerintah ekspor impor investasi ntb antara akhir total konsumsi rt pemerin-tah ekspor impor 1. tanaman bahan makanan 222 2.910 3.132 325.763 0 2.444 350 140.106 2.955 2. tanaman perkebunan 6 165 170 36.022 0 127 27 1.202 154 3. peternakan 50 453 503 322.978 0 119 271 11.233 163 4. kehutanan 1 39 41 2.217 0 30 24 6.298 79 5. perikanan 16 39 173 123.036 0 38 159 -4.603 80 total 295 3.724 4.019 810.015 0 2.760 831 154.236 3.430 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) 123 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 milyar. pajak tak langsung merupakan komponen yang memiliki kontribusi paling kecil diantara komponenkomponen lainnya, yakni sebesar rp 214,8 milyar. total ntb sektor pertanian menduduki pertama, yaitu rp 3,430 milyar yang kontribusi terbesarnya adalah surplus usaha yaitu sebesar rp 2,748 milyar. hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa sangat besarnya peranan sektor pertanian dalam pembentukan ntb kabupaten banjarnegara dari sisi permintaan. namun hasil analisis rasio surplus usaha dan upah gaji, diperoleh surplus usaha sektor pertanian lebih besar dari upah dan gaji, yang menunjukkan distribusi pendapatan petani di kabupaten banjarnegara belum merata antara pemilik modal dan pekerja sehingga terjadi ketimpangan pendapatan. selain dapat diperbandingkan dengan sektor ekonomi yang lain, peran sektor pertanian juga dilihat secara rinci berdasarkan kontribusi subsektor dalam sektor pertanian (tabel 4). subsektor tanaman bahan makanan merupakan sektor yang memiliki permintaan total tertinggi, yaitu sebesar rp 3.132,5 atau 77,94% dari total permintaan kabupaten banjarnegara. tingginya permintaan akhir dibandingkan dengan permintaan antara pada semua sektor di sektor pertanian menunjukan bahwa output dari semua sektor di sektor pertanian lebih banyak dikonsumsi langsung oleh konsumen daripada digunakan sebagai input oleh produsen. output subsektor dalam sektor pertanian yang paling banyak dikonsumsi langsung oleh rumah tangga adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan, yaitu sebesar rp 325,76 milyar atau 40,22%, yang tidak jauh berbeda dengan sektor peternakan, yaitu sebesar rp 322,98 milyar atau sebesar 39,87%. total output sektor pertanian yang dikonsumsi langsung masyarakat adalah sebesar rp 810.015 milyar. sektor pertanian yang memiliki nilai net ekspor tertinggi adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan yaitu sebesar rp 2.093,8 milyar dengan nilai ekspor dan impor tertinggi yaitu rp 2.444,3 milyar atau 88,58% dan rp 350,5 milyar atau 42,16%. nilai net ekspor negatif pada sektor pertanian adalah subsektor peternakan dan perikanan. net ekspor yang bernilai negatif pada subsektor peternakan dan perikanan tersebut menunjukkan bahwa subsektor tersebut belum memiliki kemandirian ekonomi. struktur total investasi yang terdiri dari pembentukan modal tetap dan perubahan stok di kabupaten banjarnegara adalah sebesar rp 2.446,4 milyar. sektor pertanian berkontribusi sebesar rp 154,24 milyar. sektor pertanian dalam pembentukan modal tetap menduduki peringkat terendah setelah sektor listrik, gas dan air kemudian sektor pertambangan dan penggalian, yaitu hanya sebesar rp 1,94 milyar atau 0,09% dari total pembentukan modal tetap. namun untuk perubahan stok, sektor pertanian menduduki peringkat kedua setelah sektor industri, yaitu sebesar rp 152,29 milyar atau 38,45% dari total perubahan stok. total investasi sektor pertanian ini didominasi dari sektor tanaman bahan makanan. hal tersebut karena perubahan stok pada sektor bahan makanan berkontribusi 90,84% dari total investasi yaitu rp 140,1 milyar. subsektor tanaman bahan makanan juga memiliki upah dan gaji, surplus usaha, penyusutan dan pajak tak langsung tertinggi dalam sektor pertanian. namun tingginya sumbangan yang diberikan subsektor tanaman bahan makanan terhadap ntb kabupaten banjarnegara ini justru memiliki rasio terkecil antara upah dan gaji dengan surplus usaha, yaitu hanya sebesar 0,19. walaupun 4 subsektor lainnya dalam sektor pertanian seperti subsektor tanaman perkebunan, peternakan, kehutanan dan perikanan memiliki surplus usaha yang lebih besar daripada upah dan gaji namun jarak keduanya tidak terlalu jauh dibandingkan subsektor tanaman bahan makanan. secara keseluruhan, subsektor yang memiliki kontribusi terbesar adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan baik dilihat dari struktur permintaan, struktur rumah tangga pemerintah, ekspor-impor, investasi atau nilai tambah bruto. keterkaitan sektor pertanian dengan sektor ekonomi lainnya analisis keterkaitan terdiri dari analisis keterkaitan ke depa n dan keterk ai ta n ke belak ang. ma si ng-ma si ng keterkaitan tersebut terdiri atas keterkaitan langsung serta langsung dan tidak langsung. sektor pertanian memiliki nilai keterkaitan langsung ke depan sebesar 0,381899 yang berarti bahwa jika terjadi kenaikan permintaan akhir sebesar 1 satuan maka terjadi kenaikan output yang dialokasikan secara langsung ke sektor lain dan sektor itu sendiri sebesar 0,381899 satuan. nilai keterkaitan langsung dan tidak langsung ke depan pada sektor pertanian sebesar 1,629048, yang berarti bahwa jika terjadi kenaikan permintaan akhir sebesar 1 satuan maka akan terjadi kenaikan output yang dialokasikan secarang langsung ke sektor lain dan sektor itu sendiri sebesar 1,629048 sa tuan. ni la i tersebut c uk up ti nggi ji k a dibandingkan sektor lainnya, seperti sektor bangunan, perdagangan, angkutan, bank dan lembaga keuangan serta listrik, gas dan air bersih. hasil analisis ini menunjukkan sektor pertanian memiliki keterkaitan yang tinggi terhadap produksi hilirnya. di sisi lain, nilai keterkaitan langsung ke belakang sektor pertanian adalah sebesar 0,16500 dan nilai keterkaitan langsung dan tidak langsungnya adalah sebesar 1,10274. nilai 124 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tersebut termasuk rendah jika dibandingkan sektor lainnya. artinya sektor pertanian memiliki keterkaitan yang rendah terhadap produksi hulunya. keadaan yang berbeda terjadi di kabupaten pemalang, sektor yang mempunyai keterkaitan ke depan yaitu sektor keuangan, persewaan dan jasa perusahaan sedangkan sektor yang mempunyai keterkaitan ke belakang terbesar yaitu sektor keuangan. sektor pertanian mempunyai keterkaitan ke depan terbesar kedua tetapi dalam keterkaitan ke belakang berada pada urutan kedelapan (suryani, 2013) selanjutnya, subsektor tanaman bahan makanan yang ditampilkan pada tabel 6 memiliki nilai tertinggi keterkaitan langsung ke depan dan ke belakang baik secara langsung maupun langsung dan tidak langsung dalam sektor pertanian adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan. nilai tersebut secara berturut-turut sebesar 0,096456; 1,008395; 0,085617; 1,007046, yang menunjukkan subsektor tanaman bahan makanan memiliki keterkaitan paling besar baik dengan produksi sektor hulu maupun sektor hilirnya di antara sektor pertanian lain, yaitu subsektor tanaman perkebunan, peternakan, kehutanan dan perikanan. berbeda dengan yang terjadi di provinsi jawa timur, keterkaitan ke belakang nilai tabel 5. keterkaitan kedepan dan kebelakang sektor ekonomi kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013 sektor keterkaitan ke depan keterkaitan ke belakang langsung langsung &tidak langsung langsung langsung &tidak langsung 1. pertanian 0,381899 1,629048 0,16500 1,10274 2. pertambangan dan penggalian 0,847583 1,461905 0,17698 1,13020 3. industri 1,372973 1,822044 0,64418 1,34770 4. listrik, gas dan air bersih 0,059805 1,025574 0,73475 1,35217 5. bangunan 0,145496 1,096390 0,66350 1,52692 6. perdagangan 0,268617 1,205768 0,35276 1,26778 7. angkutan 0,123869 1,085790 0,52966 1,45874 8. bank dan lembaga keuangan lainnya 0,218972 1,104241 0,20972 1,15748 9. jasa-jasa 0,442088 1,197120 0,38476 1,28413 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) tabel 6. keterkaitan kedepan dan kebelakang sektor pertanian kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013 sektor keterkaitan kedepan keterkaitan kebelakang langsung langsung &tidak langsung langsung langsung &tidak langsung 1. tanaman bahan makanan 0,096456 1,008395 0,085617 1,007046 2. tanaman perkebunan 0,033280 1,001150 0,034301 1,001252 3. peternakan 0,031549 1,002377 0,032823 1,002380 4. kehutanan 0,013404 1,000218 0,015037 1,000422 5. perikanan 0,069982 1,005110 0,076892 1,006151 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) tabel 7. hasil analisis penyebaran dan dampak angka pengganda kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013 sektor analisis penyebaran pengganda kepekaan penyebaran koefisien penyebaran keluaran pendapatan kesempatan kerja 1. pertanian 1,1685 0,7366 2,1731 3,1493 3,5529 2. pertambangan dan penggalian 1,3419 0,7595 0,5621 0,8030 0,0030 3. industri 1,8565 1,1574 2,8987 1,7901 2,1715 4. listrik, gas dan air bersih 0,6307 1,2126 0,0706 0,0325 0,0030 5. bangunan 0,7216 1,2727 0,6702 0,3914 0,2420 6. perdagangan 0,8567 0,9416 0,8693 0,9765 1,1948 7. angkutan 0,7029 1,1554 0,4639 0,3787 0,1844 8. bank dan lembaga keuangan lainnya 0,7689 0,7944 0,3250 0,4458 0,0806 9. jasa-jasa 0,9525 0,9697 0,9670 1,0326 0,5708 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) 125 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 terbesar berada pada komoditas ternak meskipun untuk keterkaitan ke depan nilai terbesar pada komoditas padi (oktavia, hanani, & suhartini, 2016). kepekaan penyebaran, koefisien penyebaran, dan dampak angka pengganda sektor pertanian analisis kepekaan penyebaran dengan analisis dampak angka pengganda menjadi bahan untuk analisis sektor pemimpin. ana lisis penyebara n terdiri dari anali sis penyebaran dan koefisien penyebaran. sedangkan analisis dampak angka pengganda terdiri dari output, pendapatan dan penyerapan tenaga keja. sektor pertanian merupakan sektor dengan nilai koefisien penyebaran terkecil yaitu dengan nilai 0,7366 (tabel 7). nilai koefisien penyebaran yang kurang dari satu, menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan sektor pertanian untuk meningkatkan pertumbuhan industri hulunya masih kecil. sektor pertanian sebagian besar masih banyak menggunakan input produksi dari sektornya sendiri untuk meningkatkan outputnya, misalnya pupuk organik (terbuat dari kotoran hewan ternak dan sampah dedaunan), bibit, serta benih. beberapa sektor perekonomian memiliki nilai koefisien penyebaran lebih dari satu, yaitu sektor listrik, gas, dan air minum, bangunan dan sektor industri, artinya sektor tersebut mampu meningkatkan pertumbuhan industri hulunya. sektor yang memiliki nilai tertinggi untuk analisis dampak angka pengganda terhadap keluaran adalah sektor industri, dampak angka pengganda terhadap pendapatan adalah sektor pertanian dan dampak angka pengganda terhadap kesempatan kerja adalah sektor pertanian. angka tertinggi pada analisis angka pengganda keluaran pada sektor industri menunjukkan bahwa keluaran sektor industri digunakan oleh sebagian besar sektor lainnya dan berpengaruh besar untuk meningkatkan keluaran sektor lainnya. analisis dampak angka pengganda terhadap pendapatan yang tertinggi terjadi pada sektor pertanian, hal tersebut menjelaskan bahwa keluaran sektor pertanian digunakan oleh sebagian besar sektor lainnya untuk meningkatkan pendapatan pada masingmasing sektor. sedangkan analisis angka p engganda kesempatan kerja yang tertinggi juga diperoleh oleh sektor pertanian yang menyatakan bahwa keluaran yang dihasilkan oleh sektor pertanian digunakan oleh sektor lainnya dan nantinya akan mampu meningkatkan kesempatan kerja sektor tersebut. keadaan ini berbeda dengan yang terjadi di kabupaten pemalang, angka pengganda terhadap output dan kesempatan kerja yang tertinggi berada pada sektor bangunan, tabel 8. hasil analisis penyebaran dan dampak angka pengganda kabupaten banjarnegara dalam sektor pertanian tahun 2013 subsektor analisis penyebaran multiplier kepekaan penyebaran koefisien penyebaran output income 1. tanaman bahan makanan 1,04986 1,03827 3,8890 3,8474 2. tanaman perkebunan 0,98294 0,98401 0,2121 0,2216 3. peternakan 0,98246 0,98367 0,6273 0,6564 4. kehutanan 0,96317 0,96491 0,0499 0,0532 5. perikanan 1,02158 1,02913 0,2216 0,2214 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) tabel 9. peringkat sektor perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara berdasarkan analisis keterkaitan dan analisis dampak angka pengganda tahun 2013 sektor kepekaan koefisien multiplier jumlah rank rank sektor output income employment 1. pertanian 3 9 2 1 1 16 2 2. pertambangan dan penggalian 2 8 6 5 8 29 6 3. industri 1 3 1 2 2 9 1 4. listrik, gas dan air bersih 9 2 9 9 8 37 9 5. bangunan 7 1 5 7 5 25 5 6. perdagangan 5 6 4 4 3 22 4 7. angkutan 8 4 7 8 6 33 7 8. bank dan lembaga keuangan lainnya 6 7 8 6 7 34 8 9. jasa-jasa 4 5 3 3 4 19 3 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) 126 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sedangkan angka pengganda terhadap pendapatan terdapat pada sektor jasa lainnya (suryani, 2013). pada sektor pertanian, subsektor tanaman bahan makanan memiliki nilai kepekaan penyebaran dan koefisien penyebaran tertinggi (tabel 8). tingginya nilai kepekaan dan koefisien penyebaran pada subsektor tanaman bahan makanan menunjukkan bahwa sektor tersebut merupakan sektor unggulan. selain memiliki nilai penyebaran yang tertinggi, subsektor tanaman bahan makanan juga memiliki nilai tertinggi untuk analisis angka pengganda keluaran dan pengganda pendapatan. angka tertinggi analisis angka pengganda keluaran menunjukkan bahwa keluaran subsektor tanaman bahan makanan digunakan oleh sebagian besar subsektor lainnya dan berpengaruh besar untuk meningkatkan keluaran subsektor lainnya dalam sektor pertanian. angka tertinggi analisis angka pengganda pendapatan dalam sektor pertanian menjelaskan bahwa keluaran subsektor tanaman bahan makanan digunakan oleh sebagian besar subsektor lainnya untuk meningkatkan pendapatan masing-masing subsektor. keadaan ini berbeda dengan yang terjadi di provinsi jawa timur, bahwa angka pengganda keluaran terbesar terdapat pada komoditas ternak, sedangkan angka pengganda pendapatan terbesar pada komoditas telur (oktavia, hanani, & suhartini, 2016). analisis sektor kunci dalam perekonomian sektor pemimpin kabupaten banjarnegara adalah sektor industri, sedangkan sektor pertanian berada pada peringkat kedua (tabel 9). peringkat pengganda pendapatan dan tenaga kerja sektor pertanian memimpin yang tertinggi, namun untuk peringkat pengganda keluaran dan kepekaan penyebaran sektor industrilah yang memimpin. perbedaan yang signifikan antara sektor pertanian dengan sektor industri adalah pada koefisien penyebaran. sektor industri menduduki peringkat ketiga, sedangkan sektor pertanian menduduki peringkat terakhir. uraian tersebut menggambarkan bahwa walaupun sektor petanian bukan merupakan sektor prioritas, namun sektor pertanian dalam meningkatkan keluaran, pendapatan, dan tenaga kerja serta kemampuan mendorong pertumbuhan sektor industri hilirnya sangatlah tinggi. dalam sektor pertanian, subsektor tanaman bahan makanan merupakan sektor kunci. subsektor tanaman bahan makanan memiliki nilai kepekaan penyebaran, koefisien penyebaran, keluaran dan pendapatan yang paling tinggi dibandingkan subsektor lainnya dalam sektor pertanian. hal tersebut berarti bahwa subsektor tanaman bahan makanan dalam meningkatkan keluaran dan pendapatan, serta kemampuan menorong pertumbuhan sektor industri hulu maupun hilirnya merupakan yang paling tinggi dibandingkan subsektor lainnya. analisis sektor kunci baik sektor pertanian maupun seluruh sektor di kabupaten banjarnegara menunjukkan bahwa sektor industri sebagai sektor kunci harus dibangun dengan kebijakan yang juga mendukung pertumbuhan sektor pertanian, terutama sektor tanaman bahan makanan. industri di indonesia dan kabupaten banjarnegara memiliki keterkaitan yang tinggi dengan sektor pertanian. bila indonesia mengembangkan sektor industri yang tidak berbasis pertanian, misalnya industri elektronik atau otomotif, maka indonesia tidak mampu bersaing dengan industri elektronika dan otomotif negara lain yang sudah unggul di pasar internasional, dan bila industri tersebut menjadi unggulan nasional, maka manfaatnya tidak dinikmati rakyat yang tersebar di seluruh pelosok tanah air yang kehidupan ekonominya berada di sektor agribisnis (saragih, 2010). hasil penentuan sektor pemimpin perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara juga harus melakukan perluasan sektor modern karena sektor kunci berdasarkan analisis adalah sektor industri. sesuai dengan kurva kuznets yang menyatakan bahwa proses pertumbuhan berkesinambungan berasal dari perluasan sektor tradisional ke sektor modern. selain itu, agroindustri mempunyai peranan yang sangat besar tabel 10. peringkat sektor pertanian kabupaten banjarnegara berdasarkan analisis keterkaitan dan analisis dampak angka pengganda tahun 2013 subsektor kepekaan koefisien pengganda jumlah rank rank sektor keluaran pendapatan 1. tanaman bahan makanan 1 1 1 1 4 1 2. tanaman perkebunan 3 3 4 3 13 4 3. peternakan 4 4 2 2 12 3 4. kehutanan 5 5 5 5 20 5 5. perikanan 2 2 3 4 11 2 sumber: bps kabupaten banjarnegara 2014 (diolah) 127 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 dalam pembangunan pertanian terutama dalam rangka transformasi struktur perekonomian dari dominasi sektor pertanian ke dominasi sektor agroindustri (nasution, 2002). kesimpulan peran sektor pertanian yang didominasi oleh subsektor tanaman bahan makanan, memiliki kontribusi besar terhadap perekonomian kabupaten banjarnegara, terutama nilai tambah bruto dan nilai net ekspor. subsektor tanaman bahan makanan memiliki peran terbesar terhadap permintaan total, konsumsi masyarakat, nilai net ekspor dan nilai tambah bruto dibandingkan subsektor pertanian lain. berdasarkan analisis keterkaitan, sektor pertanian memiliki keterkaitan ke depan cukup tinggi, namun keterkaitan ke belakang yang terendah diantara sektor lainnya. analisis penyebaran sektor pertanian berada pada peringkat ketiga untuk kepekaan penyeba ra n dan p eri ngka t terakhir untuk koefi si en penyebaran. sektor pertanian memiliki nilai tertinggi untuk dampak angka pengganda pendapatan dan kesempatan kerja. subsektor dalam sektor pertanian yang memiliki nilai dampak angka pengganda keluaran dan pendapatan tertinggi adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan. sektor yang dapat dijadikan sebagai pemimpin adalah sektor industri dan sektor pertanian, sedangkan subsektor yang merupakan pemimpin adalah subsektor tanaman bahan makanan. pemerintah kabupaten banjarnegara perlu menyusun rencana strategis untuk mengembangkan sektor industri yang berbasis p ert a nia n menginga t seba gi an besa r p enduduknya mempunyai mata pencaharian sebagai petani. adanya perhatian yang lebih terhadap sektor pertanian diharapkan jumlah penduduk miskin dapat dikurangi dan kesejahteraan masyarakat meningkat. daftar pustaka [bps] badan pusat statistik. 2014. jawa tengah dalam angka 2013. semarang: bps jawa tengah. ___. 2014. produk domestik regional bruto kabupaten banjarnegara 2013. banjarnegara: bps banjarnegara. ___. 2014. tabel input output kabupaten banjarnegara tahun 2013. banjarnegara: bps banjarnegara. ___. 2016. keadaan angkatan kerja jawa tengah agustus 2015. semarang: bps jawa tengah. ___. 2016. pendapatan nasional indonesia 2011-2015. jakarta: bps. anugrah, s.i. dan ma’mun, d. 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(2002). pengembangan kelembagaan koperasi pedesaan untuk agroindustri. bogor: ipb press. priyarsono, d.s. (2011). dari pertanian ke industri: analisis pembangunan dalam perspektif ekonomi regional. bogor. ipb press. saragih, b. (2010). agribisnis: paradigma baru pembangunan ekonomi berbasis pertanian. bogor: ipb press. suryani t. (2013). analisis peranan sektor ekonomi terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi kabupaten pemalang (analisis tabel input-output kabupaten pemalang tahun 2010).semarang: economic development analysis journal, 2(1): 1-11. syahroni. (2016). analisis peranan sektor pertanian dalam perekonomian kabupaten sarolangun. jurnal perspektif ekonomi dan pembangunan daerah, 5(1): 36-44 tarigan r. (2005). ekonomi regional, teori dan aplikasi. jakarta: pt.bumi aksara. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 agus dwi nugroho, lestari rahayu waluyati, fatkhiyah rohmah, & ali hasyim al rosyid program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada agusdwinugroho@yahoo.com strategi pengembangan sub terminal agribisnis (sta) salak pondoh di kabupaten sleman h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3249 abstract the purpose of this study is to know the existing conditions and to identify need of assesements for sub terminal agribisnis (sta) tempel in sleman regency. data were collected through direct observation, focus group discussion (fgd) and study documents from related institutions. the existing conditions of sta tempel was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively, while need of assessment for sta tempel was analyzed by swot. the results showed that sta tempel has not been able to perform the function properly. to improve the performance, sta tempel must increase function of marketing of agricultural commodities; integrate with other trading activities; develop promotion; optimize of human resource functions; build modern facilities and infrastructures; and optimize the role of sta as a training and education center. key words: existing condition, need of assesments, sta tempel, strategy. intisari studi ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kondisi existing dan need of assesements sub terminal agribisnis (sta) tempel di kabupaten sleman. pengumpulan data diperoleh melalui observasi langsung dan focus group discussion (fgd) serta studi dokumen dari instansi terkait. kondisi existing sta tempel dianalisis secara kualitatif dan kuantitatif, sedangkan need of assesements sta tempel dianalisis dengan swot. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sta tempel belum mampu melaksanakan fungsinya secara optimal dan manfaatnya belum dirasakan petani. peningkatan kinerja sta tempel dilakukan dengan peningkatan fungsi pemasaran k omoditas p ertanian; integrasi dengan kegiatan p erd agangan lain; pengembangan promosi produk; optimalisasi fungsi sumber daya manusia (sdm) pengelola dan anggota; membangun sarana dan prasarana modern; dan optimalisasi peran sta sebagai pusat pelatihan dan pendidikan. kata kunci: kondisi existing, need of assesments, sta tempel, strategi. pendahuluan menurut badan agribisnis departemen pertanian, selama ini pemasaran bidang pertanian mempunyai mata rantai yang panjang, mulai dari petani, pedagang pengumpul, pedagang besar sampai konsumen, sehingga keuntungan yang diperoleh petani relatif kecil. di sisi lain, konsumen harus membayar lebih mahal dari harga yang selayaknya karena setiap lembaga mengambil keuntungan dalam proses pemasaran. fluktuasi harga produk pertanian di tingkat petani lebih tinggi daripada harga di tingkat konsumen (susanawati, jamhari, masyhuri & darwanto, 2015). salah satu upaya untuk meningkatkan efisiensi pemasaran dan nilai tambah petani adalah dengan mengembangkan infrastruktur pemasaran seperti sub terminal agribisnis (sta). berdasarkan konsep badan agribisnis departemen pertanian, sta sebagai infrastruktur pemasaran diharapkan bermanfaat untuk lima aspek. pertama, sta memperlancar kegiatan dan meningkatkan efisiensi pemasaran komoditas agribisnis karena mencakup sebagai pusat transaksi hasil-hasil agribisnis; mailto:agusdwinugroho@yahoo.com 94 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research memperbaiki struktur pasar, cara dan jaringan pemasaran; sebagai pusat informasi pertanian serta sebagai sarana promosi produk pertanian. kedua, sta mempermudah pembinaan mutu hasil-hasil agribisnis yang meliputi; penyediaan tempat sortasi dan pengemasan; penyediaan air bersih, es, gudang, cool room dan cold storage; melatih para petani dan pedagang dalam penanganan dan pengemasan hasil pertanian. ketiga, sta menjadi wadah bagi pelaku agribisnis untuk meranca ng bangun pengembangan agribisnis, menyinkronkan permintaan pasar dengan manajemen lahan, pola tanam, kebutuhan sarana produksi dan permodalan serta peningkatan sdm pemasaran. keempat, sta meningkatkan peningkatan pendapatan daerah melalui jasa pelayanan pemasaran. terakhir, sta mendorong pengembangan agribisnis dan wilayah. studi sebelumnya menunjukkan peranan penting sta di beberapa wilayah. di kabupaten tuban, sta berperan penting dalam upaya pengembangan agroindustri perikanan laut secara terpadu di kecamatan tambakboyo (fatih, 2010). sta di wilayah tersebut terdiri dari mitra pasar, koperasi dan industri besar sebagai tempat pemasaran bagi produk yang dihasilkan oleh kelompok usaha agroindusti tersebut. di kabupaten sikka, sta berhasil meningkatkan kinerja pemasaran meningkatkan pendapatan masyarakat (noni, darmawan & suarthana, 2013). keberhasilan pembangunan sta didukung faktor man, money, method, machines, dan market. di kabupaten magelang, pedagang pengguna sta sangat puas terhadap kinerja pengelola sta, khususnya pada aspek kenyamanan tempat, tingkat pelayanan dan harga sewa lokasi (suranto, 2010). namun, beberapa studi menunjukkan tidak semua sta memiliki kinerja memuaskan. pemasaran sayuran wortel di sta kabupaten karanganyar menunjukkan nilai elastisitas transmisi harga kurang dari 1, artinya laju perubahan harga di tingkat petani lebih kecil dari laju perubahan harga di tingkat konsumen dan pasar berbentuk pasar persaingan tidak sempurna (cahyono, kusnandar, & sri, 2013). hasil analisis marjin pemasaran, farmer’s share, efisiensi operasional, dan efisiensi harga menunjukkan bahwa secara umum pemasaran di sta karanganyar belum efisien. selain faktor manajemen pengelola, ada beberapa faktor yang menyebabkan sta di indonesia kurang berkembang. faktor-faktor tersebut antara lain: (i) petani maupun para pelaku kegiatan tata niaga lainnya masih melakukan pemasaran langsung kepada pedagang pengumpul, bahkan langsung ke pedagang besar yang datang ke lokasi produksi; (ii) ketergantungan petani dalam sistem permodalan usahatani terhadap pinjaman dari pemilik modal yang sekaligus sebagai pedagang, sehingga untuk mengembalikan modal maka penjualan hasil produksi banyak dilakukan kepada pedagang pemberi modal; (iii) keberadaan dan fungsi sta belum banyak diketahui oleh sebagian petani karena lokasi sta yang kurang strategis (pujihanto, 2010). faktor lainnya yaitu perubahan iklim dan cuaca yang tidak menentu dan harga jual produk yang fluktuatif (bank indonesia, 2015). dengan melihat berbagai keadaan sta di indonesia, maka menjadi suatu hal yang menarik untuk mengkaji sta tempel. pada awal pendirian, sta ini diharapkan dapat membantu memperpendek saluran pemasaran produk pertanian di sleman, terutama salak pondoh. namun, sta tempel belum beroperasional secara optimal, sehingga dampak keberadaan fasilitas ini belum dirasakan berbagai lembaga pemasaran pertanian, terutama petani. dengan melihat kondisi tersebut, diperlukan studi untuk mengetahui kondisi existing dan mengidentifikasi kebutuhan (need assesements) sta tempel di kabupaten sleman. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan juni-september tahun 2015. pengumpulan data melalui observasi langsung dan fgd dengan melibatkan bappeda, pengelola sta, dinas teknis dan kelompok tani di kabupaten sleman. selain itu juga dilakukan studi dokumen dari instansi terkait. kondisi existing sta tempel dianalisis secara kualitatif berdasarkan wawancara dengan instansi terkait, pengelola sta, kelompok tani, asosiasi dan pengusaha. analisis kuantitatif juga dilakukan berdasarkan data yang dikumpulkan dari instansi terkait, terutama kajian/studi terdahulu yang berkaitan dengan kajian ini meliputi feasible study sta tempel, peraturan bupati/keputusan kepala dinas tentang sta dan komoditas unggulan, rencana pengembangan komoditas potensial di sleman timur, pengembangan kawasan sentra produksi pertanian lereng merapi bagian selatan, serta pengembangan komoditas pertanian unggulan kabupaten sleman. identifikasi kebutuhan (need assesements) dan rekomendasi dalam rangka pengembangan sta tempel dianalisis dengan swot (tabel 1). melalui analisis swot, diperoleh strategi yang tepat dalam pengembangan sta tempel. hasil dan pembahasan profil sta tempel sta tempel di kabupaten sleman didirikan tahun 2006 dengan bentuk kelembagaan berupa unit pelaksana teknis (upt) dari dinas pertanian perikanan dan kehutanan. 95 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 berdasarkan dokumen awal pendirian, sta tempel pada awalnya diarahkan sebagai terminal agribisnis (ta). menurut dokumen feasibility study (fs) sta tempel dalam kategori layak baik secara finansial, sosio kultural dan kelembagaan. dilihat secara finansial, sta ini menguntungkan ditunjukkan oleh b/c ratio 1,29 dengan periode kembali modal sekitar 8 tahun 3 bulan dari tahun awal pendirian sta. sta tempel merupakan upt yang mempunyai tugas pokok dan fungsi (tupoksi) bidang promosi dan pemasaran, antara lain: a. sebagai tempat transaksi dan jual beli dengan menyediakan tempat bagi produsen dan konsumen untuk transaksi hasil komoditas pertanian secara berkelanjutan, sebagai jalur distribusi produksi pertanian, meningkatkan pendapatan petani produsen, memberikan kemudahan, kenyamanan dan perlindungan bagi konsumen serta sebagai pusat kegiatan penanganan pascapanen (sortasi, grading, pengepakan dan cold storage), b. sebagai pusat informasi bagi produsen dan konsumen mengenai volume, macam, waktu ketersediaan, komoditas yang ditawarkan, serta sebagai forum komunikasi antara kelompok petani dan produsen, c. sebagai tempat pendidikan yang berfungsi untuk pelatihan bagi masyarakat dalam meningkatkan hasil pertanian, pengelolaan, pemasaran dan manajemen, serta tempat magang bagi masyarakat untuk mengetahui proses kegiatan pemasaran, d. sebagai tempat pariwisata yang berfungsi untuk rest area dan pameran hasil pertanian. sta tempel dijalankan dengan pendanaan dari apbd, sedangkan target pendapatan yang ditetapkan pemkab sleman untuk sta tempel sebesar rp 25 juta per tahun. untuk mencapai target pad, maka kegiatan utama yang dilakukan sta tempel adalah budidaya buah naga. kegiatan ini sebenarnya tidak sesuai dengan fungsi sta sebagai lembaga pemasaran, namun pada kenyataannya budidaya buah naga menjadi sumber pendapatan utama yang dihasilkan oleh sta. kondisi existing dan need assesments sta tempel secara umum, fungsi yang seharusnya dilaksanakan sta tempel belum berjalan dengan baik. daya tarik sta untuk petani masih rendah, hal tersebut terlihat dari rendahnya tingkat partisipasi petani untuk melakukan aktivitas pemasaran dan pencarian informasi harga melalui sta. hal ini terjadi karena petani sudah memiliki alternatif pemasaran dan sumber informasi pasar yang mudah dicapai dan lebih aktual. keadaan tersebut hampir sama dengan keadaan di sta mantung. petani cenderung mengutamakan  sistem pemasaran kelembagaan tradisional dibandingkan sta mantung dikarenakan ketersediaan informasi harga dan kemudahan prosedur transaksi yang ditawarkan pada kelembagaan tradisional, dimana hal ini diduga karena belum berfungsinya layanan pada sta mantung, seperti layanan lelang dan informasi harga (anindita, 2008). tabel 2. ekspor salak pondoh sta tempel no. bulan kuantitas (kuintal) tujuan singapura 1 januari 2015 2.340 2 februari 2015 1.850 3 maret 2015 3.070 4 april 2015 2.060 5 mei 2015 1.980 tujuan cina 1 januari 2015 6.150 sumber: asosiasi prima sembada (2015) sebagai tempat transaksi, pada kenyataannya saat ini sta tidak melakukan transaksi jual beli produk pertanian dari tabel 1. matriks swot internal factors external factors strenghts (s) weaknesses (w) opportunities (o) strategi so strategi menggunakan kekuatan yang ada untuk memanfaatkan peluang pengembangan sta tempel strategi wo strategi menggunakan kekuatan yang ada untuk mengurangi kelemahan dalam pengembangan sta tempel threats (t) strategi st strategi menggunakan kekuatan yang ada dalam menghadapi ancaman pengembangan sta tempel strategi wt strategi untuk mengurangi kelemahan yang ada dalam mengahadapi ancaman pengembangan sta tempel 96 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research petani. sta lebih fokus pada kegiatan penjualan buah naga hasil kebun di sta. padahal, potensi untuk membantu transaksi penjualan komoditas lain juga sangat besar. salah satunya adalah salak pondoh yang sudah dapat diekspor ke singapura dan cina dengan kuantitas yang cukup besar (tabel 2). sta berperan dalam memaparkan jenis, kuantitas dan harga komoditas yang tersedia di sleman. namun, pada kenyataannya fungsi ini juga tidak berjalan. sebagai tempat pendidikan, kuantitas pelatihan yang diadakan sta tiap tahunnya masih sedikit, padahal pelatihan sangat diperlukan oleh petani, baik tentang budidaya maupun pascapanen serta pemasaran produk. sumber daya manusia struktur organisasi ideal sta pada awal pendirian sesuai feasibility study seperti pada bagan dalam gambar 1. pada kenyataannya, struktur organisasi sta belum terbentuk secara ideal. saat ini sta hanya terdiri dari kepala dan 3 orang staf. jumlah tersebut masih kurang untuk menjalankan tugas sta. secara kualitas, diperlukan pegawai yang ahli dalam bisnis untuk menjalankan fungsi sta sebagai lembaga transaksi dan jual beli. sta juga membutuhkan ahli dalam bidang teknologi informasi untuk menjalankan fungsi informasi baik secara offline (langsung tatap muka dengan produsen dan konsumen) maupun secara online (melalui media informasi website, media sosial, dan lainnya). sarana prasarana pada awal pendirian, sta memiliki beberapa fasilitas penunjang yang wajib dimiliki untuk menjalankan fungsi transaksi, informasi, pendidikan dan pariwisata. berdasarkan kriteria kepemilikan fasilitas ideal, jelas terlihat bahwa banyak fasilitas penunjang yang tidak dimiliki oleh sta untuk menjalankan fungsi idealnya (tabel 3). hal ini terjadi karena sumber dana untuk pengembangan fasilitas yang dimiliki sta hanya diperoleh dari apbd dimana jumlah dana yang didapatkan belum cukup untuk mewujudkan fasilitas sesuai dengan feasibility study yang telah dibuat. keterbatasan pendanaan sta menjadi salah satu faktor penghambat dalam menjalankan fungsi sesuai dengan rencana pembangunan. pemerintah kabupaten sleman sebenarnya dapat memberikan kesempatan kepada pihak swasta untuk berkontribusi bagi kemajuan sta melalui investasi sarana prasarana. kepala ka. bagian umum ka. bagian keuangan bidang pascapanen bidang diklat dan pengembangan teknologi tepat guna bidang data informasi dan promosi gambar 1. struktur organisasi awal sta tabel 3. keadaan sarana prasaran sta tahun 2015 no fasilitas keadaan saat ini 1 gudang penampungan dan sortasi 3 buah @ 8 x 16 m2 hanya 1, tidak memenuhi syarat 2 pengemasan @ 8 x 20 m2 tidak ada 3 cold storage @ 4 x 8 m2 tidak ada 4 los pelelangan 4 buah 50 m2 ada 5 gedung serba guna tidak ada 6 penginapan (10 kamar) tidak ada 7 mushola 8 x 8 m2 tidak ada 8 kantor pengelola ada 9 pusat informasi perdagangan tidak ada 10 pusat informasi swasta tidak ada 11 kios souvenir/salak pondoh 10 buah @ 5 x 5 m2 14 buah @ 6 x 4 m2 4 buah @ 3 x 4 m2 tidak ada 12 sirkulasi tidak ada 13 rumah makan tidak ada 14 ruang pameran tidak ada 15 mck 2 buah @ 32 m2 ada 97 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 hambatan dalam akses masuk ke sta merupakan masalah yang perlu diperhatikan. jalan akses masuk ke sta sangat kecil, sehingga menyulitkan kendaraan pengangkut komoditas masuk ke sta. untuk mengatasi hal tersebut sekaligus mengurangi kemacetan, diperlukan pemisahan akses keluarmasuk sta dengan membangun akses jalan yang baru. selain sarana prasarana fisik, sta tempel yang berfungsi sebagai lembaga pemasaran saat ini telah memiliki website, namun website tersebut belum dikelola secara profesional. website sta yang berfungsi sebagai sarana transaksi-jual beli online dan penyebaran informasi seharusnya memuat gambaran tentang komoditas di sleman. idealnya website tersebut memuat informasi tentang harga, jumlah penawaran dan juga jumlah permintaan. informasi tersebut harus dapat diakses secara mudah oleh pedagang besar, pedagang pengumpul dan petani, disertai dengan pelatihan atau panduan untuk mengaksesnya. apabila penyebaran informasi melalui internet tidak memungkinkan untuk dikembangkan, maka untuk mendukung fungsi transaksi-jual beli tersebut dapat dilakukan melalui sms. sarana penyebaran informasi lain adalah dengan membuka peluang penyampaian informasi pertanian di radio. analisis swot dan strategi pengembangan hasil identifikasi kekuatan (strength) dan kelemahan (weakness), dan peluang (opportunities) serta ancaman (threat) sta tempel yang diperoleh melalui fgd, wawancara, dan pengamatan data sekunder dijabarkan pada tabel 4. alternatif strategi yang dirumuskan untuk mengembangkan sta ada enam, yaitu: i) melakukan pemasaran komoditas pertanian, ii) optimalisasi peran sta sebagai pusat pelatihan dan pendidikan, iii) membangun sarana dan prasana modern sesuai tupoksi, iv) optimalisasi fungsi sdm pengelola dan anggota, v) melakukan integrasi dengan kegiatan perdagangan lain, dan vi) mengembangkan kegiatan promosi produk. 1. melakukan pemasaran komoditas pertanian tabel 4. matriks swot sta tempel internal factors external factors strenghts (s) 1. potensi hasil dan perdagangan komoditas pertanian di sleman cukup bervariasi dengan kuantitas dan kualitas cukup baik 2. lembaga pertanian di sekitar lokasi sta cukup banyak 3. lokasi sta tempel strategis, yakni dekat dengan sentra komoditas dan jalan akses utama lalu lintas 4. komitmen pemkab untuk meningkatkan daya saing produk dan kesejahteraan petani 5. kualitas sdm instansi pemerintah serta masyarakat cukup baik weaknesses (w) 1. daya tarik sta masih rendah karena kemanfaatan belum dirasakan oleh petani 2. sta belum dijalankan dengan orientasi bisnis, masih terfokus pada fungsi layanan, informasi dan konsultansi, sehingga peran sta masih rendah 3. penyebaran informasi sta kepada anggota berjalan lambat 4. fasilitas dan pendanaan sta terbatas 5. jumlah tenaga kerja sta sedikit opportunities (o) 1. peningkatan permintaan konsumen untuk berbagai komoditas pertanian baik konsumen langsung, supermarket maupun hotel 2. komoditas salak pondoh sleman telah menembus pasar ekspor strategi so melakukan pemasaran komoditas pertanian strategi wo 1. optimalisasi peran sta sebagai pusat pelatihan dan pendidikan 2. membangun sarana dan prasana modern sesuai tupoksi 3. optimalisasi fungsi sdm pengelola dan anggota threats (t) 1. perkembangan sta di wilayah lain cukup cepat 2. sleman memiliki beberapa wilayah pasar komoditas pertanian 3. mengkoordinir petani atau asosiasi di sleman yang telah memiliki pasar tersendiri strategi st melakukan integrasi dengan kegiatan perdagangan lain strategi wt pengembangan promosi produk 98 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research posisi utama sta adalah sebagai lembaga pemasaran komoditas pertanian, namun fungsi ini belum dijalankan sepenuhnya oleh sta. untuk menjadi lembaga pemasaran, sta dapat melakukan transaksi jual beli fisik baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung. jual beli fisik secara langsung berupa sta mempertemukan petani dengan konsumen yang dapat dilakukan dengan membuat pasar lelang. pada dua model pemasaran tersebut, langkah awal yang harus dilakukan adalah identifikasi informasi komoditas potensial pertanian dan sdm, pengumpulan, penyusunan dan sosialisasi sistem jaringan informasi data kelompok tani, kualitas dan kuantitas, harga hasil produk serta ketersediaan produk setiap waktu. petani salak pondoh dalam memasarkan hasil produksinya dikoordinir oleh ketua kelompok tani. data dan sampel produk yang akan ditawarkan kepada pembeli dikelola oleh ketua kelompok tani, untuk selanjutnya diserahkan kepada petugas lelang. kelompok tani bertugas untuk mengkoordinir jumlah produksi dan melakukan seleksi terhadap produk sesuai dengan kriteria kualitas produk. kegiatan ini dapat memberikan motivasi bagi petani untuk meningkatkan kualitas produk sekaligus memfungsikan kelompok tani. fungsi sta sebagai pasar lelang adalah mempertemukan antara pedagang dengan kelompok tani atau asosiasi. petani atau asosiasi di sleman memang telah memiliki pasar masingmasing, namun dalam kuantitas kecil dan kontinuitas tidak terjaga. peran sta di sini sangat dibutuhkan, yakni membuat kemitraan dengan pedagang atau perusahaan besar. sta harus memiliki informasi data harga pasar serta perkiraan produksi, sehingga para pembeli mendapatkan informasi yang jelas. sta harus mampu mengatur sepenuhnya proses transaksi antara petani yang diwakili kelompok tani dengan beberapa pedagang, melalui ketentuan yang sudah disepakati sebelumnya. transaksi dilakukan di sta, namun penyerahan barang dilakukan kelompok tani atau asosiasi di masingmasing lokasi sentra produksi. sta memiliki peluang untuk mendapatkan pemasukan dengan menerapkan sistem komisi dari besaran komoditas yang terjual melalui sta. selain itu, sta juga menjadi lembaga penghubung antara petani dengan lembaga keuangan yakni memberikan rekomendasi modal yang dibutuhkan sesuai dengan jumlah produksi yang dapat dijual di tingkat pasar induk. sta harus dapat mengatur sepenuhnya proses lelang dan transaksi antara petani yang diwakili oleh kelompok tani dengan pedagang melalui ketentuan yang disepakati, misalnya tentang kriteria kualitas produk. sta harus dapat mendistribusikan kebutuhan produk dari pedagang, sehingga secara tidak langsung peran sta adalah sebagai stabilitator kontinuitas produk dan ketersediaan produk di tingkat pasar serta konsumen yang berakhir pada pembentukan harga yang relatif stabil. kebutuhan operasional pasar lelang dicukupi dari bagian yang diterima oleh pasar lelang melalui kesepakatan. bagian yang dapat diterima berasal dari transaksi, pendaftaran pelelangan, sewa ongkos angkut, dan regitrasi internal para pemilik barang dengan pasar lelang sesuai besaran yang disepakati bersama. aktivitas tidak langsung berupa transaksi secara online, yakni dengan melalui website atau situs sta. website merupakan salah satu kebutuhan untuk meningkatkan fungsi sta baik sebagai lembaga layanan, konsultasi maupun sebagai lembaga pemasaran. website yang ada saat ini dikelola di bawah dinas pertanian kabupaten sleman, sehingga tidak mencerminkan sta secara menyeluruh. selain itu, website saat ini memiliki tampilan yang relatif sederhana dan kurang menarik. rencana yang dapat diterapkan oleh sta adalah dengan membuat website secara mandiri melalui tenaga ahli profesional atau penyedia layanan pengelola website yang menampilkan gambaran sta secara mendetail sesuai tupoksi. untuk mempersiapkan website yang optimal, diperlukan database lengkap tentang komoditas pertanian dan potensi pasar, serta optimalisasi sdm untuk mengelola website. sta dapat menyediakan database pasar dengan rutin melakukan riset pasar. hal ini sangat diperlukan oleh para pelaku agribisnis seperti dalam penelitian fauzi, baga, & tinaprilla (2016) tentang pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah di kabupaten solok. salah satu strategi untuk mengetahui peluang dan meminimalkan kelemahan serta respon masyarakat terhadap pengembangan agribisnis kentang merah, maka pelaku dapat memasarkan produknya secara lebih luas melalui riset pasar. 2. melakukan integrasi dengan kegiatan perdagangan lain kelompok tani dan asosiasi komoditas serta perusahaan pertanian lain memiliki aktivitas di bidang pertanian yang cukup lama. kelompok tani sebagai penyuplai komoditas hasil pertanian serta olahannya selama ini memasarkan produk secara mandiri maupun melalui pedagang perantara, sedangkan asosiasi dan perusahaan pertanian merupakan lembaga pemasaran hasil pertanian. kondisi tersebut merupakan peluang bagi sta untuk menjadikan para pelaku pertanian ini sebagai mitra. sta dapat menjadi mitra bagi petani dengan berperan sebagai lembaga pemasaran, sta juga dapat menjadi mitra asoiasi dan perusahaan pertanian dengan berperan sebagai penyuplai komoditas pertanian. langk ah lai n ya ng dap at di la kuka n adalah denga n 99 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 menyediakan kantor pemasaran bersama bagi asosiasi, sehingga mampu memasarkan produk pertanian baik dalam bentuk segar maupun olahan. 3. pengembangan promosi produk potensi pertanian yang cukup besar tidak akan diketahui oleh masyarakat umum apabila tidak ada pengenalan dalam bentuk promosi produk. selama ini promosi produk telah dilakukan dengan melaksanakan gelar produk di beberapa acara. promosi membuat konsumen mengetahui produk pertanian yang ada di sleman. kegiatan ini perlu dilakukan secara terus-menerus untuk memperkenalkan produk dan mencari konsumen baru bagi pemasaran komoditas pertanian di sleman. daya jangkau promosi juga dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan sarana komunikasi seperti tv dan radio. kegiatan promosi selanjutnya yang dibutuhkan adalah branding produk, sehingga produk pertanian di sleman memiliki ciri khas dan memiliki daya saing dibandingkan komoditas pertanian di wilayah lain. 4. optimalisasi fungsi sdm pengelola dan anggota sta perlu meningkatkan kualitas pegawai dalam menjalankan fungsi yang ada. dalam menjalankan fungsi transaksi jual beli, sta membutuhkan tenaga ahli dalam ma najemen pengolala an kerja sam a dengan lemba ga pertanian, tenaga ahli untuk mengelola pasar lelang dan pengelolaan outlet serta pasar. terkait dengan fungsi informasi, maka dibutuhkan tenaga ahli dalam pengelolaan informasi pasar serta pengelolaan website. untuk menjalankan fungsi pelatihan dan pendidikan, sta membutuhkan tenaga ahli dalam pengelolaan usaha pertanian mulai dari kegiatan budidaya, pascapanen serta pemasaran. sta tempel perlu membekali para stafnya agar memiliki kemampuan untuk memberikan pelatihan-pelatihan baik pelatihan yang bersifat budidaya pertanian, maupun pascapanen seperti sortasi, grading, hingga pemasaran. kegiatan studi banding ke sta lain juga perlu dilakukan untuk melihat manajemen sta di wilayah lain. kegiatan sta hingga saat ini belum melibatkan petani secara maksimal, sehingga rasa kepemilikan (sense of belonging) dan kebutuhan petani terhadap sta masih kecil. keterlibatan petani menjadi sangat penting dalam pengembangan kelembagaan seperti kasus kelembagaan pasar lelang cabai merah di kecamatan panjatan. lembaga tersebut tergolong efektif, hal tersebut ditunjukkan oleh 88,33% petani menilai lembaga pasar lelang memiliki keefektifan tinggi. faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh secara nyata terhadap keefektifan lembaga pasar lelang cabai merah diantaranya adalah sikap petani anggota terhadap lembaga pasar lelang dan juga peran ketua kelompok. semakin positif sikap petani dan semakin tinggi peran ketua kelompok, maka lembaga pasar lelang semakin efektif (devi, subejo, & harsoyo, 2015). dalam menjalankan fungsinya sebagai tempat pendidikan dan pelatihan, sta mendorong kelompok tani ataupun pelaku usaha pertanian lain sebagai objek. kelompok tani ataupun pelaku usaha pertanian lain sangat membutuhkan pendidikan dan pelatihan dalam berbagai subsistem usaha pertanian mengingat persaingan perdagangan komoditas pertanian semakin ketat. (a) (b) gambar 2. desain existing sta (a) dan pengembangan sta tempel (b) 5. membangun sarana dan prasana modern sesuai tupoksi sarana prasarana sta saat ini masih belum ideal, diperlukan berbaga i p enam bahan dan perbaik an. untuk menjalankan fungsi transaksi jual beli maka bangunan utama yang harus dimiliki sta dalam waktu dekat adalah gudang penyimpanan dan grading. bangunan tersebut merupakan kebutuhan utama dari asosiasi dan kelompok tani dalam rangka menjual produk. untuk menyiapkan bangunan gedung penyimpanan dan grading maka yang perlu dilakukan pemkab sleman dalam waktu dekat adalah izin mendirikan bangunan untuk kedua gedung tersebut. 100 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sarana pengairan juga sangat diperlukan baik untuk membersihkan komoditas maupun pengairan kebun. dalam rangka mencuci produk, dapat disiapkan instalasi air yang bersih dan kontinu sepanjang waktu, misal dengan sumur, sedangkan untuk pengairan kebun dilakukan dengan pembuatan embung. dalam rangka mengimplementasikan sta sebagai pusat pendidikan dan pelatihan, sta harus didukung oleh prasarana dan sarana yang dapat meningkatkan kuantitas dan kualitas pelatihan dan pendidikan. oleh karena itu, penjelasan mengenai prasarana dan sarana harus ditelaah secara mendalam. a) ruang lingkup sarana sta sebagai pusat pendidikan dan pelatihan mencakup peralatan yang diperlukan sebagai kelengkapan tia p gedung dala m m enja la nk a n fungsi nya untuk meningkatkan kualitas dan relevansi hasil produk dan layanan yang dibagi dalam dua kelompok: 1) sarana pembelajaran yang terdiri dari proses pelatihan dan pendidikan di ruang kelas berupa papan tulis, lcd projetor, microphone, alat peraga; sarana praktek di lapangan terdiri dari lahan percobaan, alat-alat yang mendukung percobaan budidaya pertanian seperti cangkul, alat semprot, dan instalasi pengairan; ruang simulasi misal ruang untuk simulasi sortasi, simulasi pengemasan, dan simulasi pemasaran. 2) sarana sumber pelatihan dan pendidikan yang terdiri dari buku teks, jurnal, majalah, lembar informasi, leaflet, dan internet. b) kebutuhan prasarana pelatihan 1) prasarana bangunan meliputi lahan dan bangunan gedung yang meliputi ruang kantor pengelola, ruang tenaga pengajar, ruang simulasi, ruang perpustakaan, fasilitas kesehatan, fasilitas kebun percobaan dan prasarana olahraga. 2) prasarana umum meliputi air, sanitasi, drainase, listrik, jaringan telekomunikasi, jaringan internet, parkir, dan taman. c) gambaran umum rencana fasilitasi sta sebagai pusat pendidikan dan pelatihan 1) asrama gedung dengan kapasitas 100 kamar, masingmasing kamar mampu menampung 2 orang peserta, sehingga total kapasitas asrama sebanyak 200 orang. 2) ruang kelas sebanyak 4 ruang dengan kapasitas 50 orang per ruang yang dilengkapi dengan lcd projector, papan tulis dan microphone. 3) ruang kantor pengelola sta 4) ruang transit pengajar 5) lcd projector sebanyak 6 buah 6) layar/screen sebanyak 6 buah 7) ruang perpustakaan 8) masjid/mushola berkapasitas 300 orang 9) free hotspot area 10) ruang simulasi, sortasi, pengemasan, pemasaran, lelang dan lain-lain 11) lahan percobaan 12) fasilitas olahraga (lapangan sepak bola dan tenis) selain sebagai pelaksana pelatihan dan pendidikan khususnya untuk petani dan umumnya untuk masyarakat, sta juga mem ili ki potensi besar untuk menambah pendapatan apabila memiliki fasilitas prasarana dan sarana pelatihan yang memadai. sta dapat menyewakan fasilitas yang dimilikinya untuk digunakan sebagai lokasi pelatihan walaupun tidak berkaitan dengan pertanian. 6. optimalisasi peran sta sebagai pusat pelatihan dan pendidikan a) pelatihan peningkatan sdm salah satu tujan dari pelatihan dan pendidikan adalah untuk meningkatkan kemampuan pegawai agar sesuai dengan perkembangan teknologi. pengembangan sta juga harus didasarkan pada perubahan teknologi yang terjadi di masyarakat saat ini, agar sta dapat berkembang terus mengikuti perubahan yang terjadi di masyarakat. b) pelatihan analisis usahatani sta sebagai salah satu lembaga yang bertugas memberikan pelatihan bagi petani memiliki tugas untuk memberikan pengetahuan mengenai analisis usahatani kepada para petani. materi yang dapat diberikan pada pelatihan analisis usahatani adalah sebagai berikut: 101 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 tabel 5. materi pelatihan analisis usahatani no materi metode pembicara 1 analisis pembiayaan dan keuntungan usahatani ceramah, diskusi, praktek petugas sta, dinas pertanian, penyuluh pertanian 2 analsis kelayakan (break even point, cash return on assets ratio, benefit cost ratio) ceramah, diskusi, praktek petugas sta, dinas pertanian, penyuluh pertanian c) pelatihan sortasi, pengemasan, dan pengolahan hasil pertanian pascapanen hasil pertanian adalah semua kegiatan yang dilakukan sejak proses pemanenan hasil pertanian, sampai dengan proses yang menghasilkan produk setengah jadi. kegiatan pascapanen meliputi panen, pengumpulan, perontokan/pemipilan, pengupasan, pencucian, sortasi, grading, pengangkutan, pengeringan, penggilingan, penepungan, pengemasan, dan penyimpanan. tabel 6. materi pelatihan sortasi, grading, dan pengemasan no materi metode pelatihan pembicara 1 metode sortasi yang terstandarisasi ceramah, diskusi deperindagkop 2 pengenalan teknologi sortasi yang telah diaplikasikan kunjungan, praktek deperindagkop, paktisi (pengusaha bidang pertanian) 3 metode grading untuk meningkatkan kualitas dan daya saing produk ceramah, diskusi deperindagkop 4 teknologi penerapan grading (termasuk proses penentuan kelaskelas produk) kunjungan, praktek deperindagkop, paktisi 5 pengenalan standar pengemasan yang disetujui oleh pemerintah dan keunggulan proses pengemasan yang dilakukan producen ceramah, diskusi deperindagkop, bpom, ahli di bidang pengolahan hasil pertanian 6 penerapan teknologi pengemasan yang telah dilakukan kunjungan, praktek praktisi d) pelatihan pengolahan pascapanen dan pemasaran produk pertanian untuk meningkatkan kualitas sumber daya petani dan pedagang, perlu diadakan program pelatihan yang berkaitan dengan pascapanen dan pemasaran. hal ini ber tujua n untuk m em beri k a n p ema ha ma n da n pengetahuan baik secara teori maupun teknis di lapangan tentang cara pengelolaan pascapanen untuk menekan penyusutan hasil, mempertahankan kualitas produk, memperpanjang masa simpan, dan meningkatkan daya saing produk pertanian. selain itu, pelatihan tersebut juga bertujuan untuk mendorong pelaku usaha untuk menerapkan sistem dan teknologi pengolahan pascapanen dan pemasaran hasil serta untuk mengurangi risiko penurunan kualitas produk pascapanen. tabel 7. materi pelatihan pascapanen dan pemasaran no materi narasumber/ pembicara 1 penanganan produksi pangan/standar pangan sehat badan pom (pengawas obat dan makanan) 2 standard kemasan produk pangan dan perijinan disperindagkop 3 sertifikasi halal mui 4 teknologi penyimpanan hasil pertanian bulog, ahli penanganan pascapanen (misal: misal ahli pengolahan hasil pertanian) 5 analisis peluang pasar disperindagkop 6 perluasan pemasaran pertanian praktisi dari pengusaha pemasar hasil pertanian 7 penanganan pascapanen, analsis rantai nilai, penyimpanan produk pertanian dan kemitraan dinas pertanian, disperindagkop, bappeda bid ekonomi, akdemisi, pengelola koperasi, bulog, dll kesimpulan sta tempel belum mampu melaksanakan fungsinya secara optimal dan manfaatnya juga belum dirasakan oleh petani karena infrastruktur, sarana promosi, tenaga kerja dan pendanaan yang terbatas. di sisi lain, petani telah memiliki pasar komoditas tersendiri. penguatan kinerja sta tempel dilakukan dengan beberapa perbaikan antara lain: peningkatan fungsi pemasaran komoditas pertanian, melakukan integrasi dengan kegiatan perdagangan lain, pengembangan promosi produk, optimalisasi fungsi sdm pengelola dan anggota, membangun sarana dan prasana modern sesuai tupoksi serta optimalisasi peran sta sebagai pusat pelatihan dan pendidikan ucapan terima kasih penulis mengucap kan terim a k asih kepada  badan 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(2015). integrasi pasar bawang merah di kabupaten nganjuk. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1(1): 43-51. vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022 agraris is a periodical scientific journal on agribusiness and rural development. agraris is published biannually (january – june and july – december) by universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta (umy) and managed by the department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture umy in collaboration with the agribusiness association of indonesia (aai) and indonesian society of agricultural economics (isae). agraris was indexed in scopus (q3) and got science and technology index (sinta) 1. editorial team editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57215538283) advisory international editorial board dr. ammar abdul aziz school of agriculture and food sciences, the university of queensland, australia (scopus id: 57191076222) assoc. prof. dr. juwaidah sharifuddin department of agribusiness and bioresource economics, universiti putra malaysia, malaysia (scopus id: 55915859300) prof. masateru senge united graduate school of agricultural science, gifu university, japan (scopus id: 57201942114) dr. anidah robani institute of technology management & entrepreneurship, universiti teknikal malaysia melaka, malaysia (scopus id: 55655498600) dr. pakapon saiyut department of agricultural economics, khon kaen university, thailand (scopus id: 57197711505) editorial board prof. dr. muhammad firdaus, s.p., m.si. department of economic, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57204838013) dr. triyono, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57193756455) suprehatin, sp, mab, ph.d. department of agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia (scopus id: 57220105545) dr. susanawati, s.p., m.p. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57194276960) subejo, s.p., m.sc., ph.d. department of extension and communication, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia (scopus id: 57191036623) dr. ir. indardi, m.si department of agribusiness. universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57208466949) dr. abdul mutolib department of agribusiness, siliwangi university, indonesia (scopus id: 57191584252) zuhud rozaki, s.p., m.app.sc., ph.d. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57192575625) issn 9772407814009 ii agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research assistant editor heri akhmadi, s.p., m.a. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57221847740) muhammad fauzan, s.p., m.sc. department of agribusiness, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia (scopus id: 57203142471) address secretariat of agraris: journal agribusiness and rural development research ground floor of f3 building (siti walidah) jl. brawijaya, tamantirto, kasihan, bantul, d.i. yogyakarta, indonesia 55183 telp.0274-387656 (ext.201) fax. 0274-387646 e-mail: agraris@umy.ac.id wa: +62 853-2873-7828 mailto:agraris@umy.ac.id iii vol.8 no.2, july-december 2022 table of contents agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 july-december 2022 editorial team ....................................................................................................................................................................i table of contents ........................................................................................................................................................... iii preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. iv manuscript guidelines ................................................................................................................................................... iv article consumers’ attitude and preference toward fresh tomatoes in special region of yogyakarta, indonesia gity maulina yolanda, dwidjono hadi darwanto, m. khalifatul ardhi..…………………………………………………….....123-138 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12150 the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migrating intentions of young villagers: evidence from rural indonesia meriko dian candra iwana, ar. rohman taufiq hidayat, dian dinanti, kenichiro onitsuka ………………………………...139-159 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14045 village road quality and accessibility on transforming rural development ahmad saifullah kamaludin, riatu mariatul qibthiyyah ………………………………………………………………………...160-180 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.13618 non-tariff measures and competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber export in destination countries imade yoga prasada, aura dhamira...……………………………...…………………………................................................181-197 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11392 competitive advantage between malaysia and world halal producers of ruminant meat hebat hisham mohd yusoff, normaz wana ismail, shaufique fahmi ahmad sidique, nitty hirawaty kamarulzaman ……198-214 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11364 indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and technically specified natural rubber 20 export: the effect of el nino southern oscillation inaya cahyaningtyas, arini wahyu utami, lestari rahayu waluyuti…………………………………………………………….215-230 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14320 does the sleman chili auction market affect the local, regional and national market prices in indonesia? jamhari jamhari, muh amat nasir, agus dwi nugroho, ismiasih ismiasih, hitoshi yonekura ….……………………….…...231-247 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15654 the effect of domestic consumption on natural rubber farmgate price in indonesia penggawa pietra pramananda, amzul rifin, dahlia nauly ………...…...............................................................................248-260 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12480 selected factors influencing china's palm oil import demand from malaysia mohammad yusof ahmad, kelly kai seng wong, nitty hirawaty kamarulzaman………...….............................................261-274 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15511 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12150 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14045 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.13618 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11392 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.11364 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.14320 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15654 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.12480 https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.15511 iv agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research preface bismillahirrahmaanirrahiim. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 8 no. 2 (july-december 2022) has been published. this edition consisted of nine articles from four focuses and scopes: entrepreneurship and management of agribusiness, rural development, agricultural economics, and agricultural marketing. the study about entrepreneurship and management of agribusiness consisted of two topics entitled consumers’ attitude and preference toward fresh tomatoes in special region of yogyakarta, indonesia (yolanda et al.) and competitive advantage between malaysia and world halal producers of ruminant meat (yusoff et al.). the rural development consisted of two topics which are the effects of internet on rural-to-urban migrating intentions of young villagers: evidence from rural indonesia (iwana et al.) and village road quality and accessibility on transforming rural development (kamaludin et al.). in agricultural economics consisted of four topics entitled non-tariff measures and competitiveness of indonesia’s natural rubber export in destination countries (prasada et al.); indonesia’s natural rubber productivity and technically specified natural rubber 20 export: the effect of el nino southern oscillation (cahyaningtyas et al.); the effect of domestic consumption on natural rubber farmgate price in indonesia (pramananda et al.) and selected factors influencing china's palm oil import demand from malaysia (ahmad et al.). the study of agricultural marketing consisted of one topic entitled does the sleman chili auction market affect the local, regional and national market prices in indonesia? (jamhari et al.). the various studies had been written from four countries that were indonesia, malaysia, japan and hungary. the several discovering research, hope can be a base for the stakeholder and policymaker who relates to the wider agricultural development and encourage developing ideas for further studies. finally, we would like to thank all the contributors, such as the authors, expert reviewers, and all editors, for materializing this journal published. yogyakarta, indonesia december 2022 editor in chief dr. ir. widodo, m.p. v vol.8 no.2, july-december 2022 manuscript guidelines manuscript submission criteria: 1. the manuscript is a result of the agribusiness and rural development research. the manuscript should have a novelty/authenticity contribution or uniqueness for academic (science) development. 2. the manuscript contains original research work, free from plagiarism and other unethical attitudes. 3. the author must ensure that the manuscript has not been published in the other periodical journals at the time of manuscript submission. manuscript systematics: 1. title. the title should be brief, describe the uniqueness of the research, not exceed 20 words, and should begin with a capitalized letter for each word. 2. author’s name and affiliation. the author’s name should be included by affiliation (write completely) and email address, without the academic title. 3. abstract. the abstract is written in english, one paragraph with single spacing (maximum 250 words) without references or formulas. keywords consist of 3-5 words or phrases (alphabetically). the abstract contains a brief description of the research background (maximum two sentences), aims, methods, main results, and conclusion. 4. introduction. the introduction is written without numbers and/or pointers. this section consists of (i) nature and scope of the problem in a broader (national, regional, international) context, (ii) review of relevant literature, (iii) significance/novelty/contribution of this research on knowledge, (iv) aims of this research. if there is a hypothesis, declare it explicitly and not in an interrogative sentence. it should be written efficiently and supported by references. extensive discussion of relevant literature should be included in the discussion, not in the introduction. 5. research method. this section should explain how the research was conducted. it should be written clearly and completely containing a clear description of (i) population and sampling, (ii) data measuring and collecting, (iii) variable and data analysis. this research method should be sufficiently detailed. for qualitative research, please adjust this method to the scientific writing habits while considering the repeatability of the research. it was unnecessary to write analysis methods commonly (e.g., f-test formula, t-test) but just referred to your source. references of original methods/procedures must be stated, and all modifications of procedures (if any) should be explained. symbol description of the model was suggested to be written on narration. 6. result and discussion. the beginning of the results and discussion presents the data and found facts, calculated, and discovered. data should be presented in tables or figures when feasible. the table should be clear and stand-alone, giving complete information without text. the title of table and figure should briefly and clearly describe the described facts. symbols written in table and figure should be given complete information and allow the reader to interpret the results. each figure and table must be referred to in the narration. in the rest of the section, the author must discuss the research findings. 7. conclusion. this section summarizes the principal findings and is written briefly. conclusion related to the introduction and aims or hypothesis but did not repeat the discussion. conclusion written critically, logically, and honestly based on the existing fact, and full of cautions if there was a generalization. a recommendation showed the significance of the results/findings or practical application. this section, written in paragraph form, does not use numbering or bullets. vi agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 8. acknowledgments (if necessary). this section provided the authors with gratitude to the research funder, facility, or suggestion and for the statement if the article is part of the thesis/dissertation. 9. author contributions: for the article with several authors, please write each author's contribution in a brief paragraph. the authorship must be limited to those who have contributed, besides reading and agreeing on the final manuscript. 10. conflict of interest: the author should declare the conflict of interest or state "the authors declare no conflict of interest." the author must identify and state the circumstances that may influence the interpretation of the research results. 11. references. the reference contains the list of journals, books, or other publications referred to in this manuscript. each reference cited in the text must be listed in references, and vice versa. references of the manuscript must be traceable, no less than 40 pieces (min. 30 titles from reputable international journal), should be a primary source (80%), and not exceed 10 years (80%). manuscript format: 1. the manuscript is written in quarto paper size, one column, and 1.5 spacing format. the new paragraph begins with six characters from the left side and uses time new roman font 12. 2. the manuscript is written in english. 3. the number of pages between 15-20, the margin on the left and upper sides is 3 cm, the right and bottom sides are 2.5 cm. 4. the title is written uppercase (except preposition) using font size 14 with center alignment. the subtitle is written uppercase and uses font size 12 if there is a sub-subtitle, written capital each word except conjunction. write capital for each word and italic model if there is a sub of sub-subtitle. subtitle, sub-subtitle, and sub of the sub-subtitle are written on the left side. 5. the citation is written by the american psychological association 6th edition. below are samples of citation: (wong, sharifuddin, teng, li, & song, 2020); (triyono, kamardiani, & prasetio, 2021); (debertin, 2004); (statistics indonesia, 2020). 6. the figure or table is made as close as possible to the explanation and put the number sequentially based on the site in the explanation. the source of data is better to be included. note: figure should be clear and fixed (good resolution) a sample of the figure can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. amount of order and shipping of leaf vegetables of pt. sfo in 2017 7. tables consist of title and content. the line of the table just on the top and the bottom to separate between the title and the content of the table. vii vol.8 no.2, july-december 2022 a sample of the table can be seen in table 1. table 1. food waste generated in malaysia, 2011 sources food waste ton/day ton/year household 8,745 3,192,404 wet and night market 5,592 2,040,929 food court/restaurant 5,319 1,941,608 hotels 1,568 572,284 food and beverage industries 854 311,564 shopping malls 298 108,678 hypermarket 291 106,288 institutions 55 26,962 total 22,723 8,308,973 source: ministry of housing and local government (mhlg), 2011 8. references are arranged alphabetically, beginning from the first author, and followed by the co-author. if there are two or more references with the same author and year of publication, put the sign a, b, c...... etc. after the year of publication. in the reference that site from a journal, scientific magazine, and proceeding should be including the name of author, year, title, place of the seminar, publisher, page, and editor. the reference of agraris is written following american psychological association (apa) 6th edition. when referring is suggested to use the mendeley application. (the tutorial of mendeley can be accessed on http://bit.ly/2vyeqgz). below is the sample of apa 6th edition: article of journal wong, k. k. s., sharifuddin, j. b., teng, p. k., li, w. w., &amp; song, l. k. (2020). impact of urban consumers food consumption behavior towards food waste. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 6(2), 198–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62100 article of proceeding triyono, kamardiani, d. r., & prasetio, m. a. (2021). alocative efficiency of honey pineapple farm in pemalang regency, central java, indonesia. in international conference on agribusiness and rural development (iconard 2020) (vol. 232, p. 01016). e3s web of conferences. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202123201016 book debertin, d. l. (2004). agricultural production economics (second ed.). new jersey: pearson education. report of institution or corporation statistics indonesia. (2020). the statistics of farm wages in rural area. jakarta: bps-statisics indonesia. additional information template of the manuscripts can be downloaded at the website of agraris: (http://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/ag/index) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no. 1 januari -juni 2018 agus dwi nugroho, i made yoga prasada, saraswati kirana, herdiana anggrasari, pinjung nawang sari program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada email korespondensi: agus.dwi.n@mail.ugm.ac.id komparasi usahatani cabai lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dengan lahan pasir pantai h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4156 abstract the main production areas of chilli in yogyakarta province are in the wetland on the slopes of mount merapi and in the sandy coastal area. this research was intended to compare the use of production inputs, technical efficiency and performance of chilli farming in both areas. the research was conducted in pakem sub-district and panjatan sub-district. the number of respondents in this research were 30 farmers in every sub-district. descriptive analysis, frontier analysis and revenue-cost ratio were used in this research. the results indicated that the use of production inputs, production, technical efficiency, and performance of chilli farming in the sandy coastal area was higher than that in the wetland. the technical efficiency in the wetland on the slopes of mount merapi was determined by the quantity of counselling while in the sandy coastal area was determined by the quantity of counselling and farmers’ experience. the auction market in both areas proved able to increase the price of chilli. it is highly recommended that the extension officers need to be active in assisting farmers in both areas, especially related with chilli cultivation and processing technology. keywords: chilli, performance, sandy coastal area, technical efficiency, wetland. intisari sentra produksi cabai di daerah istimewa yogyakarta berada di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dan di lahan pasir pantai. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan penggunaan sarana produksi, efisiensi teknis dan kinerja usahatani di kedua wilayah. penelitian ini dilaksanakan di kecamatan pakem dan kecamatan panjatan. responden penelitian sebanyak 30 petani di setiap kecamatan. analisis deskriptif, frontier, dan revenue-cost rasio digunakan pada penelitian ini. hasil penelitian menunjukkan penggunaan sarana produksi, kuantitas produksi, efisiensi teknis, dan kinerja usahatani cabai lahan pasir pantai lebih tinggi daripada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi. efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dipengaruhi kuantitas penyuluhan sedangkan efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai dipengaruhi kuantitas penyuluhan dan pengalaman petani. pasar lelang di kedua wilayah terbukti mampu meningkatkan harga cabai. untuk pengembangan usahatani cabai di kedua wilayah diperlukan peran petugas penyuluh lapangan dalam mendampingi petani, terutama terkait teknologi budidaya dan pengolahan cabai. kata kunci: cabai, efisiensi teknis, kinerja, lahan pasir pantai, sawah. pendahuluan cabai adalah komoditas strategis di indonesia dan memiliki dampak cukup besar terhadap perekonomian. kontribusi penting cabai diantaranya adalah memiliki nilai ekonomi tinggi, komoditas unggulan nasional, budaya indonemailto:agus.dwi.n@mail.ugm.ac.id 20 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sia menyukai makanan pedas, dan bahan baku industri (andayani, 2016). permintaan konsumsi cabai diprediksi terus meningkat seiring dengan pertumbuhan jumlah penduduk dan pertambahan industri (bank indonesia, 2007). peran cabai yang besar bagi perekonomian nasional tidak selaras dengan kondisi di tingkat petani. fluktuasi harga adalah salah satu problem utama dan selalu menjadi sumber kekhawatiran petani cabai. peningkatan produksi pada saat tertentu sering menyebabkan harga cabai turun drastis di pasaran (istiyanti, 2010). risiko perubahan harga juga semakin meningkat setelah adanya liberalisasi perdagangan (nadezda, dusan, & stefania, 2017). di beberapa negara maju, salah satu cara pemerintah mengatasi fluktuasi harga adalah dengan asuransi (marr, winkel, asseldonk, lensink & bulte, 2016). namun demikian, asuransi pertanian belum diterapkan di indonesia sehingga fluktuasi harga sering merugikan petani cabai. fluktuasi harga cabai berpotensi dapat menurunkan kesejahteraan petani. hal ini dapat dilihat dari nilai tukar petani (ntp) subsektor hortikultura. namun begitu, ntp hortikultura di daerah istimewa yogyakarta (diy) terus meningkat walaupun ada fluktuasi harga cabai. dari tahun 2008 sampai 2013, ntp petani hortikultura diy naik dari 105,00 menjadi 138,00. nilai tersebut mengindikasikan usahatani cabai petani diy semakin baik. produksi tertinggi cabai di diy berlokasi di kabupaten kulon progo dan kabupaten sleman. produksi cabai di dua lokasi tersebut mencapai 72% dan 19% dari total produksi cabai di diy. uniknya, kedua sentra produksi tersebut memiliki karakteristik lahan yang sangat berbeda. sentra budidaya cabai di kulon progo adalah lahan pasir pantai sedangkan sentra budidaya cabai di sleman adalah lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi. budidaya cabai di lahan pasir pantai sangat menguntungkan petani dan memiliki keunggulan kompetitif (istiyanti, khasanah, & anjarwati, 2015). keunggulan kompetitif ini dapat dicapai salah satunya karena petani menjual panen ke pasar lelang (kuntadi & jamhari, 2012). harga yang diperoleh di pasar lelang jauh lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan harga ketika petani menjual ke pedagang pengepul. hal ini yang menyebabkan kontribusi pendapatan cabai merupakan yang tertinggi bagi petani pasir pantai di setiap musim tanam (widodo, 2015). hal serupa juga terjadi dengan usahatani cabai di lereng gunung merapi yang menguntungkan serta petani menerima harga yang layak dari aktivitas pemasaran (istiyanti, 2010). penelitian ini bertujuan membandingkan penggunaan sarana produksi, efisiensi teknis dan kinerja usahatani cabai lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi dengan usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai kulon progo karena kedua lokasi mampu menghasilkan ntp hortikultura tertinggi di pulau jawa serta keuntungan besar bagi petani. perbandingan usa ha ta ni c abai kedua wilayah juga berguna untuk memperbaiki kekurangan usahatani cabai pada kedua lokasi. apalagi penelitian yang ada selama ini seluruhnya hanya meneliti di salah satu lokasi pada rentang waktu yang tidak bersamaan. metode penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan di kecamatan pakem, kabupaten sleman dan kecamatan panjatan, kabupaten kulon progo, daerah istimewa yogyakarta (diy). kedua kecamatan dipilih dengan metode purposive sampling karena merupakan sentra produksi cabai merah di diy serta mewakili wilayah usahatani cabai pada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi dan usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai. responden dalam penelitian ini sebanyak 60 petani, masing-masing 30 petani di kecamatan pakem dan kecamatan panjatan. responden dipilih dengan menggunakan simple random sampling dari populasi petani anggota kelompok tani ngudi rejeki dan kelompok tani ngemput di kecamatan pakem serta kelompok tani gisik pranaji di kecamatan panjatan. pemilihan kelompok tani tersebut berdasarkan rekomendasi dari penyuluh lapangan karena merupakan kelompok tani dengan produksi cabai tertinggi di tiap kecamatan. pengambilan data dila kukan dengan metode wawancara menggunakan kuesioner yang dilaksanakan pada bulan mei sampai dengan agustus 2017. metode yang digunakan untuk mengetahui penggunaan sarana produksi usahatani cabai adalah analisis deskriptif berdasarkan hasil wawancara petani. untuk mengetahui efisiensi teknis digunakan analisis stochastic frontier yang mampu memperhitungkan dampak dari faktor tidak terkontrol pada model deterministic frontier (ouattara, 2012). model tersebut dianalisis menggunakan software frontier 4.1c versi technical efficiency effect model. model ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut: = dalam persamaan ini te i menunjukkan efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai, y a menunjukkan produksi cabai, dan y f menunjukkan estimasi produksi menggunakan stochastic frontier. model stochastic frontier menunjukkan hubungan antara output dengan input, variabel error, dan inefisiensi (coelli, rao, o’donnell, & battes, 2005). pada penelitian ini fungsi 21 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 produksi stochastic frontier usahatani cabai diduga dengan menggunakan metode estimasi maksimum likelihood (mle) sebagai berikut: ln q = β0 + β1 lnx1 + β2 lnx2 + β3 lnx3 + β4 lnx4 + β5 lnx5 + β6 lnx6 + β7 lnx7 + β8 lnx8 + e – μ dalam model ini q adalah produksi (kg), x 1 adalah luas lahan (m2), x 2 adalah jumlah tenaga kerja (hko) hari kerja orang, x 3 adalah jumlah benih (kg), x 4 adalah jumlah pupuk urea (kg), x 5 adalah jumlah pupuk tsp (kg), x 6 adalah jumlah pupuk za (kg), x 7 adalah jumlah pupuk organik (kg), x 8 adalah jumlah pestisida (lt), e adalah nilai error, dan μ adalah inefisiensi. untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi efisiensi teknis digunakan analisis regresi berganda sebagai berikut: tei = β0 + β1 pylh + β 2 pdki + β 3 pglm te i adalah nilai efisiensi teknis cabai lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi atau usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai kulon progo, pylh adalah kuantitas penyuluhan yang diikuti petani, pdki adalah tingkat pendidikan formal, dan pglm adalah pengalaman berusahatani. kinerja usahatani cabai dianalisis dengan menggunakan analisis pendapatan dan menghitung r/c rasio, dengan kriteria sebagai berikut: (1) apabila nilai r/c rasio lebih kecil dari 1 maka usahatani tidak layak karena mengalami kerugian, (2) apabila nilai r/c rasio sama dengan 1 maka usahatani impas, dan (3) apabila nilai r/c rasio lebih besar dari 1 maka usahatani layak karena menguntungkan. hasil dan pembahasan musim tanam cabai di diy cukup bervariasi. mayoritas petani di lahan pasir pantai menanam cabai pada bulan maret, tetapi juga terdapat beberapa petani yang menanam cabai pada bulan februari atau april. sedangkan mayoritas petani di lereng gunung merapi umumnya menanam cabai pada pertengahan tahun antara bulan april sampai juni. namun terdapat sebagian kecil petani yang menanam di bulan september dan november. rata-rata petani di kedua lokasi dapat melakukan petik cabai sebanyak 8 hingga 15 kali pada saat musim panen. alokasi penggunaan sarana produksi cabai faktor produksi utama yang digunakan petani adalah lahan. petani cabai di kedua wilayah memiliki luas penguasaan dan status kepemilikan lahan yang berbeda-beda. tabel 1. penguasaan lahan petani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dan lahan pasir pantai no. status kepemilikan luas lahan (ha) lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi (sleman) lahan pasir pantai (kulon progo) 1 milik sendiri 0,12 0,26 2 menyewa 0,08 0,25 3 menyakap 0,05 0,00 total 0,25 0,51 sumber: analisis data primer (2017) status kepemilikan lahan petani terbagi dalam tiga kategori, yaitu lahan milik sendiri, sewa dan sakap. dampak dari status kepemilikan lahan tersebut adalah biaya yang harus dikeluarkan petani. untuk lahan milik sendiri, petani harus mengeluarkan biaya pajak tanah. sedangkan petani yang menyewa lahan harus mengeluarkan biaya sewa dan petani yang menyakap lahan harus membagi hasil panen dengan pemilik lahan. dari ketiga status kepemilikan lahan, petani yang memiliki lahan sendiri mampu mengeluarkan biaya penggunaan lahan lebih kecil daripada petani yang menyewa atau menyakap lahan. tabel 1 menunjukkan kepemilikan lahan petani di lahan pasir pantai lebih luas dibandingkan petani lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi. hal ini karena harga beli dan sewa lahan pasir pantai di kulon progo lebih murah daripada lahan sawah di sleman. alasan kedua karena tingkat persaingan penggunaan lahan pasir pantai lebih rendah daripada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi. lahan sawah di sleman tidak mungkin untuk diperluas bahkan memiliki kecenderungan semakin menyusut karena persaingan dengan penggunaan lahan untuk pemukiman dan kegiatan perdagangan. sedangkan di lahan pasir pantai, perluasan lahan untuk budidaya cabai masih sangat memungkinkan karena tidak digunakan untuk pemukiman atau kepentingan lain. dengan kepemilikan lahan yang lebih luas, maka petani lahan pasir pantai dapat menghasilkan produksi cabai lebih tinggi daripada petani di lereng gunung merapi. faktor produksi kedua yang dibutuhkan dalam usahatani adalah tenaga kerja, baik dalam keluarga maupun luar keluarga. tenaga kerja dalam usahatani cabai sebagian besar adalah tenaga kerja dalam keluarga. tenaga kerja dalam 22 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research keluarga dialokasikan untuk kegiatan pemeliharaan tanaman (pemupukan, penyemprotan pestisida dan menyiangi gulma) dan pengairan sedangkan tenaga kerja luar keluarga dialokasikan pada kegiatan pengolahan lahan dan panen. tabel 2 menunjukkan bahwa alokasi tenaga kerja dalam keluarga lebih besar daripada tenaga kerja luar keluarga karena petani cabai memiliki modal terbatas dan masih banyak petani yang berusia produktif sehingga lebih banyak melakukan aktivitas usahatani secara mandiri. tabel 2. rata-rata penggunaan tenaga kerja usahatani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dan lahan pasir pantai per hektar no jenis tenaga kerja lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi (sleman) lahan pasir pantai (kulon progo) 1 dalam keluarga (hko) 209,84 412,70 penyemaian 3,60 11,84 pengolahan lahan 28,12 12,01 penanaman 9,36 18,72 pemeliharaan 115,28 53,66 pengairan 4,16 290,24 panen 49,32 26,22 2 luar keluarga (hko) 147,88 149,06 penyemaian 0,00 5,04 pengolahan lahan 80,32 12,54 penanaman 6,68 17,25 pemeliharaan 8,72 8,06 pengairan 0,00 4,19 panen 52,16 101,98 total tenaga kerja (hko) 357,72 561,76 sumber: analisis data primer (2017) penggunaan tenaga kerja di lahan pasir pantai kulon progo lebih intensif karena luasan lahan lebih tinggi daripada usahatani cabai di sawah lereng gunung merapi. alokasi tenaga kerja dalam keluarga di lahan pasir pantai utamanya untuk aktivitas pengairan karena pada wilayah ini sangat mudah terjadi infiltrasi air ke lapisan tanah dalam dan laju penguapan yang tinggi sehingga menyebabkan tanaman kekurangan air serta mengganggu proses produksi. untuk wilayah lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi, alokasi tenaga kerja dalam keluarga paling besar pada kegiatan pemeliharaan tanaman. hal ini karena cabai merupakan tanaman yang membutuhkan perawatan cukup banyak dan membutuhkan tenaga kerja yang besar pula. tenaga kerja luar keluarga pada lahan pasir pantai difokuskan untuk panen sedangkan pada lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi difokuskan untuk pengolahan lahan. penggunaan tenaga kerja luar keluarga untuk kegiatan panen di lahan pasir pantai lebih besar daripada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi karena jumlah tanaman cabai per hektar di lahan pasir pantai yang lebih banyak. namun petani di lahan pasir pantai mampu mengalokasikan tenaga kerja luar keluarga lebih rendah untuk kegiatan pengolahan lahan karena para petani tersebut juga menggunakan alat mesin pertanian sehingga kegiatan ini menjadi lebih cepat dan membutuhkan tenaga kerja lebih sedikit daripada petani di lereng gunung merapi. tabel 3. rata-rata penggunaan sarana produksi usahatani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dan lahan pasir pantai per hektar no jenis sarana produksi lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi (sleman) lahan pasir pantai (kulon progo) 1 benih (biji) 13.823,33 33.222,22 2 pupuk urea (kg) 32,68 tsp (kg) 25,33 123,53 kcl (kg) 19,33 41,83 za (kg) 72,00 296,41 npk phonska (kg) 396,00 239,28 npk mutiara (kg) 145,87 119,67 organik (kg) 1.7342,93 18.586,01 3 pestisida cair (ml) 1.298,80 1.618,68 padat (kg) 3,40 4,45 sumber: analisis data primer (2017) tabel 3 menunjukkan secara umum penggunaan sarana produksi di lahan pasir pantai lebih tinggi daripada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi. artinya usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai diusahakan secara lebih intensif daripada usahatani cabai pada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi. benih cabai yang digunakan oleh petani di kedua lokasi cukup bervariasi. petani di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi memilih menggunakan varietas keropi, rimbun, twist dan kenc a na, seda ngk a n p et ani di la ha n pa si r p a nt a i menggunakan varietas helix karena cepat berbuah serta cocok ditanam di dataran rendah. penggunaan benih cabai di lahan pasir pantai lebih tinggi daripada usahatani cabai di lereng gunung merapi. namun begitu, penggunaan benih di lahan pasir pantai kulon progo telah efisien dan tidak perlu ditambah atau dikurangi (istiyanti, khasanah, & anjarwati, 2015). 23 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 pupuk yang digunakan petani dalam usahatani cabai diantaranya urea, tsp, kcl, za, npk phonska, npk mutiara, dan pupuk organik. pupuk organik sebagai pupuk dasar sangat penting karena membuat tanah menjadi lebih subur dan meningkatkan unsur hara serta dapat memperbaiki struktur tanah. pupuk kimia dengan penggunaan terendah adalah pupuk urea karena hanya digunakan sebagai pupuk pelengkap apabila kondisi tanaman terlihat kurang segar. pupuk kimia utama yang digunakan untuk pemupukan cabai adalah pupuk npk, baik phonska maupun mutiara, sebab k andungan haranya lengk ap untuk t anam an c abai . penggunaan pupuk di lahan pasir pantai juga sangat tinggi karena kondisinya tidak subur serta serapan hara tanaman lambat akibat pupuk mudah hilang terinfiltrasi bersama air ke lapisan tanah yang lebih dalam (al-omran, falatah, sheta, & al-harbi, 2004). alasan kedua adalah promosi gencar dari agen pupuk yang membujuk petani menggunakan produk tersebut sehingga petani terkadang menggunakan pupuk di atas dosis anjuran. pet ani umum nya menggunak an p esti sida dengan kuantitas tinggi karena intensitas serangan jamur colletotrichum capsici yang menyebabkan antraknosa atau busuk buah dan serangan virus kuning. tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan pestisida di lahan pasir pantai lebih tinggi dibandingkan di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi. penyebab utama kondisi ini adalah promosi masif dari agen pestisida yang mampu mengajak petani mengunakan pestisida untuk pengendalian organisme pengganggu tanaman. efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai nilai sigma-squared (ó2) yang diperoleh dari pendugaan dengan metode estimasi maksimum likelihood baik usahatani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi maupun laha n pa sir pant ai signi fika n pa da tingk at kepercayaan 99% dan lebih besar dari nol atau terdapat pengaruh inefisiensi teknis pada variasi jumlah produksi cabai yang dihasilkan. hal ini juga diperkuat dengan nilai gamma (ã) yang menunjukkan perbedaan antara produksi cabai faktual dengan potensi produksi cabai maksimum yang dapat dicapai, 99,9% di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dan 24,00% di lahan pasir pantai disebabkan oleh efek inefisiensi teknis, sebagaimana ditunjukkan dalam tabel 4. hasil estimasi produksi cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi menunjukkan bahwa penambahan luas lahan, jumlah benih dan jumlah pestisida bion m mampu meningkatkan produksi. hal ini menunjukkan penggunaan tiga faktor produksi tersebut belum efisien. jumlah benih cabai per hektar lahan di lereng gunung merapi sebanyak 13.823 biji dan masih di bawah standar ideal sebesar 18-20 ribu biji sehingga potensi untuk meningkatkan jumlah pertanaman cabai masih sangat besar (dinas pertanian provinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta, 2009). selain itu, ada pula faktor produksi yang sudah tidak efisien yakni jumlah tenaga kerja dan jumlah pupuk za sehingga penambahan keduanya menyebabkan penurunan produksi. tabel 4. estimasi maksimum likelihood fungsi produksi frontier stokastik usahatani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi variabel koefisien standar error t-ratio konstanta 1,268 0,875 1,449ns luas lahan 0,109 0,009 11,743*** jumlah tenaga kerja -0,375 0,166 -2,262** jumlah benih 0,978 0,042 23,192*** jumlah tsp 0,025 0,056 0,450ns jumlah za -0,077 0,044 -1,728* jumlah pupuk organik -0,234 0,015 -1,554ns jumlah pest. bamex 0,019 0,011 1,615ns jumlah pest. antracol 0,013 0,019 0,665ns jumlah pest. bion m 0,075 0,025 3,012*** sigma-squared 0,667 0,089 7,464*** gamma 0,999 0,331e-04 0,301e+05*** mean efficiency 0,574 sumber: analisis data primer (2017) keterangan: *** signifikan pada  = 0,01 ** signifikan pada  = 0,05 * signifikan pada  = 0,10 ns tidak signifikan petani di wilayah ini tidak menggunakan pupuk urea tabel 5. estimasi maksimum likelihood fungsi produksi frontier stokastik usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai kulon progo variabel koefisien standar error t-ratio konstanta 6,799 1,144 4,706*** luas lahan 0,639 0,117 5,431*** jumlah tenaga kerja 0,173 0,132 1,305ns jumlah benih 0,151 0,111 1,357ns jumlah urea 0,027 0,028 0,955ns jumlah tsp 0,072 0,026 2,703*** jumlah za -0,019 0,037 -0,514ns jumlah pupuk organik -0,054 0,020 -2,643** jumlah pest. bamex -0,020 0,018 -1,103ns jumlah pest. antracol -0,005 0,013 -0,413ns jumlah pest. bion m 0,008 0,019 0,429ns sigma-squared 0,118 0,021 5,444*** gamma 0,240 0,044 0,950e+01*** mean efficiency 0,998 sumber: analisis data primer (2017) 24 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research keterangan: *** signifikan pada  = 0,01 ** signifikan pada  = 0,05 ns tidak signifikan hasil estimasi produksi cabai di lahan pasir pantai kulon progo menunjukkan bahwa penambahan luas lahan dan jumlah pupuk tsp dapat meningkatkan produksi sedangkan penambahan jumlah pupuk organik menyebabkan penurunan produksi. observasi di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa penambahan pupuk tsp memang diperlukan karena penggunaan pupuk tersebut saat ini adalah 123,53 kg per ha sedangkan rekomendasi ideal yakni 200 kg per ha (dinas pertanian provinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta, 2009). selain itu, penambahan pupuk organik sudah tidak diperlukan bagi lahan pasir pantai, karena petani telah menambahkan pupuk organik terlalu banyak (18,5 ton per ha) dan bahkan di atas rekomendasi ideal budidaya cabai (5 ton per ha) (kementrian pertanian indonesia, 2010). nilai rata-rata efisiensi teknis (mean efficiency) petani di lahan pasir pantai lebih tinggi daripada petani di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi. hal ini menunjukkan penggunaan sarana produksi cabai di lahan pasir pantai telah efisien sehingga mampu menghasilkan produksi cabai lebih tinggi yakni 6.624,18 kg per hektar sedangkan di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi adalah 3.102,93 kg per hektar. namun begitu, nilai efisiensi teknis rata-rata (mean efficiency) usahatani cabai di kedua wilayah masih kurang dari 1 atau belum mencapai produktivitas maksimum sehingga perlu dilakukan berbagai perbaikan dengan mengoptimalkan faktor yang mempengaruhi efisiensi teknis. tabel 6. faktor yang mempengaruhi efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi variabel koefisien standar error t-ratio konstanta 3,582 0,707 5,063*** kuantitas penyuluhan -0,112 0,063 -1,774* tingkat pendidikan formal -0,030 0,212 -0,140ns pengalaman berusahatani 0,094 0,156 0,601ns adjusted r2 0,200 probabilitas f hitung 1,940* sumber: analisis data primer (2017) keterangan: *** = signifikan pada  = 0,01 * = signifikan pada  = 0,10 ns = tidak signifikan tabel 6 m enunjukk an vari a bel ya ng si gni fi ka n berpengaruh terhadap efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi adalah penyuluhan. kegiatan penyuluhan pada wilayah tersebut lebih sering dilakukan oleh petugas dari produsen benih dan pestisida sehingga tidak efektif dan berdampak negatif terhadap produksi cabai. petugas dari produsen benih lebih sering fokus pada penjualan produk sebanyak-banyaknya daripada membantu mengatasi berbagai masalah petani. untuk itu, diperlukan peran petugas penyuluh dari dinas untuk memberikan informasi dan wawasan kepada petani mengenai sop good agriculture pratice (gap) budidaya cabai yang tepat. tabel 7. faktor yang mempengaruhi efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai variabel koefisien standar eror t-ratio konstanta -1,067 0,300 -3,560*** kuantitas penyuluhan -0,246 0,140 -1,756* tingkat pendidikan formal -0,144 0,258 -0,560ns pengalaman berusahatani 0,217 0,109 1,987* adjusted r2 0,078 probabilitas f hitung 2,663** sumber: analisis data primer (2017) keterangan: *** = signifikan pada  = 0,01 ** = signifikan pada  = 0,05 * = signifikan pada  = 0,01 ns = tidak signifikan variabel penyuluhan mempengaruhi efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai namun bernilai negatif. hal ini terjadi karena sebagian besar penyuluhan dilakukan oleh perusahaan benih, pupuk, ataupun pestisida sehingga tidak mencakup seluruh aspek budidaya cabai yang benar tetapi lebih bermotif ekonomi yaitu agar produk dari perusahaan dibeli oleh petani. pada akhirnya petani juga mengguna ka n sa ra na p roduksi m elebihi dosi s ya ng dianjurkan sop gap tanaman cabai. untuk itu, peran dinas pertanian dan petugas penyuluh lapangan perlu ditingkatkan untuk mendampingi petani terutama terkait teknologi budidaya. hal ini sangat penting karena optimalisasi teknologi dan inovasi mampu meningkatkan produksi pertanian cabai di lahan pasir pantai (kusumaningrum, foor, & mustafa, 2015). variabel selanjutnya yang mempengaruhi efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai adalah pengalaman petani. pengalaman membuat petani semakin memahami karakteristik tanaman cabai sehingga dapat menentukan 25 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 teknologi budidaya dengan tepat. untuk meningkatkan pengalaman petani sebenarnya tidak perlu harus menunggu bertahun-tahun sampai petani menjadi ahli namun dapat dilakukan dengan mengikuti berbagai kegiatan pendidikan terkait teknologi usahatani cabai. pendidikan memiliki pengaruh sangat kuat untuk meningkatkan efisiensi produksi pertanian dan mempengaruhi petani cabai dalam mengambil keputusan serta kemampuan petani dalam mencari informasi penggunaan faktor produksi dengan tepat (shanmugam & venkataramani, 2006 dan sukiyono, 2005). variabel tingkat pendidikan formal tidak berpengaruh terhadap efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai. kinerja usahatani cabai analisis pertama untuk mengetahui kinerja usahatani adalah dengan mengitung total biaya usahatani cabai. biaya usahatani cabai terdiri dari biaya tetap dan biaya variabel. kontribusi biaya tetap usahatani cabai terbesar berasal dari biaya lain-lain yaitu biaya sewa lahan, pajak tanah dan penyusutan alat. struktur biaya ini juga menunjukkan k ara kteri sti k usa ha t a ni di m a si ng-m a sing wi laya h. karakteristik pertama terkait dengan kepemilikan lahan petani. petani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi sebagian besar memiliki tanah sendiri atau meminjam dengan skema pembayaran berupa bagi hasil. sedangkan sebagian petani lahan pasir pantai menyewa lahan sehingga biaya sewa juga sangat besar. karakteristik kedua adalah jumlah alat mesin yang dimiliki petani. semakin banyak alat mesin yang dimiliki petani maka semakin besar biaya penyusutan. petani lahan pasir pantai memiliki alat mesin lebih banyak daripada petani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi. hal ini karena pengolahan lahan pasir pantai lebih sulit dan harus menggunakan bantuan alat mesin pertanian. hampir seluruh petani di lahan pasir pantai memiliki handsprayer manual untuk mengolah lahan. biaya penyusutan handsprayer merupakan yang terbesar dibandingkan peralatan lain yang dimiliki oleh petani. selanjutnya dari struktur biaya variabel, petani di lahan pasir pantai mengalokasikan sebagian besar biaya untuk pembelian sarana produksi sedangkan petani di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi untuk biaya lain-lain (bagi hasil sakap). biaya sarana produksi petani cabai lahan pasir pantai utamanya untuk membeli pupuk, terutama pupuk organik. penggunaan pupuk merupakan kebutuhan sangat penting karena lahan pasir pantai kulon progo kurang subur. sementara itu, petani cabai di lereng gunung merapi harus membayar biaya bagi hasil sangat besar karena lahannya sempit dan meminjam lahan milik orang lain. rasio bagi hasil petani dengan pemilik lahan adalah 50:50. nilai ini sangat besar padahal luas lahan yang disakap petani lebih kecil dibandingkan luas lahan yang disewa, namun biaya sakap lebih besar dibandingkan dengan biaya sewa lahan. tabel 8. rata-rata biaya usahatani cabai di lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dan lahan pasir pantai per hektar no jenis biaya lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi (sleman) lahan pasir pantai (kulon progo) biaya tetap (fixed cost) 1 biaya lain-lain (rp) 4.308.310 6.526.151 a. sewa lahan (rp) 3.421.333 5.392.156 b. pajak tanah (rp) 210.800 47.058 c. penyusutan (rp) 676.177 1.086.937 total biaya tetap (rp) 4.308.310 6.526.151 biaya variabel (variable cost) 1 tenaga kerja (rp) 7.892.857 9.832.960 a. luar keluarga (rp) 6.920.857 9.264.986 b. sewa alat mesin pertanian (rp) 972.000 567.974 2 sarana produksi (rp) 7.908.573 10.835.556 a. benih (rp) 1.700.427 2.782.026 b. pupuk (rp) 4.913.080 7.041.275 urea (rp) 0 75.294 tsp (rp) 46.100 284.641 kcl (rp) 133.667 195.098 za (rp) 124.413 496.111 npk phonska (rp) 874.767 557.222 npk mutiara (rp) 1.428.533 1.175.882 organik(rp) 2.305.600 4.257.026 c. pestisida (rp) 1.295.067 1.012.255 cair (rp) 1.000.667 657.288 padat (rp) 294.400 354.967 3 lainnya (rp) 12.817.333 4.658.471 a. bagi hasil panen (rp) 12.810.000 0 b. pengairan (rp) 7.333 4.658.471 total biaya variabel (rp) 28.618.764 25.326.986 total biaya (rp) 32.927.074 31.853.137 sumber: analisis data primer (2017) biaya pengairan di lahan pasir pantai lebih tinggi daripada lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi. pengairan di lahan pasir pantai dilakukan secara intensif karena di lahan tersebut 26 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research infiltrasi air ke lapisan dalam tanah dan tingkat penguapan lebih tinggi. kondisi tersebut membuat tanaman cabai cepat mengalami kekeringan sehingga petani lahan pasir pantai lebih sering menggunakan pompa air. dengan begitu, maka petani lahan pasir pantai lebih banyak membeli bahan bakar guna menggerakkan pompa air. kondisi ini berbeda dengan lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi yang irigasinya sudah baik sehingga petani hanya membayar iuran air. pengeluaran selanjutnya usahatani cabai adalah biaya tenaga kerja. alokasi biaya tenaga kerja luar keluarga utamanya untuk aktivitas pengolahan lahan dan panen. untuk alokasi biaya sewa alat mesin pertanian sawah di lereng gunung merapi lebih besar daripada lahan pasir pantai karena petani cabai di lereng gunung merapi memiliki keterbatasan kepemilikan alat mesin sehingga harus menyewa, baik kepada individu lain maupun kelompok tani. analisis terakhir untuk mengetahui kinerja usahatani adalah menganalisis kelayakan usahatani cabai. tabel 9 menunjukkan bahwa petani di kedua wilayah sama-sama mampu menghasilkan penerimaan lebih tinggi daripada biaya usahatani. dengan kata lain, usahatani cabai di kedua wilayah memang menguntungkan petani (satyarini, 2009; saputro, kruniasih & subeni, 2013 dan istiyanti, khasanah, & anjarwati, 2015). tabel 9. perbandingan pendapatan dan kelayakan usahatani cabai pada lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi dengan lahan pasir pantai per hektar no keterangan lahan sawah lereng gunung merapi (sleman) lahan pasir pantai (kulon progo) 1 penerimaan (rp) 59.852.416 87.982.358 produksi (kg) 3.102,93 6.624,18 harga produk per kg (rp) 19.289 13.282 2 biaya biaya tetap (rp) 4.308.310 6.526.151 biaya variabel (rp) 28.618.764 25.326.986 total biaya (rp) 32.927.074 31.853.137 pendapatan (rp) 26.925.342 56.129.221 r/c rasio 1,82 2,76 sumber: analisis data primer (2017) apabila dibandingkan dengan analisis tabel, dapat diketahui bahwa terdapat perbedaan penerimaan, biaya, pendapatan dan kelayakan usahatani antar kedua wilayah. tabel 9 menunjukkan bahwa penerimaan, pendapatan dan kelayakan usahatani lahan pasir pantai lebih tinggi daripada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi. kondisi ini terjadi karena tingkat produksi dan efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai lahan pasir pantai juga lebih tinggi daripada lahan sawah. harga jual cabai di sleman sebenarnya lebih tinggi namun fluktuasinya juga tinggi sedangkan harga jual cabai di kulon progo relatif lebih stabil. harga jual cabai di sleman saat penelitian lebih tinggi daripada tahun-tahun sebelumnya karena pada tahun 2017 pemkab sleman bekerjasama dengan bank indonesia membentuk pasar lelang cabai di kecamatan ngemplak. pasar lelang ini mampu mengatasi fluktuasi harga di sleman pada tahun 2017. fluktuasi harga cabai sebenarnya dapat dikurangi saat petani melakukan pengolahan hasil sehingga menjamin ketersediaan stok cabai baik di masyarakat secara umum maupun petani secara khusus. pengolahan hasil juga mampu meningkatkan keuntungan bagi petani dan nilai tambah produk pertanian sampai di atas 40% (priantara, mulyani, & satriawan, 2016). petani lahan pasir pantai menjual produksi cabai ke pasar lelang karena efektivitas fungsi pemasaran dari pengelola pasar lelang. efektivitas tersebut didukung dengan adanya sistem manajemen yang meliputi perencanaan produk, sistem penetapan harga, distribusi fisik, periklanan dan promosi serta penjualan yang baik (rusdiyana, 2015). dari hasil penelitian ini, terbukti pasar lelang mampu memberikan keuntungan petani dan menstabilkan harga jual cabai. pasar lelang mampu menjamin terjualnya produk dalam jumlah besar dengan harga yang menguntungkan bagi petani dan pedagang (prabhavathi, krishna, & seema, 2013; devi, harsoyo & subejo, 2015). di dalamnya juga terdapat negosiasi antar pelaku pemasaran. selain itu, pasar lelang juga mampu meningkatkan kerja sama anggota sehingga dapat mengembangkan kelompok taninya (fauziah, 2017). dengan melihat keunggulan pasar lelang, maka petani cabai sewajarnya menyelenggarakan pasar lelang untuk menjalin kemitraan dengan berbagai pihak terutama mengenai jaminan pasar. petani dapat bermitra dengan perusahaan pengolah hasil cabai. petani juga dapat bermitra dengan pedagang melalui fasilitas yang disediakan pemerintah seperti stasiun terminal agribisnis ataupun lainnya. penguatan dan pengembangan kemitraan terbukti merupakan cara peningkatan daya saing pertanian cabai (tsurayya & kartika, 2015). kesimpulan penggunaan sarana produksi, kuantitas produksi, efisiensi teknis, pendapatan dan kelayakan usahatani cabai lahan pasir 27 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 pantai lebih tinggi daripada lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi. produksi cabai di lereng gunung merapi dipengaruhi luas lahan, tenaga kerja, benih, pupuk za, pestisida bion m dan petani dalam kondisi inefisiensi teknis sedangkan produksi cabai di lahan pasir pantai dipengaruhi luas lahan, pupuk tsp, pupuk organik dan petani dalam kondisi inefisiensi teknis. efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai dipengaruhi oleh kuantitas penyuluhan dan pengalaman petani sedangkan efisiensi teknis usahatani cabai lahan sawah di lereng gunung merapi dipengaruhi kuantitas penyuluhan. pasar lelang di kedua wilayah juga terbukti mampu meningkatkan harga cabai sehingga dapat menjadi percontohan bagi wilayah lain. untuk pengembangan usahatani cabai di kedua wilayah diperlukan peran aktif petugas penyuluh lapangan untuk mendampingi petani terutama terkait teknologi budidaya dan pengolahan cabai. daftar pustaka adhikari, r. k. 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(2015). manajemen kelembagaan pasar lelang dalam memfasilitasi pemasaran cabai kelompok tani lahan pasir pantai kecamatan panjatan, kabupaten kulon progo. jurnal sungkai, 3(2), 49-64. saputro, j., kruniasih, i., & subeni. (2013). analisis pendapatan dan efisiensi usahatani cabai merah di kecamatan minggir kabupaten sleman. agros, 15(1), 111–122. satyarini, t. b. (2009). analisis usahatani cabai di lahan pasir pantai (studi kasus di pantai pandan simo, bantul, diy). prosiding seminar nasional peningkatan daya saing agribisnis berorientasi kesejahteraan petani. bogor: pusat sosial ekonomi dan kebijakan pertanian. shanmugam, k., & venkataramani, a. (2006). technical efficiency in agricultural production and its determinants: an exploratory study at the district level. indian journal of agricultural economics, 61(2), 169– 184. retrieved from http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/204455/ 2/02-shanmugam.pdf. sukiyono, k. (2005). faktor penentu tingkat efisiensi teknik usahatani cabai merah di kecamatan selupu rejang, kabupaten rejang lebong. jurnal agro ekonomi, 23(2), 176–190. tsurayya, s., & kartika, l. (2015). kelembagaan dan strategi peningkatan daya saing komoditas cabai kabupaten garut. jurnal manajemen dan agribisnis, 12(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.17358/jma.12.1.1. widodo, a. s. (2015). pendapatan dan produksi potensial usahatani konservasi lahan pantai di kabupaten bantul. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1(1), 1–5. https:// doi.org/10.18196/agr.111. https://doi.org/10.1080/ https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.112. https://doi.org/10.9790/2380-081217786. https://doi.org/10.17221/212/2016-agricecon. https://doi.org/10.5923/ http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-0913/ijsrp-p21101.pdf. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/204455/ https://doi.org/10.17358/jma.12.1.1. https:// agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no. 1 januari -juni 2018 imas wildan rafiqah1, darsono2, joko sutrisno2 1program pascasarjana agribisnis, universitas sebelas maret, jl. ir sutami no. 36a, surakarta 2program studi agribisnis, universitas sebelas maret, jl. ir. sutami no. 36a, surakarta email korespondensi: imaswildan@gmail.com daya penyebaran dan derajat kepekaan sektor pertanian dalam pembangunan ekonomi di provinsi jawa tengah h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4160 abstract this research aimed to analyze the power of dispersion and sensitivity of dispersion of the agricultural sector on the economic development of central java province. this research used the data of input and output table of central java in 2013. data analysis method applied in this research is input-output analysis. the results showed that the agricultural sector represented by the livestock sector had ‘above average’ power of dispersion index of the overall index. livestock sector was able to encourage the production growth in all sectors of the economy. on the other hand, the sensitivity of dispersion index of all agricultural sectors was lower than the average value of the overall index. this reflects the agricultural sector’s low sensitivity to the changes of the external aspects which results in the low forward linkage among the downstream sectors. in term of key sector identification, the agricultural sector as a whole was not classified in the priority sector i. however, the livestock subsector, representing the agricultural sector, was classified in the priority sector ii on the economic development of central java province. keywords: agricultural sector, economic development, power of dispersion index, sensitivity of dispersion index. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis daya penyebaran dan derajat kepekaan sektor pertanian dalam pembangunan ekonomi provinsi jawa tengah. penelitian ini menggunakan data tabel input output jawa tengah tahun 2013. metode analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisis input-output. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sektor pertanian yang diwakili oleh sektor peternakan memiliki indeks daya penyebaran di atas rata-rata indeks keseluruhan. sektor peternakan mampu memacu pertumbuhan produksi seluruh sektor perekonomian. di sisi lain, nilai indeks derajat kepekaan seluruh sektor pertanian lebih rendah dari rata-rata indeks keseluruhan. hal ini mencerminkan adanya kepekaan yang rendah terhadap perubahan aspek eksternal sehingga keterkaitan ke depan antar sektor hilir juga rendah. sementara dalam penentuan sektor kunci, sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan tidak termasuk dalam sektor prioritas i. akan tetapi subsektor peternakan berada pada sektor prioritas ii dalam pembangunan ekonomi di provinsi jawa tengah yang mewakili sektor pertanian. kata kunci: indeks daya penyebaran, indeks derajat kepekaan, pembangunan ekonomi, sektor pertanian. pendahuluan hal mendasar dalam pembangunan ekonomi daerah adalah mengelola potensi-potensi sumberdaya yang ada untuk menerapkan prinsip ekonomi dalam mailto:imaswildan@gmail.com 52 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research rangka mempercepat pertumbuhan ekonomi (tarigan, 2012). pembangunan ekonomi daerah melibatkan pemerintah dan masyarakat dalam mengelola sumberdaya yang tersedia untuk memacu perekonomian dan menciptakan kesempatan kerja baru (arsyad, 2011). bila dilihat secara holistik, potensi setiap daerah tidak sama antara satu daerah dengan daerah lain. artinya dibutuhkan kebijakan-kebijakan pemerintah daerah yang berbeda antara satu daerah dengan daerah lainnya yang mengacu pada potensi sumberdaya yang tersedia. sektor pertanian merupakan salah satu sumberdaya yang dimiliki indonesia. sektor pertanian termasuk dalam sektor yang berperan penting dalam pembangunan ekonomi nasional maupun daerah. sektor pertanian menyumbang beberapa hal seperti penyediaan pangan, pemenuhan produk bagi industri sekunder dan tersier, tambahan devisa dan meningkatkan pendapatan di pedesaan sehingga memperbaiki kesejahteraan masyarakat pedesaan (jhingan, 2010). kontribusi sektor pertanian dapat dilihat dalam nilai tambah yang dicerminkan melalui pdrb dan penyerapan tenaga kerja. kontribusi sektor pertanian terhadap pdrb berada pada peringkat ketiga setelah sektor industri pengolahan dan sektor perdagangan (bps, 2017). hal ini dikarenakan sektor pertanian cenderung mengalami penurunan dari tahun ke tahun. begitu pula dengan kontribusi sektor pertanian di provinsi jawa tengah, pdrb sektor ini cenderung mengalami penurunan dari tahun 2011 sampai tahun 2016 (gambar 1). pada tahun 2011, kontribusi pdrb sektor pertanian sebesar 15,75%, lima tahun kemudian turun menjadi 13,68%. pada rentang waktu tersebut, peningkatan kontribusi pdrb sektor pertanian hanya terjadi pada tahun 2015. gambar 1. grafik kontribusi pdrb sektor pertanian provinsi jawa tengah tahun 2011-2016 (persen) walaupun kontribusi pdrb sektor pertanian tidak lagi besar, sektor pertanian provinsi jawa tengah berada pada peringkat teratas dalam penyerapan tenaga kerja. sektor pertanian merupakan kontributor terbesar dalam penyediaan lapangan kerja (izuchukwu, 2011). namun dari tahun ke tahun, jumlah tenaga kerja pada sektor pertanian di provinsi jawa tengah semakin menurun. pada tahun 2011, persentase tenaga kerja pada sektor pertanian di provinsi jawa tengah sebanyak 34,5% menurun menjadi 30,7% pada tahun 2016 (bps, 2017). walaupun jumlah tenaga kerja sektor pertanian di provinsi jawa tengah semakin menurun, alokasi tenaga kerja terbanyak tetap dipegang oleh sektor pertanian. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sektor pertanian masih menjadi penopang kehidupan bagi sebagian besar masyarakat di provinsi jawa tengah. banyaknya tenaga kerja yang bekerja pada sektor pertanian membuat sektor tersebut menjadi perhatian khusus. terlebih, sektor pertanian erat kaitannya dengan kemiskinan karena sektor ini umumnya berada di pedesaan (todaro, 2006; cuong, 2010); kuncoro, 2010; dariah & sundaya, 2012; omorogiuwa, zivkovic, & ademoh, 2014); eseyin, toluyemi, & oni, 2016). data dari bps (2017) menunjukkan bahwa tingkat kemiskinan di provinsi jawa tengah sebesar 13,19% lebih tinggi dibanding tingkat kemiskinan nasional sebesar 10,70%. bahkan bila dibandingkan dengan provinsi-provinsi lain di pulau jawa, jawa tengah memiliki tingkat kemiskinan tertinggi pada tahun 2016 di semester kedua. tentu saja hal ini perlu menjadi perhatian pemerintah mengingat sektor pertanian yang identik dengan kemiskinan yang sampai saat ini masih membelenggu provinsi jawa tengah. untuk itu, pembangunan sektor pertanian harus memiliki strategi dan kebijakan yang tepat agar mampu mengangkat sektor pertanian dalam pertumbuhan maupun pembangunan ekonomi. dalam pembangunan ekonomi, terdapat hubungan antarsektor perekonomian yang saling berkaitan. secara agregat sektor pertanian berperan dalam proses pembangunan industri karena sebagian input sektor industri berasal dari output sektor pertanian. semakin banyak produksi sektor industri maka semakin banyak pula output produksi sektor pertanian, begitu pula dengan sektor lain. selain itu input sektor pertanian juga berasal dari output sektor-sektor lain seperti sektor industri. semakin meningkat output sektor pertanian maka akan meningkatkan input sektor pertanian yang berasal dari sektor lain. hal inilah yang disebut dengan keterkaitan antar sektor dalam perekonomian. analisis keterkaitan antar sektor ini berawal dari hubungan antara sektor pertanian dan sektor industri dalam perekonomian (nazara, 2005). dalam analisis keterkaitan antarsektor ini, terdapat dua macam indeks yaitu indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan. kedua indeks ini m a mp u meli ha t sektor yang ma mp u m era ngsa ng 53 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 pertumbuhan ekonomi dan memiliki kepekaan yang tinggi. sektor yang memiliki nilai tambah tinggi belum tentu memiliki indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan yang tinggi. sektor dengan nilai indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan yang tinggi merupakan sektor kunci bagi pembangunan ekonomi daerah. berbagai penelitian membahas peran sektor pertanian dalam pembangunan yang cukup menunjukkan hasil yang tinggi seperti di riau (khairunnas, bakce & edwina, 2014), jawa timur (oktavia, hanani & suhartini, 2016), dan banjarnegara (fortunika, istiyanti & sriyadi, 2017). namun hasil tersebut belum secara rinci membahas seberapa besar dampak indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan sektor pertanian terhadap sektor-sektor perekonomian lain dalam rangka pembangunan ekonomi daerah. hal inilah yang melatarbelakangi penelitian ini untuk fokus membahas indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan pada sektor pertanian. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis daya penyebaran dan derajat kepekaan sektor pertanian dalam pembangunan ekonomi provinsi jawa tengah. jawa tengah merupakan provinsi yang cukup besar dalam mengandalkan sektor pertanian dalam pembangunan ekonomi daerah. dengan demikian, penelitian ini dapat memberikan gambaran bagi pemerintah provinsi jawa tengah dalam membuat kebijakan yang tepat untuk sektor pertanian dan sektor-sektor lain yang menjadi sektor kunci bagi perekonomian. metode penelitian data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data sekunder berupa tabel input output provinsi jawa tengah tahun 2013, data pdrb provinsi jawa tengah, dan data jumlah tenaga kerja provinsi jawa tengah yang diperoleh dari bps. analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisis input-output (io). pada dasarnya, analisis input-output dapat melihat hubungan antar sektor dalam suatu perekonomian. adanya keterkaitan antarsektor menimbulkan kesei m ba ngan p enawara n da n perm int a an dala m perekonomian karena input suatu sektor merupakan output sektor lainnya begitu pula sebaliknya (nazara, 2005; widodo, 2006). dalam analisis keterkaitan antarsektor, terdapat dua macam keterkaitan yaitu keterkaitan ke belakang dan keterkaitan ke depan. untuk melihat keterkaitan antar sektor perekonomian secara holistik, rasmussen (1956) mengusulkan dua macam ukuran keterkaitan yaitu power of dispersion for backward linkage atau disebut indeks daya penyebaran dan sensitifity of dispersion for forward linkage atau indeks derajat kepekaan (daryanto & hafizrianda, 2013). analisis daya penyebaran dan derajat kepekaan ini merupakan analisis yang sering digunakan dalam analisis input-output. pada dasarnya indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan ini adalah keterkaitan ke belakang dan keterkaitan ke depan. namun bedanya dalam indeks daya penyebaran dan derajat kepekaan ini menyetarakan perbandingan dengan cara menormalisasi keterkaitan baik keterkaitan ke belakang maupun keterkaitan ke depan. kedua indeks ini dapat menunjukkan sektor kunci dalam pembangunan ekonomi dengan melihat nilai indeks daya penyebaran dan nilai indeks derajat kepekaan. berikut penjelasan tentang indeks daya penyebaran dan derajat kepekaan: indeks daya penyebaran indeks daya penyebaran merupakan dampak perubahan permintaan akhir pada suatu sektor terhadap output secara agregat. indeks daya penyebaran berasal dari nilai keterkaitan ke belakang total yang dinormalisasi dengan membagi ratarata matriks kebalikan leontief. dengan kata lain, jumlah setiap kolom matrik kebalikan leontief yang dinormalisasi dengan membagi nilai rata-rata jumlah matrik kebalikan leontief itu sendiri (matsuoka, 2017; nazara, 2005; humavindu & stage, 2013). pembagian dengan rata-rata matrik kebalikan leontief merupakan normalisasi dari keterka i ta n kebelak ang tot al tersebut agar menjadi perbandingan perekonomian yang setara. rumus indeks daya penyebaran (miller & blair, 2009) adalah: blj = ∑ αij n i=1 1 n ∑ni=1 ∑ αij n j=1 dimana bl j = indeks daya penyebaran, n = jumlah sektor, dan  ij = koefisien kebalikan leontief (i-a)-1 (kolom). suatu sektor dengan nilai indeks daya penyebaran lebih dari satu (bl j >1) menunjukkan secara relatif permintaan akhir suatu sektor dalam memacu pertumbuhan produksi lebih besar dari rata-rata. dengan begitu sektor tersebut menjadi sektor strategis dalam memacu pertumbuhan ekonomi, begitu pula bila sebaliknya. indeks derajat kepekaan indeks derajat kepekaan merupakan dampak yang terjadi pa da output suatu sektor sebagai aki bat perubahan permintaan akhir pada masing-masing sektor perekonomian. indeks derajat kepekaan berasal dari keterkaitan ke depan 54 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research total yang dinormalisasi dengan membagi jumlah rata-rata keterkaitan kedepan dengan membagi rata-rata matrik kebalikan leontief. hal ini dapat dikatakan bahwa jumlah setiap baris matrik kebalikan leontief yang dinormalisasi dengan membagi nilai rata-rata jumlah matriks kebalikan leontief itu sendiri. normalisasi tersebut ditujukan agar perbandingan perekonomian menjadi setara. rumus indeks derajat kepekaan (miller & blair, 2009) adalah: fli = ∑ bij n i=1 1 n ∑ni=1 ∑ bij n j=1 dimana fl i = indeks derajat kepekaan, n = jumlah sektor, dan b ij = matriks kebalikan leontief (i-a)-1 (baris). suatu sektor dengan indeks derajat kepekaan lebih dari satu (fl i >1) menunjukkan bahwa secara relatif dapat memenuhi permintaan akhir diatas kemampuan rata-rata sektor lainnya. maka sektor tersebut dapat disebut sebagai sektor strategis, begitu pula dengan sebaliknya. tabel 1. pengklasifikasian 15 sektor tabel input-output provinsi jawa tengah kode sektor agregasi sektor sektor 1 1-4 tanaman pangan 2 5-11 tanaman hortikultura 3 12-21 tanaman perkebunan 4 22-23 peternakan 5 24-25 kehutanan & penebangan kayu 6 26-27 perikanan 7 28 jasa pertanian 8 29-31 pertambangan & galian 9 32-66 industri pengolahan 10 67-68 pengadaan listrik, gas & air 11 69-70 konstruksi 12 71-73 perdagangan besar&eceran: reparasi mobil & sepeda motor, hotel dan restauran 13 74-79 pengangkutan&komunikasi 14 80-82 jasa keuangan, real estate dan jasa perusahaan 15 83-88 jasa-jasa sumber: (bps, 2013) dalam analisis indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan, peneliti mengagregasi 88 sektor perekonomian menjadi 15 sektor perekonomian (tabel 1). oleh karena itu, penelitian ini memfokuskan pada sektor pertanian dengan mengagregasi sektor pertanian menjadi 7 sektor yaitu sektor tanaman pangan, sektor hortikultura, sektor perkebunan, sektor peternakan, sektor kehutanan dan penebangan kayu, sektor perikanan dan terakhir sektor jasa pertanian. pengagregasian sektor perekonomian ini dilakukan untuk memuda hka n dalam m engka tegorik an sektor-sektor perekonomian menjadi lebih ringkas. setelah mengagregasi sektor-sektor perekonomian kemudian menganalisis dampak penyebaran dengan indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan. analisis ini mampu menunjukkan bagaimana pertumbuhan suatu sektor dalam mempengaruhi ataupun dipengaruhi oleh pertumbuhan sektor-sektor lainnya. sektor prioritas penentuan sektor prioritas dapat dilihat dari nilai indeks penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan. bila suatu sektor memiliki nilai indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan tinggi maka sektor tersebut dikategorikan sebagai sektor kunci atau sektor prioritas dalam perekonomian. terdapat beberapa kriteria peringkat sektor prioritas yang dapat dirinci sebagai berikut (widodo, 2006): tabel 2. kriteria penentuan peringkat sektor prioritas indeks daya penyebaran indeks derajat kepekaan prioritas tinggi (>1) tinggi (>1) i tinggi (>1) rendah (<1) ii rendah (<1) tinggi (>1) iii rendah (<1) rendah (<1) iv berdasarkan tabel 2, terdapat empat kriteria dalam penentuan peringat sektor prioritas suatu wilayah. sektor yang memiliki indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan tinggi merupakan sektor prioritas i atau dapat disebut sebagai sektor kunci dalam pembangunan ekonomi. sektor prioritas ii yaitu sektor dengan indeks daya penyebaran tinggi tetapi indeks derajat kepekaannya rendah. sektor prioritas ii dapat disebut dengan sektor strategis atau sektor potensial. pada sektor prioritas iii, nilai indeks daya penyebarannya rendah namun indeks derajat kepekaan tinggi. sektor-sektor yang termasuk dalam sektor iii dapat dikategorikan sebagai sektor strategis atau sektor potensial. peringkat terakhir dalam sektor prioritas yaitu sektor prioritas iv, sektor ini memiliki indeks daya penyebaran dan derajat kepekaan yang rendah yang disebut sektor tertinggal. hasil dan pembahasan daya penyebaran pada perekonomian di provinsi jawa tengah daya penyebaran menggambarkan kekuatan suatu sektor dalam merangsang pertumbuhan output sektor-sektor perekonomian lainnya sehingga memacu pertumbuhan 55 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 ekonomi. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa indeks daya penyebaran di provinsi jawa tengah dengan nilai indeks lebih dari 1 adalah sektor peternakan, sektor industri pengolahan, sektor pengadaan listrik, gas dan air, sektor konstruksi, sektor perdagangan besar dan kecil: reparasi mobil dan sepeda motor, hotel da n resta uran, sektor penga ngkuta n da n komunikasi serta sektor jasa-jasa (tabel 3). sektor-sektor dengan nilai indeks lebih dari 1 tersebut menggambarkan bahwa sektor tersebut memiliki daya dorong yang kuat dibandingkan dengan sektor lain yang memiliki nilai indeks daya penyebaran kurang dari satu. tabel 3. indeks daya penyebaran pada perekonomian di provinsi jawa tengah no sektor indeks daya penyebaran ranking 1 tanaman pangan 0,815 13 2 tanaman hortikultura 0,773 15 3 tanaman perkebunan 0,875 9 4 peternakan 1,096 5 5 kehutanan & penebangan kayu 0,799 14 6 perikanan 0,833 11 7 jasa pertanian 0,917 8 8 pertambangan & galian 0,823 12 9 industri pengolahan 1,220 3 10 pengadaan listrik, gas & air 1,332 2 11 konstruksi 1,353 1 12 perdagangan besar dan eceran: reparasi mobil dan sepeda motor, hotel dan restauran 1,027 7 13 pengangkutan&komunikasi 1,211 4 14 jasa keuangan, real estate dan jasa perusahaan 0,850 10 15 jasa-jasa 1,076 6 sektor dengan nilai indeks daya penyebaran terbesar di provinsi jawa tengah adalah sektor konstruksi (1,353), artinya sektor konstruksi merupakan sektor yang memiliki kekuatan terbesar dalam memacu pertumbuhan produksi seluruh sektor di provinsi jawa tengah. hal tersebut selaras dengan penelitian zuhdi (2017) bahwa indeks daya penyebaran melihat kekuatan suatu sektor dalam mempengaruhi seluruh sektor. sektor pertanian memiliki nilai indeks lebih dari satu yaitu sektor peternakan (1,096), artinya sektor peternakan mampu merangsang pertumbuhan produksi lebih besar dari rata-rata, sehingga sektor ini dapat dikategorikan dalam sektor strategis yang memacu pertumbuhan output. sektor tanaman pangan, sektor hortikultura, sektor perkebunan, sektor kehutanan dan penebangan kayu, sektor perikanan serta sektor jasa perikanan memiliki nilai indeks daya penyebaran kurang dari satu. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sektor-sektor tersebut belum mampu mendorong pertumbuhan produksi pada semua sektor perkonomian di provinsi jawa tengah. indeks daya penyebaran pada sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan belum mampu memacu pertumbuhan produksi pada semua sektor perekonomian kecuali sektor peternakan. hal ini juga didukung oleh penelitian zaini (2004) bahwa sektor peternakan memiliki indeks daya penyebaran di atas rata-rata. sektor peternakan mampu mendorong pertumbuhan p roduksi seca ra a gregat k arena da lam sektor peternakan memiliki keterkaitan ke belakang yang erat dengan banyak sektor. output pada sektor peternakan membutuhkan input-input dari sektor-sektor lain seperti pakan ternak, alat-alat dan mesin peternak, obat-obatan dan vaksin ternak. tentu saja jika output sektor peternakan meningkat, input produksi dari berbagai sektor juga akan meningkat. hal ini juga berkaitan dengan permintaan pada sektor peternakan yang cukup tinggi bila dibandingkan dengan sektor pertanian lainnya. menurut bps (2013), komponen konsumsi rumah tangga dalam tabel input-output provinsi jawa tengah pada sektor peternakan memiliki nilai tertinggi diantara komponen permintaan akhir lainnya. bahkan jika dibandingkan dengan semua konsumsi pada sektor pertanian lainnya, nilai konsumsi pada sektor peternakan menempati urutan teratas. hal ini selaras dengan penelitian sebelumnya (zuhdi, putranto & prasetyo, 2014) bahwa sektor peternakan di masa yang akan datang memiliki implikasi terbesar yang berasal dari konsumsi rumah tangga. dengan demikian dapat dikatakan bahwa sektor peternakan dapat dikategorikan sebagai sektor strategis dalam perekonomian di provinsi jawa tengah mewakili sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan. derajat kepekaan pada perekonomian di provinsi jawa tengah indeks derajat kepekaan menggambarkan dampak relatif yang ditimbulkan karena pengaruh eksternal suatu sektor berimbas pada sektor-sektor lain yang ada di hilir. indeks derajat kepekaan dapat digunakan untuk menganalisis kepekaan sektor tertentu terhadap pengaruh eksternal (zuhdi, 2017). bila suatu sektor memiliki nilai indeks derajat kepekaan tinggi, sektor tersebut memiliki kepekaan lebih terhadap pengaruh eksternal. sektor perekonomian di provinsi jawa tengah yang memiliki nilai indeks derajat kepekaan lebih dari 1 adalah sektor pertambangan dan galian, 56 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sektor industri pengolahan serta sektor perdagangan besar dan eceran: reparasi mobil dan sepeda motor, hotel dan restauran (tabel 4). ketiga sektor tersebut memiliki nilai indeks di atas rata-rata karena sektor-sektor tersebut memiliki output produksi yang banyak digunakan oleh sektor-sektor perekonomian lainnya. dengan kata lain sektor-sektor tersebut memiliki keterkaitan ke depan dengan industri hilir yang panjang. sektor terbesar dalam indeks derajat kepekaan pada perekonomian di provinsi jawa tengah adalah industri pengolahan (2,840). sektor indutri pengolahan terbukti menjadi sektor dengan kepekaan yang tinggi pada seluruh sektor hilir yang dipengaruhi oleh perubahan aspek eksternal. ketika terjadi perubahan aspek eksternal seperti pada permintaan akhir sektor industri pengolahan maka akan berdampak pada sektor industri pengolahan sendiri dan juga sektor-sektor lain yang memiliki keterkaitan dengan sektor tersebut. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sektor industri pengolahan berperan penting dalam pengembangan sektor perekonomian lainnya secara keseluruhan. tabel 4. indeks derajat kepekaan pada perekonomian provinsi jawa tengah no sektor indeks derajat kepekaan ranking 1 tanaman pangan 0,955 6 2 tanaman hortikultura 0,700 11 3 tanaman perkebunan 0,757 9 4 peternakan 0,662 12 5 kehutanan & penebangan kayu 0,655 13 6 perikanan 0,640 14 7 jasa pertanian 0,613 15 8 pertambangan & galian 1,534 2 9 industri pengolahan 2,840 1 10 pengadaan listrik, gas & air 0,750 10 11 konstruksi 0,800 8 12 perdagangan besar dan eceran: reparasi mobil dan sepeda motor, hotel dan restauran 1,263 3 13 pengangkutan&komuni kasi 0,991 4 14 jasa keuangan, real estate dan jasa perusahaan 0,978 5 15 jasa-jasa 0,863 7 sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan memiliki nilai indeks derajat kepekaan yang rendah. hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa sektor pertanian di provinsi jawa tengah memiliki kepekaan yang rendah terhadap perubahan aspek eksternal, sehingga keterkaitan ke depan antar sektor hilir juga rendah. kepekaan yang rendah pada sektor pertanian dikarenakan output sektor pertanian masih banyak yang langsung dikonsumsi. artinya sektor pertanian memiliki rantai keterkaitan ke depan yang lebih pendek dibandingkan dengan sektor-sektor yang memiliki indeks derajat kepekaan di atas nilai satu. nilai indeks derajat kepekaan tertinggi pada sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan adalah sektor tanaman pangan sebesar 0,955. nilai tersebut menunjukkan bahwa sektor tanaman pangan memiliki kepekaan tertinggi dibandingkan dengan sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan, walaupun bila dilihat secara nyata berada dibawah nilai rata-rata keseluruhan indeks. hal ini sedikit berbeda dengan penelitian sebelumnya (septiadi, pinilih & shaferi, 2017), bahwa sektor pertanian tidak seluruhnya memiliki indeks derajat kepekaan yang rendah, di mana sektor padi dan tanaman bahan makanan lainnya memiliki indeks lebih dari satu. perbedaan tersebut dapat terjadi karena pengagregasian sektor yang berbeda sehingga akan menghasilkan hasil analisis yang berbeda pula. sektor prioritas dalam pembangunan ekonomi di provinsi jawa tengah sektor prioritas i dalam pembangunan ekonomi di provinsi jawa tengah adalah sektor industri pengolahan dan sektor perdagangan besar dan eceran: reparasi mobil dan sepeda motor, hotel dan restauran (tabel 5). kedua sektor tersebut mempunyai nilai indeks daya penyebaran dan daya kepekaan yang tinggi. artinya, kedua sektor tersebut memiliki dampak penyebaran pada sektor hulu atau sektor input produksi dan output keduanya menjadi input sektor lain atau sektor hilir. jika terjadi gejolak yang mempengaruhi sektor p riori ta s ma k a berda mp ak c uk up si gni fi ka n ba gi perekonomian secara agregat terutama sektor-sektor yang memiliki keterkaitan yang tinggi (soedomo, 2010). begitu pula bila terdapat stimulus pada sektor prioritas, maka berdampak pada peningkatan pertumbuhan yang lebih besar tehadap sektor-sektor perekonomian lainnya. sektor yang termasuk dalam prioritas ii yaitu sektor peternakan, sektor pengadaan listrik, gas dan air, sektor kontruksi, sektor pengangkutan dan komunikasi serta sektor ja sa -jasa . sektor-sektor tersebut ma mp u m ema c u pertumbuhan sektor input atau hulu dan juga menunjukkan bahwa sektor-sektor tersebut memiliki rantai keterkaitan yang pendek atau sektor lebih hilir yang lebih dekat dengan konsumen. seperti sektor peternakan, sebagian besar outputnya menjadi konsumsi langsung setiap hari. begitu pula 57 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 sektor konstruksi, sektor ini juga merupakan sektor yang lebih dekat dengan konsumen (sjafrizal, 2008). terlebih sektor listrik, gas dan air yang menyangkut kebutuhan publik yang banyak menjadi input sektor industri yang berperan penting dalam perekonomian. oleh karena itu, sektor tersebut menjadi sektor yang dikelola oleh pemerintah langsung, sehingga lebih terkontrol dalam pengelolaan maupun pengawasannya. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sektor prioritas ii lebih dekat dengan sektor hilir atau berhubungan dengan konsumen langsung. dengan demikian, sektor-sektor yang termasuk dalam prioritas ii setelah sektor prioritas i juga menjadi perhatian pemerintah dalam pembangunan ekonomi. tabel 5. sektor prioritas dalam pembangunan ekonomi di provinsi jawa tengah indeks derajat kepekaan rendah (<1) tinggi (>1) indeks daya penyebaran tinggi (>1) prioritas ii: peternakan pengadaan listrik, gas dan air konstruksi pengangkutan dan komunikasi jasa-jasa prioritas i: industri pengolahan perdagangan besar dan eceran: reparasi mobil dan sepeda motor, hotel dan restauran rendah (<1) prioritas iv: tanaman pangan tanaman hortikultura tanaman perkebunan kehutanan perikanan jasa pertanian jasa keuangan dan real estate prioritas iii: pertambangan dan galian sektor pertambangan dan galian merupakan sektor prioritas iii dengan nilai indeks daya penyebaran rendah namun memiliki indeks derajat kepekaan yang tinggi. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sektor tersebut belum mampu memacu pertumbuhan produksi sektor-sektor inputnya, namun memiliki kepekaan yang tinggi terhadap perubahan eksternal pada sektor-sektor hilirnya. sektor dengan prioritas iv atau prioritas terakhir yaitu sektor yang memiliki nilai indeks daya penyebaran dan indeks derajat kepekaan yang rendah. sektor yang termasuk dalam ketegori prioritas iv adalah sektor tanaman pangan, sektor tanaman hortikultura, sektor tanaman perkebunan, sektor kehutanan, sektor perikanan, sektor jasa pertanian dan sektor jasa keuangan dan real estate. sektor-sektor tersebut tidak bisa diandalkan dalam merangsang pertumbuhan produksi sektor-sektor lain dan juga memiliki kepekaan yang rendah terhadap perubahan pada sektor-sektor hilirnya. berdasarkan pengelompokan sektor prioritas dalam pembangunan ekonomi, sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan tidak termasuk dalam sektor prioritas i. sektor pertanian yang diwakili oleh subsektor peternakan mampu menjadi sektor prioritas ii dalam pembangunan ekonomi di provinsi jawa tengah. walaupun menduduki prioritas ii, sektor peternakan m a mp u mendorong p ertum buha n p roduksi sektor perekonomian secara agregat. hal ini dikarenakan subsektor peterna kan merupakan sektor yang memi liki rantai keterkaitan sektor lebih pendek sehingga lebih dekat dengan konsumen atau masyarakat. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa subsektor peternakan menjadi subsektor kunci pada sektor pertanian di jawa tengah. hal-hal yang berkaitan langsung dengan masyarakat akan menjadi perhatian khusus bagi pemerintah provinsi jawa tengah dalam merumuskan kebijakan yang tepat untuk pembangunan ekonomi secara menyeluruh khususnya sektor pertanian yang banyak menyerap tenaga kerja. selain itu perumusan kebijakan yang tepat juga dapat meningkatkan p erekonom ia n ya ng berda mp ak p ada peni ngk a ta n kesejahteraan penduduk sehingga mampu mengurangi kemiskinan. dengan demikian, diharapkan hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan gambaran pada pemerintah provinsi jawa tenga h m engena i bahan p er ti mba ngan dalam mengambil kebijakan yang tepat bagi pembangunan ekonomi daerah yang tepat dan merata. kesimpulan potensi sektor pertanian secara keseluruhan pada pembangunan ekonomi provinsi jawa tengah ditunjukkan dengan masukknya sektor peternakan dalam sektor prioritas ii (strategis) yang dilihat dari indeks daya penyebaran yang tinggi namun indeks derajat kepekaan yang rendah. walaupun sektor pertanian bukan menjadi sektor prioritas i (kunci) dalam pembangunan ekonomi secara keseluruhan, namun indeks daya penyebaran yang tinggi pada sektor peternakan terbukti memberikan stimulus yang besar dalam pertumbuhan produksi sektor hulu. pertumbuhan tersebut mendorong sektor lain tumbuh, menyerap tenaga kerja dan meningkatkan pendapatan masyarakat khususnya pada sektor pertanian. 58 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research daftar pustaka arsyad, l. 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(2014). an input-output approach to know the dynamics of total output of livestick sectors: the case of indonesia. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 109, 634-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.519. zuhdi, u. (2017). an analysis of the characteristics of japanese industrial sectors from 2005 through 2011. iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 88, 1-6. https://doi:10.1088/1755-1315/88/ 1/012027. https:// https:// https://www.bps.go.id/linktabledinamis/view/id/1219 https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/jekt/article/ http:// https:// http://wrbrpapers.com/static/documents/ https://ejournal.unri.ac.id/ http:// http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/ https://doi.org/10.21776/ https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/ http://ejournal.amikompurwokerto.ac.id/ http:// http://www.fiskal.kemenkeu.go.id/ojs_bkf/index.php/kek/article/view/71. http:// https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.519. https://doi:10.1088/1755-1315/88/ agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 4 no. 2 juli-desember 2018 dyah aring hepiana lestari, fembriarti erry prasmatiwi, dan r. hanung ismono jurusan agribisnis fakultas pertanian universitas lampung, bandar lampung *)email korespondensi: dyaharing@yahoo.com analisis perbandingan biaya transaksi, pendapatan, dan kesejahteraan petani kelapa sawit plasma dengan swadaya di kabupaten tulang bawang comparative analysis of transaction costs, revenue, and welfare of plasma and selfsupporting oil palm farmers in tulang bawang regency doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4266 abstract transaction costs arise as a result of uncertainty in the transaction environment. vertical integration of farmers in an institution will reduce uncertainty and will reduce transaction costs. transaction costs will affect revenue and will ultimately affect the level of welfare. the objective of this research was to compare the transaction costs, revenue, and welfare between plasma oil palm farmers and self-supporting oil palm farmers. this research used a quantitative research approach with survey method. the research was conducted in penawartama and aji baru sub-district, tulang bawang regency. the research location was chosen purposively with the consideration of sub-district are the center of oil palm smallholdings. data collection techniques were used household survey with simple random sampling. sample size was 152 farmers consisting of 76 plasma farmers and 76 self-supporting farmers. the transaction costs paid by plasma farmers was smaller than those paid by self supporting farmers. revenue per hectare of plasma smallholder was higher than the income of the self-supporting smallholder. even though, oil palm farmers in tulang bawang regency, both plasma and independent farmers were in the prosperous category. keywords: revenue, oil palm, transaction cost, welfare intisari biaya transaksi muncul sebagai akibat ketidakpastian dalam lingkungan transaksi. integrasi vertikal petani dalam sebuah kelembagaan akan mengurangi ketidakpastian yang dapat menurunkan biaya transaksi. turunnya biaya transaksi akan meningkatkan pendapatan dan kesejahteraan petani. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan biaya transaksi, pendapatan, dan kesejahteraan petani kelapa sawit plasma dengan petani kelapa sawit swadaya di kabupaten tulang bawang. survei dilakukan di sentra perkebunan kelapa sawit rakyat, yaitu kecamatan penawartama dan kecamatan gedung aji baru. data primer dikumpulkan dari 152 responden, terdiri dari 76 petani kelapa sawit plasma dan 76 petani kelapa sawit swadaya yang dipilih secara acak. hasil penelitian membuktikan bahwa biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani plasma lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani swadaya, sehingga petani plasma memperoleh pendapatan yang lebih besar dibandingkan petani swadaya. namun demikian, baik petani kelapa sawit plasma maupun petani kelapa sawit swadaya termasuk dalam katagori sejahtera. kata kunci: biaya transaksi, kelapa sawit, kesejahteraan, pendapatan pendahuluan kelapa sawit merupakan salah satu komoditas perkebunan penting dan strategis, dengan kontribusi cukup signifikan terhadap perekonomian daerah maupun nasional (samudera &daryanto, 2012). 112 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research perkebunan kelapa sawit berperan sebagai tulang punggung penerimaan devisa negara dan menjadi salah satu sektor perekonomian menyerap banyak tenaga kerja (siradjuddin, 2015). indonesia merupakan produsen dan eksportir kelapa sawit terbesar dunia. minyak sawit (cpo) indonesia diklaim memiliki keunggulan komparatif di antara negara-negara penghasil cpo lain di dunia (alatas, 2015). karenanya, kelapa sawit memberikan sumbangan yang besar bagi perekonomian indonesia, khususnya di pulau sumatra sebagai penghasil sawit terbesar. selain membuka lapangan pekerjaan yang luas, kelapa sawit memberikan kontribusi yang besar terhadap pdrb daerah. di provinsi lampung, industri minyak kelapa sawit merupakan leading sector dalam pembangunan ekonomi wilayah (sari, affandi, & abidin (2014). dengan areal perkebunan terluas kedua setelah kopi robusta, kalapa sawit menjadi primadona sektor perkebunan di provinsi lampung (muslih, zakaria, & kasymir, 2013). perkebunan kelapa sawit rakyat di provinsi lampung melibatkan 995.792 petani, sekitar 34,43 persen dari keseluruhan petani pekebun yang ada di provinsi lampung (dinas perkebunan provinsi lampung, 2016). perkebunan kelapa sawit rakyat di provinsi lampung lebih luas dibanding perkebunan kelapa sawit negara dan swasta. pengembangan kelapa sawit rakyat di provinsi ini dimulai sejak adanya kebijakan pir (perkebunan inti rakyat) yang dikaitkan dengan program transmigrasi lokal. dalam pola pir, perkebunan besar bertindak sebagai inti yang berperan membangun perkebunan rakyat di sekitarnya atau petani dari luar daerah (transmigran) yang akan dijadikan sebagai plasma. perkebunan inti dan plasma menganut sistem kerjasama yang saling menguntungkan dan berkelanjutan. namun, sejak tahun 2000-an pola pir berhenti, dan petani mengusahakan kelapa sawit secara swadaya. kabupaten tulang bawang menyumbang produksi kelapa sawit rakyat terbesar di provinsi lampung yaitu 45.773 ton; dengan luas area 19.155 ha, terdiri dari 15.583 ha tanaman menghasilkan dan sisanya belum menghasilkan (dinas perkebunan provinsi lampung, 2016). pengembangan kelapa sawit rakyat dimulai pada tahun 1993, melalui pola intiplasma dengan transmigran lokal dari kabupaten lain di provinsi lampung sebagai petani plasma. petani plasma bergabung dalam koperasi yang bertindak sebagai lembaga penghubung antara petani dengan perusahaan sebagai inti. dalam pola pir, petani plasma hanya menyediakan lahan; sedangkan perusahaan inti bertanggungjawab dalam menyediakan bibit, pupuk, dan pestisida, serta memberikan bimbingan teknis penerapan teknologi budidaya. sebagai konsekuensinya, petani harus menjual hasil kelapa sawitnya ke perusahaan inti. dalam pola swadaya, petani menyediakan semua modal usahataninya dan mempunyai kebebasan untuk menjual hasil kelapa sawitnya kepada pedagang. produktivitas kelapa sawit petani plasma pada umumnya lebih tinggi dibandingkan petani swadaya, karena petani plasma memperoleh jaminan ketersediaan modal dan bimbingan dari perusahaan. dalam rantai pemasaran tandan buah segar (tbs), pabrik kelapa sawit (pks) merupakan konsumen akhir, sehingga harga beli pks menentukan harga pada pelaku pasar lainnya. petani plasma sudah memiliki ikatan penjualan hasil dengan perusahaan, sehingga harga yang diterima petani plasma relatif lebih pasti. harga ditentukan berdasarkan peraturan yang berlaku dan melibatkan pemerintah daerah (dinas perkebunan). sementara itu, harga yang diterima petani swadaya sangat tergantung dari harga beli dari pks dan pedagang pengumpul, yang di provinsi lampung sering disebut ‘agen’. ketidakpastian yang dihadapi petani swadaya lebih tinggi dibanding petani plasma, karena petani plasma telah terintegrasi secara vertikal dalam koperasi yang bermitra dengan perusahaan inti. petani swadaya diduga lebih banyak mengeluarkan biaya transaksi dibandingkan dengan petani plasma, yang muncul akibat dari adanya ketidakpastian dalam lingkungan transaksi (huo, ye, zhao, wei, & hua, 2018). ketidakpastian tersebut meliputi opportunism satu pihak (wang, li, ross, & craighead, 2013; huo et al., 2018); ketidakpastian teknologi dan aliran informasi (handley & benton, 2012; lee, yeung, & edwin cheng, 2009); serta kondisi demand dan supply (huo et al., 2018). keberadaan berbagai biaya transaksi akan meningkatkan biaya total yang dikeluarkan dalam usaha perkebunan kelapa sawit, yang akan menurunkan tingkat keuntungan (kissell, 2008). tingginya biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani akan memperkecil pendapatan usahatani (alfin mohamad, hadi darwanto, & hartono, 2014). biaya transaksi berpengaruh negatif dan signifikan terhadap keuntungan usahatani (sultan & rachmina, 2016). jumlah biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani kelapa sawit plasma dan swadaya akan 113 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 mempengaruhi pendapatan yang diterima, dan pada akhirnya akan mempengaruhi tingkat kesejahteraannya. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan biaya transaksi, pendapatan, dan kesejahteraan petani kelapa sawit plasma dengan petani kelapa sawit swadaya di kabupaten tulang bawang. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten tulang bawang sebagai sentra produksi kelapa sawit di provinsi lampung dengan menggunakan metode survei. sampel diambil dari kecamatan penawartama dan kecamatan gedung aji baru, dengan pertimbangan kecamatan tersebut memiliki perkebunan kelapa sawit terluas, jumlah petani rakyat terbanyak, dengan produktivitas tertinggi. data dikumpulkan dari 152 responden, terdiri dari 76 petani kelapa sawit plasma dan 76 petani kelapa sawit swadaya, yang dipilih secara acak sederhana. analisis data dilakukan dengan metode deskriptif kuantitatif. biaya transaksi mencakup biaya yang dikeluarkan petani untuk melakukan penelitian, mencari informasi, melakukan monitoring, dan melakukan partisipasi dalam satu tahun (kusnadi, 2005). analisis pendapatan petani kelapa sawit diperoleh dengan menghitung selisih antara penerimaan dengan biaya yang dikeluarkan dalam satu tahun (suratiyah, 2015). perbandingan biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan dan pendapatan yang diterima, antara petani plasma dengan petani swadaya dianalisis menggunakan uji beda rata-rata (independent t-test). kesejahteraan petani diukur menggunakan indikator sosiometriks, yang mengklasifikasikan keluarga sejahtera berdasarkan 8 aspek, yaitu: ketahanan pangan, pendidikan, pelayanan kesehatan, perumahan, modal sosial, pemberdayaan, buta huruf, dan kerawanan dalam keluarga tersebut. keluarga tergolong sebagai keluarga tidak sejahtera (miskin) apabila tidak dapat memenuhi sebagian besar dari delapan komponen kesejahteraan secara layak (hartoyo & aniri, 2010). pemenuhan setiap aspek kesejahteraan diukur menggunakan skala ordinal dengan pemberian skor dari 1(satu) untuk kondisi sangat memenuhi sampai 4 (empat) untuk kondisi sangat tidak memenuhi. selanjutnya tingkat kesejahteraan keluarga diukur dengan menjumlahkan skor delapan aspek tersebut; dan dikatagorikan dalam tiga katagori, yakni: sejahtera (skor 8 -15), tidak sejahtera (skor 16 – 23), dan sangat tidak sejahtera (skor 24–32). perbandingan kesejahteraan petani plasma dan swadaya dianalisis menggunakan uji beda mann-whitney. hasil dan pembahasan baik petani kelapa sawit plasma maupun swadaya mayoritas berusia produktif, yaitu kurang dari 65 tahun dengan tingkat pendidikan bervariasi mulai dari lulusan sd hingga sma. mayoritas petani swadaya berpendidikan lulusan sma, sedangkan mayoritas petani plasma berpendidkan lulusan smp. lebih dari separuh petani berpengalaman dalam mengusahakan kelapa sawit antara 14 –27 tahun, yaitu 57,90 persen untuk petani plasma dan 56,60 persen untuk petani swadaya. lahan petani plasma dan swadaya berstatus milik sendiri. rata-rata lahan petani swadaya lebih luas (2,12 ha) dibandingkan lahan petani plasma (1,41 ha). seluruh petani plasma memiliki tanaman kelapa sawit yang telah berumur antara 17 – 23 tahun, sedangkan petani swadaya mayoritas (56,60 persen) memiliki tanaman kelapa sawit yang masih berumur antara 10 – 16 tahun. biaya transaksi petani kelapa sawit pola plasma dan swadaya biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani kelapa sawit terdiri dari biaya penelitian, biaya informasi, biaya monitoring, dan biaya partisipasi; yang masing-masing terdiri dari empat komponnen biaya, yakni biaya transportasi, biaya komunikasi, biaya administrasi, dan biaya konsumsi. hal ini berbeda dengan biaya transaksi dalam penelitian sultan dan rachmina (2016) yang terdiri dari biaya negosiasi, biaya informasi, biaya koordinasi, biaya pelaksanaan, biaya monitoring, dan biaya risiko. biaya penelitian adalah biaya yang dikeluarkan petani untuk mengetahui berbagai pelayanan yang disediakan pedagang/koperasi. biaya informasi adalah biaya yang dikeluarkan petani untuk 114 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research mengetahui kualitas dan harga tandan buah segar. biaya monitoring adalah biaya yang dikeluarkan petani untuk melakukan pengawasan kontrak dengan pedagang/koperasi. biaya partisipasi meliputi biaya untuk menghadiri rapat anggota tahunan (rat), membayar simpanan wajib, dan memanfaatkan pelayanan koperasi. biaya informasi dikeluarkan oleh petani plasma maupun petani swadaya, sedangkan biaya penelitian dan monitoring hanya dikeluarkan petani swadaya. biaya partisipasi hanya dikeluarkan oleh petani plasma yang bergabung dalam koperasi dan berkewajiban berpartisipasi dalam kegiatan koperasi. sementara itu, petani swadaya tidak bergabung dalam koperasi atau bekerjasama dengan lembaga lain, sehingga tidak mengeluarkan biaya partisipasi dalam mengusahakan kebunnya. rincian biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani plasma dan petani swadaya disajikan pada tabel 1. tabel 1. biaya transaksi petani plasma dan petani swadaya selama satu tahun dikabupaten tulang bawang biaya transaksi uraian plasma swadaya (rp) (%) (rp) (%) biaya penelitian b.transportasi 0,00 0,00 94.263 43,39 b. komunikasi 0,00 0,00 26 0,01 b. konsumsi 0,00 0,00 60.355 27,78 biaya informasi b.transportasi 14.842 22,22 6.947 3,20 b. komunikasi 16.579 24,82 31.938 14,70 biaya monitoring b. transportasi 0,00 0,00 28.342 13,05 biaya partisipasi: rat b. transportasi 1.342 2,01 0,00 0,00 b. komunikasi 349 0,52 0,00 0,00 biaya partisipasi: memanfaatkan pelayanan b. transportasi 2.855 4,27 0,00 0,00 b. komunikasi 237 0,35 0,00 0,00 b. administrasi 30.592 45,80 0,00 0,00 biaya transaksi total 66.796 100.00 217 100,00 tabel 1 menunjukkan bahwa biaya penelitian merupakan biaya transaksi terbesar yang harus dikeluarkan petani swadaya, yakni rp 94 ribu untuk biaya transportasi dan rp 60 ribu untuk konsumsi. sementara petani plasma tidak perlu mengeluarkan biaya transaksi untuk kegiatan penelitian. petani plasma tergabung dalam koperasi yang memiliki kegiatan yang pasti yakni melayani kebutuhan petani plasma anggotanya. walaupun demikian, petani plasma maupun petani swadaya sama-sama membutuhkan informasi yang bisa diperoleh dengan cara berkomunikasi melalui handphone. oleh karena itu biaya informasi yang dikeluarkan petani plasma dan petani swadaya sebagian besar berupa biaya komunikasi, masing-masing sebesar rp 16 ribu dan rp 31 ribu. petani plasma tidak mengeluarkan biaya monitoring karena berbagai kegiatan dilakukan melalui koperasi, sedangkan petani swadaya mengeluarkan biaya monitoring berupa biaya transportasi sebesar rp 28 ribu. sebagai konsekuensi tergabung dalam koperasi, petani plasma harus mengeluarkan biaya partisipasi, yang tidak perlu dikeluarkan petani swadaya. namun, biaya partisipasi yang dikeluarkan petani plasma, sebagian besar untuk biaya administrasi (rp 30 ribu), jauh lebih kecil dari biaya yang dikeluarkan petani swadaya untuk kegiatan penelitian. oleh karena itu, biaya transaksi petani plasma jauh lebih kecil (kurang dari biaya rp 67 ribu) dibandingkan biaya transaksi yang harus dikeluarkan petani swadaya (sekitar rp 217 ribu). petani plasma mengeluarkan biaya transaksi untuk biaya informasi dan partisipasi dengan proporsi yang seimbang. sementara itu, petani swadaya mengeluarkan biaya transaksi untuk biaya penelitian, biaya informasi dan biaya monitoring, yang didominasi biaya penelitian (71,18 persen). hal ini berbeda dengan biaya transaksi pada komoditas kedelai di kabupaten lamongan yang didominasi biaya negosiasi, yaitu sebesar 60,30 persen (sultan dan rachmina, 2016). biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani swadaya lebih besar dibandingkan biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani plasma. hal ini disebabkan, petani swadaya mengusahakan kebunnya secara mandiri mulai dari kepemilikan lahan, permodalan, pengolahan lahan, sampai panen. berbeda halnya dengan petani plasma yang pengelolaan kebunnya dilakukan oleh koperasi, sehingga biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan dapat ditekan. hasil uji beda 115 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 mendapatkan nilai t hitung sebesar -8,108 yang membuktikan lebih rendahnya biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani plasma dibandingkan dengan biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani swadaya, pada tingkat kepercayaan 99 persen. pendapatan petani kelapa sawit pola plasma dan swadaya petani plasma merupakan petani yang bekerjasama dengan perusahaan dengan hak dan kewajiban yang telah disepakati oleh kedua belah pihak. lahan kebun petani dikelola oleh perusahaan dan hasil dari usaha kebun tersebut dibagi sesuai dengan perjanjian. koperasi bertindak sebagai penghubung atau perantara dalam pembayaran hasil kebun kepada petani plasma. petani plasma memiliki lahan dengan luas rata-rata 1,41 hektare dan rata-rata umur tanaman kelapa sawit 21,92 tahun. petani plasma tidak mengelola sendiri kebun kelapa sawitnya, sehingga pada saat panen petani tidak mengetahui dengan tepat berapa produksi yang diperoleh dan harga jual yang diterima. setiap bulan petani mendapatkan hasil bersih atau pendapatan yang dibagikan lewat koperasi ke masing-masing kelompok taninya, semua anggota kelompok tani memperoleh pendapatan yang sama. setelah dikurangi dengan biaya transaksi, petani plasma memperoleh pendapatan dari kebun kelapa sawitnya sekitar rp30,4 juta per 1,41 hektar per tahun. petani swadaya merupakan petani yang memiliki kebun kelapa sawit yang diusahakan secara mandiri mulai dari kepemilikan lahan, permodalan, pengelolaan kebun hingga panen, bahkan untuk penjualan hasil panennya. keterbatasan modal dan tidak adanya bimbingan teknis menyebabkan produksi kelapa sawit petani swadaya cenderung lebih rendah dibandingkan petani plasma. salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi tandan buah segar kelapa sawit adalah pupuk. pemupukan harus memperhatikan umur tanaman kelapa sawit. pemupukan kelapa sawit yang benar adalah pemupukan dengan menggunakan pupuk tunggal yaitu rock phospate untuk memenuhi kebutuhan unsur p, kieserit untuk memenuhi kebutuhan unsur mg, urea untuk memenuhi kebutuhan unsur n, serta mop (muriate of potash) untuk memenuhi kebutuhan unsur k (panggabean & purwono, 2017). rata-rata penggunaan pupuk urea oleh petani swadaya sebesar 2,70 kg/pohon/tahun, sedangkan anjurannya hanya 2,50 kg/pohon/tahun. sementara itu, penggunaan pupuk kcl kurang dari yang direkomendasikan yaitu 2,00 kg/pohon/tahun. pupuk kandang digunakan sebanyak 24,93 kg/pohon/tahun. obat-obatan yang digunakan petani swadaya untuk pengendalian organisme penggangu tanaman antara lain regent, gramoxone, redox, dan round up. petani swadaya menggunakan tenaga kerja luar keluarga pada kegiatan pemanenan dengan curahan tenaga kerja sebesar 30,90 hok per 2,12 hektare per tahun; sedangkan tenaga kerja dalam keluarga yang digunakan hanya sebesar 13,16 hok per 2,12 hektare per tahun. produksi tbs kelapa sawit pada bulan agustus 2016 hingga juli 2017 mengalami fluktuasi yang cenderung menurun (gambar 1). produksi tertinggi terjadi pada bulan november 2016, sebesar 2.149 kg per hektare; sedangkan produksi terendah terjadi pada bulan mei 2017 hanya sebesar 811 kg per hektare. harga jual tbs kelapa sawit pada bulan agustus 2016 hingga juli 2017 juga berfluktuasi, tetapi tidak terlalu besar atau relatif stabil. harga jual tertinggi terjadi pada bulan maret 2017 sebesar rp1.301/kg dan harga jual terendah terjadi pada bulan juni 2017 sebesar rp915/kg. gambar 1. perkembangan produksi dan harga tandan buah segar (tbs) kelapa sawit di kabupaten tulang bawang pendapatan usaha kebun kelapa sawit petani swadaya adalah selisih dari penerimaan dengan biaya produksi dan biaya transaksi (tabel 20). biaya 116 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research produksi yang dikeluarkan dirinci atas biaya tunai dan biaya diperhitungkan. dengan penerimaan sekitar rp45 juta, dalam satu tahun petani swadaya menikmati pendapatan atas biaya tunai sebesar rp 35,8 juta atau pendapatan atas biaya total sebesar rp34.4 juta untuk luasan 2,12 hektar. perbandingan penerimaan dengan biaya, baik atas tunai maupun atas biaya total lebih besar dari satu (r/c>1), menunjukkan usaha kelapa sawit petani swadaya menguntungkan. tabel 2. rata-rata penerimaan, biaya, dan pendapatan usaha kebun kelapa sawit swadaya selama satu tahun di kabupaten tulang bawang uraian usahatani per 2,12 ha jumlah satuan harga (rp) nilai (rp) total penerimaan 1 tahun 45.128.431,2 i. biaya produksi 1. biaya tunai pupuk urea 768,14 kg 2.200,00 1.689.918,42 pupuk phonska 226,05 kg 3.300,00 745.973,68 pupuk kcl 51,97 kg 6.000,00 311.842,11 pupuk kandang 7.105,46 kg 498,00 3.538.519,34 obat-obatan rp 172.481,58 tk luar keluarga 30,90 hok 79.381,72 2.452.738,49 pbb rp 142.505,59 total biaya tunai 9.053.979,21 2. biaya diperhitungkan tk dalam keluarga 13,16 hok 79.543,75 1.046.628,29 penyusutan alat rp 437.242,01 total biaya diperhitungkan 1.483.870,30 3. total biaya produksi 10.537.849,5 ii. biaya transaksi rp 217.250,00 pendapatan 1. pendapatan atas biaya tunai 35.857.202,0 2. pendapatan atas biaya total 34.373.331,7 r/c atas biaya tunai 4,87 r/c atas biaya total 4,20 rata-rata pendapatan usaha kelapa petani plasma (rp21,6 juta/ha/tahun) lebih tinggi dari pada petani swadaya (rp16,9 juta/ha/tahun). hasil uji beda dengan nilai t-hitung sebesar 5,400 membuktikan bahwa secara statistik pendapatan petani plasma lebih tinggi dari pada pendapatan petani swadaya pada tingkat kepercayaan 99 persen. hal ini disebabkan kebun kelapa sawit petani plasma dikelola koperasi dengan standar pengelolaan yang lebih baik. integrasi petani plasma dengan perusahaan inti, melalui koperasi mengurangi ketidakpastian, sehingga fluktuasi produksi dan harga tbs, serta besarnya biaya transaksi yang harus dikeluarkan dapat ditekan. sementara itu, petani swadaya mengelola kebun kelapa sawitnya secara mandiri sehingga rawan terhadap ketidakpastian, baik fluktuasi produksi maupun harga tbs, serta memerlukan biaya transaksi yang lebih besar. hasil penelitian ini sama dengan hasil penelitian sebelumnya yang menemukan bahwa pendapatan usaha kebun kelapa sawit petani plasma lebih tinggi dari petani swadaya (lestari, hutabarat, & dewi, 2015). produktivitas kebun kelapa sawit petani plasma yang lebih tinggi merupakan faktor yang sangat berpengaruh terhadap tingkat pendapatan. disamping itu, petani plasma pada umumnya mendapatkan harga tbs yang lebih tinggi karena rendemen minyak sawit yang dihasilkan lebih baik dari petani swadaya. kesejahteraan petani kelapa sawit pola plasma dan swadaya tingkat kesejahteraan dianalisis dari kemampuan petani memenuhi delapan aspek sebagai indikator kesejahteraan, yang masing-masing diberi skor dengan kisaran 1-4. skor 1 diberikan untuk kemampuan pemenuhan indikator kesejahteraan sangat tinggi, sedangkan skor 4 diberikan untuk kemampauan pemenuhan indikator sangat rendah. proporsi petani (%) berdasarkan skor indikator kesejahteraan sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 3, menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbedaan kesejahteraan antara petani plasma dengan petani swadaya. dari delapan indikator kesejahteraan, tidak ada indikator yang mendapat skor 4. hal ini menunjukkan tidak ada petani yang pemenuhan indikator kesejahteraannya sangat rendah. indikator ketahanan pangan, pendidikan, peralatan rumah tangga, kemampuan baca tulis, dan kerawanan hanya mendapat skor 1 dan 2, artinya pemenuhan indikator kesejahteran untuk aspek-aspek tersebut sudah tinggi 117 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 atau sangat tinggi. sementara itu, untuk aspek pelayanan kesehatan, modal sosial, dan pemberdayaan diperoleh variasi skor 1, 2 dan 3; artinya pemenuhan indikator kesejahteraan untuk aspek-aspek tersebut ada yang masih rendah. tabel 3. perbedaan proporsi (%) petani plasma dan petani swadaya berdasarkan delapan aspek indikator kesejahteraan indikator skor keterangan indikator plasma (%) swaday a (%) ketahanan pangan 1 kecukupan pangan dan sesuai yang diinginkan 57,90 88,20 2 kecukupan pangan dan jenisnya tidak sesuai yang diinginkan 42,10 11,80 pendidikan 1 pendidikan hingga perguruan tinggi 72,40 44,70 2 pendidikan pada level menengah 27,60 55,30 pelayanan kesehatan 1 selalu memperoleh obat-obatan dan pelayanan kesehatan 46,10 53,90 2 biasanya mampu memperoleh obatobatan dan pelayanan kesehatan 52,60 46,10 3 terkadang tidak mampu memperoleh obatobatan dan pelayanan kesehatan 1,30 0,00 peralatan rumah tangga 1 mempunyai seluruh perlengkapan rumah tangga moderen 96,10 92,10 2 keluarga mempunyai 3 dari 4 perlengkapan 3,90 7,90 modal sosial 1 rumah tangga selalu terlibat dalam aktivitas masyarakat 42,10 35,50 2 rumah tangga terkadang terlibat dalam aktivitas masyarakat 42,10 57,90 3 rumah tangga jarang terlibat dalam aktivitas masyarakat 15,80 6,60 pemberda yaan 1 klien selalu merasa dihormati 35,50 11,80 2 klien terkadang merasa dihormati 64,50 85,50 3 klien jarang merasa dihormati 0,00 2,60 kemampu an baca tulis 1 klien dapat membaca, menulis, dan berhitung dasar 98,70 100,00 2 klien dapat melakukan 2 dari 3 kemampuan 1,30 0,00 kerawana n 1 tidak mempunyai kerawanan (balita, lansia, anggota keluarga berpenyakit kronis) 98,70 100,00 2 keluarga mempunyai 1 dari 3 kerawanan 1,30 0,00 aspek ketahanan pangan keluarga dilihat berdasarkan kemampuan keluarga untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pangan dengan bahan pangan sesuai keinginan. sebagian besar petani, 58 persen petani plasma dan 88% petani swadaya, merasa bahwa keluarga mereka selalu mempunyai bahan pangan yang cukup dan mampu memenuhi jenis makanan yang diinginkan. sementara sebagian lainnya merasa bahwa keluarga mereka selalu mempunyai bahan pangan yang cukup, namun tidak selalu mampu memenuhi jenis makanan yang diinginkan. lebih tingginya proporsi petani swadaya yang mampu memenuhi kebutuhan pangan dengan jenis makanan sesuai keinginan mengindikasikan lebih tingginya kesejahteraan petani swadaya dilihat dari aspek ketahanan pangan. aspek pendidikan dinilai berdasarkan kemampuan keluarga petani untuk mendukung anggota keluarganya mencapai tingkat pendidikan tertinggi. sebagian besar petani plasma (72 persen) merasa mampu untuk mendukung pendidikan anakanaknya hingga jenjang universitas, sedangkan sebagian besar petani swadaya (55 persen) hanya mampu mendukung pendidikan anak-anaknya hingga jenjang sekolah menengah. hal ini menunjukkan lebih tingginya kesejahteraan petani plasma dilihat dari aspek pendidikan aspek pelayanan kesehatan dinilai berdasarkan kemampuan petani untuk memperoleh obat-obatan dan pelayanan kesehatan yang dibutuhkan. proporsi petani swadaya yang selalu mampu memperoleh obat-obatan dan pelayanan kesehatan yang dibutuhkan lebih besar (54 persen) dibandingkan petani plasma (46 persen). bahkan masih terdapat petani plasma (1 persen) yang kadang tidak mampu memenuhi kebutuhan obat-obatan dan pelayanan kesehatan. hal ini menunjukkan kesejahteraan petani swadaya lebih tinggi dari petani plasma dilihat dari aspek pelayanan kesehatan. aspek peralatan rumah tangga dinilai berdasarkan apakah petani mempunyai perlengkapan moderen termasuk pompa air, listrik, septic-tank, dan telepon. hampir keseluruhan petani, 96 persen petani plasma dan 92 persen swadaya, memiliki semua perlengkapan modern; sedangkan sebagian lainnya 118 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research memiliki 3 dari 4 perlengkapan moderen yang seharusnya dimiliki. hal ini menunjukkan sudah tingginya kesejahteraan petani, baik plasma maupun swadaya, dilihat dari aspek kepemilikan perlengkapan rumahtangga. aspek modal sosial dilihat berdasarkan keterlibatan petani dalam kegiatan masyarakat. petani plasma yang selalu terlibat dalam kegiatan masyarakat lebih banyak (42 persen) dari pada petani swadaya (35 persen). demikian pula petani plasma yang jarang terlibat dalam kegiatan masyarakat (16 persen) lebih banyak dari pada petani swadaya (7 persen). hal ini menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbedaan tingkat kesejahteraan petani dilihat dari aspek modal sosial. aspek pemberdayaan dinilai dari sejauhmana petani merasa dihormati oleh masyarakat. lam menentukan tingkat kesejahteraan petani. sebagian besar petani, baik petani plasma (65 persen) maupun petani swadaya (85 persen), terkadang merasa dihormati di masyarakat. petani plasma yang merasa selalu dihormati (36 persen) lebih banyak dari pada petani swadaya (12 persen). hal ini menunjukkan kesejahteraan petani plasma lebih tinggi dibandingkan petani swadaya dilihat dari aspek pemberdayaan. rendahnya kesejahteraan petani swadaya dilihat dari aspek pemberdayaan ditunjukkan dari terdapatnya petani swadaya jarang merasa dihormati (3 persen). dilihat dari aspek kemampuan baca tulis dan aspek kerawanan, hampir seluruh petani plasma (99 persen) dan seluruh petani swadaya (100 persen) memiliki kemampuan membaca, menulis, dan berhitung dasar; dan tidak memiliki kerawanan dalam keluarga, yaitu tidak ada balita, lansia dan anggota keluarga yang mengidap penyakit kronis. artinya, kesejahteraan petani dilihat dari kedua aspek ini termasuk dalam katagori sangat tinggi. skor total semua aspek kesejahteraan yang diperoleh petani plasma maupun swadaya berkisar antara 8—14, dengan modus 10 untuk petani plasma dan 11 untuk petani swadaya. dengan demikian, seluruh petani kelapa sawit yang dijadikan responden termasuk dalam katagori sejahtera (tabel 4). tabel 4. sebaran petani plasma dan swadaya berdasarkan tingkat kesejahteraan total skor/kategori plasma swadaya jumlah (orang) % jumlah (orang) % 8—15 (sejahtera) 76 100,00 76 100,00 16—23 (tidak sejahtera) 0 0,00 0 0,00 24—32 (sangat tidak sejahtera) 0 0,00 0 0,00 dari tabel 4 dapat dilihat bahwa seluruh petani kelapa sawit baik plasma maupun swadaya tergolong dalam kategori sejahtera karena termasuk dalam interval total skor antara 8 hingga 15. hal ini sesuai dengan penelitian sebelumnya yang menyatakan usahatani kelapa sawit dapat meningkatan kesejahteraan petani di pedesaan (syahza, 2013). hasil uji beda mann whitney yang menghasilkan z-hitung = 0,583 mengindikasikan bahwa tingkat kesejahteraan petani plasma tidak berbeda nyata dengan tingkat kesejahteraan petani swadaya. kesimpulan integrasi petani plasma dengan perusahaan inti melalui koperasi menyebabkan biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani plasma jauh lebih kecil dibandingkan biaya transaksi yang dikeluarkan petani swadaya, masing-masing 67 ribu dan 127 ribu rupiah. usaha kebun kelapa sawit rakyat di kabupaten tulang bawang yang dilakukan oleh petani plasma maupun petani swadaya sama-sama menguntungkan, tetapi pendapatan petani plasma per hektar per tahun lebih tinggi 4-5 juta rupiah dibanding pendapatan petani swadaya. namun demikian, lebih luasnya kebun yang dikelola petani swadaya (2,12 hektar) dibandingkan petani plasma (1,41 hektar), menyebabkan pendapatan petani swadaya per tahun sedikit lebih tinggi dari petani plasma. konsekuensinya, baik petani plasma maupun petani swadaya sama-sama termasuk dalam katagori sejahtera. perbedaan pendapatan usaha kebun kelapa sawit yang cukup tinggi antara petani plasma dan petani swadaya menunjukkan pentingnya kelembagaan bagi petani kelapa sawit. untuk mewujudkannya, diperlukan upaya-upaya dari pihakpihak terkait baik 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(2013). the interplay of drivers and deterrents of opportunism in buyer-supplier relationships. journal of the academy of marketing science, 41(1), 111–131. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-012-0310-9. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 4 no. 2 juli-desember 2018 riyani1*, darsono2, minar ferichani2 1) program studi magister agribisnis, universitas sebelas maret 2) program studi agribisnis, universitas sebelas maret *) email korespondensi: riyani.new@gmail.com analisis permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh pasar tiongkok analysis of export demand for indonesian agricultural commodities by the chinese market doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4267 abstract china is one of the main export destination of indonesian agricultural commodities. nevertheless, the export trend of indonesian agricultural commodities to china during 20122016 tend to declined, therefore it is necessary to analyze it. this research aimed to analyze the determinant of indonesian agricultural commodities export demand by china. indonesian agricultural commodities export demand was estimated using a regression model on panel data. panel data in this research consisted of ten data of indonesian agricultural commodities export to china during 1999-2016 period. the results showed that indonesian agricultural commodities export demand by china was significantly influenced by real gdp per capita of china, real exchange rate, export price of agricultural commodities and import tariff of agricultural commodities in china. an increasing in real gdp per capita lead an increase in indonesian agricultural commodities export demand. the depreciation of rupiah which was expected to increase export demand, but in this research it decreased indonesian agricultural commodities export demand from china. in addition, indonesian agricultural commodities export demand tend to increased despite the export prices of agricultural commodities and import tariffs o f agricultural commodities in china increased. keywords: agricultural commodities, export demand, panel data intisari salah satu negara yang menjadi tujuan utama ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia adalah tiongkok. namun demikian, trend ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia ke tiongkok selama kurun waktu tahun 2012 -2016 cenderung menurun, oleh karena itu perlu dianalisis penyebabnya. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh t iongkok. model permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia diestimasi menggunakan regresi data panel. data panel yang digunakan terdiri dari data sepuluh komoditas pertanian ekspor indonesia ke tiongkok selama kurun waktu 1999-2016. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok secara signifikan dipengaruhi oleh gdp riil per kapita tiongkok, nilai tukar riil rupiah, harga ekspor komoditas pertanian dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok. peningkatan gdp riil per kapita tiongkok akan meningkatkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia. depresiasi nilai rupiah yang diharapkan dapat meningkatkan permintaan ekspor justru menurunkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongk ok. selain itu, permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia meningkat meskipun terjadi kenaikan harga ekspor komoditas pertanian dan juga tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok. kata kunci: data panel, komoditas pertanian, permintaan ekspor pendahuluan indonesia telah banyak terlibat dalam perdagangan internasional, baik ekspor maupun impor dengan berbagai negara di belahan dunia. ekspor indonesia selama kurun waktu tahun 20122016 cenderung mengalami penurunan. hal ini disebabkan adanya krisis finansial pada tahun 2011 yang menyebabkan permintaan ekspor dari negara tujuan ekspor indonesia mengalami penurunan. mailto:riyani.new@gmail.com 121 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 demikian juga impor indonesia selama kurun waktu tersebut juga cenderung mengalami penurunan.trend penurunan ekspor tersebut, tidak hanya terjadi pada perdagangan indonesia dengan dunia namun juga terjadi pada perdagangan bilateral indonesia dengan tiongkok. tiongkok merupakan salah satu kekuatan ekonomi dunia, dan telah menjadi salah satu mitra dagang terpenting indonesia dari tahun ke tahun (setiawan, 2012). selain itu, tiongkok merupakan salah satu negara yang memiliki jumlah penduduk terbanyak di dunia dan wilayah yang luas. hal ini menjadikan tiongkok sebagai pasar yang potensial bagi produk-produk indonesia, termasuk produk pertanian. sebagai negara mitra dagang utama indonesia, selama kurun waktu 2013-2016, total perdagangan antara indonesia dengan tiongkok paling tinggi diantara negara-negara mitra dagang yang lain, namun demikian tiongkok juga merupakan negara penyumbang defisit perdagangan terbesar bagi indonesia. berdasarkan data dari kementerian perdagangan, selama kurun waktu 2012-2016 trend ekspor ke tiongkok menurun sebesar 8,76% sedangkan trend pertumbuhan impor meningkat sebesar 0,8%. total nilai perdagangan pada tahun 2016 adalah sebesar us$ 47,58 miliar, dengan ekspor indonesia senilai us$ 16,78 miliar dan impor senilai us$ 30,80 miliar. total nilai perdagangan tahun 2016 meningkat dibandingkan tahun sebelumnya yang hanya mencapai us$ 44,57 miliar (kementerian perdagangan, 2017). selama kurun waktu 2012-2016, perdagangan antara indonesia dan tiongkok lebih didominasi oleh sektor non migas. salah satu komoditas non migas yang menjadi unggulan ekspor indonesia ke tiongkok adalah komoditas pertanian. perdagangan komoditas pertanian diidentifikasikan sebagai kunci penggerak pembangunan dan pertumbuhan ekonomi di negara berkembang yang ingin mengambil keuntungan dari liberalisasi perdagangan dalam era globalisasi (verter, 2016). tiongkok merupakan negara tujuan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia kedua setelah india, dan komoditas utama yang diekspor ke tiongkok pada tahun 2016 adalah kelapa sawit yang mencapai us$ 2,21 milyar, karet sebesar us$ 401,02 juta, kelapa sebesar us$ 222,81 juta dan kakao sebesar us$ 68,23 juta (pusat data dan informasi pertanian, 2017). selama kurun waktu tahun 2012 sampai 2016, ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia ke tiongkok berfluktuasi dan cenderung mengalami penurunan, demikian juga impor komoditas pertanian dari tiongkok ke indonesia. namun demikian, neraca perdagangan komoditas pertanian antara indonesia dengan tiongkok selama kurun waktu tahun 2012 sampai dengan 2016 selalu mengalami surplus sebagaimana terlihat pada gambar 1. gambar 1. neraca perdagangan komoditas pertanian antara indonesia an china (ribu us$) surplus perdagangan komoditas pertanian antara indonesia dengan tiongkok mengindikasikan bahwa perdagangan komoditas pertanian ke tiongkok masih menguntungkan, namun demikian ekspor komoditas pertanian yang cenderung mengalami penurunan perlu mendapatkan perhatian dan perlu diidentifikasi faktor yang mempengaruhinya. identifikasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor merupakan upaya strategis guna mengevaluasi kinerja ekspor dan merumuskan upaya-upaya antisipasi (lubis, 2010). beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor antara lain volume ekspor tahun sebelumnya, jumlah penduduk, pendapatan per kapita, dan nilai tukar mata uang (purnomowati, darwanto, widodo, & hartono, 2015). melambatnya pertumbuhan ekonomi negara tujuan ekspor dapat menyebabkan daya beli masyarakat di negara tujuan ekspor menurun sehingga berpengaruh terhadap menurunnya permintaan ekspor suatu negara. harga suatu komoditas juga dapat mempengaruhi permintaan ekspor. kenaikan harga barang ekspor akan mengurangi permintaan barang ekspor tersebut di luar negeri. apabila harga barang-barang ekspor mengalami penurunan, maka akibat yang ditimbulkan sebaliknya (sukirno, 2001). faktor lain yang dapat mempengaruhi permintaan ekspor adalah nilai tukar (purnomowati, darwanto, widodo, & hartono, 2015; akhmadi, 2017). nilai tukar yang berfluktuasi dan kecenderungan melemahnya nilai tukar rupiah terhadap mata uang negara lain terutama dollar amerika serikat, ternyata tidak selalu mendorong peningkatan ekspor. depresiasi nilai tukar rupiah terhadap mata uang negara lain tersebut seharusnya 122 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dapat menjadikan harga komoditas ekspor indonesia lebih murah di pasar internasional sehingga dapat mendorong peningkatan ekspor. depresiasi nilai tukar rupiah berpengaruh pada menurunnya ekspor produk manufaktur indonesia (kahfi, 2016), namun depresiasi nilai tukar dapat juga mempengaruhi permintaan ekspor secara positif (karagoz, 2006; khediri & bouazizi, 2007). berbagai penelitian mengenai faktor yang mempengaruhi ekspor (akhmadi, 2017; kahfi, 2016; purnomowati, darwanto, widodo, & hartono, 2015; lubis, 2010; khediri & bouazizi, 2007; dan karagoz, 2006) belum memasukkan variabel tarif sebagai salah satu faktor yang diestimasi dapat berpengaruh terhadap ekspor. penelitian yang membahas mengenai tarif, khususnya tarif impor yang dikenakan pada komoditas pertanian yang berasal dari indonesia oleh tiongkok sejak tahun 1999 masih terbatas. padahal tarif merupakan salah satu faktor yang bisa menghambat perdagangan ekspor dan impor. pengenaan tarif akan dapat menaikkan harga barang impor sehingga permintaan ekspor dari negara lain menurun (krugman & obstfeld, 1993). hal inilah yang melatar belakangi penelitian ini untuk mengkaji tarif sebagai salah satu variabel yang diestimasi dapat berpengaruh terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. selain itu, pada penelitian terdahulu, kajian terkait ekspor seringkali hanya fokus pada komoditas tertentu dengan tujuan ekspor ke pasar dunia. sementara dinamika ekspor sering bersifat spesifik negara, dimana kondisi perekonomian suatu negara akan berpengaruh terhadap ekspor indonesia ke negara tersebut, namun tidak berpengaruh terhadap ekspor indonesia ke negara lain. oleh karena itu perlu adanya penelitian terkait ekspor berdasarkan negara tujuan ekspor tertentu. berkaitan dengan hal tersebut maka tujuan penelitian ini yaitu untuk menganalisis faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan masukan kepada para pemangku kebijakan dalam penentuan kebijakan terkait ekspor komoditas pertanian. metode penelitian data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data sekunder yaitu data panel yang merupakan gabungan antara data deret waktu dan data antar individu. data deret waktu yang digunakan meliputi data tahunan selama 18 tahun yaitu tahun 1999-2016. sedangkan untuk data antar individu meliputi data 10 komoditas pertanian ekspor indonesia ke tiongkok. komoditas pertanian tersebut dipilih berdasarkan nilai ekspor tertinggi pada tahun 2016 yaitu komoditas cocoa butter; technically specified natural rubber; crude coconut oil; vegetable fat and oil; coconut oil; palm oil; edible mixtures or preparations of animal or vegetable fats or oils; cocoa powder; coffee dan cotton waste. data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini berupa data nilai ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia yang diimpor oleh tiongkok yang dinyatakan dalam us$, gross domestic bruto (gdp) riil per kapita tiongkok yang dinyatakan dalam us$, nilai tukar riil rupiah yang dinyatakan dalam rp/us$, harga ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia yang dinyatakan dalam us$/unit dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian indonesia di tiongkok yang dinyatakan dalam persen. data pada penelitian ini diperoleh dari world development indicators (wdi), world trade organization (wto), trademap, dan un comtrade. untuk menganalisis permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok (xit) digunakan regresi data panel dalam bentuk model dobel logaritma dengan variabel bebas riil gross domestic product per kapita tiongkok (rgdpctit), nilai tukar riil rupiah (rexrit), harga ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia (expriceit), dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian indonesia di tiongkok (tariftit). adapun model matematisnya adalah sebagai berikut: ln xit = α + β1 ln (rgdpct)it + β2 ln (rexr)it + β3 ln (exprice)it + β4ln tariftit+ uit α adalah intersep; dan β1 β2 β3 β4 adalah parameter yang akan diestimasi model yang digunakan untuk mengestimasi data panel ada tiga macam, yaitu model common effect/pooled least square, fixed effect, dan random effect. keputusan untuk memilih model yang digunakan pada analisis data panel dapat dilakukan berdasarkan pada uji chow test, hausman test dan langrange multiplier test (gujarati & porter, 2009). chow test atau biasa disebut dengan uji f statistics merupakan pengujian statistik yang bertujuan memilih model fixed effect atau common effect. jika 123 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 hasil dari chow test signifikan menunjukkan bahwa model fixed effect yang digunakan. hausman test merupakan uji untuk menentukan apakah akan menggunakan model fixed effect atau model random effect. jika hasil dari hausman test signifikan menunjukkan bahwa model fixed effect yang digunakan. langrange multiplier (lm) test merupakan uji untuk menentukan apakah akan menggunakan model random effect atau common effect. jika hasil dari lm test signifikan menunjukkan bahwa model random effect yang digunakan. pada model rem, diasumsikan αi merupakan variabel random dengan mean α0. sehingga intersep dapat dinyatakan sebagai αi = α0 + εi dengan εi merupakan error random yang mempunyai mean 0 dan varians σε2, εitersebut tidak secara langsung diobservasi ataudisebut juga variabel laten. oleh karena itu persamaan model rem adalah sebagai berikut (gujarati dan porter, 2009) : yit = α0 + β’xit + wit, i = 1, 2......n; t = 1, 2,......t dengan wit = εi + uit. suku error gabungan wit memuat dua komponen error yaitu εi komponen error cross-section dan uit yang merupakan kombinasi komponen error crosssection dan time series. beberapa asumsi yang berlaku pada rem yaitu bahwa komponen error individu tidak saling berkorelasi dan tidak berautokorelasi antar unit cross-section dan time series. setelah dilakukan pengujian untuk memilih model yang terbaik, pada penelitian ini juga dilakukan pengujian asumsi klasik yaitu uji normalitas, uji multikolinieritas, uji heteroskedastisitas dan uji autokorelasi. apabila model regresi data panel yang terpilih adalah model random effect, maka tidak dilakukan uji asumsi klasik heteroskedastisitas dan autokorelasi. hal ini dikarenakan model random effect menggunakan metode estimasi generalized least square (gls), yang dipercaya dapat mengatasi adanya autokorelasi runtun waktu (time series) serta korelasi antar observasi (cross section). metode gls menghasilkan estimator yang dapat memenuhi sifat best linier unbiased estimation (blue) dan merupakan metode treatment untuk mengatasi pelanggaran asumsi heteroskedastisitas dan autokorelasi (greene, 2007; gujarati dan porter, 2009). pengujian terhadap model yang digunakan juga dilakukan pada penelitian ini yaitu berupa pengujian koefisian determinasi (r2) untuk mengetahui besarnya proporsi pengaruh variabelvariabel bebas terhadap variabel terikat, uji f untuk mengetahui apakah variabel bebas yang digunakan secara bersama-sama berpengaruh nyata terhadap variabel terikat dan uji t untuk melihat pengaruh masing-masing variabel bebas secara terpisah terhadap variabel terikat (gujarati & porter, 2009). hasil dan pembahasan pada tahun 2016, tiongkok merupakan negara pengimpor komoditas pertanian terbesar ketiga setelah uni eropa dan amerika serikat, yaitu sebesar 8,2% komoditas pertanian dunia. pangsa impor komoditas pertanian tiongkok ini mengalami peningkatan dari tahun 2000 yang hanya mencapai 2,3 % (fao, 2018). impor komoditas pertanian tiongkok yang mengalami peningkatan ini menggambarkan semakin tingginya permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian oleh tiongkok dari negara lain. indonesia telah mengekspor komoditas pertanian ke tiongkok. nilai ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia ke tiongkok selama kurun waktu 1999 sampai dengan 2011 cenderung mengalami peningkatan, namun demikian selama kurun waktu 2012 sampai dengan 2016, nilai ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia ke tiongkok cenderung mengalami penurunan. ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia ke tiongkok selama kurun waktu 2012 sampai dengan 2016 didominasi oleh komoditas perkebunan yang mencapai lebih dari 97% dari total ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia ke tiongkok (pusdatin, 2017). selama kurun waktu 1999-2016, gdp riil per kapita tiongkok cenderung mengalami peningkatan dari tahun ke tahun (gambar 2). pada tahun 1999, gdp riil per kapita tiongkok sebesar 1.646 us$ meningkat menjadi sebesar 6894,5 us$ pada tahun 2016. nilai tukar riil rupiah terhadap dollar selama kurun 1999-2015 berfluktuasi (gambar 2), pada 124 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tahun 1999 nilainya sebesar rp.14.154,18/us$, sedangkan pada tahun 2016 nilainya menjadi rp.10.695,21/us$. harga ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia selama kurun waktu penelitian juga mengalami fluktuasi, sedangkan tarif impor yang dikenakan untuk komoditas pertanian indonesia di pasar tiongkok cenderung mengalami penurunan. gambar 2. gdp riil per kapita tiongkok dan nilai tukar riil rupiah (1999-2016) permintaan ekspor suatu negara sangat ditentukan oleh kondisi perekonomian negara pengimpor. terkait hal tersebut, beberapa faktor yang diestimasi dapat berpengaruh terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok adalah gdp riil per kapita tiongkok, harga ekspor komoditas pertanian, nilai tukar riil rupiah, dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok. analisis untuk mengetahui pengaruh gdp riil per kapita tiongkok, harga ekspor komoditas pertanian, nilai tukar riil rupiah dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok dilakukan dengan regresi data panel. hasil pengujian untuk pemilihan model regresi data panel pada penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut: a. uji chow berdasarkan hasil uji chow didapatkan nilai probabilitas cross section f sebesar 0,0000 lebih kecil dari 0,05 (tingkat signifikansi atau alpha), oleh karena itu dapat disimpulkan bahwa model yang terpilih adalah model fixed effect. oleh karena model fixed effect lebih tepat untuk digunakan dibandingkan model common effect, maka selanjutnya dilakukan pengujian untuk memilih antara model fixed effect atau random effect dengan uji hausman. b. uji hausman berdasarkan uji hausman didapatkan nilai probabilitas chi-square sebesar 0,1030 lebih besar dari alpha (0,05), sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa model yang terpilih adalah model random effect. oleh karena model random effect lebih baik daripada model fixed effect, maka selanjutnya dilakukan pengujian untuk memilih antara model random effect atau common effect dengan uji lm test. c. uji lm test berdasarkan uji lm test didapatkan nilai probabilitas chi-square sebesar 0,0000 lebih kecil dari alpha (0,05), sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa model yang terpilih adalah model random effect. model terbaik untuk penelitian permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok berdasarkan pengujian pemilihan model yang telah dilakukan adalah random effect model. oleh karena model regresi data panel yang terpilih pada penelitian adalah model random effect, maka tidak relevan untuk dilakukan uji asumsi klasik heteroskedastisitas dan autokorelasi pada penelitian ini. pengujian asumsi yang dilakukan pada penelitian ini hanya berupa pengujian normalitas dan multikolinearitas. berdasarkan hasil uji normalitas didapatkan nilai probabilitas chi-square (0,71) lebih besar dari α (5%), artinya sebaran data terdistribusi secara normaldan berdasarkan uji multikolinearitas didapatkan nilai koefisien korelasi antar masingmasing variabel bebas berada dibawah 0,85, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada multikolinearitas di dalam model permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. oleh karena itu, berdasarkan pengujian asumsi klasik yang telah dilakukan maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa asumsi klasik model regresi telah dipenuhi sehingga didapatkan persamaan regresi yang tidak bias. hasil estimasi permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok dengan menggunakan regresi data panel model random effect dapat dilihat pada tabel 1. 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 gdp riil perkapita tiongkok … 125 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 tabel 1. estimasi regresi permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok dengan model random effect variabel koefisien tstatistik prob. gdp riil per kapita tiongkok 2,623999 7,70 0,000** nilai tukar riil rupiah -1,959129 -2,14 0,033** harga ekspor komoditas pertanian 0,3855085 1,97 0,048** tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok 0,598169 1,65 0,098* c 11,60508 1,11 0,266 r-square 0,6626 f-statistik 323,08 prob (f-statistik) 0.0000 jumlah observasi 180 sumber: analisis data sekunder (2017) catatan : * signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 90% ** signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 95% berdasarkan hasil pengujian model regresi, didapatkan koefisien determinasi (r2) sebesar 0,66, menunjukkan bahwa variasi variabel ekspor dapat dijelaskan oleh variabel gdp riil per kapita tiongkok, nilai tukar riil rupiah, harga ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok sebesar 66% dan sisanya 34% dijelaskan oleh variabel-variabel lain yang tidak dimasukkan di dalam model. hasil uji f menunjukkan bahwa variabel bebas gdp riil per kapita tiongkok, nilai tukar riil rupiah, harga ekspor komoditas pertanian dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok secara bersama-sama berpengaruh signifikan terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. berdasarkan hasil uji t didapatkan variabel gdp per kapita riil per kapita tiongkok, nilai tukar riil rupiah dan harga ekspor komoditas pertanian signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 95%, sedangkan variabel tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok signifikan pada tingkat kepercayaan 90%. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa gdp riil per kapita tiongkok berpengaruh positif terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. peningkatan gdp riil per kapita suatu negara mencerminkan peningkatan pendapatan masyarakat di negara tersebut. peningkatan pendapatan akan meningkatkan daya beli konsumen (lukman, 2012), sehingga bagian yang bisa dikonsumsi atau dibelanjakan juga lebih banyak. daya beli masyarakat tiongkok yang meningkat menyebabkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok juga meningkat. selain itu, peningkatan gdp per kapita tiongkok dapat mendorong perkembangan industri di tiongkok, termasuk industri berbahan baku komoditas pertanian. perkembangan industri otomotif di tiongkok sebagai akibat dari peningkatan ekonomi negara tersebut, mendorong peningkatan ekspor karet indonesia ke tiongkok (novianti & hendratno, 2008). oleh karena itu perkembangan industri di tiongkok tersebut dapat mendorong peningkatan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. lebih lanjut, beberapa hasil penelitian terdahulu juga menyatakan bahwa pengaruh gdp per kapita negara mitra terhadap permintaan ekspor adalah positif dan signifikan (karagoz, 2016; crescimanno, galati, & yahiaoui, 2013; ibrahim, 2012; haider, afzal, & riaz, 2011; ogbonna, 2009). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan pendapatan negara mitra akan menyebabkan peningkatan ekspor (akhmadi, 2017; purnomowati, darwanto, widodo, & hartono, 2015). namun penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa gdp per kapita berpengaruh negatif terhadap permintaan ekspor malaysia (abidin, bakar, & sahlan, 2013). peningkatan pendapatan per kapita di negara mitra, menyebabkan lebih banyak barang diproduksi di negara tersebut sehingga ekspor dari negara lain berkurang. faktor lain yang berpengaruh signifikan terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok adalah nilai tukar riil. nilai tukar riil berpengaruh negatif terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. secara teori, depresiasi nilai rupiah akan menyebabkan harga ekspor lebih murah sehingga meningkatkan permintaan ekspor, namun hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan depresiasi nilai rupiah akan menurunkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. alasan yang mungkin terjadi yaitu bahwa dampak depresiasi nilai tukar rupiah menyebabkan produk indonesia menjadi murah bagi pembeli internasional. oleh karena itu, pembeli menghabiskan lebih sedikit uang 126 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dari sebelum depresiasi meskipun mereka membeli dalam jumlah yang sama. sebagai akibatnya, total nilai ekspor indonesia menurun (kahfi, 2016). adanya penggunaan input produksi yang berasal dari impor pada produksi komoditas pertanian, misalnya pupuk. impor pupuk indonesia pada tahun 2016 mencapai sebesar 6,5 juta ton (bps, 2017). adanya depresiasi nilai rupiah menyebabkan harga input produksi impor tersebut menjadi mahal sehingga dapat meningkatkan biaya produksi. selain itu, adanya dampak perubahan nilai tukar terhadap inflasi misalnya kenaikan upah tenaga kerja, kenaikan harga bahan baku dan kenaikan bahan bakar minyak secara tidak langsung juga akan mempengaruhi biaya produksi. kenaikan harga bahan bakar minyak berpengaruh pada kenaikan biaya produksi, termasuk produksi sektor pertanian yaitu pada proses produksi dan pengangkutan (lubis, 2010). peningkatan biaya produksi akan meningkatkan harga jual sehingga dampaknya dapat mengurangi permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian. adanya depresiasi nilai rupiah akan menurunkan ekspor (akhmadi, 2017; lubis, 2010). namun, nilai tukar berpengaruh positif terhadap volume ekspor turki (karagoz, 2016) dan juga ekspor tunisia ke negara perdagangan utama di eropa (khediri&bouazizi, 2007). kenaikan nilai tukar rupiah terhadap dollar yang ditandai dengan menguatnya nilai dollar terhadap rupiah akan mengakibatkan harga barang ekspor turun, sehingga ekspor akan meningkat (pramana & meydianawathi, 2013). dalam transaksi perdagangan, harga suatu komoditas merupakan salah satu faktor yang harus diperhatikan karena harga dapat menjadi penentu seberapa banyak komoditas tersebut akan diperdagangkan. pada penelitian ini didapatkan bahwa harga ekspor komoditas pertanian berpengaruh positif terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa meningkatnya harga ekspor komoditas pertanian tidak menyebabkan penurunan permintaan komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. hasil penelitian ini berbeda dengan teori bahwa peningkatan harga ekspor akan dapat menyebabkan menurunnya permintaan ekspor komoditas tersebut. hal ini dapat disebabkan komoditas pertanian indonesia yang diekspor ke tiongkok memiliki daya saing yang cukup tinggi diantaranya yaitu kakao, karet, kelapa dan kelapa sawit (kementerian pertanian, 2015) sehingga meskipun terjadi kenaikan harga, permintaan terhadap komoditas tersebut tidak menurun. kenaikan harga komoditas ekspor indonesia yang lebih rendah dibandingkan kenaikan harga komoditas yang sama dari negara lain, juga dapat mengakibatkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian tersebut oleh tiongkok meningkat karena tiongkok lebih memilih mengimpor dari indonesia dibandingkan dari negara lain tersebut. selain itu, adanya perjanjian kerja ekspor dan impor mengakibatkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian tetap tinggi. perjanjian kerja ekspor-impor pada umumnya menyangkut kesepakatan harga antara eksportir dan importir serta volume permintaan dari importir (prasetyo, marwanti, & darsono, 2017). namun demikian, penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan harga ekspor menurunkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian dan barang industri indonesia ke sepuluh negara mitra utama (lubis, 2010). faktor selanjutnya yang diestimasi dapat mempengaruhi permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok adalah tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok. tarif merupakan kebijakan pemerintah yang paling populer untuk membatasi perdagangan internasional. berdasarkan hasil analisis didapatkan bahwa tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok berpengaruh positif terhadap permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. hasil ini mengindikasikan bahwa meskipun terjadi kenaikan tarif impor, permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia tetap tinggi. hal ini dapat disebabkan karena tiongkok membutuhkan bahan pangan dan juga bahan baku untuk industri yang salah satunya berasal dari komoditas pertanian indonesia. di pasar tiongkok, indonesia menjadi salah satu negara pengekspor terbesar untuk komoditas seperti minyak sawit, minyak kelapa, produk kakao dan karet. pangsa pasar minyak kelapa indonesia di tiongkok pada tahun 2016 adalah sebesar 82,7 % sedangkan komoditas 127 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 minyak sawit memiliki pangsa pasar 58,3 % pada impor tiongkok (un comtrade, 2017). ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia ke tiongkok sebagian besar merupakan bahan mentah atau bahan setengah jadi yang merupakan bahan baku industri di tiongkok. oleh karena itu, meskipun terjadi kenaikan tarif impor, permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia dari tiongkok tetap tinggi karena untuk menjaga keberlangsungan proses produksi industri dalam negerinya. meskipun terjadi kenaikan tingkat tarif, permintaan impor malaysia tetap meningkat karena sebagian besar produk tersebut merupakan barang yang diperlukan untuk kegiatan produksi dan pengolahan (mohamad, 2012). hasil penelitian ini mendukung hasil penelitian yang menyatakan bahwa tarif berpengaruh signifikan terhadap ekspor lima negara asean ke korea selatan dan taiwan (asirvatham, rasiah, thangiah, & naghavi, 2017). kesimpulan gdp riil per kapita tiongkok, harga ekspor komoditas pertanian dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok dapat meningkatkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. namun demikian nilai tukar riil rupiah dapat menurunkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. depresiasi nilai rupiah yang diharapkan dapat meningkatkan permintaan ekspor justru menurunkan permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia oleh tiongkok. oleh karena itu, kebijakan menjaga stabilitas nilai tukar merupakan kebijakan yang perlu dilakukan agar peningkatan ekspor indonesia dapat terjadi. permintaan ekspor komoditas pertanian indonesia tetap meningkat meskipun terjadi kenaikan harga ekspor komoditas pertanian dan tarif impor komoditas pertanian di tiongkok. hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa komoditas pertanian ekspor indonesia ke tiongkok memiliki daya saing dan dibutuhkan oleh tiongkok untuk menjaga keberlangsungan proses industrinya. oleh karena itu, upaya peningkatan kualitas produk perlu terus dilakukan guna tetap mempertahankan dan meningkatkan daya saing komoditas pertanian indonesia. daftar pustaka abidin, i. s.z., 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(2017). the influence of exchange rate on indonesian cpo export. jurnal ekonomi pembangunan, 18(2), 159174.http://doi.org/10.23917/jep.v18i2.4233 purnomowati, h.d., darwanto, d.h., widodo, s., & hartono, s. (2015). analisis permintaan karet alam indonesia di pasar internasional. agraris : journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1(2), 136-148. https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.1217 pusat data dan informasi pertanian. (2017). basis data ekspor impor komoditas pertanian. jakarta. retrieved from http//www.database.pertanian.go.id. setiawan, s. (2012). asean-china fta : dampaknya terhadap ekspor indonesia dan china. buletin ilmiah litbang perdagangan, 6(2), 1-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.30908/bilp.v6i2.97 sukirno, s. (2001). pengantar teori makroekonomi, edisi kedua. jakarta : pt. raja grafindo persada. un comtrade. (2017). trade data. retrieved from https://comtrade.un.org/data/ verter, n. (2016). cocoa export performance in the world’s largest producer. bulgarian journal of agricultural science, 22(5), 713-721. http://www.agrojournal.org/22/05-03.html imade yoga prasada*, masyhuri program studi ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian universitas gadjah mada, indonesia *) email korespondensi: imade.yogap@gmail.com agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 the conversion of agricultural land in urban areas (case study of pekalongan city, central java) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5280 abstract agricultural land in urban areas has a strategic role as a provider of food for city resident, as well as supporting the environment of the urban area. the important role of the existence of agricultural land in urban areas over the past few decades faces a serious threat, namely the occurrence of agricultural land conversion. therefore, this research was carried out with the aim to analyze the trend of agricultural land conversion in urban areas and to find out the factors that influence the agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city. the data used in this study were secondary data sourced from the central statistics agency of pekalongan city. data were analyzed using trend model analysis and tobit models. the results showed that the trend of agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city was positive, so there was a tendency for the agricultural land conversion to increase from year to year. the factors that influence the area of agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city were the real price of paddy at the farmer level and paddy productivity. both of these factors have a negative sign, it shows that an increase in real prices of paddy and paddy productivity could reduce the agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city. keywords: agricultural land conversion, cities, pekalongan city, tobit, trend introduction urban areas are a type of region that has characteristics with high economic growth rates and large population growth rates. in addition, urban areas will be very identical with the emergence of urbanization in the rural areas towards urban areas. urban areas in general will consist of two regions, namely the centre of city areas and sub-urban areas. the centre of the city area inclined to have characteristics such as high industrial activities, trade, and other commercial activities. on the contrary, sub-urban areas tend to be regions that have high economic contribution from the agricultural sector. sub-urban areas become areas that support the centre of city area. the sub-urban areas become the centre of agricultural production that fulfil the food needs of the people in the centre of city (didomenica & gordon, 2016; rezai, shamsudin, & mohamed, 2016). moreover, in order to meet the food needs of the community, there are several other roles possessed by the existence of agricultural land on the outskirts of the city. those contributions of agricultural land included a buffer zone for pollution that occurs in the centre of city, decomposition of organic waste, rainwater catchment areas, flood control sites and life support environmental ecosystem (biodiversity) (jamal & mortez, 2014; ramzi et al., 2017). even though agricultural land has a very important role to the community of urban area, there is no guarantee that the agricultural land on the outskirts of the city will remain available in the future. in fact, urban areas are the regions that have very high rates of agricultural land conversion. this was triggered by the increasing economic activity of the non-agricultural sector in urban areas which caused the demand for land from the non -agricultural sector increase. in addition, the high flow of urbani zation in urban areas has contributed to increasing the rate of population growth 113 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 in urban areas and triggering an increase in demand for land for settlements or housing. therefore, the sustainability of agricultural land will be increasingly threatened and it simultaneously threaten the loss of various strategic roles of the existence of agricultural land in urban areas. research related to the conversion of agricultural land has been carried out in various regions in indonesia. research in south minahasa regency shows that the conversion of agricultural land in the region is influenced by the per capita gross regional domestic product (grdp) (lagarense et al., 2015). these results were obtained using multiple linear regression methods. furthermore, other studies were also conducted in jember regency. the results of the research show that the conversion of agricultural land in jember regency is influenced by the factors of the age of the farmer and the productivity of the cultivated land (d. e. putra & ismail, 2017). the results of the study were conducted using logistic regression methods with primary data. research in lamongan regency shows that the conversion of agricultural land can occur due to the influence of the ratio of land price ratio to regional accessibility ratio and the results obtained using the gwr analysis method (geographically weighted regression) (kurniasari & ariastita, 2014). over the past few years, the conversion of agricultural land has become a threat to the sustainability of agricultural land in various regions in indonesia, especially in the urban areas. theoretically, the sustainability of agricultural land in urban areas faces the threat of land use change caused by the occurrence of urban sprawl activities or urban expansion (sudirman, 2012). the occurrence of urban sprawl will urge changes in the function of land that has low land rent to be another function that has a high land rent value in urban areas. agricultural land is one of the uses of land that has a low land rent, so the conversion of agricultural land will threaten this land use. therefore, this study aim to analyze the factors that affect agricultural land conversion that occur in urban areas by using case studies in the research area in pekalongan city. this research belongs to the new research category because research related to agricultural land conversion in urban areas are still rarely conducted. in addition, this study uses the tobit analysis method, an analysis that allows the use of latent variables in the analysis model. this study also uses independent variables in the form of real paddy prices, number of industries, nonagricultural sector grdp per capita, road length, rice productivity, and population, so that it is expected to provide more accurate results related to factors that affect agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city. the purpose of this study was to 1) determine the development of agricultural land conversion that occurred in pekalongan city, 2) determine the factors that influence the conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city. methods this research using secondary data sourced from the central statistics agency of pekalongan city in the period 1989 to 2017. the data used in this study were data on agricultural land area in pekalongan city, agricultural land conversion data, real paddy prices in farmer level, number of industries, grdp in the non-agricultural sector per capita, road length, paddy productivity, and population in pekalongan city. pekalongan city was chosen as the location of the study carried out by using a purposive sampling method because pekalongan city is a city on java island which has the largest proportion of agricultural land area compared to other cities in java. data were analyzed using a trend analysis tool to answer the first purpose, that was knowing the development of the agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city. trend analysis used to be able to know clearly the development of agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city, both up and down in the long run. trend analysis can be used to conduct analysis on data that tends to have a relatively long time series, so that trend analysis can provide the right results (veno & syamsudin, 2016). the trend equation model can be seen as follows: y= a + bx 114 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research where y is the agricultural land conversion areas (hectares) and x is time variable (years). the second objective, that was to find out the factors that influence the conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city, it was done using the tobit regression analysis model. tobit regression is carried out in this study because of the special characteristics of the data used in the research, namely the dependent variable of the data used has latent variables or unobserved variables, so it was zero values (wooldridge, 2016). in general, the tobit model can be written using the following equation: yi * = βxi + εi, i = 1, 2, …, n yi= yi * if yi * > 0 yi= 0 if yi * ≤ 0 where yi was the dependent variable measured by using the yi* latent variable which has a positive value, and is censored if it is the opposite. β was a vector of predictable parameters. xiwas a vector of independent variables. εi is an error term that was normally distributed and n was the number of observations (liu, zhang, & fu, 2017). based on this theory, in this study the tobit model used was as follows: alc = β0+β1x1+β2x2+β3x3+β4x4+β5x5+β6x6+ +εi where alc is the dependent variable of the agricultural land conversion areas (hectares), x1 is the real paddy price at farmer level (rp), x2 is the number of industries (units), x3 is the non-agricultural sector per capita grdp variable (rp), x4 is the variable length of road (km), x5 is a variable of paddy productivity, and x6 is a variable in the number of population in pekalongan city (person). βi (i = 1, 2, 3, ..., 6) is the parameter of the regression result of tobit and εi is the error term. results and discussion the development of agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city the urban sprawl phenomenon which also known as the expansion of the urban area, has led to the city developing into the suburbs. the expansion of the city area has an impact on increasing land requirements to transform into urban areas, thus it trigger some function of land to be sacrificed to meet those needs. the area of land in a region is basically permanent over time. this gives the consequence that the area of land will tend to be very difficult to add and very unlikely to decrease, but it will be very possible to alterits function. therefore, land use in a region has a tendency to be dynamic. the utilization of a type of land can cause a trade-off in the use of land (ghazouani, 2013). this trade-off on land use will occur when a type of land can be used for a variety of different functions, for example, a type of land can be used to build a settlement or can also be used for farming activities of plantation crops. if the land is used for residential land, then the land cannot be used for plantation activities. otherwise, when the land is used for plantation crops, the consequence is that the land cannot be used as residential land. this trade-off on land use will always occur, and utilization decisions from the land will depend on the land rent value of each type of use that is possible. land use which has the highest land rent value that will be chosen as the best land use decision (daulay et al., 2016; sumarga & hein, 2016). urban sprawl in urban areas has led to the emergence of trade-offs on land use (d. r. putra & pradoto, 2016; suprajaka & fitria, 2012). suburban areas that are identical to the land used as agricultural land will experience trade-offs with other uses with regard to the presence of urban sprawl like the commercial sector, both industrial activities and trade activities, or for the development of residential areas. when the land used for agricultural activities is thought to have lower land rent than other types of use, the impact that will occur is the conversion of agricultural land into non-agricultural land. the shift in function of agricultural land has occurred in various regions, especially in areas with characteristics of urban areas including pekalongan city. pekalongan city has experienced a phenomenon of conversion of agricultural land since 1989 (bps, 2018). the development of agricultural land conversion areas in pekalongan city can be seen in figure 1 below. 115 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 figure 1. the development of agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city based on figure 1, it can be seen that the area of conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city tends to increase from year to year, namely from the period 1989 to 2017. figure 1 shows that in 1998, in 2007, and in 2017 the conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city experienced a significant increase. this is because in that year there was an increase in the number of large industries and an increase in land use for yards or building land (bps, 2018). the results of the trend analysis in figure 1 can be written in the equation as follows: y=8.06 + 1.26x based on the equation above it can be seen that the regression coefficient has a positive sign, it means that there is a unidirectional relationship between the variable area of conversion of agricultural land with the time variable used. it can be illustrated when there is an increase in variable of time by one unit, it will increase the amount of agricultural land conversion areas in the pekalongan city by 1.26%. this figure shows that the agricultural land conversion areas in pekalongan city tends to increase from year to year. the increase in land use change in pekalongan city area can be caused by several things, namely the high rate of population growth and the occurrence of economic transformation in pekalongan city and also the incentives received by farmers. pekalongan city in the period of 1994 to 2016 experienced an average population growth of 0.92% per year (bps, 2018). the large population growth rate from year to year will drive an increase in variations in population needs other than food, and trigger an increase in land requirements for settlements, thus causing the conversion of agricultural land in urban areas (gardi et al., 2015; jiang & zhang, 2016). in addition, if it is viewed from the economic structure in pekalongan city, pekalongan city during the last few years has experienced economic transformation, which originally has a major contribution to the agricultural sector in pekalongan city, but in recent years it experienced a sharp decline, and the contribution of agricultural sector to the economy of pekalongan city has weakened as a whole. this can be seen from the value of the gross regional domestic product (grdp) of the agricultural sector in pekalongan city which has contracted from 2011 to 2016 with an average depreciation of 3.85% per year. the occurrence of economic transformation has drive the high conversion of land in pekalongan city. this economic transformation has led to an increase in the demand for land from the non-agricultural sector, the fulfilment of these needs of the land can only be done at the expense of other land functions, which is agricultural land. competition in land use between the agricultural sector and the non-agricultural sector can occur with regard to economic transformation. not only between the agricultural sector and the nonagricultural sector, but land use competition can also occur between the agricultural sub-sectors such as the food crop sub-sector, horticulture crops, and plantation crops. pekalongan city is well known as batik city. this shows that pekalongan city is very synonymous with the batik industry, so that land use for the batik industry is growing rapidly and has caused a decline in the area of agricultural land due to the conversion of agricultural land into batik industry centre. the explanation is in accordance with many research that has been done. research conducted in australia related to changes in agricultural land use explains that agricultural land often experiences changes in function to non-agricultural land due to the presence of agricultural land tends to have a wider land area than other land uses, so that the potential to shift the land functions (millar & roots, 2012). in addition, studies in kalimantan related to the costs y = 1,265x + 8,0591 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 116 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research and benefits of oil palm plantation expansion in central kalimantan state that food crop land tends to have low land rent, so that it tends to shift into other uses that have higher rental values, namely for palm oil plantation activities (sumarga & hein, 2016). research in pandeglang district, banten province concluded that the conversion of agricultural land in the region was due to the economic transformation for the development of the tourism sector (fahri, kolopaking, & hakim, 2014). the development of the tourism sector requires the construction of physical facilities and infrastructures such as airports, hotels and restaurants, so that a large amount of land is needed to be converted, that is by using paddy fields. furthermore,beside the non-agricultural sector, the conversion of paddy fields can also occur due to pressure from other agricultural sub-sectors, such as the plantation sub-sector. the paddy fields conversion in tanjung jabung timur, jambi province occurred due to the emergence of encouragement from the plantation sector, namely oil palm plantations which triggered the conversion of the function of paddy fields into oil palm plantations (daulay, et al., 2016). the factors affecting agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city the conversion of agricultural land that occurs in various regions can be caused by various factors. these factors can be in the form of external factors which happened when the agricultural land owners who are opressed by the needs of land from outside the agricultural sector or from within the land owner in the form of prices received by farmers and paddy productivity that can be produced by farmers. the results of the analysis of the factors that influence the conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city can be seen in table 1 below. based on table 1, it can be seen that the conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city is influenced by real paddy price factors and cultivated paddy productivity. the price of real paddy has a negative and significant effect, it means that the real paddy price variable at the farmer level has an opposite relationship with the area of agricultural land conversion that occurs in pekalongan city. this means that the lower the price of real paddy at the farmer level, the higher agricultural land conversion will occur. table 1. the factors affecting agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city variabel coefficient std. error t p>|t| real paddy price (x1) -2.219* 1.233 -1.800 0.085 number of industries (x2) 0.066ns 0.977 0.070 0.947 non-agricultural grdp per capita (x3) 1.205ns 0.955 1.260 0.220 road length (x4) -6.623ns 8.856 -0.750 0.462 paddy productivity (x5) -15266** 7.024 -2.170 0.040 population (x6) 1.388ns 2.917 0.480 0.639 constanta 141.286* 76.000 1.850 0.077 source: secondary data analysis (2019) description: ** = significant at 95% confidence level * = significant at 90% confidence level ns = not significant price is one of the incentives for farmers to carry out their farming activities (prasada, dhamira, & nugroho, 2018; purbiyanti, muhammad, & indri, 2017). the price of agricultural production, which is higher paddy prices, causes increased motivation of farmers in running farming in urban areas, and conversely lower prices can reduce the motivation of farmers in managing farming in urban areas. therefore, the real paddy price at the farmer level needs to be improved, so that the motivation of farmers to maintain the sustainability of farming and agricultural land in urban areas can be maintained. the results of this study are consistent with research conducted in east java which shows that agricultural land is very easy to convert when the value of the product produced is low. the value of this product will depend on the production and price of agricultural products produced (rondhi et al, 2018) the paddy productivity variable in pekalongan city also shows that the variable has a significant influence on the extent of conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city. the paddy productivity variable has a coefficient with a negative sign, so it shows that the variable productivity of paddy has an opposite effect on the conversion area of agricultural land variable in pekalongan city. this means that the decline in paddy productivity in pekalongan city can lead to an increase in the extent of conversion of agricultural land. paddy productivity is also an incentive for farmers to cultivate a farm. 117 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 because of that, land conversion in pekalongan city can be minimized by increasing paddy productivity in pekalongan city. paddy productivity will be very closely related to the level of efficiency in the use of inputs and the application of appropriate technology packages (suharyanto, rinaldy, & ngurah arya, 2015). that is why, to increase paddy productivity can only be done by increasing the farming efficiency and increase the uses of appropriate technology. conclusion the conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city tends to increase from year to year. the high conversion of agricultural land in pekalongan city needs to get serious attention so that the strategic role of agricultural land in urban areas can be maintained properly. the agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city are influenced by several factors, namely the real paddy price factor at the farm level and paddy productivity. both of these variables have a negative influence on the area of conversion of agricultural land. therefore, this means that the higher real paddy prices at the farm level and higher paddy productivity can cause a decrease in the extent of agricultural land conversion that occurs in pekalongan city. based on these results, to reduce the occurrence of conversion of agricultural land in urban areas can be done by increasing the productivity of agricultural land by increasing efficiency in the use of inputs and the application of appropriate technology. in addition, the conversion of agricultural land in urban areas can also be reduced by ensuring the price of agricultural products at the farmer level, so that it becomes an incentive for farmers to maintain the sustainability of agricultural land owned and managed. acknowledgements thank you, the authors convey to the education fund management institute (lpdp) for their assistance, both financially and non-financially so that the authors can publish the results of research related to the agricultural land conversion and the determinant factors that influence agricultural land conversion in pekalongan city. references bps. 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(2016). introductory econometrics a modern approach (6th ed.). boston: cengage learning. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 4 no. 2 juli-desember 2018 i made yoga prasada*, aura dhamira, agus dwi nugroho program studi ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian universitas gadjah mada *) e-mail korespondensi: imade.yogap@gmail.com supply response of paddy in east java: policy implications to increase rice production doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4268 abstract an increasing population in recent decades has led to the need for increasing the availability of food, so it is necessary to increase the production of paddy as quickly as possible. the aim of this research was to know the supply response of paddy in east java to various price factors and non-price factors. in this research, the supply response was estimated by the paddy harvest areas in east java using cobbdouglas model and nerlove partial adjustment, and econometric analysis including stationarity test, cointegration test, and error correction model (ecm). the data used in this research consisted of paddy harvest areas, grain price, corn price, irrigated land area and rainfall amount from 1991 to 2015. the speed of short-term adjustment to the longterm supply of rice was 2.79% and was corrected in the next period. in the short run, all variables did not have a high responsiveness to paddy supply, but in the long run, the irrigation area was very responsive to paddy supply in east java with a value of elasticity of 1.79. supply of paddy can be increased by increasing the real price of unhulled rice, the irrigated land, and harvested area of the previous period. keywords: east java, elasticity, paddy, response, supply commodities export demand from china. in addition, indonesian agricultural commodities export demand tend to increased despite the export prices of agricultural commodities and import tariffs of agricultural commodities in china increased. keywords: agricultural commodities, export demand, panel data introduction paddy is one of the most important food commodities in indonesia. paddy can produce staple food for most of indonesia’s population in the form of rice. therefore, the existence of paddy becomes a very crucial thing to be studied. the availability of paddy in the community depends heavily on paddy production at the farm level. east java province is one of the paddy production centers and become the first position before west java province as the largest paddy producer in indonesia. east java province was capable of producing dry milled unhulled rice with the average of 10,460,278 tons per year from 2001 to 2015 with an increase in production of 0.52%. the additional production was greater compared to that of west java in the period of the same year which only reached the level of 0.23% (bps, 2016). in addition, the data obtained from indonesian central bureau of statistics also showed that the vast paddy harvest in east java increased by 0.45% from 1991 to 2015. the harvest area for paddy commodities in east java province fluctuated from year to year. however, the harvest area for this commodity tends to increase, especially during the period of 2011 to 2015. the harvest area in 2015 even reached 2,152,070 hectares. the increase in the harvested area is due to the support from the government in the form of “peningkatan produksi beras nasional (p2bn)” or national paddy production enhancement program and the optimization and expansion of agricultural land to achieve food self-sufficiency (garside & asjari, 2015). increasing the area of paddy harvest and production in east java is very important to be done in order to balance the increasing demand 130 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research for food consumption of the indonesia’s population following the increase in population (ayu & pramesty, 2016; partini et al., 2013; widodo & wulandari, 2016). the rate of the population growth in indonesia averaged 1.36% per year in 2010 to 2016, whereas paddy production in indonesia only had a growth rate of 0.02% per annum over the same period (bps, 2016). this shows that there has been an imbalance between paddy supply and demand for paddy commodities in indonesia with a constant food consumption in indonesia. therefore, paddy supply needs to be increased, especially in east java province as the center of paddy production, so that the demand for staple food in indonesia can be fulfilled well. paddy supply in east java can be increased by knowing the supply response of paddy in east java to various factors influencing it, both paddy and non-paddy factors (khan et al., 2018; shahzad et al., 2018) . some studies on paddy supply response have been conducted. a study in kediri showed that the supply response of paddy harvest area to the area of paddy harvest in the previous year was inelastic in the short and long run (choirina et al., 2016), while the supply response of local rice in nigeria indicated that in the short-run supply response of local rice production to the expected price of local rice and area planted with local rice was inelastic, but in the longrun it became elastic (rahji & adewumi, 2008). another study was conducted concerning the supply response of maize in pakistan (khan et al., 2018). this study concluded that the short-run supply response of maize production is inelastic to maize production in the previous year, rice price, and maize price and in the long-run supply response of maize production to maize production in the previous year was elastic, but to rice price and maize price was inelastic. some models have been used on the supply response study. supply response can be approached by using the harvested area of a commodity. the research in kediri used an approach to harvest area of paddy to determine the supply response of rice (choirina et al., 2016). the study used the variables of price of rice, fertilizer price index, rainfall, rice harvest area at 1, 2 and 3 years earlier. in addition, the research in nigeria used planting area variable, and the expected local rice prices to determine the supply response of local rice (rahji & adewumi, 2008). the research in pakistan related to the supply response of maize used the variables of corn production in the previous year, corn prices, and rice prices as the independent variables in the model (khan et al., 2018). however, these studies did not use the error correction model (ecm) approach, therefore, the relationship between short run and long run equilibrium of the model remained unknown. this research tried to estimate using the error correction model (ecm) method as an approach to find out about the supply response of paddy in east java in short and long run with different variables in the model. the purposes of this study were to 1) determine the balance adjustment of the model of paddy supply and the factors that affected the paddy supply in the short-run and long-run, and 2) determine the supply elasticity of variables in the model in the short and long run. methods the data used in this research were secondary data which included extensive paddy harvesting data, real price of unhulled rice, real price of corn, irrigated land area, and precipitation from 1991 to 2015 in the province of east java. these data were obtained from the publication of the indonesian central bureau of statistics (bps). the supply response was estimated through the area of paddy harvest in east java using cobb-douglas model and nerlove partial adjustment, as well as econometric analysis (stationarity test, cointegration, and error correction model). the supply response or product of an agricultural commodity including paddy to both price and non-price factors requires a grace period, or the so-called time lag. in the short run, changes in price factors or other factors cannot be immediately responded by farmers, especially when farmers are doing production activities. this occurs because agricultural activities, including paddy farming takes time biologically. therefore, nerlove partial model was used to estimate the time lag variable that appearred in the model. this model will calculate the 131 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 elasticity of the area of paddy harvest t d in this case the variables used were the real price of unhulled rice in year r pt , real price of corn pct), irrigated land area i t ), rainfall t), the area of paddy harvest in the previous year t d ) and a vector estimated in this equation . nerlove partial model used in this study is as follows: t d pt 2pct it t t d t the nerlove partial model was then transformed in the form of the cobb-douglas linear equation as follows: n t d n npt 2 npct nit n t n t d t based on the cobb-douglas model, the short run elasticity of each variable from the independent variables can be seen from the coefficients of regression of each variable. the regression coefficient in the model was done by t test to determine the level of significance in the variables used (denziana et al., 2014). the long run elasticity (lre) can be determined by using the following equation: ong un elasticity ( e) hort run elasticity ( )t the analysis using time series data usually requires a stationary test to ensure the validity of the process. the stationarity test in this research was conducted by using augmented dickey fuller test (adf). this test was done by doing augmentation to the equation by adding the value that affected the time interval to variable δyt (gujarati, 2004). the adf test was performed by estimating the following equations: where t is the error rate of 'white noise' and where δyt-1 = (yt-1 -yt-2 ), δyt2 = (yt2 -yt-3) and so on. the amount of lag difference entered is often empirically determined, this is done in order to the error rate does not have a serial correlation. the adf is tested when the δ = 0 and the adf test follows the same asymptotic distribution with df statistics, so the same critical value can be used. to make a decision, comparing the computed adf value with the mackinnon critical values is needed for the rejection of a hypothesis for a unit root. if the computed δ (adf) statistic is less negative (that is, lies to the right of mackinnon critical values) relative to the critical values, the null hypothesis of non-stationarity in time series available is not rejected. if the null hypothesis is rejected, then the time series data is stationary, hence no unit root (dziwornu & vitor, 2013). in this study we also conducted error correction model (ecm) testing and cointegration test. ecm is an analysis of time series data that is generally used for variables that usually have some kind of dependency. the ecm method is used to balance short run economic relationships of variables that already have long run economic balance (muhammad, 2014). meanwhile, the cointegration test between variables aims to see the relationship or balance in the long run between independent variables and dependent variable (akbar et al., 2016). the co-integration test was carried out using the johansen co-integration test by comparing the trace statistic and maximum eigenvalue values. if the trace statistic and maximum eigenvalue values are greater than the critical value at 5%, this shows the occurrence of co-integration in the model used (atmaja et al., 2015). however, in the short run there is the possibility of an imbalance between variables, thus requiring analysis or testing error correction model (ecm) . the model used to perform this ecm test is as follows: the δ symbol is used for differentiated variables. where t d is the differentiated area of paddy harvests, pt is differentiated real unhulled rice price in the year t, pct is the differentiated real price of corn, it is the differentiated area of irrigated land and t is a differentiated rainfall variable. meanwhile, et-1 is the residual or long run equation error in period t-1 and vt is an error in the short-run equation. 132 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research coefficient γ in the above equation is also often referred to as the speed of adjustment which is the residual/error velocity (e) in the previous period to correct the change of the dependent variable to the balance in the next period. there is a final requirement that must be met in this stage, coefficient γ must be significant and negative. results and discussion the data used in this study included the area of paddy harvest, unhulled rice prices, the price of corn, irrigated land area, rainfall and paddy harvest area lag 1. all variables used in this study should be spared from their units root at each variable, so we did stationarity test using adf method (augmented dickey-fuller) unit root test (ayinde et al., 2017). table 1. results of stationarity test at stage level variables adf statistics mackinnon critical value information 1% 5% 10% harvest area (at) 0.9093 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 not stationary rainfall (rt ) -1.2715 -3.7379 -2.9919 -2.6355 not stationary real price of paddy (pt ) -0.7575 -3.7379 -2.9919 -2.6355 not stationary area of irrigation (it ) -1.3701 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 not stationary real corn price (pct ) -1.3069 -3.7379 -2.9919 -2.6355 not stationary harvest area lag 1 (at-1 ) 0.6244 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 not stationary source: secondary data analysis (2018) all the variables used in this study were not stationary at the level stage as shown in table 1. this is shown by the adf statistic value which is greater than the value of mackinnon critical value, so that the null hypothesis stating that there is no unit root in each variable failed to be rejected. it is necessary to do unit root test in the first difference level to the nonstationary variables. table 2. results of stationarity test at first difference level variables adf statistic s mackinnon critical value informatio n 1% 5% 10% harvest area (at) -6.9221 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 stationary rainfall (rt ) -9.5857 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 stationary real price of paddy (pt ) -4.3921 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 stationary area of irrigation (it ) -4.4021 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 stationary real corn price (pct ) -5.2857 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 stationary harvest area lag 1 (at-1 ) -7.0548 -3.7529 -2.9981 -2.6388 stationary source: secondary data analysis (2018) all the data at the first difference level was stationary (table 2). it is characterized by adf statisic value which is smaller than the value of mackinnon critical value. the data that were already stationary at the first difference level showed that the data which had been used avoided non-stationary behavior. data cointegration test cointegration test is conducted to determine whether there is a long run relationship of a system of equations. if a system of equations has a long run relationship, it means that the equation has mutually table 3. johansen cointegration test results hypothesized no. of ce (s) eigenvalue trace statistic critical value 0.05 prob. ** none * 0.9804 164.3693 69.8189 0.0000 at most 1 * 0.9131 77.8461 47.8561 0.0000 at most 2 0.5490 24.1024 29.7971 0.1961 at most 3 0.2580 6.5865 15.4947 0.6262 at most 4 0.0010 0.0211 3.8415 0.8845 source: secondary data analysis (2018) credited variables, so it can be interpreted that the equations used will have a long run equilibrium 133 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 (muhammad, 2014; okon & sunday, 2014). cointegration test can be done using johansen cointegration method which uses trace statistic value compared with value of trace (akanni and okeowo, 2011). the trace statistic is greater than the critical value in two equations with an error term of 5% as shown in table 3. this indicates that there are two equations which have mutual cointegration variables. the equation has mutually cointegrated variables, indicating that there is long-run equilibrium between each of the variables used. balance adjustment and factors affecting paddy supply in the shortrun and the long-run in east java equations with long run equilibrium need to be analyzed using error correction model to determine if there is an adjustment from short run to long run on the results of estimation made. the occurrence of adjustments in the short run to the long run can be seen from the coefficient of error correction vector (ecm) if the value is negative and significant (ehirim & owerri, 2017). to estimate the factors influencing paddy supply in east java, cobb-douglas model was used. table 4. factors affecting the supply of paddy in the short run in east java variable coefficient t-statistic prob. c 0.012838** 2.477233 0.0240 rainfall (rt ) -0.019665ns -1.679049 0.1114 real unhulled rice price (pt ) 0.094171** 2.329110 0.0324 area of irrigation (it ) 0.589781ns 1.496949 0.1527 harvest area lag 1 (at-1 ) 0.097834ns 0.861536 0.4009 real corn price (pct ) -0.006000ns -0.197697 0.8456 error correction -0.027877** -2.341304 0.0421 r-squared 0.823004 adjusted r-squared 0.760535 f-statistic 13.17460 prob . (f-statistic) 0.000014 source: secondary data analysis (2018) information: *** = significant at 99% confidence level (t-count = 2.84) ** = significant at 95% confidence level (t-count = 2.09) * = significant at 90% confidence level (t-count = 1.72) ns = not significant the value of error correction vector (ecm) was -0.0279 (table 4), the value was significant at the error rate of 5%. the ecm value obtained showed a negative value and significant, which means that there is a short run to long run adjustment to the paddy supply in east java. the ecm coefficient was 0.0279, meaning that the speed of adjustment from the shortterm balance to the long-term balance of the rice supply in east java to the change of rainfall, the price of real grain, irrigated land area, harvest area lag 1, and the real price of corn was 2.79%. short run to long run full adjustment (100%) for the paddy supply in east java takes a long time. this value is included in the category of slow adjustment speed, because it is worth less than 50%. a research about agricultural response to the price and exchange rate in nigeria showed ecm values of 85.91% (obayelu & sheu, 2010), while another research in nigeria about errorcorrection modelling of agricultural output showed ecm values of 61.28% (ngbede et al., 2009). those researches illustrates the occurrence of a high-speed adjustment of long-term balance against changes in variables in the model used. the slow adjustment of the rice supply in east java can be caused due to the low level of stimulation provided to increase the paddy supply in east java, stimulating the increase in unhulled rice prices at the farmer level, expansion of irrigated area, and expansion of harvest area lag 1 (previous year period). the price of unhulled rice in the farmers' level highly fluctuated after deflated by the producer price index. this causes the speed of the short run to long run balance adjustment to be slower, on the contrary if the price of unhulled rice at the farmer level consistently increases, then the speed of the short run to long run balance adjustment can also be accelerated. the irrigated land area variable also showed the same thing, namely land area irrigated from 1991 to 2015 decreased by an average of 0.01% per year, causing slower balance adjustment from the short run to the long run. there is only one variable that influences the supply of paddy harvest area in east java in the shortrun as shown in table 4, that is the variable of real unhulled rice price at the farmer level. this is because it takes time (time lag) to see any reaction from a 134 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research variable while another variable changes, so that in the short run there are not many variables that can influence the paddy supply in east java. in the short run, the variable of real unhulled rice price had an effect on the paddy supply in east java at 5% error rate with a coefficient value 0.094. the coefficient value means that the paddy supply in east java will increase by 0.094% everytime there is an increase in the real unhulled rice prices by 1% in the short run. the analysis of factors affecting the paddy supply in east java in the short run showed a little difference in the long run. in the long run, there were more variables that significantly affected the paddy supply in east java. table 5. factors affecting long run paddy supply in east java variable coefficient t-statistic prob. constant -5.237753ns -0.90467 0.3770 rainfall (rt ) -0.024561ns -0.72664 0.4763 real unhulled rice price(pt ) 0.146820** 2.449 87 0.0242 area of irrigation (it ) 0.770185* 1.77901 0.0912 harvest area lag 1 (at-1 ) 0.570652*** 2.90397 0.0091 real corn price (pct ) -0.00276ns 0.06157 0.9516 r-squared 0.866458 adjusted r-squared 0.831315 f-statistic 24.65543 prob . (f-statistic) 0.000000 source: secondary data analysis (2018) description : *** = significant at 99% confidence level ( t-count = 2.84 ) ** = significant at 95% confidence level (t-count = 2.09 ) * = significant at 90% confidence level ( t-count = 1.72 ) ns = not significant three factors that influence the paddy supply in east java are presented in table 5, which are real price factor of unhulled rice at the farmer level (pt), irrigated land area (it), and harvested area of paddy lag 1 (at-1). the price of unhulled rice had a coefficient value of 0.147 and was significant at a 5% error rate. these results indicated that the higher the price of unhulled rice at the farmer level, the higher the area of harvest. rising unhulled rice prices at the farmer level of 1% can increase the supply of paddy harvest area by 0.147%. increasingly higher prices at the farmer level indicates that the incentives received by farmers from their paddy farming activities become greater (purbiyanti et al., 2017). higher incentives received by farmers can increase the supply of paddy harvest area in east java. related to the real price of unhulled rice at the farmer level, the variable of irrigated land area also had a significant effect with a coefficient equal to 0.770. the coefficient means that an increase in irrigated land area of 1% can increase the area of a real harvest of paddy by 0.770%. the area of irrigated land becomes very important because it affects the supply of paddy harvest area because most of the paddy cultivated in indonesia requires adequate water availability. the need for water in paddy cultivation has to be considered well, so that the stem irrigation can be done optimally and the growth and production of paddy crops can be boosted as optimally as possible (yanti & pratama, 2015). the irrigation arrangements for paddy cultivation can only be made if the agricultural land used has adequate irrigation facilities and infrastructure. therefore, the availability of irrigated land is very important to increase the area of paddy harvest and the paddy production itself. the harvested area variable in the previous period (lag 1) indicated that the variable affected the paddy supply in east java. the area of paddy harvest variable in east java had a coefficient of 0.571, meaning that an increase in the previous harvest area of 1% can increase the area of paddy harvest in east java at the present time of 0.571%. the area of harvest in the previous period can be an incentive for farmers to cultivate paddy crops again in the current period. increasingly better area of paddy harvest in the previous period becomes an important reason for farmers to expand the planting area, thus increasing the area of paddy harvest in the current period. elasticity and paddy supply response in east java supply elasticity shows how much the supply response of a commodity to changes occurs from other variables used in the model (nugroho et al., 2015). in the short and long run, the elasticity of the paddy supply in east java to the real price of unhulled rice is inelastic (table 6). the value of paddy elasticity 135 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 in the short run for the real price of unhulled rice was 0.1468. this value means that if the real price of unhulled rice increases by 10%, causing the paddy supply (paddy harvested area) to increase by 1.4680% in the short run. in the long run, the elasticity of the paddy supply in east java to the real price of unhulled rice was 0.3420, which means that every 10% increase in the real price of unhulled rice can cause the increase in the paddy supply in east java by 3.4200%. table 6 . paddy supply elasticity in east java variables short run elasticity co-efficient of adjustment long run elasticity price of unhulled rice 0.1468 0.4293 0.3420 irrigation area 0.7702 1.7938 harvest area lag 1 0.5707 1.3291 source: secondary data analysis (2018) the value of the short run or long run elasticity of the paddy supply in east java was less than 1. the results indicate that paddy supply in east java has a slow response to changes in real unhulled rice prices at the farmer level. the occurrence of real unhulled rice price increase was not followed by a rapid increase in the paddy supply in east java. the slow response of the paddy supply in east java approached by using the area of paddy harvesting on the real price of unhulled rice is due to high fluctuations in the real price of unhulled rice at the farmer level. the real price of unhulled rice in east java is very fluctuating at the farmer level, causing higher risk that will be faced by farmers in carrying out paddy cultivation. paddy farmers are mostly subsistence, they will always face risk and uncertainties, therefore farmers are forced not to prioritize the seeking for maximum profits, but trying to avoid failure by taking minimum risks (suharyanto et al., 2015). the high risk faced by farmers means there is a greater likelihood of losses to be received by farmers (lawalata et al., 2017). this can be a disincentive for farmers to increase paddy supply, so farmers will be reluctant to work on paddy crops. price fluctuations that occur at the farmer level can be caused by an imbalance of market price information received by farmers with other market participants (heriani et al., 2013). the occurrence of asymmetric market price information triggers the price at the farmer level to be much lower than the price at the consumer level. the short run elasticity value of the paddy supply in east java was estimated using the area of paddy harvest to the area of irrigated land of 0.7702 as shown in table 6. the value indicates that in the short run, an increase in irrigated area by 10% can increase the supply of paddy harvest area by 7.7020%. the long run elasticity of supply of paddy harvest area in east java was 1.7938. this value means that in the long run, the supply of paddy harvest area in east java increased by 17.9380% every 10% increase in irrigated area. these results indicated that in the short run, the supply of paddy area in east java to irrigated land was inelastic, but in the long run the supply of paddy harvest area to the irrigated area was elastic. this shows that in the short term, the supply of rice harvested area is unresponsive to the changes in the area of irrigated land, but in the long run the supply of rice harvested area is responsive to the changes in the area of irrigated land. in the short run, the paddy supply in east java has a slow response to the changes in irrigated land area due to the development of irrigation facilities and time-consuming conditions, so that in the short run these variables cannot have a rapid effect on increasing paddy supply. however, the long run supply of paddy to irrigated areas has a rapid response because in the long run, the increase in irrigated area can increase the production and productivity of paddy crops (muzdalifah, 2014). higher paddy productivity has a positive impact on the increasing income of paddy farmers due to the increasingly efficient paddy farming that is run (indah et al., 2015). this can be an incentive for paddy farmers in east java to increase paddy supply. it can also be seen in table 6 that in the short run, the paddy supply in east java was inelastic to the variable of area of harvested paddy lag 1 (previous period) with a value of elasticity of 0.5707. this value means that in the short run, paddy supply increased by 5.707% everytime the area of first lag (the year before) increased by 10%. a supply elasticity less than 10% indicates that the supply of paddy harvest area in east java has a slow response to the increase or decrease in the area of harvest in lag 1. however, in 136 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the long run the supply of paddy harvest area becomes responsive to increase or decrease the area of paddy harvest in lag 1 with the elasticity of 1.3291. the value indicates that in the long run, the increase in paddy harvest area in lag 1 by 10% can lead to an increase in the area of paddy harvest of 13.2910%. the paddy harvest area in east java in lag 1 or at one year earlier can provide incentives for farmers to increase the area of harvest at the present time. the increase in harvest area from the previous year will motivate farmers to expand their cultivation area, thus stimulating the paddy harvest area supply in east java to increase. policy implications in this study there are some policy implications that can be applied from the analysis and discussion that has been done. the results showed that the variable of real price of unhulled rice, the area of irrigated land and the area of harvest of the previous year had a significant and positive effect on the paddy supply in east java which was estimated using paddy harvest area. this shows that to increase the paddy supply in east java, we need to increase the real price of unhulled rice at the farm level, the area of irrigated land and the area of paddy harvest in east java in the previous year. in addition, the supply of paddy in east java is more responsive to the changes in irrigated land area compared to the changes in real unhulled rice prices and harvested area of the previous year. the results could be a reference that paddy supply in east java will increase faster if there is an increase in irrigated land area compared to an increase in real price of paddy at the farm level and an increase in the area of paddy in the previous year. however, the real price of unhulled rice at the farm level also needs to be increased even in a slow response because in the long run these variables will still have a positive impact on the paddy supply in east java. in addition, the area of harvest in the previous year period also needs to be expanded. this is because these variables can contribute to an increasing supply of paddy in east java in the long run. conclusion the results show that there is a short-term balance adjustment to the long-term balance, but the results of the analysis show that the short-term to longterm adjustment for paddy supply in east java takes a long time. the factor that significantly affects the paddy supply in the short-run in east java estimated by using the area of paddy harvest is the real unhulled rice price at the farmer level, while in the long-run the factors that significantly affect the paddy supply are the real price of unhulled rice at the farm level, the area of irrigated land and the area of paddy harvest in the previous year. the real price of unhulled rice at the farm level is inelastic in both the short and long term, while the area of irrigated land and the area of paddy harvest in the previous year are inelastic in the short term, but elastic in the long term. acknowledgment thank you for the financial assistance of the educational scholarship from the education fund management institute (lpdp), which has helped 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(2015). pendayagunaan irigasi air tanah menunjang budidaya pertanian secara produktif pada lahan tadah hujan. jurnal teknologi pertanian andalas, 19(2), 10–17. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2: july-december 2020 article history: submitted: january 8th, 2018 accepted: july 20th, 2020 rati purwasih*, yudi sapta pranoto, eddy jajang jaya atmaja universitas bangka belitung, bangka, indonesia *) correspondence email: ratipurwasih09@gmail.com muntok white pepper price transmission in bangka belitung island province doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6294 abstract the average price of white pepper in the bangka belitung islands province from january 2007 to december 2016 was idr 72,531 per kg on the producer market, idr 80,622 per kg on the export market, and idr 99,017 per kg on the world market. based on the data, there is a large marketing margin between the producer market and the export market, idr 8,091 per kg. while, the margin between the export market and the world market was idr 18,395 per kg. the present research aims to analyze the transmission of white pepper prices in the bangka belitung islands province among the three markets. the asymmetric error correction model (aecm) was used as the model to analyze the transmission of white pepper prices in bangka belitung island province from producers to exporters, from producers to world market, and from exporters to world market. the transmission of white pepper prices from the three markets shows that in the short period it runs asymmetrically, whereas in the long period it runs symmetrically. conversely, the transmission of white pepper prices from the world market to the exporters market runs symmetrically in the short term but it runs asymmetrically in the long term. keywords: aecm, margin, price transmission, white pepper introduction bangka belitung islands province is one of the provinces in indonesia regarded as the center of white pepper production and the largest white pepper producing region. white pepper in the bangka belitung islands province is known as muntok white pepper because it is a superior pepper product in indonesia (bi, 2015). the name of muntok white pepper is widely known since the bangka belitung islands province is the first center of production area to develop pepper in indonesia (permentan, 2012). muntok white pepper has a good opportunity in the international market because it has been known since the ancient times with distinctive taste and aroma (bi, 2015). the development of the volume and export value of muntok white pepper in the bangka belitung islands province can be seen in figure 1. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 mailto:ratipurwasih09@gmail.com issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 108 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research source: bp3l (2017) figure 1. muntok white pepper export in bangka belitung province, 2012-2016. figure 1 shows the development of muntok white pepper exports in the bangka belitung islands province, both the volume and value of exports fluctuated. it can be seen from 2012 to 2014 the volume of white pepper exports increased. however, there was a decrease in the volume of white pepper from 2014 to 2016. according to ginting (2004), fluctuations in the production and volume of pepper exports may happen due to problems with low prices and fluctuations so that it makes farmers uninterested to care for and increase pepper production. white pepper marketing system in the province of bangka belitung generally has a steady marketing flow in which farmers selling white pepper to village collector traders, then village collector traders selling white pepper to sub-district traders after the sub-district traders sell white pepper to traders major or exporters (bi, 2015). marketing is said to be efficient if price changes from one marketing institution are immediately transmitted to other marketing institutions in one marketing chain (hall et al. 1981). conversely, if changes in prices in a market such as falling prices at the farm level are transmitted slowly and not completely to consumers then this condition indicates less efficient in terms of price efficiency (kohls & uhl, 2002). the need for an efficient marketing system so that products are offered at reasonable prices and encourage producers to increase production (omar et al. 2014). one measure used to analyze marketing efficiency in terms of price efficiency is price transmission (meyer & von cramon-taubadel, 2004). symmetry price transmission is measured by the relative response of prices in the downstream sector to the ups and downs of prices in the upstream sector (miller & hayenga, 2001). asymmetric price transmission is a condition in which a market responds to price increases and price decreases that occur in other markets differently (bailey & brorsen, 1989). asymmetry price transmission can occur in slow price movement cycles (miller & hayenga, 2001). in line with the statement of vavra & goodwin (2005) that the transmission of prices between producers and consumers can run asymmetrically because of 0 20.000.000 40.000.000 60.000.000 80.000.000 100.000.000 120.000.000 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 value (us$) volume (kg) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 109 muntok white pepper price ….. (purwasih et al) the uncompetitive behavior of traders, especially in a concentrated market. in a concentrated market, traders will try to maintain their welfare and profits by not continuing the rise and fall in prices according to the actual price signal. traders are more likely to continue decreasing prices from consumers to producers compared to price increases. the average price of white pepper in the producer market from january 2007 to december 2016 was idr 72,531 per kg, in the exporter market at idr 80,622 per kg, while in the world market it was idr 99,017 per kg. it showed that there was a high rate of disparity price between producers to exporters with score idr 8,091 per kilogram, while between the exporters market and the world market which is idr 18,395 per kg. conforti (2004) explains that the magnitude of price disparity in marketing chains can be caused by long marketing chains or abuse of market power owned by traders, causing margins formed in marketing from the upstream sector (producers) to the downstream sector (consumers) to be very large so that marketing become inefficient. the price of white pepper in bangka belitung islands province is presented in figure 2. source: ipc 2017 figure 2. real price movement of muntok white pepper in producers, exporters and world markets january 2007 december 2016 figure 2 shows fluctuations in the price of white pepper in the producer market, exporter market, and the world market. from 2007 to 2016, the pattern of white pepper price movements in the producer market, exporter market, and the world market tend to show the same pattern. however, at a particular month there was a different response on the price of white pepper between producer market to exporter market where by when the price at producers market went down, the price of white pepper at exporters market went up. likewise, when the price of white pepper on the exporters market decreases, the price of white pepper on the world market increases. this condition allows that price changes in one marketing institution are transmitted imperfectly to another marketing institution or asymmetry. however, this is not enough to be able to say that the transmission of white 0 50.000 100.000 150.000 200.000 250.000 ja n -0 7 a g u -0 7 m a r0 8 o k t0 8 m e i0 9 d e s0 9 ju l1 0 f e b -1 1 s e p -1 1 a p r1 2 n o v -1 2 ju n -1 3 ja n -1 4 a g u -1 4 m a r1 5 o k t1 5 m e i1 6 d e s1 6 producer price (idr/kg) export price (idr/kg) world price (idr/kg) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 110 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pepper prices between producer markets, exporter markets, and the world market is asymmetrical. therefore, statistical testing is needed regarding the transmission of the price of white pepper. research on the integration of the white pepper market has been widely carried out by previous researchers. for example, djulin & malian (2005) analyzed the integration of the indonesian black and white pepper market in the main production areas with the export market. then fazaria et al. (2016) analyzed the integration of the black pepper market and the indonesian white pepper market with the international market. however, no previous studies have analyzed the transmission of white pepper prices, especially those that separate price increases and decreases. thus, the study aims to analyze the transmission price of white pepper in the bangka belitung province island from the producer to the international trade. balcombe, bailey, & brooks, 2007; cutts & kristen, 2006; koutroumanidis et al. 2009; miller & hayenga, 2001 in sahara & wicaksena (2013) argued that the asymmetric price transmission was crucial to be conducted to provide information about the welfare of producers and consumers as well as about price efficiency at a marketing channel. research method the secondary data was used to obtain the price of white pepper in producer market, exporter market, and world market. the data used are monthly price data from january 2007 to december 2016, with 120 observations. the data was obtained from the international pepper community (ipc). the price variable used in this study was calculated by the consumer price index (cpi). the use of cpi is done because of limitations in the availability of wholesale trade price index data. asymmetric error correction model (aecm) was employed to analyse the price transmission of white pepper in bangka belitung island province using eviews program. the aecm analysis consists of several stages which can be seen in the followings: data stationarity test the first step that needs to be done is data stationarity testing to estimate a model that uses time series data. the analysis was applied to avoid the issue of spurious regression. augmented dickey-fuller test was used to test the stationary data at the level or first difference. firdaus (2011) stated that if the time series did not stationary or consisted of unit root on level, it required further test on first difference. the equation of augmented dickeyfuller test developed by enders (1995) is stated as follow: (1)....    p 2i t1iti1tt δyyδy  ....(2) 0     p 2i t1iti1tt δyyaδy   3.... 20     p 2i t1iti1tt δytayaδy  δyt is the first difference under test variable (yt –yt-1); y is the variables tested for stationarity (bangka belitung province white pepper prices in producer markets, exporter http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 111 muntok white pepper price ….. (purwasih et al) markets, and world markets); t is period of time; γ and a is the model coefficient; p is lag length in the model; and ɛt is residual. equation (1) is used for data that are assumed to have no intercepts and trends. equation (2) is used for data that are assumed to only have intercepts and have no trends. equation (3) is used for data that are assumed to have intercepts and trends. hypothesis testing in the augmented dickey-fuller test are stated as follow: h0 : γ = 0 means the time series data are not stationary. h1 : γ ≠ 0 means the time series data are stationary. hypotheses testing criteria: if the actual adf statistical value is less than the mackinnon critical values at the actual level used then rejecting h0 means the data stationer. conversely, if the statistical adf value is actually more than the mackinnon critical values at the actual level used, then not rejecting h0 means the data is not stationary. determination of optimal lag firdaus (2011) argued that the determination of long lag in vector autoregression (var) system was applied to show the reaction tome of a variable towards other variables and to eliminate the autocorrelation. aryani (2012) stated that the determination of optimal long lag might use information such as akaike information criterion (aic), schwarz information criterion (sc), hannan-quinn criterion (hq), likelihood ratio, and final prediction error (fpe). schwarz information criterion (sc) was utilized to understand the optimal long lag in the study, with the following formula: )4)....(ln(tn t ssr(k) ln tsic(k)        from the formula, t is the number of observations; k is the lag length; ssr is sum squares residual; and n is the number of parameters estimated. cointegration test if the result of data stationary test on the level illustrated the unstationary data while the first difference showed otherwise, it required the cointegration test (firdaus, 2011). it was used to investigate the long-term relationship amongst the price of a particular commodity in a region (firdaus & gunawan, 2012). the cointegration test in this study uses the procedure of johansen & juselius (1990), as implemented by reziti & panagopoulos (2008), and sahara & wicaksena (2013), with the formula stated as follows:      1 1 1 )5....( k j tjtjtt pbpcp  from the formula п is a matrix of long-term parameters and adjustment parameters; bj is a short-term parameter matrix; ɛt is a residual gaussian vector; j is the number of lags. after the cointegration test results were obtained, the trace test value and max eigenvalue were then compared with the critical value using the formula developed by enders (1995) which is written as follows:  6....          n 1ri itrace λ1 lnt(r)λ http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 112 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research  7....        1rmax λ1 ln t1)r(r,λ from the formula, i   is the estimated value of the root characteristics (eigenvalues) selected from the estimated π matrix; t is the number of observations; and r is the number of cointegration vectors. in the λtrace test, the null hypothesis is that the number of cointegration vectors is less than or equal to r as a general alternative. in the λmax test, the null hypothesis is that the number of cointegration vectors is equal to r as an alternative to the cointegration vector r + 1 (enders 1995). causality test causality testing was carried out after the cointegration testing had been done. causality test was applied to examine the relationship way between two trading market. according to acquah & onumah (2010), this causality test is carried out to determine the direction of price transmission. the direction of white pepper transmission prices among producer markets, exporter markets, and world markets was determined by using the engle and granger causality test. according to sahara & wicaksena (2013) that the engle and granger causality test is used to investigate the causality relationship between prices at producer level and prices at the consumer level. causality test in this study follows the application of reziti & panagopoulos (2008), koutroumanidis et al. (2009), and sahara & wicaksena (2013) based on the methodology proposed by engle and granger (1987), with the formula stated as follow: )8....( 1111 1 0 1 2 1 ttit n i n i pkitpjt ezpkpjpj        )9....( 2122 1 0 2 1 2 ttit n i n i pjitpkt ezpjpkpk        pjt is the price of white pepper on the ke-j market (idr/kg); pkt is the price of white pepper on the ke-k market (idr/kg); and e is residual. the rules of decision are stated below: a. π1≠0, π2≠0 means there is a long-term relationship between the two variables that are reciprocal. b. π1=0, π2≠0 means the long-term pjt causes pkt. c. π1≠0, π2=0 means pkt in the long run causes pjt. estimation of the aecm model the transmission of white pepper prices in the bangka belitung islands province among the producer markets, exporter markets, and world markets was estimated using the asymmetric error correction model developed by von cramon-taubadel & loy (1996), with the form of the equation stated below: )10..( 1 t1-t n 0i it2 n 1i it1 1-t n 0i it2 n 1i it1t zδpkβδpjβzδpkβδpjβδpj                     from the formula, pjt is the price of white pepper in the ke-j market (idr/kg)); pkt is the price of white pepper in the k-market (idr/kg); zt-1 is the error correction term which is the residual lag of the long-term equilibrium equation; ɛt is residual; and n is the lag length. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 113 muntok white pepper price ….. (purwasih et al) a positive sign (+) represents a price increase and a negative sign (-) describes a price decline. ect+ is an adjustment of the price of white pepper in the j-market to the change in price of white pepper in the ke-k market when the price deviation is above balance. ectis the adjustment of the price of white pepper in the ke-j market to the change in price of white pepper in the ke-k market when the price deviation is below balance. wald test the test used to determine whether price transmission is running symmetrically or asymmetrically will be statistically proven using the wald test (reziti & panagopoulos, 2008). hypothesis testing in the wald test is described as follow: 1. short term       n i n i h 0 2 0 20 :        n i n i h 0 2 0 21 :  the formula describe if the wald test results show that h0 is not rejected, this means that the transmission of the price of white pepper in the short run runs symmetry. if the wald test results show reject h0, it means that the transmission of the price of white pepper in the short run runs asymmetry. 2. long term   : 0 h   : 1 h the formula above describe if the wald test results show that h0 is not rejected, this means that the transmission of the price of white pepper in the long run runs symmetry. if the wald test results show reject h0, it means that the transmission of the price of white pepper in the long run runs asymmetry. result and discussions analysis of the transmission of white pepper prices in the bangka belitung islands province among producer markets, exporter markets, and the world market is carried out through several stages of analysis: data stationarity test the first step carried out in analyzing the transmission of white pepper prices in the bangka belitung islands province is testing the stationarity of data consisting of white pepper price data on producer markets, exporter markets, and world markets. the following table 1 presents the results of the stationary test results for white pepper prices in the bangka belitung islands province. table 1. stationerity test results for white pepper price data in bangka belitung islands province variable adf t-stat none intercept and trend adf t-stat intercept adf t-stat intercept and trend http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 114 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 5% 5% 5% producer price i(0) -6.2467 -1.9465 -1.2008 -2.8859 -1.6014 -3.4483 producer price i(1) 9.5454* -1.9468 -8.7474* -2.8861 -8.7382* -3.4483 export price i(0) -7.2200 -1.9465 -1.2160 -2.8859 -1.6754 -3.4480 export price i(1) 7.7692* -1.9469 -11.7265* -2.8861 -11.7094* -3.4483 world price i(0) -5.4734 -1.9465 -0.9654 -2.8861 -1.4823 -3.4483 world price i(1) 7.9454* -1.9468 -8.0038* -2.8861 -7.9843* -3.4483 i(0) : level i(1) : first difference *stationary at 5% level the data stationary test in the study was applied at level first difference not only among none intercept and trend, with intercept, but also with intercept and trend. as the result of data stationary test at level illustrated all the white pepper price on producer market, exporter market, and world market with the unstationary data, the data stationary test on first difference. was conducted after being tested on the data stationary test on the first difference, the results showed that all of the price data indicated stationary (table 1). therefore, the cointegration analysis method can be continued. firdaus (2011) explained that if the result of data stationary test showed the unstationary data on level, the data was considered as stationary at first difference, then cointegration testing is necessary. determination of optimal lag length this study uses the schwarz information criterion (sc) to determine the optimal lag length. the results of calculations using sc obtained the optimum lag that is lag 1 on the relationship between prices in producer markets and exporter markets, producer markets and world markets, as well as exporter and world markets. therefore, the optimal lag used in the white pepper price transmission model is lag 1. this means that all variables in the model affect each other not only in the current period, but also related to the previous 1 month. cointegration test the results of the stationarity test show that the data is not stationary at the level but stationer at the first difference, so cointegration testing is necessary. johansen's cointegration test results used to determine the number of equations in the cointegrated model can be seen in table 2. table 2 shows that the results of the cointegration test at none obtained a trace statistic value of more than critical value at the 5% real level which means that it was significant at the 5% real level. therefore, from the results of the cointegration test giving significant results in none, it means that in the equation system there is 1 cointegrated equation. this means that the price of white pepper on the producer market, the exporter market, and the world market has a long-term equilibrium relationship. this is in line with the results of research by fazaria et al. (2016). however, the cointegration relationship does http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 115 muntok white pepper price ….. (purwasih et al) not suffice to show that the white pepper market in each of these markets is perfectly integrated. therefore, it is necessary to further analyze the transmission of prices by using the asymmetric error correction model to find out how white pepper prices respond to a market to changes in prices in other markets. table 2. cointegration test results market number of cointegration equations eigenvalue trace statistic critical value prob. producer and export market none** 0.2736 37.9761 12.3209 0.0000 at most 1 0.0022 0.2579 4.1299 0.6712 producer and world market none** 0.1772 25.5302 20.2618 0.0085 at most 1 0.0211 2.5184 9.1645 0.6739 export and world market none** 0.1663 24.1853 20.2618 0.0137 at most 1 0.0228 2.7219 9.1645 0.6338 **significant at the 5% level causality test the causality test used in this study is the granger causality test. this causality test is carried out to determine the direction of the relationship between the white pepper market in the producer market, the exporter market, and the world market. this means that the granger causality test is used to determine the direction of price transmission, ie whether the formation of white pepper prices in one market is influenced by the price of white pepper in other markets. the following table 3 presents the results of causality test data on white pepper prices in the bangka belitung islands province. table 3. causality test results for white pepper price data in bangka belitung islands province relation f-statistic prob. producer price export price 29.3468 3.e-07* export price producer price 0.0188 0,8911 producer price world price 32.7990 8.e-08* world price producer price 0.7675 0.3828 export price world price 17.3625 0.0500** world price export price 3.9214 06.e 058* *significant at the 1% level **significant at the 5% level based on table 3, the causality relationship between the price of white pepper in the bangka belitung islands province in the producer market and the exporter market shows a one-way relationship, namely the price of white pepper in the producer market influences the price of white pepper in the exporter market, whereas the price of white pepper in the exporter market does not affect the price white pepper on the producer market. the results of this study are in line with the results of djulin & malian (2005) research that the price of white pepper formed in farmers is not determined by the price at the exporter level. in addition, the results of causality test between the price of white pepper on the producer market and the world market also showed a one-way relationship, namely the price of white pepper on the producer market affects the price of white pepper on the world http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 116 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research market, but the price of white pepper on the world market does not affect the price of white pepper on the market producer. the causality relationship between the price of white pepper on the exporter market and the world market shows a two-way relationship, the price of white pepper on the exporter market affects the price of white pepper on the world market, whereas the price of white pepper on the world market affects the price of white pepper on the exporter market. this is in line with the results of research by fazaria et al. (2016) that between the price of white pepper in the export market and in the spot market has a two-way causality relationship. according to them, this condition occurs because the effect of supply of white pepper originating from the export market has relatively similar power to the effect of demand for white pepper originating from the spot market, so that the price formation that occurs in the two markets affects each other. estimated aecm after the causality test, the next step is to estimate the model on the short-term and long-term relationship between the price of white pepper on the producer market, the exporter market, and the world market. the aecm estimation results can be seen in table 4. table 4. estimated aecm results variable hp he variable hp hd variable he hd variable hd he intercept 1032.856 (1.8480) intercept -1406.470 (-2.2373) intercept -1265.113 (-1.9122) intercept 883.6866 (1.2151) ∆ he  1t -0.500* (-4.4003) ∆ hd  1t -0.0543 (-0.4388) ∆ hd  1t 0.0841 (0.7864) ∆ he  1t -0.5200* (-3.8591) ∆ he  1t 0.6135* (4.8356) ∆ hd  1t 0.2118 (1.5174) ∆ hd  1t 0.2272 (1.6071) ∆ he  1t 0.5413* (3.3839) ∆ hp  t 0.8313* (6.9902) ∆ hp  t 0.9341* (7.5533) ∆ he  t 0.8154* (6.9586) ∆ hd  t 0.5821* (4.5952) ∆ hp  t 0.7675* (5.0303) ∆ hp  t 0.2047 (1.1872) ∆ he  t 0.1864 (1.6869) ∆ hd  t 0.5988* (3.6185) ∆ hp  1t 0.1626 (1.0635) ∆ hp  1t 0.3350 (1.7901) ∆ he  1t 0.2693** (2.2297) ∆ hd  1t -0.0127 (-0.0991) ∆ hp  1t -0.6689* (-3.4805) ∆ hp  1t -0.3689* (-2.0086) ∆ he  1t -0.3648** (-2.5018) ∆ hd  1t 0.0736 (0.4312) ect  1t -0.8544* (-4.9847) ect  1t -0.2161* (-3.3757) ect  1t -0.3684* (-4.6400) ect  1t -0.0636 (-0.3430) ect  1t -0.7743* (-7.2533) ect  1t -0.2934* (-2.8963) ect  1t -0.2539** (-2.5810) ect  1t -0.6693* (-5.3981) r2 0.6664 r2 0.5765 r2 0,5085 r2 0.4400 r2-adj 0,6420 r2-adj 0.5454 r2-adj 0,4725 r2-adj 0.3989 f-statistic 27,2221 f-statistic 18.5466 f-statistic 14,0987 f-statistic 10.7039 dw-stat 1,7349 dw-stat 1.8784 dw-stat 1,8640 dw-stat 1.8392 * significant at 1% level ** significant at 5% level hp = price in the producer market he = price in the exporter market hd = prices on the world market http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 117 muntok white pepper price ….. (purwasih et al) based on table 4, the transmission of white pepper prices from the producer market to the exporter market in the short run shows that in the period t, the increase and decrease in the price of white pepper in the producer market will be responded to by the exporter market. then in the previous period (t-1), there was a difference in the response by the exporter market to changes in the price of white pepper in the producer market. this means that the increase in the price of white pepper in the producer market in the previous period (t-1) does not affect the determination of the price of white pepper in the exporter market. conversely, when the decline in the price of white pepper in the producer market is responded to by the price increase by the exporter market. this condition indicates that in the short term the transmission of the price of white pepper from the producer market to the exporter market runs asymmetry. conversely, if seen from the significance and sign of the positive ect coefficient and negative ect, it indicates that in the long run the transmission of white pepper prices from the producer market to the exporter market runs symmetry. transmission of the price of white pepper from the producer market to the world market in the short term shows that the increase in the price of white pepper on the producer market in the t period will be responded to by the world market by raising prices. however, the decline in the price of white pepper on the producer market in the t period did not affect the price of white pepper on the world market. meanwhile in the previous period (t-1), the decline in the price of white pepper on the producer market will be responded to by the world market by raising prices. this indicates that in the short term transmission of asymmetric prices from producer markets to world markets. if seen from the significance and signs of positive ect coefficients and negative ect, in the long run the transmission of white pepper prices from producer markets to world markets indicates symmetry. transmission of the price of white pepper from the exporter market to the world market in the short term shows that in the t period, the increase in the price of white pepper on the exporter market will be responded to by the world market by raising prices, while the decline in the price of white pepper on the exporter market does not affect the price of white pepper in the world market. in the previous period (t-1), an increase in the price of white pepper on the exporters market would be responded to by an increase in prices by the world market. conversely, a decrease in the price of white pepper on the exporters market in the previous period (t-1), will be responded by world markets by raising prices. this condition indicates that in the short term the transmission of the price of white pepper from the exporter market to the world market runs asymmetry. on the contrary, in the long run, there is a symmetry of price transmission because when viewed from the significance and signs the positive ect coefficient and negative ect indicate symmetry. furthermore, the transmission model of white pepper prices from the world market to the exporter market in the short term shows that in the t period, the increase and decrease in the price of white pepper on the world market will be responded to by the exporter market with an increase and decrease in prices or responded in the same direction. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 118 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research however, in the long run it indicates asymmetry because if it is seen from the positive ect coefficient it is not significant, meaning that in the long run the decline in the price of white pepper on the world market does not affect the price of white pepper on the exporter market. on the other hand, the negative ect coefficient has a significant value of -0,6693 which means that when there is a price deviation below the equilibrium ie when the price of white pepper on the exporter market does not go up when the price of white pepper on the world market has increased, but after about 8 months the price of white pepper on the exporter market will adjust up when the price of white pepper on the world market increases. the results of this study are in line with the results of research by djulin & malian (2005) that an increase in the price of white pepper on the world market will be responded to slowly by exporters. wald test the next step in the analysis of price transmission is to carry out the wald test. this test is conducted to prove whether the coefficient of positive shock and negative shock both in the short and long term are identical or different. if the results show a statistically significant difference (reject h0), then the transmission of prices from one market to another is asymmetrical. full wald test results can be seen in table 5. table 5. wald test results direction wald test f-statistic probility producer price export price h0 : ∆hp t = ∆hp + t 0.0837 0.7729 h0 : ∆hp t-1 = ∆hp + t-1 10.2239 0.0018* h0 : ect  1t = ect  1t 0.1491 0.7001 producer price world price h0 : ∆hp t = ∆hp + t 9.3541 0.0028* h0 : ∆hp t-1 = ∆hp + t-1 6.0368 0.0156** h0 : ect  1t = ect  1t 0.3174 0.5743 export price world price h0 : ∆he t = ∆he + t 12.0454 0.0007* h0 : ∆he t-1 = ∆he + t-1 9.8402 0.0022* h0 : ect  1t = ect  1t 0.6334 0.4279 world price export price h0 : ∆hd t = ∆hd + t 0.0053 0.9420 h0 : ∆hd t-1 = ∆hd + t-1 0.1322 0.7169 h0 : ect  1t = ect  1t 5.8890 0.0169** * significant at 1% level wald test results in table 5 show that in the short term between positive shock and negative shock are statistically significantly different. this condition shows that there is a difference in the response of both the price of white pepper in the exporter market to changes in the price of white pepper in the producer market, the response of the price of white pepper in the world market to changes in the price of white pepper in the producer market, and the response of the price of white pepper in the world market to price changes white pepper on the exporter market. this can be seen from the wald test results, in the period t and the previous period (t-1), the increase and decrease in the price of white pepper http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 119 muntok white pepper price ….. (purwasih et al) has a significant probability value. this means that in the short term the transmission of white pepper prices from the producer market to the exporter market, from the producer market to the world market, and from the exporter market to the world market runs asymmetrically or in other words in the short term the marketing system is not efficient in terms of price efficiency. according to vavra & goodwin (2005) that there is no transmission of symmetry prices between one market and other markets due to uncompetitive behavior from traders, especially in concentrated markets. in a concentrated market, traders do not continue to increase or decrease prices according to the actual price signal to maintain their welfare and profits. this is also reinforced by the statement of djulin & malian (2005) that the white pepper market at the level of integrated farmers and exporters is very weak. this is because the determination of the price of white pepper at the farm level is not determined by the price of white pepper at the exporter level, but rather by village traders or collectors. weak farmers' bargaining position in the decision to determine the price of white pepper due to the unavailability of sufficient price information that causes farmers to accept whatever the price set by the traders. fazaria et al. (2016) explained that imperfect price transmission in the white pepper market could be caused by the presence of market power in the white pepper trade. on the other hand, in the transmission model of white pepper prices from the producer market to the exporter market, from the producer market to the world market, and from the exporter market to the world market it is found that the coefficient of positive ect and negative ect indicates insignificant values. therefore, it can be said that in the long run the transmission of white pepper prices from the producer market to the exporter market, from the producer market to the world market, and from the exporter market to the world market runs symmetry or in other words in the long run the marketing system is already efficient from in terms of price efficiency. unlike the case with the wald test results on the transmission model of white pepper prices from the world market to the exporter market which shows that in the short run between positive shock and negative shock are not statistically significant meaning there is no difference in the response of white pepper prices in the exporter market to changes in pepper prices white on the world market. conversely, if seen from the positive ect coefficient and negative ect shows a significant value so that it can be said that in the long run the transmission of white pepper prices from the world market to the exporter market runs asymmetrically. thus, it can be said that in the long run the marketing system has not been efficient in terms of price efficiency. conclusions the price transmission of white pepper in the province from producer market to exporter market, from producer market to world market, and from exporter market to world market figured that in the short-run applied asymmetrically while in the long-run implemented symmetrically. on the other hand, the transmission of white pepper prices http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 120 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research from the world market to the exporter market runs symmetrically in the short period but in the long period it runs asymmetrically. the pepper association in the bangka belitung islands province provides information on the price of white pepper that is easily accessed by farmers. in addition, farmers still have a weak bargaining position in the decision to determine the selling price of white pepper so farmers should sell collectively, for example by forming groups in marketing white pepper to improve their bargaining position. acknowledgements we send our big thanks to universitas bangka belitung for providing the funding and the institute of research and community service (lppm) at the university for supporting this research. we also thank bp3l for providing data related to white pepper. references acquah, h.g., onumah, e.e. 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(2005). analysis of price transmission along the food chain. oecd food agriculture and fisheries working paper, no 3. doi:10.1787/752335872456. http://www.oecd.org/agriculture/agriculturalpolicies/40459642.pdf. verbeek m. 2000. a guide to modern econometrics, third edition. new york: john wiley and sons. von cramon-taubadel, s., loy, j.p. (1996). price asymmetry in the international wheat market: comment. canadian journal of agricultural economics 44(3):311-317. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1744-7976.1996.tb00153.x. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1744-7976.1996.tb00153.x agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 5 no. 1 januari-juni 2019 sugiharti mulya handayani1*), jamhari2), lestari rahayu waluyati2), jangkung handoyo mulyo2) 1)fakultas pertanian universitas sebelas maret, surakarta 2)universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta *) email korespondensi: sugihartimulya@staff.uns.ac.id kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga pada berbagai kategori desa wisata contribution of wetland rice agro tourism to household income at various categories of tourism villages doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5173 abstract tourist village as a new trend of tourism that has been growing rapidly in yogyakarta. based on attractiveness, accessibility, facilities, community empowerment, marketing and promotion, institutional, and human resources, tourist villages are devided into growing, developing and developed categories. wetland rice agrotourism offers attractions in tourist village that leads to increasing income of the perpetrators (main actors, supporting actors, and managers). this descriptive research aimed to compare agro-tourism perpetrators’s income contribution to household income in various categories of tourist village in yogyakarta. this research was purposively conducted in gabugan, pancoh and pentingsari village as representation of grow, developed, and advanced tourism villages. the result depicted that the contribution of wetland rice agrotourism to household income of all agro-tourism actors was low in all tourism village categories. this indicates that the wetland rice agro-tourism has not contributed significantly in supporting the domestic economy of the perpetrators. the results of the study show that the advanced tourism villages have a higher contribution of income compared to developing and growing tourism villages. keywords: categories; wetland rice agro-tourism; tourist village. intisari desa wisata sebagai trend baru pariwisata berkembang pesat di daerah istimewa yogyakarta. berdasarkan daya tarik, aksesbilitas, fasilitas, pemberdayaan masyarakat, pemasaran dan promosi serta kelembagaan dan sumber daya manusia, desa wisata dikatagorikan menjadi desa wisata tumbuh, berkembang dan maju. sebagai salah satu multifungsi pertanian, agrowisata padi sawah merupakan salah satu atraksi yang ditawarkan di desa wisata dan dapat menambah pendapatan para pelakunya (pelaku utama, pelaku pendukung dan pengelola). penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif bertujuan untuk membandingkan besarnya kontribusi pendapatan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga pada berbagai kategori desa wisata di daerah istimewa yogyakarta. dengan metode purposive sampling penelitian dilakukan di desa wisata gabugan, pancoh dan pentingsari sebagai desa wisata tumbuh, maju dan berkembang. hasil analisis menunjukkan kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga semua pelaku agrowisata masuk dalam kategori rendah di semua kategori desa wisata. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa agrowisata padi sawah belum memberikan kontribusi yang signifikan dalam menyokong perekonomian rumah tangga pelaku agrowisata padi sawah. hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa desa wisata kategori maju mempunyai kontribusi pendapatan yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan desa wisata berkembang dan tumbuh. kata kunci: agrowisata padi sawah, desa wisata, kategori 33 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 pendahuluan selama 10 tahun terakhir, jumlah penduduk indonesia berumur 15 tahun ke atas yang bekerja di sektor pertanian dan sektor industri berfluktuasi. ada kecenderungan jumlah penduduk yang bekerja di sektor pertanian semakin menurun dan yang bekerja di sektor industri semakin meningkat. beberapa kondisi diduga menjadi penyebab turunnnya jumlah penduduk yang menjadikan bidang pertanian sebagai lapangan pekerjaan utama. di antara penyebab turunnya minat bekerja di sektor pertanian adalah semakin sempitnya kepemilikan lahan usahatani sehingga tidak cukup untuk menjamin kebutuhan hidup keluarga. sejalan berkembangnya waktu mulai disadari bahwa pertanian tidak hanya berfungsi sebagai penghasil pangan namun mempunyai banyak peran atau multifungsi. menurut subejo (2012) secara tradisional pertanian dianggap sebagai sektor dasar yang memiliki beberapa fungsi, termasuk produksi pangan, akomodasi tenaga kerja, penyedia bahan baku untuk sektor industri dan dukungan untuk operasi perdagangan internasional. sebuah pemahaman yang luas tentang peran pertanian menegaskan bahwa pertanian juga memiliki kemampuan dalam membentuk lingkungan, menjaga sistem sosial dan budaya, dan memberikan kontribusi untuk pertumbuhan ekonomi. istilah multifunctionality agriculture muncul pada tahun 1992 dalam the rio earth summit. munculnya konsep multifungsi pertanian merupakan respon atas kekhawatiran yang kuat terkait perubahan pertanian dan daerah pedesaan di seluruh dunia (huylenbroeck, et al 2007). dewasa ini pertanian mempunyai potensi yang prospektif untuk dikembangkan sebagai objek wisata, yang lebih dikenal dengan istilah agrowisata. beberapa kajian menunjukkan bahwa agrowisata berkembang di berbagai negara dan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan, serta kesejahteraan pelakunya. di nigeria (nnadi & akwiru, 2005), sumberdaya pertanian yang melimpah berpotensi untuk dikembangkan sebagai agrowisata. sementara di kansas (boadu, 2013), agrowisata menjadi pilihan dalam diversifikasi pertanian bagi petani. agrowisata merupakan sarana yang telah banyak digunakan di seluruh dunia untuk tujuan mengintensifkan aspek sosial ekonomi masyarakat setempat (hamzah, et al 2012). agrowisata memberikan kesempatan kaum tani meningkatkan kualitas hidupnya dengan memanfaatkan sumber daya pertanian yang mereka miliki (utama, 2015). hal ini mendukung pernyataan bahwa pembangunan pariwisata dapat menjadi peluang bagi petani lokal dalam meningkatkan pendapatan untuk mempertahankan hidup keluarganya (rilla, 1999). agrowisata dapat memberikan pendapatan tambahan yang signifikan bagi pertanian kecil (bagi and reeder, 2012). mengembangkan kewirausahaan pedesaan melalui agrowisata merupakan cara yang efisien untuk mengatasi rendahnya tingkat ekonomi di pedesaan dan dapat menciptakan kondisi sosial ekonomi yang menguntungkan (kenebayeva, 2014). orientasi lain dari pengembangan agrowisata adalah meningkatkan kesejahteraan petani. jenis wisata ini dipandang sebagai alternatif untuk meningkakan pendapatan dan menggali potensi ekonomi petani dan masyarakat pedesaan. pendapatan rumah tangga merupakan pendapatan kepala rumah tangga dan anggota keluarga menurut mata pencahatian per satuan waktu (yusria, 2010). dari sektor pertanian, pendapatan yang diperoleh petani merupakan selisih antara penerimaan dengan semua biaya yang dikeluarkan untuk menjalankan usahatani (soekartawi, 2006). dengan luas lahan yang semakin sempit, pendapatan yang diperoleh petani juga semakian kecil. peningkatan pendapatan rumah tangga dapat ditempuh melalui upaya memproduktifkan seluruh sumber daya yang ada dalam keluarga, antara lain melalui pengembangan agrowisata. agrowisata yang menonjolkan budaya lokal dalam memanfaatkan lahan, diharapkan dapat menjadi andalan bagi masyarakat pedesaan untuk meningkatkan pendapatan sambil melestarikan sumber daya lahan, serta memelihara cara budi daya maupun teknologi lokal yang umumnya telah sesuai dengan kondisi lingkungan alamnya (nurhidayati, 2012; printianto, 2014). kajian tentang potensi agrowisata dari berbagai sektor pertanian telah banyak dilakukan oleh 34 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research peneliti sebelumnya. potensi alam pedesaan sebagai agrowisata diteliti oleh nnandi & akwiru (2005) dan zoto et al (2013); potensi perkebunan anggur sebagai agrowisata diteliti oleh foltz (2007); potensi agrowisata nelayan diteliti oleh hamzah (2012); potensi off-farm sebagai agrowisata diteliti oleh boadu (2013); potensi subak sebagai agrowisata dikaji oleh sanjaya et al (2013); potensi perkebunan sebagai agrowisata diteliti oleh budiyasa dan ambarawati (2014) dan potensi pertanian organik sebagai agrowisata diteliti oleh preeyanan (2015). di indonesia, saat ini sedang berkembang agrowisata berbasis budaya lokal usahatani padi sawah secara tradisional (handayani, 2016). sejalan dengan konsep wisata pedesaan zotto et al (2013) dalam agrowisata padi sawah wisatawan live-in di pedesaan, menikmati budaya setempat dan dilibatkan dalam berbagai proses aktivitas usahatani padi sawah secara langsung. wisatawan dapat menikmati kehidupan masyarakat, berinteraksi secara aktif dalam berbagai aktivitas di lokasi desa wisata dan belajar kebudayaan lokal setempat dimana sebagian besar kebudayaan lokal ini merupakan aktivitas di bidang pertanian (asyari, 2015). agrowisata padi sawah adalah agrowisata yang menawarkan aktivitas budidaya padi sawah sebagai atraksinya, seperti membajak sawah secara tradisional menggunakan sapi atau kerbau, tandur (menanam padi) dan panen (bila kegiatan agrowisata bersamaan dengan masa panen). hal ini sangat disukai oleh pelajar terutama pelajar dari kota besar, yang di wilayahnya keberadaan sawah sudah sangat langka, sehingga berbagai aktivitas budidaya padi sawah menjadi atraksi yang unik dan menarik. bagi petani, agrowisata padi sawah dapat memberikan tambahan pendapatan bagi keluarganya. dalam pelaksanaannya, petani sebagai pelaku utama tidak bisa melakukan kegiatan secara personal karena dalam agrowisata padi sawah melibatkan banyak pihak seperti pengelola yang akan mengatur jalannya kegiatan dan pelaku pendukung yang akan menyediakan fasilitas bagi pengunjung. agrowisata padi sawah merupakan atraksi wisata baru yang melibatkan petani sebagai subyeknya dan menjadi salah satu atraksi wisata yang banyak diminati wisatawan serta berpotensi untuk dikembangkan (djamudin et al, 2012; andini, 2013; sanjaya et al, 2013; handayani, 2016). dalam agrowisata padi sawah petani sebagai inovator menawarkan berbagai jenis layanan dan produk agrowisata (budiasa dan ambarawati, 2014) yang dapat memberikan tambahan pendapatan bagi keluarganya. kegiatan agrowisata padi sawah yang dikemas sebagai salah satu atraksi ditawarkan oleh sebuah desa wisata di daerah istimewa yogyakarta. untuk melihat seberapa efektif kategori desa wisata berpengaruh dalam menyokong perekonomian rumah tangga perlu adanya kajian tentang kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga pada berbagai kategori desa wisata. kajian ini membandingkan kontribusi pendapatan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan total rumah tangga pada berbagai kategori desa wisata di daerah istimewa yogyakarta. metode penelitian penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif dengan menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif bertujuan untuk membuat gambaran mengenai suatu situasi (nazir, 2011) terkait dengan agrowisata padi sawah. berdasarkan fokus masalah yang dikaji, yaitu kontribusi pendapatan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah pada berbagai kategori desa wisata, penentuan daerah penelitian dilakukan secara purposif berdasar pertimbangan-pertimbangan tertentu sesuai tujuan penelitian (singarimbun dan effendi, 1995; sumarsono, s., 2004). dengan metode purposive sampling penelitian ini dilaksanakan di desa wisata gabugan (desa wisata tumbuh) yang berada di desa donokerto, kecamatan turi, kabupaten sleman , desa wisata pancoh (desa wisata berkembang) yang berada di desa girikerto, kecamatan turi, kabupaten sleman dan desa wisata pentingsari (desa wisata maju) yang berada di desa umbulharjo, kecamatan cangkringan, kabupaten sleman. dalam setiap katagori desa wisata terdapat tiga pelaku agrowisata padi sawah, yaitu pelaku utama, pelaku pendukung dan pengelola. pelaku utama adalah pelaku agrowisata yang terkait langsung dengan atraksi padi sawah yang terdiri dari: i) petani yang 35 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 sawahnya digunakan sebagai lokasi atraksi agrowisata padi sawah sekaligus menjadi pemandu atraksi; ii) petani yang sawahnya digunakan sebagai lokasi atraksi, tetapi tidak menjadi pemandu; dan iii) pemandu atraksi agrowisata padi sawah yang tidak memiliki sawah. pelaku pendukung adalah pelaku agrowisata yang tidak terkait langsung dengan atraksi padi sawah namun berperan penting dalam menentukan keberhasilan agrowisata padi sawah, seperti pemilik homestay, kelompok kuliner (juru masak), kelompok petugas keamanan/juru parkir, kelompok pemandu atraksi non pertanian, kelompok kesenian dan kelompok cinderamata. sementara yang dimaksud pengelola adalah mereka yang tertulis dalam struktur organisasi yang bertugas mengatur jalannya desa wisata agar berkembang dengan baik dan jumlah wisatawan yang berkunjung semakin banyak. semua pelaku utama dijadikan responden (sensus), responden pelaku pendukung dipilih menggunakan teknik stratified random sampling, sedangkan responden pengelola dipilih secara purposif dengan pertimbangan aktivitas sebagai pengelola desa wisata lebih besar dibanding aktivitas lain. hal ini perlu dipertimbangkan mengingat dalam agrowisata padi sawah pengelola seringkali mempunyai multiperan. jumlah responden berdasar status pelaku agrowisata padi sawah pada berbagai kategori desa wisata ditampilkan pada tabel 1. tabel 1. jumlah responden berdasarkan status pelaku agrowisata padi sawah pada berbagai kategori desa wisata di daerah istimewa yogyakarta kategori desa wisata status pelaku agrowisata jumlah pelaku utama pelaku pendukung pengelola tumbuh 15 30 15 60 berkembang 11 30 9 50 maju 9 29 11 49 jumlah 35 89 35 159 sumber pendapatan rumah tangga dalam penelitian ini berasal usahatani padi sawah, usahatani non padi sawah (terdiri dari tanaman semusim dan tahunan), dari luar usahatani dan dari agrowisata padi sawah. untuk mengetahui besarnya kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan total rumah tangga digunakan persamaan sebagai berikut: kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah = (pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah)/(pendapatan total rumah tangga ) x 100 % untuk melihat perbedaan kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga antar kategori desa wisata digunakan uji one way anova (sulaiman dan kusherdyana, 2013). hasil dan pembahasan kontribusi pendapatan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah berdasarkan tourism life cycle, tingkat perkembangan suatu desa wisata dapat dikategorikan dalam tiga tahapan yaitu tumbuh, berkembang dan maju (dinas pariwisata, 2014). pengelompokan desa wisata dalam beberapa kategori ini berdasarkan beberapa instrument, yaitu: daya tarik, aksesbilitas, fasilitas, pemberdayaan masyarakat, pemasaran dan promosi, serta kelembagaan dan sumber daya manusia. setiap kategori desa wisata melibatkan tiga pelaku agrowisata, yaitu pelaku utama, pelaku pendukung dan pengelola. desa wisata kategori tumbuh desa wisata kategori tumbuh, seringkali disebut desa wisata potensial, adalah sebuah desa yang mempunyai potensi untuk dikembangkan menjadi desa wisata karena mempunyai beberapa keistimewaan yang layak dijual sebagai obyek wisata seperti adat budaya, keindahan alam, kesenian dan kerajinan. ciri utama desa wisata kategori tumbuh adalah belum adanya upaya pengembangan kualitas dalam bidang kepariwisataan. sebagai daerah wisata, potensi yang berkembang menjadi obyek wisata akan memberikan tambahan pendapatan bagi rumah tangga. selain dari kegiatan agrowisata, pelaku agrowisata padi sawah memiliki sumber pendapatan lain, yaitu dari usahatani padi sawah, usahatani non padi sawah (tanaman semusim dan tanaman tahunan) dan luar usahatani seperti guru, asn, karyawan swasta. tanaman semusim yang banyak 36 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dibudidayakan di desa wisata kategori tumbuh adalah cabe rawit, sedangkan tanaman tahunan yang banyak diusahakan adalah salak pondoh. menarik untuk dicermati, bahwa pendapatan dan kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata pengelola sedikit lebih tinggi dari pada pelaku pendukung dan pelaku utama (tabel 2). secara umum, pendapatan agrowisata masih rendah, bahkan untuk pelaku utama tidak sampai 2 juta rupiah per tahun. tabel 2. kontribusi pendapatan rumah tangga pelaku agrowisata padi sawah per tahun berdasarkan status di desa wisata kategori tumbuh di daerah istimewa yogyakarta jenis sumber pendapatan rerata (rp) dan kontribusi pendapatan (%) pelaku utama pelaku pendukung pengelola usahatani padi sawah 5.620.822 (13,09%) 783.333 (1,72%) 4.059.220 (6,76%) usahatani non padi sawah 5.353.093 (12,47%) 980.000 (2,15%) 1.645.850 (2,74%) luar usahatani 30.251.467 (70,47%) 41.572.333 (91,36%) 51.470.000 (85,66%) agrowisata 1.702.667 (3,97%) 2.167.167 (4,76%) 2.908.667 (4,84%) pendapatan rumah tangga 42.928.048 45.502.833 60.083.737 pengelola memiliki pendapatan tertinggi disebabkan karena besarnya tanggung jawab yang dipikul pengelola dan multiperan yang harus dilakukan. kegiatan di desa wisata sangat menyita waktu karena kegiatan berlangsung sepanjang hari selama beberapa hari. dalam keadaan tertentu beberapa pelaku agrowisata padi sawah tidak dapat menjalankan tugasnya karena ada kegiatan lain yang tidak dapat ditinggalkan. pada situasi seperti ini, untuk kelancaran dan kenyamanan pengunjung atas kegiatan yang sudah direncanakan, pengelola harus mengambil alih peran tersebut. banyaknya peran yang harus dimainkan pengelola secara tidak langsung memberikan pendapatan yang lebih banyak dibandingkan pelaku lain. pelaku utama memiliki kontribusi terendah karena terbatasnya keterlibatan pelaku utama dalam kegiatan agrowisata. sebagai desa wisata kategori tumbuh, dengan pemasaran yang masih sangat terbatas jumlah wisatawan yang berkunjung juga terbatas. masih sedikitnya wisatawan yang berkunjung berdampak pada terbatasnya peran pelaku utama dalam aktivitas agrowisata padi sawah yang secara tidak langsung berpengaruh terhadap besarnya kompensasi yang diterima. dalam sebuah desa wisata, besar kecil kompensasi yang diterima pelakunya ditetukan oleh banyak sedikitnya keterlibatan dalam aktivitas agrowisata padi sawah. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa kontribusi pendapatan rumah tangga pelaku agrowisata padi sawah desa wisata kategori tumbuh masih sangat kecil (kurang dari 5 %). ini berarti keberadaan agrowisata padi sawah di desa wisata kategori tumbuh belum memberikan manfaat yang signifikan dalam menyokong pendapatan rumah tangga. hasil penelitian ini mendukung kajian bagi and redeer (2012) yang menyatakan bahwa pendapatan bersih petani dari agrowisata relatif kecil dibandingkan pendapatan total petani dari usahatani. desa wisata kategori berkembang desa wisata kategori berkembang adalah desa wisata yang sudah mulai berkembang baik, dengan sarana dan prasarana yang cukup memadai. sarana dan prasarana yang digunakan masih memanfaatkan fasilitas desa atau masyarakat yang digunakan secara spontan. masyarakat mulai sadar potensi desanya sebagai desa wisata yang ditunjukkan adanya organisasi kepengurusan dan kegiatan ekonomi. ciri utama desa wisata berkembang adalah perlunya pendampingan dari pihak luar, baik dari pemerintah atau pun swasta. sebagaimana halnya di desa wisata kategori tumbuh, pengelola.desa wisata kategori berkembang memperoleh pendapatan agrowisata yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan pelaku agrowisata lainnya (tabel 3). bahkan, pendapatan pengelola dua kali lebih besar dari pendapatan pelaku lainnya. di desa wisata kategori berkembang peran pengelola dalam kegiatan agrowisata padi sawah sangat besar. peran yang besar karena harus selalu siap untuk mengambil alih tugas pelaku yang lain menyebabkan pendapatan pengelola dari agrowisata padi sawah paling besar. 37 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 tabel 3. kontribusi pendapatan rumah tangga pelaku agrowisata padi sawah per tahun berdasarkan status di desa wisata kategori berkembang di daerah istimewa yogyakarta jenis sumber pendapatan rerata (rp) dan kontribusi pendapatan (%) pelaku utama pelaku pendukung pengelola usahatani padi sawah 187.273 (0,59%) 9.002.617 (19,13%) 15.311.111 (28,21%) usahatani non padi sawah 735.601 (2,32%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) luar usahatani 29.049.091 (91,8%) 35.737.717 (75,93%) 33.313.333 (61,39%) agrowisata 1.670.909 (5,28%) 2.324.033 (4,94%) 5.643.333 (10,40%) pendapatan rumah tangga 31.642.874 47.064.367 54.267.778 di desa wisata katagori berkembang, aktivitas agrowisata merupakan pekerjaan sampingan, sehingga apabila ada kegiatan lain yang dianggap lebih penting maka pelaku utama dan pelaku pendukung memilih untuk tidak terlibat dalam kegiatan agrowisata padi sawah. kondisi yang demikian membuat beban yang harus dipikul pengelola menjadi lebih besar karena harus mengambil alih tugas pelaku utama dan pelaku pendukung. namun demikian, tanggung jawab yang besar juga memberikan pendapatan yang lebih besar. seperti yang berlaku di semua desa wisata yang ada di daerah istimewa yogyakarta, kompensasi hanya diberikan kepada mereka yang benar-benar terlibat dalam kegiatan agrowisata. hal inilah yang menyebabkan pendapatan pengelola dari agrowisata lebih besar dibanding pendapatan pelaku utama dan pelaku pendukung. sumber pendapatan pelaku agrowisata desa wisata kategori berkembang selain dari kegiatan agrowisata juga bersumber pada usahatani padi sawah, usahatani non padi sawah dan luar usahatani. pendapatan dari usahatani non padi sawah didominasi usaha ikan air tawar, salak pondok dan tanaman hias. selain itu beberapa orang pelaku agrowisata berprofesi sebagai guru maupun karyawan swasta. beragamnya sumber pendapatan pelaku agrowisata di desa wisata berkembang menyebabkan kontribusi dari sektor agrowisata padi sawah masih relatif kecil (berkisar antara 4,94% sampai 10,40%). ini berarti, agrowisata padi sawah belum memberikan manfaat yang signifikan dalam menyokong pendapatan rumah tangga. desa wisata kategori maju desa wisata maju/mandiri adalah desa wisata yang dikelola dengan baik. di desa wisata maju masyarakat sudah sepenuhnya sadar akan potensi wisata termasuk pengembangan dan terlibat langsung dalam pengelolaannya. masyarakat sudah mandiri dan mampu mengelola usaha pariwisata secara swadaya (sdm, produk, organisasi dsb). dilihat dari besarnya pendapatan yang diperoleh dari sektor agrowisata padi sawah semua pelaku mempunyai pendapatan yang cukup besar. sebagaimana halnya di desa wisata tumbuh dan berkembang, pengelola menerima pendapatan yang paling besar (tabel 4). tabel 4. kontribusi pendapatan rumah tangga pelaku agrowisata padi sawah per tahun berdasarkan status di desa wisata kategori maju di daerah istimewa yogyakarta jenis sumber pendapatan rerata (rp) dan kontribusi pendapatan (%) pelaku utama pelaku pendukung pengelola usahatani padi sawah 746.352 (1,30%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) usahatani non padi sawah 1.388.333 (2,41%) 1.698.345 (3,36) 580.909 (0,63%) luar usahatani 46.733.333 (81,15%) 33.503.221 (66,19%) 72.582.727 (78,38%) agrowisata 8.957.778 (15,55%) 15.413.103 (30,45%) 19.438.182 (20,99%) pendapatan rumah tangga 57.588.609 50.614.669 92.601.818 besarnya pendapatan dari agrowisata yang dinikmati oleh pengelola disebabkan karena besarnya tanggung jawab dan peran pengelola dalam melayani pengunjung. sumber pendapatan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah di desa wisata kategori maju lebih bervariatif dibandingkan desa wisata kategori tumbuh maupun berkembang. desa wisata kategori maju merupakan desa wisata yang sudah bisa mandiri dalam pengelolaan maupun pengembangannya. sumber pendapatan masyarakat selain dari agrowisata, juga dari usaha-usaha lain di luar usahatani padi sawah maupun tanaman semusim, seperti ternak, memelihara ikan, menanam kopi, durian dan manggis serta menjadi pns atau karyawan swasta. di banding 38 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research desa wisata kategori tumbuh dan berkembang, pendapatan masyarakat desa wisata kategori maju dari agrowisata cukup besar. besarnya pendapatan dari agrowisata ini dikarenakan banyaknya jumlah wisatawan yang berkunjung maupun live-in di desa wisata. sebagai desa wisata kategori maju, pengelolaan desa wisata lebih tertata dan maju. di desa wisata kategori maju kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah tertinggi dimiliki pelaku pendukung (30,45%) diikuti pengelola agrowisata (20,99%) dan terendah adalah pelaku utama (15,55%). walaupun pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah secara nominal cukup tinggi bukan berarti kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga masuk pada kategori tinggi. kontribusi pendapatan pelaku utama agrowisata padi sawah di desa wisata kategori maju masuk dalam kategori rendah karena kompensasi yang mereka terima selaku pemandu atraksi maupun pemilik lahan untuk atraksi relatif kecil. kompensasi untuk pemandu atraksi berkisar antara rp. 50.000,00 – rp. 100.000,00/kegiatan tergantung banyak sedikitnya jumlah pengunjung dan biaya sewa lahan untuk atraksi rp. 100.000,00/kegiatan. kontribusi pendapatan pelaku pendukung agrowisata padi sawah di desa wisata kategori maju relatif besar karena dengan banyaknya jumlah pengunjung menyebabkan keterlibatan mereka semakin banyak. di semua desa wisata, besarnya kompensasi yang diberikan sesuai dengan banyak sedikitnya keterlibatan seseorang dalam akktivitas kunjungan. sebagai ilustrasi, dalam sebuah aktivitas kunjungan pelajar dengan live-in selama tiga hari, pengunjung hanya satu kali menikmati atraksi padi sawah, sehingga kompensasi yang diterima pelaku utama hanya satu kali aktivitas. sementara itu, pelaku pendukung mendapatkan kompensasi dan pendapatan yang lebih besar karena keterlibatan mereka diperlukan selama kunjungan beberapa hari tersebut. pemilik homestay sebagai pelaku pendukung akan mendapatkan sewa homestay selama pengunjung live-in (tiga hari). demikian juga untuk pelaku pendukung yang lain seperti petugas keamanan yang harus bertugas selama kunjungan dan kelompok kuliner yang harus menyediakan konsumsi selama kegiatan. kompensasi yang diterima pelaku pendukung menjadi besar karena kompensasi dihitung per kegiatan atau harian. di desa wisata kategori maju, kontribusi pendapatan pengelola tidak mendominasi karena di desa wisata kategori maju sebagian besar masyarakatnya sudah terlibat aktif dalam kegiatan wisata. selain itu, dalam rangka memberi manfaat lebih kepada masyarakat dan menjaga partisipasi masyarakat dalam kegiatan desa wisata, pengelola seringkali mengalah untuk tidak banyak mengambil peran selama masyarakat masih bisa diandalkan. hal ini sejalan dengan kajian arieta (2010) bahwa sasaran utama community based tourism lebih diprioritaskan kepada masyarakat yang belum memiliki pekerjaan tetap untuk menumbuhkan semangat dan partisipasi masyarakat. di desa wisata kategori maju, beberapa pengelola tidak akan menggunakan rumahnya sebagai homestay selama masih ada rumah masyarakat yang belum terisi. pengelola akan terlibat pada aktivitas lain yang tidak bisa dilakukan oleh masyarakat seperti mengurus transportasi atau instruktur atraksi. selama masyarakat masih bisa diandalkan, keterlibatan masyarakat lebih diutamakan. hasil analisis menunjukkan, dibanding desa wisata kategori tumbuh dan berkembang. agrowisata padi sawah di desa wisata kategori maju mempunyai kontribusi pendapatan rumah tangga lebih tinggi. nilai kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah di desa wisata kategori maju berkisar 15,55 30,45 %. hal ini menunjukkan agrowisata padi sawah memberikan manfaat yang signifikan bagi pelakunya. perbandingan kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga antar kategori desa wisata pendapatan yang diperoleh pelaku agrowisata padi sawah sangat ditentukan oleh banyak sedikitnya wisatawan yang berkunjung. semakin banyak wisatawan yang berkunjung dan semakin banyak atraksi padi sawah dimainkan akan semakin banyak pendapatan yang diperoleh dan semakin tinggi 39 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 kontribusinya terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga. rerata kontribusi pendapatan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga di desa wisata maju lebih tinggi dibandingkan di desa wisata berkembang, dan lebih tinggi dibandingkan di desa wisata tumbuh (tabel 5). tabel 5 kontribusi pendapatan (%) pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga pada berbagai kategori desa wisata di daerah istimewa yogyakarta desa wisata pelaku utama pelaku pendukung pengelola rerata standar deviasi tumbuh 8,18 5,58 6,31 6,41 5,91 berkembang 7,35 6,36 10,79 7,38 6,08 maju 19,75 32,52 21,12 27,62 18,18 untuk melihat perbedaan kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga antar kategori desa wisata digunakan uji one way anova. hasil analisis menunjukkan varian antar ketiga desa wisata berbeda, maka digunakan uji lanjut post hoc test berupa uji lanjut games-howell. dari ketiga desa wisata terlihat bahwa pelaku agrowisata padi sawah di desa wisata kategori maju dengan desa wisata kategori berkembang maupun tumbuh memiliki kontribusi pendapatan yang berbeda secara signifikan terlihat dari nilai sig. f (0,000) < α (0,05). namun, di desa wisata berkembang tidak berbeda signifikan dengan desa wisata tumbuh (tabel 6). tabel 6. hasil uji perbandingan kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga di provinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta desa wisata selisih rerata sig.f berkembang tumbuh maju tumbuh maju – berkembang 0,97ns*** 21,21**** 20,24**** 0,678 0,000 0,000 sig. f 0,000*** keterangan : *** : beda nyata pada tingkat kesalahan 1% ns : tidak ada beda nyata pada tingkat kesalahan 5% pelaku agrowisata di desa wisata kategori maju memiliki kontribusi pendapatan lebih besar dibandingkan desa wisata kategori berkembang. hal ini terlihat dari nilai selisih rerata kontribusi pendapatan kegiatan agrowisata terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga yang lebih besar yaitu 20,24% dibandingkan desa wisata kategori berkembang. apalagi jika dibandingkan dengan desa wisata katagori tumbuh, terlihat dari nilai selisih rerata kontribusi pendapatan yang lebih besar besar yaitu 21,21% dibandingkan desa wisata kategori tumbuh. pelaku agrowisata padi sawah desa wisata kategori berkembang mempunyai kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata lebih tinggi dibandingkan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah desa wisata kategori tumbuh. pelaku agrowisata padi sawah desa wisata tumbuh mempunyai kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata paling rendah dibandingkan kategori desa wisata lainnya di diy. dari hasil analisis ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa semakin tinggi kategori desa wisata, semakin besar kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah. semakin besarnya kontribusi pendapatan dari agrowisata padi sawah dalam menyumbang pendapatan rumah tangga menunjukkan semakin besar manfaat aktivitas agrowisata padi sawah bagi pelakunya. besar kecilnya pendapatan yang bisa dinikmati oleh pelaku agrowisata padi sawah ditentukan oleh banyak sedikitnya tamu yang berkunjung. semakin banyak tamu yang berkunjung, semakin besar pendapatan yang dapat dinikmati pelakunya. desa wisata kategori maju mempunyai jumlah pengunjung yang jauh lebih banyak dibanding desa wisata kategori berkembang dan desa wisata kategori tumbuh (tabel 7). banyaknya tamu yang berkunjung di desa wisata maju disebabkan karena pemasaran yang sudah baik, kerjasama dengan biro perjalanan yang intensif dan loyalitas konsumen. tabel 7. jumlah pengunjung desa wisata (orang) selama 5 tahun terakhir tahun kategori desa wisata tumbuh berkembang maju 2013 745 105 26.249 2014 2.255 505 28.649 2015 1.084 865 22.429 2016 2017 850 1.628 2.784 7.384 32.528 20.417 sumber: administrasi desa wisata pemasaran desa wisata kategori maju sudah berjalan dengan baik melalui media sosial, media massa (televisi lokal) maupun kerjasama intensif 40 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dengan biro perjalanan. di era digital saat ini pemasaran desa wisata melalui media sosial mutlak diperlukan (hamzah, 2013). media sosial merupakan alat komunikasi dengan konsumen yang hemat biaya (sullins, et al, 2010). seringkali sebelum menentukan lokasi desa wisata yang akan dikunjungi calon konsumen mencari informasi terlebih dahulu melalui internet dan membandingkannya dengan desa wisata lain. beberapa responden menyatakan bahwa mereka tidak mempunyai banyak informasi tentang desa wisata – desa wisata di daerah istimewa yogyakarta karena tidak banyak yang dipromosikan lewat media massa dan media sosial. promosi harus ditingkatkan karena promosi merupakan sarana menarik wisatawan (sugandini et al, 2018). selain melakukan promosi dan pemasaran lewat media sosial maupun media massa, desa wisata maju sering mengikuti pameran dalam berbagai event kepariwisataan baik tingkat nasional maupun internasional. keikutsertaan dalam pameran pada event kepariwisataan merupakan salah satu reward dari pemerintah atas prestasinya masuk dalam kategori desa wisata maju. faktor lain yang mendukung banyaknya tamu yang berkunjung ke desa wisata kategori maju adalah adanya loyalitas dari konsumen. desa wisata maju mempunyai beberapa konsumen loyal yang melakukan kunjungan berulang hampir setiap tahun. konsumen yang loyal disebabkan karena merasa puas atas pelayanan yang didapat dan fasilitas yang dinikmati pada kunjungan sebelumnya. sebagaimana yang disampaikan oleh valle et al (2006) kepuasan akan menentukan loyalitas wisatawan untuk melakukan kunjungan berulang dan kesediaan untuk merekomendasikan kepada orang lain. hasil pengamatan lapang menunjukkan bahwa desa wisata kategori maju mempunyai fasilitas dan pelayanan yang lebih baik dibanding desa wisata kategori berkembang dan desa wisata kategori tumbuh. hal ini sesuai dengan kajian ababneh (2013) bahwa fasilitas, aksesibilitas dan atraksi menentukan kepuasan pengunjung. fasilitas dan pelayanan yang disediakan oleh desa wisata kategori maju lebih lengkap dan lebih memadai dibanding desa wisata kategori berkembang dan tumbuh. sebagai contoh keberadaan homestay di desa wisata kategori maju sudah mengikuti standar yang seharusnya yaitu ada dipan (bukan kasur yang digelar di lantai) dan kamar tersedia secara khusus (bukan memanfaatkan kamar anggota keluarga). pemilik homestay selalu mengupayakan kenyamanan tamu yang menginap dengan menjaga kebersihan dan menyediakan fasilitas yang memadai. demikian juga dengan atraksi-atraksi yang disajikan cukup memuaskan pengunjung baik dari peralatan maupun kemampuan pemandunya. kepuasan konsumen agrowisata padi sawah tidak hanya ditentukan oleh atraksi padi sawah saja namun juga ditentukan oleh semua atraksi maupun pelayanan yang didapat. neal and gursoy (2008) menyatakan bahwa kepuasan atau ketidakpuasan wisatawan pada fase yang berbeda dari pengalaman perjalanan akan mempengaruhi kepuasan atau ketidakpuasan secara keseluruhan. karena itu untuk meningkatkan kepuasan wisatawan maka kepuasan wisatawan setiap tahap dan setiap aspek pariwisata harus diperhatikan. hasil analisis kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga pada ketiga kategori desa wisata (tumbuh, berkembang dan maju) masih tergolong rendah (<50%). namun demikian agrowisata padi sawah tetap berperan penting dalam meningkatkan pendapatan pelaku agrowisata baik pelaku utama, pelaku pendukung maupun pengelola. oleh karena itu agrowisata padi sawah layak untuk dikembangkan sebagaimana hasil penelitian hwang and lee (2015) yang menunjukkan pariwisata pedesaan dapat diandalkan untuk menambah pendapatan petani ketika pendapatan dari sektor pertanian semakin menurun. kesimpulan kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga semua pelaku agrowisata (pelaku utama, pelaku pendukung dan pengelola) masuk dalam kategori rendah di semua kategori desa wisata (<50%). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa agrowisata padi sawah belum memberikan kontribusi yang signifikan dalam menyokong perekonomian rumah tangga pelaku agrowisata padi sawah di daerah istimewa yogyakarta. 41 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 kontribusi pendapatan agrowisata padi sawah terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga desa wisata kategori maju lebih tinggi dibanding desa wisata kategori berkembang dan tumbuh, sedangkan antara desa wisata berkembang dan tumbuh tidak ada perbedaan. untuk meningkatkan kontribusi pendapatan pelaku agrowisata padi sawah, desa wisata ktegori tumbuh dan berkembang harus berbenah diri untuk menjadi desa wisata kategori maju melalui perbaikan sarana dan prasarana agrowisata. pelayanan dan fasilitas agrowisata harus diperbaiki untuk meningkatkan kepuasan dan loyalitas konsumen. selain itu pemasaran harus ditingkatkan dengan melakukan promosi yang efektif melalui media massa dan media sosial serta menjalin kerjasama yang lebih intensif dengan agen perjalanan. daftar pustaka 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(2006). tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty intention : a structural and categorical analysis. journal of business science and applied management, 1(1): 25-44 yusria, wo. (2010). keadaan ekonomi rumah tangga petani jambu mete di kabupaten buton sulawesi tenggara. jurnal agrisep, 9(2): 109 – 119. https://doi.org/10.31186/jagrisep.9.2. 109-119 zoto,s, qirici, e, polena,s. (2013). agrotourism – a sustainable development for rural area of korca, eurepean academic research, 1(2): 209 – 223. retrieved from http://www.euaca demic.org pengantar juli 2016.pmd waryat, muflihani yanis, kartika mayasari balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian (bptp jakarta) jln. raya ragunan no. 30 ps. minggu-jakarta selatan waryat21@yahoo.com analisis nilai tambah dan usaha pengolahan tepung sukun sebagai upaya peningkatan pendapatan petani abstract bread fruit processing into flour is an alternative way of processing which is has several advantages including; increase the shelf life, facilitate the process of raw materials and increase the selling price, while its nutrient is relatively unchanged. the purpose of this study is to examine the amount of value added product generated by bread fruit flour and to determine business analysis of bread fruit flour in kepulauan seribu, dki jakarta province. data is collected using interviews, observation and mutilation. measurement is done by calculating the value added products resulting from the processing of bread fruit into bread fruit flour, while analysis of feasibility is calculated based on the analysis of profit and analysis of revenue and costs as well as the r/c ratio. breadfruit flour business has gave product value added, profit and r/c ratio account rp. 5,500 per kilogram, rp. 218,000 and 1.57 respectively. keywordskeywordskeywordskeywordskeywords: added value, breadfruit, r/c ratio intisari pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung merupakan alternatif cara pengolahan yang memiliki beberapa keunggulan, yaitu meningkatkan daya simpan, memudahkan pengolahan bahan baku, dan meningkatkan harga jual; dengan kandungan gizi relatif tak berubah. kajian ini bertujuan: i) mengetahui besarnya nilai tambah produksi tepung sukun, dan ii) menganalis kelayakan usaha tepung sukun di kepulauan seribu, provinsi dki jakarta. data dikumpulkan melalui wawancara, observasi dan pencacatan. nilai tambah dihitung dari pertambahan nilai produk yang diakibatkan proses pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun; sedangkan kelayakan usaha dianalisis dari keuntungan dan r/c ratio. usaha pengolahan tepung sukun memberikan nilai tambah, keuntungan dan r/c ratio sebesar rp5.500 per kilogram; rp218 ribu; dan 1,57. kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: nilai tambah, r/c ratio, tepung sukun pendahuluan nilai tambah merupakan perbedaan nilai suatu produk sebelum dilakukan proses produksi dengan setelah dilakukan proses produksi. peningkatan nilai tambah produk primer hasil pertanian diyakini mampu menopang peningkatan daya saing bangsa yang pada gilirannya mampu mendukung tercapainya sasaran pembangunan industri nasional (santoso, 2008). oleh karena itu, pengembangan agroindustri sebagai model pembangunan perekonomian hendaknya memanfaatkan sumber daya potensial daerah (santoso, 2008). produk agroindustri dapat merupakan produk akhir yang siap dikonsumsi ataupun sebagai produk bahan baku industri lainnya (soekartawi, 2000). menurut hicks (1995) agroindustri adalah kegiatan doi:10.18196/agr.2233 129 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 dengan ciri: i) meningkatkan nilai tambah, ii) menghasilkan produk yang dapat dipasarkan, dan iii) meningkatkan daya simpan dan pendapatan. prospek industri pangan di indonesia cukup cerah karena tersedianya sumber daya alam yang melimpah. pengembangan industri sebaiknya memanfaatkan bahan baku dalam negeri dan menghasilkan produk-produk yang memiliki nilai tambah tinggi terutama produk siap saji, praktis dan memperhatikan masalah mutu (lukmito, 1997). sukun merupakan salah satu tanaman potensial di kabupaten kepulauan seribu, tanaman sukun di kepulauan seribu mencapai 1.068 pohon dengan produksi mencapai 164 kuintal. di indonesia sebenarnya sukun sudah lama menjadi salah satu bahan makanan, tetapi hanya sebatas bahan pangan sekunder, seperti keripik sukun, sukun goreng, tape sukun, sukun rebus, pastel sukun, dan lain-lain. harga buah sukun pun relatif murah, hanya rp5.000 per buah dengan berat 1-1,5 kg; padahal sukun memiliki keunggulan untuk dijadikan sebagai salah satu alternatif bahan makanan pokok. menurut graham dan de bravo (1981) buah sukun dapat diolah menjadi tepung sukun, selain itu sukun juga dapat diambil patinya (loos et. al., 1981). salah satu produk olahan sukun yang memiliki nilai tambah dan nilai jual tinggi adalah tepung sukun. tepung sukun mengandung mengandung 84% karbohidrat; 9,9% air; 2,8% abu; 3,6% protein dan 0,4 % lemak (bb pascapanen, 2009). pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung merupakan alternatif cara pengolahan yang memiliki beberapa keunggulan, yaitu meningkatkan daya simpan, memudahkan pengolahan bahan bakunya, dan meningkatkan harga jual; dengan kandungan gizi relatif tak berubah. tepung sukun tidak mengandung gluten sehingga tepung sukun dapat dicampur dengan tepung lain misalnya tepung beras, tepung terigu atau tepung ketan. tepung sukun dapat mensubtitusi tepung terigu sampai 75% dalam pembuatan makanan olahan (bb pascapanen, 2009). selama ini pemanfaatan sukun di kepulauan seribu terbatas hanya dibuat keripik sukun, sehingga sukun belum dimanfaatkan secara optimal untuk kebutuhan dan ketahahan pangan. oleh karena itu, untuk meningkatkan motivasi petani mengolah buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun, diperlukan kajian analisis nilai tambah dan kelayakan usaha tepung sukun yang sudah dirintis di kepulauan seribu, provinsi dki jakarta. metode kajian dilaksanakan pada bulan mei sampai oktober 2014 di kepulauan seribu, yang merupakan daerah sentra terbesar produksi buah sukun di provinsi dki jakarta. pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan metode wawancara, observasi dan pencatatan. nilai tambah dianalisis menggunakan metode hayami dan kawagoe (1993) sebagaimana disajikan pada tabel 1. pengukuran nilai tambah dilakukan dengan menghitung nilai tambah produk yang diakibatkan oleh pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi nilai tambah untuk pengolahan dapat dikelompokan menjadi dua, yaitu faktor teknis dan faktor pasar. faktor teknis yang berpengaruh adalah kapasitas produksi, jumlah bahan baku yang digunakan dan tenaga kerja, sedangkan faktor pasar yang berpengaruh ialah harga output, upah kerja, harga bahan baku, dan nilai input lain selain bahan baku dan tenaga kerja. tabel 1. model perhitungan nilai tambah no. variabel perhitungan i output, input, harga 1. hasil produksi output (kg/produksi) 2. input bahan baku (kg/produksi) 3. input tenaga kerja (hok/produksi) 4. faktor konversi 5. koefisien tenaga kerja 6. harga produk output (rp/kg) 7. upah rata-rata (rp/hok) a b c d = a : b e = c : b f g ii penerimaan, pendapatan dan nilai tambah 1. harga input bahan baku (rp/kg) 2. sumbangan input lain (rp/kg)* 3. nilai produk output (rp/kg) 4. nilai tambah (rp/kg) 5. ratio nilai tambah (%) 6. pendapatan tenaga kerja (rp/kg) 7. bagian tenaga kerja 8. keuntungan (rp/kg) 9. tingkat keuntungan (%) h i j = d x f k = j – h – i l = k : j % m = e x g n = m : k % o = k – m p = o : k % iii balas jasa untuk faktor produksi marjin keuntungan 1. pendapatan tenaga kerja 2. sumbangan input lain 3. keuntungan perusahaan q = j-h r = m : q % s = i : q % t = o : q % sumber: hayami dan kawagoe, 1993 kelayakann usaha dianalisis dari perhitungan keuntungan, yakni pengurangan penelimaan (nilai produkni dengan biaya total (biaya tetap dan variabel); 130 jurnal agraris dan r/c ratio, yakni perbandingan antara penerimaan dan biaya total. hasil dan pembahasan proses produksi tepung sukun sukun banyak tumbuh di kepulauan seribu, provinsi dki jakarta di antaranya di pulau tidung besar dan kecil, pulau payung, pulau pramuka, pulau panggang, pulau untung jawa, pulau kelapa dan pulau pari. sukun memiliki kandungan gizi yang baik, terutama sebagai sumber karhohidrat (302 kalori per 100 gr), sukun sangat potensial untuk diversifikasi pangan. hal ini ditunjang dengan ketahanan tanaman sukun terhadap hama dan penyebaran tanaman sukun yang merata di seluruh indonesia. pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung merupakan alternatif cara pengolahan yang memiliki beberapa keunggulan, namun belum banyak ditekuni masyarkat. hal ini disebabkan terbatasnya informasi mengenai cara pengolahan dan peralatan pengolahan yang tersedia. adapun proses pembuatan tepung sukun yang dilakukan oleh industri rumah tangga di kepulauan seribu dapat dilihat pada gambar 1.   buah sukun tepung sukun pengupasan perajangan penepungan pengeringan gambar 1. diagram alir proses produksi tepung sukun analisis nilai tambah nilai tambah usaha pengolahan merupakan pengurangan antara harga barang jadi dengan biaya pengolahan dalam proses produksi. biaya produksi ditentukan oleh biaya bahan baku, biaya penyusutan, biaya penunjang dan biaya tenaga kerja (wilujeng et al., 2013). kegiatan pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun merupakan kegiatan pengubahan bentuk produk sehingga menimbulkan nilai tambah. oleh karena itu, harga jual tepung sukun menjadi lebih tinggi dibandingkan buah sukun. analisis nilai tambah dilakukan untuk mengetahui besarnya nilai tambah dan balas jasa terhadap faktor-faktor produksi akibat adanya kegiatan-kegiatan yang terjadi dimulai dari pengupasan buah sukun sampai menjadi tepung sukun. tabel 2. perhitungan analisis nilai tambah buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun no variabel perhitungan i output, input, harga 1. hasil produksi output (kg/produksi) 2. input bahan baku (kg/produksi) 3. input tenaga kerja (hok/produksi) 4. faktor konversi 5. koefisien tenaga kerja 6. harga produk output (rp/kg) 7. upah rata-rata (rp/hok) 30 50 2 0,6 0,04 20.000 50.000 ii penerimaan, pendapatan dan nilai tambah 1. harga input bahan baku (rp/kg) 2. sumbangan input lain (rp/kg)* 3. nilai produk output (rp/kg) 4. nilai tambah (rp/kg) 5. ratio nilai tambah (%) 6. pendapatan tenaga kerja (rp/kg) 7. bagian tenaga kerja 8. keuntungan (rp/kg) 9. tingkat keuntungan (%) 5.000 1.500 12.000 5.500 45,83 2.000 36,36 3.500 63,63 iii balas jasa untuk faktor produksi marjin keuntungan 1. pendapatan tenaga kerja (%) 2. sumbangan input lain (%) 3. keuntungan (%) 7000 28,57 21,43 50 setelah melakukan perhitungan nilai tambah, dilakukan pengujian nilai tambah menurut kriteria pengujian hermawatie (1998) dalam maulidah dan kusumawardani (2011) yaitu: i) rasio nilai tambah rendah apabila memiliki persentase < 15%; ii) rasio nilai tambah sedang apabila memiliki persentase 15%– 40%; iii) rasio nilai tambah tinggi apabila memiliki persentase > 40%. analisis nilai tambah didasarkan dari perhitungan satu kali proses produksi dengan output jumlah tepung sukun yang dihasilkan, yaitu 30 kg; bahan baku yang dibutuhkan 50 kg buah sukun; dalam waktu antara 3-4 hari. hasil analisis nilai tambah buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. berdasarkan perhitungan nilai tambah produksi tepung sukun (tabel 2), tepung sukun memberikan nilai 131 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tambah sebesar rp5.500 (45,83%) per kilogram bahan baku (sukun). besar kecilnya nilai tambah yang dihasilkan tergantung dari besarnya biaya yang dikeluarkan dan nilai produk tepung sukun. biaya tersebut meliputi biaya pembelian bahan baku sukun (rp/kg) dan biaya input lainya (rp/kg bahan baku). nilai produk diperoleh dari hasil perkalian antara faktor konversi (menunjukkan besarnya perolehan produk jadi dari 1 kg bahan baku) dengan harga rata-rata produk per unit (supriyati et. al., 2006). nilai tambah yang dihasilkan ini didistribusikan pada pendapatan tenaga kerja dan keuntungan industri rumah tangga. harga bahan baku yang digunakan dalam perhitungan nilai tambah adalah rp5.000 per kg, sedangkan harga tepung sukun yang dihasilkan adalah rp20.000. hasil perhitungan menunjukkan bahwa hasil output lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan input yang digunakan, hal tersebut terjadi karena buah sukun terdiri dari bagian kulit yang tidak dapat digunakan sebagai bahan baku serta daging buah yang merupakan komponen utama untuk dijadikan tepung. tenaga kerja yang dibutuhkan dalam satu kali proses produksi tepung sukun mulai dari pengupasan sampai menjadi tepung sukun, sebanyak dua orang. upah tenaga kerja sebesar rp50.000 per hari orang kerja (hok). nilai koefisien tenaga kerja langsung untuk pembuatan tepung sukun adalah 0,04. nilai ini menunjukkan bahwa untuk mengolah satu kilogram buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun diperlukan tenaga kerja sebesar 0,04 hok atau setiap penambahan 100 kg buah sukun dibutuhkan tenaga kerja langsung sebanyak 4 hok. sumbangan input lain, meliputi penyusutan mesin penepung yang digunakan, bahan bakar mesin, dan kemasan yang digunakan menghabiskan dana sebesar rp1.500. nilai produk didapatkan dari perkalian faktor konversi dengan harga produk. tepung sukun memiliki nilai produk sebesar rp12.000. nilai ini berarti bahwa setiap pengolahan satu kilogram buah sukun akan menghasilkan nilai tepung sukun sebesar rp12.000. jumlah nilai produk ini menunjukkan besarnya penerimaan kotor per kilogram bahan baku buah sukun yang diolah menjadi tepung sukun. jika nilai produk yang sudah dikalikan dengan faktor konversi dikurangi dengan nilai output dan sumbangan input lain, maka diperoleh nilai tambah sebesar rp5.500. nilai tersebut menyatakan bahwa setiap satu kilogram buah sukun yang diolah akan menghasilkan keuntungan sebesar rp5.500. apabila nilai tambah tersebut dibagi dengan nilai produk maka akan diperoleh rasio nilai sebesar tambah sebesar 45,83% yang berari bahwa nilai tepung sukun sebesar rp12.000, sebesar 45,83% merupakan nilai tambah dari pengolahan produk. analisis usaha pengolahan tepung sukun analisis usahatani digunakan untuk menghitung biaya total usaha tepung sukun dalam proses pembuatannya, yang meliputi biaya tetap dan biaya variabel. tujuan analisis usaha pengolahan tepung sukun adalah untuk menggolongkan biaya menurut fungsi pokok dalam usaha dan menurut perilakunya dalam perubahan volume kegiatan usaha. seluruh biaya yang ada kemudian dikelompokkan menurut perilakunya dalam perubahan volume kegiatan usaha ke dalam biaya tetap dan biaya variabel dengan penjelasan sebagai berikut. 1. biaya tetap biaya tetap usaha pengolahan tepung sukun terdapat pada biaya produksi yaitu biaya penyusutan. biaya penyusutan pada alat-alat yang digunakan dalam proses produksi dalam hal ini adalah alat penepung. biaya penyusutan peralatan sebenarnya tidak benarbenar dikeluarkan pada usaha pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun tetapi karena dalam kajian ini menggunakan konsep keuntungan, maka biaya ini harus diperhitungkan. besarnya biaya penyusutan peralatan dihitung dengan rumus: (nilai investasi awal – investasi akhir) / umur ekonomis. setelah dilakukan perhitungan, biaya penyusutan alat sebesar rp16.666 per produksi. 2. biaya variabel biaya variabel tediri dari biaya pembelian bahan baku utama, biaya pembelian bahan tambahan penolong dan biaya pembebanan input lain. jenis dan besarnya biaya variabel pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun dalam satu kali produksi adalah biaya bahan baku sebesar rp250.000, biaya bahan penolong yaitu pembelian kemasan sebesar rp15.000 dan biaya lain yaitu tenaga kerja sebesar rp100.000. total biaya variabel yang dikeluarkan untuk satu kali produksi adalah rp365.000. 3. biaya total biaya total usaha pengolahan tepung sukun meliputi 132 jurnal agraris seluruh biaya tetap dan biaya variabel. besarnya biaya total usaha pengolahan tepung sukun dalam satu kali proses produksi dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. biaya yang paling besar adalah biaya variabel karena jenis biaya variabel lebih banyak dibandingkan biaya tetap. hal ini menyebabkan biaya yang dikeluarkan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan variabel juga besar. tabel 3. biaya total pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun jenis biaya jumlah (rp/produksi) persentase (%) biaya tetap biaya variabel 16.666 365.000 4,4 95,6 biaya total 381.666 100,0 4. penerimaan dan keuntungan penerimaan usaha pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun dihitung dari jumlah produksi yang dihasilkan dikalikan dengan harga. keuntungan usaha adalah selisih antara nilai penjualan yang diterima dengan biaya yang dikeluarkan untuk memproduksi barangbarang yang dijual tersebut (lipsey et. al., 1990). keuntungan yang diterima dari usaha pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun dalam satu kali proses produksi merupakan hasil perhitungan dari selisih antara penerimaan dengan biaya total. penerimaan dan keuntungan usaha usahatani tepung sukun dapat dilihat pada tabel 4. tabel 4. penerimaan dan keuntungan pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun uraian nilai volume produksi (kg) harga jual per kg penerimaan (rp) keuntungan (rp) 30 20.000 600.000 218.334 5. efisiensi usaha pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun menurut hanafi (2004), efisiensi ekonomis menyangkut perbandingan output dengan input. dengan kata lain, suatu usaha dikatakan efisien jika mampu menghasilkan output yang lebih besar dengan menggunakan input tertentu. salah satu indikator efisiensi adalah r/c ratio (rahardi, 1999). efisiensi usaha pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun dilakukan dengan menggunakan analisis perhitungan r/c ratio, yaitu dengan membandingkan antara penerimaan dengan total biaya. perhitungan analisis efisiensi tersebut dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. tabel 5. r/c ratio pengolahan buah sukun menjadi tepung sukun uraian nilai penerimaan (tr) total biaya produksi (tc) 600.000 381.666 r/c ratio 1,57 nilai r/c rasio pada usaha pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun adalah 1,57 berarti, setiap rp100 biaya yang dikeluarkan dalam awal kegiatan usaha pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun memberikan penerimaan sebesar 1,57 dari biaya yang telah dikeluarkan. misalnya saja dalam awal kegiatan usaha pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun mengeluarkan biaya rp100.000,00 maka akan memperoleh penerimaan sebesar rp157.000,00. semakin besar r/c rasio maka akan semakin besar pula penerimaan yang akan diperoleh. kesimpulan nilai tambah yang dihasilkan usaha pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun adalah rp5.500 per kg sukun atau 45,83% dari nilai produksi. keuntungan yang diterima pada usaha pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun dalam satu kali proses produksi sebesar rp218.334 dengan r/c rasio 1,57. hal ini berarti bahwa usaha pengolahan sukun menjadi tepung sukun layak untuk diusahakan. daftar pustaka balai besar pascapanen pertanian. 2009. teknologi pengolahan tepung sukun dan pemanfaatannya untuk berbagai produk makanan olahan. balai besar pascapanen pertanian, bogor. graham, h. d., & de bravo, e. n. 1981. composition of breadfruit. journal of food science 46: 535-539. hanafi, m. m. 2004. manajemen keuangan. fakultas ekonomi ugm, yogyakarta. hayami, y., & kawagoe, t. 1993. the agrarian origins of commerce and industry (a study of peaseant marketing in indonesia). st martins’s press. hicks, p. a. 1995. an overview of issues and strategies in the development of food processing industries in asia and the pasific. apo simposium. tokyo, 28 sept-5 okt. lipsey, g. r., peter, o. s., & douglas, d. p. 1990. pengantar mikroekonomi 1 jilid i. terjemahan jaka, a. w. & kirbrandoko. 133 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 erlangga, jakarta. loos, p. j., hood, l. f., & graham, h. d. 1981. isolation and characterization of starch from breadfruit. journal of cereal chemistry 58(4): 282-286. lukminto, h. 1997. strategi industri pangan menghadapi pasar global. majalah pangan, 33 (ix). maulidah, s. & kusumawardani, f. 2011. nilai tambah agroindustri belimbing manis dan optimasi output sebagai upaya peningkatan pendapatan. agrise 9(1): 1412-1425. rahardi, f. 1999. agribisnis tanaman buah. penebar swadaya, jakarta. singarimbun, m., & efendi, s. 1989. metode penelitian survey. lp3es, jakarta. santoso, i. 2008. pengantar agroindustri. fakultas teknologi pertanian universitas brawijaya, malang. soekartawi. 2000. pengantar agroindustri. pt raja grafindo, jakarta. supriyati, a., setiyanto, e., suryani, & tarigan, h. 2006. analisis peningkatan nilai tambah melalui pengembangan agroindustri. pusat analisis sosial ekonomi dan kebijakan pertanian. wilujeng, w. w., yurisinthae, e., & sasli, i. analisis nilai tambah dan efisiensi usaha pengolahan jeruk siam pontianak (citrus nobilis var. microcarpa) gabungan kelompok tani sumber anugerah desa segedong kecamatan tebas kabupaten sambas. jurnal social economic of agriculture 2(1): 67-74. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no. 1 januari -juni 2018 pusdima rahma pratiwi1*, siswanto imam santoso2, dan wiludjeng roessali2 1jurusan magister agribisnis, universitas diponegoro, semarang 2fakultas peternakan dan pertanian, universitas diponegoro, semarang email korespondensi: pusdima.rahma@gmail.com tingkat adopsi teknologi true shallot seed di kecamatan klambu, kabupaten grobogan h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4155 abstract the productivity of shallot in grobogan regency is still low because the use of superior varieties is limited. the deployment of superior shallot seed technology that profitable is widely unknown to farmers. this research aims to analyze the adoption rate of true shallot seed (tss) technology and the influence of internal and external factors of onion farmers on the adoption of tss technology. the study was conducted in klambu district, grobogan regency from july to august 2017 by interviewing 100 farmers who selected using multistage sampling. data were analyzed using the descriptive method and logistic regression. the results showed that the adoption rate of tss technology in klambu district, grobogan regency was in a high category. farmer’s age, land tenure status, cosmopolitan rate, frequency of interaction with extension agent, and institutional support significantly influenced tss technology adoption. keywords: adoption, farmers, technology, true shallot seed intisari produktivitas bawang merah di kabupaten grobogan masih rendah karena penggunaan varietas unggul yang masih terbatas. penyebaran teknologi benih bawang merah unggul yang menguntungkan belum secara luas diketahui oleh petani. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis tingkat adopsi teknologi true shallot seed (tss) dan pengaruh faktor internal dan eksternal petani bawang merah terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. penelitian dilakukan di kecamatan klambu, kabup aten grob ogan s ejak b ulan juli hingga agustus 2017 d engan mewawancarai 100 petani yang dipilih dengan menggunakan multistage sampling. data dianalisis menggunakan metode deskripitif dan regresi logistik. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa tingkat adopsi teknologi tss di kecamatan klambu, kabupaten grobogan berada pada kategori tinggi. umur petani, status kepemilikan lahan, tingkat kekosmopolitan, frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh, dan dukungan kelembagaan secara nyata berpengaruh terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. kata kunci: adopsi, petani bawang merah, teknologi tss. pendahuluan bawang merah merupakan salah satu tanaman sayuran dengan nilai ekonomi tinggi, sehingga banyak petani yang membudidayakannya sebagai usahatani komersial. walau demikian, manfaat bawang merah sebagai penyedap rasa dan sumber biofarmaka (merhi, auger, rendu, & bauvois, 2008), menyebabkan permintaan konsumen terhadap bawang merah terus mengalami peningkatan. pada tahun 2015–2016 permintaan bawang merah meningkat sebesar 1,83% (nuryati & noviati, 2015). dalam upaya memenuhi kebutuhan yang semakin tinggi, pem erintah mela kuka n berbagai m acam inovasi baru untuk mailto:pusdima.rahma@gmail.com 10 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research meningkatkan produksi bawang merah, salah satunya melalui penggunaan benih asal biji atau true shallot seed (tss). penggunaan tss sebagai sumber benih merupakan salah satu alternatif solusi untuk mencukupi kebutuhan benih bermutu. teknologi tss diharapkan dapat meningkatkan produktivitas, menyehatkan tanaman, mengefisienkan penggunaan benih, dan memudahkan transportasi sehingga dapat menekan biaya kirim (mardiyanto, pangestuti, prayudi, & endrasari, 2017). penggunaan tss memiliki beberapa keunggulan, yaitu kebutuhan benih hanya ± 7,5 kg/ha dibandingkan dengan benih asal umbi ±1,5 ton/ha; bebas virus dan penyakit tular benih; menghasilkan umbi yang lebih sehat, besar, dan bulat; daya hasil tinggi; hemat biaya produksi (sumarni, sumiati, & suwandi, 2005); serta bentuk dan uk ura n umbi untuk konsum si relati f lebih seragam (sulistyaningsih, 2004). daya simpan tss mencapai satu tahun, sehingga lebih fleksibel dan dapat ditanam saat dibutuhkan. proses distribusi lebih mudah dan murah dengan pengemasan yang baik, sehingga tingkat kerusakan sa nga t kec il (pa ngestuti & sulistyani ngsi h, 2011). produktivitas tss lebih tinggi yaitu ± 24–34 ton/ha dibandingkan dengan benih asal umbi yaitu ± 17,1 ton/ha tergantung dengan varietasnya, (van den brink & basuki, 2012) bahkan mampu mencapai produktivitas hingga 36,2– 42,5 ton/ha (pangestuti & sulistyaningsih, 2011). provinsi jawa tengah menempati urutan pertama sebagai daerah penghasil bawang merah terbesar di indonesia (bps, 2017). dalam upaya meningkatkan produksi, sejak awal tahun 1990 balai penelitian tanaman sayuran sudah merintis p engguna an tt s. pa da ta hun 2016 teknologi tt s dikembangkan dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura (dipertan tph) grobogan dan balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian (bptp) jawa tengah. terdapatnya sejumlah petani di kabupaten grobogan yang telah memulai menanam tss, mengindikasikan adanya respon petani yang cukup baik terhadap tss. hasil produksinya masih diprioritaskan menjadi benih umbi mini dan belum dijual untuk konsumsi. hal ini dilakukan agar mereka dapat terbiasa menggunakan umbi mini sebagai sumber benih bermutu, tanpa mengubah teknik budidayanya (mardiyanto, pangestuti, prayudi, & endrasari, 2017). adopsi merupakan langkah akhir dari proses menerapkan p engeta huan i nova si untuk m enggunak a n da n memanfaatkan inovasi sepenuhnya sebagai cara terbaik dalam mengatasi kebutuhannya. ketidakjelasan manfaat dan biaya (pannell, marshall, barr, curtis, vanclay, & wilkinson, 2006) serta karakteristik teknologi (forbes, cullen, & grout, 2013) dapat mempengaruhi tingkat adopsi. adopsi teknologi bagi petani ditentukan oleh kebutuhan dan kesesuaian teknologi dengan kondisi biofisik, sosial budaya, serta spesifik lokasi. keputusan untuk mengadopsi ditentukan dari faktor internal dan eksternal petani (aditiawati, rosmiati, & sumardi, 2014). adopsi inovasi bioteknologi oleh petani berhasil meningkatkan pertumbuhan tanaman serealia di lingkungan tadah hujan (rosegrant, cai, & cline, 2002). kurangnya pengenalan inovasi teknologi baru pada petani nigeria membuat produksi dan produktivitas tanaman mereka melambat dan kemiskinan di pedesaan pun meningkat (uaiene, arndt, & masters, 2009); (hailu, abrha, & weldegiorgis, 2014). adopsi teknologi dipengaruhi faktor risiko, sarana dan prasarana, serta dukungan kelembagaan pada petani gurem (mackenzie, 2003); pada kasus lain dipengaruhi oleh jenis kelamin, status kepemilikan lahan, irigasi, akses kredit, dan interaksi dengan penyuluh (hailu, abrha, & weldegiorgis, 2014). perilaku komunikasi, motivasi, dan pendidikan mempengaruhi adopsi teknologi bawang merah di bantul (sasongko, witjaksono, & harsoyo, 2014). pendapatan, dan tingkat kosmopolitan memiliki hubungan sangat nyata terhadap tingkat adopsi teknologi budidaya bawa ng m era h di tomp a so (ma nongko, pa ka si , & pangemanan, 2017). tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis tingkat adopsi teknologi tss dan pengaruh faktor internal dan eksternal petani bawang merah terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kecamatan klambu, kabupaten grobogan sejak bulan juli hingga agustus 2017. kecamatan k lam bu di p ili h sebaga i lok a si p eneliti a n denga n pertimbangan wilayah tersebut merupakan salah satu daerah perencanaan sentra produksi tss sejak tahun 2016. data primer dikumpulkan melalui wawancara menggunakan daftar pertanyaan terstruktur dari 100 sampel petani yang dipilih dengan teknik multistage sampling. kecamatan klambu terdiri dari 9 desa, tetapi baru 5 desa yang telah mengadopsi teknologi tss, sehingga sampel hanya diambil dari 5 desa tersebut. jumlah sampel ditentukan menggunakan rumus slovin (umar, 2004) dengan nilai galat pendugaan 10%, sehingga didapatkan hasil yaitu 93 sampel yang dibulatkan menjadi 100 sampel. jumlah sampel tersebut dialokasikan ke 5 desa yang dijadikan lokasi penelitian(tabel 1). tingkat adopsi dianalisis secara deskripsi, sedangkan faktor internal dan eksternal petani yang mempengaruhi adopsi teknologi tss dianalisis menggunakan regresi logistik. tingkat adopsi dihitung menggunakan rumus sebagai berikut (santoso, suryadi, subagyo, & latulung, 2005): 11 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 nilai skor = p ∑ bs × bs.....................................1) keterangan: p : persentase petani yang menerapkan komponen teknologi (%) bs : bobot skor bs : total bobot skor dengan klasifikasi tingkat adopsi menggunakan 3 kelas (expert judgment), yaitu: a. 0,00% – 44,99%= klasifikasi adopsi rendah b. 45,00% – 64,99% = klasifikasi adopsi sedang c. 65,00% – 100,00% = klasifikasi adopsi tinggi model regresi logistik dirumuskan sebagai berikut (gujarati, 2003): ln p 1-p =β0+β1x1+β2x2+β3x3+β4x4+⋯+β11x11...........2) variabel dependen pada penelitian ini bersifat kategorik, yaitu diberi kode 0 jika petani tidak mengadopsi teknologi tss dan diberi kode 1 jika mengadopsi. sementara itu, variabel independen yang diduga mempengaruhi adopsi teknologi tss meliputi umur (x 1 ), pendidikan terakhir (x 2 ), luas lahan (x 3 ), status kepemilikan lahan (x 4 ), pendapatan (x 5 ), kekosmopolitan (x 6 ), frekuensi interaksi dengan p enyuluh (x 7 ), jenis p enga mbi lan kep utusa n (x 8 ), keanggotaan dalam kelompok tani (x 9 ), ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana (x 10 ), dan dukungan kelembagaan (x 11 ) diukur dengan skala yang berbeda-beda sebagaimana ditampilkan pada lampiran 1. hasil dan pembahasan karakteristik internal responden hasil penelitian menunjukkan 85% petani berada pada umur produktif (tabel 2). petani pada kisaran umur antara 15–55 tahun adalah umur produktif dengan produktivitas kerja tinggi, yang pada umumnya teralokasi untuk beragam aktivitas usahatani (rahmadona, fariyanti, & burhanuddin, 2015). petani muda cenderung lebih memiliki semangat untuk tahu apa yang belum diketahui (suharni, waluyati, & jamhari, 2017) dan berusaha untuk lebih cepat mengadopsi inovasi baru walaupun belum berpengalaman mengenai inovasi tersebut. petani yang tua sebanyak 15%, akan mengalami penurunan stamina dan produktivitasnya, sehingga mengadopsi teknologi baru akan semakin lama. petani berumur tua enggan untuk membudidayakan tss karena dibutuhkan waktu yang lebih lama dibandingkan dengan bawang merah asal umbi. tabel 2. data karakteristik internal petani bawang merah karakteristik internal petani jumlah (orang) (%) umur petani skor1 2 3 > 55 tahun 36–55 tahun < 36 tahun 15 72 13 15 72 13 pendidikan terakhir skor 1 2 3 4 5 tidak tamat sd sd smp sma/smk > sma/smk 3 46 28 17 6 3 46 28 17 6 luas lahan skor 1 2 3 ≤ 0,50 ha 0,51–2,00 ha >2,00ha 48 42 10 48 42 10 status kepemilikan lahan skor1 2 petani penyewa petani pemilik 27 73 27 73 pendapatan petani (rp/bulan) skor1 2 3 4 5 rp 1.000.000 – rp 2.100.000 rp 2.100.001 – rp 3.300.000 rp 3.300.001 – rp 4.500.000 rp 4.500.001 – rp 5.700.000 >rp 5.700.000 32 27 23 9 9 32 27 23 9 9 kekosmopolitan petani skor 0 1 tidak kosmopolit kosmopolit 12 88 12 88 hasil penelitian menunjukkan 51% petani berada pada pendidikan yang tinggi (e” smp). petani dengan pendidikan yang tinggi lebih mudah dalam mencerna ilmu dan teknologi baru (rahmadona,fariyanti, & burhanuddin, 2015) serta tabel 1. perhitungan jumlah sampel no desa perhitungan jumlah sampel no desa perhitungan jumlah sampel 1 kandangrejo 690 1.313 ×100=52,55 53 2 taruman 135 1.313 ×100=10,28 10 3 klambu 197 1.313 ×100=15,00 15 4 terkesi 176 1.313 ×100=13,40 13 5 jenengan 115 1.313 ×100=8,76 9 jumlah 100 12 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research lebih tinggi kemampuannya dalam menerima, menyaring, dan menerapkan inovasi baru (sasongko, witjaksono, & harsoyo, 2014). pendidikan yang rendah (sebanyak 49%) membuat wawasan petani terhadap teknologi menjadi rendah (astuti, sugandi, & hamdan, 2014). petani tersebut akan mulai mencoba menanam tss setelah melihat petani lain berhasil menanamnya. hasil penelitian menunjukkan 52% petani memiliki lahan yang luas (>2 ha), sehingga akan lebih mudah dan lebih cepat untuk mengadopsi teknologi baru, karena adanya kemampuan ekonomi yang lebih baik (romdon, supardi, & sasongko, 2012). semakin luas lahan yang digunakan untuk usahatani, petani semakin termotivasi untuk mengadopsi teknologi baru (rahmawati, widjayanthi, & raharto, 2010). petani ya ng memiliki laha n sempit (sebanyak 48%), cenderung untuk tetap mempertahankan pola tanam yang telah ada. keadaan ini disebabkan karena adanya pemikiran terhadap risiko besar maupun ketidakpastian produksi dan pemasaran yang mungkin akan terjadi jika memilih untuk mengadopsi inovasi baru (theresia, fariyanti, & tinaprilla, 2016). hasil penelitian menunjukkan 73% petani merupakan petani pemilik. kegiatan pengolahan lahan petani pemilik bersifat turun temurun, sehingga lebih mudah dalam mengambil keputusan untuk mengadopsi teknologi baru (ukrita, musharyadi, & silfia (2011). berbeda halnya dengan petani penyewa (sebanyak 27%) yang harus mendapatkan persetujuan dari pemilik tanah terlebih dahulu, sebelum mencoba atau menggunakan teknologi baru(suharyanto & kariada, 2011). budidaya tss membutuhkan dana yang cukup tinggi saat awal penerapan, tetapi akan memberikan keuntungan yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan bawang merah asal umbi saat panen. hasil penelitian menunjukkan sebanyak 32% petani memiliki pendapatan sebesar rp 1.000.000–rp 2.100.000. besarnya pendapatan yang diperoleh akan menjadi pertimbangan dalam mengambil keputusan (theresia, fariyanti, & tinaprilla, 2016). semakin tinggi pendapatan maka semakin tinggi keinginan petani untuk mengadopsi teknologi baru (putri, astuti, & yanti, 2016), karena memiliki penghasilan tinggi untuk mencoba hal baru (rastiyanto, surachmanto, & pullaila, 2014). hasil penelitian menunjukkan 88% petani merupakan petani kosmopolit. petani kosmopolit lebih cepat dalam memutuskan untuk mengadopsi inovasi baru walaupun belum mengetahui secara pasti keunggulan dan kehandalan inovasi tersebut. petani kosmopolit akan menambah wawasan pengetahuannya yang berkenaan dengan usahatani, sehingga dapat meningkatkan pengelolaan usahataninya (suprayitno, sumardjo, gani, & sugihen, 2015) dan dapat memilih inovasi terkini secara rasional untuk diterapkan (erlina & kurniasari, 2007). petani yang tidak kosmopolit (sebanyak 12%), tidak memiliki keberanian untuk membuka diri terhadap suatu pembaharuan, sehingga dapat memperburuk kondisinya untuk membuat keputusan (agustina, zahri, yazid, & yunita, 2017). karakteristik eksternal responden penyuluh dapat meningkatkan minat petani untuk mengadopsi teknologi baru melalui program penyuluhan. penyuluhan dilakukan sesuai dengan kebutuhan sasaran dalam rangka meningkatkan motivasi petani untuk merubah perilakunya menjadi lebih baik (lucie, 2005). hasil penelitian menunjukkan 34% petani tidak pernah berinteraksi dengan penyuluh (tabel 3). kurangnya variasi dalam penyampaian materi penyuluhan menjadikan petani kurang tertarik mengikuti kegiatan penyuluhan (far-far, 2011). frekuensi interaksi yang rendah (sebanyak 32%) disebabkan tidak semua petani mendapat undangan untuk menghadiri penyuluhan dan adanya pengaruh bahasa daerah sehingga membutuhkan juru bicara (nisa & zain, 2015); (marsaulina, herlina, & yumiati, 2014). semakin tinggi frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh, sebanyak 34%, petani berinteraksi 7 -12 kali, maka semakin cepat petani mengadopsi inovasi baru (narti, 2015). hasil penelitian menunjukkan 85% petani menggunakan jenis keputusan kelompok. keputusan kelompok lebih baik dan efekti f da la m p roses p enerap a n a dop si , tet ap i membutuhkan waktu lebih lama dalam mencapai hasil keputusan (irwandi, prajarto, & haryadi, 2014). keputusan kelompok lebih baik dalam menyebarkan inovasi baru ke dalam sistem sosial dibandingkan keputusan mandiri, karena ada nya kemungki nan di storsi (gangguan) pesan dan perbedaan persepsi yang lebih kecil, serta konsensus yang akan dicapai lebih cepat (hanafi, 1987). kelompok tani merupakan forum belajar dan forum mengambil keputusan untuk memperbaiki nasib petani. hasil penelitian menunjukkan 81% petani ikut serta dalam kelompok tani. petani yang ikut serta di dalamnya akan memperoleh manfaat dari beberapa kegiatan yang dapat menunjang usahataninya dan dapat meningkatkan potensi serta kemampuan untuk keberhasilan usahataninya (hariadi, 2007). kelompok tani sangat penting, karena merupakan wadah interaksi antar petani dan forum komunikasi yang demokratis (rosyadi, 2003). 13 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 tabel 3. data karakteristik eksternal petani bawang merah karakteristik eksternal petani jumlah (orang) (%) frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh (kali/tahun) skor 1 2 3 4 5 0 kali 1 – 3 kali 4 – 6 kali 7 – 9 kali 10 – 12 kali 34 22 10 11 23 34 22 10 11 23 jenis pengambilan keputusan skor 1 2 kelompok mandiri (sendiri) 85 15 85 15 keanggotaan kelompok tani skor 0 1 tidak ikut serta ikut serta 19 81 19 81 ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana skor 1 2 3 4 5 sangat kurang tersedia kurang tersedia cukup tersedia tersedia sangat tersedia 0 5 53 37 5 0 5 53 37 5 dukungan kelembagaan skor 1 2 3 4 5 sangat kurang tersedia kurang tersedia cukup tersedia tersedia sangat tersedia 0 6 65 24 5 0 6 65 24 5 ketersedi a an sara na da n p ra sa ra na m endukung kelancaran petani dalam mengadopsi teknologi, sehingga dapat mempengaruhi keputusannya untuk mengadopsi teknologi ba ru (hana fie, 2010). hasi l p eneli tia n menunjukkan 53% petani menyatakan sarana dan prasarana cukup tersedia. keadaan ini dikarenakan dinpertan grobogan telah memberi bantuan sarana dan prasarana berupa 6 kg benih tss, 6 ton pupuk organik, dan 15 liter pgpr kepada beberapa gapoktan di kabupaten grobogan dalam rangka pengenalan tss (dinpertan grobogan, 2017). hasil penelitian menunjukkan 65% petani menyatakan dukungan kelembagaan cukup tersedia. ketersediaan kelemba ga an sep er ti kelomp ok ta ni dan dukunga n pemerintah seperti lembaga penyuluh akan mempercepat penyebaran informasi untuk mempermudah mengadopsi teknologi. kelompok tani merupakan kelembagaan yang dapat memperkuat posisi petani dalam berhubungan dengan lembaga lainnya, seperti lembaga agroinput dan pemasaran (priyono, shiddieqy, widiyantono, & zulfanita, 2015). penyuluh dapat melibatkan kelompok tani untuk melakukan sosialisasi dan diseminasi teknologi dalam memberdayakan petani sebagai pelaku utama dan pelaku usaha (indraningsih, 2011). tingkat adopsi teknologi tss rerata tingkat adopsi teknologi tss berdasarkan 12 komponen teknologi di kecamatan klambu, kabupaten grobogan adalah 86,75% atau berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (tabel 4). hasil tersebut menunjukkan bahwa sebanyak 63 petani yang mengadopsi teknologi tss di daerah penelitian belum menerapkan seluruh komponen teknologi sesuai anjuran teknis. dari 12 komponen teknologi tss yang dikenalkan, hanya terdapat duakomponen yang termasuk dalam klasifikasi sedang dan sisanya berada pada klasifikasi tinggi. komponen penggunaan dan pemanfaatan benih berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (100,00%). petani yang mengadopsi komponen tersebut telah mengetahui dan memahami anjuran dasar penanaman tss (gambar 1). komponen perlakuan tss dengan fungisida berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (95,24%). biji tss sebelum persemaian dianjurkan untuk diberi perlakuan fungisida, agar tss tidak terserang penyakit saat persemaian. petani yang tidak memberi perlakuan sesuai yang dianjurkan (sebanyak 3 orang) mengalami kegagalan. komponen persiapan untuk persemaian berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (100,00%). media semai untuk tss berupa campuran arang sekam, kompos pupuk kandang, dan tanah (1:1:1) dengan kedalaman 20 cm. komponen pengaturan jarak tanam antar bedengan berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (71,43%). jarak antar bedengan yang dianjurkan adalah 1 m dengan kerapatan semai 2–3 gambar 1. model alur produksi tss di tingkat petani sumber: (prayudi, pangestuti, & kusumasari, 2014) 14 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research gr/m2. bedengan dibuat dengan lebar 1,2 m; tinggi 30 cm; dan panjang sesuai kondisi lahan, dengan jarak awal dari pinggir bedengan 10 cm dan jarak antar larikan dalam bedengan 10 cm (10 larikan/m2). sebanyak 18 petani menggunakan jarak antar bedengan 0,5–0,75 m dan 1,25– 1,5 m dengan kerapatan semai 3–5 gr/m2. tabel 4. tingkat adopsi petani terhadap komponen teknologi tss komponen teknologi bobot skor*) jumlah petani persentase (%) nilai skor**) penggunaan benih dan pengolahan tanah penggunaan dan pemanfaatan benih 30 63 100,00 7,50 perlakuan tss dengan fungisida 40 60 95,24 9,52 persiapan untuk persemaian 30 63 100,00 7,50 teknik penanaman pengaturan jarak tanam antar bedengan 30 45 71,43 5,36 pembuatan rumah naungan 40 37 58,73 5,87 penutupan bidang semai untuk menjaga kelembaban 30 37 58,73 4,40 pemeliharaan tanaman pemupukan berimbang 20 60 95,24 4,76 penyiraman berimbang 20 59 93,65 4,68 pengendalian gulma 20 63 100,00 5,00 penggunaan pestisida sesuai jenis opt dan dosis 20 45 71,43 3,57 pengendalian penyakit sesuai jenis dan dosis 20 45 71,43 3,57 panen waktu dan perlakuan panen sesuai anjuran 100 63 100,00 25,00 total 400 86,75 keterangan : jumlah responden masing-masing kelompok = 63 petani *) bobot skor masing-masing komponen teknologi dinilai berdasarkan imbangannya terhadap produktivitas **) nilai skor = persentase / total skor x bobot skor yang bersangkutan komponen pembuatan rumah naungan berada pada klasifikasi sedang (58,73%). petani belum mengetahui fungsi rumah naungan untuk tss. petani tidak menggunakan rumah naungan untuk penanaman bawang merah asal umbi. sebanyak 26 petani belum membuat rumah naungan, sehingga hampir seluruh tanamannya rusak terkena hujan. rumah naungan terbuat dari plastik transparan (pe) sebagai atapnya dengan ketinggian tiang bambu 2 m dan 1,5 m (atap miring) dengan arah atap plastik menghadap ke timur. beberapa petani melakukan banyak percobaan guna mendapatkan rumah naungan yang dapat digunakan berkalikali, agar kondisi alam atau cuaca yang buruk tidak memberi kerusakan pada rumah naungan. komponen penutupan bidang semai berada pada klasifikasi sedang (58,73%). penutupa n bi da ng sema i di la kukan untuk m enja ga kelembaban tanaman. benih tss yang telah disebar merata pada larikan, dilakukan penutupan bedengan dengan daun pisang atau karung goni selama ± 4–7 hari atau hingga benih mulai tumbuh. sebanyak 26 petani tidak melakukan kegiatan tersebut. komp onen pem upuk a n beri m bang bera da p ada klasifikasi tinggi (95,24%). pemupukan yang dianjurkan yaitu pemupukan dasar berupa 10 ton/ha pupuk kandang dan 150 kg/ha sp 36, serta pemupukan susulan pertama berupa kocoran npk (16:16:16) sebanyak 100 kg/ha (10 gr/m2) pada tanaman umur 30 hari setelah semai (hss) dan umur 60 hss. sebanyak tiga petani melakukan pemupukan tidak sesuai anjuran, yaitu memberi pupuk kompos pada tanaman umur 14 hari setelah tanam (hst); dan mengurangi dosis pemupukan dasar, yaitu pupuk kandang menjadi 8 ton/ha dan sp 36 digantikan dengan pupuk tsp hingga tanaman berumur 14 hst. komponen penyirama n berimbang berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (93,65%). terdapat empat petani yang m ela k uk a n p enyi ra ma n ha nya 1 ka li /ha ri t a np a memperhatikan cuaca. penyiraman sesuai anjuran dilakukan 2 kali/hari, yaitu pada pagi hari (sebelum matahari terbit) dan sore hari. penyiraman sebaiknya menggunakan spray/ gembor bertekanan rendah, dilakukan sampai tanaman siap panen dengan memperhatikan keadaan cuaca. komponen pengendalian gulma berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (100,00%). pengendalian gulma dilakukan secara mekanis, yaitu mencabut gulma secara hati-hati sebanyak 1 kali/minggu dan 1 kali/2 minggu pada tanaman umur > 60 hst. komponen penggunaan pestisida dan pengendalian penyakit sesuai jenis dan dosisnya berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (71,43%). sebanyak 18 petani tidak melakukannya sesuai anjuran, yaitu menggunakan pestisida dengan dosis tinggi guna menghindari kerugian serangan ulat, saat musim hujan datang. pengendalian hama ulat grayak yang berasal dari serangga spodoptera exiqua menggunakan feromon exi yang dipasang 1 minggu sebelum tss ditanam, sebanyak 5 perangkap/ha dan 20–24 perangkap/ha saat populasi serangga semakin tinggi. pengendalian hama liriomyza chinensis dan hama lainnya dilakukan dengan memasang perangkap kuning yang dipasang sebanyak 50 perangkap/ha setelah tss ditanam. perlakuan sesuai anjuran lainnya adalah penyemprotan rutin 1–2 ml/liter beauveria/metarizium mulai dari tanaman umur 7 hst selama 1 kali/minggu. pengendalian penyakit dilakukan dengan penyemprotan rutin trichoderma mulai dari tanaman umur 4 hst dengan dosis 1–2 ml/liter air selama 1 kali/minggu. pengendalian penyakit bercak ungu atau totol dan penyakit antraknosa 15 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 menggunakan fungisida. pengendalian penyakit jamur fusarium (moler) dilakukan dengan mencabut tanaman yang terserang dan memberikan kapur dolomit atau fungisida pada bekas tanah untuk mencegah jamur tersebut menyebar ke tanaman lain. komponen perlakuan panen tss berada pada klasifikasi adopsi tinggi (100,00%). panen umbi tss dilakukan saat tanaman berumur 85–90 hari dengan menyesuaikan kondisi fisik di lapangan yaitu dengan cara tanaman dibongkar, dibersihkan, dan diproses sebagai umbi benih dengan masa dormansi 2 bulan sebelum umbi siap ditanam kembali (gambar 1). faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi adopsi teknologi tss ha si l uji ketepa t a n m odel p ada ana lisi s regresi menunjukkan nagelkerke r square sebesar 0,417. artinya, variabel penduga umur, pendidikan, luas lahan, status kepemilikan lahan, pendapatan, kekosmopolitan, frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh, jenis pengambilan keputusan, keanggotaan kelompok tani, ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana, dan dukungan kelembagaan mempengaruhi keputusan petani untuk mengadopsi teknologi tss sebesar 41,7%; sedangkan sisanya 58,3% dipengaruhi oleh variabel lain di luar model. hasil uji g menunjukkan signifikansi hitung sebesar 0,000 yang artinya secara simultan variabelvariabel penduga mempengaruhi adopsi teknologi tss. hasil uji wald untuk menguji signifikansi parameter dari masingmasing responden (tabel 5) menunjukan terdapat 5 variabel, yaitu umur, status kepemilikan lahan, kekosmopolitan, frek uensi i nteraksi dengan penyuluh dan dukungan kelem ba gaa n yang berp engaruh signifika n terhadap keputusan petani untuk mengadopsi teknologi tss. variabel umur memiliki nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,022 yang mengindikasikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. nilai koefisien regresi variabel umur memiliki hubungan negatif, artinya semakin rendah skor variabel umur petani (petani berumur tua) semakin tinggi kemungkinan untuk mengadopsi teknologi tss. keadaan tersebut disebabkan karena petani berumur tua lebih memiliki wawasan yang terbuka (putra, witjaksono, & harsoyo, 2017) dan memiliki kematangan dalam segi pemikiran untuk dengan bijak memutuskan dalam menerima i nova si baru, sehingga m erek a lebih bera ni untuk menerapkan inovasi baru (rahmawati, widjayanthi, & raharto, 2010). variabel status kepemilikan lahan (x 4 ) memiliki nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,004 yang mengindikasikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. nilai koefisien regresi variabel status kepemilikan lahan memiliki hubungan positif, artinya semakin tinggi skor variabel status kepemilikan lahan (petani pemilik lahan) semakin tinggi kemungkinan untuk mengadopsi teknologi tss. petani pemilik sekaligus penggarap lebih mudah dalam menerapkan teknologi yang diintroduksikan (pratama & swastika, 2016). petani pemilik lahan, lebih efektif dalam mengikuti kegiatan penyuluhan dan lebih mudah dalam memanfaatkan berbagai fasilitas yang disediakan pemerintah baik kredit usahatani, pupuk bersubsidi, maupun bantuan benih (soemarno, kartasasmita, & hakim, 2010). tabel 5. hasil analisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi adopsi teknologi tss variabel b wald sig exp (b) umur petani (x1) -1,233 5,220 0,022* 0,291 pendidikan terakhir (x2) 0,257 0,729 0,393 1,293 luas lahan (x3) 0,392 0,863 0,353 1,480 status kepemilikan lahan (x4) 1,778 8,136 0,004* 5,916 pendapatan petani (x5) 0,041 0,032 0,859 1,042 kekosmopolitan petani (x6) 1,822 4,503 0,034* 6,183 frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh (x7) 0,448 6,229 0,013* 1,564 jenis pengambilan keputusan (x8) 0,915 1,349 0,246 2,496 keanggotaan kelompok tani (x9) 0,975 1,866 0,172 2,652 ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana (x10) -0,158 0,133 0,716 0,854 dukungan kelembagaan (x11) -1,097 5,797 0,016* 0,334 konstanta -0,049 0,000 0,986 0,952 keterangan: * signifikan pada level 0,05 variabel kekosmopolitan petani (x 6 ) memiliki nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,034 yang mengindikasikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. nilai koefisien regresi variabel kekosmopolitan petani memiliki hubungan positif, sehingga semakin tinggi skor variabel kekosmopolitan petani (petani kosmopolit) semakin tinggi pula kemungkinan untuk mengadopsi teknologi tss. petani kosmopolit lebih terbuka untuk menerima inovasi baru, karena mereka memperoleh pengetahuan serta informasi pertanian tidak hanya dari penyuluh; tetapi dari petani yang lebih berhasil di daerah lain, pelatihan pertanian, membaca koran, mendengarkan radio, atau media informasi lainnya (yahya, 2016). semakin petani kosmopolit maka akan semakin tinggi keinginan petani untuk mengubah sesuatu yang konvensional menjadi modern (putri, astuti, &nuri, 2016). variabel frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh (x 7 ) memiliki nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,013 yang mengin16 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dikasikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. nilai koefisien regresi variabel frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh memiliki hubungan positif, sehingga semakin tinggi skor variabel frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh (sering beri nteraksi dengan p enyuluh) sema kin tinggi pula kemungkinan untuk mengadopsi teknologi tss. semakin tinggi frekuensi petani mengikuti penyuluhan maka keberhasilan penyuluhan yang disampaikan semakin tinggi (narti, 2015). frekuensi petani dalam mengikuti penyuluhan dapat meningkat karena penyampaian yang menarik dan tidak membosankan, serta yang disampaikan benar-benar bermanfaat bagi mereka. inovasi teknologi sering gagal diadopsi petani karena tidak diterapkan secara benar, sehingga membutuhkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan khusus yang dapat diterapkan melalui penyuluhan(van den ban & hawkins, 2005). penyuluhan dapat dijadikan sarana yang efektif dalam mengarahkan petani guna menerapkan teknologi tss secara lengkap. variabel dukungan kelembagaan (x 11 ) memiliki nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,016 yang mengindikasikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap adopsi teknologi tss. nilai koefisien regresi variabel dukungan kelembagaan memiliki hubungan negatif, sehingga semakin tinggi skor variabel dukungan kelembagaan (semakin sangat tersedia) maka semakin rendah kemungkinan untuk mengadopsi teknologi tss. keadaan ini disebabkan karena kelembagaan pertanian di daerah penelitian, walaupun cukup tersedia, kurang berfungsi dengan baik, sehingga petani terbiasa menjadi kosmopolit. pada pembentukan kelembagaan yang tidak dilakukan secara partisipatif, petani penerima manfaat ditempatkan sebagai aktor yang menjalankan kelembagaan tersebut (satya & aminah, 2009). dalam kondisi demikian, kelembagaan yang terbentuk kurang mengakomodasi potensi dan kepentingan petani. misalnya keberadaan kelompok tani sebagian besar hanya digunakan untuk mempermudah penyuluh dan lembaga terkait lainnya dalam memberi bantuan sarana dan prasarana. kesimpulan tingkat adopsi teknologi tss di kecamatan klambu, kabupaten grobogan secara umum berada pada klasifikasi tinggi (86,75%). tingkat penerapan teknologi yang paling tinggi (100%) terjadi pada komponen penggunaan dan pemanfaatan benih, persiapan persemaian, pengendalian gulma, serta waktu dan perlakuan panen; sedangkan tingkat penerapan teknologi yang paling rendah (58,73%) terjadi pada komponen pembuatan rumah naungan dan penutupan bidang semai. secara simultan, faktor internal dan eksternal berpengaruh terhadap adopsi teknologi tss di kecamatan klambu, kabupaten grobogan. secara parsial, faktor yang mempengaruhi adopsi teknologi tss adalah umur, status kepemilikan lahan, kekosmopolitan petani, frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh, dan dukungan kelembagaan. implikasinya,untuk mengefektifkan dan meningkatkan tingkat adopsi teknologi tss, hendaknya: i) petani perlu diberi motivasi agar lebih aktif dalam kegiatan penyuluhan khususnya mengenai teknologi pertanian; ii) penyuluh pertanian harus lebih memahami kebutuhan petani agar yang disampaikan sesuai kebutuhannya, dan petani tertarik pada kegi a t an p enyuluha n; i ii ) pem eri nt ah henda knya m eni ngk a tk a n sekola h lap a ng di p edesa an, k a rena kebanyakan petani di pedesaan lebih percaya kepada sekolah lapang; serta iv) perlu penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai jumlah waktu yang dibutuhkan dalam proses atau tahapan adopsi teknologi tss. daftar pustaka aditiawati, p., rosmiati, m., & sumardi, d. 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(2016). faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi terhadap adopsi petani dalam pengelolaan tanaman terpadu padi sawah di kabupaten deli serdang, sumatera utara. agrica ekstensia, 10(2), 1–7. notasi variabel independen skor kategori x1 umur petani 1 2 3 umur > 55 tahun umur 36–55 tahun umur < 36 tahun x2 pendidikan terakhir 1 2 3 4 5 tidak tamat sd sd smp sma/smk > sma/smk x3 luas lahan 1 2 3 luas lahan ≤ 0,50 ha luas lahan 0,51–2,00 ha luas lahan >2,00ha x4 status kepemilikan lahan 1 2 petani penyewa petani pemilik x5 pendapatan (rp/bulan) 1 2 3 4 5 pendapatan rp 1.000.000–rp 2.100.000 pendapatan rp 2.100.001–rp 3.300.000 pendapatan rp 3.300.001–rp 4.500.000 pendapatan rp 4.500.001–rp 5.700.000 pendapatan>rp 5.700.000 x6 kekosmopoli tan petani 0 1 “tidak kosmopolit”, yaitu apabila petani tidak pernah bepergian ke luar desa dan kurang menggunakan media informasi (seperti: brosur penyuluh, koran, majalah pertanian, radio, televisi, buku, dan media online) “kosmopolit”, yaitu apabila petani bepergian ke luar desa > 1 kali/bulan dan menggunakan minimal 2 media informasi x7 frekuensi interaksi dengan penyuluh (kali/tahun) 1 2 3 4 5 0 kali 1 – 3 kali 4 – 6 kali 7 – 9 kali 10 – 12 kali x8 jenis pengambila n keputusan 1 2 “kelompok”, yaitu apabila keputusan diambil melalui kesepakatan bersama untuk kepentingan bersama atau kelompok “mandiri”, yaitu apabila keputusan diambil secara perorangan untuk kepentingan sendiri (hasan, 2004) x9 keanggotaa n kelompok tani 0 1 tidak ikut kelompok tani menjadi anggota kelompok tani x10 ketersediaa n sarana dan prasarana 1 2 3 4 5 sangat kurang tersedia kurang tersedia cukup tersedia tersedia sangat tersedia sarana dan prasarana berupa: (1) benih, (2) pupuk, (3) pestisida, (4) obat-obatan, (5) peralatan, (6) jaringan irigasi, (7) jalan usahatani, (8) penyuluhan teknologi pertanian x11 dukungan kelembagaa n 1 2 3 4 5 sangat kurang tersedia kurang tersedia cukup tersedia tersedia sangat tersedia dukungan kelembagaan berupa: (1) media kerjasama antar petani, (2) unit usahatani, (3) keaktifan kelompok tani, (4) wadah proses pembelajaran poktan, (5) media kerjasama antar poktan, dan (6) dukungan dari pemerintah lampiran 1. deskripsi variabel independen penelitian https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.2125 http://196.46.4.208/gest/documents/ https://doi.org/10.17660/ agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no.1 januari -juni 2018 widodo, siti yusi rusimah, novita choirunisa department of agribusiness universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta widodo@umy.ac.id factors affecting to consumers’ attitude towards halal label on nugget and sausage packaging: a case study on housewives at one residential in yogyakarta city h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4158 abstract halal status of meat products is a credence attribute which is not visible and cannot be verified by consumers. therefore, halal label is an important cue for consumers about the halal meat product. this study aimed to measure the consumers’ attitude and to clarify the demographic and psychological factors that affected the consumers’ attitude towards halal label on nugget and sausage packaging. the data of this study was collected in 2016 at one residential in yogyakarta city. meanwhile, respondents of 50 muslim housewives were selected through simple random to fill out the selfadministered questionnaire. to measure consumers’ information was used a 5 likertscale of statement. while a binary logistic regression model was employed to analyse the effects of the demographic and psychological factors on consumers’ attitude. the results showed that respondents perceived the label of council of certification, arabic script of halal, and food ingredient could very well indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage. furthermore, respondents tend to use them to investigate the halal nature. the demographic factor which affected the variation of consumers’ attitude towards halal label was households’ expenditure of food, meanwhile the psychological factor which affected the variation of consumers’ attitude towards halal label was family habit of purchasing halal foods. based on this results can be concluded that the respondents of housewife strongly believe on halal label on nugget and sausage packaging but they do not examine thoroughly. respondent of housewife’s attitude toward halal label improved due to an increasing on households’ expenditure on food and a well family habituation. key words: attitude, consumers, halal label, meat product introduction indonesia’s halal food sector has developed dramatically. in fact, the number of companies and products which were certified halal by the indonesian ulema council (mui) has increased sharply. halal certified products (food and non-food) increased from 32,889 in 2012 to 114,262 in 2016 (lembaga pengkajian pangan obat obatan dan kosmetika majelis ulama indonesia, 2018). the halal market in indonesia represents us $78.5 billion (ratanamaneichat & rakkarn, 2013). meanwhile, in 2020, indonesian population is projected to be 271 million (bps statistics indonesia, 2013), with over 85% of the population are muslims. thus, it is a huge potential market for halal products. halal is a code of conduct which is permitted by law of islam and it applies to every activity carried out by a muslim (mohammed, rezai, shamsudin, & chiew f.c., 2008). it also refers to food that are permissible for muslim to consume (ambali & bakar, 2013). all foods are considered halal except pork and its by-products, animals improperly slaughtered or are dead before slaughtering, animals killed in the name of other than god. moreover, non-halal mailto:widodo@umy.ac.id 37 vol. 4 no. 1 januari-juni 2018 products include drinks that intoxicate, carnivorous animals, birds of prey, land animals without external ears, blood and blood by-products, and foods that are contaminated with any of the above mentioned products (riaz & chaudry, 2004). animals’ meat must be from animal slaughtered in the islamic manner and must not be dedicated to anyone but allah and must be obtained through lawful manner (said, hassan, musa, & rahman, 2014). the processed food that is purchased by muslim must be halal. hence, muslim consumers are found to be very particular and sensitive about the halal of processed foods they purchased (mohammed, rezai, shamsudin, & chiew, 2008). halal status of meat product is a credence attribute which cannot be ascertained by the consumer, even upon consumption of the meat. the halal meat product chain begins from the farm to the table that all characteristics of these meat products are not visible and cannot be verified by the consumer (nakyinsige, che man, & qurni, 2012). therefore, halal label is an important cue for consumers about the halal meat product (weinrich & spiller, 2016). food labels would provide information and choice to muslim consumers (adams, 2011). moreover, the halal labelling that is certified by authorized council would protect muslim consumers from non-halal foods (hidayat & siradj, 2015; syafrida, 2017). it is clear that there is a significant association between label use and the quality of products purchased. for example, nutrition label use leads to healthier food purchases (ni mhurchu, eyles, jiang, & blakely, 2018). the effects of label on quality perception and acceptability of chicken meat become more proven when consumers understood and trusted the label claims (samant & seo, 2016). a multi-level labelling system achieves more products that are purchased by consumers (weinrich & spiller, 2016). the findings of the previous studies show that halal food consumption behaviour has been identified. consumers are aware about the important of the official’s halal logo on food product packaging even though they evaluate all kinds of halal clue (mohammed, rezai, shamsudin, & chiew, 2008). moreover, halal consumption behaviour is supported by halal label and health related reasons (ambali & bakar, 2013). attitudes towards halal products were important antecedents of intention to purchase halal products and mediated the subjective norm (briliana & mursito, 2017). perceived healthiness of existing products was positively associated with the purchase intention of processed meats (shan et al., 2017). some studies have revealed the effect a number of factors on halal food consumer behaviour. in case of malaysia halal food, it was found that different nationalities have different perception towards halal food products, moreover it shows that the consumers’ perception and their level of knowledge and religiosity differs (grunert, hieke, & wills, 2014; said, hassan, musa, & rahman, 2014). knowledge and awareness about halal foods, good manufacturing and practices will bring about trustworthiness on food products with halal logo (mohammed, rezai, shamsudin, & chiew, 2008). other studies show the roles of religiousity and cultural-value orientation toward intentions of muslim consumers to buy halal food (ambali & bakar, 2013; said, hassan, musa, & rahman, 2014; jamal & sharifuddin, 2015) but not significant predictors of the purchase intention for enriched processed meat (shan et al., 2017). understanding and use of selected label on food products are affected by demographic characteristics (grunert, hieke, & wills, 2014). all the aforementioned studies describe consumers’ behaviour on halal food, attitude toward halal foods and factors that affect their attitude. moreover, some studies of attitude toward halal logo and label on food product have been conducted, but there is not study about consumers’ attitude towards halal label of meat product. halal logo is logo that indicate product of which has been claimed as halal product by producer, and halal label means written information on packaging that denotes halal meat products, such as halal registration number, council that certified it, the arabic script of halal, food ingredient, and the brand name. this study aimed to measure the consumers’ attitude toward halal label written on food packaging of nugget and sausage. in addition, this study is to clarify the demographic and psychological factors that effected to consumer attitude toward halal label. it was hypothesized that the demographic factor, i.e. religiousness, housewife age, housewife education level, and households’ expenditure of food, and psychological factor, i.e. family habit and motive of consumption affect to consumers’ attitude toward halal label. methods the data of this study was collected in 2016 at one residential in yogyakarta city. this residential is inhabited by 120 middle upper class multi-cultural households, and most of them are muslim. most of the housewives at the residential (80%) are worker so they have less time to serve foods for the family members. respondents of this study were 50 muslim housewives whom were selected through the simple random to fill out the self-administered questionnaire. questions that were asked to the housewives were affective and conative components of attitude (ortiz, chiu, wen-hai, & 38 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research hsu, 2017) toward halal label on nugget and sausage packaging, nugget and sausage consumption, family habit of purchasing official halal labelled food, motive of consumption, and religiousness of the family members. halal label on nugget and sausage packaging was adapted from the concept that has been used on study of nutrition label information (higginson, kirk, rayner, & draper, 2002) and on study of orange juice and nectar (ferrarezi, minim, santos, & monteiro, 2013). in this study, the halal label encompassed with the halal registration number, council that certified it, the arabic script of halal, food ingredient, and the brand name. the affective component of attitude was expressed with 5 statements on each halal label of “i perceive that the registration number/ council that certified it/ the arabic script of halal/ food ingredient/ the brand name written on the product packaging can indicate the halal nature of sausage and nugget”. meanwhile, the conative component of attitude on each halal label was expressed with 5 statements of “i tend to use the registration number/ council that certified it/ the arabic script of halal/ food ingredient/ the brand name written on the product packaging to indicate the halal nature of sausage and nugget”. referring to (kulas, stachowski, & haynes, 2008), a likert scale of 1 (representing absolutely disagree) to 5 (representing absolutely agree) was used to measure the respondents’ statement of affective and conative commponent of attitude. respondent’ attitude was a composite variable that was defined as the average of affective and conative component, thus the respondents’ attitude score on the halal label runs from 1 to 5. based on the average score, respondents’ attitude toward halal label are categorized in 3 levels, i.e low (score 1 – 2.33); fair (score 2.34 – 3.66); and high (score 3.67 – 5). a 5 scale runs from 1 (representing strongly disagree) to 5 (representing strongly agree) is also used to measure some independent variables, namely: i) family habits, was defined as a statement of “i come from a family that inculcates the habit of consuming halal products”; ii) the motive of consumption was defined as a statement of “i buy sausage and naget to provide varied side dishes”; iii) religiousness as measured by three statements of “i attended recitals held in the neighborhood / i attended tahlilan group / i attended a prayer in congregation in mosque”. thus, the scores for family habits and motive of consumption will run from 1 to 5; while the average religiousness score will run from 1 to 5. in addition, the score is used to measure housewife education level, by giving score of 1 for elementary education, score of 2 for junior high school education, score of 3 for high school education, and 4 of for higher education. other independent variables i.e. housewife age was measured in years; and households’ expenditure of food was measured in rupiah per month. both descriptive and regression analyses were performed to analyse the information collected from the samples. the descriptive analysis was used to analyse the housewife respondents’ demographic and psychological characteristics. meanwhile, a binary logistic regression model (menard, 2011) was used to predict the influence of family habit, religiousness, housewife age, housewife education level, motive of consumption, and households’ expenditure of food on consumers’ attitude. the mathematical model, as it was used by (aufanada, ekowati, & prastiwi, 2017; widodo, kamardiani, & rahayu, 2016), is written as: ln p 1-p =β 0 +β 1 hbt+β 2 rlg+β 3 age+ β 4 edu+β 5 mot+β 6 exp p was consumer’s attitude (p=1, if housewife’s attitude was high, p=0, if housewife’s attitude was fair or low), hbt was family habit (score), rlg was religiousness (score), age was housewife age (year), edu was housewife education level (score), mot was motive of consumption (score), and exp was households’ expenditure of food (idr per month). maximum likelihood was implemented to estimate the regression coefficients, and the purpose this estimation was to find the optimal combination of independent variables to maximize consumers’ attitude. chi-squared distribution was used to test the different between their log-likelihood of the null model and the hypothetical model. moreover, the wald test was used for testing the significance of individual independent variables. results and discussion demographic profile of respondents all respondents were housewives and most of them (86%) were in the level of productive age (see table 1). this data shows that the residential has more productive age of housewives compared to the female population of yogyakarta city in 2013. approximately 58% of the respondents’ family has four to five members. in addition, more than 75% of the respondents were employed and 68% of them had tertiary education. this data shows that the housewives at the residential were well-educated and have salary to contribute the family income. thus, the result indicates that the households at the residential are considered as the middle upper class family. 39 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 table 1. the demographic profile of respondents of housewife, in 2016 (n=50) descriptions percentage (%) age 23-32 33-42 43-52 53-62 26 18 42 14 household’s member 1 – 3 4 – 5 42 58 occupation civil servant private sector self-employed housewife 22 36 18 24 education level primary or junior school high school higher education 2 30 68 total 100 respondents’ family habit and motive of consumption respondents of haousewife came from family with various habit on halal food consumption. some respondents of housewife came from families who carefully paid attention to halal nature when buying and consuming processed food, but others paid less attention to it. the most of respondents of housewife came from families who paid enough attention to halal nature when buying and consuming processed food. family habit score of 2.96 (table 2) showed that the respondent’s family habit on buying and consuming processed food was not absolutely good. meanwhile, this research finding showed that purchase on sausage and nugget of the respondents of housewife’s was quite motivated to provide varied side dishes (table 2). table 2. descroption of respondents’ family habit and motive of consumption psychological factor score family habit motive of consumption 2.96 2.88 note: the score range was 1 – 5 resspondents’ consumption and purchase of nugget and sausage respondents of housewife usually buy sausages for snacks, side dishes, or as one of main course ingredients of soup. meanwhile, nuggets are commonly consumed as a snack or a side dish. respondents of housewife purchased nuggets and sausages once for few days. some brand names of sausage were usually purchased by housewife, such as vi, sn, and ch. on the other hand, the brand names of nugget that were normally purchased by the housewives were ch, fs, bl, sg, and the others are without a brand name. the majority of nuggets’ brand name that was purchased was sg. about 44% of housewife respondents purchased nuggets with the brand name sg (see table 3). table 3. respondets of housewife’s purchase and consumption on sausage and nugget, in 2016 (n=50) description presentase (%) brand name of sausage vi sn ch brand name of nugget ch fs bl sg no brand 34 34 36 10 28 22 44 10 modern markets have become the favourite place to purchase sausages and nuggets. housewives or other family members usually purchased sausages and nuggets together with other daily needs. meanwhile, only the housewives or the family servant purchased sausages and nuggets at traditional markets, depots, or meat product shops. from the previous discussion, it can be concluded that, there are varieties of sausage brand names and the majority was purchased in the modern markets. all purchased brand names of sauage were certified by the authorized council and was written official halal label. sg was the one of the favourite purchased brand names of nugget. all purchased nuggets were certified by the authorized council and was labelled official halal label except the nuggets which have no brands. affective and conative component of attitude toward halal label this study uses the affective-conative of the tri-component attitude model (dwiastuti, shinta, & isaskra, 2012) to investigate consumers’ attitude toward the halal label written on product packaging. affective is an individual’s subjective perception of positive or negative emotions and feelings of attitude generated by interactions with some halal labels, while conative is the final behavioural intention based on an individual’s perception and feeling (ortiz, chiu, wen-hai, & hsu, 2017). 40 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research there were five items of halal label that were investigated in this study; they include registration number, council of certification, the arabic script of halal, food ingredient, and the brand name. the council of certification and arabic script of halal can be read on the official logo of halal that was written on each packaging. the registration number of halal is an official number which anyone has an access to check the product’s name, the production company, and the validation date on the official halal council website. respondents perceived that council of certification, arabic script of halal, and food ingredient could very well indicate the halal nature of sausages and nuggets. meanwhile, respondents perceived that both the registration number and the brand name can fairly indicate the halal nature (table 4). one can conclude that respondents of housewife absolutely believe in the official logo of halal without checking the validity of the logo written on the packaging. moreover, it can be concluded that respondents of housewife feel confident about the information which was company written on the nuggets and sausages packaging. respondents of housewife tend to use the written ingredient information on the packaging highly to indicate the halal nature of sausages and nuggets. respondents of housewife particularly refer to the raw ingredients such as the use of beef and chicken written on ingredient information to indicate the halal nature of the meat products. all purchased sausages were made from chicken or beef, while nuggets that were purchased by the respondents of housewife were made from chicken. furthermore, respondents of housewife tend to use the arabic script and council of certification to investigate the halal nature of the sausages and nuggets, but they did not use the registration number. actually, the respondents of housewife are able to verify the halal label of one product on official site of assessment institute for foods, drugs and cosmetics (it is known in the bahasa indonesia as lembaga pengkajian pangan, obat-obatan dan kosmetika/ lp-pom) properly by entering the registration number. however, this study shows that the respondents of housewife did not tend to use it to denote the halal product. it can be concluded that the consumers care to all the written ingredients information on the packaging, the official logo given by the council of certification, and the typical arabic script of halal, however they less care to the registration number and brand name. statement of affective mean score score attainment (%) category i perceive that the registration number listed on the product packaging can indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 3.28 57.0 fair i perceive that the council of certification can indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 4.32 83.0 high i perceive that the arabic script of halal can indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 4.48 87.0 high i perceive that the ingredient typed on packaging can indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 4.42 85.5 high i perceive that the brand name can indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 2.58 52.0 fair totally 3.91 72.0 high table 4. affective component of attitude toward halal label of respondent of housewife, in 2016 table 5. conative component of attitude toward halal label of respondents of housewife, in 2016 statement of conative mean score score attainment (%) category i tend to use the registration number written on the product packaging to indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 2.76 44.0 fair i tend to use the council of certification listed on the product packaging to indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 3.90 72.5 high i tend to use the arabic script listed on the product packaging to indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 4.18 79.5 high i tend to look at the ingredients written on the product packaging to indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 4.34 83.5 high i tend to use the brand name to indicate the halal nature of nugget and sausage 2.78 44.5 fair totally 3.59 64.8 fair 41 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 factors affecting the attitude toward halal label respondents’ attitude toward halal label was affected by some factors. a binary logistic regression was applied to explain such factors that affected the respondents’ attitude toward halal label. table 6. the result of binary logistic regression on attitude toward halal label variable  wald p exp () family habit 6.377 4.544 0.033 587.943 religiousness -2.512 1.762 0.184 .081 housewife age -0.065 1.223 0.269 .937 housewife education level -0.300 0.067 0.795 .741 motive of consumption -2.808 1.103 0.294 .060 households’ expenditure of food 0.005 3.047 0.081 1.005 constant -8.861 nagelkerke r square = 0.7777 chi square = 43,684 p = 0.000 overall percentage = 92% the resulted chi-square was 43.684 with degree of freedom equals to 6 and p-value less than 0.001 (table 6). it suggested that there was adequate fit of the data to the model. this finding implied that there was at least one of the variables of family habit, religiousness, housewife age, housewife education level, motive of consumption, and households’ expenditure of food was significantly related to the variation of consumers’ attitude towards the halal label. the overall accuracy of these independent variables to predict consumers’ attitude toward halal label was both 92% of positive and negative prediction using cut value of 0.5. it means that 92% of both negative and negative cases could be predicted correctly by the variables used in this model. for testing individual variable, the estimated coefficients of logistic regression were assessed by the wald test. the variable of family habit and households’ expenditure of food affected significantly to the variation of respondents’ attitude towards the halal label. it means that a better family habit and higher households’ expenditure of food improved the consumers’ attitude toward halal label. however, the variable of religiousness, housewife’s age, housewife’s education level, and motive of consumption did not affect significantly to the variation. all human have habitual behaviours that allow to carry out essential tasks very easily (waller jr., 1988). habits keep us doing what we have always done, despite our best in tensions to act otherwise (neal, wood, & quinn, 2006). in any case if a habit is routine, if the circumstances for which the habit developed disappear, the habit should not persist (waller jr., 1988). research address that habits drive consumer choices (neal, wood, & quin, 2006), however practice is the perfect form of drill (waller jr., 1988). this study revealed a well habituation and attitude toward halal label but respondents of housewife just believe on official halal certification logo written on packaging. respondents of housewife did not use registration number to check the authenticity of the logo of halal. the halal registration number consists of 12 numbers which was small size listed on each packaging product item. although, respondents housewife can use their smartphone to check it, but she met difficulties and spend much minutes to enter a lot of numbers. this finding indicates that respondents of housewife thoroughly belives to the official certification logo, and this finding is in contrary to malaysia that consumers evaluate all kinds clue of halal (mohammed et al., 2008). an explanation of this research finding was a lack knowledge on their religion especially on practical knowledge of halal food (ambali & bakar, 2013). another explanation was that habituated individuals were more intuitive responses with regard to consumption of the involved product category (tendero & bernabéu, 2005; olsen et al., 2008). this study found that families’ best habit practice on purchasing the halal label food improved the attitude of housewife. parents played central role on their families’ habit and parental control to children has been associated to habit of their children. this study showed that respondents of housewife who come from family that have a good habit on purchasing halal products have a better attitude toward halal label. respondents of housewives whom are accustomed to purchased halal labeled products tend to pay attention to various label that indicate the halal nature of the nugget and sausage and use it as a consideration in purchasing the product. this finding was in line with previous studies of family well habituation. for example, controlling of parents on which television programs were watched by children would lead nutritional behaviour (nascimento & fiates, 2013). moreover, young consumers’ were less ability to implement such knowledge into the reality of their daily food behaviour (brown, mcilveen, & strugnell, 2000) especially on urban household (y1ld1r1m & ceylan, 2008). households’ expenditure indicates economic well-being, and it is a better measure of the family permanent income (meyer & sullivan, 2011). the variable of household expenditure related to family choice of food purchased and food knowledge (liu & niyongira, 2017). religious knowledge or 42 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research belief is the best guide to determine one’s food consumption because several religions impose food restrictions (ambali & bakar, 2013). this research finding reveals that an increasing on households’ expenditure of food leads a better respondents of housewife’s attitude toward halal label. a higher households’ expenditure of food means a more choice on purchased food and reveals higher family well-being. an explanation of this research finding was that a higher households’ expenditure of food has a more chance to avoid non halal food by carefully selected halal food. not only religious motive, another explanation was that %alal food consumption related to health issues. this research finding supported the past research. it was found that upper and middle class have increase quality of food intake (y1ld1r1m & ceylan, 2008; khattak & akram, 2012), and members of different groups are likely to make purchase decisions which are influenced by their identity (schiffman & kanuk, 2007). paradigm of food was radically restructured from “food as health” to “food as well-being”. the concept of food wellbeing (fwb) is defined as a positive psychological, physical, emotional, and social relationship with food at both individual and societal levels (block et al., 2011; ferriss, 2002). the concept of fwb was looked at as happiness (subjective well-being), or respectively as material well-being (material utility) and as psychological well-being (psychological utility) (d’acci, 2011). consuming halal food must be abided by all muslims, and according to the concept of fwb, consumption of halal food indicates the family well-being (noor, gandhi, ishak, & wok, 2014). formal education, religious activities followed by respondents of housewife, as well as the daily interactions of housewives do not provide knowledge of procedures on the selection of halal food products including meat products. therefore, higher education of housewives, better religious activity and age do not raise awareness of the housewife on the role of label to indicate halal food that will be purchased. this fact causes the education level of housewife, religiousness, and age of housewife do not affect to consumers’ attitudes toward halal label. motivation of housewife to provide more varied food without followed by a good level of knowledge about halal label also makes the motivation has no effect on consumer attitudes toward halal label. previous research explains this finding that exposure to information of halal food that was received by consumers determinate the awareness about halal food consumption (ambali & bakar, 2013), furthermore consumers will change their purchasing of food product as a result of the information (koç & ceylan, 2009). conclusion halal label is an important cue for muslim which denote the halal meat product due to halal status of meat product cannot be ascertained by consumer. this research conclude that the respondents of housewife strongly believe on halal label on nugget and sausage packaging but they do not examine thoroughly. respondent of housewife’s attitude toward halal label improved due to an increasing on households’ expenditure on food and a well family habituation. based on this cases, producers of meat product are strongly suggested to certified their product to the official council and clearly write the halal logo and registration number on the product packaging. the other hand, the muslim community needs an upgrading on complete insight of halal label of meat products which will be purchased. references adams, i. a. 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slamet widodo, retno wulandari program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta armando1215sw@gmail.com analisis pola konsumsi dan tingkat kerawanan pangan petani lahan kering di kabupaten gunungkidul (studi kasus di desa giritirto, kecamatan purwosari, gunungkidul) abstract gunungkidul was being as an extreme nature and categorized as marginal land which was cause food shortages in some districts. one of the district experienced food shortages in 2013 was purwosari. this research aimed to find out the food consumption patterns and relation among land area, income and educational levels of the dry land farmers toward the food shortages level. the research method used in this study was descriptive technique by giving explanation from statistic data (percentage, mean, data range, frequency distribution, cross tabulation). moreover, in order to measure the food shortages leve this study used the comparison formula between the number of poor people consuming food with the nutrition daily value as much as 2,150 calories. the research findings show that the average daily individual consumption was 1274.25 kkal, and categorized as people who are extremely food shortages. the calories are mostly gained from consuming rice, corn and tempe, as daily consumption patterns. the levels of farmers’ income, farming land areas, and level of education are not related to the food shortages level. keywordskeywordskeywordskeywordskeywords: dry land, food consumption pattern, food shortages intisari kabupaten gunungkidul dengan kondisi alam yang ekstrim dan masuk dalam kategori lahan marjinal, menyebabkan beberapa wilayah masuk dalam kategori rawan pangan. salah satu kecamatan yang masuk kategori rawan pangan pada tahun 2013 adalah kecamatan purwosari. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui tingkat kerawanan pangan; dan hubungan luas lahan, pendapatan dan tingkat pendidikan terhadap tingkat kerawanan pangan. metode penelitian dilakukan menggunakan teknik deskriptif dengan memberikan penjelasan dari statistik data (percentage, mean, data range, frequency distribution, cross tabulation) dan untuk mengukur tingkat kerawanan pangan dengan menggunakan rumus perbandingan antara jumlah penduduk miskin yang mengkonsumsi pangan dengan angka kecukupan gizi sebesar 2.100 kalori. hasil penelitian menyimpulkan bahwa rata-rata konsumsi kalori harian individu adalah sebesar 1274.25 kalori, dan termasuk dalam kategori penduduk sangat rawan pangan. kalori tersebut sebagian besar diperoleh dari konsumsi beras, jagung dan tempe, sehingga hal tersebut menjadi pola konsumsi harian. tingkat pendapatan petani, luas lahan pertanian dan tingkat pendidikan tidak memiliki hubungan dengan tingkat kerawanan pangan. kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: kerawanan pangan, lahan kering, pola konsumsi pangan pendahuluan undang undang pangan no. 18 tahun 2012 pasal 2 menyebutkan doi:10.18196/agr.2237 162 jurnal agraris bahwa prinsip atau asas penyelenggaraan pangan di indonesia harus berdasarkan kedaulatan, kemandirian, ketahanan, keamanan, manfaat, pemerataan, berkelanjutan, dan keadilan. ketahanan pangan adalah keadaan terpenuhinya kebutuhan pangan yang tersedia setiap waktu, mudah didapatkan, aman dikonsumsi dengan harga yang terjangkau. terkait dengan definisi tersebut maka komponen dari ketahanan pangan adalah i) ketersediaan pangan, ii) distribusi dan konsumsi pangan, iii) kemudahan didapatkan, iv) diversifikasi pangan, dan v) keamanan dikonsumsi (mallisa, 2013) tingginya tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk di indonesia, yang saat ini mencapai 230 juta, berbanding lurus dengan meningkatnya kebutuhan pangan. di sisi lain, produksi pangan memiliki ketergantungan alamiah terhadap alam, yang akibatnya pangan tertentu hanya dapat dihasilkan pada kondisi alam tertentu pula. oleh karena itu, daerah tertentu memiliki potensi produksi untuk jenis pangan tertentu. kerawanan pangan dan kemiskinan hingga kini masih menjadi masalah utama di indonesia. kerawanan pangan mempunyai korelasi positif dan erat kaitannya dengan kemiskinan. data bps (2016) menjelaskan bahwa pada bulan september 2015 jumlah penduduk miskin (penduduk dengan pengeluaran per kapita per bulan di bawah garis kemiskinan) di indonesia mencapai 28,51 juta orang (11,13%); berkurang sebesar 0,08 juta orang dibandingkan dengan kondisi maret 2015 yang berjumlah 28,59 juta orang (11,22%). hasil penelitian mardiana (2009) bahwa pendapatan, pendidikan dan kepemilikan aset produktif berpengaruh terhadap kerawanan pangan rumah tangga miskin di desa wiru kecamatan bringin kabupaten semarang. hasil penelitian tersebut menguatkan bahwa kemiskinan merupakan pangkal terjadinya kerawanan pangan. konsumsi makanan penduduk miskin pada umumnya rendah dan zat gizinya juga rendah, sehingga daya tahan tubuh taraf kesehatan umumnya rendah akibatnya produktivitas kerja rendah dan akhirnya tingkat pendapatan rendah. dalam keadaan demikian, kegiatankegiatan yang timbul secara berurutan dapat mengakibatkan tingkat konsumsi makanan menurun sehingga disebut rawan pangan. pencegahan rawan pangan dapat dilakukan melalui pendekatan pengembangan sistem kewaspadaan pangan dan gizi (skpg) dengan melaksanakan 3 kegiatan berikut, yakni: i) peramalan situasi pangan dan gizi, termasuk peramalan ketersediaan pangan dan pemantauan pertumbuhan balita dan hasil pengamatan sosial ekonomi; ii) kajian situasi pangan dan gizi secara berkala berdasarkan hasil survei khusus atau dari laporan tahunan; iii) diseminasi hasil peramalan dan kajian situasi pangan dan gizi bagi perumus kebijakan (forum koordinasi tingkat desa, kecamatan, kabupaten dan provinsi). kabupaten gunungkidul merupakan kabupaten paling selatan dan memiliki luas 1.485,36 km2 atau 46, 63% dari total wilayah propinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta. daerah ini mempunyai topografi berupa pegunungan kapur yang terbentang dari barat sampai timur. topografi tersebut berpengaruh pada jenis penggunaan lahan di kabupaten gunungkidul. kondisi tanah yang tidak begitu subur dan diperberat dengan permasalahan ketersediaan air menjadikan daerah ini termasuk daerah miskin dengan pendapatan perkapita 3,2 juta rupiah. hal tersebut terjadi karena 70% dari penduduk kabupaten gunungkidul adalah petani gurem dengan berbagai keterbatasan baik dari alam, teknologi dan modal. berdasarkan data dari bps kabupaten gunungkidul (2014) sebagian besar (95%) lahan pertanian di kabupaten gunungkidul adalah lahan kering, dan hanya 5% saja yang berupa lahan sawah 5%. kondisi alam yang ekstrim dan masuk dalam kategori lahan marjinal, menyebabkan beberapa wilayah di kabupaten gunungkidul masuk dalam kategori rawan pangan. kecamatan yang masuk kategori rawan pangan pada tahun 2013 adalah kecamatan purwosari, paliyan dan girisubo. berbagai upaya telah dilakukan oleh pemerintah guna mengantisipasi kerawanan pangan, salah satunya adalah dengan peningkatan pendapatan usahatani. faktor lain yang dimungkinkan berpengaruh terhadap kerawanan pangan di daerah setempat adalah luas lahan pertanian dan pendidikan. berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut perlu dilakukan kajian terkait dengan tingkat kerawanan pangan dan hubungan antara pendapatan, luas lahan dan pendidikan dengan kerawanan pangan. metode penelitian metode dasar yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif analitis dengan memusatkan perhatian pada masalah-masalah yang terjadi terkait dengan kerawanan pangan. prosesnya adalah data yang telah dikumpulkan, disusun, dijelaskan dan kemudian dianalisis (surakhmad et. al., 1985). lokasi penelitian yaitu desa giritirto, kecamatan purwosari, kabupaten 163 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 gunungkidul, propinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta termasuk desa rawan pangan di kabupaten gunungkidul yang memiliki potensi untuk pengembangan tanaman jagung dan padi gogo. data dikumpulkan dari petani penggarap lahan kering yang termasuk dalam kategori keluarga rawan pangan. desa giritirto memiliki 7 pedukuhan, dari setiap pedukuhan diambil secara random 10 petani sebagai sampel, sehingga secara keseluruhan terdapat 70 petani sampel. data dianalisis secara deskriptif dengan memberikan penjelasan data statistik yang meliputi percentage, mean, data range, frequency distribution, cross tabulation; sedangkan untuk mengukur tingkat kerawanan pangan digunakan rumus perbandingan antara konsumsi pangan dengan angka kecukupan gizi (akg) sebesar 2.150 kalori. peraturan menteri kesehatan republik indonesia nomor 75 tahun 2013) mengkatagorikan penduduk dalam: i) penduduk sangat rawan, jika konsumsi kurang dari 70% akg; ii) penduduk pangan resiko sedang, jika konsumsi 70 – 89,9% akg; iii) penduduk tahan pangan, jika konsumsi lebih dari 89,9% akg. selanjutnya, hubungan antara tingkat kerawanan pangan dengan tingkat pendapatan, luas lahan dan tingkat pendidikan dianalisis menggunakan tabulasi silang. hasil dan pembahasan pangan merupakan salah satu kebutuhan pokok yang diiringi kebutuhan pokok lain yaitu sandang dan papan. ketiga kebutuhan tersebut harus terpenuhi agar hidup dapat seimbang. jenis bahan pangan yang paling dicari di indonesia adalah beras atau nasi sebagai makanan pokok dan berbagai jenis lauk pauk baik dari nabati ataupun hewani. indonesia masih memiliki lahan sawah yang luas untuk ditanami padi sebagai bahan pangan pokok. namun, indonesia belum dapat memenuhi kebutuhan pangan warganya, sehingga masih memerlukan impor beras dari luar negeri. maka tidak heran jika harga beras dapat melambung tinggi, sehingga tidak terjangkau oleh kalangan bawah yang membuat kalangan ini sulit untuk memenuhi kebutuhan bahan pangan pokok dan kebutuhan kalori sebanyak 2.150 akg setiap harinya. kondisi ini menyebabkan suatu daerah dapat disebut masuk dalam kategori rawan pangan. pada penelitian ini akan dibahas mengenai tingkat kerawanan pangan dan faktor yang mempengaruhi kerawanan pangan di desa girirtirto, kecamatan purwosari, kabupaten gunung kidul. pola konsumsi selayaknya di wilayah indonesia lainnya, penduduk di desa giritirto mengkonsumsi nasi sebagai bahan pangan pokok. namun, dari 70 penduduk yang menjadi responden terdapat beberapa sampel yang menambahkan konsumsi jagung dan ketela untuk memenuhi kebutuhan karbohidrat, walau tidak menjadi makanan yang dikonsumsi setiap hari. nasi yang dikonsumsi berasal dari pertanian di lahan sendiri, karena hampir semua petani menanam padi, baik padi di lahan sawah atau pun padi gogo di lahan tegalan. prduksi yang dihasilkan tidak hanya digunakan untuk konsumsi sendiri, namun juga dijual untuk memenuhi kebutuhan lainnya. biasanya padi yang tidak dijual disimpan di lumbung mandiri yang terdapat di rumah masing-masing petani. jagung dan ketela yang digunakan untuk tambahan beras, juga merupakan hasil pertanian di lahan sendiri. berikut adalah tabel konsumsi penduduk giritirto selama satu tahun dengan rata-rata anggota keluarga sebanyak 4 orang. tabel 1. konsumsi kalori rata-rata 1 keluarga dalam1 tahun jenis makanan berat (kg) kalori harian per keluarga kalori harian individu beras 422 2021 505,25 jagung 48 474 118,5 ketela 50 200 50 tahu 37 114 28,5 tempe 297 1918 479,5 ikan 6 20 5 telur 31 138 34,5 kangkung 56 69 17,25 gula 14 143 35,75 kopi 10 0 0 teh 16 0 0 dari tabel 1 dapat dilihat bahwa rata-rata 1 keluarga yang beranggotakan 4 orang mengkonsumsi 422 kg beras dalam 1 tahun. tidak hanya karbohidrat, protein juga merupakan kandungan yang perlu diperhatikan dalam mengkonsumsi makanan, baik protein hewani atau nabati. sebagaimana orang indonesia pada umumnya, penduduk giritirto juga mengkonsumi tahu dan tempe untuk memenuhi protein nabati. selain murah dan mudah didapatkan, tahu dan tempe memiliki kandungan protein yang baik untuk tubuh dan rendah lemak, 164 jurnal agraris sehingga aman dikonsumsi segala usia. satu keluarga di giritirto dengan rata-rata 4 anggota keluarga mengkonsumsi 37 kg tahu dan 297 kg tempe. kemudahan mencampurkan tempe ke dalam berbagai jenis masakan mengakibatkan konsumsi tempe lebih banyak daripada tahu. berbeda halnya dengan konsumsi protein hewani yang jauh lebih rendah, khususnya konsumsi ikan. konsumsi protein hewani dihitung dari konsumsi ikan lele dan telur ayam yang harganya lebih terjangkau dan mudah untuk mendapatkannya, baik di pasar tradisional maupun toko kelontong. keluarga di giritirto yang memiliki 4 anggota keluarga rata-rata hanya mengkonsumsi 6 kg ikan per tahunnya, sedangkan untuk konsumsi telur hanya 31 kg pertahun. konsumsi protein hewani dan nabati menjadi tidak seimbang, karena konsumsi protein nabati yang tinggi dan berbanding terbalik dengan konsumsi protein hewani. kebutuhan serat dan vitamin dipenuhi dari konsumsi kangkung sebanyak 56 kg per keluarga per tahun. kurangnya asupan protein hewani dapat mempengaruhi perhitungan kalori harian setiap individu. pola konsumsi yang masih disamakan dengan budaya masa lalu dapat mempengaruhi kekurangan asupan kalori. tingkat kerawanan pangan kalori dibutuhkan oleh tubuh untuk menghasilkan energi yang digunakan untuk beraktivitas sehari-hari. standar kalori yang dibutuhkan oleh orang dewasa setiap harinya adalah 2150 kkal. tidak terpenuhinya kebutuhan kalori mengakibatkan kekurangan energi dalam tubuh yang dapat mengganggu aktivitas. dalam penelitian ini, tingkat kerawanan dan faktor-faktor yang diduga mempengaruhinya dianalisis menggunakan tabulasi silang. tingkat kerawanan pangan dibagi menjadi 3 katagori, yaitu sangat rawan pangan dengan tingkat konsumsi < 70% akg, pangan resiko sedang dengan tingkat konsumsi 70-89,9% akg, serta tahan pangan dengan tingkat konsumsi > 89,9% akg. penduduk di desa giritirto sebagian besar termasuk dalam katagori sangat rawan pangan (67,1%), hanya terdapat 13 orang atau 18,6% penduduk yang masuk dalam kategori tahan pangan (tabel2). tabel 2. tingkat kerawanan pangan penduduk desa giritirto tingkat kerawanan pangan total persentase penduduk sangat rawan pangan ( < 1400 kkal ) 47 67,1% penduduk pangan resiko sedang ( 1400–1.798 kkal ) 10 14,3% penduduk tahan pangan ( > 1798 kkal ) 13 18,6% total 70 100,0% hubungan tingkat kerawanan pangan dengan tingkat pendapatan pendapatan total bersumber dari pendapatan on farm dan pendapatan off farm. pendapatan on farm didapatkan dari lahan pertanian dengan berbagai jenis tanaman, sedangkan pendapatan off farm didapatkan dari luar lahan pertanian seperti pegawai atau karyawan, buruh tani, buruh bukan tani dan pedagang. data pada tabel 3 menunjukkan petani yang berpendapatan tinggi lebih banyak (40%) dari pada petani berpendapatan sedang (28%) maupun berpendapatan rendah (31%). tabel 3. tingkat pendapatan petani giritirto (rp/tahun) no pendapatan (.000) jumlah %) kategori 1 1.000 – 2.500 12 7,14 rendah 2 2.500 – 5.000 10 4,29 rendah 3 5.000 – 10.000 16 2,87 sedang 4 10.000 – 15.000 4 70 sedang 5 15.000 – 25.000 14 0,00 tinggi 6 25.000 – 35.000 10 4,28 tinggi 7 35.000 – 60.000 4 72 tinggi pendapatan responden berkisar antara rp1.122.167 sampai rp54.656.667 dengan distribusi sebagaimana ditunjukkan pada tabel 3. kesenjangan pendapatan responden yang cukup tinggi disebabkan perbedaan penguasaan luas lahan produktif pertanian dengan hasil panennya dan adanya pendapatan off farm. kontribusi pendapatan usahatani diperoleh dari komoditas padi, jagung dan kacang tanah di musim hujan dan kemarau, dengan jenis lahan sawah tadah hujan dan tegalan. padi yang menjadi komoditas utama pada musim hujan, mampu menghasilkan pendapatan sebesar rp1.443.000 untuk lahan sawah, sedangkan untuk lahan tegalan 165 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 hanya sebesar rp622.850 dengan luas lahan 0,1 ha. komoditas dominan kedua adalah tanaman jagung, yang diusahakan baik pada musim hujan maupun musim kemarau. rata-rata pendapatan usahatani jagung pada musim hujan di lahan tegal adalah sebesar rp286.175 per 0,1 ha. komoditas jagung pada musim kemarau diusahakan pada lahan sawah tadah hujan dan tegalan dan mampu menghasilkan pendapatan masing-masing sebesar rp346.550 dan rp1.273.100. kacang tanah termasuk tanaman primadona masyarakat di desa giritirto dan diusahakan pada musim kemarau. pendapatan yang mampu dihasilkan cukup tinggi yaitu rp1.157.000 per 0,1 ha. berdasarkan pendapatan usahatani tersebut maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa kontribusi pendapatan usahatani terhadap pendapatan total rumah tangga responden adalah sebesar 47%, sedangkan 53% pendapatan keluarga di peroleh dari pendapatan off farm seperti pegawai atau karyawan, buruh tani, buruh bukan tani, pedagang dan kiriman dari keluarga yang bekerja di luar daerah. dari tabel 4 dapat dilihat bahwa penduduk yang paling banyak masuk dalam kategori penduduk sangat rawan adalah penduduk dengan pendapatan yang tinggi sejumlah 25 orang atau 35,7%. penduduk sangat rawan pangan yaitu penduduk yang hanya mengkonsumsi kalori < 70% akg setiap hari. terdapat sebanyak 13 sampel penduduk yang masuk dalam kategori tahan pangan, dan hanya satu yang memiliki pendapatan kategori tinggi atau hanya sebesar 1,4%. penduduk tahan pangan yaitu penduduk yang dapat memenuhi kebutuhan kalori harian mencapai >89,9% akg. data ini menunjukkan bahwa tingkat pendapatan tidak berpengaruh terhadap kemampuan pemenuhan kebutuhan kalori harian. faktor lain yang dapat mempengaruhi masyarakat masuk ke dalam kategori sangat rawan pangan adalah pola konsumsi masyarakat yang kurang memperhatikan nilai gizi dan sudah menjadi kebiasan dari dulu. kebiasaan yang dimaksud adalah kebiasaan menerapkan sistem asal kenyang tanpa memperhatikan kandungan apa yang ada di dalam makanan tersebut seperti karbohidrat, protein, vitamin dan mineralnya sehingga mengakibatkan kurangnya kalori dalam tubuh. faktor lain yang dapat mempengaruhi, yaitu faktor pendidikan melihat 39 orang atau sebanyak 55,7% sampel petani merupakan lulusan sekolah dasar sehingga tidak begitu memahami apa itu kandungan dalam makanan ataupun kalori. dari tabel 4 dapat disimpulkan bahwa di desa girikerto kecenderungan rawan pangan terjadi pada semua tingkat pendapatan (rendah, sedang, tinggi). hubungan tingkat kerawanan pangan dengan luas lahan terdapat 3 jenis lahan yang ditanami di desa giritirto, yaitu sawah, tegalan dan pekarangan yang masing masing memiliki jenis tanaman yang berbeda. jenis tanaman yang ditanam di lahan sawah pada musim hujan adalah padi yang ditanam oleh hampir semua responden. lahan tegalan ditanami beberapa jenis tanaman yaitu jagung dan kacang tanah. luas lahan pada tabel 5 merupakan luas lahan pertanian produktif yaitu lahan yang mampu berproduksi untuk usahatani tanaman pangan dan lainnya seperti padi, jagung dan kacang tanah. tabel 5. distribusi luas lahan pertanian (sawah dan tegal) no luas lahan (ha) jumlah persentase kategori 1 0,025 – 0,1 18 25,71 sempit 2 0,1 – 0,25 20 28,57 sempit 3 0,25 – 0,5 15 21,43 sedang 4 0,5 1 10 14,29 luas 5 1 – 5 7 10,00 luas hasil observasi menginformasikan bahwa responden juga memiliki lahan pekarangan atau lahan kering, berbatu namun karena tidak memungkinkan untuk usahatani tanaman pangan maka tidak dimasukan tabel 4. hubungan antaratingkat kerawanan pangan dengan tingkat pendapatan tingkat kerawanan pangan pendapatan rendah % sedang % tinggi % penduduk sangat rawan pangan 10 14,3% 12 17,1% 25 35,7% penduduk pangan resiko sedang 7 10,0% 1 1,4% 2 2,9% penduduk tahan pangan 5 7,1% 7 10,0% 1 1,4% total 22 31,4% 20 28,6% 28 40,0% 166 jurnal agraris sebagai lahan produktif dalam analisis ini. rata-rata luas lahan untuk tanaman padi adalah 0,25 ha dan diusahakan pada musim hujan, sedangkan lahan tegal banyak diusahakan pada musim kemarau dengan komoditas jagung dengan rata-rata luas lahan 0,2 ha. rata-rata produktivitas padi adalah 1,2 ton per hektar dan rendahnya produktivitas berpengaruh terhadap pendapatan usahatani padi. tabel 6 menampilkan hasil tabulasi silang antara luas lahan, sebagai sumber pendapatan on farm dengan tingkat kerawanan pangan. dari tabel 6 dapat dilihat bahwa sebagian besar penduduk sangat rawan pangan (30%) merupakan penduduk yang memiliki lahan sempit. penduduk yang memiliki lahan sempit akan memiliki pendapatan on farm yang kurang jika dibandingkan dengan penduduk yang memiliki lahan yang luas sehingga berpengaruh pada pendapatan total. walaupun luas lahan berpengaruh pada pendapatan total, namun pendapatan total tidak berpengaruh pada tingkat kerawanan pangan. luas lahan juga tidak ada hubungannya dengan kerawanan pangan, karena tidak ada sampel petani dengan lahan yang luas masuk dalam kategori penduduk tahan pangan. bahkan sebaliknya, terdapat sebanyak 10 orang atau 14,3% sampel petani yang memiliki lahan sempit namun masuk dalam kategori penduduk tahan pangan. berdasarkan hasil analisis tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada hubungan antara luas lahan dengan tingkat kerawanan pangan. hubungan tingkat kerawanan pangan dengan tingkat pendidikan pendidikan merupakan bekal yang harus diberikan semenjak kecil. namun orang zaman dahulu masih belum terlalu memperhatikan pendidikan sehingga setelah dewasa mereka merasa kurang memiliki bekal pendidikan sehingga cukup sulit untuk menghadapi kehidupan di masa sekarang yang serba menggunakan teknologi canggih. sama halnya dengan penduduk sampel di desa giritirto, masih banyak yang hanya lulusan sekolah dasar sehingga mempersempit pengetahuan mereka khususnya pengetahuan mengenai nilai gizi. pada penelitian ini, pendidikan dibagi dalam 3 tingkatan: tingkat pertama atau rendah, yaitu penduduk yang tidak bersekolah atau hanya lulus sekolah dasar; tingkat kedua atau menengah, yaitu penduduk yang lulus sekolah menengah baik sekolah menengah pertama atau kedua; dan tingkat ketiga, yaitu penduduk yang lulus perguruan tinggi. tabel 7. distribusi tingkat pendidikan petani desa giritirto no tingkat pendidikan jumlah % kategori 1 tidak lulus sd 4 5.71 rendah 2 tamat sd 35 50.00 rendah 3 tamat smp 17 24.29 menengah 4 tamat sma 13 18.57 menengah 5 perguruan tinggi (d3) 1 1.43 tinggi tabel 6. hubungan kalori dengan luas lahan yang dimiliki tingkat kerawanan pangan luas lahan sempit % sedang % luas % penduduk sangat rawan pangan 21 30,0% 11 15,7% 15 21,4% penduduk pangan resiko sedang 7 10,0% 1 1,4% 2 2,9% penduduk tahan pangan 10 14,3% 3 4,3% 0 0% total 38 54,3% 15 21,4% 17 24,3% tabel 8. hubungantingkat kerawanan pangan dengan tingkat pendidikan tingkat kerawanan pangan pendidikan rendah % menengah % tinggi % penduduk sangat rawan pangan 22 31,4% 25 35,7% 0 0% penduduk pangan resiko sedang 5 7,1% 4 5,7% 1 1,4% penduduk tahan pangan 12 17,1% 1 1,4% 0 0% total 39 55,7% 30 42,9% 1 1,4% 167 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tabel 7 menginformasikan bahwa secara umum petani di desa giritirto memiliki tingkat pendidikan yang cukup baik. hal tersebut dapat dilihat bahwa hanya ada 4 petani yang belum tamat sekolah dasar (sd) dan sejumlah 35 petani sudah tamat sd sehingga dapat dipastikan sudah mampu membaca dan menulis. lebih dari itu, sejumlah 30 petani sudah mampu tamat di tingkat sekolah menengah baik sekolah menengah pertama (smp) maupun sekolah menengah atas (sma). tabel 7 juga mampu menjelaskan bahwa sudah ada 1 petani yang sudah melanjutkan di level perguruan tinggi baik (d3). analisis hubungan tingkat kerawanan pangan dengan tingkat pendidikan ditampilkan pada tabel 8. tabel 8 menunjukkan bahwa dari total 47 orang penduduk sangat rawan pangan, sebanyak 22 orang merupakan penduduk yang lulus sekolah dasar dan sisanya atau 25 orang merupakan penduduk yang lulus pada tingkat sekolah menengah. terlihat dari tabel 8 bahwa sejumlah 22 petani yang masuk dalam kategori sangat rawan pangan adalah penduduk yang memiliki pendidikan dasar atau hanya lulus sekolah dasar. penduduk yang merupakan lulusan sekolah dasar memiliki pengetahuan yang kurang terhadap pemenuhan gizi harian sehingga mengakibatkan kalori yang dikonsumsi tidak memenuhi standar akg. selain itu, mereka juga memiliki pemikiran yang masih tertutup sehingga kurang dapat menerima perubahan zaman seperti sekarang. mereka masih menerapkan budaya makan seperti pada saat mereka kecil yang memang pada zaman dahulu belum ada yang memperhitungkan mengenai kebutuhan kalori harian. zaman yang sudah berubah belum bisa diterima oleh penduduk yang tidak memiliki pemikiran terbuka sehingga masih menerapkan budaya konsumsi zaman dahulu kepada anak-anaknya yang hidup di masa sekarang. tabel 8 juga memperlihatkan bahwa kondisi rawan pangan juga dialami oleh para petani yang sudah memiliki tingkat pendidikan menengah. kondisi tersebut cukup memprihatinkan karena seharusnya dari sisi pengetahuan mereka lebih paham terkait kebutuhan gizi keluarga. kenyataan tersebut menyimpulkan bahwa tingkat pendidikan tidak berdampak pada pemenuhan gizi keluarga. berdasarkan pada analisis maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa penduduk desa giritirto masuk dalam kategori sangat rawan pangan. hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa faktor tingkat pendapatan dan luas lahan tidak memiliki hubungan pada pemenuhan gizi keluarga yang akan berdampak pada tingkat kerawanan pangan. terdapat beberapa faktor lain yang mempengaruhi tingkat kerawanan pangan, yaitu pola konsumsi yang diakibatkan karena budaya atau kebiasaan yang sudah berlangsung lama serta pendidikan yang kurang sehingga membuat pengetahuan menjadi kurang untuk memahami pentingnya pemenuhan kebutuhan kalori harian. kesimpulan berdasarkan hasil penelitian dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa penduduk desa giritirto masuk dalam kategori sangat rawan pangan. hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa faktor tingkat pendapatan dan luas lahan tidak memiliki hubungan pada pemenuhan gizi keluarga yang akan berdampak pada tingkat kerawanan pangan. daftar pustaka bps kabupaten gunungkidul. 2014. data daerah rawan pangan 2013. yogyakarta. choliq, a., widarto, & susilo, j. 2004. kajian pertanian lahan kering di kabupaten blora. yogyakarta. badan ketahanan pangan. 2015. indikator penanganan daerah rawan pangan. bps, wonosobo. diakses 6 april 2015. http:// ketahananpangan.wonosobo kab.go.id. mallisa, v. 2013. pola konsumsi dan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani di kabupaten jayawijaya. disertasi, universitas gadjah mada. badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian. 2005. ekonomi padi dan beras indonesia. pusat pengembangan ketersediaan pangan balitbang pertanian, jakarta. surakhmad, w., 1985. pengantar penelitian ilmiah, dasar metode dan teknik. tarsitu, bandung. mardiana, r. s. 2009. faktor faktor yang mempengaruhi kerawanan pangan rumah tangga miskin di desa wiru, kecamatan bringin, kabupaten semarang. skripsi, universitas negeri semarang. fadli akbar lubis¹, mohamad harisudin², rhina uchyani fajarningsih² ¹program studi agribisnis, pascasarjana universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia ²fakultas pertanian, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia *) email korespondensi: fadliakbar211@gmail.com agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 strategi pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman dengan metode analytical hierarchy process development strategy of red chili agribusiness in sleman regency using analytical hierarchy process method doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5281 abstract this study aims to formulate a strategy for developing red chili agribusiness that can be applied in sleman regency. the study was conducted in kalasan district since it has the highest red chili production in sleman regency. the method used in this research was analytical hierarchy process (ahp). based on the results of the study there were 5 aspects of strength, 5 aspects of weakness, 5 aspects of opportunity, and 5 aspects of threats. all internal and external aspects form the basis for making alternative strategies. the position of grand strategy matrix is quadrant i. there were 5 alternative strategies that are generated and included in the ahp hierarchy structure. of the 5 alternative strategies, the 05 strategy was chosen with a priority weight value of 0.357, namely the strategy with the development of a chili auction market using digital technology. keywords: red chili agribusiness, ahp, development strategy intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk merumuskan strategi pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah yang dapat diterapkan di kabupaten sleman. penelitian dilaksanakan di kecamatan kalasan karena memiliki produksi cabai merah tertinggi di kabupaten sleman. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analytical hierarchy process (ahp). berdasarkan hasil penelitian terdapat 5 aspek kekuatan, 5 aspek kelemahan, 5 aspek peluang, dan 5 aspek ancaman. seluruh aspek interna l dan eksternal menjadi dasar dalam membuat alternatif strategi. posisi matrik grand strategy terletak pada kuadran i. terdapat 5 alternatif strategi yang dihasilkan dan dimasukan ke dalam struktur hirarki ahp. dari 5 alternatif strategi, yang terpilih adalah strategi 05 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0.357, yaitu pengembangan pasar lelang cabai dengan teknologi digital. kata kunci : agribisnis cabai merah, ahp, strategi pengembangan pendahuluan berdasarkan peraturan menteri pertanian republik indonesia no. 06/permentan/ot.140/2/2015 tahun 2015, pengembangan agribisnis didasarkan pada aspek penyediaan sarana produksi, aspek produksi, aspek pemasaran dan pengolahan, serta aspek kelembagaan pendukung (dirjen prasarana dan sarana pertanian, 2015). dapat diartikan bahwa sistem agribisnis terbentuk dari subsistem yang tergabung dalam satu rangkaian. agribisnis mampu mengakomodasi tuntutan agar perekonomian nasional terus bertumbuh dan sekaligus memenuhi prinsip kerakyatan, keberlanjutan dan pemerataan, baik antar individu maupun antar daerah. atas dasar pemikiran tersebut maka pembangunan sistem agribisnis dipandang sebagai bentuk pendekatan yang paling tepat bagi pembangunan ekonomi nasional (saragih, 2001). agribisnis cabai merah memiliki prospek yang bagus jika dikembangkan dengan baik, karena dalam kehidupan sehari-hari 120 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research cabai merah memegang peranan yang penting, terutama bagi kebutuhan rumah tangga dan juga berperan dalam memenuhi gizi masyarakat, selain itu cabai merah jika dibudidayakan dengan tujuan untuk nilai bisnis tentunya dapat menembus pasaran dengan mudah. salah satu daerah di indonesia yang fokus dalam mengembangkan agribisnis cabai merah adalah kabupaten sleman di provinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta. sektor pertanian di kabupaten sleman merupakan salah satu unggulan bagi perekonomian daerahnya. berdasarkan data bps (2018) pada tahun 2017 jumlah produksi meningkat sebesar 17.042 kuintal dari tahun 2016. tabel 1. luas panen, produksi dan rata-rata produksi cabai merah per kecamatan di kabupaten sleman, tahun 2017 kecamatan cabai merah luas panen produksi rata-rata produksi (ha) (kwt) (kwt/ha) 1. moyudan 2 75 37,50 2. minggir 7 180 25,71 3. seyegan 21 627 29,86 4. godean 65 1.764 27,14 5. gamping 30 866 28,87 6. mlati 60 1.582 26,36 7. depok 34 611 17,97 8. berbah 18 291 16,17 9. prambanan 175 2.394 13,68 10. kalasan 528 11.257 21,32 11. ngemplak 263 6.148 23,38 12. ngaglik 323 7.976 24,70 13. sleman 150 3.608 24,05 14. tempel 98 2.019 20,60 15. turi 265 6.195 23,38 16. pakem 580 11.144 19,21 17. cangkringan 211 3.930 18,63 jumlah 2.827 60.668 21,46 tahun 2016 703 43.626 62,06 sumber : bps (2018) usaha pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah dapat dijadikan sebagai sumber pendapatan masyarakat di kabupaten sleman. adanya lahan yang tersedia dan juga didukung oleh iklim dan sumber air yang cukup maka para petani dapat mengembangkan potensi untuk menanam cabai dengan baik sehingga dapat meningkatkan sumber pendapatan keluarganya. agribisnis cabai merah menguntungkan baik secara privat maupun sosial dan tidak ada masyarakat yang dirugikan akibat kegiatan agribisnis komoditas tersebut. dengan demikian agribisnis cabai merah dapat dikembangkan lebih lanjut input nontradeable usahatani cabai merah telah digunakan secara efisien dan memberikan nilai tambah bagi petani (antriyandarti & ani, 2015). di kabupaten sleman sektor pertanian adalah salah satu sektor yang banyak dijadikan sebagai sumber untuk memperoleh pendapatan bagi masyarakat, namun dalam hal ini sebagian besar petani hanya berkontribusi di bidang usaha tani tingkat produksi (on-farm) dengan nilai tambah atau keuntungan yang relatif kecil. petani di kabupaten sleman saat ini hanya menjual produknya dalam bentuk cabai segar. sementara subsistem pengolahan dan pemasaran (off-farm) cenderung tidak ditangani oleh mereka sebagai petani tetapi oleh pedagang atau pebisnis lainnya. kendala lainnya yang dihadapi oleh petani yaitu serangan penyakit tanaman di lahannya, sehingga menimbulkan kerugian yang besar saat panen. petani cabai di kabupaten sleman mengeluhkan tanamannya yang diserang penyakit dan mengakibatkan daun-daun tanaman cabai menguning. kondisi ini semakin parah karena masih banyak petani yang tidak mengetahui cara penanggulanan yang baik untuk mengatasi penyakit tersebut. pada sisi lainnya sering terjadi fluktuasi harga cabai yang membuat harga jual dari petani tidak stabil sehingga menjadi pemicu kerugian bagi mereka. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk merumuskan serta menentukan alternatif strategi yang dapat diterapkan untuk mengembangkan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman. metode penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan di kabupaten sleman sejak bulan desember 2018 sampai dengan bulan januari 2019 dengan menggunakan metode deskriptif analitik, yaitu metode yang memusatkan diri pada pemecahan -pemecahan masalah yang ada pada masa sekarang dan pada masalah -masalah yang aktual. penelitian deskriptif ini untuk membuat deskripsi, 121 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 gambaran, atau lukisan secara sistematis, faktual dan akurat mengenai fakta-fakta, sifat-sifat serta hubungan antarfenomena yang diselidiki (nazir, 2009). data yang digunakan adalah data primer dan data sekunder. pengambilan data dilakukan dengan wawancara langsung dan observasi di kecamatan yang memiliki hasil produksi tertinggi, yaitu kecamatan kalasan dengan hasil produksi cabai merah 11.257 kuintal pada tahun 2017. responden dalam penelitian ini adalah informan kunci (key informan) yang merupakan subjek yang telah cukup lama dan intensif menyatu dengan kegiatan yang memiliki informasi serta masih terlibat secara penuh pada kegiatan yang menjadi perhatian peneliti. informan adalah orang yang dimanfaatkan untuk memberikan informasi tentang situasi dan kondisi latar penelitian (moleong, 2007). pemilihan informan sebagai sumber data dalam penelitian ini berdasarkan pada asas subyek yang menguasai permasalahan, memiliki data, dan bersedia memberikan informasi lengkap dan akurat yang ditentukan dengan teknik snowball sampling. karakteristik responden dalam analisis internal dan analisis eksternal adalah : tabel 2. karakteristik responden analisis internal dan eksternal no jabatan/ pekerjaan instansi/ lembaga jenis kelamin umur pendidikan 1 kepala bidang hortikultura dan perkebunan dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kab. sleman laki-laki 57 s2 2 kepala seksi bina produksi hortikultura dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kab. sleman laki-laki 47 s2 3 pengawas mutu hasil pertanian hortikultura dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kab. sleman laki-laki 44 s1 4 kepala seksi pengawasan dan pengendalian industri dinas perindustrian dan perdagangan kab. sleman laki-laki 45 s1 5 petani ketua gapoktan kalasan laki-laki 42 sma 6 petani ketua sayuran kab. sleman laki-laki 47 sma 7 penyedia sarana produksi cv enggal tani laki-laki 47 sma 8 penyedia sarana produksi cv agro hit laki-laki 45 sma 9 pedagang besar laki-laki 48 sma 10 pedagang besar laki-laki 47 sma 11 pasar lelang pasar lelang cabai kab. sleman laki-laki 45 sma sumber : data primer pada penerapan metode ahp yang diutamakan adalah kualitas dari responden, dan tidak tergantung pada kuantitasnya (saaty, 1993). oleh karena itu, penilaian ahp memerlukan pakar sebagai responden dalam pengambilan keputusan. pemilihan responden untuk menentukan prioritas strategi pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah dengan metode ahp dilakukan secara purposive (sengaja). kriteria yang digunakan sebagai pertimbangan (judgement) dalam pemilihan responden untuk metode ahp menggunakan kriteria pakar. tabel 3. karakteristik responden dalam ahp no jabatan instansi jenis kelamin umur pendidikan 1 kepala bidang hortikultura dan perkebunan dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kab. sleman laki-laki 57 s2 2 kepala seksi bina produksi hortikultura dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kab. sleman laki-laki 47 s2 3 pengawas mutu hasil pertanian hortikultura dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kab. sleman laki-laki 44 s1 sumber : data primer identifikasi terhadap faktor internal dan eksternal sebagai masukan dasar untuk merumuskan strategi. tahap ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang dan ancaman untuk membuat matrik efe (external factor evaluation) dan ife (internal factor evaluation) (david, 2011). setelah faktor-faktor internal dan eksternal diketahui, selanjutnya dinilai atau diberi bobot dengan menggunakan pengukuran skala ordinal oleh responden yang dianggap sebagai pakar, yaitu 2 responden dari petani yang memiliki pengalaman lebih dari 10 tahun, kepala seksi bina produksi hortikultura, pengawas mutu hasil pertanian hortikultura, dan untuk pemberian rating dilakukan oleh kepala bidang hortikultura dan perkebunan. skala ordinal adalah skala pengukuran yang tidak hanya menyatakan kategori, tetapi juga menyatakan peringkat construct yang diukur (sugiyono, 2014). setelah hasil dari analisis matrik ife dan efe diketahui, dilanjutkan pada tahap matching stage dengan analisis grand strategy. hasil analisis tersebut dijadikan acuan dalam memperoleh alternatifalternatif yang disusun dalam kerangka hirarki. alternatif strategi yang telah ditentukan, dinilai oleh pakar dengan menggunakan skala 1 sampai 9 dengan 122 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research membuat matrik perbandingan berpasangan (pairwise comparisons). perbandingan dilakukan dengan cara judgement dari pakar. selanjutnya mendefenisikan nilai perbandingan berpasangan untuk mengetahui tingkat konsistensinya. rasio konsistensi adalah kurang dari atau sama dengan 10%. dalam menentukan prioritas strategi pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman dipilih alternatif strategi yang memiliki nilai tertinggi. ahp merupakan suatu model pendukung keputusan yang dikembangkan oleh thomas l. saaty. model pendukung keputusan ini akan menguraikan masalah multi faktor atau multi kriteria yang kompleks menjadi suatu hirarki. hirarki didefenisikan sebagai suatu representasi dari sebuah permasalahan yang kompleks dalam suatu struktur multi level dimana level pertama adalah tujuan, yang diikuti level faktor, kriteria, sub kriteria, dan seterusnya ke bawah hingga level terakhir dari alternatif (saaty, 1993). pengolahan data ahp dilakukan dengan menggunakan program expert choice versi 11. hasil dan pembahasan analisis grand strategy perumusan strategi dengan menggunakan ahp dimulai dengan mengidentifikasi faktor internal dan eksternal. identifikasi ini dilakukan untuk menentukan faktor-faktor apa saja yang menjadi kekuatan dan kelemahan, serta peluang dan ancaman yang ada di kabupaten sleman dalam upaya pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah. faktor internal (kekuatan dan kelemahan) dan eksternal (peluang dan ancaman) dapat menggambarkan kondisi yang ada di kabupaten sleman, sehingga memudahkan dalam merumuskan strategi yang akan dimasukkan ke dalam struktur hirarki ahp. setelah faktor-faktor internal (kekuatan dan kelemahan) dan eksternal (peluang dan ancaman) diketahui selanjutnya dibuat dalam bentuk matrik ife dan efe untuk melihat bobot prioritas dari masingmasing faktor. tabel 4. faktor internal dan eksternal faktor internal dan eksternal kekuatan (strenghts) 1 ketersediaan sarana produksi 2 kualitas cabai merah bagus 3 hasil produksi ada setiap hari 4 penjualan hasil produksi melalui pasar lelang 5 akses modal mudah dijangkau kelemahan (weakness) 1 pengawasan terhadap bibit yang digunakan masih lemah 2 kemampuan petani dalam penerapan teknologi masih kurang 3 belum ada pengolahan lebih lanjut dari hasil produksi 4 masih ada kelembagaan petani yang kurang aktif 5 fasilitas pasar lelang masih kurang peluang (opportunity) 1 permintaan pasar terhadap cabai merah tinggi 2 iklim dan tanah yang cocok untuk budidaya cabai merah 3 adanya teknologi yang membantu dalam budidaya 4 pengolahan cabai merah menjadi produk lain 5 terbukanya lembaga keuangan bagi petani untuk memperoleh modal ancaman (threats) 1 serangan opt 2 persaingan dengan daerah lainnya 3 belum ada jaminan harga 4 harga cabai merah sering berfluktuasi 5 cuaca yang tidak menentu sumber : data primer hasil pembobotan dapat dilihat pada tabel 5 dan tabel 6. tabel 5. matrik ife faktor strategi internal bobot rating skor kekuatan (strenght) 1. ketersediaan sarana produksi 2. kualitas cabai merah bagus 3. hasil produksi ada setiap hari 4. penjualan hasil produksi melalui pasar lelang 5. akses modal mudah dijangkau 0,10 0,11 0,11 0,09 0,11 4 4 3 3 4 0,40 0,44 0,33 0,27 0,44 total skor 1,88 kelemahan (weakness) 1. pengawasan terhadap bibit yang digunakan masih lemah 2. kemampuan petani dalam penggunaan teknologi masih kurang 3. belum ada pengolahan lebih lanjut dari hasil produksi 4. masih ada kelembagaan petani yang kurang aktif 5. fasilitas di pasar lelang masih kurang 0,10 0,11 0,10 0,08 0,09 1 2 2 1 1 0,10 0,22 0,20 0,08 0,09 total skor 0,69 total internal faktor 1,00 2,57 sumber : data primer diolah berdasarkan hasil matrik ife pada faktor kekuatan, kualitas cabai merah yang bagus dan akses modal yang mudah dijangkaun memiliki skor tertinggi dengan nilai 0,44. kualitas cabai merah dari 123 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 kabupaten sleman memiliki keunggulan dibandingkan dengan cabai merah dari daerah lainnya di provinsi yogyakarta. menurut hasil wawancara dengan responden, keunggulan itu terletak pada daya tahan cabai dan warna merah yang baik, sehingga cabai merah tersebut banyak peminatnya hingga sampai ke luar jawa. untuk skor yang terendah adalah penjualan hasil produksi melalui pasar lelang dengan nilai skor 0,27. sementara itu pada faktor kelemahan, kemampuan petani dalam penggunaan teknologi masih kurang memiliki nilai skor tertinggi yaitu 0,22. hal ini karena tingkat kemampuan sdm yang berbeda-beda dari petani dalam memahami dan mengaplikasikan teknologi dalam proses budidaya, sehingga penggunaan teknologi masih kurang baik. faktor masih ada kelembagaan petani yang kurang aktif menjadi yang terendah dengan nilai skor 0,08. tabel 6. matrik efe faktor strategi eksternal bobot rating skor peluang (opportunity) 1. permintaan pasar terhadap cabai merah tinggi 2. iklim dan tanah yang cocok dalam budidaya cabai merah 3. adanya teknologi yang membantu dalam budidaya 4. pengolahan cabai merah menjadi produk lain 5. terbukanya lembaga keuangan bagi petani untuk memperoleh modal 0,12 0,09 0,11 0,10 0,09 4 3 4 3 3 0,48 0,27 0,44 0,30 0,27 total skor 1,76 ancaman (threats) 1. serangan opt 2. persaingan dengan daerah lainnya 3. belum ada jaminan harga 4. harga cabai merah sering berfluktuasi 5. cuaca yang tidak menentu 0,13 0,09 0,10 0,09 0,08 2 2 1 2 2 0,26 0,18 0,10 0,18 0,16 total skor 0,88 total eksternal faktor 1,00 2,64 sumber : data primer diolah berdasarkan hasil matrik efe pada faktor peluang, permintaan pasar terhadap cabai merah tinggi memiliki skor tertinggi dengan nilai 0,48. menurut hasil wawancara dengan responden, cabai merah dari kabupaten sleman tidak hanya dijual di pasar lokal melainkan di kirim ke luar jawa. untuk skor yang terendah adalah iklim dan tanah yang cocok dalam budidaya cabai merah dan terbukanya lembaga keuangan bagi petani untuk memperoleh modal dengan nilai skor 0,27. sementara itu pada faktor ancaman, serangan opt memiliki nilai skor tertinggi yaitu 0,26 dan belum ada jaminan harga menjadi yang terendah dengan nilai skor 0,10. agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman memiliki kekuatan yang lebih besar daripada kelemahan dan memiliki peluang yang lebih besar daripada ancaman. dalam hal ini, pemerintah daerah dan petani yang berperan dalam pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah memiliki peluang dan kekuatan yang lebih besar sehingga dapat memanfaatkan peluang yang ada secara maksimal. hasil perhitungan dari faktor internal dan eksternal digunakan untuk menentukan titik koordinat strategi pengembangan yang dapat dilakukan. sumbu horizontal (x) adalah faktor internal, nilai dari koordinat x merupakan selisih faktor kekuatan dikurangi faktor kelemahan, yaitu (1,88 – 0,69) = 1,19. sedangkan sumbu vertikal (y) adalah faktor eksternal yang merupakan selisih faktor peluang dikurangi faktor ancaman, nilai dari koordinat y adalah (1,76 – 0,88) = 0,88. gambar 1. posisi kuadran grand strategy hasil yang diperoleh dari matrik grand strategy (gambar 1) menunjukan posisi koordinat pada kuadran i (satu). posisi ini mewakili organisasi atau perusahaan dengan pertumbuhan pasar yang tinggi dan posisi kompetitif yang kuat. pada posisi seperti ini, agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman memiliki kekuatan yang lebih besar daripada kelemahan dan memiliki peluang yang lebih besar daripada ancaman. pemerintah daerah bersama-sama dengan petani terus berkonsentrasi pada pasar saat ini 124 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dengan melaksanakan strategi yang sesuai, seperti pengembangan pasar dengan memperkenalkan hasil produksi cabai merah dari kabupaten sleman ke wilayah baru dengan memanfaatkan fungsi dari pasar lelang, agar bisa menjangkau pasar yang lebih luas. penentuan analytical hierarchy process (ahp) analytical hierarchy process (ahp) merupakan alat analisis yang dapat digunakan untuk menilai satu alternatif pilihan dari beberapa pilihan alternatif yang tersedia (hefnawi & mohamed, 2014). struktur ahp dalam penelitian ini memiliki tujuan sebagai level pertama, kriteria pada level kedua dan alternatif pada level ketiga. tujuan yang dimaksud yaitu menentukan strategi pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman. berdasarkan hasil wawancara didapat empat kriteria untuk pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman dengan mengikuti peraturan menteri pertanian republik indonesia no. 06/permentan/ ot.140/2/2015 tahun 2015, yaitu pengembangan agribisnis didasarkan pada aspek penyediaan sarana produksi, aspek produksi, aspek pemasaran dan pengolahan, serta aspek kelembagaan pendukung. selanjutnya terdapat 5 alternatif strategi, yang diperoleh berdasarkan hasil identifikasi faktor internal dan faktor eksternal serta matrik grand strategy, yang ditentukan langsung oleh pakar. gambar 1. hirarki ahp untuk penentuan strategi pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman tabel 7. alternatif strategi kode alternatif strategi 01 peningkatan pengawasan terhadap sarana produksi untuk budidaya cabai merah. 02 mengembangkan produksi melalui peningkatan kualitas, baik dari sarana produksi dan hasil produksi, serta kuantitas produksi cabai merah. 03 membuat industri pengolahan cabai merah. 04 penambahan titik kumpul pasar lelang cabai. 05 pengembangan pasar lelang cabai dengan teknologi digital. sumber : data primer hasil analisis ahp menunjukan kriteria yang menjadi prioritas dalam pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah adalah kriteria subsistem pemasaran dan pengolahan dengan nilai bobot prioritas sebesar 0,582. subsistem pemasaran dan pengolahan disebut juga sebagai subsistem agribisnis hilir, yaitu suatu sistem untuk memasarkan dan mengolah hasil komoditas pertanian, dalam hal ini cabai merah. kriteria subsistem penyediaan sarana produksi memiliki nilai bobot terendah dalam rangka pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman, yang ditunjukan dengan nilai bobot prioritas sebesar 0,075, karena sarana produksi mudah diperoleh oleh petani untuk melakukan budidaya cabai merah, baik dari pihak pengusaha atau toko pertanian yang ada di kabupaten sleman dan juga bantuan dari pemerintah daerah. tabel 8. bobot kriteria ahp peringkat kriteria bobot ahp 1 subsistem pemasaran dan pengolahan 0,582 2 subsistem produksi 0,234 3 subsistem kelembagaan pendukung 0,109 4 subsistem penyediaan sarana produksi 0,075 sumber : analisis data primer sistem pemasaran yang sedang dikembangkan oleh pemerintah daerah kabupaten sleman adalah melalui sistem penjualan cabai satu pintu di pasar lelang. hal ini dilakukan untuk memutus rantai penjualan yang panjang sehingga petani dapat memperoleh harga yang jauh lebih baik dari pedagang besar. saat ini terdapat 10 titik kumpul pasar lelang untuk menampung hasil panen cabai dari petani di kabupaten sleman. aspek pemasaran sebagai aspek penting bagi petani untuk dapat menjual hasil produksinya secara berkesinambungan. terpilihnya aspek pasar mencerminkan kinerja produksi agribisnis 125 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 cabai merah yang sangat erat kaitannya dengan masalah pasar (oelviani, 2013). penentuan alternatif strategi dilihat dari kriteria subsistem penyediaan sarana produksi menunjukan bahwa hasil alternatif strategi 02 memiliki nilai tertinggi dengan nilai bobot prioritas sebesar 0,323. hal ini berarti peningkatan kualitas terhadap sarana produksi sangat penting dilakukan dalam rangka mengembangkan agribisnis cabai merah. untuk meningkatkan produksi dan kualitas tanaman cabai digunakan varietas yang unggul dan pupuk (syahputra, astuti & indrawaty, 2017). peningkatan kualitas sarana produksi harus diikuti dengan pengawasan yang baik. fungsi pengawasan menekankan pada bagaimana membangun sistem pengawasan dan melaksanakan pengawasan terhadap rencana yang telah dibuat agar tetap berjalan pada rel yang telah ditetapkan (said & intan, 2001). alternatif strategi yang memiliki nilai terendah adalah strategi 04 dengan nilai bobot prioritas sebesar 0,059, yaitu penambahan titik kumpul pasar lelang cabai. hasil alternatif strategi dilihat dari kriteria subsistem produksi (budidaya) atau disebut juga sebagai subsistem usahatani menunjukan alternatif strategi 02 dengan nilai bobot prioritas tertinggi, yaitu sebesar 0,429. strategi 02 yaitu mengembangkan produksi melalui peningkatan kualitas, baik dari sarana produksi dan hasil produksi, serta kuantitas produksi cabai merah. tabel 9. bobot alternatif strategi berdasarkan subsistem penyediaan sarana produksi peringkat alternatif strategi bobot ahp 1 02 0,323 2 01 0,312 3 4 5 05 03 04 0,178 0,127 0,059 sumber : analisis data primer menurut hasil wawancara dengan responden dari dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kabupaten sleman, upaya peningkatan hasil produksi juga dilakukan dengan memberikan pembinaan kepada petani terhadap penanganan opt. hal ini menjadi perhatian khusus bagi pemerintah daerah terhadap petani dalam upaya mengidentifikasi serta menangani opt secara baik dengan menerapkan sistem pengendalian hama terpadu (pht), guna meningkatkan kualitas dan kuantitas produksi. pengendalian hama terpadu (pht) berdampak positif terhadap ekonomi petani karena mampu mengurangi penggunaan pestisida serta meningkatkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan petani secara tidak langsung (irham & mariyono, 2001). alternatif strategi yang memiliki nilai terendah adalah strategi 04 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0,072. tabel 10. bobot alternatif strategi berdasarkan subsistem produksi peringkat alternatif strategi bobot ahp 1 02 0,429 2 05 0,197 3 4 5 01 03 04 0,172 0,130 0,072 sumber : analisis data primer alternatif strategi dilihat dari kriteria subsistem pemasaran dan pengolahan atau disebut juga sebagai subsistem hilir menunjukan bahwa alternatif strategi 05 memiliki nilai tertinggi dengan nilai bobot prioritas sebesar 0,439. strategi 05 adalah pengembangan pasar lelang cabai dengan teknologi digital. dalam hal ini pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman berbasis teknologi digital harus dilakukan. hal ini senada dengan penelitian purwandani, rahayu & setyowati (2016) di kabupaten kulon progo, yang menyatakan bahwa pengembangan pasar lelang gisik pranaji di kecamatan panjatan dapat dilakukan dengan perluasan pasar dengan memanfaatkan media online (internet) atau teknologi informasi untuk menarik pedagang alternantif strategi yang memiliki nilai terendah adalah strategi 01 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0,059. tabel 11. bobot alternatif strategi berdasarkan subsistem pemasaran dan pengolahan peringkat alternatif strategi bobot ahp 1 05 0,439 2 04 0,216 3 4 5 03 02 01 0,181 0,105 0,059 sumber : analisis data primer alternatif strategi dilihat dari kriteria subsistem kelembagaan pendukung menunjukan 126 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research bahwa alternatif strategi 05 memiliki nilai tertinggi dengan nilai bobot prioritas sebesar 0,434. pengembangan pasar lelang cabai dengan teknologi digital dapat dilakukan dengan melibatkan lembaga pendukung yang berkaitan dengan pemasaran. dalam hal ini pemerintah daerah bersama dengan kelompok tani dapat membangun ataupun meningkatkan hubungan kerja sama (mitra) melalui teknologi informasi dengan lembaga-lembaga yang dapat menunjang pengembangan pasar cabai merah dari kabupaten sleman, seperti koperasi, pasar tradisional, pasar induk, pasar swalayan dan juga perusahaan industri pengolahan cabai merah. upaya membentuk pola kemitraan agribisnis hortikultura dapat dilakukan dengan cara membentuk atau memperkuat kelompok tani atau asosiasi petani. untuk menggerakan dan memajukan agribisnis semua lembaga harus berperan secara aktif sinergis dan saling terkoordinasi agar tidak terjadi tumpang tindih kepentingan dan efisiensi dapat dicapai (wahyuningsih, 2007). ada beberapa alternatif pemecahan masalah bagi petani, terutama untuk masalah kurangnya permodalan petani. alternatif tersebut adalah melalui kemitraan dengan lembaga keuangan formal atau bermitra dengan lembaga keuangan non formal (yulianjaya & hidayat, 2016). kelembagaan berdasarkan private sector dapat melibatkan peran dari industri pengolahan sebagai tujuan pemasaran hasil panen dengan kontrak kerja sama yang telah disepakati dan melibatkan pasar sebagai tujuan utama (tsurayya & kartika, 2015). alternatif strategi yang memiliki nilai terendah adalah strategi 01 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0,068. tabel 12. bobot alternatif strategi berdasarkan subsistem kelembagaan pendukung peringkat alternatif strategi bobot ahp 1 05 0,434 2 03 0,192 3 4 5 02 04 01 0,173 0,133 0,068 sumber : analisis data primer hasil penilaian (tabel 13) dari ahp menunjukan bahwa urutan prioritas alternatif strategi pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman adalah strategi 05 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0,357, strategi 02 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0,209, strategi 03 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0,165 dan strategi lainnya yang berada di posisi bawah. strategi 05 adalah pengembangan pasar lelang cabai dengan teknologi digital. cabai cepat sekali mengalami kerusakaan yang disebabkan oleh beberapa hal, seperti pembusukan oleh bakteri atau jamur yang menyebabkan cabai tersebut menyusut dan rusak, sehingga cabai harus segera dipasarkan dengan cepat untuk menghindari kerugian petani. keberadaan pasar lelang menggantikan posisi petani untuk melakukan fungsi pemasaran seperti fungsi pertukaran, fungsi fisis serta fungsi penyediaan sarana pasar sehingga fungsi ini tidak perlu dilakukan sendiri (rusdiyana, 2017). apabila lembaga pasar lelang dikelola dengan baik maka dapat memberikan manfaat yang sangat tinggi bagi para petani cabai merah. keberhasilan suatu pasar tidak semata-mata ditentukan oleh tersedianya barang dan pembeli, namun juga pengorganisasian lembaga dan pemasaran itu sendiri (devi, haryoso & subejo, 2015). pasar lelang mampu menjamin terjualnya produk dengan harga yang menguntungkan bagi petani dan pedagang. salah satu hal yang perlu dikembangkan dalam pasar lelang adalah perlunya informasi ketersediaan stok cabai dari petani sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai salah satu solusi untuk mengurangi fluktuasi harga cabai (nugroho, prasada, putri, anggarasari & sari, 2018). memperluas jaringan pemasaran dan distribusi adalah bagian dari pengembangan pasar. oleh sebab itu di era teknologi seperti ini, pengembangan pasar dilakukan dengan berbasis teknologi, yaitu teknologi informasi dan digital. penelitian lestari, widyayanthi & kuntadi (2014), menjelaskan strategi pengembangan usahatani cabai merah besar di jember dapat dilakukan dengan memperluas jangkauan pemasaran. bentuk strategi ini merupakan strategi untuk meraih pangsa pasar yang lebih luas. melihat potensi cabai merah besar dengan permintaan pasar yang tinggi memperluas pemasaran merupakan strategi yang tepat, karena mampu mempengaruhi perkembangan usahatani cabai merah besar. 127 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 tabel 13. bobot atas seluruh alternatif peringkat alternatif strategi bobot ahp 1 05 0,357 2 02 0,209 3 03 0,165 4 04 0,158 5 01 0,111 sumber : analisis data primer berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan responden dari dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan, serta pengurus pasar lelang kabupaten sleman, saat ini pemerintah daerah sedang dalam proses melakukan kerja sama dengan kementrian informasi dan komunikasi dalam pembuatan portal atau website pasar lelang sleman. website ini nantinya dapat diakses di seluruh wilayah indonesia dan memberikan informasi mengenai hasil produksi cabai merah dan juga informasi harga yang berlaku. jika dilihat dari tabel 13, alternatif strategi 01 memiliki nilai bobot terendah yaitu 0,111. alternatif strategi 01 adalah peningkatan pengawasan terhadap sarana produksi untuk budidaya cabai merah. menurut hasil wawancara, bahwa saat ini pemerintah daerah melalui dinas pertanian, pangan dan perikanan kabupaten sleman sudah melakukan pengawasan terhadap penggunaan sarana produksi kepada petani, namun dalam hal ini pengawasan belum berjalan dengan maksimal karena jumlah pekerja di bagian pengawasan yang terbatas. untuk itu, melalui program-program yang diberikan kepada kelompok tani diharapkan dapat memaksimalkan penyampaian informasi langsung kepada petani mengenai penggunaan sarana produksi yang berkualitas. kesimpulan berdasarkan hasil analisis internal dan eksternal diperoleh 5 alternatif strategi yang dimasukkan dalam hirarki ahp. alternatif strategi tersebut sebagai pilihan-pilihan dalam rangka pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah di kabupaten sleman. dari 5 alternatif strategi yang ada, maka terpilih alternatif strategi 05 dengan nilai bobot prioritas 0,357 yaitu pengembangan pasar lelang cabai dengan teknologi digital. pemerintah daerah melalui dinas terkait bersama-sama dengan petani dapat membangun kerja sama atau meningkatkan hubungan kemitraan yang sudah terbentuk, untuk mengembangkan pasar lelang cabai dengan menggunakan teknologi digital. pengembangan agribisnis cabai merah dengan pendekatan teknologi digital harus disertai dengan ketersediaan sdm yang berkualitas serta memahami aspek-aspek pemasaran. sehingga sistem pemasaran hasil produksi cabai dapat diakses di 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(2016). pola kemitraan petani cabai dengan juragan luar desa (studi kasus kemitraan di desa kucur, kecamatan dau, kabupaten malang). jurnal habitat, 27 (1). https://doi.org/10.21776/ub. habitat.2016. 027.1.5 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 5 no. 1 januari-juni 2019 mohamad harisudin program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta *) email korespondensi: harisfpuns@gmail.com strategi bersaing pasar legi kota surakarta dalam menghadapi pasar modern competitive strategy of pasar legi surakarta city in facing modern markets doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5174 abstract the presence of modern markets in surakarta city is accepted by its resident, this can be seen from the increasing number of modern markets in recent year. modern market consumers have taken a portion of traditional market consumers. this situation needs to be anticipated by traditional market managers in the form of competitive strategies. the purpose of this study was to determine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats factors that affect the development and the strategies used in developing pasar legi toward the presence of modern market. the basic method of this research was descriptive analysis. data collection methods was done by interviewing, observing and recording techniques. key informants were selected purposively based on the quality of information, which consists of the manager of pasar legi, market traders and consumers/buyers in this traditional market. the market was chosen purposively according to the research objectives, namely pasar legi surakarta city. data analysis method used analysis of grand strategy matrix, swot matrix, and qspm from fred r. david. the results showed that the strategic position of pasar legi was in quadrant i, which was a combination of strength and opportunity. the most priority strategy by the manager of pasar legi to face of the existence of the modern market is to build a good service system between market traders and consumers. keywords: strategy, market, grand strategy, swot, qspm intisari kehadiran pasar modern di kota surakarta diterima oleh masyarakatnya, hal ini dapat diketahui dari semakin banyaknya pasar modern yang ada di kota surakarta. konsumen pasar modern telah mengambil sebagian dari konsumen pasar tradisional. keadaan ini perlu diantisipasi oleh pengelola pasar tradisional dalam bentuk strategi bersaing. tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor kekuatan dan kelemahan serta peluang dan ancaman yang mempengaruhi dinamika perkembangan pasar legi kota surakarta dan strategi yang tepat digunakan dalam mengembangkan pasar legi dalam menghadapi hadirnya pasar modern. metode dasar penelitian adalah deskriptif analitis. metode pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan teknik wawancara, observasi dan pencatatan. informan kunci dipilih secara purposive berdasar kualitas informasi, yang terdiri kepala pasar legi, pedagang pasar dan konsumen/pembeli di pasar legi. pemilihan lokasi dipilih secara purposif sesuai tujuan penelitian, yaitu pasar legi kota surakarta. metode analisis datanya menggunakan analisis matriks grand strategi, matriks swot, dan matriks qspm dari fred r. david. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa posisi strategis pasar legi berada pada sel kwadran i, yaitu perpaduan antara kekuatan dan peluang. prioritas strategi yang tepat dijalankan pengelola pasar legi dalam menghadapi eksistensi pasar modern adalah membangun sistem pelayanan yang baik antara pedagang pasar dengan konsumen. kata kunci: strategi, pasar, grand strategy, swot, qspm pendahuluan perdagangan di kota surakarta didukung oleh lebih dari 38 pasar tradisional serta lebih dari 16 pasar modern seperti minimarket, 44 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research supermarket dan hypermarket (nugraha, 2013). hal mendasar yang membedakan pasar tradisional dan pasar modern adalah pada proses interaksi dan pola pengelolaan atau manajemen antara keduanya. pasar modern dikelola oleh pengusaha swasta, sedang pasar tradisional dikelola oleh pemerintah. kekhususan lain yang terjadi pada pasar tradisional adalah terjadinya interaksi langsung antara penjual dan konsumen, dengan proses tawar menawar yang khas. pasar tradisional juga memiliki praktek transaksi yang khas, yaitu adanya sistem tawar-menawar yang intensif antara penjual dan konsumen. praktek tawar-menawar barang di pasar tradisional yang membedakan dengan transaksi di pasar modern. konsumen mendatangi penjual barang di pasar, konsumen memilih dan mengambil barang dagangan yang dikehendaki, terus dikumpulkan, dan diserahkan kepada penjual untuk dihitung berapa jumlah uang yang harus dibayarkan. setelah harga diberitahukan, konsumen membayar dan barang diserahkan (geertz, 1989). sementara pada pasar modern, umumnya konsumen melakukan kegiatan secara swalayan, atau terdapat pramuniaga, dan sistem pembelian dilakukan dengan harga yang sudah ditetapkan, terdapat label harga pada barang yang dijual. pasar modern yang dimaksud meliputi pertokoan, mall, plasa, minimarket, supermarket dan hypermarket. kemunculan pasar modern mengakibatkan konsumen memiliki alternatif pilihan dalam melakukan aktivitas berbelanja. hadirnya pasar modern juga meningkatkan tuntutan konsumen atas layanan yang diinginkan saat melakukan belanja. hal ini dikarenakan kondisi pasar modern memiliki bangunan yang megah dan permanen, fasilitas memadahi, aman, ada potongan harga serta harga tercantum pada setiap produk sehingga membuat konsumen lebih nyaman untuk berbelanja (khomah dan harisudin, 2016). pasar modern saat ini tidak hanya berkembang di kota besar saja, kini pasar modern telah merambah di pinggir kota bahkan kota kecil sekalipun. eksistensi pasar modern seperti minimarket, supermarket hingga hipermarket “sedikit mengusik” keberadaan pasar tradisional. kesamaan fungsi sebagai penyedia barang bagi konsumen yang dimiliki pasar modern dan pasar tradisional telah menimbulkan persaingan antara keduanya. menjamurnya pusat perbelanjaan modern dikhawatirkan akan mematikan keberadaan pasar tradisional yang merupakan refleksi dan ekonomi kerakyatan (susanti et al., 2014). kekhawatiran tersebut dimungkinkan, karena pasar tradisional diidentikkan sebagai tempat yang kumuh, kotor dan bau; sehingga memberikan atmosfer yang tidak nyaman dalam berbelanja. hal ini merupakan kelemahan terbesar pasar tradisional. sebaliknya, pasar modern memberikan suasana berbelanja yang lebih nyaman serta dilengkapi pendingin ruangan. didorong untuk mempertahankan eksistensi pasar tradisional di tengah maraknya keberadaan pasar modern, maka manajemen pasar tradisional dirasa perlu untuk merumuskan strategi bersaing pasar tradisional yang dikelolanya. strategi menurut jauch dan glueck (1998) adalah rencana yang disatukan, menyeluruh dan terpadu yang mengaitkan keunggulan strategi perusahaan dengan tantangan lingkungan yang dirancang untuk memastikan bahwa tujuan utama perusahaan dapat dicapai melalui pelaksanaan yang tepat oleh perusahaan. dalam pengertian yang lebih spesifik, strategi bersaing didefinisikan sebagai sebuah upaya yang dilakukan oleh suatu perusahaan dalam memenangkan persaingan di pasar sasaran dengan cara memberikan keunggulan-keunggulan sehingga dipilih oleh pembeli yang dimaksud. keberadaan pasar tradisional di kota surakarta tidak hanya sebagai tempat terjadinya transaksi antara penjual dan konsumen semata, namun pasar tradisional juga merupakan ekologi dan sejarah. interaksi sosial dalam bentuk tawar-menawar dan adanya semangat berani bersaing melalui mekanisme pasar merupakan roh pasar tradisional, termasuk pasar tradisional di kota surakarta (syafe’i, 2013). beberapa pasar tradisional yang tergolong besar dan sangat melekat bagi masyarakat kota surakarta adalah pasar legi, pasar klewer dan pasar gede, disamping beberapa pasar lainnya. pasar legi merupakan pasar induk terbesar di kota surakarta. sejak dibangun oleh pura mangkunegaran, pasar legi berkembang cukup pesat sebagai salah satu pasar induk yang menjadi pusat transaksi barang-barang hasil bumi. namun seiring perkembangan zaman, eksistensi pasar tradisional termasuk pasar legi mulai terusik dengan munculnya 45 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 berbagai jenis pasar modern. oleh karena itu, diperlukan inovasi strategi yang lebih baik agar keberadaan pasar legi tetap mampu bertahan ditengah persaingan serta tidak tergerus oleh keberadaan pasarpasar modern. memang bukanlah pekerjaan mudah untuk memperbaiki kinerja pasar tradisional (murshid, 2011; vega-jurado, et al, 2015), hal ini dikarenakan pasar tradisional juga merupakan produk budaya masyarakat. selama ini, penelitian terkait pasar tradisional dan pasar modern masih menekankan pada aspek deskripsi persaingannya (utomo, 2011; dewi dan winarni, 2013), perlunya perbaikan fisik pasar tradisional (tanuwidjaya dan wirawan, 2015), pengembangan pasar yang mempertimbangkan kebutuhan konsumen (khomah dan harisudin, 2016) serta pelaksanaan revitalisasi pasar tradisional oleh pemerintah (dewi dan winarni, 2013; prastyawan et all, 2015; lee, 2017). semua penelitian tersebut menekankan pada perbaikan aspek teknis, dan belum ada yang lebih menekankan pada aspek manajerial yang bersifat strategis. berkaitan dengan hal tersebut, maka penelitian ini memiliki kebaruan dalam hal manajemen strategi, utamanya strategi bersaing. berdasarkan uraian masalah tersebut, maka tujuan penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut : 1) bagaimana posisi aktual pasar legi kota surakarta dalam dinamika persaingan pasar tradisional dan pasar modern, 2) apa strategi bersaing yang tepat dilakukan oleh manajemen pasar legi kota surakarta dalam menghadapi gencarnya penetrasi pasar modern. metode penelitian metode dasar yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah deskriptif analitis. metode deskriptif adalah suatu metode penelitian yang memusatkan perhatian kepada masalah-masalah sebagaimana adanya saat penelitian dilaksanakan, hasil penelitian kemudian diolah dan dianalisis dan dijelaskan (sugiyono, 2009). penentuan lokasi penelitian dilakukan dengan teknik purposive, yaitu pasar legi kota surakarta. pertimbangan pasar legi dipilih sebagai lokasi penelitian karena pasar legi merupakan pasar tradisional yang konsumennya memiliki pilihan alternatif pasar modern (utamanya produk sayuran). metode pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini dilakukan dengan wawancara secara mendalam untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor keberhasilan penting, penilaian rating, pembobotan serta penilaian prioritas strategi. selain itu, pengumpulan data juga dilakukan melalui teknik observasi tidak terlibat. observasi yang dilakukan meliputi proses jual beli, perilaku pedagangpembeli serta pengelolaan pasar legi. penentuan faktor keberhasilan penting dan bobot dilakukan dengan wawancara mendalam kepada seluruh pengelola pasar legi dan kepala dinas perdagangan kota surakarta yang membawahi seluruh pasar kota surakarta. agregasi dari variasi jawaban key informance pengelola pasar dan kepala dinas perdagangan dilakukan dengan teknik triangulasi sumber (moleong, 2010) seperti yang tersaji dalam gambar. gambar 1. trianggulasi sumber trianggulasi adalah sebuah teknik pemeriksaan keabsahan data yang memanfaatkan sesuatu yang lain diluar data yang diperoleh untuk keperluan pengecekan atau sebagai pembanding terhadap data yang diperoleh. tujuan utama dari trianggulasi adalah untuk memperoleh informasi dari narasumber lain, dibandingkan dengan narasumber yang sebelumnya. penentuan nilai rating ditanyakan kepada 30 konsumen (mahmud, 2011) di pasar legi. dikarenakan tidak adanya kerangka sampel, maka penentuan ke-30 konsumen dilakukan dengan teknik convenience sampling. convenience sampling adalah sebuah teknik pengambilan sampel nonprobability yang didasarkan pada ketidak tersediaan data pasti berapa jumlah elemen populasi dan mempertimbangkan kemudahan dalam mendapatkan informasi dari responden. data rating berskala interval (1-4), maka penentuan nilai rating dari seluruh informan a informan b wawancara informan c 46 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research konsumen dilakukan dengan menggunakan modus dari setiap nilai rating yang diberikan konsumen (siegel, 1997). hasil dan pembahasan kondisi umum pasar legi pasar legi merupakan pasar induk tradisional di kota surakarta. pasar legi didirikan pada masa mangkunegoro i (pangeran samber nyawa) pada tahun 1930. manajemen pengelolaan pasar legi sepenuhnya menjadi tanggungjawab dan kewenangan pemerintah kota surakarta melalui dinas pengelola pasar (dpp). namun dalam hal pembangunan dan perawatan jika terjadi kerusakan pasar, dpp bekerjasama dengan pedagang pasar untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan yang ada. terkait dengan kebersihan pasar, terdapat petugas kebersihan yang bertugas membersihkan pasar pada pagi dan sore hari. untuk penanganan sampah diambil oleh armada dari dpp dan di bawa ke tpa puteri cempo setiap hari. keamanan pasar terjamin, sebab terdapat petugas keamanan yang bertugas selama 24 jam. untuk pengelolaan parkir dan air bersih, dikelola oleh pihak swasta. pasar legi berlokasi di jalan sutan syahrir di kelurahan setabelan, kecamatan banjarsari. pasar ini berdiri diatas hak pakai dengan luas tanah 16.640 m² dan konstruksi bangunan pasar bertingkat seluas ±1.750 m². bangunan pasar legi saat ini termasuk bangunan yang sudah tua. bentuk renovasi terakhir berupa perbaikan atap pada tahun 2006, terdapat penambahan bangunan dibagian timur pada tahun 2008. tersedia lahan parkir namun bukan milik pasar, namun milik perseorangan yang dikelola oleh upt perparkiran. pasar legi juga menyediakan tempat bongkar muat barang di sebelah selatan pasar dan di lahan parkir sebelah utara pasar. letak pasar yang strategis membuat aksesibilitas ke pasar legi cukup mudah dijangkau baik menggunakan kendaraan pribadi maupun kendaraan umum. pasar legi terbagi ke dalam 2 bagian wilayah pasar, yaitu jam 08.00-16.00 untuk pedagang yang berada di dalam dan jam 16.00-08.00 untuk pedagang yang berada di luar. infrastruktur sarana prasarana berupa masjid, mushola, mck, pos keamanan, gerobak sampah, bak sampah, container, jaringan listrik, jaringan air bersih. faktor internal pasar legi lingkungan internal pasar legi adalah berbagai hal yang terkait langsung dengan pasar legi, serta berpengaruh pada capaian kinerja pengelola pasar legi. hasil dari analisis lingkungan internal menghasilkan daftar terbatas dari kekuatan dan kelemahan pasar legi. faktor internal pasar legi yang dianalisis meliputi keadaan pasar, pedagang, sarana dan prasarana, serta pemasaran. hasil analisis trianggulasi sumber diperoleh sebagai berikut : faktor strategis yang berupa kekuatan atau keunggulan pasar legi meliputi harga, mutu produk yang ditawarkan beragam, harga barang terjangkau dan dapat ditawar, keamanan pasar semakin baik, interaksi sosial yang tinggi antara penjual dan konsumen, akses ke pasar legi mudah, penopang perekonomian masyarakat, sedangkan faktor strategis yang menjadi kelemahan pasar legi meliputi banyaknya kios yang masih kosong, tata ruang pasar kurang ergonomis, fasilitas umum kurang terawat, kondisi jalan didalam pasar sempit dan kotor, tempat parkir kurang luas, tidak ada jaminan kualitas produk (tabel 1). tabel 1. faktor-faktor strategis internal pada pasar legi kota surakarta faktor internal kekuatan kelemahan keadaan pasar  penopang perekonomian masyarakat  akses ke pasar legi mudah  banyak kios yang masih kosong  pengatuan layout pasar kurang ergonomis pedagang  interaksi sosial yang tinggi antara penjual dan konsumen sarana dan prasarana  keamanan pasar semakin baik  fasilitas umum kurang terawat  kondisi jalan didalam pasar sempi dan kotor  tempat parkir kurang luas pemasaran  harga barang terjangkau dan dapat ditawar  mutu produk yang ditawarkan beragam  tidak ada jaminan kualitas produk sumber : analisis data primer, 2017 47 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 faktor eksternal pasar legi lingkungan eksternal pasar legi adalah berbagai hal yang tidak terkait langsung dengan pasar legi, namun keberadaannya berpengaruh pada capaian kinerja pengelola pasar legi. hasil analisis lingkungan eksternal menghasilkan daftar terbatas dari peluang dan ancaman pasar legi. faktor eskternal adalah faktor-faktor yang berasal dari luar. faktor eksternal pasar legi yang dianalisis meliputi kondisi perekonomian, sosial budaya, sarana transportasi, konsumen, persaingan dan peran pemerintah. hasil analisis trianggulasi sumber diperoleh hasil sebagai berikut : faktor strategis yang berupa peluang adalah banyak lembaga keuangan yang menawarkan bantuan modal, tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk tinggi, kebutuhan masyarakat yang makin meningkat, banyak pemasok produk ke pasar legi dan adanya kebijakan revitalisasi. sedangkan faktor strategis yang menjadi ancaman pasar legi meliputi : kondisi perekonomian yang tidak stabil, kesan masyarakat terhadap pasar tradisional relative rendah, perubahan gaya hidup modern, peningkatan jumlah pasar modern, dan kebijakan pemerintah yang kurang konsisten atas pasar tradisional. hasil identifikasi faktor-faktor strategis eksternal dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. tabel 2. faktor-faktor strategis eksternal pada pasar legi kota surakarta sumber : analisis data primer, 2017 tahap masukan rumusan strategi bersaing pasar legi dalam menghadapi pasar modern dimulai dengan melakukan evaluasi faktor internal (kekuatan dan kelemahan) dan evaluasi faktor eksternal (peluang dan ancaman). dalam mengevaluasi faktor internal dilakukan dengan membuat matriks evaluasi faktor internal (efi). matriks efi digunakan untuk menentukan berapa nilai internal yang dimiliki pasar legi surakarta. tinggirendahnya nilai internal yang diperoleh menunjukkan seberapa besar kohesitas internal pasar legi dalam menghadapi pesaingnya (pasar modern). bedasarkan agregasi rataan nilai bobot dan modus rating yang diperoleh, serta perkalian dantara keduanya maka kohesitas internal pasar legi dapat disajikan pada tabel 3. tabel 3. matriks evaluasi faktor eksternal (efi) pasar legi kota surakarta kekuatan bobot rating nilai harga barang terjangkau dan dapat ditawar 0,1241 4 0,4964 mutu produk yang ditawarkan lebih beragam 0,0937 4 0,3748 interaksi social yang tinggi antara penjual dan konsumen 0,1007 4 0,4028 keamanan pasar tradisional semakin baik 0,0609 4 0,2436 penopang perekonomian masyarakat 0,0703 4 0,2812 akses ke pasar legi mudah 0,0937 3 0,2811 jumlah nilai kekuatan 2,0799 kelemahan tidak ada jaminan kualitas produk 0,0890 1 0,0890 tempat parkir kurangluas 0,0679 2 0,1358 banyak kios yang masih kosong 0,0562 1 0,0562 pengaturan layout pasar kurang baik 0,0726 1 0,0726 fasilitas umum kurang terawatt 0,0796 2 0,1592 kondisi jalan di dalam pasar sempit dan kotor 0,0913 2 0,0913 jumlah nilai kelemahan 0,6041 selisih nilai kekuatan dan nilai kelemahan 1,4758 sumber :analisis data primer, 2017 berdasarkan tabel 3 dapat diketahui bahwa selisih nilai kekuatan dan nilai kelemahan pada matriks efi sebesar 1,4758. hasil nilai selisih tersebut, maka dapat diketahui bahwa lingkungan internal pasar legi bernilai positif. dengan kata lain, pasar legi memiliki nilai kekuatan yang lebih besar daripada nilai kelemahannya. setelah diperoleh nilai internalnya, maka langkah selanjutnya adalah mengevaluasi faktor eksternal guna memperoleh nilai eksternal pasar legi. dalam mengevaluasi faktor eksternal dilakukan dengan membuat matriks evaluasi faktor eksternal (efe). matriks efe digunakan untuk menentukan berapa nilai eksternal yang dimiliki pasar legi surakarta. faktor eksternal peluang ancaman kondisi perekonomian  banyak lembaga keuangan yang menawarkan bantuan modal  kondisi perekonomian yang tidak stabil sosial budaya  kesan masyarakat terhadap pasar tradisional relatif rendah konsumen  tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk tinggi  kebutuhan masyarakat yang makin meningkat  perubahan gaya hidup modern persaingan  banyak pemasok produk ke pasar legi  peningkatan jumlah pasar modern peran pemerintah  adanya kebijakan revitalisasi  kebijakan pemerintah yang kurang konsisten atas pasar tradisional 48 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tinggi-rendahnya nilai eksternal yang diperoleh menunjukkan seberapa besar daya adaptasi pasar legi terhadap pengaruh eksternal terkait hadirnya pasar modern di surakarta. bedasarkan agregasi rataan nilai bobot dan modus rating yang diperoleh, serta perkalian dantara keduanya maka daya adaptasipasar legi terhadap pengaruh eksternal hadirnya pasar modern disajikan pada tabel 4. tabel 4. matriks evaluasi faktor eksternal (efe) pasar legi kota surakarta peluang bobot rating nilai adanya kebijakan revitalisasi 0,0847 3 0,2541 banyak pemasok produk ke pasar legi 0,0896 4 0,3584 kebutuhan masyarakat semakin meningkat 0,1211 4 0,4844 tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk tinggi 0,1114 4 0,4456 banyak lembaga keuangan yang menawarkan bantuan modal 0,0702 3 0,2106 jumlah nilai peluang 1,7531 ancaman perubahan gaya hidup modern 0,1308 1 0,1308 kondisi perekonomian yangtidakstabil 0,1017 2 0,2034 kebijakan pemerintah yang kurang konsisten atas pasar tradisional 0,0969 1 0,0969 kesan masyarakat terhadap pasar tradisional relatif rendah 0,0799 2 0,1598 peningkatan jumlah pasar modern 0,1138 2 0,2276 jumlah nilai ancaman 0,8185 selisih nilai peluang dan nilai ancaman 0,9346 sumber :analisis data primer, 2017 berdasarkan tabel 4 dapat diketahui bahwa selisih nilai peluang dan nilai ancaman pada matriks efe sebesar 0,9346. hasil nilai selisih tersebut bernilai positif, maka berdasar nilai positif tersebut dapat diketahui bahwa peluang yang ada lebih besar daripada ancaman. dengan kata lain, pasar legi memiliki peluang yang lebih besar daripada ancamannya. tahap pencocokan mendasarkan selisih nilai kekuatan dan kelemahan seperti yang tertulis pada matriks efi dan selisih nilai peluang dan ancaman seperti yang tertulis pada matriks efe, maka langkah selanjutnya adalah : kedua matriks (efi dan efe) tersebut disintesakan dalam sebuah alat analisis lain, yaitu matriks grand strategy (david, 2013). cara kerja dari matriks ini sama seperti matriks yang dikembangkan oleh pearce dan robinson (2013). manfaat dari penggunaan matriks grand strategy adalah dapat menjelaskan posisi strategis dari pasar legi. adapun cara kerja dari matriks grand strategy adalah : dari titik selisih kedua faktor (internal dan eksternal) kemudian ditarik garis dari titik absis dan ordinat yang bertemu pada koordinat tertentu. sehingga akan diketahui posisi bersaing atau kedudukan pasar legi surakarta dalam menyikapi hadirnya pasar modern di kota surakarta. gambar 1 menjelaskan posisi bersaing pasar legi dalam menghadapi pasar modern di kota surakarta. gambar 1. kuadran matriks grand strategy pasar legi kota surakarta berdasarkan gambar 1, pasar legi surakarta berada di kuadran i (positif, positif) dengan titik perpotongan 1,4758 dan 0,9346. angka1,4758 diperoleh dari selisih jumlah nilai kekuatan (2,0799) dengan jumlah nilai kelemahan (0,6041). angka 0,9346 diperoleh dari selisih jumlah nilai peluang (1,7531) dengan jumlah nilai ancaman (0,8185). posisi ini menandakan pasar legi surakarta adalah pasar organisasi yang kuat dan berpeluang maju. kwadran 1 berarti progresif, artinya pasar legi dalam kondisi prima dan mantap sehingga sangat dimungkinkan untuk terus melakukan ekspansi, memperbesar pertumbuhan dan meraih kemajuan secara maksimal. strategi didefinisikan sebagai pencocokan yang dibuat suatu organisasi antara faktor-faktor strategis internal (kekuatan dan kelemahan) dengan faktorfaktor strategis eksternal (peluang dan ancaman) dalam menghadapi mengantisipasi isu-isu strategis untuk 49 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 mencapai tujuan organisasi (harisudin, 2014). hasil rumusan strategi ini sangat membantu manajer dalam menyusun kebijakan-kebijakan yang efektif sebuah organisasi. strategi (sintesis kekuatan atau kelemahan internal dengan peluang atau ancaman eksternal) menjadi dasar manajer dalam mencapai tujuan organisasi. proses perumusan strategi yang dibuat dengan cara mensintesakan kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang dan ancaman disusun dalam sebuah bangunan matriks, sehingga dinamakan matriks swot. tabel 5. matriks swot internal eksternal kekuatan 1. harga barang terjangkau dan dapat ditawar 2. mutu produk yang ditawarkan lebih beragam 3. interaksi sosial yang tinggi antara penjual dan konsumen 4. keamanan pasar tradisional semakin baik 5. penopang perekonomian masyarakat 6. akses ke pasar legi mudah peluang 1. banyak lembaga keuangan yang menawarkan bantuan modal 2. tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk tinggi 3. kebutuhan masyarakat yang makin meningkat 4. banyak pemasok produk ke pasar legi 5. adanya kebijakan revitalisasi strategi s-o 1. membangun sarana prasarana pasar bagi kenyamanan konsumen (s5, o1, o5) 2. brandingpasar legi dengan positioning baru (s1,s4,o3, o5) 3. membangun sistem pelayanan yang baik antara pedagang pasar dengan konsumen (s2, s3, s4, o4, o5) sumber : analisis data primer, 2017 mendasarkan pada hasil posisi strategi pasar legi yang berada pada kwadran i (progresif) pada matriks grand strategy, maka rumusan strategi yang dilakukan hanya mendasarkan pada kekuatan (internal) dan peluang (ancaman). tabel 5 menjelaskan rumusan alternatif-alternatif strategi pasar legi dalam menghadapi hadirnya pasar modern di kota surakarta. berdasarkan tabel 5 dapat diketahui 3 rumusanalternatif strategi (comparative advantages) yang merupakan sintesis dua elemen, yaitu antara kekuatan dan peluang.rumusan alternatif yang pertama adalah : membangun sarana prasarana pasar bagi kenyamanan konsumen (s5, o1, o5) dipilih sebagai sebuah alternatif strategi dengan maksud untuk menarik para konsumen yang sudah memiliki pertimbangan mencari kenyamanan dalam berbelanja seperti yang ditawarkan pada semua pasar modern. dengan perbaikan sarana-prasarana pasar yang difokuskan pada peningkatan kenyamanan konsumen (pramudyo, 2014), maka pasar legi akan memberi rasa nyaman bagi konsumen loyalnya sekaligus dapat menarik konsumen pasar modern yang mempertimbangkan rasa nyaman berbelanja seperti yang diberikan pasar modern selama ini. peningkatan kualitas sarana-prasarana pasar legi dapat dipandang sebagai bagian dari kebijakan revitalisasi pasar tradisional (setyawan et al., 2015) akan merubah citra kotor, kumuh, tidak nyaman namun tetap memiliki keunikan yang berbeda dengan pasar modern. perbaikan sarana prasarana yang dimaksud memperluas area parkir, manajemen fasilitas umum seperti kamar mandi, pengaturan tata letak sampah pasar dan menambah kios-kios untuk produk pendukung. tujuan dari strategi ini adalah untuk meningkatkan jumlah kehadiran konsumen ke pasar tradisional serta kenyamanan selama didalam pasar legi. alternatif strategi kedua yaitu branding pasar legi dengan positioning baru (s1,s4, o3, o5). strategi ini dirumuskan sebagai upaya untuk menghapus citra pasar tradisional yang tingkat kenyamanannya seolaholah selalu dibawah pasar modern. strategi ini menjadi tepat karena branding pasar dapat merubah persepsi konsumen, yang selanjutnya dapat mempengaruhi keputusan konsumen untuk melakukan pembelian di pasar legi. perlunya branding pasar sama seperti yang direkomendasikan prabowo dan rahadi (2015) untuk memperbaiki kinerja pasar tradisional. membangun citra baru yang berbeda dari citra lama yang sudah melekat kuat memang membutuhkan konsistensi kebijakan dari pengelola pasar legi. hal ini dikarenakan terkait dengan mindset, rentang waktu dan merubah budaya. strategi branding dengan positioning baru sudah banyak menunjukkan keberhasilan di berbagai organisasi bisnis. merujuk pada kekuatan harga barang terjangkau dan dapat ditawar dan peluang banyak lembaga keuangan yang menawarkan bantuan modal, maka membangun branding dengan posisi baru merupakan suatu tindakan atau langkah-langkah untuk mendesain citra pasar yang baik, apabila pasar sudah 50 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dikenal dengan citrabaru (dan terlepas dari citra sebelumnya), maka konsumen yang sebelumnya sensitif dengan citra lama bisa berubah menjadi konsumen baru. strategi ini semakin efektif dilaksankan karena keberpihakan pemerintah kota surakarta melalui serangkaian peraturan daerahnya (setyawan et al., 2015). alternatif strategi ketiga yaitu membangun sistem pelayanan yang baik antara pedagang pasar dengan konsumen (s3, s4, o4, o5). strategi ini dirumuskan merujuk pada kekuatan interaksi sosial yang tinggi antara penjual dan konsumen dan keamanan pasar tradisional semakin baik (pada lingkungan internal) dan banyaknya peluang tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk yang tinggi, banyaknya pemasok produk dan adanya kebijakan revitalisasi pasar (lingkungan eksternal). perumusan strategi ini memiliki kemungkinan berhasil tinggi karena pada dasarnya modal sosial penjual di pasar legi sudah bagus (andriani dan ali, 2013). dengan demikian, apabila strategi ini diterapkan akan meningkatkan loyalitas atau kesetiaan konsumen dalam melakukan pembelian di pasar legi. pelayanan yang baik diterapkan di pasar legi adalah atribut kecepatan dan keramahan pelayanan (utomo, 2011). prioritas strategi ini sama dengan hasil penelitian alfianita et al. (2015) dengan topik yang sama saat melakukan penelitian pasar tradisional dalam perspektif good governance di kabupaten malang. perbaikan kualitas layanan manajemen pasar legi dan para penjual kepada setiap konsumen yang hadir lebih mengena pada diri konsumen dan dapat menjadi sebab meningkatnya status konsumen menjadi pelanggan pasar legi (rahadi, 2012). bentuk layanan yang bisa dilakukan oleh pengelola pasar legi selain bentuk layanan yang bersifat kualitatif juga bisa dikembangkan layanan yang sifatnya membantu konsumen dalam melakukan pembelian produk di pasar legi seperti memaksimalkan teknologi informasi (rufaidah, 2008; murshid, 2011), sistem grading untuk peningkatan kualitas produk seperti yang menjadi alasan konsumen memilih pasar modern dalam melakukan belanja kebutuhan sehari-hari (utomo, 2011). jika konsumen sudah menjadi pelanggan, maka fungsi konsumen tidak hanya berfungsi sebagai konsumen saja tetapi bisa menjadi tenaga pemasar kepada konsumen yang lain agar membeli keperluan memasak dan sayur mayur rumah tangganya ke pasar legi. peningkatan kualitas layanan ini akan lebih baik lagi jika pengelola pasar legi secara aktif membuka saluran komunikasi dengan konsumen, dan secara positif merespon masalah dan masukan yang disampaikan konsumen. saluran komunikasi bisa dibuat berupa kotak saran dipintu masuk pasar legi ataupun dalam website resmi serta media sosial yang dimiliki pasar legi kota surakarta. tahap keputusan qspm (quantitive strategic planning matrix) merupakan alat analisis yang secara obyektif dapat menetapkan strategi alternatif yang diprioritaskan. sebagai suatu teknik, qspm memerlukan intuisi yang baik dalam penilaian. alat analisis ini direkomandasikan bagi para ahli strategi untuk melakukan evaluasi alternatif strategi secara obyektif, berdasarkan faktor kunci keberhasilan (faktor strategis) baik internal maupun eksternal yang telah diidentifikasikan sebelumnya. qspm adalah alat analisis untuk menetapkan kemenarikan relatif dari alternatif-alternatif strategi yang telah dirumuskan pada matriks swot (fauzi, et al, 2016; nugroho, et al, 2017)), untuk menentukan strategi mana yang paling tepat untuk diimplementasikan (david, 2013). qspm juga menjadi alat analisis yang membantu manajer dalam membuat prioritas strategi diantara alternatif strategi yang telah dirumuskan dalam tahap pencocokan dengan memperhatikan unsur efisien dan efektivitas (capps and glissmeyer, 2012; sohel et all, 2014 dan harisudin et all, 2016). qspm sangat berhubungan dengan metode-metode lain yang digunakan dalam tahap input dan analisis sebagai bentuk informasi untuk tahap qspm sendiri. faktor strategis eksternal-internal pasar legi sangat diperlukan dalam penggunaan metode ini, sehingga dapat diputuskan pemilihan prioritas strategi mana yang akan digunakan sesuai dengan keadaan pasar legi. struktur matriks qspm dalam menentukan prioritas 51 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 strategi pasar legi dalam menghadapi hadirnya pasar modern dapat dilihat pada tabel 6. tabel 6. qspm pasar tradisional pada pasar legi kota surakarta faktor-faktor strategis bobot strategi 1 strategi 2 strategi 3 as tas as tas as tas kekuatan harga barang terjangkau dan dapat ditawar 0,1241 2 0,2482 4 0,4964 3 0,3723 mutu produk yang ditawarkan lebih beragam 0,0937 3 0,2811 2 0,1874 4 0,3748 interaksi sosial yang tinggi antara penjual dan pembeli 0,1007 4 0,4028 1 0,1007 2 0,2014 keamanan pasar tradisional semakin baik 0,0609 1 0,0609 4 0,2436 3 0,1827 penopang perekonomian masyarakat 0,0703 4 0,2812 1 0,0703 2 0,1406 akses ke pasar tradisional mudah 0,0937 3 0,2811 2 0,1874 4 0,3748 kelemahan tidak ada jaminan kualitas produk 0,0890 3 0,2670 2 0,1780 4 0,3560 tempat parkir kurang luas 0,0679 4 0,2716 1 0,0679 3 0,2037 banyak kios yang masih kosong 0,0562 2 0,1124 1 0,0562 3 0,1686 pengaturan layout pasar kurang baik 0,0726 3 0,2178 1 0,0726 4 0,2904 fasilitas umum kurang terawat 0,0796 3 0,2388 1 0,0796 4 0,3184 kondisi jalan didalam pasar sempit dan kotor 0,0913 4 0,3652 2 0,1826 3 0,2739 jumlah 1 3,0281 1,927 3,2576 peluang adanya kebijakan revitalisasi 0,0847 4 0,3388 2 0,1694 3 0,2541 penjual tidak hanya bergantung pada satu pemasok 0,0896 4 0,3584 2 0,1792 3 0,2688 kebutuhan masyarakat semakin meningkat 0,1211 1 0,1211 2 0,2422 4 0,4844 tingkat pertumbuhan penduduk tinggi 0,1114 3 0,3342 2 0,2228 4 0,4456 banyak lembaga keuangan yang menawarkan bantuan modal 0,0702 1 0,0702 2 0,1404 3 0,2106 ancaman perubahan gaya hidup modern 0,1308 4 0,5232 3 0,3924 1 0,1308 kondisi perekonomian yang tidak stabil 0,1017 2 0,2034 4 0,4068 3 0,3051 kebijakan pemerintah yang kurang konsisten atas pasar tradisional 0,0969 4 0,3876 2 0,1938 3 0,2907 kesan masyarakat terhadap pasar tradisional relatif rendah 0,0799 2 0,1598 4 0,3196 3 0,2397 peningkatan jumlah pasar modern 0,1138 3 0,3414 2 0,2276 4 0,4552 1 2.8381 2.4942 3.085 total nilai tas 5,8662 4,4212 6,3426 berdasarkan analisis matriks qsp pada tabel 6 diperoleh nilai total tas untuk strategi pertama sebesar 5,8662, strategi kedua sebesar 4,4212, strategi ketiga sebesar 6,3426. untuk itu, strategi yang memiliki nilai terbesar adalah strategi ke-tiga (membangun sistem pelayanan yang baik antara pedagang pasar dengan konsumen). membangun sistem pelayanan yang baik antara pedagang dengan konsumen penting untuk dilakukan sebab pelayanan yang baik adalah salah satu unsur yang disukai pelanggan (mukbar, 2007). interaksi penjual dan konsumen di pasar legi sangat dekat karena diantara mereka sering bertemu untuk bertransaksi jual beli atau bisa disebut bahwa konsumen adalah pelanggan tetap. peningkatan kualitas interaksi antara pedagang dan konsumen adalah inti dari kualitas pasar tradisional (prastyawan et al, 2015). kualitas layanan yang baik memunculkan loyalitas yang selanjutnya berdampak pada konsistensi jumlah pengunjung pasar yang membeli produk di pasar legi. selain itu, dengan adanya pembangunan sistem 52 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pelayanan yang baik akan mempermudah saluran distribusi produk dari penjual ke konsumen. hal ini dapat mendukung lancarnya kegiatan jual-beli di pasar legi sehingga akan meningkatkan penjualan produk yang nantinya akan berdampak pada meningkatnya pendapatan pasar serta terpenuhinya kebutuhan dan kepuasan konsumen yang berbelanja di pasar legi. salah satu bentuk kualitas layanan yang baik adalah menyediakan produk-produk yang berkualitas (aufanada, et al, 2017). namun demikian, bukan berarti rekomendasi strategi ini menghapus kebijakan revitalisasi pasar tradisional yang telah ditetapkan pemerintah kota surakarta. strategi ini justru melengkapi kebijakan revitalisasi fisik pasar legi (masitoh, 2013; pramudyo, 2014; lee, 2017) agar eksistensi pasar legi tetap terjaga dan memiliki keunggulan kompetitif terhadap pasar modern. prastyawan dan isbandono (2018) memberi rekomendasi agar sistem pelayanan yang dikembangkan memperleh efektivitas, maka sebaiknya melibatkan pedagang dan konsumen harus melibatkan pemangku kepentingan dalam perencanaan, pelaksanaan hingga pengawasannya. kesimpulan hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa posisi bersaing pasar legi berada pada kuadran i (kekuatan, peluang), dan rekomendasi pada kwadran 1 adalah strategi bersaing yang bersifat progresif. dari posisi kuadran i ini, maka rekomendasi strategi yang paling tepat dilaksanakan pengelola pasar legi kota surakarta dalam menghadapi pasar modern adalah membangun sistem pelayanan yang baik antara pedagang dengan konsumen. dari rekomendasi strategi tersebut, maka pengelola pasar legi harus mengidentifikasi kebutuhan penjual dan pembeli/konsumen pasar legi. setelah mengidentifikasi kebutuhannya, pengelola pasar legi sebaiknya merumuskan indikator kinerja yang dapat dijadikan sebagai alat ukur keberhasilan bisnis proses pengelolaan pasar legi. selain itu, pengelola pasar legi harus membangun sebuah sistem pelayanan yang berorientasi pada hubungan yang berkualitas antara pedagang dan pembeli dalam 3 perspektif pendekatan sistem (input, proses dan output). hasil dari penelitian ini juga dapat ditindaklanjuti oleh peneliti yang lain untuk mengidentifikasi komponen yang dapat meningkatkan kualitas hubungan antara pedagang dan pembeli di pasar legi surakarta. daftar pustaka alfianita, e. wijaya, a.f & siswidiyanto. 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(2013). pengaruh keamanan dan kenyamanan pasar terhadap minat membeli bagi konsumen di pasar batik klewer. skripsi pada fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. http://eprints.ums.ac.id/23514/2/bab_i.pdf diakses tanggal 9 november 2018 tanuwidjaja, g dan wirawan, r. (2015). creative – sustainable traditional market design in malang. the 2nd international conference planning in the era of uncertainty: sustainable development. http://repository. petra. ac.id/ 17011/ diakses 1 oktober 2018 utomo, t.j. (2011). persaingan bisnis ritel: tradisional vs modern. fokus ekonomi. 6 (1), 122 133 vega-jurado, j,. julio-esparragoza, d., paterninaarboleda, c.d and velez, m.c, (2015). integrating technology, management and marketing innovation through open innovation models. j. technol. manag. innov. 10(4), 85-90. doi; http://dx.doi.org/10.4067 /s0718-27242015000400009 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 5 no. 1 januari-juni 2019 agustina bidarti1*), dwidjono hadi darwanto2), slamet hartono2), jamhari2) 1)faculty of agriculture, universitas sriwijaya palembang 2)faculty of agriculture, universitas gadjah mada yogyakarta *) email korespondensi: agustinabidarti@unsri.ac.id supplier structure and performance evaluation of supplier network phase rice supply chain management in south sumatra doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5171 abstract this study aims to identify the mapping, measure performance, and analyze problems in the structure of rice supply chain management on the supplier network phase in south sumatra. afterward, the result of this study is used as the basic consideration to improve the rice supply chain performance on indicators that have problems. data collection was conducted by direct interview, questionnaire, and observation. this study used descriptive qualitative and several analysis tools as the data such as supply chain operation reference model (scor), analytical hierarchy process (ahp), objective matrix (omax) and traffic light system (tls). according to the rice supply chain mapping on supplier network phase, there are three rice supply chains. based on the interview, the farmers’ main problem as the main producers of the rice supply chain in south sumatra is the limitation of unhusked rice price information in harvesting in the financial flow of rice supply chain. based on the weighting result by omax scoring system, the total index value is 7.28, or in the yellow category which means that the performance of licm riceindustry company in south sumatra has not achieved the expected performance in terms of rice supply chain even though the result is close to the pre-determined target. keywords: rice, suppliers structure, performance evaluation, supply chain management. introduction in general, the related activities in the supply chain management are divided into four stages, namely: activities to get raw materials (procurement), activities to plan production and inventory (planning and control), production activities (manufacturing, shipping activities (distribution). (pujawan, 2005; sarmah et al., 2005; adiyatna & hasibuan, 2015). in addition, there are three other phases in supply chain management, there are three phases in rice supply chain management, namely supplier network, integrated enterprise, dan distributive network. (indrajit & richardus, 2005; chopra & meindl, 2001; kotler, 2003) these phases are similar to another phase according to anatan & ellitan (2008) namely upstream supply chain, dan downstream supply chain. supplier network phase is very important and equal to the next two phases for the rice industry. good practices in supply chain management are needed in the development of the rice industry in south sumatra. rice is the main source of calories for indonesians. therefore, nowadays, rice becomes a substantial part as consumption of calories reaching 54.3%. it means that more than half of the amount of calories consumption comes from rice. according to widodo & wulandari (2016), the high population growth rate in indonesia reaching 230 million is directly proportional to the increasing demand for food. south sumatra proclaims itself as one of the national food granary provinces. however, not all the areas in south sumatra are rice producers. therefore, the rice supply chain management as an materials to semi-finished products and final products, as well as distribution is important in south sumatra. http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4269 8 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research supply chain operation reference (scor) method is a reference model of supply chain operation. this study is based on sidarto (2008) research on the measurement of supply chain management activities by combining scor and poa including cost, time, capacity, productivity, utility, outcome, reliability, responsiveness, flexibility, cost, and asset. meanwhile, ervil (2010) conducted study on the design system of performance measurement by developing a balanced scorecard model that produces supply chain performance indicator derived from company performance indicator. both studies produce an overview of the company’s internal condition in the best class position. according to mathuramaytha (2011), collaboration and integration of the supply chain can facilitate cooperation among institutions to increase competitive advantages. in addition, susanawati et al. (2017) declare that many players involved in the supply chain can affect less than good performance because each of the players has their own level of importance, thus raising a number of issues about disproportionate distribution of risks among players. different from in south sumatra, based on preliminary observations, it shows that rice procurement practices in rice-industry companies in south sumatra often experience some problems on the fulfillment of raw materials by suppliers. based on the background, it is necessary to conduct a study related to the structure pattern and performance of rice supply chain management on supplier network phase in south sumatra as well as the recommendations in improving the supply chain performance. therefore, this study aims to: 1). describe the rice supply chain mapping at the supplier network stage in south sumatra with descriptive method. 2). evaluating rice supply chain performance at the supplier network stage in south sumatra with scor analysis. scor is used to determine the weights of each criterion and subcriteria. 3). and evaluate the relationship of rice supply chain performance at the supplier network stage in south sumatra with objective matrix (omax) and traffic light system (tls) analysis. omax is a method that observes measurement matrix from the existing performance indicators by consolidating the matrix into a single measure. this model relates directly to all conditions to measure its work performance and used to evaluate the performance of suppliers. evaluating supply chain rice at suppliers network stage performance used for providing some improvement recommendations for the enterprise and rice suppliers. methods this research employs descriptive and quantitative approaches. this research report was arranged in four stages: introduction, data collection and processing, analysis and discussion, and conclusion and suggestion. this research is the initial stage of selecting and determining the sample. determination of the sample is done in two stages, determining the company and selecting respondents. for the selected company carried out for examines the performance of each supply chain involved in the rice supply chain management on supplier network phase in south sumatra. in order to determine the best performance, benchmarking of rice-industry companies in south sumatra is conducted. table 1. rice-industry companies in south sumatra no companies company’s address production capasity/year 1 pt. karya jaya mandiri perkasa muara kelingi rt 10, karya jaya, kertapati 20,000 ton 2 cv. sukses karya mandiri jalan brigjend yusuf no. 22 rt 23 musi ii, karya jaya, kertapati 13,600 ton 3 cv lintas indo comoditi mandiri jalan mayjen yusuf singadikane rt 01 rw 01 musi ii, keramasan, kertapati 20,000 ton 4 pd piramid sembada jalan ir. sutami rt 22 sei selincah, kalidoni 16,000 ton sources: secondary data department of industry and commerce of palembang city (2016) according to the data, benchmarking of the companies which are selected as research sample used multistage. the sample selection in the supply chain mapping was conducted in two stages, according to the supplier network phase. first, stage 1 is to determine the starting point of the rice supply chain in south sumatra. by using purposive sampling method, cv lintas indo 9 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 comoditi mandiri (cv licm), a rice-industry company was chosen as the sample. the selection of rice-industry company is under the consideration of rice packaging products because of secondary processing product which made from the raw material product of south sumatra areas oki, okut, and banyuasin regency. furthermore, cv licm is an active agroindustry and the company will be measured for its performance. second, stage ii is the determination of institutions related to the supply chain. after the company was selected as the starting point of the supply chain, the snowball technique was used to select rare characteristic unit and additional units shown by previous respondents. (sarwono, 2006) this means that the determination of institutions involved in a flow of rice supply chain in south sumatra can be known according to the information provided by other institutions. based on company data, there are three main regions supplying the company's raw materials. the three regions are oki regency, okut regency, banyuasin regency, and palembang city. in the three regions, samples were selected with snowball techniques such as stage ii above. so that in each of these three regions 30 samples were obtained, consisting of 10 farmers, 10 village collector traders, and 10 rice mills owner. from each district there are 30 samples and plus 10 samples of provincial upperclass traders in the city of palembang, based on simple random sampling, so the number of samples in this study were 100 samples. the data was obtained through interviews, questionnaire, and related enterprise documents. the documents consist of primary data and secondary data. primary data which are the data on suppliers performance evaluation criteria and subcriteria, level of necessity of each criterion and subcriteria, and the performance evaluation of suppliers. secondary data is data regarding company profile, rice production process, and suppliers performance achievements. the procedures of data processing in this research were started with developing linkage models through the analytical hierarchy process (ahp). the criteria and subcriteria is determined as well as the linkage among criteria and sub-criteria that will be used in modeling ahp. (balubaid & alamoudi, 2015) secondly, establishing a paired comparison matrix. then it followed by calculating the elements’ weight which is obtained by normalizing paired comparison matrix and counting up (sum) the elements in one column. after knowing the value of elements weight, continued to calculate consistency ratio. the next step is developing supermatrix that consists of three stages such as unweighted supermatrix, weighted supermatrix, and limiting supermatrix. then, scoring system with omax method was evaluating rice suppliers performance by using tls. tls was used to find out whether the performance indicator needs improvement or not. for analysis and discussion stage would consist of analysis and discussion of data processing results. for the analysis is conducted at the necessary level of supplier performance evaluation criteria and subcriteria and also the improvement recommendations for the enterprise and suppliers. for conclusion and suggestion stage consist of the research conclusions obtained from the result of data collection and processing, result in analysis and discussion in response to the determined research objectives. in order to analyze the map of rice supply chain network on supplier phase, this study used the descriptive analysis method. while the process of measuring the performance of rice supply chain management was based on the scor, ahp, omax and tls method. the scor method was used to measure the performance of supply chain management, especially on the supplier phase that requires performance attribute criteria. scor, ahp, omax method and tls are feasible tools to measure the performance achievement of suppliers. (sukendar et al., 2018; akyus & erkan, 2010; van de vorst, 2006). results and discussions mapping of supply chain structure on supplier chain network level based on the data of the interview, the mechanism of seeking suppliers is conducted by opening tenders to find qualified suppliers. the cv 10 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research lintas indo comoditi mandiri (cv licm) policy in the tender selection process has selected some suppliers by using this approach which can reduce the risk that occurs when relying on too much supply on just one supplier. currently, in the company’s records, cv licm has 23 suppliers who work under the contract system. all the suppliers are trading companies in south sumatra. based on the above data on rice suppliers, it is necessary to see the behavior of rice supply system in cv licm. according to the observation, there are three network flows of the rice supply chain on supplier network phase in south sumatra. figure 1. rice supply chain structure on supplier network phase in south sumatra on the first flow, farmers sell unhusked rice to village suppliers (45.56%). the village suppliers buy rice from the farmers in the form of dried unhusked rice (the crop yield/gkp) to be milled into dry unhusked rice (gkg) sold to the rice mills. the village suppliers are usually individual traders working for the rice mills. according to the questionnaire, this network flow is mostly selected by the farmers in okut (76.67%), oki (40.00%) and banyuasin regency (20.00%). farmers, especially in okut because it is easier to get cash. the village suppliers buy crops to the farmers by using slash system. even though it is less transparent, in which the farmers sell their crops in the rice fields without knowing the amount of unhusked rice production from the harvest result. the farmers do not harvest because it is conducted by the suppliers after they agree on the purchase price. if on average, the sale price of unhusked rice received by the farmers by using slash system is idr 4.220/kg for dried unhusked rice. they accept this system because they need the cash directly. the second pattern of this supplier network phase is the farmers (28.89%) distribute their crops to the rice millers in the form of dried unhusked rice or dry milled rice. after going through the milling process, rice is temporarily packed by the rice millers. afterward, it is distributed to large-scale traders in districts and cities. furthermore, it is distributed to cv licm company to be processed further. this flow network was mostly chosen by oki (53.33%), then followed by okut (20.00%) and banyuasin (13.33%). the farmers’ choice to sell their crops directly to the rice miller with kilogram system is caused by several things. first, there is a new trend in which the rice millers also build storage and drying rice place near the rice fields. it makes it easier for farmers to sell their crops. second, the price received by the farmers in selling their unhusked rice to the rice mill is higher compared to the slash system which generally conducted in the second supply chain network in south sumatra. the selling price to rice mill is idr 4.500 dry unhusked rice crops. on the third flow, the farmers (25.56%) sell their crops to farmer groups in the form of dry unhusked rice. based on the questionnaire, this choice is selected by farmers in banyuasin regency (66.67%), oki (6.67%) and okut (3.33%). the interview result shows lack of treatment of the third flow especially in oki and okut regency. it proves that both regencies are less involved in village unit cooperatives (kud) in the rice supply chain flow. in this case, it is caused by several things. first, kud rarely takes a role in the trade sector of unhusked rice and rice commodities in the supply chain in south sumatra. the low role of farmer institutions like this is also shown by the study of nuraini et al. (2016) and triyono et al. (2016) where patterns of a structure of farmer relations in institutional tendencies are characterized by the absence of functional organizational relationships between each level of business. therefore, this is in line with surono (1998) opinion, that kud in indonesia has little role in the marketing sector of unhusked rice and rice commodities. second, there is 11 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 a hidden role where kud acts as rice millers such as kud tugu muda in tugumulyo village, oki or kud telang makmur in muara telang, banyuasin. third, kud provides a technical role which covers cultivation and distribution of agricultural production facilities. the low role of kud in the three research locations similarity with sidik and purnomo (1991) research in karawang. they state that the tendency of unhusked rice higher price in the market affects less involvement of kud and the bulog (food logistic agency). it makes kud and bulog reduce their role in purchasing unhusked rice and rice to the farmers, including in south sumatra. according to suhardedi et al. (2017) study, in order to increase the profit and rice farming competitiveness, the government should implement subsidy, output price protection, infrastructure, and productivity improvement. however, the government intervention is also needed in helping the farmers to overcome their post-harvest problems. there should be an evaluation and reshuffle regarding to the rice supply chain on this phase by strengthening the institutions developed by kud and bp3k (extension centers for agricultural, fisheries, and forestry) in sub-district level and agricultural service in regency or province. the farmers in these three districts tend easier to sell the harvest-unhusked rice other than storeunhusked rice. there are two reasons for farmers’ difficulties in producing unhusked rice showed in the interview’s result. first, the difficulty in managing indirect sales because direct sales dominate the supply chain. second, there is a farmers’ urgent need so they prefer to sell their crops directly. third, lack of storage facility and sufficient unhusked rice drying in farmers’ house. those reasons affect the farmers’ lower bargaining position. those reasons also cause the farmers still face some problems in marketing the crops on flow map of rice supply chain management on suppliers network phase in south sumatra. in addition, they also have a limitation in understanding price information when harvesting. in fact, according to indardi (2016) study, in the information era, the communication aspect is believed to be one of the important factors for the empowerment of farming communities. however, ironically, the farmers have a limitation in product market information. the evaluation of rice supply chain on supplier network phase in south sumatra the evaluation of the rice supply chain on supplier network phase in south sumatra is very important to be conducted. it is because of the raw material procurement system in the rice supply chain which is required by tier-3. cv licm as the final network that will produce rice from the farmers. this evaluation will also be linked to how the rice supply chain works from farmers, village suppliers, rice mills, large-scale traders and finally to companies. the initial stage of evaluation performance of the supply chain is conducted by submitting an initial questionnaire consisting of 46 indicators of performance according to key performance indicators (kpi). the questionnaire was given to the management of cv licm to identify the problems and the company’s condition in supply chain management for validation. the purpose of this rice supply chain on suppliers network performance assessment is to assess the condition of an existing supply chain. this assessment can determine whether good or not good the activity process of rice supply chain on supplier network phase. in the first calculation, perspective weighting is conducted on level 1 based on five scor perspective ratings, weighted results such as table 2. table 2. the result of weighted perspective level-1 sources: primary data (2017) it is found that the weighting of five scor perspective ratings shows the inconsistency ratio at the weight of 0.07. the weight is accepted because it has fulfilled the maximum limit of 0.1., after conducting perspective weight (eigenvalue) total inconsistency ratio priority plan 0.453 1 ℷmax = 3.250 c1 = 0.092 r1 = 1.188 cr = 0.07 1 source 0.248 2 make 0.156 3 deliver 0.052 5 return 0.090 4 12 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research data analysis and processing on level-1, the next is on level-2. the result of level-2 weighted can be seen in table 3 below. table 3. the result of weighted dimension level-2 perspective dimension weight priority plan reliability 0.524 1 responsiveness 0.233 2 flexibility 0.079 4 asset 0.164 3 total 1 inconsistency ratio 0.14 source reliability 0.391 1 responsiveness 0.254 2 flexibility 0.146 4 cost 0.052 5 asset 0.157 3 total 1 inconsistency ratio 0.32 make reliability 0.451 1 responsiveness 0.250 2 flexibility 0.148 3 cost 0.068 5 asset 0.084 4 total 1 inconsistency ratio 0.19 deliver reliability 1 1 total 1 inconsistency ratio 0.03 return reliability 0.600 1 responsiveness 0.400 2 total 1 inconsistency ratio 0 sources: primary data (2017) based on table 3, it is found that the overall weighting result of each dimension has the weight value under 0.1. this shows that the weight value is still accepted because it is under the maximum limit of the inconsistency ratio of 0.1. after conducting data analysis and processing on level-2, the next is on level-3. the result of level-3 weighted can be seen in table 4 below. based on table 4 for the level-3, it is found that the overall indicator of kpi has the weight value under 0.1. this means that the weight value is still acceptable because the category is under the maximum limit of the inconsistency ratio of 0.1. table 4. the result of weighted kpi level-3 perspective dimension kpi weight inconsistency ratio priority plan reliability pr-1 0.830 0 1 pr-2 0.170 2 responsibility pre-1 0.830 0 1 pre-2 0.170 2 flexibility pf-1 0.544 0.13 1 pf-2 0.265 2 pf-3 0.129 3 pf-4 0.062 4 asset pa-1 1 0 1 sources reliability sr-1 0.634 0.14 1 sr-2 0.260 3 sr-3 0.106 4 responsibility sre-1 1 0 1 flexibility sf-1 1 0 1 cost sc-1 1 0 1 asset sa-1 0.830 0 1 sa-2 0.170 2 make reliability mr-1 0.800 0 1 mr-2 0.200 2 responsibility mre-1 0.750 0.75 1 mre-2 0.250 2 flexibility mf-1 1 0 1 cost mc-1 1 0 1 asset ma-1 0.447 0.08 1 ma-2 0.274 2 ma-3 0.147 3 ma-4 0.093 4 ma-5 0.039 5 delivery reliability dr-1 0.328 0.08 1 dr-2 0.206 2 dr-3 0.148 3 dr-4 0.122 4 dr-5 0.086 5 dr-6 0.052 6 dr-7 0.036 7 dr-8 0.022 8 return reliability rr-1 1 0 responsibility rre-1 0.087 0.07 5 rre-2 0.061 6 rre-3 0.041 7 rre-4 0.207 2 rre-5 0.166 3 rre-6 0.021 8 rre-7 0.118 4 rre-8 0.299 1 sources: primary data (2017) omax analysis on the relationship performance of company and suppliers after conducting data analysis and processing on level-2, the next is on level-3. after analyzing and weighting scor and ahp, then calculated the scoring system by using omax. the omax scoring system for each scor plan perspective can be seen in table 5: 13 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 table 5. scoring system omax for perspective plan cv lintas indo comodity mandiri kpi. no. pr-1 pr-2 pre-1 pre-2 pf-1 pf-2 pf-3 pf-4 pa-1 criteria performance 97.54 89.52 86.11 0.0110 99.00 1.208 0.043 98.33 99.17 l e v e l 10 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.0150 100.00 1.250 0.050 100.00 100.00 very good 9 99.31 98.28 97.69 0.0144 99.44 1.206 0.048 98.94 99.51 good 8 98.62 96.56 95.37 0.0138 98.88 1.162 0.046 97.88 99.02 7 97.93 94.84 93.06 0.0132 98.33 1.119 0.044 96.83 98.54 6 97.24 93.12 90.74 0.0126 97.97 1.075 0.041 95.77 98.05 5 96.56 91.40 88.43 0.0121 97.22 1.032 0.039 94.72 97.57 average 4 95.87 89.68 86.11 0.0115 96.66 0.988 0.036 93.66 97.08 3 91.54 81.93 77.08 0.0099 92.50 0.742 0.030 87.75 92.81 2 87.21 74.18 68.05 0.0083 88.33 0.496 0.023 81.83 88.54 poor 1 82.88 66.43 59.02 0.0067 84.17 0.251 0.017 75.92 84.27 0 78.56 58.69 50.00 0.0050 80.00 0.005 0.010 70.00 80.00 very poor level 8 8 8 7 8 9 7 9 8 weight 0.830 0.170 0.830 0.170 0.544 0.265 0.129 0.062 1 value 6.640 1.360 6.640 1.190 4.352 2.385 0.903 0.558 8.000 sources: primary data (2017) the omax scoring system value for plan perspective in cv licm is 9 kpi. there are 7 kpi which are in the green category (between level 8 and 9) and 2 kpi which are in the yellow category (in level 7). because the achievement value is in accordance with the target and all are above the red category, then the kpi does not need to be repaired. table 6. scoring system omax for perspective sources cv. licm kpi. no. sr-1 sr-2 sr-3 sre-1 sf-1 sc-1 sa-1 sa-2 criteria performance 94.79 98.66 97.27 90.85 17.43 22.39 23.59 0.015 l e v e l 10 98.73 100.00 99.99 96.05 21.43 24.90 28.88 0.020 very good 9 97.35 99.38 99.38 94.71 20.76 24.49 27.84 0.019 good 8 95.80 98.75 98.77 93.37 20.09 24.08 26.80 0.018 7 95.05 98.13 98.16 92.03 19.42 23.68 25.76 0.017 6 94.38 97.50 97.56 90.69 18.76 23.28 24.71 0.016 5 93.88 96.88 96.95 89.35 18.09 22.87 23.67 0.015 average 4 93.64 96.25 96.35 88.00 17.43 22.47 22.62 0.014 3 91.93 89.69 95.22 84.81 15.99 21.54 21.21 0.012 2 90.21 83.13 94.08 81.62 14.55 20.62 19.8 0.010 poor 1 88.50 76.57 92.95 78.44 13.11 19.70 18.4 0.008 0 86.78 70.00 91.82 75.25 11.67 18.78 17.00 0.006 very poor level 7 8 6 6 4 4 5 5 weight 0.634 0.260 0.106 1 1 1 0.830 0.170 value 4.438 2.080 0.636 6 4 4 4.150 0.850 sources: primary data (2017) based on table 6, the omax scoring system value for sources perspective in cv licm are 8 kpi. there is only 1 kpi which is in the green category (level 8 and 7). kpi is in the yellow category, ranging from 4 and 7 levels. from those result, all the kpi have fulfilled the target so the kpi does not need to be repaired. however, it is necessary to increase the performance for the kpi which are in the yellow category where it approaches the red category. 14 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 7. scoring system omax for perspective make cv. licm kpi. no. mr-1 mr-2 mre-1 mre-2 mf-1 mc-1 ma-1 ma-2 ma-3 ma-4 ma-5 criteria performance 1.790 93.48 99.33 99.24 92.83 98.65 91.59 95.91 95.65 97.83 97.17 l e v e l 10 0.780 96.60 100.00 99.99 94.60 99.99 94.45 99.00 99.99 99.00 99.50 very good 9 1.031 95.77 99.57 99.65 93.77 99,37 93.62 98.17 96.60 98.67 98.67 good 8 1.282 94.97 99.14 99.31 92.97 98.74 92.82 97.37 96.21 98.34 97.87 7 1.533 94.22 98.81 98.97 92.22 98.12 92.07 96.62 95.40 98.01 97.12 6 1.784 93.55 98.34 98.63 91.55 97.49 91.40 95.95 95.15 97.67 96.45 5 2.035 93.05 97.88 98.29 91.05 96.87 90.90 95.45 94.90 97.34 96.15 average 4 2.285 92.65 97.41 97.94 91.20 96.24 90.16 93.70 94.65 97.00 96.00 3 3.130 90.86 94.31 95.70 87.95 92.43 88.15 91.53 93.24 95.75 94.63 2 3.975 89.07 91.21 93.46 84.70 88.62 86.14 89.35 91.82 94.50 94.55 poor 1 4.821 87.29 88.11 91.32 81.45 84.81 84.13 87.18 90.41 93.25 94.48 0 5.666 85.50 85.00 88.99 78.20 80.99 82.12 85.00 88.99 92.00 90.50 very poor level 6 6 8 8 8 8 6 6 7 6 7 weight 0.800 0.200 0.750 0.250 1 1 0.447 0.274 0.147 0.093 0.039 value 4.800 1.200 6.000 2.000 8 8 2.682 1.644 1.029 0.558 0.273 sources: primary data (2017) the omax scoring system value for making perspective ratings in cv licm are 11 kpi. 4 kpi are in the green category while the rest is in the yellow category. the kpi in the yellow category needs to be remedied to improve performance. table 8. scoring system omax for perspective delivery cv. licm kpi. no. dr-1 dr-2 dr-3 dr-4 dr-5 dr-6 dr-7 dr-8 criteria performance 98.05 96.26 95.93 94.83 97.26 95.16 97.02 0.031 l e v e l 10 100.00 98.15 98.33 96.13 99.01 95.50 98.18 0.034 very good 9 99.17 97.32 97.50 95.60 98.18 96.03 97.35 0.033 good 8 98.37 96.52 96.70 95.06 97.38 95.83 96.55 0.031 7 97.62 95.77 95.95 94.52 96.63 95.29 95.80 0.030 6 96.95 95.10 95.28 93.99 95.96 94.75 95.13 0.029 5 96.45 94.60 94.78 93.46 95.46 94.21 94.63 0.027 average 4 96.28 94.11 94.99 92.92 95.15 93.66 93.69 0.026 3 94.71 89.31 93.97 91.22 90.80 92.12 88.99 0.022 2 93.14 84.51 92.95 89.52 86.44 90.58 84.29 0.017 poor 1 93.69 79.71 91.93 87.82 82.09 89.04 79.60 0.013 0 92.15 74.90 90.90 86.12 77.73 86.12 74.90 0.010 very poor level 8 8 7 8 8 7 9 8 weight 0.328 0.206 0.148 0.122 0.086 0.052 0.036 0.022 value 2.624 1.648 1.036 0.976 0.688 0.364 0.324 0.176 sources : primary data (2017) moreover, the omax scoring system value for delivery perspective in cv licm are 8 kpi. 6 kpi are in the green category while the rest are in the yellow category. all the kpi do not need to be repaired because it has met the target. 15 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 table 9 scoring system omax for perspective return cv licm kpi. no. rr-1 rre-1 rre-2 rre-3 rre-4 rre-5 rre-6 rre-7 rre-8 criteria performance 4.32 95.50 99.00 98.33 94.16 95.58 96.58 0.011 0.07 l e v e l 10 4.00 96.50 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.03 very good 9 4.10 96.31 99.68 99.58 98.50 98.75 98.83 0.009 0.04 good 8 4.20 95.11 99.36 99.16 97.00 97.50 97.66 0.010 0.05 7 4.30 95.17 99.04 98.74 96.50 96.25 96.50 0.011 0.06 6 4.40 95.22 98.72 98.32 94.00 95.00 95.33 0.012 0.07 5 4.50 95.28 98.40 97.90 93.50 93.75 94.16 0.013 0.08 average 4 4.60 95.33 98.08 96.80 92.50 92.50 93.00 0.014 0.10 3 4.90 94.12 96.06 95.10 88.38 88.12 89.75 0.016 0.12 2 5.20 91.58 94.04 93.40 86.25 83.75 86.50 0.018 0.13 poor 1 5.50 90.54 90.71 91.70 83.13 79.37 83.25 0.020 0.14 0 5.70 90.50 90.00 90.00 80.00 75.00 80.00 0.021 0.16 very poor level 7 8 7 6 6 6 7 7 6 weight 1 0.087 0.061 0.041 0.207 0.166 0.021 0.118 0.299 value 7 0.696 0.427 0.246 1.242 0.996 0.147 0.826 1.794 sources : primary data (2017) based on table 9, the omax scoring system value for sources return in cv licm are 8 kpi. there is only 1 kpi which is in the green category (level 8) and 8 kpi which in the yellow category, but ranging from 6 and 7 levels. all the kpi do not need to be repaired because it has met the target. based on tables 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 for omax analysis above, a perspective analysis is obtained which is the core process as shown in figure 2. figure 2 shows that the source perspective has a relatively small weight of 5,625, then the return and make perspectives have relatively equal weights and include small criteria, which has a weight of 6.66 and 6.90. the source perspective needs to be increased in weight. the source perspective is considered important because the company always wants to maximize supplier capabilities. the source perspective is closely related to the return perspective in terms of standardization of raw materials from suppliers and a make perspective regarding the process of making raw materials into the company's main products. therefore, improving performance in the perspective of the source for the company is very important. therefore, improving performance on the source perspective, including the return perspective and make perspective for companies is very important in making rice products. figure 2. perspective weights comparison of suppliers performance evaluation then, after analyzing the perspective, then based on the omax analysis above the performance assessment is carried out for dimensional subcriteria. performance appraisal for the dimension subcriteria is shown in table 10 below. in essence, all the dimension sub-criteria are not at the red level (below level 3) which is a poor criterion and must be corrected immediately. the average dimension sub-criteria of the perspective performance are in green, which means that it is very good, and most of them are still in yellow, which means they are on the average criteria. 16 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table. 10. performance dimensions perspective dimension code performance indicator total weights plan pre-2 planning identifies the raw material specifications 2 7 pf-4 planning to procure company rice products 7 sources sr-1 disability of raw materials from suppliers 7 7 sr-3 reliability in the delivery of raw materials 6 sre-1 raw material lead time 6 sf-1 availability of raw materials from suppliers 4 sc-1 cost of ordering raw materials from suppliers 4 sa-1 daily supply of raw materials for rice from suppliers 5 sa-2 payment of raw material for rice to suppliers 5 make mr-1 errors in packing raw materials from suppliers 7 6 mr-2 amount of defective raw material from suppliers 6 ma-1 the average length of life of the tool in the company 6 ma-2 monthly company needs 6 ma-3 company inventory level data 7 ma-4 processed raw materials from suppliers to products 6 ma-5 processing data on raw materials and products 7 return rr-1 level of complaint to the supplier 8 7 rre-2 complaint report 7 rre-3 checking damaged raw materials 6 rre-4 repair of damaged raw materials 6 rre-5 created rules for each process 6 rre-6 checking raw material samples 7 rre-7 checking the quality of raw material 7 rre-8 results of checking raw materials 6 delivery dr-3 quality standards for raw materials 2 7 dr-6 delivery pass for suppliers 7 sources: primary data (2017) table 10 shows that the subcriteria (dimensions) for perspective return have 8 yellow dimensions, but are still in the good criteria with weights between 6 and 7. performance evaluation for perspectives which are at the average level is the same as the study of surjana et al. (2013) and ramlan & qiang (2014). likewise for the make perspective subcriteria which has 7 yellow dimensions, but it has a weight between 6 and 7 so it is still critically good. in relation to figure 2 above there is a difference between the criteria from the perspective of make and this dimension subcategory is caused by different evaluations by respondents when they assess the criteria and subcriteria weights. for example, a respondent considered that the sub-criteria of "errors in packing raw materials from suppliers" from the perspective criteria make did not affect other subcriteria. the perspective dimensions that are at least yellow because they are dominated by green are the dimensions of the plan and delivery perspective. while the dimensions from the perspective of the source have the most yellow dimensions as many as 7 dimensions. from these 7 dimensions, there is 1 dimension that has a weight of 7 and 2 dimensions weighing 6. but there are 2 dimensions that have a weight of 5 that are on the average criteria and 2 dimensions which have a weight of 4 approaching the poor category. therefore, 4 dimensions, i.e. “cost of ordering raw materials from suppliers”, “availability of raw materials from suppliers”, “a daily supply of raw materials for rice from suppliers”, and “payment of raw material for rice to suppliers”. the four dimensions must be immediately improved by the company. because these four dimensions are most important regarding the evaluation of sources of raw materials and financing related to increasing supplier performance. traffic light system analysis on the relationship performance of company and supplier the next measurement after conducting the omax weighting on five scor perspectives is tls. tls analysis is used to measure the overall rice supply chain performance. the result of the analysis as in table 11 as follows: 17 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 tabel 11. traffic light system rice supply chain performance on supplier network phase cv. lintas indo comodity mandiri perspective (a) dimension (b) kpi value value x b (c) a x c (d) plan (0.453) reliability (0.524) pr-1 8 8.00 4.19 3.62 pr-2 8 responsibility (0.233) pre-1 8 7.83 1.85 pre-2 7 flexibility (0.079) pf-1 8 8.20 0.65 pf-2 9 pf-3 7 pf-4 9 asset (0.164) pa -1 8 8 1.32 sources (0.248) reliability (0.391) sr-1 7 7.15 2.80 1.56 sr-2 8 sr-3 6 responsibility (0.254) sre-1 6 6.00 1.52 flexibility (0.146) sf -1 4 4.00 0.58 cost (0.052) sc -1 4 4.00 0.61 asset (0.157) sa -1 5 5.00 0.79 sa-2 5 make (0.156) reliability (0.451) mr-1 6 6.00 2.71 1.08 mr-2 6 responsibility (0.250) mre-1 8 8.00 2.00 mre-2 8 flexibility (0.148) mf-1 8 8.00 1.18 cost (0.068) mc -1 8 8.00 0.54 asset (0.084) ma -1 6 6.19 0.52 ma-2 6 ma-3 7 ma-4 6 ma-5 7 deliver (0.052) reliability (1) dr-1 8 7.84 7.84 0.41 dr-2 8 dr-3 7 dr-4 8 dr-5 8 dr-6 7 dr-7 9 dr-8 8 return (0.090) reliability (0.600) rr -1 7 7.00 4.20 0.61 responsibility (0.400) rre -1 8 6.37 2.54 rre-2 7 rre-3 6 rre-4 6 rre-5 6 rre-6 7 rre-7 7 rre-8 6 total index value 7.28 sources: primary data (2017) 18 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research based on table 11, can be said: first, from the total of 45 kpi, not a single kpi is found below the standard, i.e. the red category. from this result, the company can continue the cooperation with the suppliers because the achievement of the result of the performance is satisfactory. second, 26 kpi is in the yellow category which indicates a medium level of company’s performance. based on the tls, the total index value is 7.28 in the yellow category. overall, the kpi has not achieved the expected performance, although the result is close to the pre-determined target. thus, the management must be cautious about the possibility of performance degradation and there must be continuous improvement of performance. managerial implications the rice supply chain analysis by using scor and ahp, omax, and tls show the total index value of 7.28. this result is the overall company performance and relation with the suppliers. the total index value of 7.28 is categorized as the performance is in the achievement of a satisfactory relationship. therefore, there is no significant obstacle for cv licm. however, the performance cannot be said to be optimal and effective because it has several indications as follows: first, the partnership has not been fully formed which means that the partnership from upstream, i.e. farmers, to downstream, i.e. riceindustry companies, have not been fully established in the rice supply chain. second, cv licm only establishes a contractual partnership with suppliers to get the raw materials in the rice supply chain. this formal contract is a form of mutually beneficially binding agreement, and it is a formal relationship between the company and suppliers. it is expected that the impact can be felt all the way from the top (the suppliers) to the bottom (the crop farmers). therefore, the patterns of supply chain management are determined by the company’s business strategy, cv licm. in terms of a formal partnership, it only happens between the company and the supplier of tier-3. meanwhile, the informal partnership only happens in between supplier of tier3 and other previous suppliers. it is in line with the descriptive analysis on the mapping of the rice supply chain structure where although the flow in this rice supply chain is smooth, the rice supply chain cannot be said to be effective. so, it obstructs activities related to the rice supply chain. these obstacles generally occur in the following matters: first, the cost of transporting rice is quite high because it tends to have complicated and long-term flow pattern of raw materials. the three rice production centers in south sumatra are located far enough from cv licm, such as banyuasin where the flow pattern of rice raw material is conducted through river and land routes. this condition will affect the transportation cost in transporting the raw materials to the company. second, the flow of information distribution in the rice supply chain is less smooth. the flow of information is only smooth between the company and supplier so that the farmers cannot understand for sure that their rice is processed and turned into highquality premium brand namely selancar by cv licm. conclusion there are three forms of the flow network in the rice supply chain in which the institution and government are less involved. in this case, the government intervention is needed in order to overcome the farmers’ problem after their harvest. therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the intervention from institutions, government, both kud and bp3k at the sub-district level, and the departments of agriculture in the regional and provincial levels. the total index value is 7.28 based on the analysis of scor & ahp, omax, and tls in the rice supply chain performance. this condition reflects the satisfactory achievement of a relationship between the company and the supplier. however, it cannot be said to be optimal or effective because the supply chain partnership has not been formed thoroughly. the farmers are the most vulnerable supply chain players due to the limited flow of information. therefore, appropriate solutions are required to enable farmers in accessing the market information. 19 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 references adiyatna, h., & hasibuan, s. 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(2006). performance measurement in agrifood supply chain networks: an overview. in wijnands, huirne & van kooten (ed.). quantifying the agrifood supply chain/ ondersteijn. dordrecht: springer/ kluwer. https://dx.doi.org/10.181 https://dx.doi.org/10.181 pengantar juli 2016.pmd eni karsiningsih program studi agribisnis, universitas bangka belitung eni_karsiningsih@yahoo.co.id analisis kelayakan finansial dan strategi pengembangan teh gaharu di kabupaten bangka tengah (studi kasus: teh gaharu “aqilla” gapoktan alam jaya lestari) abstract this study aims to analyze feasibility of agarwood tea business, to describe marketing strategies of agarwood tea, and to analyze the business development strategy of agarwood tea “aqilla” gapoktan alam jaya lestari in lubuk pabrik village, central bangka regency. the method used was a case study. research shows that agarwood tea business conducted by gapoktan alam jaya lestari is feasible with a value of npv rp. 585,122,261; net b/c worth 3.6, and irr worth 40.73%, and the payback period for 4 years and 11 months 8 days. market penetration strategy used by gapoktan alam jaya lestari is slow penetration strategy. agarwood tea business development strategies that should be done is an aggressive strategy (growth oriented strategy) by improving service, expanding the marketing network, improving the quality and quantity of agarwood tea, adding a variety of flavors, obtaining additional capital, and receiving guidance and assistance from the local government. keywordskeywordskeywordskeywordskeywords: agarwood tea, development, strategy intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis kelayakan usaha teh gaharu, mengetahui strategi pemasaran teh gaharu, dan menganalisis strategi pengembangan usaha teh gaharu “aqilla” gapoktan alam jaya lestari di desa lubuk pabrik kabupaten bangka tengah. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah studi kasus. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa usaha teh gaharu yang dilakukan oleh gapoktan alam jaya lestari layak dilakukan dengan nilai npv rp585.122.261; net b/c sebesar 3,6; irr sebesar 40,73%, dan paybackperiod selama 4 tahun 11 bulan 8 hari. strategi penetrasi pasar yang digunakan gapoktan alam jaya lestari agar teh gaharu mudah masuk pasar adalah strategi slow penetration. strategi pengembangan usaha teh gaharu yang harus dilakukan adalah strategi agresif (growth oriented strategy) dengan cara meningkatkan pelayanan, memperluas jaringan pemasaran, meningkatkan kualiatas dan kuantitas teh gaharu, menambah variasi rasa, mendapat tambahan modal, dan mendapat pembinaan dan pendampingan dari pemerintah daerah. kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: kelayakan, strategi, teh gaharu pendahuluan gaharu merupakan salah satu jenis hutan bukan kayu unggulan kabupaten bangka tengah yang memiliki nilai ekonomi tinggi. tanaman gaharu sangat potensial untuk dikembangkan di kabupaten bangka tengah sehingga kabupaten ini ditetapkan sebagai lokasi pengembangan klaster gaharu nasional berdasarkan surat keputusan direktur jendral rehabilitasi dan perhutanan sosial kementerian kehutanan nomor: sk. 22/v-bps/2010. berdasarkan data dinas perkebunan dan kehutanan doi:10.18196/agr.2235 144 jurnal agraris kabupaten bangka tengah pada tahun 2014, jumlah pohon gaharu yang tersebar di berbagai desa yang ada di kabupaten bangka tengah adalah 484.141 pohon. gaharu termasuk salah satu komoditi mewah yang sangat menjanjikan dalam dunia bisnis. gubal gaharu merupakan suatu substansi aromatik bewarna coklat muda, coklat tua dan coklat kehitaman sampai hitam yang terbentuk pada batang kayu penghasil gaharu (aquilaria malaccensis lamk), sebagai respon pertahanan diri terhadap serangan pathogen (santoso, et al., 2007). gubal gaharu juga dimanfaatkan untuk keperluan industri, parfum, komestik, dupa, kemenyan dan bahan baku obat-obatan. selain gubal gaharu, penelitian berkembang pada daun gaharu karena diduga mengandung senyawa metabolit sekunder yang lebih tinggi akibat meningkatnya proses metabolisme pohon gaharu yang terinfeksi jamur. melalui proses metabolisme, senyawa-senyawa tersebut terdistribusi ke bagian pohon lain terutama daun. hal ini menyebabkan daun gaharu memiliki potensi sebagai antioksidan (nasution et. al. 2015). hal ini diperkuat oleh silaban (2014) yang menyatakan bahwa ekstrak daun gaharu (a. malaccensis lamk)) mengandung senyawa metabolit sekunder alkaloid, flavonoid, terpenoid, steroid, dan saponin serta berpotensi sebagai antioksidan dengan nilai konsentrasi penghambatan (ic50) 50 ppm. masa tunggu panen gubalgaharu tergolong lama yaitu berkisar 3-4 tahun setelah terinfeksi jamur. semetara itu, daun gaharu yang berusia 1,5 – 3 tahun sangat potensial untuk dijadikan bahan baku dalam pembuatan teh gaharu dan bernilai ekonomi tinggi. oleh karena itu, untuk menambah penghasilan sebelum panen gubal gaharu, gabungan kelompok tani (gapoktan) alam jaya lestari melakukan pengolahan daun gaharu menjadi teh gaharu. akan tetapi, gapoktan masih menghadapi banyak kendala untuk mengembangkan usaha teh daun gaharu, seperti modal yang terbatas sehingga produksi tidak kontinyu, peralatan yang masih sederhana sehingga permintaan teh gaharu ke gapoktan yang tinggi tidak dapat dipenuhi, serta pangsa pasar dan pemasaran yang terbatas karena minimnya upaya promosi. oleh karena itu diperlukan kajian untuk menganalisis kelayakan usaha teh gaharu yang dikembangkan gapoktan, mendeskripsikan strategi pemasaran teh gaharu yang dilaksanakan gapoktan, dan menganalisis strategi pengembangan usaha teh gaharu “aqilla” gapoktan alam jaya lestari. metode penelitian metode yang digunakan adalah metode studi kasus, yaitu memusatkan perhatian pada suatu kasus secara intensif dan mendetail. subjek yang diselidiki terdiri atas satu unit yang dipandang sebagai kasus. oleh karena itu bersifat mendalam dan mendetail. kasusnya dapat terbatas pada satu orang, satu lembaga, satu keluarga, satu peristiwa, satu desa ataupun satu kelompok manusia dan kelompok objek lain yang terbatas yang dipandang sebagai kesatuan (wirartha, 2006). penelitian ini difokuskan pada usaha teh gaharu merk aqilla pada gapoktan alam jaya lestari kabupaten bangka tengah. analisis kelayakan usaha teh gaharu akan dianalisis mengunakan kriteria-kriteria sebagai berikut: a) net present value (npv) net present value (npv) yaitu nilai saat ini yang mencerminkan nilai keuntungan yang diperoleh selama jangka waktu pengusahaan dengan memperhitungkan nilai waktu dari uang. menurut gittinger (2008) npv menggunakan rumus: keterangan: bt = manfaat yang diperoleh tiap tahun ct = biaya yang dikeluarkan tiap tahun t = periode produksi n = jumlah periode produksi i = tingkat suku bunga (%) kriteria: npv > 0 : proyek menguntungkan dan dapat dilaksanakan npv = 0 : proyek tidak untung dan tidak rugi (terserah pelaksana proyek) npv < 0 : proyek merugikan, dan tidak dapat b) net b/c ratio menurut kadariah (2002), net b/c ratio adalah perbandingan antara present value dari net benefit yang positif dengan present value dari net benefit yang negatif (net cost). rumusnya adalah: 145 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 kriteria : net b/c > 1 : proyek menguntungkan dan dapat dilaksanakan net b/c < 1 : proyek tidak layak untuk dilaksanakan c) internal rate of return (irr) internal rate of return adalah nilai tingkat diskonto yang membuat npv proyek sama dengan nol. sucipto (2010) dalam wuysang (2015), irr dihitung dengan rumus: keterangan: i 1 = adalah tingkat discout rate yang menghasilkan npv 1 i 2 = adalah tingkat discout rate yang menghasilkan npv 2 penilaian kelayakan finansial berdasarkan irr yaitu: irr > tingkat bunga, maka usulan proyek diterima irr < tingkat suku bunga, maka usulan proyek ditolak d) payback period (pp) payback period (pp) adalah jangka waktu tertentu yang menunjukkan terjadinya arus penerimaan yang secara kumulatif sama dengan jumlah investasi dalam bentuk present value. adapun strategi pemasaran teh gaharu di kabupaten bangka tengah dapat dijelaskan secara deskriptif, sedangkan strategi pengembangan teh gaharu dianalisis menggunakan analisis swot. rangkuti (2006) menjelaskan bahwa analisis swot adalah identifikasi berbagai faktor secara sistematis untuk merumuskan strategi perusahaan. adapun tahapan analisis swot adalah sebagai berikut. 1. tahapan pengambilan data, yaitu evaluasi faktor internal dan eksternal pada tahap ini dilakukan identifikasi faktor internal dan eksternal. identifikasi faktor internal mencakup kekuatan (strength) dan kelemahan (weakness). sementara identifikasi faktor eksternal mencakup faktor peluang (opportunity) dan tantangan (threath) yang berasal dari luar usaha seperti kompetitor, peran serta pemerintah, kondisi sosial, dan data faktor lainnya. 2. tahapan analisis yaitu pembuatan matriks internal ekstrnal dan matriks swot pendekatan kualitatif matrik swot dari hasil identifikasi faktor internal dan eksternal dilakukan analisis kedalam matrik swot yang menggambarkan keterkaitan satu sama lain. (a) strategi mengoptimalkan kekuatan untuk memanfaatkan peluang (b) strategi menggunakan kekuatan untuk mencegah dan mengatasi ancaman/tantangan (c) strategi mengurangi kelemahan untuk memanfaatkan peluang (d) strategi mengurangi kelemahan untuk mencegah/ mengatasi ancaman/tantangan. 3. tahapan pengambilan keputusan pada tahap ini skoring dan bobot faktor internal dan eksternal dilakukan untuk mengetahui kondisi usaha yang diteliti dan prioritas strategi yang akan dilaksanakan untuk pengembangan usaha tersebut.   y  x  i iii  iii  ii gambar 3. kuadran analisis swot pearce dan robinson 1988 dalam rangkuti (2006) kuadran i : merupakan situasi yang sangat menguntungkan. usaha tersebut memiliki peluang dan kekuatan sehingga dapat memanfaatkan peluang yang ada. strategi yang harus diterapkan dalam kondisi ini adalah mendukung kebijakan pertumbuhan yang agresif (growth oriented strategy). kuadran ii : meskipun menghadapi berbagai ancaman, usaha ini masih memiliki peluang dari segi internal. strategi yang harus diterapkan adalah menggunakan kekuatan untuk memanfaatkan peluang jangka 146 jurnal agraris panjang. rekomendasi strategis yang diberikan adalah ubah strategi, artinya disarankan untuk mengubah strategi sebelumnya. kuadran iii : usaha tersebut mempunyai peluang yang sangat besar, tetapi di lain pihak usaha menghadapi beberapa kendala/kelemahan internal. fokus strategi usaha ini adalah meminimalkan masalah-masalah internal. rekomendasi strategis yang diberikan adalah strategi bertahan, artinya kondisi internal organisasi yang lemah yang dihadapkan pada situasi eksternal yang sulit menyebabkan perusahaan berada pada pilihan dilematis. kuadran iv : merupakan situasi yang sangat tidak menguntungkan, usaha tersebut menghadapi berbagai ancaman dan kelemahan internal. rekomendasi strategi yang diberikan adalah diversifikasi strategi artinya organisasi dalam kondisi mantap namun menghadapi sejumlah tantangan berat. hasil dan pembahasan proses pengolahan teh gaharu lokasi pengolahan teh gaharu berada di desa lubuk pabrik kecamatan lubuk besar kabupaten bangka tengah provinsi kepulauan bangka belitung. salah satu ciri khas desa ini adalah memiliki slogan “begaharu” karena desa ini memiliki banyak pohon gaharu. hal ini menjadi salah satu pendorong gapoktan alam jaya lestari untuk mengembangkan produk olahan teh gaharu dengan merk dagang aqilla karena ketersediaan bahan baku yang melimpah. usaha pembuatan teh gaharu ini sudah dijalankan oleh gapoktan alam jaya lestari sejak tahun 2011. proses pengolahan teh gaharu dapat dilakukan melalui beberapa tahap berikut. 1. pemetikan daun gaharu daun gaharu yang biasa dijadikan sebagai bahan baku pembuatan teh gaharu oleh gapoktan alam jaya lestari adalah daun yang berasal dari pohon gaharu yang telah berusia 13 bulan sampai 36 bulan. hal ini dilakukan karena pohon gaharu belum terlalu besar dan tinggi sehingga lebih mudah untuk diambil daunnya. disamping itu, pohon gaharu juga belum diinokulasi. hal ini sejalan dengan hasil penelitian nasution et. al (2015) yang menyatakan bahwa ekstrak etanol daun gaharu simplisia induksi dan non-induksi memiliki aktivitas antioksidan yang kuat, sehingga teh gaharu yang dihasilkan akan memberikan manfaat untuk kesehatan. menurut silaban (2014), ekstrak daun gaharu (a. malaccensis lamk) mengandung senyawa metabolit sekunder alkaloid, flavonoid, terpenoid, steroid, dan saponin serta berpotensi sebagai antioksidan. selain itu, gapoktan alam jaya lestari biasanya memanfaatkan daun gaharu yang tidak terlalu muda dan tidak juga terlalu tua untuk membuat teh gaharu. hal ini sejalan dengan hasil penelitian andriana et. al. (2015) yang menyatakan bahwa tingkat kesukaan masyarakat terhadap teh gaharu (aquilaria malaccensis lamk) berada pada skala 3-4 yaitu cukup suka hingga suka, dimana konsumen lebih menyukai teh dari daun gaharu yang berada pada posisi tengah pada batang pohon gaharu. 2. penyortiran daun yang sudah dipetik akan disortir guna mendapatkan kualitas daun gaharu yang baik. tujuan penyortiran adalah untuk memisahkan daun tua dan daun muda. daun gaharu yang digunakan dalam proses pembuatan teh gaharu adalah daun yang masih muda tapi bukan pucuk karena daun gaharu yang masih muda memiliki antioksidan lebih tinggi dibandingkan daun yang tua. biasanya untuk membuat teh gaharu gapoktan alam jaya lestari mendapatkan bahan baku dari kelompok petani gaharu itu sendiri dengan harga rp5.000 per kg. 3. pengeringan pengeringan ini dilakukan untuk menyusutkan kadar air yang terdapat pada daun basah dengan syarat kering kadar air mencapai 4%. pengeringan ini dilakukan diruang tertutup dengan menggunakan mesin pengering agar terjaga kesterilannya. lebih lanjut andrina et. al. (2015) menyatakan bahwa daun gaharu pada bagian tengah memiliki nilai kadar air dan kadar tanin yang lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan daun gaharu bagian pucuk maupun bawah batang. tanin adalah senyawa yang menyebabkan rasa sepat pada teh daun gaharu. selain itu, teh daun gaharu dengan kadar air dan kadar tanin yang tinggi memiliki nilai kesukaan yang lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan teh dengan kadar air dan kadar 147 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tanin yang lebih rendah. 4. pencacahan proses pencacahan dilakukan menggunakan mesin pencacah guna menghaluskan daun gaharu yang telah dikeringkan. hasil dari pencacahan tersebut berupa bubuk halus yang berwarna coklat kehijauan. simatupang et. al. (2015) menyatakan bahwa tingkat kesukaan masyarakat terhadap teh daun gaharu yang dihaluskan lebih tinggi dibandingkan teh gaharu yang dipotong-potong dan teh gaharu yang utuh baik dengan masa simpan 0 bulan maupun masa simpan 2 bulan. disamping itu, kandungan antioksidan teh gaharu yang dihaluskan lebih tinggi dibandingkan teh gaharu yang dipottong-potong dan utuh. 5. pengemasan setelah didapatkan hasil dari pencacahan berupa bubuk berwarna coklat kehijauan, bubuk siap dimasukkan kedalam kantung teh celup (kemasan osmofilter). setelah itu dilakukan pemasangan tali menggunakan mesin continue sealer sebagai pegangan untuk teh celup daun gaharu. kemudian teh gaharu dimasukkan kedalam kemasan aluminium foil dan dikemas dalam kotak yang telah di beri label. 6. pemasaran produk teh gaharu yang telah dikemas akan dipasarkan ke dalam dan ke luar kabupaten bangka tengah bahkan sampai ke luar provinsi kepuluan bangka belitung seperti jakarta. guna memenuhi permintaan di provinsi kepualauan bangka belitung gapoktan alam jaya lestari menyediakan teh gaharu tersebut di stokist dan di gerai khusus penjualan produk-produk unggulan kabupaten bangka tengah. selain itu, pemasaran teh gaharu juga dibantu oleh dinas perkebunan dan kehutanan kabupaten bangka tengah serta dinas perindustrian perdagangan dan koperasi kabupaten bangka tengah, melalui berbagai pameran. salah satu bentuk dukungan pemerintah kabupaten bangka tengah terhadap pengembangan teh gaharu ini adalah dengan menjadikannya sebagai salah satu minuman pengganti teh dalam beberapa acara penting yang diselenggarakan oleh pemerintah daerah kabupaten bangka tengah. penelitian ginting et. al. (2015) menunjukkan bahwa tingkat kesukaan masyarakat terhadap teh gaharu cukup suka dibandingkan teh daun sirsak baik dengan waktu simpan 0 bulan maupun waktu simpan 2 bulan. keuntungan usaha teh gaharu berdasarkan perhitungan biaya dan penerimaan, usaha teh gaharu memberikan keuntungan yang tidak seberapa, yakni kurang dari rp500 ribu per bulan. rendahnya keuntungan disebabkan tingginya biaya, khususnya untuk biaya variabel yang menyerap 73% dari nilai produk. namun, secara sosial usaha ini membuka no nama alat volume (unit) harga satuan (rp) total harga (rp) lama pemakaian (th) nilai penyusutan (rp/bln) 1 mesin pengering 1 30.000.000 30.000.000 5 166.666 2 mesin pencacah 1 20.000.000 20.000.000 5 133.333 3 mesin pengukur kadar air 1 5.000.000 5.000.000 5 13.333 4 mesin continue sealer 1 6.000.000 6.000.000 3 5.555 5 gedung produksi 1 20.000.000 20.000.000 10 11.666 6 gedung steril 1 25.000.000 25.000.000 10 11.666 7 ember kecil 4 15.000 60.000 2 619 8 ember besar 1 50.000 50.000 2 2.062 9 baskom 3 12.000 36.000 2 493 10 tabung gas 1 600.000 600.000 5 2.500 11 kompor gas 1 300.000 300.000 3 3.472 jumlah 107.046.000 351.365 tabel 1. rata-rata biaya tetap yang dikeluarkan dalam produksi teh gaharu per bulan 148 jurnal agraris kesempatan kerja yang baik, yakni mampu menyerap 5 orang tenaga kerja dengan upah rp800 ribu per tenaga kerja per bulan. walaupun biaya tetap usaha teh gaharu yang diperhitungkan dari penyusutan alat, tidak terlalu besar, sekitar rp350 ribu per bulan; usaha ini membutuhkan investasi yang cukup besar yaitu untuk pembelian mesin pengering senilai rp50 juta dan mesin pencacah senilai rp30 juta. oleh karena itu, biaya tetap yang paling besar adalah biaya penyusutan mesin pengering rp167 ribu dan mesin pencacah rp133 ribu (tabel 1). di samping membutuhkan investasi yang cukup besar, produksi teh gaharu membutuhkan dana operasional untuk biaya variabel yang cukup besar. sebagian besar dana operasional digunakan untuk membayar tenaga kerja sebesar 4 juta rupiah dan biaya kemasan yang secara keseluruhan mencapai 2, 3 juta rupiah (tabel2). dengan demikian, secara keseluruhan biaya yang dibutuhkan untuk proses produksi teh gaharu mencapai 7,6 juta rupiah (tabel 3). biaya tersebut digunakan untuk mengolah 80 kilogram daun gaharu untuk menghasilkan 800 kemasan teh gaharu. tabel 3. rata-rata total biaya produksi teh gaharu no uraian jumlah biaya yang dikeluarkan (rp/bulan) 1 biaya tetap 351.365 2 biaya variabel 7.256.000 total biaya 7.607.365 penerimaan teh gaharu diperoleh dari hasil kali antara jumlah produksi teh gaharu (kotak) dengan harga jual teh gaharu (rp/kotak). dalam satu kali proses produksi dihasilkan 1 kg bubuk teh gaharu, yang dapat dikemas menjadi 100 kotak, yang setiap kotaknya berisi 10 kantong teh celup siap konsumsi. harga jual teh gaharu per kemasan 10 ribu rupiah, sehingga penerimanaan setiap kali proses produksi sebesar 1 juta rupiah. dala satu bulan gapoktan alam jaya lestari melakukan 8 kali proses produksi, sehingga penerimaan gapoktan dari penjualan teh gaharu sebesar 8 juta per bulan (tabel 4). tabel 4. rata-rata total penerimaan teh gaharu selama satu bul an no uraian nilai 1 jumlah produksi per proses (kemasan) 100 2 harga per kotak (rupiah) 10.000 3 total penerimaan dalam satu kali produksi 1.000.000 4 total penerimaan dalam satu bulan 8.000.000 keuntungan yang diperoleh tergolong kecil yaitu hanya sebesar rp392.635 per bulan. hal ini dikarenakan menurunnya frekuensi produksi dari 12 kali per bulan menjadi 8 kali per bulan. petani yang tergabung dalam gapoktan alam jaya lestari memiliki pekerjaan utama di samping melakukan pengolahan teh gaharu. adanya kendala waktu dan kesibukan serta kebutuhan membuat mereka terkadang memiliki waktu yang terbatas dalam mengolah teh gaharu. kendala modal juga menjadi faktor utama yang menghambat produksi teh gaharu. biaya produksi yang tinggi merupakan suatu kendala yang harus mereka atasi dengan mencoba melakukan produksi seefisien mungkin. analisis finansial usaha teh gaharu no bahan volume satuan harga satuan (rp) jumlah (rp)/bulan 1 tenaga kerja 5 orang 800.000 4.000.000 2 kotak kemasan teh gaharu 800 lembar 1.750 1.400.000 3 kemasan metalize 800 kantong 400 320.000 4 kemasan osmofilter 8.000 kantong 50 400.000 5 tali teh celup 8.000 tali 25 200.000 6 gantungan teh celup 8.000 lembar 65 520.000 7 daun gaharu 80 kg 5.000 400.000 8 plastik besar 8 kantong 2.000 16.000 jumlah 7.256.000 tabel 2. rata-rata biaya variabel yang digunakan dalam produksi teh gaharu per bulan 149 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tingkat suku bunga dihitung berdasarkan tingkat suku bunga bank rakyat indonesia yang berlaku pada saat penelitian berlangsung yaitu 14% per tahun. berdasarkan analisis finansial usaha teh gaharu layak dilakukan dengan kriteria yang tercantum pada tabel 5. tabel 5. analisis finansial usaha teh gaharu merk aqilla gapoktan alam jaya lestari kabupaten bangka tengah no kriteria hasil keterangan 1. net present value (npv) rp585.122.261 layak 2. net b/c 3,6 layak 3. internal rate of return (irr) 40,73% layak berdasarkan tabel 5 diketahui bahwa usaha teh gaharu yang dilakukan oleh gapoktan alam jaya lestari layak dilakukan. nilai npv sebesar rp585.122.261 menunjukkan bahwa nilai npv yang diperoleh lebih besar dari 0. net b/c sebesar 3,6 artinya keuntungan yang diterima 3,6 kali lipat dibanding biaya yang dikeluarkan. adapun nilai irr sebesar 40,73% menunjukkan bahwa usaha teh gaharu yang dilakukan oleh gapoktan alam jaya letsrari layak diusahakan karena nilai irr 40,73% lebih besar dari tingkat suku bunga pinjaman bank bri sebesar 14% per tahun. sementara itu, payback period, modal usaha yang diinvestasikan dalam usaha teh gaharu tergolong lama yaitu 4 tahun 11 bulan 8 hari. hal ini disebabkan usaha pembuatan teh gaharu oleh gapoktan alam jaya lestari hanya dijadikan sebagai pekerjaan sampingan sehingga fokus pengembangan kurang. strategi penetrasi pasar strategi penetrasi pasar adalah strategi yang dilakukan gapoktan alam jaya lestari untuk memasukkan produk teh gaharu ke pasar. strategi yang digunakan gapoktan alam jaya lestari agar teh gaharu masuk pasar adalah strategi slow penetration. dimana strategi ini dijalankan dengan menetapkan tingkat harga teh gaharu yang rendah yaitu rp10.000/kotak dan tingkat kegiatan promosi yang rendah. harga yang rendah dimaksudkan agar gapoktan alam jaya lestari dapat merangsang pasar dengan menyerap produk dengan cepat, sedangkan di lain pihak gapoktan alam jaya lestari dapat menjaga agar biaya promosinya tetap rendah, sehingga laba bersih yang diperoleh cukup besar. strategi pengembangan teh gaharu analisis swot didasarkan pada logika yang dapat memaksimalkan kekuatan (strength) dan peluang (opportunities), namun secara bersamaan dapat meminimalkan kelemahan (weakness) dan ancaman (threats). jumlah bobot untuk komponen kekuatan adalah 0,85 sedangkan jumlah bobot untuk kelemahan adalah 0,15 berarti jumlah total bobot kekuatan dan kelemahan adalah 1,00. untuk nilai skor kekuatan diperoleh sebesar 3,3 dan nilai skor kelemahan 0,35. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa total skor kekuatan lebih besar dari total skor faktor-faktor strategi internal bobot rating bobot x rating kekuatan : 1. memiliki pirt dan sertifikat halal 0,10 4 0,40 2. harga yang terjangkau 0,10 4 0,40 3. bermanfaat untuk kesehatan 0,15 4 0,60 4. didukung oleh pemerintah kabupaten bangka tengah 0,10 4 0,40 5. salah satu produk unggulan provinsi kepulauan bangka belitung 0,10 4 0,40 6. saluran pemasaran pendek 0,10 3 0,30 7. lokasi dekat dengan penyedia bahan baku 0,10 4 0,40 8. bahan baku berbeda dari teh pada umumnya 0,10 4 0,40 total sub a 0,85 3,30 kelemahan : 1. peralatan yang digunakan masih sederhana 0,02 2 0,04 2. belum bisa bersaing dengan teh lain 0,02 2 0,04 3. produksi tidak continue 0,05 3 0,15 4. belum mempunyai pelanggan tetap 0,03 2 0,06 5. kurangnya minat masyarakat lokal kalangan tengah-bawah 0,03 2 0,06 total sub b 0,15 0,35 total sub a+b 1,00 3,65 tabel 6. ifas produksi teh gaharu di desa lubuk pabrik kecamatan lubuk besar 150 jurnal agraris kelemahan, sehingga diperoleh hasil faktor internal positif tabel 6). jumlah bobot untuk komponen peluang adalah 0,9 sedangkan jumlah bobot untuk ancaman adalah 0,1 berarti jumlah total bobot peluang dan ancaman adalah 1,00. untuk nilai skor peluang diperoleh sebesar 3,6 dan nilai skor ancaman 0,2. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa total skor peluang lebih besar dari total skor ancaman, sehingga hasil faktor eksternal positif (tabel7). gambar 1 menunjukkan bahwa produksi teh gaharu oleh gapoktan alam jaya lestari di desa lubuk pabrik kecamatan lubuk besar kabupaten bangka tengah berada pada kuadran 1 (satu). artinya produksi teh gaharu memiliki kekuatan untuk memperbesar usaha sesuai dengan kemampuan yang ada untuk memperluas pasar dengan menangkap peluang yang ada. strategi ini dikenal pula dengan strategi agresif yaitu strategi yang mendukung kebijakan pertumbuhan yang agresif (growth oriented strategy).   peluang (+1,8) kelemahan (-0,55) kekuatan (+2,9) ancaman (-0,1) 3. strategi turn-around 1. strategi agresif 2. strategi diversifikasi 4. strategi defensif gambar 1. diagram analisis swot strategi yang didapat dalam matriks swot adalah sebagai berikut. 1. strategi so (strength-opportunity) strategi so yang dapat dijadikan alternatif strategi antara lain pelayanan yang memuaskan. pelayanan merupakan sesuatu yang sangat penting dalam proses jual beli. pelayanan itu adalah bagaimana cara kita melayani pelanggan dengan memberikan layanan yang memuaskan bagi pelanggan agar bisa mendapatkan kesan yang baik dari konsumen. konsumen sangat menyukai pelayanan yang ramah tamah dan sopan. 2. strategi wo (weakness-opportunity) strategi wo yang dapat dijadikan alternatif strategi antara lain pembinaan pemerintah dan perluasan jaringan pemasaran a. pembinaan dan pendampingan pemerintah peran dinas perkebunan dan kehutanan kabupaten bangka tengah yaitu melakukan pengawasan, memberi motivasi, melakukan monitoring, memberi masukan, mendengarkan permasalahan, serta mencari solusi dalam permasalahan tersebut; sedangkan dalam pemasaran adalah mempromosikan teh gaharu melalui pameran-pameran baik tingkat kecamatan, kabupaten, provinsi maupun nasional. b. memperluas jaringan pemasaran pemasaran merupakan hal yang sangat penting untuk memasarkan teh gaharu. oleh karena itu gapoktan alam jaya lestari harus meningkatkan pemasarannya baik dalam daerah maupun luar daerah dengan melakukan promosi baik melalui pameran, brosur, melalui media online agar teh gaharu dikenal masyarakat luas. 3. strategi st (strength-threat) strategi st yang dapat dijadikan alternatif strategi antara lain meningkatkan produksi dan menambah tabel 7. efas produksi teh gaharu di desa lubuk pabrik kecamatan lubuk besar faktor-faktor strategi eksternal bobot rating bobot x rating peluang 1. tingginya permintaan teh gaharu baik dari lokal maupun luar bangka belitung 0,30 4 1,2 2. dapat menciptakan lapangan pekerjaan 0,30 4 1,2 3. respon positif dari masyarakat 0,30 4 1,2 total sub a 0,90 3,6 ancaman : 1. adanya persaingan harga dengan usaha teh lainnya 0,10 2 0,2 total 0,10 0,2 total sub a+b 1,00 3,8 151 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 modal. a. meningkatkan kualitas dan kuantitas teh gaharu kualitas teh gaharu itu sendiri perlu ditingkatkan dengan cara menyortir daun yang berkualitas dengan harga yang tinggi. bahan baku untuk produksi teh gaharu melimpah sehingga kuantitas teh gaharu juga perlu ditingkatkan dengan adanya peralatan yang mendukung. b. tambahan modal modal dapat berupa uang maupun peralatan. keterbatasan modal yang didapat dalam pengembangan teh gaharu ini memberikan banyak pengaruh dalam setiap kegiatannya. biaya operasional, pembelian bahan daun gaharu, pemesanan kemasan luar, hingga upah (gaji) para pengelola belum bisa terpenuhi. 4. strategi wt (weakness-threat) strategi wt yang dapat dijadikan alternatif strategi antara lain menambah variasi rasa. rasa teh gaharu harus bervariasi sehingga banyak orang yang lebih menyukai teh gaharu, karena setiap orang mempunyai cita rasa yang berbeda-beda. kesimpulan usaha teh gaharu yang dikembangkan gapoktan alam jaya lestari layak untuk dilanjutkan, mengingat usaha tersebut mempunyai nilai npv rp585.122.261; net b/c sebesar 3,6 ; irr sebesar 40,73%; dan payback period selama 4 tahun 11 bulan 8 hari. strategi penetrasi pasar yang digunakan gapoktan alam jaya lestari menggunakan strategi pasar slow penetration agar teh gaharu mudah masuk pasar. sementara itu, strategi pengembangan usaha yang harus dilakukan adalah strategi agresif (growth oriented strategy) dengan cara meningkatkan pelayanan, memperluas jaringan pemasaran, meningkatkan kualiatas dan kuantitas teh gaharu, menambah variasi rasa, mendapat tambahan modal, dan mendapat pembinaan dan pendampingan dari pemerintah daerah. untuk mendukung implementasi strategi bisnis yang harus dikembangkan gapoktan alam jaya lesttari, terdapat beberpa hal yang dapat dilakukan gapoktan alam jaya lestari, pemerintah dan akademisi. gapokta alam jaya lestari perlu menjaga kontinyuitas produksi, pemerintah menyediakan tempat produksi yang memungkinkan untuk mendapat izin produksi dari bppom, serta akademisi melakukan penelitian tentang tingkat kesukaan masyarakat terhadap teh gaharu merk aqilla produksi gapoktan alam jaya lestari. daftar pustaka andriana, n., batubara, r., & julianti, e. 2015. nilai kesukaan konsumen terhadap teh gaharu (aquilaria malaccansis lamk) berdasarkan letak daun pada batang. peronema forestry science journal 4(4). diakses 16 juni 2016. http://id.portalgaruda.org/ dinas perkebunan dan kehutanan kabupaten bangka tengah. 2015. data jumlah pohon gaharu di kecamatan lubuk besar tahun 2014. dinas perkebunan dan kehutanan kabupaten bangka tengah. ginting, b. m., batubara, r., & ginting, h. 2015. tingkat kesukaan masyarakat terhadap teh daun gaharu (aquilaria mallacensisi lamk) dibandingkan teh lain yang beredar di pasaran. peronema forestry science journal. 4(3). diakses 16 juni 2016. http:// id.portalgaruda.org/. gittinger, j. p. 2008. analisa ekonomi proyek-proyek pertanian. uipress, jakarta. nasution, p. a., batubara, r., & surjanto. 2015. tingkat kekuatan antioksidan dan kesukaan masyarakat terhadap teh daun gaharu (aquilaria malaccensis lamk) berdasarkan pohon induksi dan noninduksi. peronema forestry science journal 4(1). diakses 16 juni 2016 http://download.portalgaruda.org/article.php? article=438192&val=4112. rangkuti, f. 2006. analisis swot teknik membedah kasus bisnis. gramedia pustaka utama, jakarta. santoso, e., agustini, l., sitepu, i. r., & turjaman, m. 2007. efektivitas pembentukan gaharu dan komposisi senyawa resin gaharu pada aquilaria spp. j. penelitian hutan dan konservasi alam 4(6): 543551. silaban, s. 2014. skrining fitokimia dan uji aktivitas antioksidan ekstrak etanol daun gaharu (aquilaria malaccensis lamk). skripsi, universitas sumatera utara. simatupang, j., batubara, r., & julianti, e. tingkat kesukaan konsumen terhadap teh gaharu (aquilaria malaccensis lamk.) berdasarkan bentuk dan ukuran serta kandungan antioksidan. diakses 12 juni 2016. http://jurnal.usu.ac.id/index.php/ pfsj/article/viewfile/13032/ 586. umar, h. 2011. metode penelitian untuk skripsi dan thesis bisnis. rajawali pers, jakarta. wirartha, i. m. 2006. metodologi penelitian sosial ekonomi. andi, yogyakarta. wuysang, j. l., gafur, s., & yurisinthae, e. 2015. analisis finansial usahatani gaharu (aquilaria malaccensis lamk) di kabupaten sanggaul. jurnal social economic of agriculture 4(1): 73-74. diakses 16 juni 2016. http://jurnal.untan.ac.id/index.php/ jsea/ article/view/10134. pengantar juli 2016.pmd muhammad fauzan program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta fauzan.umy@gmail.com pendapatan, risiko, dan efisiensi ekonomi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul abstract this study aims to evaluate the income of shallot farmers, to determine the risk of shallot production, and to examine the level of efficiency of shallot farmers in bantul regency. the primary data used in the study was obtained using structured questionnaire administered to 30 selected farmers. r/c ratio, coefficient of variation, and stochastic frontier production function were used to analyze the data. the result showed that shallot farming in bantul regency was profitable with incomes of rp20,903,711/ha. the level of risks faced by farmers were quite high, it was 7.27%. the average level of technical, allocative and economical efficiency of shallot farmers were: 0.802; 0.889; and 0.929. this result shows that shallot farmers can increase their technical efficiency and allocative efficiency to achieve an economic efficient condition. kkkkkeywordseywordseywordseywordseywords: efficiency, income, risk, shallot intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pendapatan usahatani bawang merah, tingkat risiko usahatani bawang merah, dan tingkat efisiensi usahatani bawang merah di bantul. penelitian mengggunakan data primer hasil survei pada 30 petani responden dengan menggunakan kuisioner yang telah dirancang sesuai dengan tujuan penelitian. data dianalisis menggunakan rasio r/c, koefisien variasi, dan fungsi produksi frontier stokastik. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul menguntungkan dengan pendapatan mencapai rp20.9 juta per hektar. tingkat risiko uasaha yang dihadapi petani cukup tinggi, mencapai 7,27%. rata-rata tingkat efisiensi teknis, alokatif, dan ekonomi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul masing-masing 0,802; 0,889; dan 0,929. hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa petani masih dapat meningkatkan efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi alokatif guna mencapai kondisi efisien secara ekonomi. kata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kuncikata kunci: bawang merah, efisiensi, pendapatan, risiko pendahuluan bawang merah merupakan salah satu komoditas sayuran unggulan yang sejak lama telah diusahakan oleh petani secara intensif. komoditas sayuran ini termasuk ke dalam kelompok rempah tidak bersubstitusi yang berfungsi sebagai bumbu penyedap makanan serta obat tradisonal. komoditas ini juga merupakan sumber pendapatan dan kesempatan kerja yang memberikan kontribusi cukup tinggi terhadap perkembangan ekonomi wilayah (balitbang pertanian, 2005). bawang merah dihasilkan hampir di seluruh wilayah indonesia. provinsi penghasil utama bawang merah yang ditandai dengan dengan luas areal panen di atas seribu hektar per tahun adalah sumatera utara, sumatera barat, jawa doi:10.18196/agr.2231 108 jurnal agraris barat, jawa tengah, jawa timur, nusa tenggara barat, sulawesi tengah, dan sulawesi selatan. delapan provinsi ini menyumbang 96,8% dari produksi total bawang merah di indonesia pada tahun 2013. sementara itu lima provinsi di pulau jawa yang terdiri dari jawa barat, jawa tengah, daerah istimewa yogyakarta, jawa timur, dan banten memberikan kontribusi sebesar 78,1% dari produksi total bawang merah nasional. konsumsi rata-rata bawang merah per kapita untuk tahun 2011-2012 berkisar antara 2,36 kg/ tahun dan 2,74 kg/tahun (bank indonesia, 2013). produksi bawang merah di indonesia masih bersifat musiman seperti hasil pertanian pada umumnya. hal ini menyebabkan kebutuhan bawang merah masyarakat indonesia di luar musim panen tidak dapat dipenuhi sehingga untuk memenuhinya perlu dilakukan tindakan impor. pemerintah melakukan impor bawang merah untuk menjaga ketersediaan bawang merah dalam negeri serta kestabilan harga pasar. tindakan impor ini menjadikan indonesia menjadi net importir bawang merah. setiap tahun indonesia melakukan kegiatan ekspor dan impor bawang merah, tetapi jumlah ekspor tersebut jauh lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan jumlah impor bawang merah ke indonesia. profil usahatani bawang merah dicirikan oleh 80% petani yang merupakan petani kecil dengan luas lahan kurang dari 1 ha. berbagai varietas bawang merah yang diusahakan petani antara lain bima brebes, kuning, bangkok, bima sawo, engkel, bangkok, bima timor, filipina, dan thailand (bank indonesia, 2013). usaha budidaya bawang merah ini umumnya merupakan usaha keluarga yang telah dilaksanakan secara turun-temurun. sebagian besar petani bawang merah sudah melakukan budidaya bawang merah hingga 15-25 tahun. motivasi pendirian usaha ini di antaranya adalah karena harga jual bawang merah yang cukup baik walaupun dengan pola perubahan yang cukup ekstrem, meneruskan usaha yang telah ada (usaha keluarga), sumber daya alam yang mendukung, dan adanya pengalaman dengan ketrampilan yang sederhana. untuk mencapai produktivitas yang maksimal, sistem budidaya bawang merah harus dilakukan secara intensif sehingga perlu keterampilan dan keuletan ekstra dari setiap individu petani. mengkaji persoalan produktivitas pada dasarnya mengkaji masalah efisiensi usahatani. hal ini dikarenakan ukuran produktivitas pada hakikatnya mempengaruhi tingkat efisiensi teknis budidaya yang dilakukan oleh petani yang menunjukkan pada seberapa besar output maksimum yang dapat dihasilkan dari tiap input yang tersedia. tingkat efisiensi akan sangat dipengaruhi oleh kapabilitas manajerial petani dalam aplikasi teknologi budidaya dan pascapanen, serta kemampuan petani dalam mengakumulasikan dan mengolah informasi yang relevan dengan usaha budidayanya sehingga pengambilan keputusan dapat dilakukan dengan tepat. dalam menjalankan usahataninya, petani bawang merah menghadapi masalah-masalah yang sifatnya internal maupun eksternal. masalah internal adalah masalah yang dapat dikontrol oleh petani, sedangkan masalah eksternal adalah masalah yang berada di luar kontrol petani. permasalahan internal petani antara lain adalah masalah sempitnya penguasaan lahan, rendahnya penguasaan teknologi, serta lemahnya permodalan. permasalahan eksternal mencakup masalah perubahan iklim, serangan organisme pengganggu tanaman, serta masalah fluktuasi harga jual. permasalahan tersebut dapat menimbulkan risiko dan ketidakpastian bagi petani (saptana et. al., 2010) besarnya peluang untuk menjangkau pasar nasional maupun pasar internasional menjadikan bawang merah sebagai salah satu komoditi prioritas dalam pengembangan sayuran di indonesia, yang cukup strategis dan ekonomis dipandang dari segi pendapatan usahatani. semakin tinggi pendapatan usahatani yang dicapai oleh petani akan menunjukkan keberhasilan petani dalam menjalankan usahataninya secara ekonomi. untuk itu, pengembangan usahatani bawang merah di indonesia harus diarahkan untuk mewujudkan agribisnis dan agroindustri yang berdaya saing, berkelanjutan, dan mampu meningkatkan kesejahteraan petani. pendapatan usahatani bawang merah menjadi sangat penting untuk diketahui sebagai bahan pertimbangan dalam mengambil keputusan tentang penggunaan teknologi dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan produksi sekaligus meningkatkan keuntungan ekonomi petani. setiap petani bawang merah tentu mengharapkan produksi yang tinggi dan sekaligus pendapatan yang memadai. dalam menghadapi kondisi lingkungan yang serba tidak menentu, seorang petani harus mampu mengalokasikan faktor-faktor produksi yang digunakan sedemikian rupa sehingga usahataninya dapat mencapai tingkat yang efisien dan memperoleh pendapatan yang cukup untuk menghidupi keluarganya dan sekaligus mengembangkan usahataninya. berdasarkan uraian diatas, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis tingkat pendapatan usahatani bawang merah, tingkat risiko yang dihadapi oleh petani bawang merah, dan tingkat efisiensi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul. 109 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten bantul yang merupakan salah satu sentra produksi bawang merah nasional. data dikumpulkan dari petani bawang merah di lahan sawah di dari tiga kecamatan dengan rerata produktivitas tertinggi di kabupaten bantul, yaitu kecamatan sanden, kretek, dan srandakan. sebagai sumber data primer dipilih 30 petani sebagai responden secara purposive, yaitu petani bawang merah di lahan sawah yang menanam padi atau palawija pada musim tanam sebelumnya. hal ini dimaksudkan agar dapat diketahui biaya pengolahan tanah yang sebenarnya. data dianalisis secara kuantitatif menggunakan rumus pendapatan/income untuk mengetahui tingkat pendapatan usahatani bawang merah per musim tanam sebagai berikut. i = tr – tc = (q x pq) tc di mana: i : pendapatan usahatani bawang merah (rp) tr : total revenue / penerimaan (rp) tc : total cost / biaya total (rp) q : produksi (kg) pq : harga jual (rp/kg) untuk mengetahui apakah usahatani bawang merah menguntungkan atau tidak maka digunakan rasio r/c sebagai berikut: rasio di mana: tr : total revenue / penerimaan (rp) tc : total cost / biaya total (rp) ada tiga kriteria dalam perhitungan rasio r/c, yaitu : a. apabila r/c > 1, maka usahatani menguntungkan layak diusahakan b. apabila r/c = 1, maka usahatani berada pada titik impas (break even point) c. apabila r/c < 1, maka usahatani tidak menguntungkan atau tidak layak diusahakan tingkat risiko usahatani ditentukan berdasarkan nilai koefisien variasi sebagai berikut: di mana: cv : koefisien variasi sd : standar deviasi pendapatan usahatani e : rerata pendapatan usahatani semakin besar nilai koefisien variasi (cv) maka semakin besar risiko yang harus dihadapi oleh petani bawang merah. batas bawah pendapatan (l) juga dihitung untuk menunjukkan nilai nominal pendapatan terendah yang mingkin diterima petani. apabila nilai kurang dari nol, maka petani kemungkinan besar akan mengalami kerugian. rumus batas bawah pendapatan adalah sebagai berikut : l = e – 2 v keterangan: l : batas bawah pendapatan e : rerata pendapatan usahatani v : simpangan baku tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani bawang merah dianalisis dengan menggunakan fungsi produksi frontier stokastik tipe cobb-douglas. model matematis dari fungsi tersebut dapat dituliskan sebagai berikut. ln y = â 0 + â 1 ln x 1 + â 2 ln x 2 + â 3 ln x 3 + â 4 ln x 4 + â 5 ln x 5 + â 6 ln x 6 + â 7 ln x 7 + â 8 ln x 8 + â 9 ln x 9 + â 10 ln x 10 + â 11 ln x 11 + (vi – ui) (1) keterangan: y : produksi bawang merah (kg) x 1 : luas lahan (m2) x 2 : benih (kg) x 3 : pupuk urea (kg) x 4 : pupuk za (kg) x 5 : pupuk sp-36 (kg) x 6 : pupuk kcl (kg) x 7 : pupuk npk-phonska (kg) x 8 : herbisida (ml) x 9 : fungisida (gr) x 10 : insektisida (ml) x 11 : tenaga kerja (hko) â 0 : intersep â i : koefisien regresi vi : kesalahan yang dilakukan karena pengambilan secara acak u i : efek dari in-efisiensi teknis yang muncul untuk menentukan nilai efek in-efisiensi pada penelitian ini digunakan persamaan: ui = ä 0 + ä 1 ln z 1 + ä 2 ln z 2 + ä 3 ln z 3 (2) dimana faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi in-efisiensi teknis meliputi: 110 jurnal agraris ä 1 : umur petani (tahun) ä 2 : pendidikan (tahun) ä 3 : pengalaman menjalankan usahatani bawang merah (tahun) pendugaan parameter dari persamaan (1) dan (2) dilakukan secara simultan dengan metode maximum likelihood estimation (mle) menggunakan program frontier 4.1 coelli (1996). dengan menggunakan program ini akan didapatkan efisiensi teknis dari usahatani bawang merah, dengan perhitungan: keterangan: te i : efisiensi teknis petani ke i y : produksi aktual y* : produksi potensial (diperoleh dari fungsi produksi frontier stokastik) dimana nilai te i berkisar antara 0 dan 1. jika nilai te semakin mendekati 1 (satu) maka usahatani bawang merah dapat dikatakan semakin efisien secara teknis dan jika semakin mendekati 0 (nol) maka usahatani bawang merah dapat dikatakan in-efisien secara teknis. suatu metode produksi dapat dikatakan lebih efisien dari metode lainnya jika metode tersebut menghasilkan output yang lebih besar pada tingkat korbanan yang sama. suatu metode produksi yang menggunakan korbanan yang paling kecil, juga dikatakan lebih efisien dari metode produksi lainnya jika menghasilkan output yang sama besarnya. mubyarto (1982) menyatakan bahwa efisiensi dalam usahatani merupakan salah satu indikator keberhasilan proses produksi. efisiensi ekonomi akan tercapai apabila efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi alokatif dapat dicapai. perbedaan tingkat efisiensi ekonomi antara usahatani satu dengan usahatani yang lain disebabkan oleh perbedaan tingkat efisiensi teknis atau efisiensi alokatif atau keduanya. efisiensi ekonomi merupakan hasil kali antara seluruh efisiensi teknis dengan efisiensi alokatif dari seluruh faktor produksi. menurut jondrow et. al. (1982) dalam ogundari dan ojo (2007), efisiensi ekonomi (economic efficiency/ee) didefinisikan sebagai rasio antara biaya total produksi minimum yang diobservasi (c*) dengan biaya total aktual (c), sebagaimana dirumuskan pada persamaan berikut : ee = = = e keterangan : ee : efisiensi ekonomi (economic efficiency) c* : total biaya produksi minimum c : total biaya produksi aktual dimana nilai ee berkisar antara 0 dan 1. dalam penelitian ini, analisis efisiensi ekonomi dilakukan dengan menggunakan model fungsi biaya frontier stokastik tipe cobb-douglas sebagai berikut. ln c = â 0 + â 1 ln y + â 2 ln p 2 + â 3 ln p 3 + â 4 ln p 4 + â 5 ln p 5 + â 6 ln p 6 + â 7 ln p 7 + â 8 ln p 8 + â 9 ln p 9 + â 10 ln p 10 + â 11 ln p 11 + (vi – ui) (3) keterangan : c : total biaya produksi (rp) y : produksi bawang merah (kg) p 2 : harga benih (rp/kg) p 3 : harga pupuk urea (rp/kg) p 4 : harga pupuk za (rp/kg) p 5 : harga pupuk sp-36 (rp/kg) p 6 : harga pupuk kcl (rp/kg) p 7 : harga pupuk npk-phonska (rp/kg) p 8 : harga hebisida (rp/ml) p 9 : harga fungisida (rp/gr) p 10 : harga insektisida (rp/ml) p 11 : upah tenaga kerja (rp/hko) â 0 : intersep â i : koefisien regresi v i : kesalahan yang dilakukan karena pengambilan secara acak u i : efek dari inefisiensi teknis yang muncul untuk menentukan efek in-efisiensi digunakan persamaan: ui = ä 0 + ä 1 ln z 1 + ä 2 ln z 2 + ä 3 ln z 3 (4) dimana faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi in-efisiensi meliputi: z 1 : umur petani (tahun) z 2 : pendidikan (tahun) z 3 : pengalaman menjalankan usahatani bawang merah (tahun) sama seperti pada analisis sebelumya, pendugaan parameter dari persamaan (3) dan (4) dengan metode maximum likelihood estimation (mle) dilakukan secara simultan menggunakan program software frontier 4.1 coelli (1996). namun, perlu diingat perhitungan program komputasi tersebut mengukur efisiensi biaya (cost efficiency/ce), sebagaimana diacu dari coelli (1996) dalam ogundari dan 111 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 ojo (2007). oleh karena itu tingkat efisiensi ekonomi (economic efficiency/ee) usahatani bawang merah diperoleh dengan menggunakan rumus: (5) efisiensi ekonomi (ee) merupakan hasil kali dari efisiensi teknis (te) dan efisiensi alokatif (ea). oleh karena itu nilai efisiensi alokatif (ea) dapat diperoleh dengan persamaan: (6) dengan nilai ae berkisar antara 0 dan 1. hasil dan pembahasan penggunaan sarana produksi benih merupakan faktor produksi yang sangat penting dalam usahatani bawang merah. penggunaan benih unggul akan mampu memberikan hasil produksi yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan benih yang tidak unggul. penggunaan benih unggul untuk usahatani bawang merah tidak hanya diarahkan untuk peningkatan kuantitas hasil produksi, tetapi juga diarahkan untuk peningkatan kualitas/mutu dari produksi yang dihasilkan. tabel 1. rerata penggunaan pupuk untuk usahatani bawang merah jenis pupuk (kg/ha) n rerata urea 18 153,93 za 14 282,69 sp-36 20 380,07 kcl 21 188,67 npk phonska 25 400,92 npk mutiara 12 244,14 dap 9 150,04 petroganik 5 1.531,23 kandang 11 5.546,79 terdapat dua jenis varietas bawang merah yang dominan ditanam di kabupaten bantul, yaitu biru dan tiron. kedua varietas tersebut banyak dipilih petani karena memiliki potensi hasil yang tinggi dan tahan terhadap hama dan penyakit. varietas biru paling disukai petani, karena berumur pendek, berumbi besar, dan memiliki harga jual yang relatif tinggi. sementara varietas tiron disukai petani karena tahan terhadap hujan, berwarna merah cerah, dan memiliki daya tahan simpan yang lama, walaupun varietas ini berumbi kecil dan berumur panjang. rata-rata penggunaan benih bawang merah di kabupaten bantul sekitar 878 kg kg/ha. faktor produksi pupuk adalah bahan yang mengandung satu atau lebih unsur hara yang ditambahkan pada tanaman, baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung. jenis-jenis pupuk yang digunakan beserta rerata penggunaannya untuk usahatani bawang merah dapat dilihat pada tabel 1. penggunaan pupuk merupakan usaha petani untuk meningkatkan produktivitas lahan, yaitu dengan cara menambah unsur hara yang diperlukan tanaman. pemupukan sangat penting untuk meningkatkan produksi tanaman, yaitu dengan menambah ketersediaan unsur hara dalam tanah. dengan demikian diharapkan kebutuhan tanaman akan unsur hara akan dapat terpenuhi secara optimal. tabel 1 menunjukkan bahwa petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul cukup intensif dalam perlakuan pemupukan pada tanaman bawang merah, terutama pada pemberian pupuk majemuk yang mengandung unsur hara esensial yang dibutuhkan oleh tanaman seperti nitrogen (n), fosfor (p), dan kalium (k), di antaranya adalah npk phonska dan npk mutiara. selain itu, separuh petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul menggunakan pupuk organik, baik berupa pupuk kandang maupun petroganik, pada lahan bawang merah mereka. faktor produksi pestisida adalah bahan yang digunakan untuk mengendalikan organisme pengganggu tanaman. jenis-jenis pestisida yang digunakan oleh petani bawang merah antara lain herbisida, fungisida, dan insektisida. rerata penggunaan pestisida untuk usahatani bawang merah dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. tabel 2. rerata penggunaan pestisida untuk usahatani bawang merah jenis pestisida n rerata herbisida (ml/ha) 30 1.140 fungisida padat (gr/ha) 25 5.962 fungisida cair (ml/ha) 24 1.123 insektisida padat (gr/ha) 2 857 insektisida cair (ml/ha) 25 1.511 secara umum usahatani bawang merah merupakan jenis usahatani yang membutuhkan banyak asupan pestisida. pemberian pestisida dimaksudkan untuk mengendalikan organisme pengganggu tanaman, seperti hama, patogen penyebab penyakit t anaman, dan gulma. tabel 2 112 jurnal agraris menunjukkan bahwa petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul menggunakan berbagai jenis pestisida dengan cukup intensif. tenaga kerja merupakan salah satu faktor produksi utama dalam usahatani bawang merah. dalam mengelola usahataninya, petani tidak hanya menyumbangkan tenaganya, tetapi juga kemampuan dan keahlian yang dimilikinya. rerata penggunaan tenaga kerja untuk usahatani bawang merah dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. tabel 3. rerata curahan tenaga kerja untuk usahatani bawang merah curahan tenaga kerja (hko/ha) laki-laki wanita persiapan benih dan lahan 58,01 14,38 tanam dan pemeliharaan 447,67 6,90 panen 47,89 1,35 total 553,56 22,64 usahatani bawang merah merupakan tipe usahatani yang membutuhkan banyak curahan tenaga kerja. secara umum, curahan tenaga kerja tersebut dapat dibedakan dalam tiga jenis pekerjaan, yaitu: i) persiapan benih dan lahan, ii) tanam dan pemeliharaan, serta iii) panen. jenis pekerjaan yang pertama meliputi pembelahan benih, pembuatan selokan, pelembutan tanah, pembuatan garis tanam, pemberian herbisida pra-tanam, dan pemberian pupuk dasar. jenis pekerjaan yang kedua mencakup penanaman, pemupukan, penyemprotan pestisida, penyiraman, dan penyiangan. sementara jenis pekerjaan yang ketiga meliputi panen dan pengangkutan hasil panen. tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan tenaga kerja petani di kabupaten bantul cukup intensif. hal ini terlihat jelas terutama untuk jenis pekerjaan yang kedua, yaitu penanaman dan pemeliharaan. keadaan ini dapat dimengerti mengingat kondisi tanah di kabupaten bantul yang memerlukan perhatian dan penanganan lebih seperti pemupukan, penyemprotan pestisida, dan penyiraman yang cukup intensif. akibatnya, curahan tenaga kerja yang dikeluarkan oleh petani menjadi lebih banyak. produksi bawang merah tinggi rendahnya produksi dan produktivitas bawang merah sangat dipengaruhi oleh modal yang tersedia dan teknik budidaya yang dilakukan oleh petani. produksi dan produktivitas usahatani selanjutnya dapat digunakan untuk mengetahui apakah suatu usahatani telah dikelola dengan baik atau tidak. rata-rata produksi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul mencapai 12,24 ton/ha (tabel 4). tabel 4. rerata penguasaan lahan, jumlah benih, dan produktivitas bawang merah uraian rerata luas lahan (ha) 0,25 jumlah benih (kg/ha) 878,48 produksi (kg) 3.026,67 produktivitas (kg/ha) 12.243,69 produktivitas (ton/ha) 12,24 berdasarkan tabel 4 dapat diketahui bahwa rerata produksi bawang merah petani di kabupaten bantul sebesar 3.026,67 kg per usahatani, dengan produktivitas 12,24 ton/ ha. nilai ini lebih tinggi dari rerata produktivitas nasional selama rentang 2007-2013 yaitu sebesar 9,46 ton/ha. produktivitas yang cukup tinggi ini dapat dicapai oleh petani di kabupaten bantul disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor di antaranya adalah penggunaan varietas, pola tanam, dan waktu tanam. nilai produksi dan struktur biaya usahatani bawang merah salah satu indikator penting dalam penilaian ekonomi usahatani adalah dengan melihat nilai produksi yang diperoleh petani. nilai produksi atau penerimaan usahatani merupakan perkalian antara jumlah produksi dengan harga yang diterima oleh petani. nilai produksi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. berdasarkan tabel 5 dapat diketahui bahwa penerimaan usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul mencapai rp67.132.814,00/ha. besarnya penerimaan ini dipengaruhi oleh jumlah produksi dan harga yang diterima oleh petani bawang merah. walaupun produksi yang dihasilkan petani tinggi, seringkali harga yang diterima petani rendah sehingga besarnya penerimaan usahatani tidak maksimal. tabel 5 juga menunjukkan bahwa biaya total usahatani bawang merah adalah sebesar rp46.229.103,00/ha. dilihat dari struktur biaya usahatani, tenaga kerja menjadi pos biaya yang paling tinggi karena mencakup 46,94% dari total biaya yang harus dikeluarkan oleh petani di kabupaten bantul. hal ini menunjukkan usahatani bawang merah adalah tipe usahatani yang cukup intensif dalam penggunaan tenaga kerja. biaya benih menjadi pos biaya terbesar kedua setelah 113 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 tenaga kerja. sementara itu, biaya pupuk dan pestisida hanya mencakup sekitar 4 – 9% dari total biaya usahatani bawang merah. tabel 5. nil ai produksi dan struktur biaya usahatani bawang merah uraian kab. bantul jumlah persentase (%) penerimaan produksi (kg/ha) 12.244 harga (rp) 5.492 nilai produksi (rp/ha) 67.132.814 biaya variabel (variable cost) benih (rp/ha) 12.907.927 27,92 pupuk (rp/ha) 4.079.884 8,83 pestisida (rp/ha) 2.080.691 4,50 tenaga kerja (rp/ha) 21.699.674 46,94 biaya tetap (fixed cost) sewa lahan (rp/ha/musim) 5.111.508 11,06 penyusutan 349.419 0,76 biaya total (rp/ha) 46.229.103 100,00 pendapatan usahatani bawang merah nilai produksi setelah dikurangi dengan biaya-biaya yang telah dikeluarkan akan didapatkan nilai pendapatan usahatani. semakin tinggi pendapatan yang diterima oleh petani, maka usahataninya dapat dikatakan lebih berhasil secara ekonomi. pendapatan inilah yang kemudian akan digunakan oleh petani untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya. tabel 6. pendapatan usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul uraian jumlah (rp/ha) penerimaan (r) 67.132.814 biaya variabel 40.768.176 biaya tetap 5.460.927 total biaya (c) 46.229.103 pendapatan 20.903.711 r/c 1,45 tabel 6 menunjukkan bahwa pendapatan yang diterima oleh petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul adalah sebesar rp20.903.711/ha dengan nilai r/c sebesar 1,45. hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul secara ekonomi menguntungkan dan layak untuk diusahakan. tabel 7. usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul uraian pendapatan rerata (rp/ha) 20.903.711 standar deviasi 15.192.314 koefisien variasi 0,727 batas bawah pendapatan (l) -9.480.916 risiko usahatani bawang merah analisis koefisien variasi dari pendapatan usahatani bawang merah digunakan untuk mengetahui risiko pendapatan usahatani bawang merah. semakin kecil nilai koefisien variasi maka semakin kecil risiko yang dihadapi petani. sebaliknya semakin besar koefisien variasi maka semakin besar pula risiko yang dihadapi oleh petani. tabel 7 menunjukkan bahwa usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul menghadapi risiko pendapatan sebesar 0,727 atau 72,7%. artinya untuk setiap satu rupiah dari pendapatan yang diterima oleh petani, maka risiko yang dihadapi adalah sebesar 0,727 rupiah. batas bawah pendapatan (l) yang dihasilkan usahatani bawang merah adalah sebesar rp-9.480.916. nilai l < 0 menunjukkan bahwa usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul memberikan kemungkinan mengalami kerugian pada setiap proses produksinya. angka tersebut menunjukkan bahwa petani bawang merah harus berani menanggung kerugian sebesar rp9.480.916 pada setiap proses produksi. efisiensi teknis, alokatif, dan ekonomi usahatani bawang merah berikut ini adalah hasil estimasi fungsi produksi stokastik frontier dengan menggunakan pendekatan maximum likelihood estimation (mle), sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 8. metode mle ini menggambarkan kinerja terbaik (best practice) dari perilaku petani dalam proses produksi. fungsi produksi frontier ini akan digunakan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produksi bawang merah dan juga sebagai dasar untuk menghitung 114 jurnal agraris efisiensi produksi usahatani bawang merah. hasil estimasi menunjukkan nilai sigma-squared sebesar 0,09427 dan signifikan pada á sebesar 5%, sehingga dapat dimaknai bahwa keragaman produksi bawang merah di kabupeten bantul yang disumbangkan oleh efek in-efisiensi dan efek eksternal mempunyai variasi yang nyata. kemudian nilai gamma didapatkan sebesar 0,99997 dan signifikan pada á sebesar 1%. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa 99,9% tingkat variasi produksi bawang merah di kabupaten bantul disebabkan oleh perbedaan efisiensi teknis dan sisanya sebesar 0,1% disebabkan oleh pengaruh eksternal seperti iklim, serangan hama dan penyakit, dan kesalahan dalam pemodelan. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pengaruh inefisiensi teknis merupakan faktor yang berpengaruh nyata dalam variabilitas produksi bawang merah. seluruh variabel faktor-faktor produksi yang dimasukkan dalam model bertanda positif, kecuali faktor produksi benih dan pupuk za. koefisien yang bertanda positif dari faktor produksi luas lahan, pupuk urea, pupuk sp-36, pupuk kcl, pupuk npk-phonska, herbisida, fungisida, insektisida, dan tenaga kerja menunjukkan bahwa penambahan masingmasing faktor produksi tersebut akan dapat meningkatkan produksi bawang merah. sementara itu, koefisien yang bertanda negatif dari faktor produksi benih menunjukkan bahwa penambahan jumlah benih tidak meningkatkan produksi bawang merah namun justru sebaliknya dapat menurunkan jumlah output. hal ini disebabkan karena penggunaan benih yang berlebihan oleh petani. penggunaan benih yang berlebihan ini akan menyebabkan jarak tanam terlalu rapat sehingga tanaman tidak dapat tumbuh dan berkembang secara optimal. selain itu, penambahan jumlah pupuk za juga tidak meningkatkan produksi bawang. pengujian secara parsial pada fungsi produksi, sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 8, menunjukkan bahwa faktor produksi luas lahan, pupuk sp-36, pupuk npkphonska, fungisida, dan tenaga kerja berpengaruh nyata terhadap produksi bawang merah. sementara faktor produksi benih, pupuk urea, pupuk za, pupuk kcl, herbisida, dan insektisida tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap produksi bawang merah. secara umum, karakteristik model produksi frontier untuk menduga efisiensi teknis adalah adanya pemisahan dampak dari goncangan peubah eksogen terhadap keluaran melalui kontribusi ragam yang menggambarkan efisiensi teknis (giannakas et. al., 2003 dalam sukiyono, 2005). dengan kata lain, penggunaan metode ini dimungkinkan untuk tabel 8. estimasi fungsi produksi frontier stokastik usahatani bawang merah variabel parameter koefisien t-ratio konstanta β₀ 0,37744 ns 0,43289 luas lahan β₁ 0,66579 *** 10,12172 benih β₂ -0,17112 ns -0,93594 pupuk urea β₃ 0,00665 ns 0,72494 pupuk za β₄ -0,00079 ns -0,07019 pupuk sp-36 β₅ 0,01862 ** 2,35378 pupuk kcl β₆ 0,00259 ns 0,23901 pupuk npk-phonska β₇ 0,02641 *** 3,05581 herbisida β₈ 0,04565 ns 0,49650 fungisida β₉ 0,05082 ** 2,48934 insektisida β₁₀ 0,11763 ns 1,45325 tenaga kerja β₁₁ 0,51298 ** 2,74632 sigmasquared 0,09427 ** 2,0787 gamma 0,99997 *** 4.911,5 keterangan: *** : signifikan pada á = 1% ** : signifikan pada á = 5% * : signifikan pada á = 10% ns : non-signifikan 115 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 menduga ketidakefisienan suatu proses produksi tanpa mengabaikan error term dari modelnya. selain itu, pendugaan efisiensi menggunakan fungsi produksi frontier memungkinkan untuk dapat diketahui tingkat efisiensi yang dicapai oleh tiap individu unit-unit usahatani (coelli et al., 1998), sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 9. tabel 9. distribusi efisiensi teknis (et) usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul tingkat efisiensi teknis jumlah petani persentase < 0,5 4 13,33 0,51 0,60 2 6,67 0,61 0,70 2 6,67 0,71 0,80 4 13,33 0,81 0,90 6 20,00 0,91 1,00 12 40,00 jumlah 30 rerata 0,802 nilai minimum 0,289 nilai maksimum 0,997 tabel 10. estimasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi in-efisiensi teknis usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul variabel parameter koefisien t-ratio konstanta δ₀ 0,01913 ns 0,01971 umur δ₁ 0,34254 ns 0,47087 pendidikan δ₂ -0,85495 * -1,35717 pengalaman δ₃ 0,17452 ns 0,26972 pengalaman äƒ 0,17452 ns 0,26972 keterangan: * : signifikan pada á = 15% ns : non-signifikan hasil analisis menunjukkan tingkat efisiensi teknis yang dicapai oleh petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul berkisar antara 0,289 hingga 0,999 dengan rata-rata 0,802. dari 30 petani terdapat 18 petani (60,00%) yang telah mencapai tingkat efisiensi diatas 0,800 atau 80%. hal ini menandakan bahwa masih terdapat 40% petani bawang merah yang masih berada pada tingkat efisiensi teknis dibawah 80% atau masih mengalami in-efisiensi teknis dalam usahataninya. tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa terdapat perbedaan tingkat efisiensi teknis yang mampu dicapai oleh masing-masing individu petani. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa masih ada ruang dari petani bawang merah untuk meningkatkan efisiensi teknis melalui peningkatan manajemen usahatani perbedaan tingkat efisiensi teknis yang dicapai petani bawang merah mengindikasikan tingkat penguasaan dan aplikasi teknologi yang berbeda-beda. perbedaan tingkat pengusaan teknologi disebabkan oleh atribut yang melekat pada diri petani seperti umur, pendidikan, dan pengalaman berusahatani serta dapat juga disebabkan oleh faktor eksternal seperti penyuluhan. perbedaan dalam aplikasi teknologi maksudnya adalah perbedaan dalam hal pengalokasian input produksi. disamping itu, tingkat efisiensi teknis yang berbeda-beda juga disebabkan oleh kemampuan petani untuk mendapatkan input produksi. jumlah anggota keluarga usia produktif juga berperan dalam hal penggunaan input tenaga kerja (fadwiwati et. al., 2014). tabel 11. estimasi fungsi biaya frontier stokastik usahatani bawang merah variabel parameter koefisien t-ratio konstanta β₀ 9,05824 ** 2,65754 produksi bawang merah β₁ 0,46105 * 1,92370 harga benih β₂ 0,28535 *** 2,87228 harga pupuk urea β₃ 0,13842 *** 3,92997 harga pupuk za β₄ 0,14661 *** 5,43294 harga pupuk sp-36 β₅ 1,60591 *** 4,03542 harga pupuk kcl β₆ 0,15687 * 1,74437 harga pupuk npk-phonska β₇ 0,35499 * 1,93500 harga herbisida β₈ -0,26287 ns -0,67834 harga fungisida β₉ -0,62239 ns -0,57674 harga insektisida β₁₀ 0,13760 ** 2,09406 upah tenaga kerja β₁₁ 0,88585 ** 2,53896 konstanta δ₀ 2,36686 ** 2,23898 umur petani δ₁ -0,14414 *** -6,00296 pendidikan petani δ₂ -0,12447 ns -0,63776 pengalaman petani δ₃ 0,11212 ns 0,65211 sigmasquared 0,10143 *** 5,22460 gamma 0,99999 *** 79.496,1 mean efficiency 1,132 sigma-squared 0,10143 *** 5,22460 gamma 0,99999 *** 79.496,1 mean efficiency 1,132 keterangan: *** : signifikan pada á = 1% 116 jurnal agraris ** : signifikan pada á = 5% * : signifikan pada á = 10% ns : non-signifikan faktor-faktor yang diduga mempengaruhi in-efisiensi teknis usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul adalah umur, pendidikan, dan pengalaman petani. hasil estimasi pada tabel 10 menunjukkan bahwa hanya pendidikan yang berpengaruh nyata terhadap in-efisiensi usahatani bawang merah pada tingkat á sebesar 15%. tingkat pendidikan memiliki koefisien bertanda negatif yang dapat dimaknai bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan petani, maka semakin kecil petani tersebut melakukan ketidakefisienan dalam menjalankan usahatani bawang merah. atau dengan kata lain, semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan petani maka petani tersebut akan semakin efisien dalam menjalankan usahataninya. selanjutnya efisiensi ekonomi usahatani bawang merah diestimasi dengan menggunakan fungsi biaya stokastik frontier dengan metode maximum likelihood estimation (mle). kemudian nilai efisiensi alokatif diprediksi dengan membagi nilai efisiensi ekonomi dengan efisiensi teknis sebagaimana telah ditampilkan pada persamaan 6. hasil estimasi fungsi biaya stokastik frontier ditampilkan dalam tabel 11 berikut ini. hasil estimasi menunjukkan bahwa terdapat sembilan variabel yang berpengaruh nyata terhadap biaya produksi usahatani bawang merah, yaitu jumlah produksi bawang merah, harga benih, harga pupuk urea, harga pupuk za, harga pupuk sp-36, harga pupuk kcl, harga pupuk npkphonska, harga insektisida, dan upah tenaga kerja. kesembilan variabel tersebut masing-masing memberikan pengaruh positif terhadap biaya produksi bawang merah. selain itu, hasil estimasi juga menunjukkan variabel umur petani berpengaruh nyata terhadap in-efisiensi biaya pada tingkat á sebesar 1%. umur petani memiliki koefisien bertanda negatif yang dapat dimaknai bahwa semakin tua umur petani, maka semakin kecil petani tersebut melakukan ketidakefisienan dalam menjalankan usahatani bawang merah. atau dengan kata lain, semakin tua umur petani maka petani tersebut akan semakin efisien dalam menjalankan usahataninya. hal ini dapat terjadi karena semakin tua umur petani maka akan semakin matang dalam berpikir dan lebih adaptif terhadap inovasi teknologi dalam budidaya bawang merah. petani yang relatif tua umumnya juga memiliki kapasitas pengelolaan yang lebih baik dan matang karena memiliki banyak pengalaman. distribusi tingkat efisiensi alokatif dan ekonomi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul disajikan pada tabel 12 berikut ini. tingkat efisiensi alokatif yang dicapai oleh petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul berkisar antara 0,381 hingga 1, dengan persentase terbanyak pada kelompok tingkat efisiensi 0,91-1 sebesar 66,67%. petani dengan tingkat efisiensi alokatif antara 0,81-0,90 dan petani dengan tingkat efisiensi alokatif antara 0,61-0,70 menempati posisi terbanyak kedua dengan persentase masing-masing sebesar 10,00%. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa masih relatif banyak petani bawang merah yang berada dalam kondisi in-efisien secara alokatif. rata-rata tingkat efisiensi alokatif yang dapat dicapai petani adalah sebesar 0,889. angka ini menunjukkan bahwa masih ada ruang bagi petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul untuk meningkatkan tingkat efisiensinya. efek kombinasi efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi alokatif petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul memperlihatkan tingkat efisiensi ekonomi yang dapat dicapai oleh petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul berkisar antara 0,379 hingga 1, dengan persentase terbanyak pada kelompok tingkat efisiensi 0,91-1 sebesar 36,67%. sementara petani pada tingkat efisiensi antara 0,71-0,80 menempati jumlah terbanyak kedua dengan persentase sebesar 20,00%. ratarata tingkat efisiensi ekonomi adalah sebesar 0,798 sebagaimana ditunjukkan oleh tabel 12. hal ini menunjukkan apabila petani rata-rata dalam sampel dapat mencapai efisiensi ekonomi yang maksimum maka petani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul dapat merealisasikannya dengan penghematan biaya sebesar 20,2% (1-[0,798/1]). selain itu, apabila petani bawang merah yang paling inefisien dapat mencapai efisiensi ekonomi yang maksimum maka petani tersebut dapat merealisasikannya dengan penghematan biaya sebesar 62,1% (1-[0,379/1]). hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa tingkat efisiensi ekonomi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul masih dapat ditingkatkan. satu hal yang perlu menjadi perhatian adalah terjadinya in-efisiensi teknis sebagai masalah yang lebih serius dibandingkan dengan in-efisiensi alokatif dalam upaya pencapaian tingkat efisiensi ekonomi yang lebih tinggi. kondisi tersebut dikarenakan secara alokatif rata-rata petani dapat dikatakan cukup efisien (indeks efisiensi alokatif mendekati 0,9). upaya pencapaian tingkat efisiensi ekonomi yang lebih tinggi harus dilakukan oleh petani dengan meningkatkan manajemen usahatani sekaligus memperbaiki tingkat alokasi input yang digunakan dengan memperhatikan harga input, yaitu dengan melakukan penambahan input yang kurang atau 117 vol.2 no.2 juli 2016 pengurangan input yang berlebihan sehingga dicapai tingkat biaya yang minimum. tabel 13. indeks efisiensi teknis, alokatif, dan ekonomi usahatani bawang merah uraian indeks efisiensi efisiensi teknis (et) 0,802 efisiensi alokatif (ea) 0,889 efisiensi ekonomi (ee) 0,798 kesimpulan kegiatan usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul adalah usahatani yang menguntungkan dengan pendapatan sebesar rp20.903.711/ha. tingkat risiko yang dihadapi petani cukup tinggi, yaitu sebesar 0,727 atau 72,7%. artinya untuk setiap satu rupiah dari pendapatan yang diterima oleh petani, maka risiko yang dihadapi adalah sebesar 0,727 rupiah. selain itu, petani bawang merah harus berani menanggung kerugian sebesar rp9.480.916 pada setiap proses produksi. rata-rata tingkat efisiensi teknis, alokatif, dan ekonomi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul masing-masing adalah 0,802; 0,889; dan 0,929. hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa tingkat efisiensi usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul masih dapat ditingkatkan. peningkatan produksi dan pendapatan usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul dapat dilakukan dengan menambah luas lahan garapan dan juga dengan mengalokasikan faktor-faktor produksi secara optimal. upaya pencapaian tingkat efisiensi ekonomi yang lebih tinggi dapat dilakukan dengan meningkatkan manajemen usahatani sekaligus memperbaiki tingkat alokasi input yang digunakan dengan memperhatikan harga input sehingga dicapai tingkat biaya yang minimum. daftar pustaka badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian. 2005. prospek dan arah pengembangan agribisnis bawang merah. balitbang-depertemen pertanian, jakarta. bank indonesia. 2013. pola pembiayaan usaha kecil menengah usaha budidaya bawang merah. bi, jakarta. coelli, t. j. 1996. a guide to frontier version 4.1: program for stochastic frontier production and cost function esttimation. cepa working paper 07/96. university of new england. coelli, t. j., rao, d. s. p., o’donnel, c. j., & battese, g. e. 1998. an introduction to efficiency and productivity analysis. springer, new york. fadwiwati, a. y., hartoyo, s., kuncoro, s. u., & rusastra, i. w. 2014. analisis efisiensi teknis, efisiensi alokatif, dan efisiensi ekonomi usahatani jagung berdasarkan varietas di provinsi gorontalo. jurnal agro ekonomi 32 (1): 1-12. mubyarto. 1982. pengantar ekonomi pertanian. lp3es, jakarta. ogundari, k. & ojo, s. o. 2007. an examination of technical economic and an allocative efficiency of small farm: the case study of cassava farmers in osun state of nigeria. bulgarian jurnal of agricultural science 13: 185-195. saptana, daryarto, a., daryanto, h. k., & kuntjoro. 2010. strategi manajemen resiko petani cabai merah pada lahan sawah dataran rendah di jawa tengah. jurnal manajemen & agribisnis 7 (2). sukiyono, k. 2005. faktor penentu tingkat efisiensi teknik usahatani cabai merah di kecamatan selupu rejang kabupaten rejang lebong. jurnal agro ekonomi 23(2): 176-190. tabel 12. distribusi efisiensi alokatif (ea) dan efisiensi ekonomi (ee) usahatani bawang merah di kabupaten bantul tingkat efisiensi efisiensi alokatif efisiensi ekonomi jumlah petani persentase jumlah petani persentase < 0,5 1 3,33 1 3,33 0,51 0,60 1 3,33 4 13,33 0,61 0,70 3 10,00 4 13,33 0,71 0,80 2 6,67 6 20,00 0,81 0,90 3 10,00 4 13,33 0,91 1,00 20 66,67 11 36,67 jumlah 30 30 rerata 0,889 0,798 nilai minimum 0,381 0,379 nilai maksimum 1 1 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 5 no. 1 januari-juni 2019 defidelwina1*), jamhari2), lestari rahayu waluyati2), sri widodo2) 1)fakultas pertanian, universitas pasir pengaraian, riau 2)fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta *) email korespondensi: delwinadefi21@gmail.com dampak kepemilikan lahan padi sawah terhadap efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi lingkungan di kabupaten rokan hulu the impact of lowland rice ownership on technical and environmental efficiency in rokan hulu regency doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5177 abstract land ownership, technical and environmental efficiency are interrelated aspects one another which influences the sustainability of farming. this study aims to estimate the impact of land ownership on the technical and environmental efficiency of wetland rice farming in the rokan hulu regency. data obtained from interviews with 100 farm households, and analyzed using the translog stochastic frontier production function estimated by the maximum likelihood method. this production function includes conventional and detrimental input (nitrogen). the results showed that the average technical efficiency of farming was 84.8%. meaning that farmers can increase their technical efficiency by 15.2%. while the average of environmental efficiency is 23.7%. it is recommended to farmers to reduce their detrimental inputs by 76.3%. the technical efficiency of landowners was lower than the tenant or sharing farmers. otherwise, the environmental efficiency of landowners higher than tenant or sharing farmers. keywords: environmental efficiency, technical efficiency, land tenure, lowland rice farming, translog model. intisari kepemilikan lahan, efisiensi teknis dan lingkungan merupakan aspek yang saling berkaitan satu dan lainnya yang berpengaruh terhadap keberlanjutan usahatani. studi ini bertujuan untuk mengestimasi dampak kepemilikan lahan terhadap efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi lingkungan usahatani padi sawah di kabupaten rokan hulu. data diperoleh dari hasil interview 100 rumah tangga tani, dan dianalisis dengan menggunakan fungsi produksi translog stochastic frontier yang diestimasi dengan metode maksimum likelihood. fungsi produksi ini mencakup input konvensional dan detrimental input (nitrogen). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa rata-rata efisiensi teknis usahatani adalah 84.8%. hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa efisiensi teknis usahatani masih bisa ditingkatkan sebesar 15.2%. sedangkan rata-rata efisiensi lingkungan usahatani adalah 23.7%. untuk itu, disarankan kepada petani untuk mengurangi penggunaan input detrimental sebesar 76.3%. usahatani padi sawah petani pemilik memiliki efisiensi teknis yang lebih rendah dibandingkan usahatani petani penyewa/penyakap. sebaliknya terjadi pada efisiensi lingkungan, dimana usahatani petani pemilik memiliki efisiensi lingkungan yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan usahatani petani penyewa/penyakap. kata kunci: efisiensi lingkungan, efisiensi teknis, kepemilikan lahan, padi sawah, translog model pendahuluan komoditas padi menjadi penting bagi pemerintah indonesia karena berbagai penelitian mutakhir menunjukkan bahwa beras merupakan komoditas yang menduduki posisi strategis dalam proses pembangunan pertanian indonesia. beras telah menjadi komoditas politik dan menguasai hajat hidup rakyat. dimana masyarakat telah http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4269 80 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research mengkonsumsi beras sebagai makanan pokok sehingga beras menjelma menjadi sektor ekonomi strategis bagi perekonomian dan ketahanan pangan nasional (pujiasmanto, 2015). kebijakan pemerintah pada peningkatan produksi dan produktivitas padi telah menyebabkan perubahan teknologi pada usahatani padi itu sendiri. salah satunya adalah penggunaan input usahatani menjadi lebih banyak dalam rangka meningkatkan produktivitas. penggandaan produksi pangan telah menyebabkan peningkatan pada alokasi penggunaan nitrogen pada lahan pertanian. penggunaan nitrogen secara intensif akan memberikan dampak terhadap kerusakan lingkungan (tilman, 1999). selama beberapa dekade terakhir, pencucian dari sumber pertanian, merupakan sumber pencemaran tanah dan air permukaan yang signifikan. oleh karena itu, upaya untuk meningkatkan efisiensi perlu mempertimbangkan konsekuensi lingkungan. petani harus mampu menerapkan input seefisien mungkin untuk menciptakan sektor pertanian yang ramah lingkungan (graham, 2004). sehingga tercipta sistem pertanian yang berkelanjutan. pertanian berkelanjutan ini sejalan dengan tujuan pembangunan indonesia. tahun 2016, indonesia sudah masuk pada era tujuan pembangunan berkelanjutan atau yang lebih dikenal dengan istilah sustainable development goals/sdgs. sdgs ini dibangun melalui 3 pilar yaitu pilar ekonomi, sosial dan lingkungan dipandang sebagai satu kesatuan yang utuh dan tidak terpisahkan antara satu dengan lainnya (triple bottom line) (fajar, 2015). ketiga pilar tersebut dalam penelitian ini diterjemahkan secara berturutturut sebagai efisien teknis, kepemilikan lahan dan efisiensi lingkungan. pertanian yang berkelanjutan sering dihadapkan pada masalah kerusakan lingkungan. salah satu permasalahan pertanian indonesia yang berkaitan dengan kerusakan lingkungan sebagai akibat produksi pertanian yang intensif untuk meningkatkan produktivitas pertanian adalah terjadi pengerasan struktur tanah pertanian karena penggunaan pupuk nitrogen (urea) secara berlebihan di dalam waktu yang sangat lama (direktorat pangan dan pertanian bappenas, 2015). penelitian efisiensi teknis dan lingkungan sebelumnya lebih fokus pada aspek efisiensi teknis dan lingkungan itu sendiri. antara lain: estimasi dampak faktor lingkungan terhadap profitability pada usahatani padi di the red river delta of vietnam (hoang & yabe, 2012), estimasi efisiensi lingkungan dengan menggunakan translog stochastic production frontier (abedullah, kouser, & mushtaq, 2010), penelitian efisiensi lingkungan pada australian dairy farms (graham, 2004), efisiensi lingkungan dengan satu peubah detrimental input pada usahatani bawang merah dengan menggunakan stochastic frontier (waryanto, indahwati, & safitri, 2015), analisis efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi lingkungan sektor manufaktur dengan menggunakan stochastic frontier (kamande, 2010) dan estimasi dan perbandingan efisiensi lingkungan, efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi penggunaan pestisida ekologi padi dengan ekologi padi normal dengan menggunakan stochastic frontier. (tu, yabe, trang, & khai, 2015) sedangkan literatur tentang dampak kepemilikan lahan terhadap efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi lingkungan masih jarang ditemukan. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengisi gap tersebut. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengestimasi dampak kepemilikan lahan terhadap efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi lingkungan usahatani padi sawah di kabupaten rokan hulu. kepemilikan lahan cenderung akan membuat pemilik lahan lebih berhatihati dalam menggunakan lahan yang dimilikinya demi menjaga keberlanjutan usahatani yang dilakukan. karena pemilik lahan akan berfikir keberlanjutan usahataninya sampai antar generasi. karena sebagaimana diketahui bahwa usahatani padi sawah khususnya adalah usahatani yang umumnya dilakukan secara turun temurun. metode penelitian area studi dan pengumpulan data kabupaten rokan hulu merupakan salah satu kabupaten di provinsi riau, yang terletak pada 00° 25' 20" lu 010° 25' 41" lu dan 100° 02' 56" 100° 56' 59" bt, dengan ketinggian dari permukaan laut berkisar antara 21-111 meter. wilayah ini merupakan salah satu lumbung beras di provinsi riau (darus, 81 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 bahri, & paman, 2015). pada penelitian ini dipilih dua wilayah sentra produksi padi yang ada di rokan hulu yaitu kecamatan rambah samo dan kecamatan rokan iv koto. data primer dikumpulkan melalui interview langsung dengan petani padi sawah dengan menggunakan quesioner yang telah didesign sesuai dengan tujuan penelitian. sample yang digunakan terbatas pada petani padi sawah irigasi saja yang dipilih secara random sebanyak 100 rumah tangga usahatani yang proporsional terhadap masing-masing wilayah. yaitu 55 sample dari kecamatan rambah dan 45 sampel dari kecamatan rokan iv koto. metode analisis data data dianalisis dengan menggunakan model fungsi produksi stochastic frontier. fungsi produksi stochastic frontier akan memberikan informasi tentang hubungan antara jumlah output dan input produksi, pada tingkat teknologi yang digunakan (kyi & von oppen, 1999). aigner et al. (1977) dan meeusen and van den broeck (1977) memperkenalkan fungsi produksi stocastic frontier. spesifikasi fungsi produksi stocastic frontier ini memiliki dua kompnen error term. pertama sebagai random efek dan yang kedua sebagai efek inefisiensi teknis. untuk mengestimasi efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi lingkungan (reinhard, lovell, & thijssen, 1999) membagi input yang digunakan kepada dua komponen yaitu input konvensional (x) dan detrimental input (z). model ini dapat dituliskan sebagai berikut: yi=f(xij,zi;β)expεi ………………...(1) y_i merupakan produksi, i merupakan petani i (i = 1,2,3,…100), xj merupakan vektor k x 1 dari kuantitas input konvensional dari ushatani i (j = 1, 2, 3, … , 7) yang terdiri dari luas lahan usahatani padi sawah (ha), jumlah benih (kg), penggunaan tenaga kerja (hok), jumlah penggunaan pestisida (l), jumlah penggunaan p (pupuk phosphor) (kg), jumlah penggunaan k (pupuk kalium) (kg) dan dummy kepemilikan lahan yang digunakan untuk mengakap perbedaan efisiensi teknis dan lingkungan usahatani berdasarkan kepemilikan lahan (1=milik sendiri; 0=lainnya [sewa/sakap]). z merupakan input detrimental dalam hal ini adalah penggunaan pupuk nitrogen (kg). β adalah vektor dari parameter yang belum diketahui dari masing-masing input. ε_i adalah error kompenen model dengan spesifikasi sebagai berikut: εi=vi+ui, i=1 . . . n ………..(2) vi adalah variabel random (noise) dengan asumsi iid (independently and identically distributed) normal random variabel dengan mean zero dan konstan variance n(0, σv 2). dan u_i merupakan variabel random non negatif yang disumsikan sebagai jumlah inefisiensi teknis produksi dan sering diasumsikan iid n(0,σu 2). efisiensi teknis merupakan rasio keluaran yang diamati (yi ) terhadap keluaran frontier stokastik yang sesuai (yi * ), yang didefinisikan sebagai berikut: tei= yi yi * = yi f(xi,zi;b)expvi =exp(-ui) ………….(3) karena ui≥0 maka nilai efisiensi teknis akan terletak antara 0 dan 1 atau 0≤exp(-ui )≤1. untuk mengestimasi nilai efisiensi lingkungan, model persamaan (1) perlu dispesifikkan lagi. dalam hal ini model fungsi translog yang didefinisikan sebagai berikut: 𝑙𝑛 𝑌𝑖 = 𝑏0 + ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 + 1 2 ∑ ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑘 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑘 + ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 + 1 2𝑗 𝑏𝑧𝑧 (𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 ) 2 +𝑘𝑗 𝐷_𝐿𝐸 + 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑢𝑖 ………………………………………………………..(4) dimana bjk=bkj. d_le adalah dummy kepemilikan lahan. elastisitas masing-masing input ditentukan dengan mendiferensiasikan fungsi produksi yang respek terhadap masing-masing input. μxj= ∂ ln y ∂ ln xj dan μz= ∂ ln y ∂ ln z ……………….(5) untuk mengukur efisiensi lingkungan diasumsikan bahwa alokasi input yang ramah lingkungan adalah alokasi input yang efisien maka dengan demikian nilai inefisiensi teknis sama dengan nol (ui=0) (reinhard et al., 1999). disimbolkan bahwa alokasi input nitrogen yang efisien adalah zf. sehingga diperoleh persamaan: 82 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 𝑙𝑛 𝑌𝑖 𝐹 = 𝑏0 + ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 𝐹 + 1 2 ∑ ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑘 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑘 + ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 𝐹 +𝑗𝑘𝑗 1 2 𝑏𝑧𝑧(𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 𝐹 )2 + 𝑣𝑖 ………..……………………………………..…….(6) untuk memperoleh logaritma pengukuran efisiensi lingkungan eli = ln zi f, lnzi, maka lakukan isolasi terhadap nilai ln zi f, lnzi. dengan cara ln yi= ln yi f. lalu disusun sedemikian rupa sehingga diperoleh: 1 2 bzz [(ln zi f) 2 ( lnzi) 2] + ∑ bjzlnxijj [lnzi f-lnzi]+bz[lnzi flnzi]+ui=0 ….... (7) atau dapat ditulis juga sebagai: 1 2 𝑏𝑧𝑧[𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 𝐹 − 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 ] 2 + [𝑏𝑧 + ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 ] × (𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 𝐹 − 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 ) + 𝑢𝑖 = 0 …………………………….................(8) karena elit = ln zi f, lnzi, maka pindahkan nilai ln zi f, lnzi menjadi nilai sisi kiri (dependent variabel). sehingga diperoleh: 𝑙𝑛 𝐸𝐿𝑖 = 1 𝑏𝑧𝑧 [−(𝑏𝑧 + ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 ) ∓ {(𝑏𝑧 + ∑ 𝑏𝑗𝑧 𝑙𝑛𝑋𝑖𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑛𝑍𝑖 ) 2 − 2𝑏𝑧𝑧 𝑢𝑖} .5 ]…………………….......(9) analisis efisiensi lingkungan hanya menggunakan akar positif dari persamaan diatas. karena efisiensi teknis yang efisien didefinisikan sebagai syarat untuk efisiensi lingkungan ui=0, sehingga yang memenuhi untuk ekspresi tersebut adalah akar positif. hasil dan pembahasan sebagaimana telah disebutkan sebelumnya bahwa efisiensi teknis dan efisiensi lingkungan akan diestimasi dengan menggunakan fungsi produksi stochastic frontier. penggunaan input per usahatani dan per ha dapat dilihat pada tabel 1. rata-rata penguasaan lahan usahatani padi sawah di kabupaten rokan hulu cukup sempit. menurut badan pusat statistik, 2013, petani dengan penguasaan lahan kurang dari 0.5 ha termasuk pada kelompok petani gurem. hal ini juga sejalan dengan penelitian susilowati & maulana (2016) yang menyatakan bahwa struktur penguasaan lahan pertanian terkonsentrasi pada 0.1 – 0.4 ha per rumah tangga tani. rata-rata produksi di wilayah setempat juga rendah. rata-rata produksi yang rendah ini disebabkan karena sebagian lahan petani berada pada wilayah hilir irigasi sehingga air irigasi sering tidak bisa mencapai lahan usahatani tersebut terutama pada musim kemarau. akibatnya produksi yang dihasilkan tidak sesuai dengan yang diinginkan. meskipun pemerintah telah menggalakkan program pembangunan irigasi, akan tetapi pemenuhan kebutuhan air sawah tepat waktu dan tepat jumlah belum dapat terpenuhi. selain itu, adanya serangan hama juga menjadi salah satu sebab rendahnya produksi yang dihasilkan. umumnya persawahan dikelilingi oleh perkebunan sawit dan karet. sehingga untuk lahan usahatani yang berbatasan dengan lahan perkebunan tersebut lebih sering terserang hama terutama hama keong. penggunaan benih pada usahatani padi ini lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan anjuran penggunaan benih dari bantuan pemerintah yaitu 25 kg per ha. penggunaan jumlah benih yang tepat juga dapat menjadi salah satu cara untuk membuat usahatani menjadi lebih efisien (atman, 2007). penggunaan benih yang berlebihan ini disebabkan petani sekaligus membibitkan padi untuk bibit sisipan dan antisipasi kemungkinan terserang oleh hama. penggunaan tenaga kerja usahatani padi ini sedikit lebih tinggi jika dibandingkan dengan jumlah curahan tenaga kerja pada usahatani padi sawah konvensional hasil penelitian tinubaya et al., 2011 yaitu 69.92 hok ha-1 per musim tanam. pupuk yang digunakan pada usahatani padi sawah ini adalah pupuk urea, sp-36, kcl dan npk. urea merupakan pupuk buatan hasil persenyawaan nh4 (ammonia) dan co2 dengan kandungan unsur n sejumlah 46%. sp-36 merupakan pupuk tunggal dengan kandungan phosphor (p) cukup tinggi dalam bentuk p2o5 sebesar 36%. kcl mengandung kalium (k) sebesar 60% dalam bentuk k2o. jenis npk yang sering digunakan di lapangan adalah npk phonska yang mengandung n (nitrogen) 15%, p2o5 (phosphor) 15% dan k2o (kalium) 15%. pada variabel penelitian digunakan jumlah unsur hara yang terkandung pada masing-masing jenis pupuk yang dibagi menjadi tiga jenis yaitu usur p, k dan n. unsur 83 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 n adalah unsur yang diperlakukan sebagai detrimental input pada penelitian ini yang selanjutnya disimbolkan dengan z. variabel kepemilikan lahan pada penelitian ini diperlakukan sebagai dummy variabel. distribusi kepemilikan lahan menunjukkan bahwa 67% adalah milik sendiri dan sisanya adalah sewa atau sakap. sistem sewa yang dilakukan adalah dengan cara pembayaran hasil panen kepada petani pemilik sebanyak 360 kg gabah kering panen per ha, dan pada sistem sakap pemilik akan mendapat sepertiga dari hasil panen. table 1. penggunaan input per usahatani dan per hektar usahatani padi sawah di kabupaten rokan hulu variabel pemilik penyewa/penyakap total per usahatani per ha per usahatani per ha per usahatani per ha produksi (kg) 846.418 2,704.501 629.000 3,533.106 774.670 2,885.849 lahan (ha) 0.313 1.000 0.178 1.000 0.268 1.000 benih (kg) 8.634 27.589 6.621 37.191 7.970 29.690 tenaga kerja (hok) 21.626 69.100 16.911 94.987 20.070 74.766 pestisida (l) 0.897 2.865 2.032 11.412 1.271 4.736 p 13.475 43.056 4.181 23.483 10.408 38.772 k 13.889 44.378 3.952 22.196 10.610 39.523 z 15.512 49.564 7.182 40.340 12.763 47.545 petani (orang) % dle (1=milik sendiri,0=lainnya) 67 67 sumber: analisis data primer berdasarkan produksi, output usahatani petani penyewa/penyakap lebih tinggi dibandingkan usahatani petani pemilik. penggunaan input lahan, benih, tenaga kerja dan pestisida lebih tinggi pada usahatani petani penyewa/penyakap dibandingkan usahatani petani pemilik. selanjutnya adalah estimasi fungsi produksi stochastic frontier dengan menggunakan metode maksimum likelihood (ml). kelemahan utama estimasi dengan metode ml pada kasus data cross section adalah penggunaan distribution free approach tidak bisa membedakan antara statistika error dari fungsi frontier dan inefisiensi efek dari model. sehingga pemilihan asumsi distribusi merupakan hal penting pada pendekatan ml. untuk itu, sebelum menggunakan maksimum likelihood sebaiknya model dites terlebih dahulu. fungsi produksi model stochastic frontier terdiri dari error vi-u(i,) dimana ui≥0 dan vi distributed symmetrically around zero. untuk uji validity model stochastic frontier dapat dilakukan dengan ordinary least square (ols) residual test. untuk fungsi produksi stochastic frontier maka distribusi residual harus skew to left (kumbhakar, hung-jeng wang, & horncastle, 2015). hasil estimasi menunjukkan bahwa nilai skewness adalah 0.783. tanda negatif menunjukkan bahwa distribusi residual skews to left dan hal ini konsisten dengan spesifikasi fungsi produksi frontier. skewness/kurtosis test for normality digunakan untuk menguji apakah nilai tersebut signifikan atau tidak. hipotesis nol (h_0) adalah tidak terdapat skewness. hasil p value test (0.0001) lebih kecil dari 0.01 maka tolak h_0. sehingga dapat disimpulkan left-skewed error distribution adalah signifikan secara statistik dan data penelitian memenuhi syarat untuk diestimasi dengan menggunakan metode maximum likelihood. agar fungsi yang digunakan dapat menggambarkan keadaan yang sebenarnya perlu dilakukan pemilihan model fungsi yang sesuai. berdasarkan wald test coefficient restriction diperoleh bahwa probability chi-square kecil dari 0.01, hal ini menunjukkan bahwa model yang akan digunakan adalah unrestricted model sehingga model translog memenuhi syarat untuk digunakan. hasil estimasi fungsi produksi usahatani dengan menggunakan model translog dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. nilai sigma square (σ2 ) sebesar 0,058 adalah positif dan signifikan berbeda dari nol, ini menunjukkan bahwa kesesuaian dengan asumsi distribusi yang digunakan yaitu a half normal distribution. nilai parameter γ berhubungan dengan variance dari efek inefisiensi teknis yang diestimasi dari fungsi produksi stochastic frontier. nilai varian gamma sebesar 0,896. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa 89.6% dari variasi error term dipengaruhi oleh faktor inefisiensi teknis dan hanya 10.4% yang disebabkan oleh noise. nilai loglikehood mle > nilai loglikelihood ols (46.812> 41.334). sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa model yang digunakan cukup baik untuk merepresentasikan keadaan yang ada di lapangan. nilai likelihood rasio test adalah 10.957 dan ini lebih besar 84 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dari nilai tabel 𝜒2 (kodde & palm, 1986) pada taraf signifikan 5% dan nilai restriksi 1 yaitu 2.706. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa fungsi stochastic frontier yang digunakan dapat menerangkan keberadaan inefisiensi teknis petani dalam proses produksi. table 2. hasil estimasi fungsi produksi translog dengan metode maximum likelihood estimation (mle) variabel/deskripsi koefisien standard-error t-ratio konstanta -3.094*** 4.476 -0.691 lahan -6.460*** 1.233 -5.239 benih -2.358*** 1.526 -1.546 tenaga kerja 5.253*** 3.318 1.583 pestisida 0.553*** 0.718 0.771 p 1.359*** 1.039 1.307 k -0.001*** 0.711 -0.001 z -0.539*** 1.007 -0.535 lahan x lahan -2.397*** 0.275 -8.719 benih x benih -0.367*** 0.247 -1.487 tenaga kerja x tenaga kerja -1.976*** 1.034 -1.911 pestisida x pestisida -0.002*** 0.063 -0.036 p x p -0.030*** 0.074 -0.400 k x k 0.033*** 0.060 0.552 z x z -0.074*** 0.033 -2.204 lahan x benih -0.089*** 0.329 -0.269 lahan x tenaga kerja 1.210*** 0.562 2.154 lahan x pestisida 0.053*** 0.154 0.343 lahan x p 0.197*** 0.208 0.949 lahan x k 0.145*** 0.149 0.969 lahan x z -0.142*** 0.205 -0.694 benih x tenaga kerja 1.122*** 0.450 2.494 benih x pestisida -0.006*** 0.091 -0.069 benih x p 0.056*** 0.115 0.485 benih x k -0.196*** 0.114 -1.721 benih x z -0.009*** 0.091 -0.100 tenaga kerja x pestisida -0.160*** 0.176 -0.905 tenaga kerja x p -0.411*** 0.278 -1.479 tenaga kerja x k 0.192*** 0.173 1.113 tenaga kerja x z 0.146*** 0.248 0.589 pestisida x p -0.023*** 0.045 -0.509 pestisida x k 0.057*** 0.045 1.283 pestisida x z -0.034*** 0.038 -0.883 p x k -0.015*** 0.040 -0.382 p x z 0.049*** 0.030 1.629 k x z 0.011*** 0.032 0.346 d_le -0.085*** 0.049 -1.746 sigma-squared 0.058*** 0.013 4.605 gamma 0.896*** 0.069 13.028 log likelihood function ols 41.334*** log likelihood function mle 46.812*** lr test of the one-sided error 10.957*** sumber: analisis data primer note: * adalah signifikan level 10%, ** adalah signifikan level 5% *** adalah signifikan level 1%. hasil estimasi input menunjukkan bahwa ada 8 koefisien variabel input yang signifikan (input dan cross input). input dan cross input yang berpengaruh terhadap produksi adalah lahan, benih tenaga kerja, penggunaan pupuk k dan detrimental input. sesuai dengan tujuan studi dapat dilihat bahwa cross input z berpengaruh negatif signifikan pada taraf 5%. hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa adanya pencemaran lingkungan dalam praktek usahatani. selain itu, dummy kepemilikan lahan juga signifikan pada taraf 10%. koefisien negatif menunjukkan bahwa petani dengan kepemilikan lahan milik sendiri memiliki tingkat produksi yang lebih rendah dibandingkan petani yang mengelola lahan sewa atau sakap. hal ini berlawanan dengan hasil penelitian sebelumnya dimana pemilik lahan berpengaruh positif terhadap produksi (koirala, mishra, & mohanty, 2016). elastisitas masing-masing input dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. elastisitas lahan, benih, pupuk p, pupuk k dan z berpengaruh positif terhadap produksi. nilai detrimental input yang positif ini sejalan dengan penelitian pertanian organik di china (marchand & guo, 2014). lahan lebih responsif terhadap produksi, sedangkan tenaga kerja dan pestisida berpengaruh negatif terhadap produksi. table 3. nilai elastisitas faktor produksi variabel elastisitas lahan 0.692 benih 0.085 tenaga kerja -0.169 pestisida -0.012 p 0.007 k 0.012 z 0.034 sumber: analisis data primer distribusi nilai efisiensi teknis usahatani padi sawah dapat dilihat pada tabel 4. sebanyak 82% usahatani berada pada rentang efisiensi 79.3% 98.1%. berdasarkan efisiensi rata-rata maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa petani masih bisa meningkat efisiensi teknis usahataninya sebesar 15.2%. interval peningkatan efisiensi teknis usahatani padi di rokan hulu adalah antara 2.3% hingga 49.1%. rata-rata efisiensi petani 85 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 pemilik lebih rendah dibandingkan petani penyakap/penyewa. temuan ini menegaskan hasil penelitian feng (2008) yang rumah tangga usahatani yang menyewa lahan memiliki tingkat efisiensi yang lebih tinggi karena rumahtangga tersebut berada pada posisi yang tidak aman sehingga akan lebih intensif dalam penggunaan input variabel untuk memaksimumkan keuntungan dalam jangka pendek. kepemilikan lahan berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap inefisiensi teknis. rata-rata efisiensi teknis yang masih bisa ditingkatkan pada petani pemilik adalah 15.6%, sedangkan rata-rata efisiensi teknis yang bisa ditingkatkan pada petani penyakap adalah 15.2% (s.a & h.s, 2009). table 4. distribusi efisiensi teknis usahatani padi sawah kabupaten rokan hulu interval petani pemilik penyewa/ penyakap total jumlah usahatani persen jumlah usahatani persen jumlah usahatani persen 0.509 0.603 2 2.985 2 6.061 4 4 0.604 0.697 6 8.955 1 3.030 8 8 0.698 0.792 5 7.463 2 6.061 6 6 0.793 0.886 24 35.821 13 39.394 37 37 0.887 0.981 30 44.776 15 45.455 45 45 rata-rata 0.844 0.857 0.848 minimal 0.509 0.596 0.509 maksimal 0.977 0.966 0.977 sumber: analisis data primer distribusi efisiensi lingkungan usahatani sawah di kabupaten rokan hulu dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. 86% usahatani berada pada interval efisiensi lingkungan 0.004 – 0.420. berdasarkan nilai rata-rata yang ada dapat disimpulkan bahwa petani disarankan untuk menurunkan detrimental input sebesar 76.3% pada tingkat input dan output sekarang. rata-rata efisiensi lingkungan usahatani petani pemilik lebih tinggi dibandingkan usahatani petani penyewa/penyakap. usahatani petani pemilik disarankan untuk mengurangi rata-rata input z sebesar 75.8% sedangkan untuk usahatani petani pemilik disarankan untuk menguragi input z sebesar 77.3%. berdasarkan tabel 4 dan 5 dapat disimpulkan bahwa petani pemilik lahan memiliki nilai efisiensi yang lebih rendah dibandingkan petani penyewa/sakap. hasil ini berlawanan dengan hasil penelitian pada petani padi di filipina bahwa owner table 5. distribusi efisiensi lingkungan usahatani padi sawah kabupaten rokan hulu interval petani pemilik penyewa/penyakap total jumlah usahatani persen jumlah usahatani persen jumlah usahatani persen 0.004 0.142 26 38.806 14 42.424 45 45 0.143 0.281 18 26.866 9 27.273 29 29 0.282 0.42 9 13.433 6 18.182 12 12 0.421 0.559 8 11.940 3 9.091 13 13 0.56 0.699 6 8.955 1 3.030 1 1 rata-rata 0.242 0.227 0.237 minimal 0.004 0.020 0.004 maksimal 0.695 0.675 0.695 sumber: analisis data primer memiliki nilai efisiensi teknis yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan leasehold dan share tenant (koirala et al., 2016). sebaliknya terjadi pada efisiensi lingkungan pemilik lahan memiliki efisiensi lingkungan yang lebih baik dibandingkan penyewa/sakap. hasil penelitian (kamande, 2010) menyebutkan bahwa inefisiensi teknis yang tinggi dapat diartikan sebagai inefisiensi lingkungan yang tinggi juga. hal yang sama juga ditemukan oleh (clark & tilman, 2017) penggunaan input yang efisien akan konsisten dengan dampak lingkungan yang rendah. kesimpulan kepemilikan lahan akan membuat petani peduli akan keberlanjutan usahatani yang dilakukan. secara psikologi petani pemilik akan lebih berhati-hati menggunakan lahan yang digunakan akan usahatani yang dikelola sustainable dan bahkan ini akan menjadi warisan bagi generasi berikutnya. jadi masalah kepemilikan lahan tidak hanya masalah sustainable untuk masa sekarang akan tetapi sampai antar generasi. studi ini menggunakan data cross section dari 100 petani sample di rokan hulu. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa gamma sebagai variance dari efek inefisiensi teknis signifikan pada alfa 1%. elastisitas lahan, pestisida dan pupuk k negatif. sedangkan benih, tenaga kerja, pupuk p dan z positif. rata-rata efisiensi diperoleh sebesar 84.8% pada sample yang digunakan. efisiensi lingkungan dengan detrimental input z diperoleh rata-rata sebesar 23.7%. hal ini 86 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research mengindikasikan bahwa petani disarankan untuk mengurangi penggunaan input detrimental sebesar 76.3% pada tingkat output dan input saat ini. usahatani yang dikelola pemilik lahan memiliki efisiensi yang lebih rendah dibandingkan lahan usahatani yang disewa/sakap. dan sebaliknya untuk efisiensi lingkungan lahan usahatani petani pemilik lebih efisien dibandingkan lahan usahatani petani penyewa/sakap. penelitian ini masih terbatas pada data cross section sementara detrimental input sifatnya adalah akumulatif dalam jangka waktu yang panjang. untuk itu disarankan menggunakan data time series yang dapat menggambarkan akumulasi input dalam jangka waktu tertentu. selain itu, pengukuran awal kondisi volume detrimental input yang ada dilokasi penelitian akan lebih bermakna jika dijadikan sebagai acuan kelebihan penggunaan detrimental input dibandingkan acuan standar. kolaborasi research cross disiplin ilmu akan menghasilkan arahan kebijakan yang aplikatif untuk diterapkan. ucapan terima kasih tim penulis mengucapkan terima kasih kepada kementerian riset, teknologi dan pendidikan tinggi republik indonesia (ristekdikti) yang bekerjasama dengan lembaga pengelola dana pendidikan (lpdp) yang telah memberikan dukungan dana penelitian ini. penelitian ini merupakan bagian dari disertasi penulis korespondensi. daftar pustaka abedullah, kouser, s., & mushtaq, k. 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(2015). analisis efisiensi lingkungan dengan satu peubah detrimental input melalui pendekatan stochastic frontier analysis ( studi kasus usaha tani bawang merah ) environmental efficiency analysis with one detrimental input variable through a stochastic frontier. informatika pertanian, 24(2), 233–244. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history: submitted : june 27th, 2019 accepted : march 26th, 2020 dina nurul fitria1, harianto2, d s priyarsono2, noer azam achsani2 1faculty of economics and business, universitas pertamina, indonesia 2faculty of economics and management, institut pertanian bogor, indonesia *) correspondence email: dedinanf@gmail.com asymmetric price transmission with threshold behavior of potatoes market in bandung regency west java doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6193 abstract horticulture products price in indonesia (for certain commodities) has experienced the issue of volatility, price decline at farm gate stage, due to oversupply is not equal to or comparable with price high at the other stage. this paper endeavors to investigate threshold behavior in asymmetry test by taking the case of potatoes prices in two important state levels of price, i.e. farm gate prices, and retail prices. the observation used monthly price data from january 2009 to december 2013. threshold behavior detected by tar model that fits in asymmetry testing with two regimes. threshold value is interpreted as a measure of transaction cost between retail to farm gate and high the quantity supplied, that would create incentive for trade. research results reveals as per monthly data price adjustment between farm gate to retail not presence of asymmetry price transmission. asymmetry only reveals within seasonal data, threshold behavior forms margins overshoot of potatoes equilibrium trader’s levels, thus leading to farmer’s decision in profit maximization. keywords: price asymmetry, potatoes, threshold behavior, tar model introduction horticulture as part of the agricultural sector holds potential for consumption and production that needs to be developed, considering that many varieties of fruits, vegetables, biopharmaceuticals and ornamental plants are endemic to indonesia and become economic commodities with high added value. based on the preliminary survey in desa pringgowijayan kutoarjo on march 15 to 18, 2013, horticultural household farming implements rotational cropping or intercropping with food crops. thus, decision making process in planting, harvesting, and marketing, heavily dependent on: (1) input prices of food crops and (2) equilibrium price established at the farm level generates equilibrium price at the wholesale/collectors to determine price supply at retails, (3) the high costs of farming horticulture compensated by planting intercropping food crops, as example, in one plot contained tomato plant, red chili, maize and other cash crops. conceptually, the perfectly competitive market for each actor assumed to have all the information about the price determined by a state of balance between supply and demand. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 mailto:dedinanf@gmail.com issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 94 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research empirical findings in red chili competitive market that price spread causes an equilibrium price gap established at the farm level, wholesale/collector level and retail (fitria et al, 2019). figure 1 shown there is also an equilibrium price gap in potatoes competitive market. source: statistics indonesia, bandung regency (2014) potatoes market price fluctuations increase at farm level in october 2011 to october 2013. the fluctuation in farm level of price goes beyond to increase at the retail level over the same period. due to high demand, potatoes planted in the bandung regency are granola and atlantic varieties. granola potatoes are cultivated by farmers independently with marketing chains through collecting-merchants deliver to wholesale in bandung cities for various retail markets, i.e. wholesales market and the traditional market and supermarket market. in the meantime, atlantic potatoes are cultivated by farmers through a business partnership in this case is marketing with pt indofood fm through the facilitation of traders or the group of farmers, farmers prefer to plant granola potatoes because the price received is quite high compared to growing atlantic potatoes. the price received by potatoes farmers reflects the high in farming costs, including the price of pesticides, fertilizer prices and wage. the price of imported potatoes does not affect the price of local potatoes (andriyanto et al, 2013). on the post-harvest side, the high retail price of potatoes reflects the growing demand for potato consumption of local potatoes. price transmission can occur in the form of high or low in prices, where every one percent change in price on a farm is always assumed to be a symmetrical form of price transmission. the response that occurs in the retail market to high price is faster than the response that occurs in the retail market to low price. the price changes that is responded by the retail market, especially for agricultural commodities that are 'perishable', is determined by market concentration in the structure of perfectly competitive and segmented markets (monopolistic competition markets) and the storage capacity of 'perishable' products (aguiar and santana, 2002). y = 0,0097x + 8,5623 r² = 0,7206 y = 0,0072x + 8,5777 r² = 0,4951 8,30 8,40 8,50 8,60 8,70 8,80 8,90 9,00 9,10 9,20 9,30 9,40 0 12 24 36 48 60 pr ice s a t f ar m a nd r et ai l ( lo gl in ea r c on ve rs io n) january 2009 december 2013 linear farm price linear retail price farm price retail price figure 1. equilibrium price gap of farm – retail potatoes market in west java province http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 95 asymmetric price transmission….. (fitria, et.al.) high or low price of horticultural commodities that occur at the level of retailers, is not always followed by a high or low price at the farmers level, this affects the transmission level of different prices due to regional conditions (spatial transmission), which bring up the transaction costs. in this case transportation costs and choice of farming input factors that pose price risks due to quality (results of previous research in pangalengan and lembang district on 11 july 3 august 2014). meanwhile, horticultural commodity prices are relatively affected by domestic supply and demand rather than world prices, because of market imperfections due to imperfections of information and distribution issues, so that world prices are not directly transmitted to farm regions. there are several price transmission issues about potatoes commodities at the farm level and at the trader level. empirically there are two price formation events, the first is when the agreement of the actual purchase price agreement from farmers with the expectation of selling prices by collector traders. the second is the transmission of farm costs at the farmer level and the transmission of marketing costs at the level of retail traders which is the trading system margin and profit received by the traders. this article describes the problem of horticultural price fluctuations received by farmers and price fluctuations at the retail level through the mechanism of potatoes price transmission and threshold behavior using the markov switching concept. the markov switching concept is generally used in the research of option prices for asset-that has stochastic volatility serial data (hull and white, 1987). likewise, agricultural commodity prices have stochastic volatility data series at different market power, namely oligopsony at the trader level, while at the farm level the perfect competitive market forces apply (siregar, 2012). methodology data the data used in this research are time series data from the period of january 2009 to december 2013 consisting of monthly price data of potatoes at the farmers level in pengalengan sub-district, bandung district and retailers in bandung city. the data source is the publication of agriculture farm price statistics for horticultural crops sector in the period of 2009-2013 per month. when a sample of price data in farmer level and retail level is found to be incomplete, data sources from the directorate general of horticulture, the west java provincial agriculture office, bandung district and caringin market are also used. caringin wholesales market was chosen because collectors/dealers who are members of the caringin market cooperative have a 'note' purchase order system to farmers to ensure the availability of supplies to be sold. these diverse data sources make up 60 observational data. method research method uses an error correction (ecm) and cointegration model estimated from the movement of potatoes price data at the farm level (fp) and at the retail level (idr) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 96 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research to test the asymmetrical alleged vertical price transmission. the substance of the ecm model is testing the error significance of the long-term equilibrium model through cointegration tests on two series of potatoes price data at the farm and at the retail level. when there is no cointegration, the ecm model does not use the von cramon and loy models to obtain sources of asymmetrical price transmission, but the houck and other models are used (wixson and katchova, 2012). in estimating the ecm model, we need to know the lag length of c1, c2, and so on. the length of the lag is statistically different from zero. if the lag length is not the same, then the aic (akaike information criterion) test or sic (schwartz information criterion) test is used to select the ecm model or the houck model. cointegration test results and lag length, are produce short-term equilibrium adjustment parameters that are reflected in the error coefficient cointegrating term (ectt-1) and farm-level price parameters of the ecm model (von cramon-taubadel and fahlbusch, 1996). the positive or negative sign of the ect reflects the formation of the balance price above the balance line or below the balance line. in the context of vertical price transmission in a marketing chain, asymmetric price transmission of positive or negative values does not only exist from the level of farm prices to the level of retail prices, but can also occur vice versa from the level of retail prices to the level of farm prices (boyd and brorsen, 1988). when cointegration testing and lag length established, the next test is the presence or absence of structural breaks and the presence or absence of threshold behavior using a nonlinear model to obtain corrected long-term equilibrium price behavior. one of the known nonlinear models is the threshold autoregression model at c = 1 referred to as regime 1 and c = 2 referred to as regime 2. the expected test results are a decision that there is no structural break and there is a shift in the price regime in price behavior threshold with the markov regime switching testing model introduced by hamilton (1989 and 1990). the asymmetry of positive price transmission is a condition of faster and/or more perfect price movements that occurs when there is squeeze margin high at the farmer's price level or a low at the retail price level, compared to when there is a high in the margin at the farmer's price low or price highs at the retail level. operational model equations of the asymmetry of the transmission of potatoes commodity prices were tested through a series of tests namely data stationarity test, cointegration test, sources of asymmetry of price transmission along with their effects with the wald test, threshold behavior test on the ecm von cramon-taubadel and loy models below. δrpit = α+β1¯δfpit ¯+ β1+δfpit + (1) note that, δrpit, changes of potatoes price at the retail level when it. δfpit¯, changes of potatoes price of at the farm level when price low. δpft+, changes of potatoes price at the farm level when price high. β, β+, asymmetry coefficient of price transmission, if statistically significant, the values of β, β+ are not identical. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 97 asymmetric price transmission….. (fitria, et.al.) in estimating the ecm model, we need to know the length of the lags, statistically different values from zero. the ecm asymmetry process is statistically significant on the houck model. when the lag length is not the same, then aic (akaike,1974) or sic (schwartz, 1978) is used to choose between houck or ecm model specifications. δrp = α + β2δfp + cect(t-1). (2) δrp, changes of potatoes price at the retail level. β2δfp, coefficient changes of potatoes price at the farm level. cect(t-1), coefficient variable of equilibrium adjusted price in the short term. for price transmission asymmetry test that sourced from structural break refers to equation (2) operates switching model to see if there is any effect of price balance adjustment in the long run. δfpt = 𝛼1+∑ (𝛽𝑗 1𝛥𝑅𝑃𝑡−𝑗+1 𝐾 𝑗=1 )+𝜙 1𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑡−1+ γt if ectt-1 <c1 = 𝛼2+∑ (𝛽𝑗 2𝛥𝑃𝑡−𝑗+1 𝑅𝐾 𝑗=1 ) + 𝜙 2𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑡−1+γt if ectt-1 ≤c2 = 𝛼3+∑ (𝛽𝑗 3𝛥𝑃𝑡−𝑗+1 𝑅𝐾 𝑗=1 ) + 𝜙 3𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑡−1+γt if ectt-1 >c2 (3) one of the main advantages of tar is its ability to capture the price asymmetry of transmission in the long term price balance. the expected results of this analysis are (a) the size and speed of transmission of prices from the farmer level, and retail and vice versa, (b) sources of asymmetry of price transmission namely market power, farm transaction costs for potatoes commodities, (c) transmission elasticity prices that can indicate the market power of selected horticultural commodities. the probability transition with markov switching process consists of transitioning random variables that cannot be observed zt from regime 1 to regime 2 or regime 2 to regime 1, which is the probability of the following zt. prob[zt = 1|zt–1 = 1] = p11 (4) prob[zt = 2|zt–1 = 1] = 1 – p11 (5) prob[zt = 2|zt–1 = 2] = p22 (7) prob[zt = 1|zt–1 = 2] = 1 – p22 (8) the numbers of the probability of subsequent turnover of the regime are calculated, e.g. obtained by parameter coefficient p11, then the expected price dropped at the regime of 1 of the parameter coefficient p11, followed by expected price of up to p12 by 1– p11. so, the average length of time for farmer's price and retail price decreased is 1/p12 units/week (depending on the actual serial data unit) or can also be said that the retail price raises every 1/p12. result and discussion a commodity potato is one of the leading horticultural commodities in west java (department of agriculture crops, 2006). types of potatoes that are widely cultivated by farmers in bandung regency are granola potatoes and farmers who collaborate with pt indofood fm through the mediation of farmer groups working on atlantic potatoes. the average of potatoes cultivation is between 0.5 to 1.5 hectares. potatoes production centers in west java are in the highlands which are concentrated in several districts namely bandung, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 98 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research garut, majalengka, and cianjur. the distribution of production centers is quite high, namely in bandung regency mainly in pengalengan, ciwidey, and lembang districts with diverse marketing patterns for the purpose of the wholesale market, traditional markets, supermarkets and processing industries (pt. indofood fritolay makmur) (agustian and mayrowani, 2008). the price of potatoes in the january 2009 to december 2013 period at the farmer level was the most varied. table 1 informs that the potato commodity has a monthly average farmer's price of idr 6,820 and a farm-level price distribution of idr 1,340. the coefficient of variation in farm-level prices is 19.7, so the diversity of farm-level prices increasingly varies at a minimum price of idr 4,770 and a maximum price of idr 10,411. potatoes prices at the average monthly retail level of idr 7,060 and a price distribution of idr 1,342. the retail price of potatoes has a coefficient of variation of 19.0 has a homogeneous distribution representing the population of retail price data in the range of a minimum monthly retail price of idr 4,620 and a monthly maximum of idr 10,714. this also shows that the price of potatoes at the producer level changes more quickly than retail prices. table 1. potatoes price statistic descriptive at farm and retail by january 2009 to december 2013 in bandung regency (in rupiahs) variables average standard of deviation minimum maximum variance farm price 6,820 1,340 4,770 10,411 19.7 retail price 7,060 1,342 4,620 10,714 19.0 source: bandung regency statistical office (2014), calculated. stationarity test model tested stationary with augmented dicky fuller (adf) test in 5% level of significance. if, adf test results lower than mackinon critical value, then data is stationery condition. stationarity test explained in table 2. table 2. stationarity test result on farm – retail prices by january 2009 to december 2013 with intercept in bandung regency variables adf value in 5% level of significance level first difference farm price -1.297 -5.355* retail price 1.577 -6.622* source: authors’ calculation data stationarity testing is conducted in two ways, farmer price as the dependent variable and retail price as the dependent variable. test is carried out at the level (the original data) with intercept. the results of this stationarity test can be seen from the probability, if it is above 5%, then the data contains a unit root or not stationary. potatoes commodity data has been stationary at first difference. if testing the data, at the retail price and farmer level is not stationary at the level, it indicates co-integration on both variables thus there is a longterm balance. causality test the difference of price transmission effect from price changes at farm and retail found with granger causality test. both farm and retail price variables treated as dependent or independent factor as well. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 99 asymmetric price transmission….. (fitria, et.al.) table 3. granger causality test result on potatoes prices at farm and retail by january 2009 to december 2013 in bandung regency price transmission direction (in probability), *(5% level of sig.) farm retail potatoes 0.02* source: authors’ calculation the causality test results potatoes commodity price transmission indicates a one-way direction between farmers' price and retail price. the price changes initiated at the farmer level has direct effect on potatoes demand at the retail level. thus, the price of potatoes commodity at retail established in price change at the farmer level. co-integration test co-integration test results determine the long-term balance, which is useful for identifying the value of high-price adjustments (ect+) above the balance line and low-price adjustments (ect¯) below the balance line. in the long-term equilibrium correction model, the price of potatoes at the level obtained is stationary with a probability of 0.01 indicating the price of potatoes at the farm level and at the co-integrated retail level, it is long-term equilibrium. once it is known that the price of potatoes at the farm level and the price of potatoes at the retail level occur in a long-term balance, it is necessary to test the adjustment of price up and high or asymmetric or asymmetrical price. if it is proven that a significant price adjustment has an effect on the price balance correction model, there is an asymmetry of dynamic price transmission (von cramon and loy, 1999). the price adjustment coefficient test (ectt-1) results at -0.21 with the von cramon dynamic long-term balance correction (ecm) model is significant at probability 0.01. asymmetric test with threshold model price symmetry testing is carried out to determine the transmission price of potatoes at the farmer level to the retail price of potato in bandung city perfectly. von cramontaubadel and loy's dynamic model separates the asymmetrical price transmission between short-term transmission and long-term transmission. the asymmetry of price transmission indicates that there is a threshold behavior that reflects the value of transaction costs and marketing margins (sherman and weiss, 2012). as presented in table 4, the movement in the direction of transmission of potatoes prices from the farmer level to the retail price is 1.02 and the speed of price adjustment increases at the retail level by -0.29. the negative sign on the coefficient of adjustment of ect+t-1 price movements t-1 indicates that the speed of the price adjustment increases takes place through a short-term correction from the farmer level transmitted to the retail price of magnitude 0.29, at the significance level <10% probability value. the price adjustment coefficient goes up ect+t-1 and the price balance coefficient in the short term is negative and it means that there is a threshold correction when the price adjustment goes up ect+t-1 on the balance line on the short term ectt-1. at the time the price http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 100 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research increases at the farmer level, price correction occurs, and it is transmitted at a long-term increase in the balance price at the retail level. table 4. asymmetric price transmission test result at farm and retail by january 2009 to december 2013, bandung regency variables coefficient probability (10%) δfp 1.02 0.0000 ect+t-1 -0.29 0.0623 ectt-1 -0.14 0.3801 r2 0.4370 f test 14.2287 prob(f test) 0.0000 dw 1.9114 source: authors’ calculation the price adjustment coefficient goes up ect+t-1 and the price balance coefficient in the short term ectt-1 is negative. if there is a threshold correction, then the price adjustment goes up ect+t-1 on the balance line on the short term ectt-1. when prices increase at the farm level, price corrections transmitted to long-term equilibrium price increases at the retail level. if the ectt-1 is not significant at a probability value >10%, then the correction below the balance line has no effect on changes in potato prices at the retail level. in the potato commodity, the ectt-1 of -0.14 is not significant so there is no correction in the short term, i.e. the price drops at the farm level there is a correction below the balance line which affects the adjustment back to the long-term balance of magnitude 0.14 when prices decrease at the retail level. so that the decline in potato prices at the farm level does not affect the decline in prices at the retail level. the price of potatoes increases at the farm level has an influence on the increase of potato prices at the retail level and is transmitted faster than when prices decrease at the farm level. there is a common response due to price changes that occur at the farm level to the formation of potato prices at the retail level when prices decrease or increase. asymmetric increase in potato prices by 1% at the retail level has an effect of 77.52% increase in prices at the farm level in the short term. asymmetrical changes in one direction are positive, reflecting the elasticity of price transmission that is inelastic to the commodity potatoes at the farm level (δpf+t). the ectt-1 of -0.14 is not significant so there is no correction in the short term, i.e the price drops at the farm level there is a correction below the balance line which affects the adjustment back to the long-term balance of magnitude 0.14 when prices decrease at the retail level. so that the decline in potatoes prices at the farm level does not affect the decline in prices at the retail level. the price of potatoes increases at the farm level has an influence on the increase of potato prices at the retail level and is transmitted faster than when prices decrease at the farm level. therefore, there is a common response due to price changes that occur in the farm level to the formation of potato prices at the retail level when prices decrease or increase. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 101 asymmetric price transmission….. (fitria, et.al.) wald test in table 5 shows potatoes price at retail level and at the farmer level have transmission price coefficient increases at farmer level of ect+(1) and it is not identical coefficient of transmission price at retail level of ect(2) and significant at ftest 0.001185 with a probability value of 0.9727, which means that transmission asymmetry price on the short and long term has positive shock and negative shock at the same response. table 5. wald test on transmission coefficient of potatoes price increases at farmer level with the coefficient of transmission price at retail level on january 2009 to december 2013 in bandung regency wald test critical value probability t test 0.034431 0.9727 f test 0.001185 0.9727 chi-square 0.001185 0.9725 source: authors’ calculation table 6. price transmission elasticity of potatoes prices in short-term and long-term on january 2009 to december 2013 in bandung regency commodity price transmission direction variables short-term long-term potatoes one-way asymmetric direction from farm to retail δpft + ect(t-1) cointegration occur* 0.7752 (*) 1.0085(*) -0.21 (*) note: *level of significant at alpha 5% source: authors’ calculation asymmetric increase in potato prices by 1% at the retail level has an effect of 77.52% increase in prices at the farm level in the short term. asymmetrical changes in one direction are positive, reflecting the elasticity of price transmission that is inelastic to the commodity potato at the farm level (δpf+t). the ectt-1 long-term equilibrium price adjustment coefficient of 1.0085 means that an increase in farmer's price change of 1% will increase the increase in the price of potatoes at the retail level by 100.0085 percent. the formation of equilibrium prices in the long run is shown by the results of the cointegration test of -0.21. it shows that there is a short-term price correction at the farm level affecting the transmission of long-term equilibrium prices that reflect price adjustments at the retail level (simioni, 2013). formation of price balance for long term commodity potatoes nonlinear threshold behavior formulates long-term price balance movements to determine the chance of a price adjustment transition increases from retail level to farmer level price (p12) or transition price movement down (p21) using markov switching model (enders and siklos, 2001). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 102 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 3. the transition to the long-term balance of potato commodity price change in retail the threshold behavior of potato price balance at the farmer level shown by the green line and it is above the price balance line in the range of idr 1,800 when the price drops in the regime 1 and idr 8,000 when the price in the regime 2 is in the pattern of real price movements. table 7. probability transition of potatoes price regime 1 to price regime 2 at farm level to retail level on potatoes commodity on january 2009 to december 2013 in bandung regency variables coefficient price regime 1 (p11) c 5.597,33(*) price regime 2 (p21) c 7.963,32(*) common log(sigma) 6.77 (*) transition matrix parameters p11-c 3.83 (*) p21-c -4.19(*) note: probability transition of low price farm at regime 1 (p11) to regime 2 (p21) source: authors’ calculation potatoes farmers as price receivers also enjoy incentives from the establishment of a potato retail price in the range of -4.19<0< 3.83 both at the time the price of potatoes harvest drops in one growing season and at the time the price of the potato harvest increases, although a large portion of the incentive is still owned by the potato merchant. the price of the potato retail in caringin market in t period was formed based on the change in down price at regime 1 of idr 5,597 and the increase price at regime 2 by idr 7,963. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 103 asymmetric price transmission….. (fitria, et.al.) figure 4. transition potatoes price change in long-term balance potatoes price balance in the long-term contains a pattern of asymmetric price transmission in one way from the level of farmers to the retail level. there is correction in the short-term price of prices. it dropped below the balance price of idr 8,000 (green line) in the range of idr 6,000 (blue line) and there is a margin about idr 2,000. the spatial difference in rural areas, whereas potatoes farming located with potatoes retail market in bandung city, does not establish spread potato price margins. potatoes price reductions at the retail level were slowly responded by prices at the farm level. potatoes price difference occurs when the price drop is "saved" to reach the balance price at the next price period. cyclical behavior like this in price theory is called a random price behavior or called the threshold behavior (takayama and judge, 1971). table 8. the empirical result of transmission price with farmer price as dependent using von cramon method on january 2009 to december 2013 in bandung regency variables coefficient prob. c 0.035 0.0788 farm price-t-1 0.24 0.4780 farm price+t-1 0.09 0.6570 retail price0.29 0.1306 retail price+ 0.12 0.3731 retail price-t-1 0.13 0.5246 retail price+t-1 0.09 0.5114 ect2 t-1 0.04 0.5727 ect2 + t-1 -0.18 0.0931 source: authors’ calculation, ect2 is price correction in long-term when prices are at the farm level as dependent, the value of price adjustment at the retail level drops in the long-run is indicated by a price adjustment variable down at the retail level in the long-run ect(2)-t-1 with a value of 0.04 different enough with a value adjustment the price increases at the long-term retail level indicated by the variable ect2+t-1 of-0.18 which means that a price transmission asymmetry occurs when the price of potatoes at the retail level increases or decreases is transmitted to price adjustments at the farm level. potatoes traders at the retail level still maintain margins when potatoes prices go down at the probability transition range of -0.18 to -0.2. they still receive incentives from trading http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 104 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research potatoes so that they remain staying in the potatoes market. in the short-term, the asymmetry of price transmission is determined by how much margin retailers receive that is derived from the demand for potato prices at the farm level. the managerial ability of potato growers who have a narrow land area of less than 1 hectare in anticipation of transmission of seasonally price goes up or price goes down in the long run is actualized through the decision to sell harvests in groups with other potato farmers based on caringin wholesale market reference prices. a casual mode of communication such as snacking and drinking coffee in local stall is used by smallholder farmers by obtaining information on the price of potatoes at caringin market. conclusion testing price transmission asymmetry in the market structure of the competition against the monthly data commodity prices potatoes at the farmer level and the retail level is conclusively proven with a confidence level of 5% and 10%, at the farm price as variable dependent. there is asymmetric price transmission in the short and long term. the asymmetric price transmission occurs on the price-down adjustment at the corrected farm level to be priced up at the retail level in the long run. potatoes are relatively longer stored in fresh form, have a longer price adjustment speed when the transmission price increases at the farm level to the retail level. conversely, potatoes when prices drop at farm levels are more rapidly transmitted at the retail level. formation of potato price balance based on short-term price correction at the farmer level. transition changes to the threshold price up and price low of potatoes, there is a chance of transmission transition price adjustments from prices down at the farmer level before achieving a long-term increasing price balance at the retail level. policy interventions are thus required to influence the behaviour of potatoes price threshold at the retail level through potatoes quality size and reduce transaction costs at retail level, for example through a producer cooperative consisting of farmers and potato retailers. price policy incentives at the farm level by policy direction to the purchase based on quality. also, price incentives based on spatial difference between rural and urban so that the farmers enjoy the results of the quality harvest. farmers strategy to sell potatoes to traders in a group way, is expected to get bigger selling results rather than selling themselves directly to the merchant. generally, the location of the potatoes farm that is far from the highway access causes the cost of transport is quite high when borne by the farmer, so the choice of selling potatoes harvest in groups makes the cost of transport can be borne together in the group. farmers and traders need to get a portion of important policy-making roles to improve the agribusiness management skills of farmers and retail traders in cooperative containers. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 105 asymmetric price transmission….. (fitria, et.al.) acknowledgement this article is part of dissertation research results, which funded by directorate of higher education scholarship in 2012 to 2015 fiscal years. references akhmadi, siregar h, hutagaol mp. 2016. pengembangan agribisnis sebagai strategi penanggulangan kemiskinan di perdesaan.jurnal manajemen & agribisnis, vol. 13 no. 3, november 2016:pp.240-253. nomor doi: 10.17358/jma.13.3.240 andriyanto f, setiawan b, riana fd. 2013 dampak impor kentang terhadap pasar kentang di indonesia. habitat 59(1), 59-70. boyd, ms dan brorsen, bw. 1988. price asymmetry in the u.s. pork marketing channel, north central journal of agricultural economics 10,103-109. enders, w dan p.l, siklos. 2001. cointegration and threshold adjustment. journal of business and economic statistics 19(2), 166-176 hamilton, jd. 1989. a new approach to the economic analysis of nonstationary time series and the business cycle, econometrica 57(2), 357-384. houck, j.p. 1977. an approach to specifying and estimating nonreversible functions, american journal of agricultural economics 59,570-572. ikechi k, agbugba dan obi, a.2013.market structure, price formation and price transmission for wood charcoal in southeastern nigeria. journal of agricultural science, 5(10), 77-86. karantininis, k. et al.2011. price transmission in the swedish pork chain: asymmetric non linear ardl. paper presented at the eaae 2011 congress, zurich, switzerland kinnucan hw, forker od. 1987. asymmetry in farm-retail price transmission for major dairy product. american journal of agricultural economics 69(2), 285-292. krogerus, m dan tschäppeler, r.2012.the decision book: fifty models for strategic thinking; translated by jenny piening-1st american ed.w.w.norton special & company ltd. new york. meyer, j. dan s. von cramon-taubadel. 2004. asymmetric price transmission: a survey.journal of agricultural economics 55,581-611. peltzman, s. 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http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 1 januari-juni 2019 niken lestari, siti amanah, pudji muljono, djoko susanto departemen sains komunikasi dan pengembangan masyarakat, fema, institut pertanian bogor *) email korespondensi: lestari_1079@apps.ipb.ac.id pengaruh profil petani pengelola agrowisata terhadap kapasitas pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital di kabupaten bojonegoro dan malang, provinsi jawa timur effect of farmer agritourism management profile on capacity utilizing digital communication technology in bojonegoro and malang districts, east java province doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5176 abstract digital communication technology provides wider opportunities for agritourism farmers to reach local and national markets. agritourism as a diversification of agricultural business encourages farmers to have the capacity to utilize digital communication technology. this study aims to (1) identify the profile of farmers who managing agritourism and (2) analyze the influence of farmer profiles on the level of capacity to use digital communication technology. the profile of agrotourism farmers influences their capacity to use digital communication technology in response to economic changes. the study was conducted in bojonegoro and malang regencies, east java in september and october 2018. data collection was conducted through interviews using questionnaires on 215 farmers. data analysis was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. the result of the study showed that the farmer profile which includes age, the level of formal education and the assessment of digital technology functions were categorized as high. business motivation was in medium category while nonformal education, length of business, types of agritourism products and cosmopolitan level were in low category. the types of agritourism services was in very low category. the result of analysis showed the profile of agritourism farmer that has a very significant effect to increase the capacity of farmers to utilize digital communication technology were age, formal education, assessment of digital communication technology functions, and business motivation, while having a significant effect are non -formal education, length of business, and agritourism products. keywords: agritourism, capacity of farmers, digital technology. intisari teknologi komunikasi digital memberi peluang lebih luas bagi pengelola agrowisata untuk menjangkau pasar lokal dan nasional. agrowisata sebagai diversifikasi usaha pertanian mendorong petani memiliki kapasitas memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk: (1) mengidentifikasi profil petani pengelola agrowisata dan (2) menganalisis pengaruh profil terhadap tingkat kapasitas petani memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital. profil petani agrowisata berpengaruh terhadap peningkatan kapasitas memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital dalam merespon perubahan ekonomi. penelitian ini dilaksanakan di kabupaten bojonegoro dan kabupaten malang provinsi jawa timur pada bulan september-oktober 2018. pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui wawancara menggunakan kuesioner terhadap 215 petani. analisis data dilakukan dengan statistik deskriptif dan inferensial. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa profil petani yang mencakup usia, tingkat pendidikan formal dan penilaian fungsi teknologi digital dalam kategori tinggi. motivasi bisnis berada dalam kategori sedang sedangkan pendidikan nonformal, lama usaha, ragam produk agrowisata dan tingkat http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4269 67 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 kosmopolitan berada dalam kategori rendah. ragam layanan agrowisata termasuk dalam kategori sangat rendah. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa profil petani agrowisata yang memiliki pengaruh sangat signifikan untuk meningkatkan kapasitas petani dalam memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital yaitu: umur, pendidikan formal, penilaian fungsi teknologi komunikasi digital, dan motivasi usaha dengan pengaruh signifikan mencakup pendidikan nonformal, lama usaha, dan ragam produk agrowisata. kata kunci: agrowisata, kapasitas petani, teknologi digital. pendahuluan usaha petani dalam mengelola agrowisata semakin berkembang, termasuk di kabupaten malang dan bojonegoro, jawa timur. agrowisata menjadi nilai tambah penting dalam pertanian hortikultura. usaha agrowisata membuka peluang sebagai sumber pendapatan alternatif bagi petani dan menjadi wujud dari konsep multifungsi pertanian (budiasa & ambarawati, 2014). nilai tambah agrowisata merupakan aspek penting mengingat ada berbagai masalah yang dihadapi petani dalam mengelola usahatani yang terkait, yaitu: (a) aspek teknologi, umumnya petani kecil kesulitan menerima metode baru dan tidak memiliki modal dana yang besar untuk menguasai dan menerapkan teknologi baru; (b) perubahan harga; (c) meningkatnya jumlah produsen; (d) menurunnya harga; (e) menurunnya lahan pertanian; (f) meningkatnya kesadaran kesehatan; (g) perubahan iklim; (g) pembiayaan usahatani dan perubahan pola hidup (soekartawi, 2003). persoalan lain yang dihadapi adalah kesulitan mengakses sumber informasi dan pengetahuan baik dari pemerintah maupun non pemerintah (oktavia, muljono, amanah, & hubeis, 2017). kesulitan ini berdampak terhadap kemampuan petani agrowisata merancang pariwisata berbasis pertanian, yang saat ini dikenal dengan agrowisata. berbagai persoalan di atas juga dihadapi agrowisata yang dikelola oleh petani. akibatnya, agrowisata yang dikelola swasta lebih cepat berkembang karena melibatkan profesional di bidang agrowisata daripada petani (karampela, kizos, & spilanis, 2016). para “profesional” ini dianggap lebih mumpuni dalam memanfaatkan teknologi informasi untuk berkomunikasi, mengembangkan jasa/produk, membangun merek, dan memasarkan jasa sehingga dapat menjangkau calon kalayan yang lebih luas. tanpa upaya terencana untuk mengadopsi teknologi informasi, kapasitas petani pengelola agrowisata akan semakin tertinggal jauh dari pengelola swasta sehingga menimbulkan persaingan tidak sehat dan penguasaan sumber daya terpusat. agrowisata termasuk ke dalam usaha hortikultura yang dibedakan atas usaha mikro, usaha kecil, usaha menengah, dan usaha besar. kebijakan yang berkaitan dengan agrowisata adalah undangundang no. 13 tahun 2010 tentang wisata agro berbasis hortikultura sebagai kegiatan pengembangan kawasan atau usaha hortikultura sebagai objek wisata, baik secara sendiri maupun sebagai bagian dari kawasan wisata yang lebih luas bersama objek wisata yang lain. aspek yang perlu dilaksanakan untuk pengembangan wisata agro yaitu aspek pengembangan sumber daya manusia, aspek sumber daya alam, aspek promosi baik melalui media informasi atau dari mulut ke mulut, aspek sarana transportasi, dan aspek kelembagaan, baik pemerintah, swasta, maupun masyarakat (astuti, 2014; budiarti, suwarto, & muflikhati, 2013) masalah sosial terkait teknologi informasi yang muncul adalah kesenjangan digital yang mencakup tidak saja kepemilikan perangkat digital tetapi juga penguasaan keterampilan dan dana untuk mengakses informasi. data dari kementerian komunikasi dan informatika (2015) memperlihatkan kepemilikan dan akses terhadap tik (teknologi informasi dan komunikasi) petani dijelaskan dalam tabel 1. tabel 1. tingkat kepemilikan tik petani di indonesia jenis tik persentase (%) televisi 95,00 telepon seluler 66,80 radio 22,60 tik lain 14,60 internet 7,20 sumber: (kementerian komunikasi dan informatika, 2015) komunikasi digital merupakan proses teknologi yang mereduksi teks menjadi sesuatu yang dapat dengan mudah difragmentasi, diolah, dihubungkan, dan didistribusikan, sehingga 68 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research memungkinkan untuk disampaikan melalui jaringan, multimedia, kolaborasi dan komunikasi interaktif (kaul, 2012; scolari, 2009). oleh karena itu, dalam penelitian ini penulis menggunakan konsep 'komunikasi digital'. perbedaan utama teknologi komunikasi digital dengan analog terletak pada kemampuan memadatkan sejumlah besar informasi pada perangkat kecil yang dapat dengan mudah disimpan, dibawa, dan dipertukarkan. perangkat komunikasi digital yang menjadi obyek penelitian ini adalah telepon seluler (ponsel) pintar dan berbagai aplikasi komunikasi yang dapat dipasang di dalamnya menggunakan jaringan internet. hal ini karena petani agrowisata lebih banyak menggunakan ponsel pintar dalam keseharian mereka. sebaran pengguna internet di indonesia berdasarkan pekerjaan menunjukkan bahwa nelayan dan petani adalah dua profesi yang berada di urutan dua terbawah dalam pemanfaatan tik (kementerian komunikasi dan informatika, 2015). berdasarkan kelompok usia, lebih dari seperempat pengguna berada di rentang usia 35-44 tahun disusul dengan rentang usia 24-34 tahun (asosiasi penyelenggara jasa internet indonesia, 2016). layanan teknologi komunikasi digital tepat guna berpotensi meningkatkan kapasitas dan mata pencaharian masyarakat yang bekerja di agrowisata. manfaat dari teknologi informasi mencakup penyebaran informasi yang mudah antar pemain di rantai pasokan pertanian, penyimpanan data pertanian yang lebih baik dan penghematan waktu dan tenaga kerja (tembo, simbanegavi, & owei, 2010). pemanfaatan teknologi informasi di tingkat penyuluh pertanian ditentukan oleh jumlah pelatihan teknologi informasi, usia, dan tingkat pendidikan. kurangnya literasi informasi membuat petani tidak mampu melakukan adopsi dari informasi yang mereka temukan (mpiti & harpe, 2015) . petani belum memiliki kemampuan untuk menyampaikan informasi tentang produk mereka ke pasar. penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa keberadaan agrowisata berdampak terhadap munculnya industri rumah tangga pengolahan hasil pertanian, pengelolaan usahatani padi, dan pemanfaatan lahan pekarangan yang lebih intensif untuk menunjang kegiatan agrowisata, yang dapat meningkatkan pendapatan rumah tangga (sriyadi, 2016). pemaparan di atas menunjukkan bahwa ada persoalan terkait kapasitas petani untuk memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital dalam mengembangkan usaha agrowisata. berdasarkan uraian tersebut, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah: i) menggambarkan kapasitas petani agrowisata memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital dan ii) menganalisis pengaruh profil petani pengelola terhadap kapasitas memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital. profil petani pengelola agrowisata yang diteliti mencakup umur, tingkat pendidikan formal, tingkat pendidikan non-formal, lama usaha, luas kepemilikan lahan, produk agrowisata, jasa agrowisata, tingkat motivasi usaha, tingkat kosmopolitan, dan penilaian tentang fungsi teknologi digital. penelitian ini memodifikasi indikator yang dikembangkan educational testing service (2007) untuk mengukur kapasitas memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital yang mencakup tingkat kapasitas mengakses sumber informasi, mengelola, mengevaluasi, mencipta, dan mengkomunikasikan informasi. metode penelitian penelitian ini menggunakan metode survei terhadap petani pengelola agrowisata di kabupaten bojonegoro dan kabupaten malang, provinsi jawa timur. penentuan lokasi penelitian dilakukan secara stratified yaitu mengidentifikasi kecamatan dan desa yang mengembangkan agrowisata berbasis masyarakat yang dikelola oleh kelompok sadar wisata (pokdarwis). sampel penelitian ditentukan secara proportional random sampling dengan kriteria (1) petani yang mengusahakan lahan hortikultura, (2) anggota pokdarwis, dan (3) menggunakan ponsel pintar. definisi operasional yang digunakan untuk kapasitas pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital adalah kemampuan responden dalam memanfaatkan perangkat dan aplikasi komunikasi digital, baik yang terhubung maupun tidak terhubung dengan internet. kapasitas tersebut diukur melalui lima sub-peubah yang terdiri dari (1) tingkat akses informasi: kemampuan responden mengumpulkan dan/atau 69 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 menemukan kembali informasi menggunakan perangkat dan aplikasi digital yang diukur dengan 7 pertanyaan skala guttman, (2) tingkat pengelolaan informasi: kemampuan menyimpan dan mengelompokkan informasi dalam beberapa kategori yang diukur dengan 5 pertanyaan skala guttman, (3) tingkat cipta informasi: kemampuan menghasilkan informasi baru dengan memodifikasi dan mengemas ulang informasi yang diukur dengan 4 pertanyaan skala guttman, (4) tingkat evaluasi informasi: kemampuan mengkaji informasi yang diperoleh terkait keandalan, relevansi, dan manfaat yang diukur dengan 5 pertanyaan skala guttman, dan (5) tingkat mengkomunikasikan informasi: kemampuan menyampaikan informasi kepada beragam individu dan/atau kelompok menggunakan perangkat komunikasi yang dimiliki dan diukur melalui 6 pertanyaan skala guttman. seluruh jawaban dibuat dalam 4 kategori sangat rendah, rendah, sedang, dan tinggi. pertanyaan terkait tingkat akses informasi meliputi kemampuan responden dalam mengunduh informasi (foto atau teks) tentang agrowisata dari mesin pencari, menemukan informasi tentang agrowisata, harga produk dan jasa agrowisata di tempat lain, sapta pesona, cara mengolah produk supaya tahan lama, cara daur ulang sampah, dan cara mendapatkan izin seperti pirt atau bpom. pertanyaan terkait pengelolaan informasi meliputi kemampuan responden menemukan kembali dokumen (foto, teks) yang sudah disimpan di dalam ponsel, membuka taut yang dikirim melalui sms atau whatsapp, meneruskan pesan ke orang lain, menghapus dokumen dari ponsel, dan memindahkan dokumen dari ponsel ke ponsel lain. pertanyaan tentang penciptaan informasi meliputi kemampuan responden merangkum informasi tentang agrowisata yang sudah diketahui, menulis ulang informasi tentang agrowisata dalam bahasa lokal, mengambil foto dan merekam suara menggunakan ponsel. kemudian pertanyaan tentang evaluasi informasi meliputi kemampuan responden mengecek keakuratan informasi, kesesuaian informasi dengan kebutuhan, memilah antara informasi hiburan dan usaha, keandalan informasi yang ditemukan, dan mendapatkan umpan balik dari konsumen. terkait kapasitas pengkomunikasian informasi, pertanyaan meliputi kemampuan responden mengirim video atau suara ke ponsel orang lain menggunakan aplikasi whatsapp, menyampaikan pertanyaan ke orang lain di grup daring, berdiskusi dengan orang lain menggunakan whatsapp, bernegosiasi harga dengan klien, dan mengunggah foto produk atau jasa agrowisata ke media sosial. penentuan jumlah sampel menggunakan rumus slovin dengan syarat jumlah populasinya diketahui (sujarweni, 2014). jumlah populasi petani pengelola agrowisata di dua kabupaten adalah 460 orang. batas toleransi kesalahan yang digunakan adalah 5% sehingga diperoleh responden berjumlah 215 orang dengan rincian di tabel 2. tabel 2. jumlah populasi dan sampel penelitian dari dua kabupaten nama kabupaten populasi sampel kabupaten malang 190 92 kabupaten bojonegoro 270 123 jumlah 460 215 teknik pengambilan sampel yang digunakan adalah proportional stratified random sampling. tahapan pertama yang dilakukan adalah pemilihan dua kabupaten yaitu bojonegoro dan malang. populasi petani pengelola agrowisata yang bergabung dalam kelompok sadar wisata (pokdarwis) berjumlah 460 orang. tahapan kedua dalam penelitian ini adalah penentuan sampel menggunakan rumus slovin dari populasi pengelola agrowisata di dua kabupaten tersebut sehingga diperoleh 215 sampel penelitian. tahapan ketiga adalah melakukan penentuan sampel dengan memperhatikan kriteria petani pengelola agrowisata di empat desa. penelitian ini menggunakan metode survei melalui pengisian kuesioner yang telah diuji kepada petani agrowisata di kabupaten malang sebanyak 30 orang. hasil uji coba memperlihatkan bahwa kuesioner layak digunakan dengan nilai uji validitas 0,380– 0,824 dan nilai uji reliabilitas sebesar 0,855. pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui kuesioner, pengamatan langsung, dan wawancara 70 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research mendalam selama bulan september-oktober 2018. sebagai pelengkap data, dilakukan juga wawancara mendalam dengan penyuluh dari dinas koperasi dan ukm kabupaten malang, dinas pariwisata kabupaten bojonegoro, dinas pertanian kabupaten bojonegoro, penyuluh dari universitas surabaya, dan ketua dari empat pokdarwis di dua kabupaten. data sekunder diperoleh melalui penelusuran dokumen-dokumen dari dinas pariwisata dan dinas kukm, pokdarwis, dan website yang dikelola pemerintah desa di lokasi penelitian. data sekunder berupa transkrip hasil wawancara mendalam, profil agrowisata, harga paket wisata, daftar anggota di setiap pokdarwis, data jumlah pengunjung, jenis pelatihan yang pernah diterima pokdarwis, jenis penghargaan yang pernah diterima pokdarwis, dan sejarah dari setiap pokdarwis. melalui uji validitas menggunakan product moment pearson, diperoleh nilai r hitung dari seluruh item pertanyaan lebih besar dari nilai r tabel (0,361), yang artinya seluruh item pernyataan dinyatakan valid. uji reliabilitas alpha cronbach pada peubah profil petani menghasilkan skor 0,723 dan kapasitas petani sebesar 0,855 sehingga seluruh peubah penelitian dinyatakan reliabel. data yang diperoleh di lapangan selanjutnya diolah dengan menggunakan statistik deskriptif untuk mendapatkan profil responden berdasarkan atribut internal diri dan usaha agrowisata yang dilakukan. cara ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui peran karakteristik pengelola agrowisata dalam pengembangan kapasitas memanfaatkan teknologi digital. tujuan pertama penelitian dijawab menggunakan statistik deskriptif yang digunakan untuk menganalisis data dengan cara mendeskripsikan atau menggambarkan data yang telah terkumpul sebagaimana adanya. tujuan kedua dijawab menggunakan uji regresi sederhana. analisis regresi linier sederhana dilakukan untuk mengetahui arah hubungan antara peubah bebas (profil petani, ketersediaan teknologi komunikasi digital, dukungan kelompok, dan dukungan penyuluhan) dengan peubah terikat (kapasitas petani memanfaatkan teknologi digital dan pengembangan usaha agrowisata). hal ini dilakukan untuk memprediksi jika terjadi kenaikan atau penurunan nilai dari peubah bebas. hasil dan pembahasan profil agrowisata di kabupaten bojonegoro dan kabupaten malang daerah tujuan agrowisata yang cukup terkenal di provinsi jawa timur dan kerap dipromosikan di media sosial adalah kabupaten malang dan kabupaten bojonegoro. provinsi jawa timur secara serius mengembangkan agrowisata untuk mengimbangi berkurangnya luas lahan dan tingkat kesuburan lahan pertanian. visi pariwisata kabupaten malang adalah "terwujudnya kepariwisataan kabupaten malang yang berbasis masyarakat". visi pariwisata kabupaten bojonegoro agak berbeda yaitu "mewujudkan bojonegoro sebagai daerah tujuan wisata dan budaya". pengelolaan agrowisata berbasis masyarakat dilakukan dengan pembentukan kelompok sadar wisata (pokdarwis). pembentukannya dapat diinisiasi oleh masyarakat sendiri atau dari dinas pariwisata setempat. di kabupaten malang ada dua pokdarwis yang menonjol yaitu desa wisata gubugklakah di kecamatan poncokusumo yang ditetapkan sebagai juara iii desa wisata nasional dan juara i lomba pokdarwis dari kementerian kebudayaan dan pariwisata tahun 2014. desa lainnya adalah pujon kidul yang meraih penghargaan sebagai desa wisata agro terbaik dari kementerian desa, pembangunan daerah tertinggal dan transmigrasi (kemendesa) tahun 2017 dan penghargaan dari indonesia sustainable tourism award (ista) kategori pemanfaatan ekonomi untuk masyarakat tahun 2018. produk pertanian yang menonjol di kedua desa tersebut adalah buah apel, sayuran, dan susu sapi. jasa yang ditawarkan kedua desa mencakup wisata alam, budaya, edukasi, dan penginapan. desa ngringinrejo, kabupaten bojonegoro pernah mendapatkan anugerah wisata dari pemerintah provinsi jawa timur pada tahun 2014. desa ini terkenal dengan produk unggulan buah belimbing yang berkembang ke jambu kristal dan jambu merah. desa lainnya yaitu wedi baru membentuk pokdarwis pada tahun 2017 dengan produk unggulan salak yang dirawat secara turuntemurun. seiring dengan perkembangan zaman, pamor dan produktivitas salak wedi menurun sehingga 71 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 beberapa warga tergerak untuk menggiatkan usahatani salak agar lebih menguntungkan melalui pariwisata. profil petani pengelola agrowisata komposisi responden penelitian terdiri dari 32,09% perempuan dan 67,90% laki-laki. kategori umur dikelompokkan sesuai dengan klasifikasi havighurst (1980). lebih dari setengah jumlah responden berada pada kategori usia muda. hal ini berpotensi meningkatkan penggunaan teknologi komunikasi digital bagi pengelolaan usaha. penelitian (triyono, mulyo, masyhuri, & jamhari, 2016) menemukan bahwa faktor karakteristik umur berkorelasi positif signifikan dengan inefisiensi teknis usahatani padi. besarnya jumlah pengelola berusia muda dan sangat muda juga berpotensi menjadi sumber daya yang cepat beradaptasi dengan industri pariwisata. kendala utama adalah rendahnya tingkat pendidikan nonformal, luas lahan, produk, jasa agrowisata, lama usaha, dan tingkat kosmopolitan. hal ini ditunjukkan di tabel 3. tabel 3. profil petani pengelola agrowisata di dua kabupaten sub-peubah terrendah tertinggi rata-rata (kategori) umur (tahun) 17 66 37 (muda) pendidikan formal (tahun) 5 16 11 (tinggi) pendidikan nonformal (jumlah) 1 10 4,14 (rendah) lama usaha (tahun) 1 8 3 (baru) luas lahan (meter) 1.500 15.000 2.500 (sempit) produk agrowisata (jenis) 1 7 3 (rendah) jasa agrowisata (jenis) 1 4 1,5 (sangat rendah) tingkat motivasi usaha (skor) 21 35 28,1 (sedang) tingkat kosmopolitan (skor) 8 16 10,14 (rendah) penilaian terhadap fungsi teknologi digital (skor) 6 12 10,75 (sangat tinggi) tingkat pendidikan formal rata-rata petani agrowisata selama 11 tahun termasuk kategori tinggi. hal ini karena kemudahan akses terhadap fasilitas pendidikan formal tingkat lanjut di kabupaten malang dan kedekatan lokasi desa wedi dengan pusat kota di bojonegoro. selain itu, masyarakat di kabupaten malang dan bojonegoro secara umum memiliki kesadaran yang tinggi untuk menyekolahkan anak-anak mereka. tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa pendidikan nonformal responden berada pada kategori rendah (4,14). di kabupaten malang, kedua lokasi agrowisata memiliki tingkat kunjungan yang sangat tinggi dan sering menjadi rujukan bagi desa lain untuk belajar tentang desa wisata. jadwal kunjungan yang padat menyebabkan pengurus dan anggota kesulitan mengalokasikan waktu untuk memberikan pelatihan yang terstruktur. di desa pujon kidul, tingginya pergantian anggota menjadi permasalahan karena pengurus pokdarwis dituntut untuk membekali dan mendampingi anggota yang baru masuk. sebagian besar anggota yang baru masuk belum mendapatkan materi pelatihan terkait sapta pesona dan manajemen usaha agrowisata secara menyeluruh. materi sapta pesona biasanya diberikan secara tidak langsung dalam bentuk pelatihan terkait tata cara pelayanan tamu yang membahas tentang keramahan, keamanan, kebersihan, dan ketertiban. umumnya pengurus pokdarwis sudah mendapatkan pelatihan tentang sapta pesona, dasar pengelolaan agrowisata, pengembangan jasa dan produk olahan, pengurusan izin usaha, dan pemasaran menggunakan teknologi digital. sumber pelatihan biasanya dari dinas kementerian di pemerintah kabupaten dan/atau pemerintah provinsi, selain juga dari perguruan tinggi. beberapa dinas pemangku kepentingan yang memberikan pelatihan kepada pengelola agrowisata antara lain dinas kebudayaan dan pariwisata, dinas koperasi usaha kecil dan menengah, dinas pertanian dan ketahanan pangan, dinas peternakan, dinas komunikasi dan informatika, dan dinas perindustrian. kementerian desa, pembangunan daerah tertinggal, dan transmigrasi mengeluarkan permendes nomor 48 tahun 2018 tentang program inovasi desa yang salah satu fokusnya pengembangan agrowisata di desa. secara berkala, program ini memberikan pelatihan ke desa-desa yang dianggap berpotensi mengembangkan usaha agrowisata. salah satu narasumber pelatihan adalah kepala desa wisata atau pengelola agrowisata yang dianggap berhasil. 72 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research lama usaha pengelola agrowisata berkisar 3 tahun. hal ini dipengaruhi oleh perputaran tenaga kerja yang tinggi di dua lokasi penelitian di kabupaten malang. beberapa alasan yang dikemukakan responden adalah karena sebagian orang memilih untuk fokus pada usahatani atau usaha ternak yang dianggap lebih menguntungkan daripada pariwisata. selain itu, anggota pokdarwis memiliki pekerjaan utama pada bidang non pertanian. lokasi desa yang dekat dengan perkotaan menyebabkan sebagian pemuda/pemudi memilih untuk bekerja di pabrik atau swalayan. kepemilikan lahan petani pengelola agrowisata pada kategori rendah dengan luas rata-rata di bawah 3.000-meter persegi. sedikit sekali petani yang memiliki atau menggarap lahan yang sangat luas. luas lahan yang sempit menuntut keterlibatan pemerintah desa untuk membangun satu visi yang kuat dari seluruh pengurus dan perangkat desa yang terlibat agar dapat menyusun penataan ruang yang baik dan mekanisme pembagian hasil yang adil. hal ini masih menjadi kelemahan di dua desa di kabupaten bojonegoro dalam mengembangkan usaha agrowisata. terdapat rata-rata 3 jenis produk agrowisata yang dikelola oleh petani sehingga termasuk kategori rendah. produk yang paling banyak ditawarkan adalah petik buah atau sayur. belum banyak anggota pokdarwis yang terdorong untuk menekuni produk olahan seperti keripik buah, sari buah, dan stik susu. produk olahan dari buah lebih berkembang di desa wedi dibandingkan desa ngringinrejo, kabupaten bojonegoro dan desa gubugklakah, kabupaten malang karena di dua desa tersebut pengunjung lebih tertarik membeli buah atau sayur segar daripada hasil olahan. hanya ada 2 jenis jasa agrowisata yang dilakukan petani agrowisata di dua kabupaten sehingga termasuk kategori sangat rendah. hal ini karena dua desa di kabupaten bojonegoro belum mengembangkan jasa penginapan (homestay) dan sedikit petani yang terdorong untuk menambah jasa seperti pelatihan bertani di kebun, pelatihan mengolah hasil tani, dan membuat warung makan. selain itu, tidak semua petani memiliki kemampuan menjadi pemandu tamu karena waktu yang lebih banyak tersita untuk merawat kebun dan ternak. tingkat motivasi usaha tergolong kategori sedang. hal ini karena dengan melakukan usaha agrowisata petani mampu menjual produk tani dengan harga yang lebih baik, lebih mudah memasarkan hasil panen, dan lebih cepat menghasilkan keuntungan. namun, agrowisata tidak mengurangi biaya usahatani, bahkan memerlukan modal infrastruktur dan biaya perawatan yang besar. masyarakat di lokasi penelitian memiliki semangat besar untuk bergerak dan bergabung dalam suatu organisasi. hal ini membuat pokdarwis banyak diminati oleh warga sebagai wadah untuk belajar mengembangkan usaha. tingkat kosmopolitan petani pengelola agrowisata termasuk dalam kategori sangat rendah. petani agrowisata mengalokasikan sebagian besar waktu untuk mengelola lahan dan agrowisata sehingga sedikit waktu dan minat untuk mencari informasi keluar desa. petani mengandalkan informasi dari pengurus pokdarwis dan penyuluh yang datang ke desa. tingkat kekosmopolitan yang sangat rendah berpotensi mengurangi kemampuan mengelola usaha agrowisata. penilaian petani terhadap fungsi teknologi digital tergolong kategori tinggi. hal ini karena semakin banyak petani yang terpapar dengan beragam fungsi teknologi komunikasi digital, baik melalui pengamatan maupun pengalaman. beberapa petani dan anggota keluarganya melakukan usaha dengan berjualan online sehingga cukup memahami tentang cara berpromosi dan transaksi jual beli menggunakan aplikasi digital. tabel 4. jenis perangkat dan aplikasi komunikasi yang digunakan pengelola agrowisata jenis perangkat/aplikasi frekuensi persentase (%) perangkat komunikasi a. telepon seluler pintar 213 99,07 b. telepon seluler biasa 71 33,02 c. laptop dan komputer desktop 33 15,35 aplikasi a. telepon 134 62,33 b. sms 53 24,65 c. whatsapp 196 91,16 d. media sosial (facebook, instagram, twitter) 66 30,70 n=215 tabel 4 menunjukkan hampir semua responden menggunakan ponsel pintar. bagi yang tidak memakai ponsel pintar, ada anggota keluarga inti yang menggunakan ponsel pintar dan dapat diandalkan 73 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 untuk menjadi narahubung. kurang dari setengah responden menggunakan ponsel biasa dengan alasan pengoperasian yang lebih mudah, komunikasi yang lebih cepat, daya tahan baterai lebih lama, dan lebih ringan untuk dibawa. penggunaan aplikasi whatsapp tidak terbatas pada orang muda tetapi juga petani yang berusia tua. petani agrowisata juga menggunakan media sosial untuk melakukan jual beli. pemanfaatan aplikasi pesan instan seperti whatsapp dan media sosial dapat menjadi dasar bagi upaya optimalisasi perangkat dan aplikasi komunikasi untuk memasarkan dan mengembangkan usaha agrowisata. petani agrowisata menggunakan ponsel pintar untuk mengakses internet sehingga mengandalkan layanan broadband internet dari perusahaan telekomunikasi seluler. namun kekuatan dan kualitas layanan internet perusahaan telekomunikasi di beberapa desa hanya memadai untuk mengirim pesan berupa teks dan foto. oleh karena itu, aplikasi telepon masih dibutuhkan di beberapa tempat dengan jaringan internet yang kurang stabil. kapasitas petani memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital kapasitas merupakan kemampuan individu untuk melakukan pekerjaan yang dipengaruhi oleh karakteristik diri. di dalamnya terdapat ranah perilaku yaitu pengetahuan, sikap dan keterampilan. dengan pemahaman tersebut maka tingkat kapasitas petani akan menentukan cara pengelolaan usaha (herawati, hubeis, amanah, & fatchiya, 2017). hal ini juga disampaikan oleh sumardjo & mulyandari (2010) bahwa kapasitas petani dalam menggunakan media digital dan multimedia dianggap penting untuk menangkap peluang dari berbagai sumber. kapasitas tersebut dapat diperoleh melalui perantara sesama petani atau penyuluh dari pemerintah atau perguruan tinggi. kapasitas pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital responden diukur melalui lima aspek kemampuan yang merefleksikan literasi digital. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa tingkat kemampuan responden mengakses, mencipta informasi dan mengevaluasi informasi pada kategori sedang. distribusi kemampuan responden untuk mengelola dan mengkomunikasikan informasi berada di kategori tinggi seperti yang disajikan di tabel 5. tabel 5. distribusi kapasitas petani agrowisata dalam memanfaatkan teknologi sub peubah rentang skor rata-rata skor kategori mengakses sumber informasi 8-16 13,60 sedang mengelola informasi 5-10 8,91 tinggi mencipta informasi 4-8 6,67 sedang mengevaluasi informasi 5-10 7,90 sedang mengkomunikasikan informasi 6-12 10,95 tinggi rata-rata kapasitas petani agrowisata dalam mengakses informasi termasuk dalam kategori sedang. hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa petani pengelola agrowisata cukup mampu mengakses sumber informasi menggunakan aplikasi dan perangkat komunikasi digital. penelitian witteveen, lie, goris, & ingram (2017) menunjukkan hasil yang sama sehingga timnya mengembangkan aplikasi pembelajaran digital bagi petani berbasis kurikulum sekolah lapang di sierra leone. kapasitas responden mengelola informasi diukur dari kemampuan menyimpan dan mengklasifikasikan informasi yang diperoleh melalui aplikasi digital. kapasitas petani mengelola informasi termasuk kategori tinggi sehingga mampu menemukan kembali informasi ketika dibutuhkan. dengan kondisi tersebut, petani menjadi lebih kompetitif dalam bekerja dan terus terdorong meningkatkan keterampilan (garrido, sullivan, & gordon, 2012). kapasitas petani mencipta informasi berada pada kategori sedang. hal ini karena sebagian besar petani belum mampu merangkum dan mengolah informasi yang sudah diperoleh kepada orang lain. petani sebatas mampu meneruskan informasi kepada orang lain atau grup daring pokdarwis. sebagian petani sudah mampu mengambil foto dan merekam suara terkait agrowisata untuk dibagikan kepada anggota pokdarwis. kapasitas petani mengevaluasi informasi termasuk kategori sedang. petani masih perlu belajar untuk memilah antara informasi hiburan dan usaha. selain itu, petani juga memerlukan kemampuan lebih baik untuk mendapatkan umpan balik atau masukan 74 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dari konsumen terkait usaha agrowisata yang dilakukan. kapasitas petani mengkomunikasikan informasi berada pada kategori tinggi. sebagian besar petani dapat bertukar informasi, baik dalam bentuk dokumen, foto, maupun video, dengan sesama anggota pokdarwis dan pengunjung di luar desa menggunakan aplikasi pesan instan. aplikasi yang paling banyak digunakan adalah whatsapp. petani juga dapat mengunggah foto produk dan jasa agrowisata di akun media sosial, terutama instagram. hal ini menunjukkan kesadaran tentang promosi bagi peningkatan kunjungan wisata dan adanya dorongan yang kuat untuk menyebarkan informasi terkait jasa agrowisata yang dikelola setiap kelompok. kapasitas petani mengakses informasi tabel 6 menunjukkan bahwa umur dan pendidikan formal berpengaruh sangat nyata terhadap kapasitas pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital. namun pengaruh umur bersifat negatif terhadap kapasitas seluruh aspek pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital. petani berusia tua dan sangat tua belum memanfaatkan berbagai fitur yang tersedia di perangkat komunikasi digital yang dimiliki untuk kegiatan seperti pemasaran, penyusunan paket wisata, dan berjejaring dengan komunitas wisata. tabel 6. nilai koefisien regresi profil petani agrowisata terhadap kapasitas petani memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital peubah bebas nilai koefisien (β) terhadap kapasitas petani memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital profil petani agrowisata y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 1 umur -0,313** -0,482** -0,365** -0,252** -0,257** 2 pendidikan formal 0,525** 0,309** 0,587** 0,423** 0,318** 3 pendidikan non-formal 0,026** -0,070** 0,054** 0,201** -0,030** 4 lama usaha 0,068** 0,133** 0,093** 0,080** 0,051** 5 luas lahan -0,108** 0,050** -0,035** 0,056** 0,022** 6 produk agrowisata 0,134** 0,140** 0,061** 0,029** 0,187** 7 jasa agrowisata -0,101** -0,073** 0,068** 0,090** 0,031** 8 tingkat motivasi usaha 0,350** 0,148** 0,006** 0,007** 0,008** 9 tingkat kosmopolitan -0,226** -0,147** -0,208** -0,025** -0,258** 10 penilaian tentang fungsi teknologi digital 0,431** 0,194** 0,191** 0,229** 0,196** keterangan: *berpengaruh nyata pada p ≤ 0,05, **berpengaruh sangat nyata pada p ≤ 0,01 y1=mengakses, y2=mengelola, y3=mengevaluasi, y4=mencipta, y5=mengkomunikasikan motivasi yang bersumber dari dalam dan dari luar diri seseorang berkontribusi terhadap kepuasan kerja yang berdampak pada peningkatan kinerja dan produktivitas (kuranchie-mensah & amponsahtawiah, 2016). motivasi dalam penelitian ini difokuskan pada dorongan dari dalam dan luar diri untuk melakukan kegiatan pengelolaan agrowisata, yang berpengaruh terhadap pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital. tingkat motivasi usaha dan penilaian tentang fungsi teknologi digital berpengaruh sangat nyata terhadap kapasitas memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital. tingkat kosmopolitan menunjukkan pengaruh nyata secara negatif terhadap kapasitas mengakses informasi menggunakan teknologi komunikasi digital. hal ini karena kedekatan yang sudah terbangun antara penyuluh dari dinas pemerintah tingkat kabupaten dan provinsi mempermudah pengurus kelompok untuk mengakses informasi tanpa harus keluar dari desa. informasi ini kemudian disebarluaskan oleh pengurus melalui grup whatsapp masing-masing. hampir semua penyuluh dari dinas pemerintah dan perguruan tinggi juga aktif berhubungan dengan ketua atau pengurus pokdarwis menggunakan ponsel pintar. kapasitas petani mengelola informasi kapasitas mengelola informasi dipengaruhi secara nyata oleh lama usaha agrowisata. rata-rata lama usaha responden adalah 3 tahun sehingga sudah mendapatkan cukup pelatihan untuk memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital. lama usaha ditandai dengan keanggotaan di pokdarwis. pada setiap pokdarwis yang diteliti, seluruhnya memiliki grup berbasis whatsapp yang diikuti oleh pengurus dan anggota. oleh karena itu, semakin lama responden mengelola agrowisata, semakin kuat juga dorongan untuk aktif mengikuti diskusi daring. termasuk di dalamnya mengirim dokumen atau foto, membuka taut yang dikirim ke grup, menghapus dokumen dari ponsel, dan memindahkan dokumen menggunakan perangkat digital. dari hasil analisis terlihat bahwa luas lahan tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap kapasitas pemanfaatan teknologi digital. hasil ini sesuai dengan 75 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 penelitian aubert, schroeder, & grimaudo (2012) bahwa persepsi terhadap kegunaan teknologi, bukan luas lahan, yang berpengaruh pada adopsi inovasi teknologi. hal ini berbeda dari temuan gultom, sumardjo, sarwoprasodjo, & muljono (2016) yang menunjukkan hubungan antara luas lahan dengan kapasitas memenuhi kebutuhan informasi. tingkat penilaian terhadap fungsi teknologi digital berpengaruh secara nyata pada kemampuan mengelola informasi. hal ini mengingat petani agrowisata sering menggunakan teknologi komunikasi digital untuk melakukan kegiatan usaha seperti menerima pesanan dari tamu, menghubungi penyuluh, mencari informasi agrowisata, dan menonton video tutorial. kapasitas petani mengevaluasi informasi kapasitas ini diwakili dengan kemampuan mengecek keakuratan, kesesuaian (relevansi), keandalan informasi, dan kemampuan memilah antara informasi hiburan dan usaha. dengan seperangkat kemampuan tersebut, petani dapat mengetahui umpan balik dari tamu baik dengan membaca ulasan tempat wisata di media sosial. kekosmopolitan merupakan derajat seseorang untuk berhubungan dengan sistem lingkungan luar sosialnya (rogers, 2003) yang dicirikan oleh frekuensi dan jarak perjalanan yang dilakukan. tingkat kosmopolitan petani agrowisata berpengaruh sangat nyata secara negatif terhadap kapasitas mengevaluasi informasi. kedekatan dan dukungan penyuluhan masih dinilai penting karena responden masih mengandalkan penyuluh, baik dari pemerintah maupun dari sesama petani, untuk mendapatkan dan mengevaluasi informasi. kemampuan mengevaluasi informasi tidak secara khusus diperoleh dari hubungan dengan lingkungan luar karena pokdarwis dianggap sebagai sumber informasi yang terpercaya. tingkat penilaian terhadap fungsi teknologi komunikasi digital berpengaruh secara nyata pada kapasitas mengevaluasi informasi. responden menilai bahwa teknologi komunikasi digital dapat membantu proses komunikasi interpersonal, promosi usaha, mencetak dokumen, dan melakukan transaksi jual beli. penilaian tersebut membantu responden menentukan tingkat keakuratan, kesesuaian, dan keandalan informasi yang diperoleh. hal ini merefleksikan kemampuan menganalisis informasi yang cukup baik untuk menunjang kegiatan mengelola usaha agrowisata. petani menilai penggunaan teknologi komunikasi digital yang tidak dikelola dengan baik berpotensi untuk mengganggu konsentrasi bekerja dan meningkatkan biaya pulsa. petani belum memiliki dorongan untuk memperluas jaringan usaha menggunakan teknologi komunikasi digital karena sudah memiliki jaringan pemasaran yang mampu menampung hasil usahatani. kapasitas petani mencipta informasi nilai sub-peubah pendidikan formal menunjukkan pengaruh sangat nyata terhadap seluruh aspek kapasitas pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat slamet (2002) yang menyatakan bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan seseorang, semakin tinggi pula pengetahuan, keterampilan dan sikap. penulis lain menyatakan bahwa tingkat pendidikan individu berpengaruh terhadap efisiensi kerja dan teknik bekerja yang lebih baik menurut (mardikanto, 1993). tingkat pendidikan formal seseorang menunjukkan tingkat pengetahuan, sikap dan keterampilan dalam melaksanakan tugas. secara umum, individu yang memiliki tingkat pendidikan formal tinggi juga mempunyai wawasan yang lebih luas dibandingkan dengan seseorang dengan tingkat pendidikan formal rendah. rata-rata skor kapasitas ini tergolong kategori sedang (6,67) yang diukur dari kemampuan merangkum informasi yang sudah diperoleh sebelumnya, mengambil foto, merekam suara, dan menyampaikan informasi ke orang lain menggunakan teknologi komunikasi digital. hal ini menunjukkan kemampuan petani yang baik dalam mencerna dan memaknai informasi sesuai dengan kebutuhan atau masalah yang sedang dihadapi. pendidikan non-formal hanya berpengaruh sangat nyata terhadap kapasitas mencipta informasi karena memerlukan keterampilan untuk membuat 76 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research akun media sosial, mengambil dan mengedit foto, dan mencantumkan tagar. oleh karena itu, perlu disediakan pendidikan non formal untuk meningkatkan kapasitas pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital oleh petani (oktavia, muljono, amanah, & hubeis, 2017). kapasitas mengkomunikasikan informasi tingkat produk agrowisata berpengaruh nyata pada kapasitas ini sehingga produk agrowisata yang semakin beragam akan mendorong kapasitas petani mengkomunikasikan informasi. hal ini ditandai dengan kemampuan berpartisipasi di grup daring yang dikelola oleh pokdarwis. tingkat keragaman produk agrowisata merefleksikan kepentingan petani untuk mendapatkan informasi yang berguna bagi pengembangan usaha. skor rata-rata kapasitas ini termasuk kategori sedang (10,95) dan menunjukkan kemampuan petani mengkomunikasikan informasi di dalam kelompok. tingkat kosmopolitan berpengaruh sangat nyata secara negatif terhadap kapasitas mengkomunikasikan informasi. hal ini karena responden sudah memiliki jaringan dan sumber informasi yang terpercaya dan dapat diandalkan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan informasi. oleh karena itu, responden tidak mencari sumber lain, terutama melalui teknologi digital untuk memenuhi kebutuhan informasinya. proses mengkomunikasikan informasi lebih banyak dilakukan melalui pertemuan kelompok atau melalui grup whatsapp ke orang-orang yang sudah dikenal dengan baik. selama ini penyebaran informasi tentang agrowisata dimulai dan dilakukan oleh pengunjung. pokdarwis, dengan dukungan dari dinas pariwisata atau dana swadaya, menindaklanjuti dengan melakukan famtrip bagi blogger, vlogger, selebgram, dan agen perjalanan di tingkat provinsi untuk merasakan paket wisata yang ditawarkan. kosmopolitan petani dilakukan untuk berhubungan dengan pihak luar yang diharapkan dapat menyebarluaskan informasi tentang wisata sehingga tidak berpengaruh positif terhadap kapasitas yang mereka miliki untuk mengkomunikasikan informasi. petani masih mengandalkan pihak luar yang memiliki kapasitas dan jaringan luas untuk mempublikasikan jasa agrowisata. dua lokasi agrowisata di kabupaten malang memiliki akun media sosial, terutama di instagram yang dikelola dengan baik. akun media sosial tersebut terhubung dengan beberapa agen travel, komunitas wisata, komunitas mahasiswa, dan berbagai komunitas berbasis hobi yang memiliki anggota lebih besar. dengan cara itu, informasi agrowisata diperbarui secara berkala. pembaruan isi media sosial merupakan hal penting yang seringkali diabaikan pengelola pariwisata skala kecil dan menengah. padahal isi media sosial yang tidak diperbarui dapat menurunkan antusias dan minat calon pengunjung (mcgrath, 2006; mpiti & harpe, 2015). teknologi komunikasi digital berfungsi membantu rantai distribusi dan intermediasi sebagai faktor penting bagi peningkatan daya saing dan keberhasilan industri pariwisata (buhalis & law, 2008). oleh karena itu, peningkatan kapasitas memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital diharapkan dapat mendorong pengelola agrowisata untuk merekayasa ulang proses bisnis sehingga meningkatkan keuntungan dan menjamin keberlanjutan usaha. kebaruan penelitian ini ada pada pemahaman tingkat kosmopolitan yang berpengaruh secara negatif terhadap tiga bentuk kapasitas yaitu mengakses mengevaluasi, dan mengkomunikasikan informasi. tingkat kosmopolitan belum optimal meningkatkan kapasitas karena petani memiliki jadwal yang padat dalam mengelola agrowisata dan pertanian. akibatnya pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital lebih banyak diserahkan kepada petani muda, komunitas pariwisata, dan media elektronik. saat ini ada beberapa akun media sosial seperti lingkarmalang, amazingmalang, explore malang, visit bojonegoro, dan berita bojonegoro yang membantu promosi wisata yang dilakukan pokdarwis. namun, pengelola akun media sosial tersebut tidak memberi pelatihan atau menyediakan pendampingan bagi pokdarwis sehingga tidak berdampak pada kapasitas petani dalam memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital. 77 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 gambar 1. akun media sosial dari dua pokdarwis di kabupaten malang kesimpulan profil petani pengelola agrowisata di dua kabupaten di provinsi jawa timur sebagai berikut: (i) tingkat pendidikan formal petani termasuk kategori tinggi, (ii) pendidikan nonformal responden termasuk kategori rendah, (iii) lama usaha agrowisata termasuk kategori baru, (iv) luas lahan petani agrowisata termasuk kategori sempit atau sangat rendah, (v) ragam produk agrowisata termasuk kategori rendah, (vi) ragam jasa agrowisata termasuk kategori sangat rendah, (vii) tingkat motivasi usaha pengelola agrowisata termasuk kategori sedang, (viii) tingkat kosmopolitan petani pengelola agrowisata termasuk kategori rendah, dan (ix) penilaian petani terhadap fungsi teknologi digital termasuk kategori tinggi. profil petani pengelola agrowisata berpengaruh terhadap kapasitas diri memanfaatkan teknologi komunikasi digital, antara lain: (i) pendidikan formal dan penilaian terhadap fungsi teknologi komunikasi digital berpengaruh sangat nyata terhadap seluruh aspek pemanfaatan teknologi komunikasi digital, sedangkan umur dan tingkat kosmopolitan berpengaruh sangat nyata secara negatif; (ii) pendidikan nonformal berpengaruh sangat nyata terhadap kemampuan mencipta informasi; (iii) lama usaha berpengaruh nyata pada kemampuan mengelola informasi; (iv) ragam produk agrowisata berpengaruh nyata pada kemampuan mengkomunikasikan informasi; dan (v) tingkat motivasi usaha berpengaruh sangat nyata terhadap kemampuan mengakses sumber informasi. daftar pustaka asosiasi penyelenggara jasa internet indonesia. 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(2017). design and development of a digital farmer field school. experiences with a digital learning environment for cocoa production and certification in sierra leone. telematics and informatics, 34(8), 1673–1684. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.07.013 layout juli 2016 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.1 januari 2017 oki wijaya program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta okiwijaya@umy.ac.id strategi pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan dalam menunjang ketahanan pangan wilayah (studi kasus di kabupaten batang, propinsi jawa tengah) doi: 10.18196/agr.3144 abstract food is considered as one strategic issues in indonesia in the reason that food expenditure reached 58.81 percent of total household expenditure in 2014. therefore, increasing food security and agribusiness development should be main program in agricultural and region development. one thing that can be done to improve food security and agribusiness development area is the development of comparative advantage of regional food commodities. this study aims to (i) identify the comparative advantage of food commodities; and (ii) develop alternative strategy in the development of comparative advantage of food commodities. the study was conducted in batang regency, central java province. the method used in this study was location quotient (lq), external factor evaluation matrix (efe), internal factor evaluation (ife), matrix strength weaknesses opportunities threats (swot) and quantitative strategic planning matrix (qspm). the results showed that food commodities which are has comparative advantage in batang regency are rice, corn, and cassava. strategic priority for the development of comparative advantage of food commodities is the utilization of appropriate technology service post (posyantek), for the settlement of food commodities problems. the strategy is expected to increase productivity of food crops and support food security, especially on the availability of food. kkkkkeywordseywordseywordseywordseywords: food commodities, food security, strategic. intisari pangan merupakan salah satu permasalahan yang dinilai sangat strategis di indonesia, karena pengeluaran untuk pangan mencapai 58,81 persen dari total pengeluaran rumah tangga pada tahun 2014. untuk itu, peningkatan ketahanan pangan dan pengembangan agribisnis seharusnya menjadi program utama dalam pembangunan pertanian dan wilayah. salah satu upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk meningkatkan ketahanan pangan wilayah dan pengembangan agribisnis adalah dengan pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan wilayah. penelitian ini bertujuan (i) mengidentifikasi komoditas pangan unggulan; dan (ii) menyusun alternatif strategi dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan. penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten batang, propinsi jawa tengah. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah location quotient (lq), matrik external factor evaluation (efe) dan internal factor evaluation (ife), matrik strength weakness opportunities threats (swot) serta quantitative strategic planning matrix (qspm). hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa komoditas pangan di kabupaten batang yang layak dikembangkan sebagai komoditas unggulan adalah padi sawah, jagung dan ketela pohon. strategi prioritas yang dapat dilakukan dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan yaitu pemanfaatan pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna (posyantek) yang telah dimiliki oleh kabupaten batang untuk penyelesaian masalah komoditas pangan. strategi tersebut diharapkan 49 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 dapat meningkatkan produktivitas tanaman pangan, sehingga menunjang ketahanan pangan wilayah, khususnya ketersediaan pangan di kabupaten batang. kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci: ketahanan pangan, komoditas pangan, strategi. pendahuluan sebelum periode tahun 1960-an, teori-teori ekonomi pembangunan dalam berbagai literatur pada umumnya memandang inferior peranan sektor pertanian. pandangan inferior terhadap sektor pertanian membuat sektor tersebut tidak berkembang sebagaimana mestinya, dan keadaan seperti itu mengakibatkan adanya kekurangan produksi pangan domestik, yang diikuti dengan krisis neraca pembayaran dan instabilitas politik di banyak negara berkembang. namun sejak awal tahun 1960-an, pandangan para pakar ekonomi pembangunan terhadap peranan sektor pertanian mengalami perubahan secara signifikan. johnston dan mellor dalam todaro dan smith (2006)mengindentifikasi lima kontribusi sektor pertanian dalam pembangunan ekonomi, di antaranya sektor pertanian menghasilkan pangan dan bahan baku untuk sektor industri dan jasa. jika peningkatan pangan dapat dipenuhi secara domestik, peningkatan suplai pangan ini dapat mendorong penurunan laju inflasi dan tingkat upah tenaga kerja, yang pada akhirnya diyakini dapat lebih memacu pertumbuhan ekonomi. selain hal tersebut diatas, pangan merupakan kebutuhan paling mendasar bagi manusia. ketahanan pangan sangat erat kaitannya dengan ketahanan sosial, stabilitas politik dan keamanan atau ketahanan nasional (sur yana dalam purwantini, et. al., 2003). bagi bangsa indonesia, perhatian masalah pangan dinilai sangat strategis, diantaranya karena pangan menempati urutan terbesar pengeluaran rumah tangga. data badan pusat statistik (2014)menyebutkan bahwa pengeluaran untuk pangan mencapai 58,81% dari total pengeluaran rumah rumah tangga. untuk itu, peningkatan ketahanan pangan dan pengembangan agribisnis seharusnya menjadi program utama dalam pembangunan pertanian dan wilayah. salah satu upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk meningkatkan ketahanan pangan wilayah dan pengembangan agribisnis secara simultan yaitu dengan pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan wilayah. hal ini selaras dengan krisnamurthi (2002), yang menyatakan bahwa ketangguhan sektor pertanian diarahkan pada usaha pertanian berbasis sumberdaya domestik (unggulan daerah) yang permintaan produknya tidak elastis terhadap pendapatan maupun harga, sehingga tangguh menghadapi gejolak ekonomi. selain itu, produksi pertanian relatif stabil memiliki keterkaitan antara sektoral yang luas dan sangat penting untuk pemantapan ketahanan pangan. dengan demikian, penelitian ini bertujuan mengidentifikasi komoditas pangan unggulan wilayah sebagai dasar dalam menyusun strategi peningkatan ketahanan pangan berbasis komoditas unggulan. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten batang, propinsi jawa tengah, yang merupakan salah satu lumbung pangan di propinsi jawa tengah.data sekunder dalam penelitian ini didapatkan dari kabupaten batang dalam angka 2015, dan digunakan sebagai dasar identifikasi komoditas pangan unggulan serta pertimbangan dalam penyusunan daftar pertanyaan pada wawancara.pengambilan data primer dilakukan melalui wawancara dengan 10 responden yang meliputi pimpinan padabadan perencanaan dan litbang; dinas pekerjaan umum dan penataan ruang; dinas pangan dan per t anian; dinas lingk ungan hidup; dinas perindustrian, perdagangan, koperasi, dan ukm; dinas pemberdayaan masyarakat dan desa; bagian bumd kabupaten batang; pimpinan kecamatan terkait; tokoh masyarakat dan lsm; dan perwakilan dpr komisi c. untuk mengidentifikasi komoditas pangan unggulan di kabupaten batang digunakan metode location quotient (lq). dalam penelitian ini, analisislocation quotient (lq) didasarkan atas jumlah produksi komoditas tanaman pangan dalam satuan kuintal. persamaan matematis analisis location quotient (lq) adalahsebagai berikut(tarigan, 2009): keterangan: = jumlahproduksikomoditas i pada tingkat kecamatan =jumlahtotalproduksisubsektor komoditas i pada tingkat kecamatan = jumlahproduksipanen komoditas i pada tingkat kabupaten =jumlahtotalproduksisubsektor komoditas i pada tingkat kabupaten langkah selanjutnya adalah menentukan faktor eksternal dan internal yang mempengaruhi penentuan strategi, dengan menggunakan matrik efe (external factor evaluation) dan ife (internal factor evaluation). setelah itu, dilakukan analisisswot(strength weakness opportunities threats). dalam analisis swot, alternatif formula strategi dilakukan dengan melakukan perbandingan berpasangan. perbandingan 50 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research berpasangan adalah suatu teknik membandingkan suatu komponen dengan komponen yang lain dalam satu kategori yang sama. matrik swot membantu dalam melakukan perbandingan berpasangan, antara kekuatan, peluang, kelemahan dan ancaman untuk kemudian disusun menjadi alternatif strategi dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan berupa strategi st (strength-threats), strategi so (strength-opportunities), strategi wo (weaknesses-opportunities), strategi wt (weaknesses-threats). setelah itu, untuk mengevaluasi strategi alternatif secara objektif,dilakukan analisis qspm (quantitative strategic planning matrix). analisis dilakukan dengan langkah sebagai berikut: (1) memasukkan berbagai alternatif strategi baik faktor eksternal daninternal dalam kolom kiri qspm; (2) memberikan nilai atau bobot untuk setiap faktor (identik dengan nilai yang diberikan pada matrik ife dan efe); (3) memeriksa (pencocokan) matrik dan mengidentifikasi strategi alternatif yang harus dipertimbangkan untuk ditetapkan; (4) menetapkan nilai daya tarik atau attractive score (as), (5) menghitung total nilai daya tarik yang merupakan hasil perkalian bobot dengan nilai daya tarik dalam setiap baris. semakin tinggi total nilai daya tarik, semakin menarik strategi tersebut(david, 2011). hasil dan pembahasan identifikasi komoditas pangan unggulan identifikasi komoditas pangan unggulan dilakukan menggunakan analisis location quotient, dengan kriteria bahwa komoditas yang memiliki nilai hasil analisis lebih dari 1, merupakan komoditas basis wilayah, atau dengan definisi lain, komoditas tersebut memiliki keunggulan komparatif. untuk mengetahui hasil analisis location quotient lebih jelas, dapat dilihat pada tabel 1. padi sawah adalah komoditas pangan unggulan pada 11 kecamatan di kabupaten batang, antara lain kecamatan wonotunggal, bandar, tersono, gringsing, limpung, banyuputih, pecalungan, tulis, kandeman, batang dan warungasem. dari 11 kecamatan tersebut, kecamatan tersono adalah kecamatan yang memiliki luas panen paling besar, yaitu 4.610 hektar, dengan jumlah produksi 216.570 kuintal, dan produktivitas 46,98 kuintal/hektar. angka tersebut sekaligus menunjukkan bahwa kecamatan tersono adalah kecamatan yang memiliki produktivitas padi tertinggi di kabupaten batang. kecamatan penghasil padi terbesar kedua adalah kecamatan gringsing, dengan luas panen mencapai 4.174 hektar dan produksi mencapai 195.290 kuintal. secara geografis, kecamatan tersono dan kecamatan gringsing memiliki letak bersebelahan, yaitu di kabupaten batang bagian timur dan bersebelahan dengan kabupaten tabel 1. hasil analisis lq no. kecamatan nilai lq komoditas unggulan padi sawah jagung ketela pohon ketela rambat kacang tanah kentang 1 wonotunggal 1,35 0,39 1,23 0,43 3,33 0,00 2 bandar 1,01 0,74 1,68 1,03 1,65 0,00 3 blado 0,27 0,61 2,48 1,69 0,00 3,34 4 reban 0,55 1,63 0,31 3,59 0,00 0,46 5 bawang 0,59 1,83 0,16 0,75 0,00 4,51 6 tersono 1,44 1,22 0,39 0,00 0,00 0,00 7 gringsing 1,88 0,03 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 8 limpung 1,10 1,69 0,18 1,24 2,60 0,00 9 banyuputih 1,21 2,43 0,00 0,00 1,09 0,00 10 subah 0,76 1,92 1,05 1,50 1,76 0,00 11 pecalungan 1,01 2,56 0,34 0,36 0,09 0,00 12 tulis 1,25 0,05 1,56 0,95 3,73 0,00 13 kandeman 1,54 0,02 1,19 0,10 0,91 0,00 14 batang 1,57 0,00 1,18 0,00 0,69 0,00 15 warungasem 1,84 0,00 0,15 0,00 0,62 0,00 51 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 kendal.selain kedua kecamatan tersebut, penghasil padi sawah di kabupaten batang bagian barat adalah kecamatan wonotunggal. kecamatan wonotunggal memiliki luas panen 3.581 hektar dengan produksi 149.880 kuintal. komoditas pangan unggulan kabupaten batang lainnya adalah jagung. berdasarkan hasil analisis location quotient, jagung merupakan komoditas unggulan pada 7 kecamatan di kabupaten batang, antara lain kecamatan reban, bawang, tersono, limpung, banyuputih, subah, dan pecalungan. dari 7 kecamatan tersebut, kecamatan bawang adalah kecamatan yang meiliki luas panen jagung paling besar yaitu 1.317 hektar dengan jumlah produksi 83.260 kuintal. secara geografis, kecamatan bawang terletak di kabupaten batang bagian tenggara, dan berbatasan langsung dengan kabupaten kendal dan kabupaten temanggung. selain kecamatan bawang, penghasil jagung terbesar kedua adalah kecamatan subah. kecamatan subah memiliki luas panen sebesar 1.155 hektar dengan jumlah produksi 70.290 kuintal. kecamatan subah terletak di bagian utara kabupaten batang. selain padi sawah dan jagung, komoditas pangan lainnya yang dapat diunggulkan adalah ketela pohon. ketela pohon adalah komoditas unggulan pada 7 kecamatan di kabupaten batang. kecamatan yang memiliki luas panen terbesar adalah kecamatan blado dengan luas panen 802 hektar dan jumlah produksi 195.510 kuintal.selain kecamatan blado, penghasil ketela pohon terbesar kedua adalah kecamatan bandar, dengan luas panen 218 hektar dan jumlah produksi 63.360 kuintal. kedua kecamatan tersebut memiliki wilayah bersebelahan dan terletak di bagian selatan kabupaten batang. faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan di kabupaten batang dibagi dalam faktor eksternal dan faktor internal. faktor eksternal adalah peluang dan ancaman terhadap pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan di kabupaten batang. untuk mengetahui faktor eksternal, dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. berdasarkan hasil analisis matrik evaluasi faktor eksternal, faktor peluang yang memiliki skor paling tinggi adalah faktor bantuan alat pertanian dan ketersediaan kredit ketahanan pangan (kkp). kedua faktor tersebut memiliki peringkat 4, artinya bahwa faktor tersebut memiliki pengaruh sangat kuat dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan di kabupaten batang. hasil tersebut sesuai dengan kondisi di kabupaten batang, dimana ketersediaan alat dan keterbatasan modal menjadi kendala dalam berusahatani, khususnya tanaman pangan, seperti yang disampaikan oleh lembaga swadaya masyarakat (lsm) omah tani pada saat interview. oleh karena itu, strategi pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan yang dirancang harus bisa memanfaatkan peluang berupa bantuan alat dari pemerintah pusat dan memanfaatkan program kredit ketahanan pangan (kkp) sebagai modal dalam berusahatani. faktor ancaman yang memiliki skor matrik tertinggi adalah konversi lahan pertanian menjadi non pertanian dan rendahnya harga jual komoditas pangan pada saat panen raya. konversi lahan pertanian menjadi non pertanian merupakan ancaman serius bagi pengembangan komoditas pangan dalam menunjang ketahanan pangan wilayah. dalam satu dekade (tahun 2000-2010), luas total lahan pertanian sawah di propinsi jawa tengah berkurang hingga 6.484 hektar. dampaknya, produksi padi propinsi jawa tengah pada tahun 2000 sebesar 9,24 juta ton menjadi 9,22 juta ton pada tahun 2010, atauturun sekitar 20.000 ton (sutrisno, et. al., 2012).menurut ruswandi, et. al., (2007),konversi lahan pertanian dalam jangka panjang akan meningkatkan peluang terjadinya penurunan tingkat kesejahteraan petani. jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa konversi lahan merupakan masalah penting dalam pengembangan pertanian. selain konversi lahan pertanian, rendahnya harga jual komoditas pangan pada saat panen raya juga menjadi faktor yang memiliki pengaruh sangat kuat dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan di kabupaten batang. pada saat panen raya, produksi komoditas pangan melimpah, melebihi jumlah permintaan di pasar(excess supply) (pindyck dan rubinfeld, 2009).fenomena tersebut akan menyebabkan risiko tidak terserapnya hasil panen, dan menyebabkan harga jual yang rendah(anindita, 2004). dampak terhadap pengembangan komoditas pangan adalah berkurangnya minat masyarakat berusahatani, yang kemudian menyebabkan rendahnya produksi dan mengancam kondisi ketersediaan pangan wilayah. selain menganalisis faktor eksternal, penyusunan strategipengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan dalam menunjang ketahanan pangan wilayah juga menganalisis faktor internal. analisis faktor internal dilakukan dengan mengidentifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan yang dimiliki oleh kabupaten batang. untuk melihat hasil analisis matrik evaluasi faktor internal dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. berdasarkan hasil analisis matrik evaluasi faktor internal, faktor kekuatan yang memiliki skor tertinggi adalah kondisi sawah yang sudah teririgasi dengan baik. faktor tersebut memiliki bobot 0,089 dan peringkat 4, artinya faktor tersebut memiliki pengaruh sangat kuat terhadap pengembangan 52 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research komoditas pangan unggulan di kabupaten batang. tahun 2016, kabupaten batang memberikan bantuan berupa pengembangan jaringan irigasi tersier (irit) dan irigasi perpompaan/perpipaan dengan harapan dapat meningkatkan produktivitas pertanian di kabupaten batang (suara merdek a, 2016). hal ini sesuai dengan pernyataan hardjomidjojo (1997), yang menyatakan bahwa peningkatan produksi untuk mencapai swasembada pangan tergantung sebagian besar pada pengembangan irigasi, terutama di pulau jawa. selain itu, tersedianya sistem informasi harga kebutuhan pokok di kabupaten batang juga memiliki pengaruh yang kuat terhadap pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan. kabupaten batang telah memiliki sistem informasi harga kebutuhan pokok masyarakat yang dapat dilihat secara online di http://komoditas.batangkab.go.id. masyarakat dapat melihat harga kebutuhan pokok per komoditas, dan statistik perubahan harga per wilayah. faktor kelemahan yang memiliki pengaruh kuat terhadap pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan, berdasarkan matrik internal, adalah kepemilikan lahan petani yang sempit dan penyaluran kredit yang tidak tepat sasaran. berdasarkan data sensus pertanian 2003 dan sensus ekonomi 2006 (safitri, 2010)bahwa rata-rata penguasaan lahan oleh rumah tangga petani adalah seluas 0,36 hektar. disisi lain, susilowati dan maulana(2011),menyatakan bahwa sumber penyebab utama kemiskinan penduduk perdesaan yang sebagian besar berpenghasilan utama sebagai petani adalah karena sebagian besar petani tergolong petani kecil dengan rata-rata luas penguasaan lahan kurang dari 0,5 hektar. selain itu, penyaluran kredit dari pemerintah pusat juga menjadi kendala utama dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan ungulan di kabupaten batang. strategi pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan strategi pengembangan komoditaspangan unggulan di kabupaten batang disusun berdasarkan hasil dari matrik evaluasi ekternal dan internal. pemilihan strategi didasarkan atas pertimbangan skor yang diperoleh pada tiap faktor serta penjelesan dari responden pada saat interview. penyusunan strategi swot dibagi dalam empat matrik, antara lain strategi s-o (strengths-opportunities) yang disusun berdasarkan pertimbangan faktor kekuatan dan faktor peluang. strategi tabel 2. hasil analisismatrik evaluasi faktor eksternal no. faktor kunci sukses bobot peringkat skor peluang 1 ketersediaan kredit ketahanan pangan (kkp) dari pemerintah pusat untuk usahatani komoditas pangan 0,082 4 0,326 2 adanya program upaya khusus (upsus) swasembada komoditas pangan (padi, jagung, kedelai) 0,047 2 0,095 3 pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional 0,055 2 0,111 4 peningkatan investasi industri makanan lebih daari 100% 0,074 3 0,221 5 bantuan alat pertanian 0,087 4 0,347 6 program prioritas presiden dalam pengembangan potensi bisnis unggulan daerah 0,074 3 0,221 7 terbukanya peluang mitra dengan perusahaan 0,061 3 0,182 0,479 1,503 ancaman 1 konversi lahan pertanian menjadi non pertanian 0,097 4 0,389 2 berkurangnya tenaga kerja dibidang pertanian 0,089 4 0,358 3 meningkatnya jumlah transmigran penduduk desa ke kota lain 0,089 4 0,358 4 perubahan iklim yang tidak menentu 0,068 2 0,137 5 rendahnya harga jual komoditas pangan pada saat panen raya 0,097 4 0,389 6 serangan hama dan penyakit 0,079 3 0,237 0,521 1,868 total 1,000 3,371 53 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 kedua adalah strategi w-o (weakness-opportunities) yang disusun berdasarkan pertimbangan faktor kelemahan dan peluang. strategi ketiga adalah strategi s-t (strengths-threats) yang disusun berdasarkan faktor kekuatan dan ancaman. strategi keempat adalah strategi w-t (weaknesses-threats)yang disusun berdasarkan faktor kelemahan dan ancaman. adapun strategi secara keseluruhan dapat dilihat pada mtarik tabel 4. strategi s-o adalah strategi yang dirancang dengan menggunakan kekuatan untuk memperoleh peluang. berdasarkan analisis matriks evaluasi eksternal dan pertimbangan dari keyinforman pada saat interview, maka disusunlah dua strategi s-o. pertama, pelatihan penggunaan alat pertanian bantuan pemerintah, karena alat tersebut merupakan salah satu penunjang dalam peningkatan produktivitas komoditas pangan serta efisiensi usahatani. pemerintah memberikan bantuan alat pertanian melalui direktorat jenderal sarana dan prasarana (dirjen psp) kementerian pertanian. namun, petani tidak dapat menggunakan bantuan alat tersebut dengan baik, karena keterbatasan ilmu dan pendidikan yang dimiliki petani. akibatnya, bantuan alat pertanian oleh pemerintah pusat tidak berdampak efektif dalam usahatani, khususnya tanaman pangan.hal ini sesuai dengan pramudya (1996) yang menyatakan bahwa dalam pembangunan pertanian, peningkatan tenaga kerja terampil sangat diperlukan. pengalaman selama ini menunjukkan, bahwa pengembangan alat dan mesin pertanian ditingkat usahatani yang tidak disertai peningkatan keterampilan pengelolanya akan banyak mengalami hambatan.oleh karena itu, pemerintah kabupaten batang melalui pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna (posyantek) dapat memberikan pelatihan dan pendampingan penggunaan alat pertanian yang diperoleh dari bantuan pemerintah pusat. strategi s-o kedua adalah mempermudah proses investasi pada industri olahan pangan. strategi ini disusun atas peluang peningkatan investasi industri makananlebih dari 100 persen (kementerian perindustrian, 2016)dan program prioritas presiden dalam pengembangan potensi bisnis unggulan daerah(kementerian sekretariat negara ri, 2017),serta peluang mitra dengan perusahaan swasta.dengan mempermudah proses investasi, jumlah industri olahan pangan di kabupaten batang akan meningkat. hal ini akan meningk atkan nilai t ambah produk hasil per t anian, ser ta memberik anmultiplier ef fect terhadap perekonomian tabel 3. hasil analisis matrik evaluasi faktor internal no. faktor kunci sukses bobot peringkat skor kekuatan 1 sebagian besar wilayah pertanian sudah teririgasi dengan baik 0,089 4 0,357 2 tersedianya sistem informasi harga kebutuhan pokok 0,087 4 0,347 3 pengalaman petani dalam berusahatani lebih dari 5 tahun dan turun temurun 0,071 3 0,214 4 sebagian besar penduduk (36,67%) bermata pencaharian sebagai petani 0,069 2 0,138 5 sebagian besar kondisi jalan (45,38%) dalam kondisi baik 0,069 3 0,207 6 memiliki program pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna 0,069 3 0,207 7 tersedianya upaya peningkatan kualitas pelayanan publik (upkp2) 0,071 3 0,214 0,5255 1,684 kelemahan 1 teknologi usahatani masih konvensional 0,084 4 0,337 2 kepemilikan lahan petani relatif sempit 0,094 4 0,378 3 rendahnya pendidikan formal petani 0,071 3 0,214 4 kualitas hasil panen rendah jika dibandingkan dengan daerah lain 0,064 3 0,191 5 rendahnya tingkat keterlibatan penyuluh dalam usahatani 0,071 3 0,214 6 penyaluran kredit usahatani tidak tepat sasaran 0,089 4 0,357 1,691 total 1,000 3,375 54 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research daerah,diantaranya peningkatan pendapatan per kapita. dengan meningkatnya pendapatan per kapita, akses masyarakat terhadap pangan juga akan meningkat. hal tersebut sesuai dengan hasil penelitian susilowati, et. al., (2007) yang menyatakan bahwa untuk menurunkan tingkat kemiskinan dan mengurangi kesenjangan pendapatan rumah tangga, maka pemerintah perlu melakukan kebijakan untuk mendorong peningkatan investasi kebijakan. strategi w-o adalah strategi yang dirancang untuk memperbaiki kelemahan internal dengan cara mengambil keuntungan dari peluang eksternal. strategi w-o pertama adalah peningkatan keahlian petani komoditas pangan dengan sistem mitra perusahaan. pemerintah kabupaten batang dapat membuat regulasi agar perusahaan memberikan pelatihan usahatani kepada petani, dengan agar tujuan hasil panen sesuai standar yang diterapkan perusahaan. pelatihan tersebut bisa bersifat mitra, namun bisa juga berupa corporate social responsibility (csr)(syarief, 2001;priyanto, 1997).kegiatan dimaksud telah dilakukan oleh p.t. hm. sampoerna di kabupaten pasuruan, dengan melakukan pembinaan kepada petani tembakau mitra perusahaan dan memberikan csr kepada masyarakat sekitar lokasi pabrik. strategi w-o kedua adalah perbaikan sistem pengajuan kredit usahatani komoditas pangan. pemerintah memberikan beberapa skim kredit usahatani, khususnya komoditas pangan, salah satunya adalah program kredit ketahanan pangan (kkp). kredit ini diberikan kepada petani yang akan berusahatani komoditas pangan. namun, pelaksanaan penyaluran kredit tersebut seringkali tidak tepat sasaran. menurut informasi dari lsm omah tani pada saat interview, penyaluran kredit ketahanan pangan (kkp) justru banyak digunakan untuk konsumsi rumah tangga, bukan sebagai modal usahatani komoditas pangan. oleh karena itu, pemerintah perlu melakukan perbaikan regulasi, pengawasan serta evaluasi dalam pelaksanaan penyaluran kredit usahatani. dengan langkah tersebut, program kredit pemerintah dapat memberikan manfaat untuk modal usahatani sebagai salah satu penunjang dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan daerah. berdasarkan pada penelitian yang dilakukan oleh mohsin, et. al., (2011), bahwa penyediaan kredit dapat berpengaruh meningkatkan produktivitas pada petani kecil. strategi s-t adalah strategi yang dirancang dengan memanfaatkan kekuatan untuk menghindari ancaman. strategi s-t pertama adalah penambahan program pada pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna untuk permasalahan pertanian subsektor tanaman pangan. strategi ini berdasarkan atas ancaman dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan di kabupaten batang, yaitu konversi lahan pertanian menjadi non pertanian, berkurangnya tenaga kerja dibidang pertanian, perubahan iklim yang tidak menentu, dan serangan hama penyakit. disisi lain, kabupaten batang memiliki pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna (posyantek), yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam pelayanan teknologi tepat guna bagi petani. teknologi tidak terbatas pada teknologi informasi saja, namun juga teknologi perbenihan tanaman pangan, penanggulangan hama dan penyakit tumbuhan, serta teknologi dalam penguasaan klimatologi per tanian. pemanfaatan teknologi tersebut dapat mengatasi ancaman penurunan produksi pada usahatani tanaman pangan. strategi s-t kedua adalah penerapan sistem informasi harga jual pet ani dan resi gudang.sistem informasi merupakan salah satu aspek penting dalam pemasaran pertanian, dan pemasaran merupakan elemen utama dalam pengembangan komoditas pertanian. disisi lain, kiruthigaet. al., (2015), menyatakan bahwa salah satu permasalahan pemasaran pertanian di negara berkembang (dalam hal ini adalah indonesia) adalah informasi pasar. oleh karena itu, perbaikan dalam penyediaan sistem informasi pasar, khususnya komoditas pangan, harus dilakukan dengan baik. selain itu, sistem resi gudang (srg) merupakan instrumen perdagangan maupun keuangan yang memungkinkan komoditas yang disimpan dalam gudang memperoleh pembiayaan dari lembaga keuangan tanpa diperlukan jaminan lainnya. strategi ini dapat dilakukan secara terintegrasi, misalnya dengan penambahan informasi harga jual gabah, atau pembiayaan usahatani dengan sistem resi gudang pada web yang telah ada. selain itu, perlu dilakukan sosialiasi kepada kelompok tani terkait penggunaan sistem informasi tersebut. dengan penerapan strategi tersebut, petani tidak lagi khawatir dengan rendahnya harga jual pada saat panen raya. resiko excess supply pada saat panen raya dapat diminimalisir. strategi w-t adalah strategi detensif yang diarahkan untuk mengurangi kelemahan internal serta menghindari ancaman eksternal. strategi w-t adalah perbaikan sistem dan pendampingan diversifikasi usaha pada koperasi pertanian. strategi ini berdasarkan atas masalah penyaluran kredit usahatani, yang berdampak pada ketersediaan modal usahatani tanaman pangan(asmani, 2012).penyaluran kredit usahatani dapat dilakukan dengan perbaikan sistem koperasi pertanian. perbaikan sistem tersebut dapat diawali dengan melakukan studi banding ke koperasi pertanian yang telah memiliki prestasi, perbaikan struktur organisasi, dan pelatihan manajemen keuangan koperasi. setelah itu, koperasi pertanian perlu melakukan diversifikasi usaha diluar 55 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 bidang pembiayaan usahatani. misal, koperasi pertanian dapat mendirikan industri rumah tangga pangan olahan jagung atau ketela pohon, sehingga pendapatannya dapat menutup kerugian akibat faktor alam yang tidak menentu. dampak lain, penurunan minat bermigrasi dari desa ke kota karena tersedianya lapangan kerja di desa. selain itu, kepemilikan lahan yang sempit sehingga menyebabkan kesejahteraan petani rendah, dapat diselesaikan dengan strategi w-t. lahan pertanian yang sempit dapat dikelola secara bersama-sama dalam koperasi, sehingga usahatani yang dilakukan lebih efisien, dan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani. tidak hanya itu, koperasi pertanian juga dapat memotong panjangnya rantai pemasaran yang seringkali menyebabkan tidak efisiennya pemasaran pada komoditas pangan. dalam merealisasikan strategi, perlu adanya penyusunan daftar prioritas berdasarkan kondisi pada kabupaten batang. daftar prioritas dimaksud disusun berdasarkan analisis quantitative strategic planning matrix(qspm). hasil analisis qspm dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. tabel 4. hasil analisis matrik swot alternatif faktor-faktor strategis faktor internal kekuatan 1. sebagian besar wilayah pertanian sudah teririgasi dengan baik 2. tersedianya sistem informasi harga kebutuhan pokok 3. pengalaman petani dalam berusahatani lebih dari 5 tahun dan turun temurun 4. sebagian besar penduduk (36,67%) bermata pencaharian sebagai petani 5. sebagian besar kondisi jalan (45,38%) dalam kondisi baik 6. memiliki program pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna 7. tersedianya upaya peningkatan kualitas pelayanan publik (upkp2) kelemahan 1. teknologi usahatani masih konvensional 2. kepemilikan lahan petani relatif sempit 3. rendahnya pendidikan formal petani 4. kualitas hasil panen rendah jika dibandingkan dengan daerah lain 5. rendahnya tingkat keterlibatan penyuluh dalam usahatani 6. penyaluran kredit usahatani tidak tepat sasaran fa kto r e ks ter na l peluang 1. ketersediaan kredit ketahanan pangan (kkp) dari pemerintah pusat untuk usahatani komoditas pangan 2. adanya program upaya khusus (upsus) swasembada komoditas pangan (padi, jagung, kedelai) 3. pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional 4. peningkatan investasi industri makanan lebih dari 100% 5. bantuan alat pertanian 6. program prioritas presiden dalam pengembangan potensi bisnis unggulan daerah 7. terbukanya peluang mitra dengan perusahaan pelatihan penggunaan alat pertanian bantuan pemerintah (s6, 05); mempermudah proses investasi pada industri olahan pangan (s7, 04, 06, 07). peningkatan keahlian petani komoditas pangan unggulan dengan sistem mitra perusahaan (o2, o6, o7, w3, w4, w5); perbaikan sistem pengajuan kredit usahatani komoditas pangan (o1, w6). ancaman 1. konversi lahan pertanian menjadi non pertanian 2. berkurangnya tenaga kerja dibidang pertanian 3. meningkatnya jumlah transmigran penduduk desa ke kota lain 4. perubahan iklim yang tidak menentu 5. rendahnya harga jual komoditas pangan pada saat panen raya 6. serangan hama dan penyakit penambahan program pada pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna untuk permasalahan pertanian sub sektor tanaman pangan (s6, t1, t2, t4, t6); penerapan sistem informasi harga jual petani dan resi gudang (s2, t4, t5). perbaikan sistem dan pendampingan diversifikasi usaha pada koperasi pertanian (t2, t3, t4, w2, w6). 56 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tabel 5. hasil analisis qspm peringkat alternatif strategi skor 1 penambahan program pada pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna untuk permasalahan pertanian sub sektor tanaman pangan 4,034 2 pelatihan penggunaan alat pertanian bantuan pemerintah 3,559 3 penerapan sistem informasi harga jual petani dan resi gudang 3,481 4 peningkatan keahlian petani komoditas pangan unggulan dengan sistem mitra perusahaan 3,359 5 mempermudah proses investasi pada industri olahan pangan 3,225 6 perbaikan sistem dan pendampingan diversifikasi usaha pada koperasi pertanian 3,218 7 perbaikan sistem pengajuan kredit usahatani komoditas pangan 2,810 berdasarkan hasil analisis qspm, penambahan program pada pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna untuk permasalahan pertanian sub sektor tanaman pangan merupakan strategi prioritas utama yang harus dilakukan oleh kabupaten batang. kesimpulan komoditas pangan di kabupaten batang yang layak dikembangkan sebagai komoditas unggulan adalah padi sawah, jagung dan ketela pohon. strategi prioritas yang dapat dilakukan dalam pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan yaitu pemanfaatan pos pelayanan teknologi tepat guna (posyantek) untuk penyelesaian masalahkomoditas pangan. strategi tersebut diharapkan dapat meningkatkan produktivitas tanaman pangan, sehingga menunjang ketahanan pangan wilayah, khususnya ketersediaan pangan di kabupaten batang. daftar pustaka anindita, r. 2004. pemasaran hasil pertanian. papyrus, surabaya. asmani, n. 2012. peran koperasi desa di sentra produksi padi dalam upaya memperkecil biaya modal. penguatan agribisnis perberasan. yogyakarta: fakultas pertanian universitas gadjah mada. badan pusat statistik. 2014. rata-rata pengeluaran per kapita sebulan di daerah perdesaan menurut kelompok barang dan golongan. bps, jakarta. david, f. r. 2011. strategic 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http://pse.litbang.pertanian.go.id susilowati, s. h., sinaga, b. m., limbong, w. h., & erwidodo. 2007. dampak kebijakan ekonomi di sektor agroindustri terhadap kemiskinan dan distribusi pendapatan rumah tangga di indonesia: analisis simulasi dengan sistem neraca sosial ekonomi. jurnal agro ekonomi 25(1): 11-35. sutrisno, j., sugihardjo, & barokah, u. 2012. sebaran alih fungsi lahan pertanian sawah dan dampaknya terhadap produksi padi di propinsi jawa tengah. penguatan agribisnis perberasan guna mewujudkan kemandirian dan kesejahteraan petani (p. 76). magister manajemen agribisnis (mma) ugm dan perhimpunan ekonomi pertanian indonesia (perhepi), yogyakarta. syarief, a. m. 2001. pengembangan model kemitraan agribisnis: aspek mekanisasi pertanian. buletin keteknikan pertanian 11(1): 48-53. tarigan, r. 2009. ekonomi regional: teori dan aplikasi. bumi aksara, jakarta. todaro, m. p., & smith, s. c. 2006. economic development. pearson education limited, united kingdom. 7 r-7 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 vickitra aufanada1, t. ekowati1, w. d. prastiwi1 1program studi agribisnis, universitas diponegoro vickitraa@gmail.com kesediaan membayar produk sayuran organik di pasar modern jakarta selatan h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3246 abstract organic vegetable products tend to have higher prices compare to non organic, therefore most consumers think organic vegetable products are expensive products. this research aims to determine consumers’ willingness to pay (wtp) for organic vegetable product and influencing factors towards wtp. this research was conducted in 6 modern market in south jakarta by interviewing 100 consumers who were selected using quota sampling technique. data were analyzed using contingent valuation method (cvm) to determine the average value of consumers’ wtp and logistic regression employed to determine the factors that influence wtp. the results showed that 82% consumers are willing to pay higher prices to buy organic vegetables products, with additional range between 8.5% to 15% from the real price. factors that significantly influenced consumers’ willingness to pay were education level, monthly income and product quality. keywords: cvm, modern market, organic vegetables, willlingness to pay (wtp). intisari produk sayuran organik cenderung memiliki harga yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan sayuran non organik, sehingga sebagian konsumen menganggap produk sayuran organik sebagai produk pangan yang mahal. penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui kesediaan membayar produk sayuran organik dan faktor yang mempengaruhinya. penelitian dilaksanakan di 6 pasar modern wilayah jakarta selatan dengan 100 responden yang dipilih dengan menggunakan teknik quota sampling. data dianalisis menggunakan analisis contingent valuation method (cvm) untuk mengetahui nilai kesediaan membayar produk sayuran organik dan analisis regresi logistik untuk mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sebanyak 82% konsumen bersedia membayar lebih dengan peningkatan 8,5% -15% dari harga produk saat ini. faktor yang secara signifikan mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar produk sayuran organik adalah tingkat pendidikan, jumlah pendapatan per bulan, dan kualitas produk. kata kunci: cvm, kesediaan membayar, pasar modern, sayuran organik. pendahuluan peningkatan jumlah penduduk menyebabkan peningkatan permintaan produk pangan, termasuk sayuran. sayuran merupakan bahan makanan bergizi mengandung zat-zat yang dibutuhkan tubuh manusia. kandungan gizi dalam sayuran yaitu vitamin dan mineral tidak dapat disubstitusi oleh makanan pokok (nazaruddin, 2003). untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pangan, penerapan teknologi pertanian modern terbukti mampu meningkatkan produksi pertanian, namun di sisi lain telah menyebabkan munculnya permasalahan lingkungan sebagai dampak dari aplikasi pupuk dan pestisida kimia secara terus menerus (las, mailto:vickitraa@gmail.com 68 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research suba gyono, & seti yanto, 2006). sela in m erugik a n lingkungan, penggunaan bahan kimia dalam proses produksi pertanian juga dapat menyebabkan adanya risiko pencemaran bahan pangan yang dihasilkan, sehingga dapat mengganggu kesehatan konsumen. masyarakat yang mulai menyadari bahaya dari sistem pertanian modern dengan penggunaan pupuk dan pestisida kimia kini beralih ke sistem pertanian organik. peralihan masyarakat ke pola hidup yang lebih sehat dengan slogan “back to nature” menjadi populer seiring dengan peningkatan permintaan produk organik. produk pangan organik didefinisikan sebagai suatu produk pertanian yang dihasilkan sesuai dengan standar sistem pangan organik termasuk bahan baku pangan olahan organik, bahan pendukung organik serta tanaman dan produk segar organik (khorniawati, 2014). produk pangan organik memiliki banyak keunggulan dibandingkan dengan produk pangan anorganik yaitu ramah lingkungan dan tidak membahayakan kesehatan konsumen (novandari, 2011). pola hi dup seha t ki ni telah m elem ba ga sec ara internasional dan mensyaratkan jaminan bahwa produk pertanian harus beratribut aman dikonsumsi, kandungan nutrisi tinggi dan ramah lingkungan (mayrowani, 2012). sistem pertanian organik tidak hanya diterapkan pada tanaman padi tetapi juga banyak diterapkan pada tanaman sayuran seperti selada, sawi, kangkung dan lain sebagainya. sayur organik kini mulai banyak dijumpai di pasar modern, namun sangat jarang pasar tradisional yang menjual produk sayur organik. faktor harga menjadi salah satu penyebab belum meratanya penyebaran produk karena produk sayur organik memiliki harga yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan sayur non organik. meskipun saat ini banyak konsumen yang mencari produk pangan yang lebih sehat dan berkualitas baik untuk di konsumsi , p roduk pa ngan orga nik p ada kenyataannya masih menghadapi masalah terkait dengan harga yang tinggi dan kurangnya saluran distribusi yang menyebabkan belum meratanya distribusi produk (gil, gracia, & sanchez, 2000). hambatan utama dalam upaya memperluas penyebaran produk pangan organik adalah harga nya yang lebih tinggi daripada produk p angan konvensional (rodriguez, lacaze, & lupin, 2007). selain itu, kurang tersedianya informasi untuk konsumen mengenai pangan organik serta pasokannya yang terbatas juga menyebabkan produk pangan organik belum bekembang secara merata. meskipun demikian, potensi permintaan produk pangan organik di indonesia telah cukup meningkat dalam beberapa tahun terakhir. begitu pula dengan produsen produk pangan organik yang juga semakin bertambah, terlihat dari adanya peningkatan jumlah lahan pertanian organik di indonesia (mayrowani, 2012). persepsi mengenai harga sayur organik yang dianggap mahal tersebut merupakan kendala bagi produsen, oleh karena itu dalam penentuan harga jual penting untuk diketahui seberapa besar kesediaan konsumen membayar atau willingness to pay (wtp) untuk mendapatkan produk sayur organik. biaya produksi dan margin distribusi produk pangan organik di spanyol yang tinggi menyebabkan harga jual yang tinggi (gil, gracia, & sanchez, 2000), oleh karena itu diperlukan informasi mengenai nilai maksimal yang bersedia dibayarkan konsumen. informasi tersebut dapat mendukung produsen menerapkan strategi penetapan harga yang memadai bagi produk pangan organik. masa depan pertanian organik bergantung pada permintaan dan kesediaan konsumen untuk membayar harga ekstra untuk memperoleh produk pangan organik. dengan demikian, pendekatan yang berorientasi konsumen untuk memahami pasar produk pangan organik penting untuk dilakukan sebagai upaya mengelola pertanian organik dan produk pangan organik dengan lebih baik (sriwaranun, gan, minsoo, & cohen, 2015). faktor yang mempengaruhi wtp secara internasional adalah karakteristik demografi yaitu jenis kelamin, usia, pendapatan dan pendidikan. faktor-faktor utama lain antara lain meliputi kualitas dan keamanan pangan yang ditawarkan oleh produk pangan organik (govindasamy & italia, 1999). salah satu alasan konsumen bersedia membayar lebih dari harga saat ini untuk memperoleh produk pangan organik adalah untuk memastikan kualitas produk tersebut (krystallis & chryssohoidis, 2005). atribut produk sayur organik seperti rasa, tekstur dan kesegaran sayur menjadi salah satu faktor terbesar dalam mempengaruhi kesedi aan mem bayar konsumen (priambodo & najib, 2014). salah satu kota di indonesia yang sebagian masyarakatnya telah beralih ke konsumsi sayur organik adalah wilayah kotamadya jakarta selatan. wilayah jakarta selatan merupakan salah satu kotamadya di dki jakarta yang telah cukup berkembang menjadi kawasan bisnis utama. pasarpasar modern telah banyak dijumpai dan beberapa di antaranya menjual sayur organik. tujuan kajian ini untuk mendeskripsikan karakteristik konsumen produk sayur organik di pasar modern wilayah jakarta selatan, menganalisis besarnya nilai wtp produk sayur organik dan menganalisis faktor yang mempengaruhi wtp produk sayur organik. 69 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 metode penelitian penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan desember 2016 sampai dengan januari 2017 di 6 pasar modern di wilayah jakarta selatan, menggunakan metode sur vey. metode penarikan sampel yang digunakan adalah multistage sampling yaitu penarikan sampel dengan menggunakan dua metode atau lebih. metode pertama yaitu purposive sampling, di mana sampel dipilih berdasarkan karakteristik yang disesuaikan dengan maksud penelitian yaitu konsumen produk sayur organik di pasar modern wilayah jakarta selatan, orang dewasa, memiliki pendapatan dan bertanggung jawab atas belanja pangan baik bagi diri sendiri ataupun keluarga. metode kedua quota sampling, yaitu menetapkan jumlah tertentu untuk sampel berdasarkan karakteristik tertentu (kuncoro, 2009). populasi konsumen sayur organik tidak diketahui secara pasti jumlahnya sehingga digunakan rumus lemeshow untuk mendapatkan jumlah sampel, dengan rumus sebagai berikut: n= ...............................................................................................1) keterangan: n = jumlah sampel z = skor z pada kepercayaan 95% = 1,96 p = maksimal estimasi = 0,5 d = alpa atau sampling error = 10% = 0,1 (lemeshow dan levy, 1997) berdasarkan perhitungan dengan rumus 1, didapatkan hasil yaitu 96 sampel dan dibulatkan menjadi 100 sampel. jumlah sampel tersebut dialokasikan ke 6 lokasi pasar modern yang dijadikan lokasi penelitian. keenam pasar modern tersebut dikelompokkan menjadi 3 kategori berdasarkan volume penjualan produk sayur organic (tabel 1). tabel 1. volume penjualan produk sayuran organik pasar modern volume penjualan produk sayur organik (pak/bulan) (kg/bulan) lottemart 100 – 150 100 – 150 total 100 – 120 90 – 100 all fresh 100 – 120 70 – 80 hypermart 80 – 100 60 – 80 carrefour 60 – 70 50 – 60 gelael 60 – 80 30 – 40 enam pasar modern pada tabel 1 terbagi ke dalam tiga kategori: kategori pertama lottemart dan total; kategori kedua all fresh dan hypermart; kategori ketiga carrefour dan gelael. pembagian proporsi sampel untuk masing-masing kategori dilakukan dengan metode quota sampling. proporsi sampel untuk kategori pertama, kedua, dan ketiga berturutturut adalah 50%, 30% dan 20%, sehingga diambil masingmasing 50 sampel pada pasar modern kategori 1, 30 sampel pada kategori 2, dan 20 sampel pada kategori 3. analisis data yang dilakukan adalah analisis deskriptif, analisis kesediaan membayar dengan menggunakan contingent valuation method (cvm) untuk menghitung nilai ratarata wtp yang bersedia dibayarkan konsumen bagi produk sayur organik dan regresi logistik yang dilakukan untuk menganalisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya. analisis cvm dilakukan dengan berbagai tahap, yaitu membuat pasar hip oteti s, m enentuk a n nila i lelang ( b iddin g g am es ), menghitung rata-rata wtp, mengestimasi kurva wtp dan agregasi wtp (fauzi, 2006). regresi logistik biner dilakukan untuk mengetahui faktor yang mempengaruhi w tp. persamaan yang digunakan adalah: ln[ p 1-p ] = β0 + β1x1 + β2x2+ β3x3+ β4x4 + β5x5+ β6x6+ β7x7...........2) p merupakan kesediaan konsumen untuk membayar (ya/ tidak), â 0 adalah konstanta, â 1 sampai dengan â 7 adalah koefisien regresi, x 1 adalah usia, x 2 adalah tingkat pendidikan, x 3 adalah status pernikahan, x 4 adalah jumlah anggota keluarga, x 5 adalah pendapatan, x 6 adalah harga, dan x 7 adalah kualitas. pengujian parameter yang digunakan adalah statistik uji g untuk uji secara serempak dan uji wald untuk uji secara parsial, sedangkan untuk interpretasi persamaan regresi logistik biner digunakan rasio odd. hasil dan pembahasan konsumen produk sayur organik berdasarkan hasil penelitian didapatkan hasil yang berbeda-beda pada setiap karakteristik responden yang diukur. perbedaan karakteristik yang berasal dari faktor budaya, kelas sosial, pengaruh pribadi dan keluarga, dan situasi dapat mempengaruhi perilaku konsumen dalam melakukan pembelian dan kesediaannya membayar lebih tinggi. meskipun diasumsikan bahwa karakteristik yang dimiliki oleh suatu produk adalah objektif dan sama untuk semua konsumen, setiap konsumen memiliki perilaku berbeda yang berkaitan dengan pembelian produk tersebut (hamzoui & zahaf, 2012). responden didominasi oleh konsumen perempuan, kelompok usia 41 – 50 tahun, latar belakang pendidikan strata 1, sudah menikah, memiliki jumlah anggota keluarga 70 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 4 orang, memiliki pendapatan sebesar rp 7.000.000 sampai dengan rp 9.999.999 per bulan, membeli produk sayur organik dengan rentang harga rp 10.001 sampai dengan rp 15.000, memberi skor 8 atau baik pada kualitas produk sayur organik, frekuensi pembelian produk sayur organik adalah 1 minggu sekali dan pengeluaran untuk produk sayur organik per bulan lebih dari rp 50.000. kesediaan membayar sebanyak 82% dari total 100 responden menyatakan bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini untuk memperoleh produk sayur organik, sementara 18 orang sisanya menyatakan tidak bersedia. alasan utama tidak bersedianya responden membayar lebih adalah harga saat ini sudah tinggi dan responden bukan merupakan seseorang yang harus selalu mengkonsumsi produk pangan organik. sebagian besar responden memiliki pola konsumsi kombinasi antara pangan organik dan non organik, sehingga apabila ada kenaikan harga dapat melakukan substitusi ke pangan non organik. berdasarkan persentase kenaikan harga yang bersedia dibayarkan responden, sebanyak 30 orang responden bersedia membayar 5% lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini, 33 orang bersedia membayar 10% lebih tinggi, 9 orang bersedia membayar 15% dan 10 orang bersedia membayar 20% lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. sebagian besar responden berada pada tingkat bersedia membayar antara 5% sampai dengan 10% lebi h ti nggi dari ha rga sa at i ni . ha l tersebut mengkonfirmasi penelitian hamzoui & zahaf (2012) yang menemukan bahwa secara umum sebagian besar konsumen tidak bersedia membayar lebih tinggi di atas 10% sampai dengan 20% dari harga normal, yang menunjukkan akan adanya penurunan tajam terhadap permintaan produk pangan organik pada kenaikan harga di atas 20%. nilai rata-rata w tp berbeda untuk tiap jenis sayur bergantung dari harga (tabel 2). selada memiliki nilai ratarata wtp tertinggi di antara jenis sayur lainnya, namun memiliki persentase peningkatan paling rendah. hal tersebut dapat diakibatkan oleh harga selada organik yang tinggi, yaitu rp 23.850. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat pendapat krystallis & chryssohoidis (2005) yang menyatakan bahwa nilai maksimum yang bersedia dikeluarkan konsumen bergantung dengan jenis dan harga produk pangan itu sendiri. kurva wtp kurva wtp responden dibentuk menggunakan jumlah kumulatif dari jumlah individu yang memilih suatu nilai wtp. kurva tersebut menggambarkan tingkat wtp dengan jumlah responden yang bersedia membayar pada tingkat wtp tersebut. kurva wtp produk sawi, kangkong, selada, dan bayam organik disajikan pada gambar 1. tabel 2. rata-rata wtp sayuran organik jenis sayur organik harga awal rata-rata maksimum wtp persentase peningkatan (rp) (rp) (%) sawi 14.800 16.354 10,50 kangkung 13.500 14.918 10,50 selada 23.850 25.877 8,50 bayam 14.333 15.846 10,55 brokoli 13.462 14.912 10,77 jagung 17.000 18.700 10,00 wortel 13.389 14.728 10,00 pakcoy 10.000 11.500 15,00 caisim 13.200 14.454 9,50 pada produk sawi organik, terdapat 10 orang responden yang bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. di antara total 10 responden, 3 responden bersedia membayar sawi organik dengan harga rp 15.500, 5 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga antara rp 16.000 sampai dengan rp 16.500 dan 2 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga antara rp 17.500 dan rp 18.000. pada produk kangkung organik, terdapat 20 orang responden yang bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. di antara 20 orang responden tersebut, 6 orang bersedia membayar kangkung organik dengan harga sekitar rp 14.000, 9 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 15.000, 2 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga rp 15.500 dan 3 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 16.000 sampai dengan rp 16.500. pada produk selada organik, terdapat 20 orang responden yang bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. di antara 20 orang responden tersebut, 10 orang bersedia membayar selada organik dengan harga rp 25.000, 7 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 26.000, 2 responden bersedia membayar pada harga yang berkisar antara rp 27.000 sampai dengan rp 28.000 dan 1 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 29.000. pada produk bayam organik, terdapat 27 orang responden yang bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. di antara 27 orang responden tersebut, 7 orang bersedia membayar bayam organik dengan harga rp 15.000, 14 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga rp 15.500 sampai dengan rp 16.000, 2 responden bersedia membayar 71 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 dengan harga rp 16.500 dan 4 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 17.000. gambar 1. kurva wtp sawi, kangkung, selada dan bayam organik gambar 2 menunjukkan kurva wtp produk brokoli, jagung, wortel, pakcoy, dan caisim organik. pada kurva wtp brokoli, terdapat 13 orang responden yang bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. di antara 13 orang responden tersebut, 5 orang bersedia membayar brokoli organik dengan harga sekitar rp 14.000, 4 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga antara rp 14.500 dan rp 15.000, 1 responden bersedia membayar rp 15.500 dan 3 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 16.000. pada kurva wtp jagung, ada 4 orang responden bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. di antara 4 orang responden tersebut, 1 orang bersedia membayar jagung organik dengan harga sekitar rp 18.000, 2 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 19.000 dan 1 responden bersedia membayar sekitar rp 20.000. kurva wtp wortel menunjukkan 18 orang responden bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini untuk membeli wortel organik. di antara 18 orang responden tersebut, 7 orang bersedia membayar wortel organik dengan harga sekitar rp 17.000, 5 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga antara rp 14.500 dan rp 15.000, 5 responden bersedia membayar sekitar rp 15.500 dan 1 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 16.000. pada kurva wtp pakcoy, terdapat 4 orang responden yang bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini untuk membeli pakcoy organik. diantara total 4 responden tersebut, 2 orang bersedia membayar pakcoy organik dengan harga sekitar rp 11.000 sampai dengan rp 11.500 dan 2 orang bersedia membayar dengan harga rp 12.000. kurva wtp caisim menunjukkan terdapat 10 orang responden yang bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. di antara 10 orang responden tersebut, 5 orang bersedia membayar caisim organik dengan harga sekitar rp 14.000, 2 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 14.000, 2 responden bersedia membayar sekitar rp 15.000 dan 1 responden bersedia membayar dengan harga sekitar rp 16.000. 72 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research gambar 2. kurva wtp brokoli, jagung, wortel, pakcoy dan caisim organik semua kurva w tp sayuran organik menunjukkan pergerakan mengarah ke kanan atas. hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa terdapat responden yang bersedia membayar dengan harga yang semakin tinggi. karena titik terendah merupakan nilai awal atau titik lelang dengan nilai terendah, maka pergerakan kurva ke atas menunjukkan nilai wtp yang semakin meningkat dan pergerakan kur va ke kanan menunjukkan bertambahnya jumlah responden yang bersedia membayar. pergerakan kurva dari suatu titik ke titik selanjutnya menunjukkan pergerakan yang berbeda-beda, terdapat kurva yang berbentuk curam dan landai. hal tersebut bergantung dengan frekuensi responden yang memilih suatu nilai wtp. semakin besar selisih jumlah responden pada suatu titik wtp ke titik selanjutnya, maka semakin landai bentuk kurvanya. sebaliknya, semakin sedikit selisih jumlah responden pada suatu titik wtp ke titik selanjutnya, maka semakin curam bentuk kurvanya. b erdasa rka n ga mba r k ur va 1&2 dan persent ase peningkatan pada tabel 2, terdapat 3 kategori persentase peningkatan harga sayur organik, yaitu kurang dari 10%, sekitar 10% dan di atas 10%. persentase peningkatan terbesar adalah pada kategori sekitar 10%, yaitu jenis sayur sawi, kangkung, bayam, brokoli, jagung dan wortel. sementara jenis sayur dengan peningkatan harga di bawah 10% adalah selada dan caisim, sedangkan jenis sayur dengan persentase peningkatan di atas 10% yaitu pakcoy. agregasi wtp sayuran organik agregasi wtp untuk setiap jenis sayur memiliki nilai yang berbeda-beda (tabel 3). nilai agregasi wtp perlu untuk diketahui agar pemasar mendapatkan informasi mengenai nilai penjualan dengan harga maksimal yang bersedia dibayarkan konsumen, yang dapat dihasilkan dari masingmasing jenis sayur. hasil perhitungan agregasi w tp memungkinkan pemasar untuk melihat potensi harga yang dapat dikembangkan dari penetapan nilai rata-rata wtp konsumen. tabel 3. agregasi wtp sayuran organik jenis sayur agregasi wtp (rp) sawi 163.540 kangkung 298.350 selada 517.545 bayam 427.840 brokoli 193.853 jagung 78.400 wortel 265.102 pakcoy 46.000 caisim 144.540 tabel 3 menunjukkan urutan jenis sayur dengan nilai agregasi wtp tertinggi sampai terendah, yaitu selada, bayam, kangkung, wortel, brokoli, sawi, caisim, jagung dan pakcoy. selada organik memiliki nilai agregasi tertinggi sementara 73 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 jenis sayur organik dengan nilai agregasi terrendah adalah pakcoy. tingginya nilai agregasi selada disebabkan oleh harga produk sayur organik selada yang tinggi serta frekuensi respondennya juga tinggi, yaitu sebanyak 20 orang. sementara pakcoy memiliki harga yang rendah serta frekuensi pembelian oleh responden juga rendah, yaitu hanya 4 orang dari 100 orang responden yang membeli sayur pakcoy organik. fak t or-fakt or yang memp engaruhi k esediaan membayar preferensi konsumen dan kesediaannya membayar lebih untuk produk pangan organik didominasi oleh faktor ekonomi dan faktor sosial seperti usia, pendidikan, pendapatan dan lain-lain (muljaningsih, 2011). faktor-faktor yang diduga mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar konsumen produk sayur organik dianalisis menggunakan analisis regresi logistik biner. hasil uji g menunjukkan hasil signifikansi hitung sebesar 0,000 (p sig.<á) yang mengindikasikan bahwa pada taraf nyata 0,05 variabel usia, tingkat pendidikan, status pernikahan, jumlah anggota keluarga, pendapatan, harga produk dan kualitas produk secara serempak mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar konsumen. hasil pengujian disajikan pada tabel 4. tabel 4. hasil analisis regresi logistik biner wtp sayuran organik variabel koefisien regresi wald p-value odds ratio kesimpulan usia -0.584 3.486 0.062 0.558 tidak signifikan tingkat pendikan 2.487 9.173 0.002 12.026 signifikan status pernikahan -1.677 1.579 0.209 0.187 tidak signifikan jumlah anggota keluarga 0.144 0.208 0.649 1.154 tidak signifikan pendapatan 0.818 4.602 0.032 2.266 signifikan harga -0.346 1.568 0.211 0.706 tidak signifikan kualitas 0.852 6.966 0.006 2.345 signifikan berdasarkan tabel 4 diketahui bahwa variabel yang mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar secara signifikan adalah tingkat pendidikan, jumlah pendapatan, dan kualitas produk. variabel yang tidak signifikan mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar adalah usia, status pernikahan, jumlah anggota keluarga, dan harga produk. variabel usia memperoleh nilai signifikansi hitung 0,062 (p sig. >á) sehingga menunjukkan bahwa kesediaan membayar konsumen produk sayur organik tidak dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh faktor usia. hasil ini mengkonfirmasi hasil penelitian hamzaoui & zahaf (2012) yang menemukan bahwa usia bukan merupakan faktor penting dalam kesediaan membayar seorang konsumen produk pangan organik, meskipun konsumen dengan usia yang lebih muda cenderung menunjukkan kesediaan membayar dengan nilai yang lebih tinggi. konsumen produk sayur organik terdiri dari berbagai kelompok usia, namun faktor usia tidak memberikan pengaruh terhadap kesediaan membayar. tingkat pendidikan secara signifikan mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar produk sayur organik. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat canavari, bazzani, spadoni, & regazzi (2002) ya ng menyata kan ba hwa tingka t p endi dik an merupakan kontributor positif terhadap kesediaan konsumen membayar produk pangan organik dalam rangka menghilangkan unsur kimia pada produk pangan. hubungan positif tersebut menunjukkan bahwa semakin tinggi latar belakang pendidikan seorang konsumen, maka semakin tinggi pula kecenderungannya untuk bersedia membayar sayur organik dengan harga lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. hubungan positif antara tingka t pendidikan dengan kesediaan membayar konsumen tersebut dapat disebabkan karena konsumen dengan latar belakang pendidikan menengah samp a i ti nggi c enderung m em i liki kesa da ra n sert a pengetahuan mengenai isu pencemaran produk pangan dan lingk unga n di ba ndingk an denga n konsum en yang berpendidikan dasar, sehingga memilih produk sayur organik sebagai solusi dari masalah tersebut. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat sumarwan (2011) yang menyatakan bahwa seorang konsumen dengan latar belakang pendidikan tinggi akan sangat responsif terhadap suatu informasi dan hal tersebut mempengaruhinya dalam pemilihan jenis produk. ra si o odd ya ng didap atka n da ri ha si l pengujia n menunjukkan bahwa pada variabel tingkat pendidikan, semakin tinggi pendidikan konsumen maka peluang kesediaannya untuk membayar produk sayur organik dengan harga lebih tinggi adalah 12,026 kali lebih besar dibandingkan dengan konsumen dengan tingkat pendidikan lebih rendah. hal tersebut dapat diakibatkan oleh kesadaran serta pengetahuan yang dimiliki konsumen dengan tingkat pendidikan yang lebih tinggi mengenai isu pencemaran produk pangan oleh unsur-unsur kimia berbahaya yang dapat membahayakan kesehatan. hasil ini mengkonfirmasi penelitian ameriana (2006) yang menemukan bahwa di daerah perkotaan, kepedulian konsumen terhadap bahaya residu pestisida pada produk pertanian baru disadari oleh konsumen yang minimal menempuh pendidikan menengah (slta). status pernikahan merupakan variabel yang tidak mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar konsumen produk sayur 74 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research organik secara signifikan. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat shashikiran & madhavaiah (2014) yang menyatakan bahwa tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan antara berbagai macam kelompok umur konsumen, jenis kelamin, status pernikahan dan tipe keluarga terhadap kesediaan membayar mahal untuk memperoleh produk pangan organik. variabel jumlah anggota keluarga juga merupakan faktor yang tidak secara signifikan mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar konsumen untuk memperoleh produk sayur organik. hal ini sejalan dengan pendapat krystallis & chryssohoidis (2005) yang menyatakan bahwa jumlah anggota keluarga dan keberadaan anak dalam rumah tangga tidak mempengaruhi frekuensi pembelian serta kesediaannya membayar premium untuk memperoleh produk pangan organik. variabel pendapatan secara signifikan mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar konsumen. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat sriwaranun, gan, minsoo, & cohen (2015) yang menyatakan bahwa terdapat hubungan antara kesediaan konsumen membeli produk organik dengan harga yang lebih tinggi dengan pendapatan rumah tangga konsumen, dan hubungannya cenderung positi f. hubunga n p osi ti f dii nter p reta sik an ba hwa konsumen denga n jum la h pendapatan rumah tangga yang lebih tinggi memiliki kemungkinan yang lebih ti nggi pula untuk bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. hasil tersebut mengkonfirmasi hasil penelitian priambodo & najib (2014) yang menemukan bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat pendapatan konsumen, maka semakin besar pula kesediaan membayar terhadap produk sayuran organik. berdasarkan nilai rasio odd, konsumen dengan jumlah pendapatan per bulan lebih tinggi memiliki peluang untuk bersedia membayar lebih untuk memperoleh produk sayur organik 2,226 kali lebih besar daripada konsumen dengan jumlah pendapatan yang lebih rendah. hal ini sejalan dengan penelitian rodriguez, lacaze, & lup in (2007) ya ng menemukan hasil bahwa konsumen dengan tingkat pendapatan lebih tinggi memiliki kemungkinan lebih besar untuk bersedia mengeluarkan sebagian besar pendapatan sebagai investasi membeli produk pertanian organik yang dianggap sebagai produk pangan yang lebih aman dan memiliki kualitas yang lebih baik. variabel harga produk tidak secara signifikan mempenga ruhi kesedia a n m em baya r m enunjukk a n ba hwa konsumen tidak mempertimbangkan faktor harga dalam keputusannya untuk bersedia atau tidak bersedia membayar lebih tinggi bagi produk pangan dengan kualitas yang lebih baik. hasil tersebut mengkonfirmasi penelitian hamzaoui & zahaf (2012) yang menemukan bahwa faktor harga bukan merupakan faktor penting yang mempengaruhi kesediaan membayar bagi konsumen yang mengkonsumsi produk pangan organik secara rutin, namun dapat menjadi faktor penting dalam kesediaan membayar bagi konsumen yang jarang mengkonsumsi produk pangan organik dan inexperienced organic food consumers atau konsumen yang kurang berpengalaman dalam konsumsi produk pangan organik. hal ini juga didukung oleh aliansi organis indonesia (2015) yang menemukan bahwa sebagian besar konsumen tidak keberatan menanggapi harga produk organik yang tinggi. kondisi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa konsumen sudah semakin memahami pentingnya produk pangan organik. variabel kualitas secara signifikan berpengaruh terhadap kesediaan membayar konsumen produk sayur organik. hal ini sejalan dengan hasil penelitian rodriguez, lacaze, & lupin (2007) yang menemukan bahwa konsumen bersedia membayar lebih untuk mendapatkan produk pangan organik karena pengaruh kualitas dan manfaat yang tinggi produk pangan organik itu sendiri. penilaian terhadap kualitas suatu produk berkaitan dengan wawasan setiap individu, gaya hidup dan konsep diri, sehingga setiap konsumen dapat memiliki persepsi dan penilaian yang berbeda-beda untuk menilai produk sayur organik. sementara berkaitan dengan nilai rasio odd pada variabel kualitas produk, konsumen yang memberikan nilai atau skor yang lebih tinggi untuk kualitas produk sayur organik, memiliki peluang 2,345 kali lebih besar untuk bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. dapat dikatakan bahwa sebagian besar konsumen merasa mendapatkan produk dengan kualitas yang baik saat membeli produk sayur organik, sehingga bersedia untuk membayar lebih dari harga saat ini. hasil tersebut mengkonfirmasi hasil penelitian aryal, chaudhary, pandi, & garma (2005) yang menemukan bahwa meskipun terjadi peningkatan harga pada produk pangan organik, konsumen yang mempertimbangkan faktor kualitas dan kesehatan akan tetap bersedia membayar untuk memperoleh produk dengan kualitas yang baik. kesimpulan konsumen produk sayur organik di pasar modern wilayah jakarta selatan didominasi oleh konsumen perempuan, kelompok usia 41 – 50 tahun, dengan latar belakang pendidikan strata 1, sudah menikah, memiliki jumlah anggota keluarga 4 orang dan memiliki pendapatan sebesar rp 7.000.000 – 9.999.999 per bulan. sebagian besar konsumen sayur organik memberikan penilaian yang baik terhadap produk sayur organik yang dibeli, untuk itu sebagian 75 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 besar konsumen bersedia membayar lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini untuk memperoleh produk sayur organik. nilai ratarata wtp konsumen produk sayur organik berkisar antara 9,5% sampai dengan 15% lebih tinggi dari harga saat ini. kesediaan membayar konsumen dipengaruhi oleh tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan dan kualitas produk. semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan, pendapatan dan penilaian konsumen terhadap kualitas produk sayur organik, maka kesediaan m em bayar sema ki n m eni ngk at. untuk memp erlua s penyebaran produk sayur organik diperlukan kegiatan penyebaran informasi mengenai manfaat produk pangan organik bagi kesehatan dan lingkungan hidup kepada seluruh lapisan masyarakat. dengan demikian diharapkan kepedulian konsumen terhadap kesehatan diri maupun lingkungan dapat meningkat dan pasar produk pangan organik semakin berkembang. daftar pustaka ameriana, m. (2006). kesediaan konsumen membayar premium untuk tomat aman residu pestisida. jurnal hortikultura, 16(2), 165–174. aliansi organis indonesia (aoi). (2015). statistika pertanian organik indonesia. bogor: penerbit aoi. aryal, k. p., chaudhary, p., pandi, s., & sharma, g. (2005). consumers’ willingness to pay for organic products: a case from kathmandu valley. the journal of agriculture and environment, 10(2), 12–22. canavari, m., bazzani, g.m., spadoni, r., & regazzi, d. (2002). food safety and organic food demand in italy: a survey. british food journal, 104(3), 187–199. fauzi, a. (2006). ekonomi sumber daya alam dan lingkungan teori dan aplikasi. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. firdaus, m., & farid, m. a. (2008). aplikasi metode kuantitatif terpilih untuk manajemen dan bisnis. bogor: ipb press. gil, j. m., gracia, a., & sanchez, m. (2000). market segmentation and willingness to pay for organic products in spain. the international food and agribusiness management review, 3(2), 207-226. govindasamy, r., & italia, j. (1999). predicting willingness to pay a premium for organically grown fresh produce. journal of food distribution research, 30(2): 44–53. hamzaoui, l., & m. zahaf. (2012). canadian organic food consumers’ profile and their willingness to pay premium prices. journal of international food and agribusiness marketing, 24(1), 1–21. khorniawati, m. (2014). produk pertanian organik di indonesia: tinjauan atas preferensi konsumen indonesia terhadap produk pertanian organik lokal. jurnal studi manajemen, 8(2), 171–182. krystallis, a. & chryssohoidis, g. (2005). consumers’ willingness to pay for organic food. british food journal, 107(5), 320–343. kuncoro, m. (2009). metode riset untuk bisnis dan ekonomi. jakarta: penerbit erlangga. las, i., subagyono, k., & setiyanto, a. p. (2006). isu dan pengelolaan lingkungan d alam revitalis asi pertanian. jurnal litbang pertanian, 25(3), 106-114. lemeshow, s., & levy, p. s. (1997). sampling of populations methods and application. new jersey: wiley publisher. mayrowani, h. (2012). pengembangan pertanian organik di indonesia. jurnal agro ekonomi, 30(2), 91–108. muljaningsih, s. (2011). preferensi konsumen dan produsen produk organik di indonesia. jurnal wacana, 14(4), 1–5. nazaruddin. (2003). budidaya dan pengaturan panen sayuran dataran rendah. jakarta: penebar swadaya. novandari, w. (2011). analisis motif pembelian dan profil perilaku “green product customer” (studi pada konsumen produk pangan organik di purwokerto). jeba, 13(1), 9–16. priambodo, l. h., & najib, m. (2016). analisis kesediaan membayar (willing ness to pay) say uran org anik dan faktorfakt or y ang mempengaruhinya. jurnal manajemen dan organisasi, 5(1), 1-14. rodriguez, e., lacaze, v., & lupin, b. (2007). willingness to pay for organic food in argentina: evidence from a consumer survey. 105th eaae seminar ‘international marketing and international trade of quality food products’. italy: bologna. shashikiran, l., & madhavaiah, c. (2014). impact of demographics on consumers willingness to pay premium: a study of organic food products. international journal of research and development – a management review, 3(3), 15–19. sriwaranun, y., gan, c., minsoo, l., & cohen, d. a. (2015). consumers’ willingness to pay for organic products in thailand. international journal of social economics, 42(5), 480–510. sumarwan, u. (2011). perilaku konsumen. bogor: penerbit ghalia indonesia. triyono*, nur rahmawati, bambang heri isnawan program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, indonesia *) email korespondensi: triyono@umy.ac.id agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 persepsi petani padi terhadap layanan irigasi di daerah istimewa yogyakarta rice farmers' perception on irrigation services in special region of yogyakarta doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5283 abstract improvement of agricultural resource management systems, especially irrigation water, is important in determining sustainable agriculture. this study aims to describe the quality of irrigation services on rice farming as well as its corelation to the farmers willingness to pay (wtp) irrigation services. the study was conducted in rice farming centers namely sleman and bantul regency based on irrigation river flows that crossed the region. respondents were taken from each irrigation area as many as 5 farmers using simple random sampling with total number of samples were 125 farmers.the irrigation service data and farmers willingness to pay irrigation services were analyzed using rank spearman correlation to see the corelation of both factors. the result showed that there was a negative correlation between irrigation services and farmers willingness to pay irrigation fees., in general, rice farming irrigation services in special region of yogyakarta are in good category, however willingness of farmers to pay irrigation services (wtp) is low. in order to support the sustainability of longterm irrigation services, it requires public awareness, especially farmers in irrigation utilization and the provision of smart irrigation control in irrigation maintenance. keywords : services, facilities, quality of irrigation, rice farming, wtp intisari peningkatkan sistem manajemen sumberdaya pertanian khususnya air irigasi sangat penting dalam menentukan pertanian yang berkelanjutan. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan layanan irigasi pada usahatani padi serta keterkaitannya dengan kesediaan petani membayar layanan irigasi (wtp). penelitian dilakukan di sentra usahatani padi yaitu kabupaten sleman dan bantul serta didasarkan pada aliran sungai irigasi yang melintasinya. dari delapan sungai tersebut terdapat 25 daerah irigasi yang menjadi lokasi pengambilan sampel petani. sampel petani diambil dari setiap daerah irigasi sebanyak 5 petani secara simple random sampling sehingga jumlah sampel dalam penelitian ini adalah 125 petani. data layanan irigasi dan wtp dianalisis menggunakan korelasi rank spearman untuk melihat keterkaitan keduanya. hasil analisis menunjukan bahwa terdapat korelasi yang negatif antara layanan irigasi dengan wtp iuran irigasi petani. secara umum layanan irigasi untuk usahatani padi di daerah istimewa yogyakarta masih dalam kategori baik. namun demikian kesediaan petani membayar iuran irigasi (wtp) masih tergolong rendah. dalam rangka keberlanjutan layanan irigasi jangka panjang maka perlu kesadaran masyarakat khususnya petani dalam pemanfaatan irigasi serta penyediaan pengontrol irigasi pintar dalam perawatan irigasi. kata kunci : layanan, fasilitas, kualitas irigasi, usahatani padi, wtp 141 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 pendahuluan penelitian pertanian berkelanjutan sangat penting karena dapat meningkatkan keuntungan dan efisiensi produksi dengan menitikberatkan pada integrasi manajemen usahatani dan konservasi tanah, air, dan sumberdaya biologi serta sumberdaya produktif lainnya. hal ini akan meningkatkan sistem manajemen sumberdaya pertanian. demikian juga pertanian berkelanjutan dapat meminimalkan biaya variabel dalam penggunaan input luar. dari sisi sosial, hal itu dapat meningkatkan kemandirian (self reliance) petani dan masyarakat perdesaan melalui penggunaan yang lebih baik dari pengetahuan dan ketrampilan petani. sentra usahatani padi sawah di daerah istimewa yogyakarta tersebar di kabuapten sleman dan bantul (badan pusat statistik, 2017). secara geografis kedua wilayah tersebut memiliki karakterisitik yang berbeda. lahan sawah di wilayah kabupaten sleman berada di bagian utara daerah istimewa yogyakarta yang relatif dekat dengan sumber irigasi, sedangkan lahan sawah wilayah kabupaten bantul berada di bagian selatan yang rentan terhadap polusi. kualitas air irigasi yang ada di daerah istimewa yogyakarta menjadi permasalahan yang semakin mengkhawatirkan bagi lingkungan terutama produksi tanaman pangan. sebagian besar lahan sawah di yogyakarta merupakan lahan dataran rendah dengan sumber irigasi bergantung pada aliran sungaisungai yang mengalir sepanjang wliayah yogyakarta dari utara ke selatan. aliran sungai-sungai tersebut melewati kawasan pemukiman dan industri yang rawan pencemaran limbah rumah tangga dan industri. hasil analisis badan lingkungan hidup daerah istimewa yogyakarta tahun 2017 menunjukkan bahwa semua air sungai di wilayah daerah istimewa yogyakarta mengalami pencemaran berat di bawah baku mutu (badan lingkungan hidup, 2017). hal ini dapat berdampak pada penurunan kualitas air irigasi (hershey, 2012). keracunan cu terhadap tanaman pangan berdampak pada rendahnya tingkat produksi dan kualitas yang dihasilkan oleh tanaman (munawar, 2011). penelitian suprapto et al. (2011) menyebutkan bahwa limbah industri batik di pekalongan mempengaruhi produksi padi 18% lebih rendah dibanding produksi padi pada kondisi irigasi yang tidak tercemar. rendahnya produktifitas usahatani padi akan berpengaruh pada pendapatan petani yang berkurang sehingga memungkinkan petani beralih pekerjaan ke non pertanian. kondisi ini akan mengancam keberlanjutan usahatani padi. kesadaran dan partisipasi petani tentang layanan irigasi menjadi hal yang penting bagi keberlanjutan usahatani khususnya tanaman padi. berbagai kajian yang mendukung hal tersebut telah banyak dilakukan. berkaitan dengan biaya irigasi, hasil kajian omer et al. (2019) menunjukkan bahwa biaya penurunan pencemaran dengan menggunakan sistem twr untuk menyediakan kisaran sumber air irigasi tambahan dari yang lebih murah dan efisien. hal demikian dapat dilakukan dengan pemanfaatan inovasi teknologi. khachatryan et al. (2019) melakukan penelitian menggunakan kerangka kerja analisis pilihan diskrit untuk menghubungkan atribut irigasi pintar (misalnya, tipe sensor, operasi nirkabel, remote kontrol, pemberitahuan peringatan) dan insentif moneter (misalnya, penghematan tagihan air tahunan, potongan harga) sesuai preferensi dan kesediaan untuk membayar. hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa pemilik rumah lebih suka pengontrol irigasi pintar daripada sistem otomatis konvensional, dan bahwa penghematan tagihan air tahunan bisa menjadi salah satu fitur paling penting yang menentukan adopsi pengontrol irigasi pintar. fitur-fitur pengontrol seperti jenis operasi (misal stasiun cuaca nirkabel / di tempat) dan peringatan / pemberitahuan kerusakan fungsi juga memengaruhi preferensi pemilik rumah. hasil kajian zhuang et al., (2019) tentang irigasi hemat air (wsi) sebagai praktik manajemen yang menjanjikan untuk produksi padi berkelanjutan menyatakan bahwa penerapan praktik wsi di cina memiliki potensi nyata untuk mengurangi kekurangan air dan polusi sumber nontitik sambil memastikan hasil tinggi berbagai metode digunakan dalam menilai kualitas air irigasi. abbasnia et al., (2018) mengevaluasi kualitas air tanah dan kesesuaiannya untuk tujuan irigasi melalui gis di desa-desa kota chabahr, provinsi sistan dan baluchistan di iran. 142 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa 40% dari sampel diklasifikasikan sebagai air yang sangat baik, 60% dari sampel dalam kategori air yang baik. bouaroudj et al., (2019) menilai bahwa ph tanah, ec dan om meningkat di tanah irigasi, khususnya di cakrawala permukaan, dibandingkan dengan lokasi kontrol; sedangkan total caco3 menurun di semua kedalaman tanah yang diukur. tingginya kadar timbal yang tersedia secara hayati (35,82 μg / g) dan kadmium (0,22 μg / g) dicatat di permukaan tanah. acharya et al., (2018) melakukan penelitian untuk menentukan kesesuaian air tanah yang dikumpulkan dari delhi barat daya, india, untuk tujuan irigasi dan minum berdasarkan berbagai indeks kualitas air. indeks kualitas air berdasarkan ph, ec, tds, salinitas, alkalinitas dan permeabilitas menentukan keseusian air konsumsi manusia. soleimani et al., (2018) menyelidiki kualitas air minum dari kabupaten qorveh dan dehgolan di provinsi kurdistan berdasarkan indeks kualitas air (wqi) dan indeks kualitas pertanian berdasarkan indeks rsc, pi, kr, mh, na, sar, dan ssp. hasil indeks yang dihitung untuk kualitas air pertanian menunjukkan bahwa kualitas air di semua sampel yang dikumpulkan berada dalam kategori baik dan sangat baik. annapoorna & janardhana, (2015) meneliti kesesuaian kualitas air tanah dari 22 sumur yang terletak di daerah pedesaan di sekitar tambang tembaga ingaldhal di distrik chithradurga, negara bagian karnataka dinilai untuk keperluan minum berdasarkan berbagai parameter kualitas air. penilaian sampel air tanah dari berbagai parameter menunjukkan bahwa air tanah di sebagian besar wilayah studi secara kimia tidak cocok untuk tujuan minum. jafari et al., (2018) menilai kualitas air tanah untuk konsumsi minum dan tujuan pertanian di kota abhar. masalah air utama di abhar terkait dengan konduktivitas listrik dan kekerasan total air.. barik & pattanayak, (2019) mengevaluasi kualitas air tanah untuk memeriksa kesesuaiannya untuk tujuan irigasi dalam rangka mempertahankan ruang hijau di kota masing-masing plot menggambarkan salinitas sedang / tipe natrium rendah dan salinitas rendah / tipe natrium rendah. misaghi et al., (2017) melakukan penelitian sanitasi nasional (nsfwqi) dan, dengan penyesuaian, menerapkannya dengan cara yang sesuai dengan persyaratan kualitas air irigasi parameter kualitas air termasuk na +, cl−, ph, hco− 3, ec, sar dan tds digunakan untuk analisis kualitas air menggunakan rumus nsfwqi yang disesuaikan. hasil studi kasus ini menunjukkan variasi kualitas air dari hulu ke hilir sungai. petani sebagai pengguna dan pengelola air irgasi menjadi kajian yang tak kalah menarik. carr et al., (2011) mengeksplorasi bagaimana petani memahami kualitas air reklamasi untuk pertanian persepsi petani tentang air reklamasi mungkin merupakan fungsi dari kualitasnya, tetapi pertimbangan juga harus diberikan pada kapasitas petani untuk mengelola tantangan pertanian terkait dengan air reklamasi (salinitas, kerusakan sistem irigasi, pemasaran hasil), kapasitas aktual dan persepsi mereka untuk kontrol di mana dan kapan air reklamasi digunakan, dan kapasitas mereka untuk mempengaruhi kualitas air yang dikirim ke tambak. hasil kajian suri et al., (2019) menyatakan bahwa kesediaan petani untuk menggunakan air nontradisional meningkat secara signifikan jika kualitas air terbukti baik atau lebih baik daripada sumber air petani saat itu. oleh karena itu para petani sangat merasakan perlunya pengolahan utama air limbah untuk menghilangkan limbah padat, yang berat dengan mengendapkan dan menangguhkannya dengan pemisahan, sebelum irigasi (mojid et al., 2010). sebagaimana hasil studi rock et al., (2019) yang menyajikan tinjauan kriteria kualitas air termasuk air permukaan, air rekreasi, air tanah, dan penggunaan kembali air dalam upaya untuk lebih memahami implikasi peraturan baru pada produk irigasi. hasil kajian ini menyimpulkan bahwa penggunaan air daur ulang beresiko lebih rendah pada konsumen daripada peraturan fda. desta et al., (2017) meneliti bagaimana kepala rumah tangga petani merasakan manfaat sosial ekonomi danau ziway (ethiopia), penyebab degradasi saat ini, dan keadaan pengelolaan penggunaan lahan dan air di daerah aliran sungai. mereka menyatakan, bagaimanapun, bahwa danau berada di bawah tekanan dari industri florikultura dan proyek investasi 143 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 lainnya, pertumbuhan populasi yang tinggi dan perluasan pemukiman dan pertanian irigasi, aplikasi agrokimia yang tinggi, erosi tanah, abstraksi air yang tidak terkontrol, dan deforestasi di daerah aliran sungai. responden lebih lanjut percaya bahwa kegiatan ini menurunkan kualitas air danau, mengecilkan volume airnya dan mengurangi populasi ikannya. sementara itu, hasil kajian tesfahunegn, (2018) menunjukkan bahwa pertanian dan variabel penjelas biofisik menunjukkan kemungkinan tertinggi bagi petani untuk merasakan dampak degradasi lahan. persepsi petani menunjukkan bahwa variabel sosial ekonomi dianggap sebagai pendorong penting dari perubahan penggunaan lahan pertanian. tiga pendorong utama lainnya dikelompokkan sebagai: lingkungan, topografi iklim, dan pendorong kebijakan (paudel et al., 2019). antisipasi terhadap perubahan kondisi lingkungan juga merupakan kajian menarik untuk merumuskan suatu strategi dalam pengembangan pertanian berkelanjutan. menurut niles & mueller, (2016) persepsi petani terhadap perubahan iklim dan ketersediaan infratsruktur irigasi dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor pribadi dan lingkungan, termasuk infrastruktur, yang pada gilirannya dapat mengubah keputusan tentang adaptasi iklim. para petani terlibat dalam berbagai strategi respons iklim, di antaranya, penanaman varietas toleran kekeringan yang paling umum (zelda et al., (2017). hasil kajian hitayezu et al., (2017) menunjukkan probabilitas yang lebih tinggi untuk memahami risiko iklim di kalangan petani yang mengalami pencitraan mental yang lebih emosional dan mereka yang memiliki nilai egaliter yang lebih kuat. oleh sebab itu pentingnya membiarkan penerima manfaat mengambil keputusan sendiri untuk merehabilitasi skema irigasi gumselassa serta untuk meningkatkan kapasitas adaptasi petani terhadap peningkatan kapasitas kelangkaan air dan pemberdayaan p3a dan perbaikan pada struktur air yang ada diperlukan (ritsema et al., 2017). sementara itu (sahu & mishra, 2013) menyatakan bahwa pendapatan tahunan, akses ke irigasi, akses ke fasilitas kredit dan ukuran kepemilikan rumah tangga petani adalah faktor utama yang mempengaruhi perilaku mereka untuk beradaptasi dengan perubahan iklim. berbagai studi di atas menjelaskan penilaian kualitas air secara teknis dan berbagai persepsi petani terhadap perubahan kondisi lingkungan usahatani terutama iklim dan lahan. sementara masih sangat sedikit kajian tentang layanan irigasi dilihat dari fasilitas dan kualitas air irigasi oleh petani khususnya untuk usahatani padi. oleh karena itu paper ini menyajikan dan membahas hasil penelitian tentang persepsi petani terhadap layanan irigasi serta bagaimana kaitannya dengan kesediaan petani membayar layanan irigasi (wtp=willingness to pay). metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di daerah istimewa yogakarta yang difokuskan di kabupaten yang memiliki lahan sawah terluas yaitu kabupaten sleman dan kabupaten bantul. kabupaten sleman dan bantul memiliki lahan sawah terluas lebih dari 67 persen dari total lahan sawah di di yogyakarta (badan pusat statistik, 2017). selain itu kedua wilayah tersebut juga memiliki agroekosistem yang berbeda berdasarkan jarak dengan sumber irigasi yakni kabupaten sleman yang berada pada wilayah hulu dekat dengan sumber irigasi dan kabupaten bantul berada pada wilayah hilir jauh dengan sumber irigasi. penentuan lokasi pengambilan sampel didasarkan pada aliran sungai irigasi yang melintasi kabupaten sleman dan bantul. terdapat delapan sungai sumber irigasi yang mengalir melintasi kabupaten sleman dan bantul. dari delapan sungai tersebut terdapat 25 daerah irigasi yang menjadi pengamatan kualitas air oleh badan lingkungan hidup daerah istimewa yogyakarta. sampel petani diambil dari setiap daerah irigasi sebanyak 5 petani secara simple random sampling sehingga jumlah sampel dalam penelitian ini adalah 125 petani. penelitian ini menggunakan analisis deskriptif untuk menggambarkan persepsi petani terhadap layanan irigasi di daerah istimewa yogyakarta. indikator layanan irigasi ditentukan oleh fasilitas dan kualitas air irgasi. fasilitas irigasi terdiri atas kondisi lintasan saluran irigasi, perawatan saluran irigasi, bangunan saluran irigasi, debit air, jadwal pengairan dan pintu air irigasi. sementara itu kualitas irigasi meliputi kejernihan air, aroma air, sampah anorganik 144 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research padat dan keberadaan biota air. berdasarkan indikator di atas, maka layanan irigasi dapat ditentukan menggunakan skor menggunakan skala likert. skala likert merupakan penghitungan tabulasi angket yang bergradasi dan kemudian diberikan kerangka penafsiran. skala likert ialah skala psikometri yang dapat dipergunakan untuk mengukur sikap, pendapat, dan persepsi seseorang atau sekelompok orang tentang suatu gejala atau fenomena (djaali, 2008). tabel 1. penentuan skor layanan irigasi berdasarkan persepsi petani indikator deskripsi skor 0 1 2 perawatan saluran tidak terawat kurang terawat terawat dengan baik lintasan yang dilalui pemukiman & pabrik hanya salah satu tidak dua-duanya bangunan saluran tidak permanen semi permanen permanen debit tidak teratur kurnag teratur teratur jadwal irigasi tidak terjadwal kurnag terjadwal terjadwal dengan baik pintu drainasi tidak terpisah terpisah sebagian terpisah kejernihan air jernih keruh sangat keruh aroma bau alami tidak sedap menyengat sampah anorganik padat banyak sedikit tidak ada biota air tidak ada sedikit banyak jumlah skor min = 0 max = 20 sugiyono (2013) menjabarkan kriteria respon terhadap suatu fenomena dari kondisi tidak baik hingga sangat baik. dalam penelitian ini kriteria respon dibagi menjadi tiga kategori yaitu tidak baik, cukup baik dan baik. berdasarkan tabel skoring di atas maka bisa kita susun kualitas irigasi menjadi tiga kategori dengan interval : i= skor max skor min 3 = 20 3 =6,7 buruk : 0,0 – 6,7 cukup : 6,8 – 13,4 baik : 13,5 – 20,0 kesediaan petani untuk membayar atau willingness to pay (wtp) layanan irigasi dapat ditentukan dengan pendekatan contingent valuation methode (cvm), yaitu suatu metode survei ekonomi untuk mengestimasi seberapa besar penilaian terhadap komoditas sumberdaya alam dan lingkungan yang memberikan jasa dan amenity (pantunru, 2004; cho et al., 2016). cara mengukur nilai barang yang tidak dipasarkan (tidak memiliki harga pasar dilakukan melalui pertanyaan langsung terhadap individuindividu mengenai kesediaan mereka membayar (willingness to pay) untuk pelayanan lebih baik (rahim, 2008). dalam penelitian ini, pengajuan pertanyaan dilalukan secara terbuka (open-ended questions, yakni setiap petani ditanyakan nilai maksimum wtp mereka tanpa adanya saran nilai awal atau nilai minimum (hanley & spash, 1995). hubungan antara nilai wtp dengan layanan irigasi dianalisis dengan menggunakan korelasi rank spearman. menurut djarwanto (1991) dan sugiyono (2013) nilai koefisien korelasi rank spearmant dapat dihitung dengan rumus : rs=16 ∑ di 2n i=1 n(n2-1 di mana : di = perbedaan setiap pasangan rank n = jumlah pasangan rank hasil dan pembahasan fasilitas irigasi fasilitas irigasi menggambarkan kondisi fasilitas irigasi yang ada di daerah penelitian. fasilitas irigasi ini meliputi kondisi lintasan saluran irigasi, perawatan saluran irigasi, bangunan saluran irigasi, debit air, jadwal pengairan dan pintu air irigasi. sumber irigasi usahatani padi di d.i. yogyakarta berasal dari sungai-sungai besar yang mengalir sepanjang wilayah yogyakarta dari daerah utara yakni kabupaten sleman mengalir ke selatan yakni kabupaten bantul. setiap lahan petani berada pada jarak yang berbeda-beda dengan sumber irigasi yang mengaliri berkisar antara 0,05 km sampai dengan 10 km. rata-rata jarak sumber irigasi dengan lahan petani sejauh 1,98 km. menurut petani daerah istimewa yogyakarta sebagian besar (88%) kondisi irigasi dalam keadaan terawat baik. terdapat sebagian kecil (12%) saluran irigasi yang belum mendapatkan layanan perawatan yang baik, yang ditemukan di daerah margomulyo dengan sumber utama irigasi berasal dari sungai konteng dan kali kuning di daerah widodomartani. menurut petani sebagian besar (57,6%) lintasan saluran irigasi melalui pemukiman penduduk, dan sebagian kecil (7,2%) melalui pabrik/industri. hal 145 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 ini berpotensi terjadinya pencemaran pada saluran irigasi di wilayah yang melalui pemukiman maupun pabrik tersebut, baik pencemaran limbah domestik/rumah tangga maupun limbah produk industri yang meresap dan terbuang pada saluran irigasi. tingginya presentase saluran irigasi yang melalui pemukiman penduduk ataupun kegiatan industri baiknya diperhatikan secara berkala, sehingga ketika terjadi pencemaran yang signifikan dapat segera diatasi. tabel 2. persepsi petani terhadap layanan irigasi usahatani padi no. layanan jumlah persentase (%) skor a. fasilitas irigasi 1. perawatan saluran terawat 110 88,0 1,774 kurang terawat 0 0,0 tidak terawat 15 12,0 2. lintasan saluran melalui pemukiman 72 57,6 1,328 melalui pabrik/industri 6 4,8 melalui pemukiman dan pabrik 3 2,4 tidak melalui dua-duanya 44 35,2 3. bangunan utama permanen 101 80,8 1,736 semi permanen 15 12,0 tidak permanen 9 7,2 4. debit air teratur 108 86,4 1,840 kurang teratur 11 8,8 tidak terartur 6 4,8 5. jadwal irigasi baik 107 85,6 1,768 kurang baik 7 5,6 tidak baik 11 8,8 6. pintu drainasi terpisah 107 85,6 1,776 sebagian terpisah 8 6,4 tidak terpisah 10 8,0 b. kualitas air irigasi 7. kejernihan air jernih 92 73,6 1,774 keruh 28 22,4 sangat keruh 5 4,0 8. aroma air bau alami 93 74,4 1,712 tidak sedap 28 22,4 menyengat 4 3,2 9. sampah padat anorganik banyak 73 58,4 0,512 sedikit 40 32,0 tidak ada 12 9,6 10. biota air banyak 45 36,0 1,600 sedikit 55 44,0 tidak ada 25 20,0 jumlah 15,820 salah satu strategi yang optimal memanatu kualitas air irigasi dengan melihat kontaminasi patogen mikroba dengan uji e coli tunggal (lothrop et al., 2018) bangunan utama yang baik merupakan bangunan yang dibangun secara permanen. bangunan utama permanen dapat mengindikasikan bahwa di daerah tersebut ada jaminan ketersediaan air dalam waktu yang lama secara berkelanjutan bagi daerahdaerah di sekitarnya. saluran permanen juga menandakan tingkat pelayanan pengelolaan keirigasian, semakin banyak bangunan permanen maka keberlanjutan saluran irigasi akan semakin tinggi. sebagian besar (80,8%) bangunan saluran utama sudah menjadi bangunan permanen, dan terdapat sebagian kecil (19,2%) yang masih tergolong bangunan semi permanen dan tidak permanen. bangunan semi permanen maupun tidak permanen memiliki potensi berubahnya fungsi saluran irigasi untuk keperluan lain ataupun pada umumnya tidak ada kepastian aliran air dan pengaturan tertentu pada saluran semi pemanen dan tidak permanen, sehingga kelebihan debit air tidak bisa diatur agar tidak menjadi kebanjiran, serta apabila keterbatasan air tidak dapat dibagikan secara merata karena kurangnya peran saluran irigasi sebagai pengaturan/pemasok air. aliran debit air di daerah istimewa yogyakarta sebagian besar sudah dalam keadaan teratur (86,4%). keteraturan aliran debit air ini diharapkan dapat mengoptimalkan pertumbuhan tanaman pertanian yang dialirinya, sehingga keteraturan ini tidak akan mengakibatkan kelebihan debit air/kebanjiran ataupun kelangkaan air karena adanya pengaturan dan pengelolaan debit yang teratur. sebagian kecil (13,4%) aliran debit air dalam keadaan kurang/tidak teratur. setelah ditelusuri berdasarkan data diketahui ketidakteraturan aliran debit air ini berasal dari kondisi irigasi yang tidak terawat. sebagian besar (85,6%) jadwal pengairan dalam keadaan terjadwal dengan baik. artinya kemampuan irigasi dalam memberikan jaminan air bagi pertanian di sekitarnya berada dalam kondisi baik ataupun dapat menjaga kebutuhan air selama proses pembudidayaannya. terdapat sebagian kecil (14,4%) jadwal pengairan yang tidak/kurang baik, yaitu ditemukan pada kali belik, bedog, dan sungai konteng. sebagian besar pintu drainasi (85,6%) dengan kondisi terpisah dengan pintu irigasi. pintu air terpisah penting dalam menjaga stabilitas pasokan dan kebersihan air sehingga air irigasi tersirkulasi dengan baik. 146 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research kualitas air irigasi kualitas air dapat dilihat pada tingkat air, aroma air, sampah padat anorganik dan jumlah biota air. air yang bersih akan berwarna jernih, sedangkan air yang tercampur dengan zat lain akan berubah menjadi keruh sampai tingkat sangat keruh. terlepas dari jenis zat yang bercampur dengan air, air yang keruh memiliki potensi pencemaran yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan air yang jernih. semakin jernih air yang diperoleh dari saluran irigasi maka kualitas air pun menjadi relatif aman dibandingkan air yang keruh. berdasarkan tabel 2 diketahui sebagian besar petani sudah memperoleh sumber air irigasi yang bersih, yaitu air dalam kondisi jernih. kondisi air yang jernih ini mengindikasikan sebagian besar petani memperoleh sumber air irigasi yang aman. namun demikian masih ada petani yang mendapat air irigasi dalam kondisi keruh bahkan sangat keruh sebesar 26,4%. cemaran kimia menerangkan tingkat cemaran beracun pada saluran irigasi yang disebabkan oleh kegiatan manusia di sepanjang saluran irigasi. resiko cemaran kimia di daerah hilir cenderung lebih tinggi dibandingkan daerah dulu, karena saluran irigasi daerah hilir melewati kegiatan manusia di sepanjang daerah hulu dan hilir sehingga cemaran akan terus menumpuk di daerah hilir. apabila tidak ada pengelolaan intensif dan koordinasi yang baik antar stake holder kedua wilayah akan menyebabkan penanganan cemaran sulit ditanggulangi. tingkat cemaran kimia dapat diukur berdasarkan aroma air pada saluran irigasi. semakin menyengat bau air maka ada indikasi air tersebut telah bercampur dengan zat lain sehinga mengakibatkan perubahan aroma pada air. semakin menyengat bau air maka kemungkinan air tersebut telah terkontaminasi zat lain dalam kadar yang tinggi. air normal akan berbau alami sebab tidak ada campuran zat lain, sehingga dapat mengindikasikan air tidak tercemaran atau pencemaran rendah dan berada dalam keadaan aman. berdasarkan data diatas dapat diketahui sebagian besar petani memperoleh sumber air irigasi dengan tingkat cemaran kimia yang rendah (3,2%). sebagian besar kondisi air irigasi masih memiliki aroma alami. hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa air irigasi masih relatif baik tidak tercemar bahan kimia. hal itu dimungkinkan oleh saluran irigasi yang melintasi industri sekitar 4,8%. namun demikian kondisi ini perlu mendapat perhatian mengingat limbah bahan kimia cukup berbahaya bagi lingkungan dan tanaman serta kesehatan petani dan masyarakat pada umumnya. menurut petani responden keadaan ini telah berlanjut dalam waktu yang lama, lemahnya pengawasan pemerintah menyebabkan pencemaran tersebut tidak dapat dihentikan. bahkan di sebagian daerah di daerah hilir menyebabkan petani gagal panen, dan mengancam kelanjutan usahataninya di masa mendatang. penelitian carr et al., (2011) menyebutkan bahwa sebagian besar petani memandang negatif sumberdaya air yang telah tercemar meskipun sudah di daur ulang. namun penelitian suri et al., (2019) menyatakan bahwa kesediaan untuk menggunakan air nontradisional (limbah daur ulang dan sejenisnya meningkat secara signifikan jika kualitas air terbukti baik atau lebih baik daripada sumber air petani saat ini. oleh karena itu perlu perbaikan fungsi pengawasan, pengendalian, dan pemberian sanksi pada kegiatan masyarakat yang menyebabkan air irigasi tercemar, terutama kegiatan yang menghasilkan limbah domestik dan pabrik/industri. semua limbah industri harus dikelola tersendiri dan tidak boleh dibuang ke saluran irigasi dengan standar prosedur operasional tertentu. sampah anorganik padat berpotensi menimbulkan kerusakan pada jaringan saluran irigasi seperti penyumbatan, pendangkalan, dan lain sebagainya. selain itu cemaran tersebut menyebabkan terjadinya campuran zat asing pada air irigasi yang berasal dari sampah tersebut yang mempengaruhi kualitas air. semakin banyak sampah yang terdapat pada saluran irigasi maka potensi cemaran air menjadi semakin tinggi yang menyebabkan kualitas air semakin buruk. adanya informasi mengenai tingkat cemaran sampah anorganik padat pada saluran irigasi dapat dijadikan dasar pembuatan kebijakan untuk penangangan lebih lanjut. berdasarkan data diatas dapat diketahui sebagian besar petani di kedua daerah memperoleh air irigasi dari sumber irigasi yang telah tercemar oleh sampah anorganik padat. hal ini mengindikasikan 147 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 tingkat pencemaran bahan padat irigasi padi sangat tinggi. apabila kondisi ini dibiarkan maka pencemaran berpotensi menyebar secara merata ke seluruh daerah irigasi di daerah hulu dan hilir. pencemaran ini dapat diperbaiki dengan meningkatkan fungsi pengawasan, tindakan preventif terhadap pelaku pembuangan limbah ke saluran irigasi, dan pemberian insentif bagi masyarakat yang melakukan pembenahan/perbaikan saluran irigasi. keberadaan binatang air menunjukkan tingkat kemanan air bagi kelangsungan makhluk hidup yang ada di dalamnya. semakin tinggi pencemaran air maka makhluk hidup akan sulit beradaptasi, sehingga semakin parah cemaran yang terjadi maka makhluk hidup pun akan semakin sedikit. salah satu binatang air yang umum hidup di saluran irigasi adalah ikan. ikan membutuhkan kondisi air normal untuk bertahan hidup, sehingga semakin baik kualitas air irigasi maka kemungkinan jumlah ikan yang mampu bertahan hidup akan semakin besar. berdasarkan data diatas dapat diketahui sebagian besar petani memperoleh air irigasi dari sumber irigasi dengan jumlah biota air atau ikan yang sedikit. artinya ada indikasi bahwa saluran utama irigasi kedua daerah telah terjadi pencemaran, walaupun dalam kondisi yang belum parah. hal tersebut dapat diketahui dari adanya ikan atau biota air yang masih bertahan hidup di dalamnya. namun ada sebagian kecil yaitu sekitar 20% petani yang tersebar di kedua daerah memperoleh air irigasi dengan indikasi tingkat pencemaran yang parah, yaitu petani memperoleh air irigasi dari sumber saluran yang tidak ada ikan atau biota air sama sekali. kondisi ini terjadi akibat tekanan dari industri dan proyek investasi lainnya, pertumbuhan populasi yang tinggi dan perluasan pemukiman dan pertanian irigasi, aplikasi agrokimia yang tinggi, erosi tanah, abstraksi air yang tidak terkontrol, dan deforestasi di daerah aliran sungai (desta et al., 2017). pencemaran air irigasi oleh limbah padat maupun kimia cukup berisiko bagi pertanian. mojid et al., (2010) menyatakan bahwa para petani di daerah lain sangat prihatin dengan dampak negatifnya terhadap kesehatan manusia dan tanah. saat bekerja dengan air limbah, para petani menghadapi bebagai masalah, infeksi kulit, cedera pada tangan dan kaki bagian bawah, bau busuk, gangguan nyamuk dan kerusakan pada pompa karena limbah padat. secara umum layanan irigasi untuk usahatani padi di daerah istimewa yogyakarta masih dalam kategori baik (skor 15,820). indikator layanan yang masih perlu mendapat perhatian adalah sampah anorganik padat. indikator ini masih dalam kategori buruk (skor < 0,67). jumlah sampah anorganik padat yang berlimpah akan merusak saluran irigasi sehingga layanan irigasi akan terganggu. kesediaan membayar (willingness to pay) layanan irigasi kesediaan petani membayar iuran irigasi untuk keperluan pengelolaan dan perawatan irigasi menggambarkan kemauan tingkat partisipasi petani dalam menjaga keberlanjutan irigasi di daerah usahataninya. terwujudnya petani mandiri akan membantu pemerintah dalam mewujudkan bantuan tepat sasaran, sehingga biaya-biaya yang bisa diakomodasi oleh petani tidak perlu dikeluarkan dan bisa dialihkan untuk bantuan lain. tingkat willingness to pay petani padi daerah hulu dan hilir di daerah istimewa yogyakarta dapat dilihat pada tabel berikut. tabel 3. kesedian membayar (wtp) iuran irigasi kelas wtp (rp/mt) jumlah (orang) persentase (% 0 – 25.000 99 79,2 26.000 50.000 16 12,8 51.000 75.000 9 7,2 76.000 100.000 1 0,8 rata – rata : 20.32 berdasarkan data diatas diketahui sebagian besar nilai willingness to pay (wtp) atau kesediaan petani membayar iuran irigasi berkisar antara rp 0.000,sampai rp. 100.000,per musim tanam. sebagian besar petani bersedia membayar kurang dari rp. 26.000,per musim tanam. data tersebut menunjukkan hanya ada sekitar 20% petani yang bersedia membayar iuran lebih dari rp. 25.000,per musim tanam. artinya jika diterapkan iuran irigasi melebihi rp.25.000,maka akan banyak petani yang keberatan dengan nilai iuran tersebut. berdasarkan analisis korelasi rank spearman nilai wtp tidak 148 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research berkorelasi secara signifikan terhadap luas lahan yang dikelola oleh petani (koefisien korelasi 0,062 dengan p = 49,5%). hal ini berarti bahwa kesediaan membayar iuaran irigasi semata didasarkan pada kesedaran petani terhadap keberlanjutan layanan irigasi. hasil analisis korelasi rank spearman menunjukkan ada hubungan antara layanan irigasi dengan kesediaan petani membayar iuran irigasi dengan koefisien korelasi sebesar -0,191 pada taraf kepercayaan 95%. nilai tersebut menunjukkan hubungan negatif yang dapat diartikan jika layanan irigasi meningkat maka kesediaan petani membayar iuran irigasi (wtp) malah turun. keengganan petani membayar iuran irigasi ini dimungkinkan karena layanan irigasi secara umum sudah baik. penyediaan infrastruktur irigasi sudah biasa dianggarkan oleh pemerintah. namun untuk keberlanjutan perlu kesadaran masyarakat khususnya petani agar irigasi dapat melayani petani dengan baik dalam jangka panjang. penyediaan pengontrol irigasi pintar akan lebih hemat dalam perawatan irigasi. khachatryan et al., (2019) menyatakan bahwa fitur-fitur pengontrol seperti jenis operasi misal peringatan / pemberitahuan kerusakan fungsi juga memengaruhi preferensi masyarkat membayar iuran irigasi. selain itu perlu pemberdayaan p3a dan perbaikan pada struktur air yang ada (ritsema et al., 2017). keterbatasan studi ini adalah bahwa perhitungan wtp petani belum mempertimbangkan luas lahan yang dikelola oleh petani. oleh karena itu hal ini menjadi pertimbangan untuk kajian lebih lanjut tentang hubungan antara wtp dengan luas lahan. kesimpulan secara umum layanan irigasi untuk usahatani padi di daerah istimewa yogyakarta masih dalam kategori baik. indikator layanan irigasi yang masih buruk adalah jumlah sampah anorganik padat yang masih melimpah berpotensi merusak saluran irigasi. sementara itu kesediaan petani membayar iuran irigasi (wtp) masih tergolong rendah. keengganan petani membayar iuran irigasi ini dimungkinkan karena layanan irigasi secara umum sudah baik. dalam rangka keberlanjutan layanan irigasi jangka panjang maka perlu kesadaran masyarakat khususnya petani dalam pemanfaatan irigasi serta penyediaan pengontrol irigasi pintar dalam perawatan irigasi. selaian itu perlu pemberdayaan p3a dan perbaikan pada struktur air yang ada. daftar pustaka abbasnia, a., radfard, m., mahvi, a. h., nabizadeh, r., yousefi, m., soleimani, h., & alimohammadi, m. 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(2019). effects and potential of water-saving irrigation for rice production in china. agricultural water management, 217, 374–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.20 19.03.010 layout juli 2016 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.1 januari 2017 eska stefani1, rita nurmalina2, amzul rifin2 1 program pascasarjana magister sains agribisnis, fem, ipb 2 departemen agribisnis, fem, ipb eskafunnisa@gmail.com strategi pegembangan usaha beras hitampada asosiasi tani organik sawangan di kabupaten magelang doi: 10.18196/agr.3145 abstract the black rice farming is potential to be developed in indonesia for several reasons, for instance it is a rare local varieties, has many health benefit, high value, and feaseable to be developed based on farming analysis. magelang regency is a region that has original varieties of black rice. the development of black rice farming was supported by association of sawangan organic farmers. this study applied internal and external environment analysis and formulated strategy using swot analysis, and then the priority strategy was chosen by weighting it based on swot analysis framework (a’wot). result showed that certified organic product was the most important factor on strength while the decreasing number of black rice farmer was the weakness. furthermore, increasing people awareness on healty food was the opportunity and the threat was black rice has not been widely known in public. the priority alternative strategy that can be applied by association of sawangan organic farmers to develop black rice farming is to build a sustainable business partner. kkkkkeywordseywordseywordseywordseywords: a’wot, black rice, development strategy, sawangan organic farmers association intisari usahatani beras hitam potensial untuk dikembangkan di indonesia karenamemiliki varietas lokal yang masih jarang keberadaannya, mempunyai banyak manfaat kesehatan, nilai jual yang tinggi, dan layak dikembangkan berdasarkan analisis usahataninya.kabupaten magelang merupakan daerah yang mempunyai varietas asli padi beras hitam. pengusahaan beras hitam di kabupaten magelang didukung salah satunya oleh asosiasi tani organik sawangan (tos). pada penelitian ini digunakan analisis lingkungan internal dan eksternal, perumusan strategi dengan menggunakan analisis swot kemudian prioritas strategi dilakukan dengan pembobotan melalui penyusunan hierarki berdasarkan kerangka swot (a’wot). analisis menunjukkan bahwa produk sudah bersertifikat organic merupakan subfaktor terpenting dari kekuatan; berkurangnya jumlah petani yang menanam beras hitsebagai kelemahan;meningkatnya kesadaran masyarakat akan kesehatan, sebagai peluang; sedangkan beras hitam belum banyak dikenal masyarakat, sebagai ancaman. prioritas alternatif strategi yang dapat diterapkan pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan dalam mengusahakan beras hitam yang pertama adalah membangun mitra kerja yang kontinyu. kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci: asosiasi tani organik sawangan, a’wot, beras hitam, strategi pengembangan pendahuluan beras mempunyai peranan penting dalam perekonomian indonesia karena mempunyai kontribusi yang cukup besar terhadap pdb nasional, menciptakan 58 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research lapangan kerja, meningkatkan pendapatan rumah tangga tani, dan merupakan makanan pokok penduduknya. indonesia memiliki varietas beras yang beragam, salah satunya beras hitam yang mempunyai begitu banyak manfaat kesehatan.beras hitam memiliki aroma yang baik dengan penampilan yang spesifik dan unik. bila dimasak, nasi beras hitam berubah warna menjadi pekat dengan rasa dan aroma yang menggugah selera makan (suardi dan ridwan, 2009). beras hitam banyak mengandung aleuron dan endospermia yang dapat memproduksi antosianin sehingga warna beras menjadi ungu pekat mendekati hitam. selain antosianin, beras hitam juga mengandung kadar gula yang lebih sedikit, lebih banyak serat dan vitamin e (bptp, 2010). oleh sebab itu beras hitam sangat bermanfaat bagi kesehatan, antara lain sebagai antioksidan, sumber karbohidrat yang aman bagi penderita diabetes, baik untuk diet, serta mencegah penuaan dini pada kulit. beras hitam dikenal sebagai pangan fungsional, yaitu pangan yang secara alami atau melalui proses tertentu mengandung satu atau lebih senyawa yang dianggap mempunyai fungsi fisiologi yang bermanfaat bagi kesehatan (kristamtini et. al.,2014). kebutuhan masyarakat terhadap makanan tidak hanya untuk menghilangkan rasa lapar, tetapi juga dipercaya akan berkontribusi secara langsung terhadap kesehatan manusia, terutama untuk masyarakat yang berpendidikan atau masyarakat dengan tingkat ekonomi menengah keatas. kebutuhan demikian akan berdampak pada peningkatan nilai jual dan permintaan bahan makanan atau produk-produk dengan label pangan fungsional. pengetahuan dan pemahaman masyarakat tentang kesehatan disertai keinginan untuk menerapkan pola hidup sehat dengan memperbaiki pola diet atau asupan makanan yang lebih baik (bech-larsen dan scholderer, 2007); memungkinkan pengembangan budidaya dan produksi beras hitam memiliki prospek ekonomi yang menjanjikan. realitas di lapangan menunjukkan beras hitam memiliki harga jual yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan jenis beras lainnya. ditingkat petani, harga gabah padi hitam mencapai 10.000 rupiah per kilo; ditingkat pengumpul mencapai 17.000 rupiah per kilo; ditingkat distributor mencapai 30.000 rupiah per kilo; bahkanditingkat pengecer dapat mencapai 58.000 rupiah per kilo. selain itu, hasil penelitian djatiharti dan kristamtini (2009) mengungkapkan bahwa apabila dijual dalam bentuk gabah kering; beras hitam memiliki nilai b/c sebesar 1,39 dan nilai r/c 2,39. jika dijual dalam bentuk beras, keuntungan akan meningkat dengan nilai b/c sebesar 1,59 serta nilai r/c sebesar 2,59. hal ini menunjukkan beras hitam layak untuk diusahakan oleh petani, sehingga usaha beras hitam di indonesia sangat potensial untuk dikembangkan. asosiasi tani organik sawangan (tos) merupakan kumpulan dari para petani di wilayah sawangan yang peduli terhadap kesehatan dan lingkungan. kepengurusan dipilih melalui musyawarah anggota pada 22 oktober 2012 di kantor balai penyuluhan pertanian dan kehutanan kecamatan sawangan, kabupaten magelang.asosiasi dibentuk karena beberapa alasan, diantaranya gapoktan tidak berjalan sebagaimana mestinya dan kondisi lahan pertanian yang kualitasnya semakin menurun akibat penggunaan pupuk kimia dan pestisida yang berlebihan.asosiasi tos mengembangkan beras hitam varietas cempo ireng yang merupakan varietas lokal kabupaten magelang.kecamatan sawangan merupakan daerah di kabupaten magelang,dengan jumlah petani yang mengusahakan beras hitam paling banyak1. keberadaan asosiasi diharapkan dapat mendukung upaya pelestarian varietas lokal beras hitam. asosiasi tos berperan dalam membantu anggotanya memasarkan beras hitam serta mendukung dalam proses produksinya. namun dalam menjalankan usaha beras hitam, asosiasi mengalami beberapa kendala yaitu jumlah petani anggota yang menanam beras hitam semakin sedikit. hal ini disebabkan masa tanam beras hitam yang lebih lama dan produktivitasnya yang lebih rendah dibanding jenis padi yang lain. masalah lain yang dihadapi asosiasi adalah jumlah penjualan semakin menurun. oleh karena itu, asosiasi tani organik sawangan perlu mengembangkan strategi usaha dalam menyelesaikan berbagai permasalahan yang dihadapi. penelitian bertujuan menganalisis lingkungan internal dan eksternal asosiasi tani organik sawanganuntuk menetapkan prioritas alternatif strategi pengembangan usaha beras hitam. metode penelitian penelitiandilakukan pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan (tos) yang berlokasi di kecamatan sawangan, kabupaten magelang. pertimbangan pemilihan lokasi yaitu: i) di kecamatan sawangandikembangkan varietas lokal beras hitam; ii)petani yang tergabung asosiasi merupakan pengembang beras hitam paling banyak di kabupaten magelang; iii) usaha asosiasi dalam mengembangkan beras hit am merupakan percontohan bagi lelompok tani di kabupaten magelang khususnya dalam pengusahaan beras hitam. pengumpulan data dilaksanakan pada bulan aprildesember 2015.data primer diperoleh melalui pengamatan langsung atau observasi, wawancara mendalam dengan 59 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 sejumlah responden internal dan eksternal, serta pengisian kuesioner oleh responden dipandu peneliti.responden internal antara lain ketua, sekretaris dan bendahara asosiasi tani organik sawangan; sedangkan responden eksternal terdiri dari pt martani selaku distributor tos, dinas pertanian perkebunan dan kehutanan kabupaten magelang, dan penyuluh pendamping tos.data primer yang diperoleh meliputi gambaran umum, visi, misi, tujuan, sasaran, serta informasi mengenai lingkungan internal dan eksternal dari asosiasi tani organik sawangan. data sekunder diperoleh melalui study literature dari penelitian terdahulu, buku, jurnal, internet, dan literatur lain yang berhubungan dengan topik penelitian; serta penelusuran dokumen yang tersedia pada instansi terkait seperti dinas pertanian, perkebunan dan langkah 1 langkah 2 langkah 3 langkah 4 langkah 5 identifikasi kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang dan ancaman menyusun struktur hierarki dari level atas ke bawah agar dilakukan perbandingan berpasangan pada faktor swot dan komponennya sehingga terhubung antara tujuan utama (goal) terhadap faktor dan subfaktor swot, level kriteria strategi dan level berikutnya. • melakukan perbandingan berpasangan antara subfaktor swot pada setiap faktor swot (lokal weight) • secara keseluruhan prioritas dihitung pada masing-masing faktor swot (global weight) • menempatkan prioritas komponen swot ke dalam matriks swot • mengembang kan strategi dengan dua faktor swot yaitu strategi so, st, wo, wt. • prioritas alternatif strategi • perhitungan consistency index analisis faktor swot strutur hierarki perbandingan berpasangan (ahp) matriks swot dan pengembangan strategi matriks evaluasi strategi gambar 1. diagram alir metode swot-ahp(takano dan wickramasinghe,2009) pengembangan usaha beras hitam pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan s w o t level 2 faktor level 3 sub faktor level 4 usulan strategi strategi 1 strategi 2 strategi n s1,s2..sn strategi 4 w1,w2...wn o1,o2…on t1, t2…tn level 1 fokus strategi 3 …. gambar 2. persentasi hierarki dari analisis a’wot 60 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research kehutanan kabupaten magelang, dan bppk kecamatan sawangan. analisis a’wot digunakan untuk menemukan alternatif strategi pengembangan beras hitam, dengan tahapan-tahapan sebagaimana ditampilkan pada gambar 1. adapun perhitungannya dilakukan dengan software expert choice. 1. analisis faktor swot analisis ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang, dan ancaman asosiasi tani organik sawangan. ketika menerapkan ahp standar, jumlah faktor kelompok swot dianjurkan tidak melebihi 10 faktor, karena jumlah dalam perbandingan berpasangan yang dibutuhkan akan berkembang. 2. menyusun struktur hierarki ahp penyusunan hierarki dimulai dari persoalan yang akan diselesaikan dan diurai menjadi empat level (gambar 2). a. level 1 merupakan tujuan yang ingin dicapai yaitu mengembangkan usaha beras hitam pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan. b. level 2 merupakan faktor-faktor yang diidentifikasi dalam analisis lingkungan internal dan eksternal yaitu strenght (s) atau kekuatan, weakness (w) atau kelemahan, opportunity (o) atau peluang, dan threats (t) atau ancaman. c. level 3merupakan faktor-faktor yang diidentifikasi dari masing-masing komponen swot yang diurai dalam s1, s2, sn, w1, w2, wn, o1, o2, on, t1, t2, tn. d. level 4 adalah alternatif strategi yang akan dievaluasi dan dibandingkan sehingga diperoleh prioritas strategi. 3. perbandingan berpasangan a. perbandingan berpasangan antara subfaktor swot pada setiap faktor swot pembobotan dilakukan terhadap faktor-faktor internal dan eksternal yang telah diperoleh dengan perbandingan berpasangan untuk mengetahui tingkat kepentingan faktor internal dan eksternal yang telah didapat dari kuesioner responden. ketika melakukan perbandingan berpasangan, pertanyaan yang harus dijawab yaitu: i) dari dua subfaktor yang dibandingkan faktor mana yang memiliki dampak yang lebih tinggi (kekuatan, peluang, kelemahan atau ancaman); dan ii) seberapa besar dampaknya. perbandingan ini sebagai masukan, prioritas relatif dari faktor-faktor lokal yang dihitung dengan menggunakan nilai eigen. prioritas ini mencerminkan per sepsi pengambil keputusan pada kepentingan relatif dari faktor. b. perbandingan berpasangan antara faktor swot subfaktor dengan prioritas lokal tertinggi telah terpilih dari setiap faktor swot, kemudian bandingkan setiap faktor swot seperti tahap 3a. perhitungan ini dilakukan untuk mendapatkan prioritas global. hal ini dihasilkan dari perkalian antara prioritas lokal dengan nilai skala dari faktor swot. jumlah dari semua prioritas global adalah satu. 4. formulasi strategi dengan matriks swot pada tahap ini, perumusan strategi dilakukan dengan mencocokkan antara faktor internal dan eksternal. faktor internal dan eksternal merupakan data yang telah diperoleh dari tahap input. alat analisis yang digunakan pada tahap ini adalah matriks swot. matriks swot terdiri dari komponen kekuatan (strengths), kelemahan (weakness), peluang (opportunities), dan ancaman (threats). alternatif strategi disusun melalui kombinasi antara unsur-unsur tersebut (gambar 3). faktor internal faktor eksternal strenghts (s) weakness (w) opportunities (o) strategi s-o strategi disini yaitu menggunakan kekuatan untuk memanfaatkan peluang staregi w-o strategi di sini yaitu memanfaatkan peluang untuk mengatasi kelemahan threats (t) strategi s-t strategi di sini yaitu menggunakan kekuatan untuk menghindari ancaman strategi w-t strategi di sini yaitu meminimalkan kelemahan dan menghindari ancaman gambar 3. matriks swot (wheelen dan hunger, 2008) 5. matriks evaluasi strategi ahp mengukur konsistensi menyeluruh dari berbagai pertimbangan melalui suatu rasio konsistensi (cr) dari indeks konsistensi (ci) dengan nilai yang tepat. ci dirumuskan sebagai berikut: = λ −− 1 “n” menyatak an jumlah kriteria/alternatif yang dibandingkan dan ë max adalah nilai eigen (eigen value) yang terbesar dari matriks perbandingan berpasangan orde n. jika ci bernilai 0 maka keputusan penilaian tersebut bersifat perfectly consistent, dimana ë max sama dengan jumlah kriteria yang diperbandingkan yaitu n. semakin tinggi nilai ci semakin rendah tingkat kekonsistenan dari keputusan perbandingan yang telah dilakukan. 61 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 ci dapat dikatakan baik,jika cr tidak lebih 0,1. jika cr lebih dari 0,1 maka mutu informasi tersebut harus diperbaiki, dengan cara menggunakan pertanyaan ketika membuat perbandingan berpasangan. bila tindakan ini gagal, konsistensi dapat diperbaiki dengan peninjauan ulang persoalan yang tidak terstruktur secara tepat seperti dilakukan pada langkah 2 walaupun hanya bagian-bagian dari hierarki yang perlu diperbaiki. rasio konsistensi (cr/consistency ratio) dirumuskan sebagai perbandingan antara consistency index (ci) dan random index (ri) dengan rumus sebagai berikut:= nilai ri untuk beberapa nilai n ditampilkan pada tabel 1. hasil dan pembahasan analisis lingkungan internal da eksternal lingkungan internal merupakan lingkungan yang berada dalam asosiasi dan memiliki pengaruh langsung terhadap usahanya. setiap perusahaan atau organisasi seperti halnya asosiasi tani organik sawangan mampu mengendalikan lingkungan internal. analisis terhadap lingkungan internal merupakan proses yang dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan asosiasi dengan dilihat dari aspek produksi, pemasaran, keuangan, manajemen, sistem informasi manajemen, serta penelitian dan pengembangan. identifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan dari masing-masing lingkungan internal dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. lingkungan eksternal merupakan lingkungan yang berada diluar asosiasi dan memiliki pengaruh terhadap usahanya. analisis terhadap lingkungan eksternal merupakan proses yang dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi peluang dan ancaman asosiasi dengan dilihat dari aspek ekonomi, sosial, budaya, demografi, dan lingkungan, politik, pemerintah dan hukum, teknologi serta aspek kompetitif. identifikasi kekuatan dan kelemahan dari masing-masing lingkungan eksternal dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. tabel 2. identifikasi faktor strategis internal asosiasi tani organik sawangan lingkungan internal kekuatan kelemahan 1. produksi tersedia rice milling unit (rmu) telah menerapkan pertanian organik produk bersertifikat organik berkurangnya petani anggota yang menanam beras hitam 2. pemasaran produk menawarkan banyak manfaat kesehatan dan ramah lingkungan promosi belum maksimal kemasan masih sederhana 3. keuangan ketersediaan modal terbatas 4. manajemen pelatihan anggota pengurus belum konsisten menjalankan tugasnya administrasi kurang baik 5. penelitian dan pengembangan dapat melakukan pemurnian benih sendiri tabel 3.identifikasi faktor strategis eksternal asosiasi tani organik sawangan lingkungan eksternal peluang ancaman ekonomi industri pengolahan beras hitam mulai berkembang program kredit dari bank sosial, budaya, demografi, lingkungan meningkatnya kesadaran masyarakat akan kesehatan lingkungan yang mendukung pertanian organik kab. magelang memiliki daya tarik wisata banyak masyarakat belum mengetahui adanya beras hitam dan manfaatnya adanya hama burung politik, pemerintahan dan hokum adanya dukungan dari dinas pertanian teknologi adanya teknologi informasi (internet) kompetitif persaingan dalam industri semakin tinggi struktur hierarki ahp-swot hierarki pada model ahp merupakan bagian yang penting, karena digunakan sebagai dasar bagi responden untuk memberikan pembobotan secara lebih sederhana. dengan hierarki ini, permasalahan yang kompleks diharapkan dapat terlihat lebih sederhana dan mudah dipahami. metode a’wot merupakan penggunaan ahp dengan kerangka swot. struktur hierarki tersusun dalam empat level (gambar 4) yang terdiri dari:level pertama merupakan goal tabel 1. nilai random index n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ri 0 0 0,58 0,90 1,12 1,24 1,32 1,41 1,45 1,49 1,51 1,48 1,56 sumber: marimin (2004) 62 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research atau tujuan, yaitu keputusan yang dijalankan dalam mengembangkan usaha beras hitam pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan; level kedua adalah kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang, dan ancaman pada faktor swot; level ketiga adalah subfaktor yaitu hasil dari analisis lingkungan internal dan eksternal asosiasi yang merupakan faktor kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang, dan ancaman; level keempat adalah alternatif strategi. pembobotan berpasangan pembobotan dilakukan setelah menyusun hierarki seperti pada gambar 4. analisis pendapat gabungan para responden menunjukkan pembobotan pada level faktor menghasilkan bobot tertinggi pada faktor kekuatan dengan nilai 0,445 kemudian diikuti oleh peluang, kelemahan, dan ancaman dengan masing-masing nilai 0,393; 0,083; 0,079 dengan nilai inconsistency ratio 0,00385. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa penilaian tersebut telah memenuhi syarat perbandingan berpasangan karena nilai batas maksimum inconsistency ratio adalah 0,1. kekuatan yang dimiliki asosiasi tos mempunyai bobot yang tertinggi, hal ini disebabkan asosiasi tos memiliki potensi yang besar dalam mengembangakan beras hitam. asosiasi tos didukung oleh beberapa hal seperti lingkungan yang mendukung untuk pertanian organik mengingat beras hitam lebih baik diproduksi secara organik, mempunyai rmu untuk pengolahannya, dan telah memiliki sertifikat organik. kekuatan yang dimiliki oleh asosiasi tos akan menjadi modal tersendiri dalam menghadapi persaingan yang ada. pembobotan selanjutnya adalah pembobotan pada level subfaktor yang dilakukan dengan perbandingan berpasangan pada setiap subfaktor berdasark an masing-masing kelompoknya, dimana nilai inconsistencyuntuk faktor kekuatan sebesar 0,02. dari enam subfaktor yang ada, produk bersertifikat organik mempunyai nilai pembobotan tertinggi yaitu sebesar 0,277. adanya sertifikat organik dapat menjadi jaminan bagi para konsumen bahwa produk yang dihasilkan telah diproduksi secara organik atau telah memiliki kriteria s o t strategi 1 strategi 2 strategi 6 1. tersedia rmu (rice milling unit) 2. menerapkan pertanian organik 3. produk bersertifikat organik 4. produk menawarkan banyak manfaat kesehatan 5. pelatihan anggota 6. pemurnian benih strategi 4 1. berkurang petani anggota yang menanam beras hitam 2. promosi kurang maksimal 3. kemasan masih sederhana 4. ketersediaan modal terbatas 5. pengorganisasian belum berjalan baik 6. administrasi kurang baik 1. industri pengolahan berkembang 2. program kredit dari bank 3. tingkat kesadaran masyarakat akan kesehatan terus meningkat 4. lingkungan mendukung untuk pertanianorganik 5. memiliki daya tarik wisata 6. adanya dukungan dari dinas pertaian 7. kemajuan teknologi informasi 1. belum banyak masyarakat yang mengenal beras hitam dan manfaatnya 2. adanya hama burung 3. persaingan dalam industri semakin meningkat strategi 3 strategi 5 strategi 7 pengembangan usaha beras hitam pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan strategi 8 gambar 4. persentasi hierarki dari analisis a’wot pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan 63 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 tertentu yang telah memenuhi standar organik. untuk produk beras hitam, adanya sertifikat organik ini menjadi penting karena sering dipertanyakan oleh calon pembeli baik konsumen langsung maupun distributor, mengingat produk ini dikonsumsi untuk alasan kesehatan.sebagaimana pendapat djazuli (2014) bahwa manfaaat sertifikasi produk organik antara lain memberi jaminanproduk organik, melindungi konsumen dari penipuan, menjamin praktek perdagangan yang lebih adil, dan memberikan nilai tambah dan akses pasar. kelompok selanjutnya yang akan dibobotkan adalah faktor kelemahan. faktor kelemahan terdiri dari berkurangnya jumlah petani yang menanam beras hitam, ketersediaan modal terbatas, promosi belum maksimal, kemasan masih sederhana, pengorganisasian belum berjalan baik, kemampuan administrasi rendah. nilai inconsistency pada kelompok ini adalah 0,02. berkurangnya jumlah petani yang menanam beras hitam menjadi kelemahan dengan bobot tertinggi berdasarkan penilaian para responden yaitu sebesar 0,375. terus berkurangnya jumlah petani yang menanam beras hitamsangat berpengaruh pada proses pengembangan usaha beras hitam. menurut responden terdapat beberapa hal yang menyebabkan petani enggan menanam beras hitam, yaitu: para petani merasa trauma karena pernah terjadi pelanggaran perjanjian dengan salah satu pihak distributor sehingga hasil produksi mereka tidak jadi dibeli oleh pihak distributor, dan tidak mudah untuk membangun kembali kepercayaan petani untuk menanam beras hitam. selain faktor internal, terdapat faktor eksternal yang berpengaruh pada pengembangan usaha beras hitam yaitu faktor peluang dan ancaman.nilai inconsistencypada kelompok ini adalah 0,03.menurut responden, semakin meningkatnya kesadaran masyarakat terhadap kesehatan menjadi faktor peluang yang paling tinggi, yaitu bernilai 0,251. beras hitam dinilai sebagai pangan fungsional yang memiliki banyak manfaat kesehatan merupakan alasan utama konsumen mengonsumsi beras hitam. hal ini dapat menjadi peluang yang besar untuk memproduksi beras hitam. faktor eksternal lain yang akan dibobotkan adalah ancaman, dengan nilai inconsistency yaitu 0,00146. adapun faktor-faktor yang dibandingkan penilaiannya adalah beras hitam belum banyak dikenal oleh masyarakat, adanya hama burung, serta persaingan dalam industri beras hitam semakin meningkat. menurut responden,ancaman yang mempunyai nilai tertinggi adalah beras hitam belum banyak dikenal oleh masyarakat, yaitu sebesar 0,483.hal ini menjadi ancaman paling besar yang harus diatasi agar semakin banyak orang yang mengonsumsi beras jenis ini dengan mengetahui manfaat beras hitam bagi kesehatan. alternatif strategi pengembangan alternatif strategi disusun berdasarkan faktor-faktor internal, yaitu kekuatan dan kelemahan; serta faktor-faktor eksternal, yaitu peluang dan ancaman. matriks swot menghasilkan alternatif strategi yang dikelompokkan menjadi empat strategi umum, yaitu so, st, wo, dan w t. berdasarkan hasil analisis matriks swot (gambar 5) terdapat sejumlah alternatif strategi yang dapat dipilih dalam pengembangan beras hitam pada asosiasi tos. strategi s-o (strenghts-opportunities). alternatif strategi so merupak an strategi yang dirumuskan dengan mempertimbangkan kekuatan yang dimiliki asosiasi tos untuk dapat menfaatkan peluang yang ada. strategi so yang dapat dirumuskan adalah sebagai berikut. 1. membangun mitra kerja secara continue dalam pemasaran produk [so1] dalam upaya mengembangkan beras hitam diperlukan jaminan pasar bagi hasil produksi. hal ini dapat dilakukan dengan menjalin kerjasama secara kontinyu, baik dengan dinas pemerintahan maupun dengan pihak distributor yang selama ini menjadi pasar bagi hasil produksi beras hitam. menjalin kerjasama dengan pihak dinas pertanian setempat menjadi sangat penting, mengingat dinas pertanian telah memberik an banyak bantuan seper ti biaya untuk mendapatkan sertifikat organik, sampai dengan membantu memasarkan produk beras hitam melalui pameran-pameran. disamping itu, membina kerjasama secara terus-menerus dengan distributor, retailerdan konsumen yang sudah menjadi pelanggan asosiasi tos sangat penting untuk dilakukan. kerjasama yang dibangun sebaiknya didukung dengan mou untuk setiap perjanjian yang dilakukan untuk mengantisipasi pelanggaran kontrak sebagaimana yang pernah terjadi sebelumnya. 2. memperluas jaringan pasar [so2] memperluas jaringan pemasaran untuk meningkatkan penjualan. dengan kekuatan yang dimiliki asosiasi tos, yaitu produk yang ditawarkan banyak memberi manfaat kesehatan dan ramah lingkunganserta sudah memiliki sertifikat organik dapat digunakan untuk memperluas jaringan pasar dengan melihat peluang yang ada yaitu semakin tingginya tingkat kesadaran masyarakat akan kesehatan, semakin berkembangnya industri olahan beras hitam, serta 64 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research kabupaten magelang mempunyai daya tarik wisata. dengan melihat beberapa peluang tersebut terdapat beberapa hal yang dapat dilakukan oleh asosiasi tos untuk meningkatkan penjualan, antara lain menawarkan produk ke rumah sakit. khasiat kesehatan yang luar biasa memungkinkan beras hitam digunakan dalam proses pemulihan kesehatan. selain itu, dengan daya tarik wisata yang dimilikikabupaten magelang, beras hitam dapat dikenalkan sebagai oleh-oleh khas daerah wisata. produk tidak hanya dijual dalam bentuk beras, tetapi dapat dipasarkan dalam bentuk makanan olahan berbahan baku beras hitam. strategi w-o (weakness-opportunities) alternatif strategi wo merupakan strategi yang dirumusk an dengan melihat peluang untuk meminimalkan kelemahan yang dimiliki asosiasi tos. berikut ini strategi wo yang dapat dirumuskan. 1. memanfaatkan teknologi informasi untuk meningkatkan penjualan [wo1] beras hitam yang memiliki banyak manfaat kesehatan, belum banyak dikenal oleh masyarakat oleh karena itu membutuhkan upaya promosi yang lebih. kemajuan teknologi informasi dan kemudahan untuk mengaksesnya dapat menjadi peluang yang dapat dimanfaatkan oleh asosiasi tos dalam mengatasi masalah promosi yang belum maksimal karena keterbatasan dana. pemanfaatan aplikasi sosial media dalam promosi dapat dikembangkan mengingat mudah mengaksesnya dan tidak memerlukan biaya yang tinggi, dengan catatan tersedia sdm yang dapat mengelolanya. 2. menguatkan kelembagaan asosiasi tos [wo2] manajemen yang dilakukan oleh asosiasi tos belum berjalan dengan baik oleh sehingga diperlukan penguatan kelembagaan. asosiasi tos perlu memperbaiki dan meningkatkan kemampuan administrasi, baik administrasi keuangan ataupun administrasi kegiatan bagi pengurus kelompok dan petani anggota. selain itu, setiap pengurus yang tercatat dalam struktur organisasi belum dapat menjalankan tugasnya masing-masing. padahal pembagian bidang-bidang pada kepengurusan sudah sangat baik. perbaikan sistem manajemen harus dibuat berdasarkan kesepakatan bersama agar pelaksanaannya dapat berjalan secara partisipasif. untuk dapat meningkatkan partisipasi pengurus diperlukan tabel 4. bobot prioritas faktor swot pengembangan usaha beras hitam pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan faktor swot inconsistency sub faktor swot bobot global bobot lokal kekuatan 0,02 0,445 tersedia rmu (rice milling unit) 0,119 0,267 menerapkan teknologi jajar legowo dan pertanian organic 0,060 0,136 produk bersertifikat organik 0,124 0,277 produk menawarkan banyak manfaat kesehatan 0,089 0,201 adanya pelatihan anggota 0,025 0,055 dapat melakukan pemurnian benih 0,029 0,064 kelemahan 0,02 0,083 berkurangnya jumlah petani yang menanam beras hitam 0,031 0,375 promosi belum maksimal 0,009 0,113 kemasan masih sederhana 0,008 0,101 ketersediaan modal terbatas 0,017 0,207 pengorganisasian belum berjalan baik 0,011 0,136 kemampuan administrasi rendah 0,006 0,067 peluang 0,03 0,393 industri pengolahan mulai berkembang 0,059 0,151 adanya kredit dari bank 0,040 0,102 kesadaran masyarakat akan kesehatan semakin meningkat 0,099 0,251 lingkungan mendukung untuk pertanian oraganik 0,089 0,226 kab magelang mempunyai daya tarik wisata 0,025 0,064 adanya dukungan dari dinas pertanian 0,041 0,105 kemajuan teknologi 0,039 0,100 ancaman 0,00146 0,079 beras hitam belum banyak dikenal masyarakat 0,038 0,483 adanya hama burung 0,032 0,403 persaingan dalam industri beras hitam semakin tinggi 0,009 0,114 65 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 pengendalian dan motivasi. pengendalian dapat dilakukan dengan membuat aturan dan sop secara tertulis terkait dengan proses produksi sampai dengan pemasaran serta dilengkapi dengan evalusai dan adanya punishment jika terjadi pelanggaran. perbaikan manajemen ini memerlukan bantuan dari dinas per tanian k abupaten magelang melalui pendampingan maupun pelatihan manajemen untuk memperbaiki kelembagaannya. 3. meningkatkan ketersediaan modal dengan kredit [wo3] dalam mengembangkan usaha beras hitam keterbatasan modal merupakan salah satu kendala yang dihadapi asosiasi tos. namun, saat ini terdapat bank milik negara yang berlokasi di wilayah sawangan menawarkan kredit usaha pertanian. hal ini tentu saja harus dimanfaatkan asosiasi tos secara rasionla dalam memperoleh tambahan modal. strategi s-t (strenghts-threats) alternatif strategi st merupakan strategi yang dirumuskan dengan menggunakan kekuatan yang dimiliki asosiasi tos untuk meminimalkan ancaman yang ada. strategi st yang dapat dirumuskan adalahmengembangkan produk beras hitam dengan mengoptimalkan sumber daya yang ada untuk memenangkan persaingan [st] kekuatan (strenght) 1. tersedia rice milling unit (rmu) 2. menerapkan pertanian organik 3. produk bersertifikat organik 4. produk menawarkan banyak manfaat kesehatan 5. adanya pelatihan bagi anggotanya 6. dapat melakukan pemurnian benih kelemahan (weakness) 1. berkurangnya petani yang menanam beras hitam 2. promosi kurang maksimal 3. kemasan masih sederhana 4. ketersediaan modal terbatas 5. pengorganisasian belum berjalan baik 6. administrasi kurang baik peluang (opportunity) 1. industri pengolahan beras hitam semakin berkembang 2. program kredit dari bank 3. tingkat kesadaran masyarakat akan kesehatan terus meningkat 4. lingkungan yang mendukung untuk pertanian organik 5. kab magelang memiliki daya tarik wisata 6. adanya dukungan dari dinas pertanian 7. kemajuan teknologi informasi strategi s-o [so1] membangun mitra kerja yang continue dalam pemasaran produk (s1,s2,s3,s5,o1,o5, o6) [so2] memperluas jaringan pasar (s3, s4, o1, o2, o3, o4, o5,o6) strategi w-o [wo1] memanfaatkan teknologi informasi untuk meningkatkan penjualan (w2, o7) [wo2] menguatkan kelembagaan asosiasi tos (w1, w5, w6, o6) [wo3] meningkatkan ketersediaan modal (w4, o2) ancaman (threath) 1. banyak masyarakat yang belum mengetahui beras hitam dan manfaatnya 2. adanya hama burung 3. persaingan dalam industri semakin meningkat strategi s-t [st1] mengembangkan produk beras hitam dengan optimalisasi sumberdaya yang ada untuk memenangkan persaingan (s5,t3) strategi w-t [wt1] mengembangkan produk dengan penelitian dan pengembangan (w1, t2) [wt2] memperbaiki kemasan produk untuk meningkatkan dayasaing produk (w3, t1,t3) gambar 5. matriks swot asoaisai tani organik sawangan dalam mengusahakanberas hitam tabel 5. urutan prioritas strategi pengembangan usaha beras hitam pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan tipe strategi alternatif strategi bobot prioritas s-o membangun mitra kerja yang continuedalam pemasaran produk 0,326 1 s-o memperluas jaringan pasar 0,148 3 w-o memanfaatkan teknologi untuk meningkatkan penjualan 0,135 4 w-o menambah modal 0,045 7 w-o menguatkan kelembagaan asosiasi tos 0,163 2 s-t mengembangkan produk dengan optimalisasi sumberdaya yang dimiliki 0,100 5 w-t pengembangkan produk dengan penelitian dan pengembangan 0,052 6 w-t memperbaiki kemasan untuk meningkatkan daya saing 0,031 8 peningk atan penjualan dapat dilak uk an dengan pengembangan produk yang dapat dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan sumber daya yang dimiliki secara optimal guna meningkatkan nilai jual produk ditengah persaingan yang ada saat ini. grading dapat dilakukan untuk menjaga kualitas dari beras hitam yang dijual. beras hitam dengan grade yang baik dapat dipasarkan melalui distributor retailer, rumah sakit 66 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research bahkan hotel-hotel; sedangkan beras hitam dengan grade yang kurang baik dapat dijual ke konsumen akhir atau diolah menjadi produk turunannya agar produk beras hitam dapat memberikan nilai tambah. strategi w-t (weakness-threats) alternatif strategi wt merupakan strategi yang dirumuskan untuk meminimalkan kekurangan dan menghindari ancaman yang dimiliki asosiasi tos. strategi wt yang dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut. 1. mengembangkan produk beras hitam dengan penelitian dan pengembangan [wt1] penelitian dan pengembangan yang perlu dilakukan oleh asosiasi tos terkait dengan benih beras hitam yang memiliki masa tanam 120 hari. sebaiknya dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut melalui bekerjasama dengan instansi pendidikan atau instansi pemerintah agar masa tanamnya dapat lebih pendek. disamping itu, habitus tanaman beras hitam yang tinggi sehingga petani menghadapi kesulitandalam pengendalian hama burung, merupakan kelemahan yang harus diperbaiki dalam perbaikan benih. 2. memperbaiki kemasan produk untuk meningkatkan daya saing [wt2] kemasan produk merupakan hal yang penting untuk mendukung penjualan. selama ini kemasan produk beras hitam di asosiasi tos masih sederhana. hanya dikemas dengan plastik kemudian ditempel stiker logo asosiasi. jika ingin menembus pasar yang lebih besar perlu didukung dengan kemasan yang menarik. beras hitam sendiri merupakan produk organik yang sangat mudah diserang kutu, hal ini bisa diatasi dengan kemasan vacum. selain itu banyaknya masyarakat yang belum mengetahui kandungan beras hitam, akan lebih mengedukasi masyarakat jika diberi keterangan kandungan gizi beras hitam serta cara untuk memasaknya. serta diberi keterangan takaran dalam memasak, karena beras hitam ini lebih banyak membutuhkan air dalam memasak jika dibanding dengan beras putih karena hanya pecah kulit saja. analisis prioritas strategi prioritas strategi dilakukan pada delapan alternatif strategi yang telah didapatkan dari kombinasi swot. pada tahap ini diberikan nilai pada setiap alternatif strategi untuk menentukan prioritas utama yang harus didahulukan. dari hasil perbandingan berpasangan diperoleh overall inconsistency bernilai 0,02. alternatif strategi yang paling utama dilakukan adalah perbaikan kelembagaan dan memperluas pasar. dengan demikian pengembangan usaha beras hitam di asosiasi tani organik sawangan akan lebih mudah untuk dijalankan. dengan jangkauan pasar yang lebih luas dan terjamin, petani akan termotivasi untuk menanam beras hitam. kesimpulan prioritas alternatif strategi yang dapat diterapkan pada asosiasi tani organik sawangan dalam mengusahakan beras hitam, mulai dari prioritas pertama sampai kedelapan adalah: i) membangun mitra kerja yang continue,ii) menguatkan kelembagaan, iii) memperluas jaringan pasar, iv) memanfaatkan teknologi untuk meningkatkan penjualan, v) mengembangkan produk dengan memanfaatkan sumberdaya yang ada, vi) mengembangkan produk dengan penelitian, vii) pengembangan, menambah modal dengan kredit, serta viii) memperbaiki kemasan untuk meningkatkan daya saing. saran yang dapat dijadikan masukan untuk asosiasi tani organik sawangan yaitu sebaiknya asosiasidapat menerapkan alternatif strategi yang ada dan menjalankan berdasarkan prioritasnya. daftar pustaka bech-larsen t., &scholdere j. 2007. functional foods in europe: consumer reasearch, market experiences and regulatory aspects. journal trends in food science &technology18: 231-234 balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian yogyakarta[bptp].2010. kelebihan beras hitam sebagai pangan fungsional.[diakses pada 27 desember 2015]. tersediapada: http://yogya.litbang.pertanian.go.id djatiharti, a., & kristamtini. 2009. potensi usahatani padi beras hitam melik di kabupaten bantul yogyakarta. prosiding seminar nasional hasil penelitian padi 2009: inovasi teknologi padi untuk mempertahankan swasembada dan mendorong ekspor beras: 1281-1286. djazuli, m. 2014. manfaat dan proses sertifikasi pertanian organik. [diunduh pada 17 april 2016]. tersedia pada:http:// www.balittro.litbang.pertanian.go.id kristamtini, taryono, basunanda, p.,& murti, r. h. 2014. keragaman genetik dan korelasi parameter warna beras dan kandungan antosianin total sebelas kultivar padi beras hitam lokal. jurnal ilmu pertanian 1(17): 90-103. marimin. 2004. pengambilan keputusan: kriteria majemuk. pt gramedia widiasarana indonesia, jakarta. suardi, d., & ridwan, i. 2009. beras hitam, pangan berkhasiat yang belum populer. http://www.pustaka.litbang.pertanian.go.id/.[1 maret 2015] takano, s., & wickramasinghe, v. 2009. application of combined swot and analytic hierarchy process (ahp) for tourism revival strategik marketing planning: a case of sri lanka taoursm. journal of the eastern asia society for transportation studies 8(2009). wheelen, t. l.,& hunger, j. d. 2008. strategic management and business policy: concept and cases edisi 11. pearso education inc, new jersey. 8 r-8 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021, pages: 64-77 article history: submitted: august 26th, 2019 accepted: august 14th, 2020 ray march syahadat1*, priambudi trie putra1, ismail saleh2, tandri patih3, anendawaty roito sagala1, dimas muhammad thoifur1 1 landscape architecture department, faculty of civil engineering and planning, national institute of science and technology 2 agrotechnology department, faculty of agriculture, swadaya gunung jati university 3 mathematics tadris department, faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training, kendari state islamic institute (iain kendari) *) correspondence email: ray.arl@istn.ac.id visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields to maintain the attraction of bantar agung tourism village doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.6960 abstract bantar agung village in majalengka regency, west java province, is developing agriculturally-based tourism. the ciboer rice fields area is one of the attractions in the village of bantar agung that presents the visual beauty of the rice field landscape. new agro tourism opportunities will be developed in this area. the study has aimed to evaluate the visual quality of the ciboer rice fields and how it would be affected by agro tourism-related changes. data were analyzed using kendall’s w test, scenic beauty estimation (sbe), semantic differential (sd), factor analysis, and multidimensional scaling (mds). it is found that when more objects are added to the ciboer rice fields landscape, the value of beauty is diminished. village regulations are needed to protect the visual experience of the ciboer rice fields. keywords: agriculture, agro tourism, beauty, landscape, tourism. introduction the terraced rice fields in bantar agung village (usually written as bantaragung), majalengka regency, are known as the ciboer rice fields. this area, one of several agricultural tourism attractions in bantar agung village, was developed by local people with several purposes. first, as a source of community income; second, to prevent the conversion of agricultural land; third, to maintain tradition; and finally, to support the cipeuteuy waterfall tourism. the rice fields in bantar agung village are currently being developed into organic farming areas favored by the local community (saleh, eviyati, mardhatilla, & wahana, 2018; wahana, 2018). previous research conducted by yuniarsih, marsono, pudyatmoko, & sadono (2014) indicated that there are other agricultural potentials besides rice, such as durian, banana, melinjo, picung, jackfruit, and jengkol. in short, the culture of agriculture in bantar agung village cannot be separated from the traditions of the community. palmer (2011) states that the existence of agricultural land, especially rice fields, has not only economic but also social impact. the existence of agricultural land with economic and social impacts is prone to erosion along with changes in the structure of livelihoods. rohmadiani (2011) states that there is a relationship between changes in the structure of livelihoods from the primary sector to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 65 visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields….. (syahadat et al.) the secondary sector due to land conversion. land conversion also causes population migration out of an area as individuals attempt to find work. for this reason, the agriculturallyfocused development of the ciboer rice fields is one of several efforts to maintain the sustainability of livelihoods for the people of bantar agung village. curug cipeuteuy is a part of the mount ciremai national park (tngc) area that is managed independently by the community, based on the provisions of the national park (anindisa, basuni, & sunarmito, 2017; yuniarsih et al., 2014). this area has the potential to become a major destination in west java (muslih, sunarminto, & avenzora, 2011; saputra, susdiyanti, & supriono, 2012). for bantar agung village, curug cipeuteuy is the pride of the residents because it has received the indonesian charm award (api) from the ministry of tourism as a hidden paradise (thoifur et al., 2018). people wish to maintain the sustainability of curug cipeuteuy because of the sense of community closeness. one way to approach this goal is for the community to develop the ciboer rice fields as an alternative tour, keeping tourists from focusing solely on curug cipeuteuy. a concentration of tourists at one point will cause ecological disturbances due to exceeding the area’s carrying capacity (putra et al., 2018). the level of awareness of the bantar agung village community towards the protection of local resources is quite good. the community and village government have concerns about the sustainability of ciboer rice fields if tourism development is extremely successful. currently, a ciboer pass has been built in the ciboer rice fields area, providing a tourist attraction that supports watching the landscape in the direction of the rice fields. the village authorities plan to develop the ciboer rice fields area not only by providing passive attractions, but also by offering active attractions that involve organic agricultural agrotourism activities. such activities will be implemented thoroughly in bantar agung village. research on agrotourism in bantar agung village has never been conducted regarding the ciboer rice fields area; it is more focused on the cipeuteuy and tngc areas (anindisa et al., 2017; thoifur et al., 2018; yuniarsih et al., 2014; (yuningsih & herdiansyah, 2019). therefore, it is necessary to study the protection of visual quality so that new objects that have been planned to support tourism activities can be placed appropriately. many studies on visual quality evaluation have been carried out, consisting of evaluations of existing arrangements, before and after changes, and development plans (adriani, hadi, & nurisjah, 2016; budiyono & soelistyari, 2016; franco, franco, mannino, & zanetto, 2003; putra et al., 2018; wardiningsih, syahadat, putra, purwati, & hasibuan, 2017). previously reported evaluations described benefits for the protection of visual resources that have significant economic, ecological, and socio-cultural impacts. based on the description above, this article aims to evaluate the visual quality of the ciboer rice fields in several development scenarios based on plans made by the bantar agung village authority. the results are useful as recommendations for making village regulations for the visual protection of the ciboer rice fields. preserving visual resources means helping to maintain the economic sustainability of the community (ekayani, nuva, yasmin, sinaga, & maaruf, 2014; satria, 2009; utama, 2016). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 66 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research research method this research was conducted in april 2018 in bantar agung village, sindangwangi district, majalengka regency, west java province. the research implementation was divided into several stages: focus group discussion (fgd), document collection, image taking, image processing, questionnaire distribution, data processing, and interpretation of data processing results. the fgd activities involved village and sub-district authorities, village youth, villagers, cooperatives, managers, academics, and landscape planners. documents collected are in the form of village plans for developing agro tourism in the ciboer rice fields. the photography was accomplished by taking pictures with a perpendicular angle to the diameter at breast height (dbh) from the ciboer pass point. the images were then processed using adobe photoshop software based on the development plans obtained from the document collection stage (figure 1). figure 1. landscape change scenarios that were assessed for visual quality based on the results of preliminary observations and information from the manager, the average number of daily visitors to the ciboer rice fields is 10 people. based on this data, the questionnaire was distributed online to 118 respondents as a randomly selected sample. this number, selected to meet a confidence interval of 0.1 and a confidence level of 99% using the assumption of an average daily visitor population, was tested using the survey system software. the background of the selected respondents is that they were domiciled outside bantar agung village. this approach was intended to represent tourists as visitors so that they would be more objective in assessing the beauty of the ciboer rice fields as the main attraction of the tourist area. the questionnaire was distributed using the google forms application. respondents provided ratings on a scale of 1 to 10 to assess visual quality. respondents also rated the impression they received when viewing each image on a scale of 3 to 3. the impression was formulated into five bipolar scales: ugly–good, messy–tidy, arid– lush, dirty–clean, and lame–balanced. the data were then analyzed using kendall’s w, scenic beauty estimation (sbe), semantic differential (sd), factor analysis, and multidimensional scaling (mds), the last of which refers to the method that was used by syahadat et al. (2019). the reason for using this approach is that it is a refinement of approaches that have been carried out by similar previous studies (budiyono, 2015; hamdani, 2017; rejoni, 2017; rada http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 67 visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields….. (syahadat et al.) et al., 2019; murna, asmiwyati, & sukewijaya, 2020). thus, the approach chosen and carried out in this study can make it easier to draw conclusions so that decisions that are based on them are accurate and unbiased. kendall’s w is used to see whether there are differences that may result from a given scenario. this test was chosen because the data used were ordinal and paired data (suliyanto, 2014). previously, in similar studies in assessing visual quality, researchers usually tested it directly using the sbe analysis. even if it is not significant for visual quality, the results of the kendall’s w test can be used immediately to draw conclusions. the formula used can be seen in equation 1. w = 12 ∑ 𝑅𝑖2−3𝑛2𝑘(𝑘+1)2 𝑛2𝑘(𝑘2−1) (1) information: w = kendall’s w value n = sample size (number of lines/observations) k = number of samples (number of columns) ri = the number of rankings in the column beauty is a non-parametric and qualitative type of data, meaning that the standard point is not easily known. the sbe method, which was later introduced by daniel & boster (1976) to address this problem, is used to estimate the visual quality of a landscape based on respondents' perceptions. as used by daniel & boster (1976), the standard sets a critical value used for drawing conclusions, namely that an sbe value above 20 indicates a strongly positive aesthetic meaning. sbe values between 20 and -20 are neutral. sbe values below -20 imply an especially unaesthetic meaning; in this case, the visual quality is very poor. the formula used can be seen in equation 2. 𝑆𝐵𝐸𝑥 = (𝑍𝑦𝑥 − 𝑍𝑦𝑜 ) × 100 (2) information: sbex = estimated value of landscape beauty in the x-scenario zyx = average z value of the x-scenario landscape zyo = the average z value of a landscape under a certain scenario as a standard sd analysis is used to provide an assessment of respondents’ reactions to the resulting impression (equation 3). the sd data were then used for mds analysis and factor analysis. mds analysis is used to see what impressions are attached to a particular landscape. factor analysis is used to explain the variables that are interrelated in landscape groups. �̅�𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑗 𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑛 (3) information: �̅�ij = the mean weighted score by respondents given the landscape scenario for criterion j xij = weighted value assigned by each respondent for the ith landscape scenario criterion j n = number of respondents i = landscape scenario (1,2,3,…, n) j = criteria (1,2,3,…, n) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 68 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research result and discussions agro tourism development plan the results of the fgd and document searches show that bantar agung village has a desire to develop the rice fields by adding several facilities to support agrotourism. the three areas in which facilities will be developed are in the background, middleground, and foreground towards the ciboer pass point of view (figure 2). the three terms are used by landscape architecture science in dividing what is visible from a given point of view. figure 2. visualization of the distribution of ciboer rice fields from ciboer pass point the desired facilities mentioned in the fgd results include shops, gazebos, and shelters. shops are planned for the background area, a gazebo for the middle ground area, and a shelter for the foreground area. so far, only the middle ground gazebo has been built. for the current analysis, this information is depicted to support the visual analysis of the ciboer rice fields landscape. this rice field landscape has multiple owners, so it is prone to conflicts of interest. however, the view towards the rice fields is a visual resource that serves as a borrowed landscape from the ciboer pass points. budiyono (2015), in his research, reports that the addition of objects to a landscape can affect its aesthetic value. thus, careful analysis and planning are needed to minimize the risk of visual damage. the village authority wants to use a scientific study as a basis for making village regulations to prevent unwanted events in the future related to the development of this rice field area. it can be said that there is no awareness of visual quality conservation in indonesia. in fact, there are no regulations governing the development of an area. an example of a country that has concerns about this problem is japan. the country was intensely reported upon by scientific studies in the 1980s–1990s (arifin & masuda, 1996; arifin & masuda, 1997; kumagai & yanase, 1984). the tourist attractions offered in the ciboer rice fields emphasize organic rice cultivation activities, which include pre-planting, planting, harvesting, and post-harvest activities. this situation aligns with the results of research stating that organic agriculture has the potential to be developed into agro tourism (preeyanan, pakkapong, & duanrung, 2015). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 69 visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields….. (syahadat et al.) in addition, attractions are also planned for plowing the fields with buffaloes, buffalo bathing activities, composting practices, culinary tours involving organic ingredients, and sales of fresh and processed organic agricultural products, as well as outbound activities and river tubing. to support these activities, the village plans to add facilities around the ciboer rice fields area. these additions need to be analyzed so that misplacement does not result in a decrease in the visual quality of the landscape. moreover, ciboer pass is a tourist attraction that first existed in bantar agung village, which already has its own market. the market itself is a landscape viewing attraction and is one of the village icons along with cipeuteuy waterfall. visual quality analysis the results of the analysis using the kendall’s w test show that there is a significant difference in the visual quality of each additional element in the ciboer rice fields landscape, as indicated by the chi-square value of 175.89. the calculated chi-square value is greater than the chi-square table. the average rankings from highest to lowest are landscapes 2, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, respectively (table 1). in principle, the average ranking value is only able to explain that there are differences in ranking between paired sample scenarios because the data used is on an ordinal scale. this information was not sufficient to determine which scenarios pose a risk to visual damage, so further testing was carried out using sbe analysis. the results of the sbe analysis show that when objects are added to the foreground, the aesthetic value will decrease. for this reason, adding objects to the foreground for the development of the ciboer rice fields landscape should be avoided. adding more objects will also decrease the aesthetic value of a landscape. this is evidenced by the low sbe value in landscape 8, namely the landscape with objects in the foreground, middle ground, and background of the ciboer rice fields (figure 3). this outcome is in line with research conducted by adriani et al., (2016), which states that the less human intervention in a landscape, the better the visual quality of the landscape. table 1. kendall’s w test results of ciboer rice fields scenario variable average ranking landscape 1 5.51 landscape 2 5.80 landscape 3 5.18 landscape 4 5.11 landscape 5 3.89 landscape 6 3.81 landscape 7 3.46 landscape 8 3.24 n 118 kendall’s w 0.21 chi-square 175.89 df 7 asymp. sig 0.00* note: (*) indicates significance at the level α < 1% factor analysis explains the correlation of the independent indicators on the assessment. the results of the factor analysis show that the landscape options cluster into two http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 70 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research groups of differing character (table 2). the correlation results show that the first group consists of landscapes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, and the second group includes landscapes 1 and 2 only. referring to the sbe values in figure 3, landscape 1 and 2 are the landscapes with the most visual quality. height and the least addition of objects with correlation values of 0.798 and 0.681, respectively. these results illustrate that to avoid visual damage to the ciboer rice fields view, the scenarios in landscape 1 and landscape 2 can be used as alternatives. table 2. factor analysis results of ciboer rice fields scenario variable component* 1 2 landscape 1 0.421 0.798 landscape 2 0.577 0.681 landscape 3 0.755 0.323 landscape 4 0.857 0.150 landscape 5 0.916 -0.221 landscape 6 0.913 -0.304 landscape 7 0.919 -0.317 landscape 8 0.896 -0.368 note: (*) correlation value figure 3. sbe value graph of ciboer rice fields scenario the mds analysis will further clarify which descriptors represent the limiting factors for why landscapes 1 and 2 are preferred. based on the results of the mds analysis in figure 4, landscapes 1 and 2 are closer to row 4 which represents the scale clean–dirty. the sd analysis results in figure 5 show that landscapes 1 and 2 are considered cleaner than the others by the respondents. landscapes 5, 6, 7, and 8 are the four landscapes whose visual quality is considered to be the poorest, primarily due to row 5 (dirty–clean) and row 2 (messy– tidy). furthermore, other landscapes with low sbe values are more influenced by row 5 on the sd chart, which is considered unequal by respondents. the four landscapes noted above are considered dirty and messy. a messy impression has also been reported in previous studies as a limiting factor in whether or not a visual http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 71 visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields….. (syahadat et al.) landscape is liked (syahadat et al., 2019). research conducted by rejoni (2017) also shows similar indications. however, because the mds analysis was not carried out, it is not known whether these factors are the actual limiting factors that cause a visual landscape to be liked or not. figure 4. mds derived stimulus configuraton euclidean distance model chart of ciboer rice fields scenario figure 5. sd value chart of ciboer rice fields scenario http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 72 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research agro tourism development policy recommendations agro tourism activities will provide many benefits, both directly and indirectly, if managed properly. the development of agro tourism is one of several possible strategies to prevent the conversion of paddy fields, which is increasingly prevalent in indonesia (adimihardja, 2006; franjaya, syartinilia, & setiawan, 2018; yanti et al., 2016). agro tourism makes agricultural activities into a form of attraction so that sustainability is guaranteed. as stated by aripin & yulianti (2018), agro tourism has a great opportunity to increase local revenue in majalengka; handayani, jamhari, waluyati, & mulyo (2019) and sriyadi (2016) reported similar prospects from their research in yogyakarta, as did hwang & lee (2015) from research in korea. more specifically, agro tourism activities can increase farmers’ income in the ciboer rice fields. sugianto (2016) states that the development of a tourist village can increase the income of rural communities. likewise, the report from arifin, wasman, & fitriyani (2017) states that tourism in bantar agung village contributes to its economy. for bantar agung village, the benefits obtained from agro tourism activities occur not only from economic and ecological perspectives, but also from the local social and cultural standpoints, which have long been the culture of the local community. palmer (2011) also states that agriculture and culture are two things that cannot be separated. wardiningsih, syahadat, ramadan, putri, & putra (2018) conducted a study of the importance of the agricultural landscape, which consists of historical, scientific, cultural, educational, and religious significance. thus, it is possible that the agricultural landscapes of other regions in indonesia are diverse and have different important values. this important value, if managed properly, will provide benefits to the community, both directly and indirectly. as a feature of a tourism destination, natural beauty must be maintained for its sustainability. changes in the behavior of tourists who like taking pictures to capture scenic images and take selfies are an indication of the importance of maintaining visual quality as an intangible resource. for this reason, it is necessary to draft clear regulations regarding tourism development, particularly to protect visual quality. the regulations that can be made in bantar agung tourism village are for the protection of visual resources because they are closely related to the development of village tourism, especially in the ciboer rice fields area. for this regulation, legality and institutional clarity is very important because it can be used to prevent conflicts of interest. as stated, based on the results of the fgds, the village was worried about the land ownership factor. if there is an increase in the demand for tourist facilities, individuals can easily add or subtract elements. in fact, from the results of the visual study, changes in elements have a significant effect on the visual quality of the landscape. without beauty there will be no tourism activities and no economy (ekayani et al., 2014; vibriyanto et al., 2015). furthermore, regulations regarding this protection must be introduced to the public to raise awareness about preserving natural beauty, which in turn will have a direct impact on economic improvement. mak (2004) stated that unregulated tourism, starting from the very basics, can create environmental problems and ultimately endanger the environment itself. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 73 visual quality protection of ciboer rice fields….. (syahadat et al.) conclusions the visual quality of the ciboer rice fields in bantar agung village has a high value and is very sensitive to the addition of objects. caution is needed in placing supporting facilities for agrotourism activities in the ciboer rice fields area in ways that do not reduce visual quality, because the addition of objects to the broad middleground and foreground significantly reduces visual quality. the results of the visual quality evaluation research show that the addition of a massive object will reduce the visual quality and create a dirty and messy impression. for this reason, village regulations to protect the visuals of the ciboer rice fields are absolutely necessary to protect the existing visual resources from being damaged. acknowledgements our thanks to (1) bantar agung village, majalengka regency, west java province; (2) agrotechnology study program, gunung jati swadaya university; (3) mathematics tadris study program, kendari state islamic institute; and (4) landscape architecture study program, national institute of science and technology, who have facilitated valuable research. references adimihardja, s. 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(2019). the role of management institution of the ciremai mountain national park in encouraging public participation. soshum: jurnal sosial dan humaniora, 9(1), 26–38. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& https://doi.org/10.24843/jal.2016.v02.i02.p06 https://doi.org/10.20886/jphka.2014.11.3.239-259 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no.1 januari -juni 2018 eko sumartono, melly suryanty, redy badrudin, agus rohman department of agricultural socio-economics, faculty of agriculture, university of bengkulu email korespondensi: eko_sumartono@unib.ac.id analisis pemasaran tandan buah segar kelapa sawit di kecamatan putri hijau, kabupaten bengkulu utara h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4157 abstract the sale of fresh fruit bunches in putri hijau sub-district has variety of marketing channels from farmers to consumers. the diversity of marketing channels should result in differences in the price levels received by farmers and the costs incurred by each marketing agency, such as freight costs, transportation costs to factories, fruit shrinkage costs, and other costs. this study aims to identify marketing channels and compare the marketing channel efficiency of fresh fruit bunches (tbs) of palm oil formed in kecamatan putri hijau, north bengkulu. determination of farmer respondents is done by purposive sampling counted 41 people, and marketing agency respondents use snowball sampling method. the results showed that there are three channels of marketing of oil palm ffs formed, namely channel i (farmers collector traders factories), channel ii (farmers farmer groups factories), channel iii (farmers factories). the most widely used channels by farmers are channel i (farmers collectors – mills) that have the highest margin and low farmer’s share. the merchandise margin and the profit-to-cost ratio indicate that only marketing channel i in bani village is efficient. marketing channel i in desa bani village has a marketing margin value of rp206/kg with the value of profit to marketing cost ratio of 1.17. keywords: fresh fruit bunches, marketing channel, marketing efficiency. intisari penjualan tandan buah segar di kecamatan putri hijau memiliki beragam variasi saluran pemasaran dari petani hingga konsumen. beragam perbedaan saluran pemasaran memberikan indikasi perbedaan tingkat harga yang diterima petani dan besarnya biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh setiap lembaga pemasaran, seperti biaya angkut, biaya transportasi ke pabrik, biaya susut buah, dan biaya-biaya lainnya. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi saluran pemasaran dan membandingkan efisiensi saluran pemasaran tandan buah segar (tbs) kelapa sawit yang terbentuk di kecamatan putri hijau, bengkulu utara. penentuan responden petani dilakukan secara purposive sampling sebanyak 41 orang, dan responden lembaga pemasaran menggunakan metode snowball sampling. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat tiga saluran pemasaran tbs kelapa sawit yang terbentuk yaitu saluran i (petani pedagang pengumpul pabrik), saluran ii (petani kelompok tani – pabrik), saluran iii (petani-pabrik). saluran yang paling banyak digunakan oleh petani adalah saluran i (petani pedagang pengumpul pabrik) yang memiliki margin tertinggi dan farmer’s share yang rendah. margin tataniaga dan rasio keuntungan terhadap biaya menunjukkan bahwa hanya saluran pemasaran i di desa kota bani yang efisien. saluran pemasaran i di desa kota bani memiliki nilai margin pemasarannya sebesar rp206/kg dengan nilai rasio keuntungan terhadap biaya pemasaran sebesar 1,17. kata kunci: efisiensi pemasaran, saluran pemasaran, tandan buah segar. mailto:eko_sumartono@unib.ac.id 29 vol. 4 no. 1 januari-juni 2018 pendahuluan kelapa sawit merupakan salah satu komoditas yang memiliki andil besar dalam menghasilkan pendapatan asli daera h, p roduk dom estik bruto, dan keseja hteraa n masyarakat. pembangunan komoditas kelapa sawit di sumatera utara mendorong penyediaan lapangan kerja yang cukup besar (afifuddin & kusuma, 2007). kegiatan perkebunan kelapa sawit telah memberikan pengaruh eksternal yang positif bagi wilayah sekitarnya (syahza, 2011). luas perkebunan kelapa sawit di propinsi bengkulu memiliki 309.100 ha (bps, 2013), yang sebagian besar lahan tersebut merupakan perkebunan rakyat. komoditas ini telah menjadi tulang punggung ekonomi bagi sebagian besar rumah t angga p et a ni di provinsi bengk ulu (sukiyono, k., cahyadinata, purwoko, widiono, sumartono, asriani & mulya sari , 2017). seba ga i k abup aten ya ng seda ng mengembangkan komoditas kelapa sawit di provinsi bengkulu, kabupaten bengkulu utara memiliki luas lahan perkebunan sawit yang cukup besar yakni mencapai luas 27.948 ha dengan rincian 9.077 ha (tanaman belum menghasilkan/tbm), 18.088 ha (tanaman menghasilkan/ tm) dan 783 ha (tanaman telah menghasilkan/ttm) dengan jumlah petani 17. 251 orang (ditjenbun, 2017). pengembangan kelapa sawit oleh petani di bengkulu utara termotivasi oleh pembukaan perkebunan berskala besar dan pendirian pabrik-pabrik pengolah hasil perkebunan. hal ini membuka wawasan petani yang berdomisili di sekitar perkebunan tersebut untuk menanam kelapa sawit, bahkan banyak petani yang mengkonversi komoditas menjadi kelapa sawit. pendapatan petani yang sebagian besar atau 90,69% berasal dari kelapa sawit, menyebabkan petani menaruh harapan besar terhadap usahatani yang mereka kelola (aprizal, asriani, & sriyoto, 2013). dalam memasarkan hasil perkebunannya, perbedaan pemilihan saluran pemasaran menghasilkan perbedaan harga yang diterima oleh petani. hal ini disebabkan setiap saluran pemasaran melibatkan jumlah lembaga pemasaran yang berbeda pula. panjangnya saluran pemasaran berpengaruh terhadap penambahan biaya yang muncul dari setiap lembaga pemasaran tersebut. sebaliknya, semakin pendek saluran tataniaga, maka biaya dan margin tataniaga semakin rendah, harga yang harus dibayarkan konsumen semakin rendah, harga yang diterima produsen semakin tinggi (daniel, 2005). kedua kondisi kontradiktif tersebut terbukti secara empiris pada, cabai merah keriting di kecamatan ngemplak kabupaten sleman (istiyanti, 2010) dan pemasaran tbs di desa meranti paham, kecamatan panai hulu kabupaten labuhan batu (harahap, simanullang, & romadon, 2017). kecamatan putri hijau memiliki potensi besar dalam menghasilkan komoditas kelapa sawit dengan luas lahan perkebunan mencapai 1.978,82 ha (badan penyuluhan pertanian putri hijau, 2015). namun dalam memasarkan hasil perkebunannya, kondisi infrastruktur utama sangat beragam di desa-desa yang berada dalam wilayah kecamatan putri hijau. wilayah kecamatan putri hijau telah memiliki infrastruktur jalan yang sudah baik, cukup dekat dengan akses jalan utama kabupaten dan memiliki kedekatan jarak dengan pabrik kelapa sawit. hal ini menjadikan para petani di wilayah tersebut lebih memilih menggunakan mobil atau truk sebagai alat angkut hasil panennya. namun masih ada sebagian kecil desa-desa di wilayah kecamatan putri hijau yang memiliki akses jalan kurang baik. desa-desa ini berada cukup terpelosok sehingga jarak tempuh yang harus dilalui menuju pabrik kelapa sawit cukup jauh. kondisi ini menjadikan para petani kelapa sawit di wilayah tersebut lebih memilih menggunakan motor untuk mengangkut hasil panennya dibanding menggunakan alat transportasi roda empat. umumnya para petani tidak langsung membawa hasil panennya ke pabrik, namun terlebih dahulu mengumpulkannya di tempat pengumpulan hasil panen (tph). penelitian ini menjadi menarik karena lokasi penelitian mengambil sample di dua desa yang memiliki kondisi infrastruktur jalan dengan jarak tempuh menuju pabrik kelapa sawit yang berbeda. atas dasar hal tersebut, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi saluran pemasaran dan membandingkan efisiensi pemasaran pada setiap saluran pemasaran tbs yang terbentuk di kecamatan putri hijau. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di kecamatan putri hijau, kabupaten bengkulu utara. penentuan daerah penelitian dilakukan secara purposive dengan pertimbangan bahwa kecamatan putri hijau tersebut memiliki luas lahan dan produksi kelapa sawit kelima tertinggi di kabupaten bengkulu utara (dinas perkebunan kabupaten bengkulu utara, 2013). penelitian ini dilakukan pada bulan mei sampai juni 2016. data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data primer dan data sekunder. data primer diperoleh melalui pengamatan secara langsung (observasi), wawancara dengan menggunakan daftar pertanyaan (kuesioner) kepada pelaku pemasaran. pengamatan secara langsung juga dilakukan terhadap kegiatan pemasaran, saluran pemasaran dan lembaga-lembaga yang terlibat dalam saluran pemasaran kelapa sawit. 30 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pengambilan sampel wilayah (desa) dilakukan dengan metode purposive sampling yaitu desa karang tengah dan desa kota bani dengan pertimbangan kedua desa tersebut memiliki luas lahan, beragam kualitas insfrastruktur jalan dan jumlah usahatani kelapa sawit terbanyak di kecamatan putri hijau. saluran pemasaran tbs untuk desa karang tengah, yang mewakili lokasi desa dengan akses jalan yang kurang baik dengan jarak tempuh cukup jauh dari pabrik kelapa sawit. penentuan jumlah sampel petani menggunakan rumus slovin (nazir, 1988) dengan margin error responden ini ditetapkan sebanyak 15%. jumlah responden penelitian sebanyak 41 orang petani dari 444 orang populasi petani sawit yang tercatat di kedua desa tersebut (badan penyuluhan pertanian putri hijau, 2015). pemilihan responden dilakukan secara purposive dengan kriteria petani yang terpilih memiliki tanaman kelapa sawit yang sudah berproduksi dan sudah dipasarkan. untuk melihat efisiensi saluran pemasaran dan margin pemasaran, lembaga pemasaran yang dijadikan sampel terdiri dari pedagang pengumpul tingkat kecamatan/desa, dan pengurus kelompok tani. responden lembaga pemasaran yang diwawancarai dipilih berdasarkan alur tataniaga tbs di lokasi penelitian. pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan metode snowball, yakni dengan menelusuri alur pemasaran dari petani tbs hingga konsumen akhir (pks). jumlah responden lembaga pemasaran sebanyak 8 orang yang terdiri dari 6 pedagang pengumpul dan 2 pengurus kelompok tani. identifikasi saluran pemasaran tbs kelapa sawit dijelaskan secara deskriptif dengan menggambarkan pola saluran pemasaran tandan buah segar dari petani sawit sampai kepada pabrik kelapa sawit yang terletak di tingkat kecamatan. farmer’s share adalah menghitung besarnya bagian yang diterima petani kelapa sawit dengan membandingkan antara harga yang pada petani dengan harga pada konsumen akhir. dalam penelitian ini konsumen akhirnya adalah pabrik kelapa sawit (pks). melalui farmer’s share dapat diketahui efisien atau tidaknya sebuah saluran tataniaga. perbandingan efisiensi saluran pemasaran dianalisis dengan pendekatan analisis margin pemasaran, analisis bagian harga petani (farmer’s share), dan analisis rasio keuntungan dan biaya. analisis margin pemasaran digunakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan pendapatan yang diterima oleh masing-masing lembaga pemasaran yang terlibat. margin pemasaran adalah perbedaan harga yang dibayar oleh konsumen akhir untuk suatu produk dan harga yang diterima petani (produsen) untuk produk yang sama (azzaino, 1983). analisis margin pemasaran dilakukan berdasarkan harga rata-rata tbs dari tingkat petani hingga pks sebagai konsumen akhir. satuan harga margin pemasaran dihitung dalam satuan rp/kg. analisis margin tataniaga bertujuan untuk mengetahui tingkat efisiensi dari pemasaran tbs di kecamatan putri hijau. untuk menghitung margin pemasaran, data harga yang digunakan adalah harga di tingkat petani dan harga di tingkat lembaga pemasaran (asmarantaka, 2012; lubis, 2016), sehingga digunakan rumus: mi = psi – pbi (1) keterangan: mi= margin pemasaran tingkat ke-i; psi = harga jual pasar di tingkat ke-i; pbi = harga beli pasar di tingkat ke-i. margin tataniaga juga dapat dihitung dari penjumlahan biaya dan keuntungan pada masi ng-masi ng lem baga pemasaran. secara matematis dirumuskan sebagai berikut: mi = ci + ài (2) keterangan: ci = biaya lembaga pemasaran di tingkat kei; ài = keuntungan lembaga pemasaran di tingkat ke-i; dari dua persamaan tersebut, maka diperoleh: psi – pbi = ci + i (3) oleh karena itu, keuntungan lembaga pemasaran di tingkat ke-i sebesar: i = psi – pbi – ci (4) ana li si s ba gi an harga p et ani berm anfa at untuk mengetahui bagian harga yang diterima oleh petani dari harga di tingkat konsumen yang dinyatakan dalam persentase. besarnya bagian harga yang diterima petani (tety et al, 2013; oc ta via ni et a l, 2014; lubi s, 2016; sum iati, 2017), diformulasikan sebagai berikut: fs= pf pr x 100 % keterangan: fs = farmer’s share; pf = harga di tingkat produsen/petani (rp/kg); pr = harga di tingkat konsumen (rp/kg). rasio keuntungan terhadap biaya (r/c ratio) dapat digunakan untuk melihat efisiensi suatu sistem pemasaran. rasio keuntungan dan biaya pemasaran mendefinisikan besarnya keuntungan yang diterima atas biaya pemasaran yang dikeluarkan. nilai rasio keuntungan terhadap biaya lebih dari satu hal ini berarti saluran tersebut layak untuk dijalankan dan telah memberikan keuntungan kepada lembaga pemasaran yang terlibat didalamnya. rasio keuntungan dan biaya (analisis r/c ratio) adalah persentase keuntungan pemasaran terhadap biaya pemasaran yang secara teknis untuk m engeta hui ti ngk a t efisi ensi nya . penyeba ran rasi o keuntungan dan biaya pada masingmasing lembaga pemasaran dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut: rasio keuntungan biaya:: π= li ciൗ (lubis, 2016) keterangan: li = keuntungan lembaga pemasaran; ci = biaya pemasaran. 31 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 hasil dan pembahasan saluran pemasaran tandan buah segar kelapa sawit di kecamatan putri hijau salura n pemasaran adalah lem baga-lembaga yang mempunyai kegiatan untuk menyalurkan atau menyampaikan barang-barang atau jasa dari produsen ke konsumen (mursid, 1997). saluran pemasaran terbagi ke dalam beberapa tingkatan, yakni saluran nol tingkat, saluran setingkat, saluran dwi tingkat, dan saluran tri tingkat (swasta, 2002). saluran pemasaran yang terlibat dalam tataniaga tbs kelapa sawit umumnya satu tingkat, yakni: petani à pedagang pengumpul à pabrik kelapa sawit (sumiati, rusida, & idawati, 2017). namun di daerah lain, terdapat saluran pemasaran tbs yang lebih kompleks dengan melibatkan lebih banyak pelaku pemasaran. saluran pemasaran tbs di kabupaten kutai kartanegara melibatkan pedagang perantara dan pemilik surat pengangkut buah (pe.spb) sebagai lembaga pemasaran (nugroho, 2015). berdasarkan hasil penelitian di dua lokasi sampel penelitian yakni di desa karang tengah dan desa kota bani, terdapat tiga saluran pemasaran yang telah terbentuk selama ini, yakni: a. saluran pemasaran i: petani  pedagang pengumpul  pabrik b. saluran pemasaran ii: petani  kelompok tani  pabrik c. saluran pemasaran iii: petani  pabrik saluran iii dapat dikategorikan sebagai saluran nol tingkat (swasta, 1991). sebagaimana umumnya desa-desa sentra perkebunan kelapa sawit rakyat, para petani di desa karang tengah dan desa kota bani memiliki kebebasan dalam memilih saluran pemasaran dalam penjualan hasil panennya. pemasaran tbs ke pabrik kelapa sawit (pks) dilakukan petani melalui lembaga pemasaran yang tersedia di desa tersebut, seperti melalui pedagang pengumpul, pedagang besar atau langsung dijual ke pks. penelitian serupa di desa meranti, kabupaten labuhan batu menunjukkan bahwa petani memilih pedagang pengumpul sebagai perantara untuk menyalurkan tbs kepada pedagang besar dan kemudian menjualnya ke pks (harahap, simanullang, & romadon, 2017). di desa karang tengah pada saluran pemasaran i, sebanyak 52,17% petani menjual tbs kepada pedagang pengumpul (gambar 1). alasan yang mendasari petani menjual kepada agen kecil ialah luas lahan perkebunan yang kecil dan jarak lahan perkebunan yang jauh dari pks dan tempat pedagang besar (lubis & tinaprilla, 2016). di desa ini, terdapat tiga orang pedagang pengumpul yang berfungsi sebagai lembaga pemasaran. pedagang pengumpul tersebut mampu menampung tbs petani sekitar 32.967 kg/bulan dengan tawaran harga rp 1.097/kg. meskipun harga di tingkat pedagang pengumpul cenderung lebih rendah dibanding lembaga pemasaran lain, saluran ini lebih banyak diminati petani karena sistem pembayaran yang terjadi bersifat tunai (langsung dibayar di tempat). pada saluran pemasaran ii, terdapat 39,13% petani yang menjual tbs ke kelompok tani. terdapat dua kelompok tani di desa karang tengah. setiap bulannya kelompok tani tersebut mampu menampung hasil tbs petani sekitar 43.197 kg dengan harga rp 1.320/kg. harga yang diterima petani jika menjual ke kelompok tani cenderung lebih baik daripada saluran pemasaran lainnya. namun, baru sepertiga petani desa karang tengah yang mau menjual hasil panennya melalui kelompok tani. ha l ini di karenakan sistem pembayaran di kelompok tani yang tidak langsung tunai, artinya petani masih harus menunggu setidak-tidaknya dua minggu setelah tbs diantar ke pks oleh kelompok tani. petani kelapa sawit kelompok tani pedagang pengumpul pabrik iii. 8,70 % i. 52,17 % ii. 39,13 % gambar 1. skema saluran pemasaran tandan buah segar kelapa sawit desa karang tengah kecamatan putri hijau 32 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pada saluran pemasaran iii, terdapat 8,70% petani yang menjual tbs secara langsung ke pks. kuantitas tbs yang dijual ke pks sekitar 17.224 kg/bulan dengan harga rp 1.303/kg. petani yang menjual langsung tbsnya ke pks adalah petani-petani yang memiliki lahan kelapa sawit yang luas ratarata ± 2 ha.. di desa kota bani, terdapat 55,56% petani yang menjual tbs kepada pedagang pengumpul (gambar 2). terdapat tiga orang pedagang pengumpul di desa ini. pedagang pengumpul tersebut mampu menampung tbs petani sekitar 25.090 kg/ bulan dengan tawaran harga rp 1.097/kg. sama seperti di desa karang tengah, petani di desa kota bani lebih banyak menjual hasil panennya kepada pedagang pengumpul karena alasan sistem pembayaran yang tunai. pedagang pengumpul di desa ini ti da k memungut biaya -biaya p em asaran (transportasi, bongkar muat, penimbangan) kepada petani. petani hanya dikenakan pajak pendapatan asli daerah (pad) sebanyak 1% dari hasil produksi, yang akan dibayarkan ke kantor desa. terdapat 22,22% petani di desa kota bani yang menjual tbs ke kelompok tani (saluran pemasaran ii) dengan harga jual rp 1.320/kg. berbeda dengan desa karang tengah, hanya terdapat 1 kelompok tani di desa kota bani. ratarata jumlah tbs petani yang ditampung kelompok tani adalah 18.364 kg/bulan. sedangkan pada saluran pemasaran iii, terdapat 22,22% petani yang menjual tbs langsung ke pabrik dengan jumlah tbs 40.144 kg/bulan pada tingkat harga rp. 1.303/kg. di desa kota bani, jumlah petani yang menjual langsung tbs ke pabrik lebih besar dibandingkan dengan petani di desa karang tengah. hal ini disebabkan oleh akses jalan yang dimiliki desa kota bani lebih bagus, dekat dengan akses jalan utama kabupaten dan jarak tempuh menuju pabrik kelapa sawit cukup dekat. kemudahan tersebut membuat para petani yang memiliki kapasitas produksi lebih besar, lebih memilih untuk membawa sendiri hasil panennya ke pabrik daripada menjual tbs ke pedagang pengumpul atau ke kelompok tani. secara keseluruhan, dari tiga saluran pemasaran tbs yang teridentifikasi di kedua desa di kecamatan putri hijau, saluran pemasaran i (petani – pedagang pengumpul – pabrik) merupakan saluran yang paling mendominasi pilihan para petani. alasan utama para petani memilih pola saluran ini adalah adanya sistem pembayaran tunai oleh pedagang pengumpul. selain itu, telah terjalin hubungan yang baik antara petani dengan pedagang pengumpul dalam waktu yang cukup lama. kepercayaan (trust) antara petani dan pedagang pengumpul menjadi salah satu modal sosial yang telah terbentuk dalam tatanan masyarakat di pedesaan. umumnya petani mengakui hubungan kemitraan yang terjalin dengan pedagang pengumpul tidak hanya dalam aspek pemasaran saja namun juga dalam aspek pengadaan sarana produksi. beberapa pedagang pengumpul juga memberikan pinjaman modal kepada petani. transaksi jual beli bahkan biasanya dilakukan petani dengan pedagang pengumpul sebelum proses pemanenan terjadi. petani telah memberikan jadwal panennya kepada pedagang pengumpul jauh-jauh hari. pada saat pemanenan, pedagang pengumpul telah siap di lokasi panen, lalu mengangkut hasil panen petani untuk langsung ditimbang dan dibayar langsung di tempat. bagi petani, sistem ini dianggap sangat simple dan memudahkan, meskipun harga jual yang diterima petani jauh lebih rendah dibandingkan apabila petani memilih saluran pemasaran lain. terdapat tiga buah pabrik kelapa sawit (pks) di kecamatan putri hijau yang selama ini dapat menampung seluruh hasil produksi kelapa sawit rakyat. ketiga perusahaan kelapa sawit tersebut adalah pt. agricinal, pt. mitra puding mas dan pt. alno agro utama. dalam penelitian ini, seluruh petani yang terpilih menjadi responden menjual hasil produksinya ke pt agricinal. hal ini disebabkan karena telah petani kelapa sawit kelompok tani pedagang pengumpul pabrik iii. 22,22 % i. 55,56 % ii. 22,22 % gambar 2. skema saluran pemasaran tandan buah segar kelapa sawit desa kota bani kecamatan putri hijau 33 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 terjalin hubungan yang baik antara petani, pedagang pengumpul dan pihak perusahaan sebagai pelaku pemasaran akhir dari komoditi tbs rakyat. selain itu, harga yang ditawarkan perusahaan dinilai lebih kompetitif oleh para petani dan pedagang pengumpul. analisis margin pemasaran tbs di kecamatan putri hijau analisis margin pemasaran dan share harga merupakan salah satu cara yang dapat digunakan untuk mengetahui efisiensi pemasaran. untuk mengetahui besarnya margin pemasaran dilakukan melalui penghitungan biaya yang dikeluarkan dalam proses pemasarannya. pada dasarnya margin pemasaran terdiri atas biaya-biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh petani dan atau lembaga pemasaran dalam melakukan aktifitas pendistribusian tbs kelapa sawit, yang meliputi: biaya transportasi (pengangkutan), biaya penimbangan, bongkar muat, biaya penyusutan dan pajak daerah. biaya pemasaran tbs pada tingkat pedagang pengumpul dan kelompok tani di kecamatan putri hijau b iaya p em a sa ran di ti ngka t lemba ga pem asa ra n merupakan semua biaya yang dikeluarkan oleh setiap lembaga pemasaran dalam pendistribusian tbs dari petani sampai ke pks. lembaga pemasaran yang terlibat di setiap saluran pemasaran adalah pedagang pengumpul (saluran i) dan kelompok tani (saluran ii). tabel 1. biaya pemasaran tbs pada tingkat lembaga pemasaran di kecamatan putri hijau, kabupaten bengkulu utara tahun 2016 no jenis biaya desa karang tengah desa kota bani saluran i (rp/kg) saluran ii (rp/kg) saluran i (rp/kg) saluran ii (rp/kg) 1 penyusutan alat 0,74 0,55 0,92 0,35 2 tenaga kerja* 20 55 3 transportasi 110 21,38 4 penyusutan tbs 6,14 3,66 4,75 3,13 5 pad 13,03 jumlah 136,88 4,21 95,08 3,48 *biaya tenaga kerja terdiri dari biaya penimbangan dan bongkar muat terdapat perbedaan biaya pemasaran yang timbul pada kedua saluran pemasaran yang diteliti (tabel 1). biaya pemasaran pada saluran ii lebih rendah dibandingkan biaya pada saluran i. rendahnya biaya pemasaran yang harus ditanggung lembaga pemasaran saluran ii (petani kelompok tani – pabrik) disebabkan oleh biaya tenaga kerja, transportasi dan pad sepenuhnya di tanggung oleh peta ni. pad merupakan pajak pendapatan asli daerah, dimana setiap petani di kecamatan putri hijau yang memiliki pendapatan melalui perkebunan di wajibkan membayar 1% dari hasil produksinya kepada pemerintah desa. biaya tenaga kerja, transportasi, dan pad ditanggung secara kolektif oleh petani yang tergabung dalam kelompok, sehingga kelompok tani hanya menanggung biaya penyusutan alat dan tbs. berbeda dengan saluran pemasaran i (petani – pedagang pengumpul – pabrik), semua biaya pemasaran menjadi beban pedagang pengumpul, sehingga petani tidak perlu lagi mengeluarkan biaya untuk pemasaran tbs mereka. tabel 2. margin pemasaran tbs setiap saluran pemasaran di kecamatan putri hijau, kabupaten bengkulu utara tahun 2016 uraian desa karang tengah (rp/kg) desa kota bani (rp/kg) saluran i saluran ii saluran i saluran ii petani harga jual 1.097,00 1.320,00 1.097,00 1.320,00 pedagang pengumpul harga beli 1.097,00 1.097,00 harga jual 1.303,00 1.303,00 margin pemasaran 206,00 206,00 biaya pemasaran 136,88 95,08 keuntungan 69,12 110,92 kelompok tani harga beli 1.320,00 1.320,00 harga jual 1.325,00 1.325,00 margin pemasaran 5,00 5,00 biaya pemasaran 4,21 3,48 keuntungan 0,79 1,52 berdasarkan analisis margin pemasaran (tabel 2), margin pemasaran terbesar berada pada saluran i (petani – pedagang pengumpul – pabrik). besaran margin pemasaran di kedua desa adalah rp 206,00/kg atau sebesar 15,81% dari harga jual pedagang pengumpul desa. besarnya margin pemasaran pada saluran i dikarenakan pedagang pengumpul membeli tbs dari petani dengan harga yang lebih rendah dengan pabrik dan besarnya keuntungan yang ingin diperoleh oleh pedagang pengumpul. margin pemasaran terkecil berada pada saluran ii (petani – kelompok tani – pabrik) yaitu rp 5/kg atau sebesar 0,3 % dari harga jual. kelompok tani tidak mengambil margin yang besar dalam proses pemasan tbs dari petani. kelompok tani merupakan lembaga yang dalam usahanya bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan anggotanya, tidak untuk mencari keuntungan seperti 34 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pedagang pengumpul. setiap petani yang tergabung dalam kelompok tani memiliki kewajiban untuk membayar iuran wajib anggota setiap bulannya. margin pemasaran yang diperoleh kelompok tani selanjutnya dikelola bersama iuran wajib dari setiap anggota kelompok tani untuk membiayaan aktivitas kelompok tani seperti dalam pengadaan peralatan bongkar, pengadaan sarana transportasi (angkut), pengadaan fasilitas kantor, hingga perbaikan dan pembangunan infrastruktur jalan. bagian diterima petani nilai farmer’s share yang besar berarti porsi atau bagian yang dinikmati petani besar dan saluran tataniaga tersebut efisien. nilai farmer’s share yang kecil berarti porsi atau bagian yang dinikmati oleh petani kecil dan saluran tataniaga tersebut tidak efisien. farmer’s share dengan persentase terbesar berada pada saluran tataniaga ii (petani – kelompok tani – pabrik) yakni sebesar 99,62% (tabel 3). di desa karang tengah terdapat 39,13% petani yang mampu menjual hasil panennya ke kelompok tani, sedangkan di desa kota bani hanya terdapat 22,22% petani yang menggunakan saluran pemasaran ini. tabel 3. analisis farmer’s share saluran pemasaran tbs di kecamatan putri hijau, kabupaten bengkulu utara tahun 2016 uraian desa karang tengah desa kota bani saluran i saluran ii saluran i saluran ii harga jual petani (rp/kg) 1.097,00 1.320,00 1.097,00 1.320,00 harga beli konsumen (rp/kg) 1.303,00 1.325,00 1.303,00 1.325,00 bagian petani (%) 84,19 99,62 84,19 99,62 peranan kelompok tani atau koperasi sangat besar membantu petani. peranan tersebut tidak hanya pada proses pengadaan input pertanian tetapi juga membantu petani dalam memasarkan hasil panennya. besaran nilai bagian petani yang diperoleh melalui saluran pemasaran kelompok tani atau koperasi tani memberikan sumbangan nilai terbesar dibanding saluran pemasaran lain nya (octaviani, m. w., yaktiworo, i., & suriaty, s., 2014). besaran nilai bagian petani bisa mencapai 86,42%, seperti yang dialami petani kelapa sawit non–sertifikasi di kelurahan sorek satu, kecamatan pangkalan kuras, kabupaten pelalawan, riau. hasil penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa nilai bagian petani dari saluran pemasaran i dengan melibatkan pedagang pengumpul mencapai angka yang juga cukup besar yakni 84,19%. nilai ini memang sedikit lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan saluran ii, namun persentase tersebut tergolong masih menguntungkan bagi petani. hasil tersebut tidak jauh berbeda dengan penelitian serupa yang telah dilakukan oleh (tety e., maharani e., & deswita, s., 2013); (nugroho, 2015); (sumiati, rusida & idawati, 2017), di mana nilai farmer share yang didapat petani kelapa sawit di sebesar 85,05% (kasus pada desa sari galuh kecamatan tapun k abupaten k ampar), sebesar 76,15% (k asus saluran pemasaran dua tingkat di kabupaten kutai kartanegara ), dan sebesar 72% (kasus pada desa baku-baku kecamatan malangke barat kabupaten luwu utara). harus diakui bahwa keberadaan pedagang pengumpul tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kehidupan petani dalam sistem pemasaran kelapa sawit, terutama dalam perkebunan kelapa sawit yang bersifat swadaya. kerjasama antara petani dan pedagang pengumpul umumnya telah terjalin sejak lama dan sulit bagi petani untuk melepaskan diri dari keberadaan mereka. selain dalam hal pemasaran hasil panen, pedagang pengumpul juga berperan besar dalam membantu petani, terutama dalam hal pengadaan sarana produksi seperti pupuk dan bibit. rasio keuntungan terhadap biaya n i la i ra si o keuntunga n ya ng lebi h besa r da ri 1 menunjukkan bahwa aktivitas pemasaran yang terjadi m em beri k a n keuntunga n ba gi p ela k u p em asa ran. berdasarkan tabel 4, hanya saluran i (petani – pedagang pengumpul – pabrik) di desa kota bani yang memiliki nilai r/c ratio dengan nilai lebih dari satu. ini berarti bahwa seluruh aktivitas pemasaran pada saluran pemasaran i di desa kota bani memberikan keuntungan dan efisien. tabel 4. analisis rasio keuntungan terhadap biaya saluran pemasaran tbs di kecamatan putri hijau, kabupaten bengkulu utara tahun 2016 uraian desa karang tengah desa kota bani saluran i saluran ii saluran i saluran ii keuntungan pemasaran (rp/kg) 69,12 0,79 110,92 1,52 biaya pemasaran (rp/kg) 136,88 4,21 95,08 3,48 rasio keuntungan 0,51 0,19 1,17 0,44 penelitian lain (harahap, 2017); (sumiati, rusida, & idawati, 2017); (tety, maharani, & deswita, 2013) juga menyebutkan bahwa saluran pemasaran petani–pedagang pengumpul–pabrik merupakan saluran pemasaran yang lebih efisien dibandingkan saluran lain yang melibatkan lebih banyak lembaga pemasaran. semakin pendek saluran tataniga 35 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 suatu barang hasil pertanian maka, biaya tataniaga semakin rendah, margin tataniaga juga semakin rendah, harga yang harus dibayarkan konsumen semakin rendah, harga yang diterima produsen semakin tinggi. petani umumnya memilih menjual langsung ke pedagang besar untuk menghindari penyusutan tbs sehingga dapat mengurangi kualitas crude palm oil (cpo) yang dihasilkan (harahap, simanullang, & romadon, 2017). berbeda dengan desa kota bani, saluran pemasaran i di desa karang tengah dinilai tidak efisien karena memiliki nilai rasio keuntungan atas biaya yang kurang dari satu. ketidakefisienan tersebut disebabkan oleh tingginya biaya pemasaran yang harus dikeluarkan oleh pelaku pemasaran. berdasarkan tabel 1, besarnya biaya pemasaran pada saluran i di desa karang tengah disebabkan besarnya porsi biaya transportasi yang harus dikeluarkan oleh lembaga pemasaran. biaya transortasi yang besar timbul karena jarak antara desa karang tengah dengan pabrik cukup jauh. selain itu, kondisi fisik jalan yang tidak baik mengakibatkan tingginya biaya transportasi yang harus ditanggung oleh lembaga pemasaran. saluran pemasaran ii (petani – kelompok tani – pabrik) dalam penelitian ini juga dinilai tidak efisien karena memiliki nilai rasio keuntungan atas biaya yang kurang dari satu. rendahnya tingkat keuntungan yang diterima kelompok tani menjadi penyebab saluran pemasaran ini tidak efisien. kesimpulan saluran pemasaran tbs di kecamatan putri hijau kabupaten bengkulu utara memiliki dua pola saluran yaitu: (1) saluran i, yaitu petani – pedagang pengumpul – pabrik kelapa sawit, dan (2) saluran ii, yaitu petani – kelompok tani – pabrik kelapa sawit. berdasarkan margin tataniaga dan rasio keuntungan terhadap biaya menunjukkan bahwa hanya saluran pemasaran i di desa kota bani yang efisien. saluran pemasaran i di desa kota bani memiliki nilai margin pem asarannya sebesar rp206/k g dengan nila i ra sio keuntungan terhadap biaya pemasaran sebesar 1,17. daftar pustaka afifuddin, s., & kusuma, si. 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(2018). statistik kelapa sawit 2015-2017. retrived from: http:/ /ditjenbun.pertanian.go.id/tinymcpuk/gambar/file/statistik/2017/ kelapa-2015-2017.pdf harahap, g., simanullang, e. s., & romadon, m. (2017). analisis efisiensi tataniaga tandan buah segar (tbs) kelapa sawit (study kasus: petani perkebunan inti rakyat desa meranti paham kecamatan panai hulu, kabupaten labuhan batu). journal wahana inovasi, 6(2): 170–180. istiyanti, e. (2010). efisiensi pemasaran cabai merah keriting di kecamatan ngemplak kabupaten sleman. mapeta, 12(2): 116-124. lubis, f. r. a., & tinaprilla, n. (2016). sistem tataniaga tandan buah segar di kecamatan wampu, kabupaten langkat, sumatera utara. agrica (jurnal agribisnis sumatera utara), 4(2): 126-139. mursid, m. (1997). manajemen pemasaran. edisi pertama, cetakan kedua, bumi aksara, jakarta. nazir, m. 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(2017). assessing smallholder household vulnerability to price volatility of palm fresh fruit bunch in bengkulu province. international journal of applied business and economic research, 15(3): 1 – 15. swastha, b. (1991). konsep dan strategi analisa kuantitatif saluran pemasaran. yogyakarta (id). bpfe. syahza, a. (2011). percepatan ekonomi pedesaan melalui pembangunan perkebunan kelapa sawit. jurnal ekonomi pembangunan, 12(2): 297310. tety, e, maharani e, & deswita, s. (2013). analisis saluran pemasaran dan transmisi harga tandan buah segar (tbs) kelapa sawit pada petani swadaya di desa sari galuh kecamatan tapun kabupaten kampar. pekbis jurnal, 5(1): 13-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.23960/jiia.v2i2.133-141 layout juli 2016 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.1 januari 2017 eni istiyanti1, diah rina kamardiani1 1program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta eniistiyanti@yahoo.com performa supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul daerah istimewa yogyakarta doi: 10.18196/agr.3141 abstract emping melinjo was one of the agroindustry-products that had great potential to be developed. the industry of emping melinjo contributed more on economic growth in the reason of creating jobs and alleviate poverty. the purpose of this study was to describe the performance of supply chain of emping melinjo from upstream to downstream and analyze the efficiency of supply chain of emping melinjo in bantul regency. field study to obtain primary data was done through interviews with the practitioners of emping melinjo supply chain (including farmers and merchants of melinjo as well as producers and retailers of melinjo chips). the results of field studies then tabulated and analyzed descriptively and quantitatively using linear programming. the analysis showed that there were 37 supply chain networks of emping melinjo in bantul. the practitioners of upstream supply chain were melinjo farmers, middlemen, traders, wholesalers, and retailers, while in the downstream, were emping melinjo producers, traders, small traders, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. the activities of the doer of emping melinjo supply chain includes purchasing, sales, harvesting, packaging, packing, stripping, storage, loading and unloading, transporting, sorting and grading. the flow of products and money in the supply chain of emping melinjo run smoothly, while the flow of information was sluggish. based on linear programming analysis the cost of supply chain of emping melinjo would reach minimum level at rp33,969,264 per week if the production of emping melinjo as many as 25,361 kg per week which was distributed using 22 networks. kkkkkeywords: eywords: eywords: eywords: eywords: activity, efficiency, emping melinjo, supply chain intisari emping melinjo termasuk salah satu produk agroindustri yang memiliki potensi besar untuk dikembangkan. industri emping melinjo banyak memberikan kontribusi bagi pertumbuhan ekonomi karena dapat menciptakan lapangan kerja dan mengentaskan kemiskinan. tujuan dari penelitian yaitu mendiskripsikan performa supply chain emping melinjo dari hulu sampai hilir dan menganalisis efisiensi supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul. studi lapangan untuk mendapatkan data primer dilakukan melalui interview terhadap pelaku supply chain (petani dan pedagang melinjo serta pengrajin dan pedagang emping). hasil studi lapangan kemudian ditabulasi dan dianalisis secara deskriptif dan kuantitatif menggunakan linear programming. hasil analisis menunjukkan terdapat 37 jaringan supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul. pelaku supply chain bagian hulu meliputi petani melinjo, tengkulak melinjo,pedagang pengumpul, pedagang besar dan pengecer melinjo, sedangkan pelaku di bagian hilir yaitu pengrajin emping melinjo, pedagang pengumpul, pedagang kecil, pedagang besar, pedagang pengecer dan konsumen. aktivitas pelaku supply chain meliputi pemanenan, pengemasan, pengepakan, penjualan, pembelian, 24 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pengupasan, penyimpanan, bongkar muat, pengangkutan, sortasi, dan grading. aliran produk dan aliran uang pada supply chain emping melinjo berjalan lancar, sedangkan aliran informasi pada umumnya kurang lancar. berdasarkan analisis linear programming menunjukkan bahwa biaya supply chain emping melinjo akan minimum yaitu sebesar rp33.969.264,00 jika produksi emping melinjo di bantul sebanyak 25.361 kg/ minggu didistribusikan menggunakan 22 jaringan. kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci:kata kunci: aktivitas, efisiensi, emping melinjo, supply chain. pendahuluan emping melinjo merupakan produk agroindustri yang memiliki potensi besar untuk dikembangkan. industri emping melinjo banyak memberikan kontribusi bagi pertumbuhan ekonomi karena dapat menciptakan lapangan kerja dan mengentaskan kemiskinan. kabupaten bantul merupakan sentra industri emping melinjo di yogyakarta. industri emping melinjo di bantul berjumlah 688 unit usaha yang tersebar di semua kecamatan. sentra industri emping melinjo berada di kecamatan banguntapan, bantul, pajangan, piyungan, jetis dan pandak. industri emping melinjo pada umumnya merupakan industri rumah tangga dan lebih sering disebut sebagai industri pedesaan (badan pusat statistik, 2013). supply chain adalah jaringan perusahaan-perusahaan yang secara bersama--sama bekerja untuk menciptakan dan menghantarkan suatu produk ke tangan pemakai akhir. perusahaan-perusahaan tersebut terdiri dari supplier, pabrik, distributor, toko atau ritel, serta perusahaan-perusahaan seperti perusahaan jasa logistik (pujawan, 2005). sedangkan menurut indrajit dan richardus (2002) supply chain didefinisikan sebagai suatu sistem tempat organisasi menyalurkan barang produksi dan jasanya kepada para pelanggannya. supply chain management merupakan serangkaian pendekatan yang diterapkan untuk mengintegrasikan pemasok, pengusaha, gudang dan tempat penyimpanan lainnya secara efisien sehingga produk dihasilkan dapat didistribusikan dengan kuantitas yang tepat, lokasi dan waktu yang tepat untuk memperkecil biaya dan memuaskan keinginan pelanggan (chopra dan meindl, 2001). menurut kotler (2003) supply chain management mencakup semua interaksi diantara pemasok, produsen, distributor, dan pelanggan. tujuan utama dari setiap rantai supply adalah memenuhi kebutuhan pelanggan serta memperoleh keuntungan untuk dirinya sendiri. agar tujuan tercapai maka harus ada akses yang mudah untuk koordinasi, kolaborasi dan integrasi antar pemasok (moharana, 2012) koordinasi pada supply chain dapat ditingkatkan apabila pelaku supply chain mengambil tindakan secara bersama-sama untuk meningkatkan laba total supply chain bukan laba individu. kurangnya koordinasi terjadi karena setiap pelaku supply chain memapunyai tujuan yang berbeda atau karena adanya distorsi informasi (sarmah, et. al., 2005). pelaku supply chain emping melinjo baik di bagian hulu maupun hilir bersifat independen antara satu dengan yang lain. setiap pelaku supply chain bertindak berdasarkan informasi yang diperolehnya sendiri sehingga sering terjadi distorsi informasi (mc.cullen dan towill, 2002). pengrajin mendapatkan bahan baku berupa biji melinjo dari pedagang yang menjadi palanggannya demikian juga dalam memasarkan emping melinjo hanya pada pedagang tertentu. ada pasar yang kekurangan pasokan emping melinjo sebaliknya beberapa pasar kebanyakan pasokan. akibat keadaan tersebut, keuntungan yang diperoleh pelaku supply chain emping melinjo sangat bervariasi. tujuan penelitian yaitu mendeskripsikan performa supply chain emping melinjo dilihat dari jaringan, pelaku dan aktivitasnya serta menganalisis efisiensi supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten bantul menggunakan metode deskriptif analisis. teknik pelaksanaan penelitian menggunakan metode survey. penentuan lokasi penelitian dengan metode purposive sampling berdasarkan pertimbangan kabupaten bantul merupakan sentra emping melinjo di propinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta. pengambilan responden pengrajin emping melinjo secara sensus sedangkan penentuan pedagang secara snow boll. studi lapangan untuk mendapatkan data primer dilakukan melalui interview dengan petani melinjo di gunungkidul, bantul dan kebumen sebanyak 70 orang, pedagang melinjo (tengkulak, pedagang pengumpul, pedagang besar dan pengecer sebanyak 23 orang, pengrajin emping melinjo di sentra produksi yaitu kecamatan banguntapan dan pajangan berjumlah 91 orang, pedagang emping melinjo meliputi pedagang pengumpul, pedagang kecil, pedagang besar, dan pengecer berjumlah 56 orang. teknik analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis deskripsi yaitu mendiskripsikan jaringan supply chain, pelaku supply chain emping melinjo dan aktivitasnya, aliran barang, uang dan informasi. analisis kuantitatif menggunakan program linier (linear programming) untuk mengetahui jaringan supply chain yang efisien dengan model sebagai berikut: 25 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 fungsi tujuan: (z) = c1j1 + c2j2 + c3j3 + c4j4 + c5j5 + c6j6 + c7j7 + c8j8 + c9j9 + c10j10 + c11j11 + c12j12 + c13j13 + c14j14 + c15j15 + c16j16 + c17j17 + c18j18 + c19j19 + c20j20 + c21j21 + c22j22 + c23j23 + c24j24 + c25j25 + c26j26 + c27j27 + c28j28 + c29j29 + c30j30 + c31j31 + c32j32 + c33j33 + c34j34 + c35j35 + c36j36 + c37j37 keterangan : z = total biaya : ci = biaya emping melinjo untuk jaringan ke-i (rp/kg) : ji = jaringan ke-i fungsi kendala terdiri dari jumlah pasokan emping melinjo dari pengrajin di kabupaten bantul dan permintaan konsumen emping melinjo pada tingkat pedagang pengecer di diy dan jawa tengah yaitu di pasar magelang, pasar borobudur, pasar muntilan, pasar klaten, pasar beringharjo, pasar godean, pasar bantul, pasar gamping, pasar temanggung, pengecer a, dan pengecer b di palbapang, pasar kotagede, pasar ngablak, pasar prambanan, pasar piyungan, pasar sentul, pasar ngipek, pasar demangan, pasar imogiri dan pasar parakan. hasil dan pembahasan aktivitas pelaku supply chain emping melinjo pelaku supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul terdiri dari pelaku di bagian hulu dan hilir. pelaku di bagian hulu terdiri dari petani melinjo, tengkulak, pedagang pengumpul, pedagang besar dan pengecer melinjo, sedangkan pelaku di bagian hilir terdiri dari pengrajin emping melinjo, pedagang pengumpul, pedagang kecil, pedagang besar dan pengecer emping melinjo. keadaan yang sama terjadi pada industri cpo, elemen supply chain terdiri dari suplier bahan baku, produsen cpo, konsumen dalam negeri, konsumen luar negeri dan hutan indonesia (widodo, et. al, 2010) pelaku di bagian hulu maupun hilir melakukan aktivitas pertukaran, fisik, dan fasilitas (tabel 1 dan 2). aktivitas pertukaran berupa pembelian dan penjualan melinjo, semua pelaku melakukan aktivitas tersebut, namun untuk petani tidak melakukan aktivitas pembelian karena petani yang menghasilkan melinjo itu sendiri. aktivitas fisik berupa kegiatan pengupasan, pengemasan, pengepak an, penyimpanan, pengangkutan, dan bongkar muat. sedangkan aktivitas fasilitas meliputi kegiatan sortasi dan grading. petani melinjo petani menanam melinjo di lahan pekarangan dan tegalan, dan rata-rata umur melinjo yang ditanam sudah berusia sekitar 20 tahun. dalam kegiatan budidaya melinjo, petani mengeluarkan biaya tambahan untuk membeli pupuk organik dan pupuk kimia dengan rata-rata biaya rp21.934 per pohon dan per tahunnya. tanaman melinjo dapat dipanen 2-3 kali dalam setahun, untuk melakukan kegiatan pemanenan petani memetik langsung dengan cara memanjat pohon melinjo dan dibantu dengan peralatan yang ada. selain itu petani juga dapat memperkerjakan buruh panen yang diberi upah sebesar rp50.000 untuk setiap harinya. petani melinjo tidak melak ukan aktivit as fasilitas, hal ini dikarenakan mereka langsung menjual melinjo kepada pedagang. aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan oleh petani melinjo yaitu menjual melinjonya kepada pedagang pengumpul sebanyak 83,33% dan tengkulak 16,67%. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh petani yaitu pengemasan tabel 1. aktivitas pelaku supply chain emping melinjo di bagian hulu pelaku supply chain aktivitas pelaku (%) pertukaran fisik fasilitas pembe lian penjua lan pengupa san pengema san pengepa kan penyimpa nan pengang kutan b.muat sortasi grading petani x √ x 83,3 x x 3,3 x x x tengkulak √ √ x √ √ √ √ x x x p.pengumpul √ √ x √ √ x √ 33,3 x x p. besar √ √ √ √ √ √ 50 50 √ √ p. besar ld √ √ √ √ x √ √ √ x √ p.pengecer √ √ x √ x x x √ x x keterangan: ld: luar daerah x: semua pelaku tidak melakukan aktivitas √ : semua pelaku melakukan aktivitas 26 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dan pengangkutan. pengemasan dilakukan oleh 83,3% petani menggunakan karung untuk mengemas, sedangkan 16,67% petani tidak melakukan kegiatan pengemasan karena hasil panenya langsung dibeli oleh tengkulak. kegiatan pengangkutan hanya dilakukan oleh satu petani yang menjualnya langsung ke pasar. tengkulak melinjo aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan yaitu melakukan pembelian dan penjualan melinjo. pembelian melinjo berasal dari petani dengan sistem tebasan yaitu harga yang dibayarkan ke petani bergantung pada perkiraan jumlah buah melinjo di pohon. penjualan yang dilakukan tengkulak yaitu menjual melinjo kepada pedagang pengumpul. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh tengkulak yaitu pengemasan, pengepakan, penyimpanan, dan pengangkutan. pengemasan yang digunakan adalah karung plastik yang dapat menampung melinjo hingga 70 kg, dan biaya pengemasan sebesar rp2.000. aktivitas pengangkutan merupakan kegiatan tengkulak untuk menjual melinjo ke pasar dengan kendaraan umum dengan biaya sekitar rp7.000. penyimpanan melinjo juga dilakukan oleh tengkulak yaitu hanya menyimpan dalam karung plastik untuk beberapa hari. pedagang pengumpul melinjo aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan pedagang pengumpul yaitu pembelian melinjo dari petani atau dari para tengkulak yang datang langsung di pasar, dan di pasar ini pedagang pengumpul dapat bertemu dengan pedagang besar, pedagang pengecer, dan pengrajin emping melinjo. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh pedagang pengumpul yaitu pengemasan, pengepakan, pengangkutan, dan bongkar muat. pengemasan menggunakan karung plastik yang dapat menampung melinjo hingga 40 kilogram, dan biaya pengemasan sebesar rp1.000. sebanyak 33,33% pedagang pengumpul melakukan kegiatan bongkar muat, yaitu menurunkan melinjo dari truk dengan memperkerjakan jasa bongkar muat. pedagang besar melinjo luar daerah pedagang besar luar daerah merupakan pedagang besar yang berada di kabupaten kebumen dan gunungkidul. aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan oleh pedagang besar adalah pembelian melinjo yang berasal dari pedagang pengumpul kemudian dijual kepada pengecer atau pengrajin emping melinjo. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh pedagang besar meliputi pengupasan, pengemasan, pengepakan, penyimpanan, pengangkutan, dan bongkar muat. pedagang besar bekerjasama dengan ibu-ibu rumah tangga untuk melakukan pengupasan, sortasi dan grading dengan upah sebesar rp500 per kg. pengemasan menggunakan karung plastik yang dapat menampung melinjo hingga 70 kg, dengan kisaran biaya pengemasan sebesar rp2.000rp3.000. penyimpanan dilakukan pada area gudang dengan cara diletakkan diatas lantai, setelah klatak itu kering kemudian dimasukkan ke keranjang bambu yang dapat menampung sampai 25 kg. pedagang besar yang melakukan pengangkutan dan bongkar muat dengan sebanyak 50%. alat yang dipakai untuk pengangkutan yaitu mobil pribadi yang milik pedagang besar. aktivitas fasilitas yang dilakukan pedagang besar meliputi sortasi dan grading. pedagang besar melinjo aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan oleh pedagang besar adalah membeli langsung klatak dari pedagang besar luar daerah yang berada di kabupaten kebumen serta gunungkidul dan dibawa ke bantul untuk dijual kembali ke pedagang pengecer. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh pedagang besar meliputi pengupasan, pengemasan, penyimpanan, pengangkutan, dan bongkar muat. pengupasan dilakukan dengan melepas kulit melinjo dari bijinya (klatak), menggunakan pisau dan dikuliti dengan arah melingkar. pengemasan yang digunakan adalah karung plastik yang dapat menampung melinjo hingga 70 kg. penyimpanan dilakukan pada area gudang dengan cara dimasukkan ke keranjang bambu yang bisa menampung sampai 25 kg. aktivitas fasilitas yang dilakukan pedagang besar yaitu grading. pedagang pengecer melinjo aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan oleh pedagang pengecer yaitu membeli klatak dari pedagang besar dan dijual kembali ke pengrajin di kabupaten bantul. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh pedagang ini yaitu pengemasan, dan bongkar muat. pengemasan menggunakan karung plastik, dengan biaya pengemasan sebesar rp2.000. pengrajin emping melinjo pengrajin emping melinjo melakukan aktivitas pertukaran yaitu membeli melinjo dari pedagang di pasar kemudian menjual emping melinjo ke pedagang pengumpul, pedagang kecil, pedagang besar dan pedagang pengecer. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh pengrajin meliputi pengemasan, pengepakan, penyimpanan, pengangkutan, dan bongkar muat. pengemasan yang dilak uk an pengrajin yaitu memasukan emping melinjo ke dalam plastik sedangkan pengepakan menggunakan kardus besar. sebagian kecil pengrajin (5%) melakukan penyimpanan dalam waktu 4 27 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 sampai 5 bulan. pada umumnya pengrajin tidak melakukan pengangkutan karena emping melinjo diambil langsung oleh pedagang pengumpul, pedagang kecil atau pedagang pengecer. sortasi dilakukan pengrajin dengan cara memisahkan antara emping melinjo yang bulat sempurna dengan yang rusak dan sebanyak 45% pengrajin melakukan sortasi sedangkan grading hanya dilakukan oleh 35% pengrajin yaitu membagi emping melinjo dalam tiga grade, pertama emping super dengan ciri-ciri tipis, bening dan berasal dari 1-2 biji melinjo. kedua emping dengan ciri-ciri agak tebal, warna kuning keemasan, dan berasal dari 3-4 biji melinjo, ketiga emping besar dengan ciri-ciri tebal, berasal dari 25-30 biji melinjo. pedagang pengumpul emping melinjo aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan oleh pedagang pengumpul yaitu membeli emping melinjo dari pengrajin kemudian menjual lagi ke pedagang besar. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan pedagang pengumpul yaitu pengepakan, pengangkutan dan bongkar muat emping melinjo. emping melinjo yang sudah terkumpul dari beberapa pengrajin kemudian dimasukan ke dalam karung dan dikirim ke pedagang besar menggunakan sepeda motor. aktivitas yang dilakukan oleh pedagang pengumpul yang terakhir adalah bongkar muat. pedagang kecil emping melinjo aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan pedagang kecil yaitu membeli emping melinjo dari pengrajin dan menjual kembali ke pedagang pengecer di pasar bantul. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan pedagang kecil yaitu pengepakan dan pengangkutan. pedagang kecil membawa dalam jumlah yang relatif sedikit sehingga tidak memerlukan biaya bongkar muat. pedagang besar emping melinjo pedagang besar membeli emping melinjo dari pengrajin dan pedagang kecil kemudian menjual kembali ke pedagang pengecer di berbagai pasar. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan oleh pedagang besar meliputi pengepakan, penyimpanan, pengangkutan, dan bongkar muat. pengepakan yang dilakukan adalah memasukan emping melinjo yang sudah dikemas ke dalam karung agar mudah dalam pengangkutan. semua pedagang besar melakukan pengepakan, pengangkutan dan bongkar muat emping melinjo. biasanya pedagang besar menggunakan jasa buruh gendong untuk bongakar muat emping melinjo dari tempat parkir sampai di tempat pedagang pengecer. sebanyak 40% pedagang besar melakukan aktivitas sortasi dan grading. pedagang pengecer emping melinjo aktivitas pertukaran yang dilakukan pedagang pengecer yaitu membeli emping melinjo dari pengrajin, pedagang kecil dan pedagang besar kemudian menjual langsung ke konsumen. aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan pedagang pengecer adalah penyimpanan dan pengemasan. penyimpanan yang dilakukan bertujuan untuk persediaan menjelang lebaran dan hari besar lainnya agar memperoleh keuntungan yang lebih tinggi. pengemasan dilakukan oleh semua pedagang pengecer yaitu dengan cara membungkus emping melinjo sesuai dengan pembelian konsumen. konsumen konsumen yang dimaksud dalam penelitian ini adalah seseorang yang langsung memanfaatkan atau mengkonsumsi emping melinjo dan tidak menjual kembali. konsumen membeli emping melinjo melalui pedagang pengecer di berbagai daerah. tabel 2. aktivitas pelaku supply chain emping melinjo di bagian hilir keterangan: x: semua pelaku tidak melakukan aktivitas √ : semua pelaku melakukan aktivitas 28 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research jaringan supply chain emping melinjo jaringan supply chain emping melinjo dimulai dari petani melinjo di kabupaten bantul, gunungkidul dan kebumen yang menjual melinjo kepada pedagang dan pedagang melinjo menjualnya ke pengrajin emping melinjo. melalui pedagang perantara, emping melinjo akan sampai ke tangan konsumen. jaringan supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul ada 37 jaringan yang terdiri dari 22 jaringan diawali dari petani melinjo di gunungkidul, sebanyak 6 jaringan dimulai dari petani melinjo di kebumen dan 9 jaringan berasal dari petani melinjo di bantul. supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul termasuk multi saluran, seperti halnya pada rantai pasokan stroberi di kabupaten bandung (furqon,2014). secara rinci jaringan supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul adalah sebagai berikut: 1. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer kotagede – konsumen 2. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer ngablak – konsumen 3. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer prambanan – konsumen 4. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer piyungan – konsumen 5. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer ngipek – konsumen 6. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer demangan – konsumen 7. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer imogiri – konsumen 8. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengecer beringharjo – konsumen 9. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul a – pedagang pengecer beringharjo – konsumen 10. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul a – pedagang pengecer demangan – konsumen 11. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – gambar 1. jaringan supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul 29 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul b – pedagang pengecer sentul – konsumen 12. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar a – pedagang pengecer parakan – konsumen 13. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar b – pedagang pengecer beringharjo – konsumen 14. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul c – pedagang besar c – pedagang pengecer klaten – konsumen 15. petani g. kidul – pedagang pengumpul g. kidul – pedagang besar g. kidul – pedagang besar wonosari – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul c – pedagang pengecer klaten – konsumen 16. petani kebumen – tengkulak kebumen – pengumpul kebumen – pedagang besar kebumen– p. besar sayegan (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo– pengecer pasar magelang – konsumen 17. petani kebumen – tengkulak kebumen – pengumpul kebumen – pedagang besar kebumen– p. besar sayegan (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer pasar borobudur – konsumen 18. petani kebumen – tengkulak kebumen – pengumpul kebumen – pedagang besar kebumen– p. besar sayegan (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer pasar muntilan – konsumen 19. petani g. kidul – pengumpul g.kidul – pedagang besar g kidul – pedagang besar wonosari (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar c – pengecer pasar magelang – konsumen 20. petani g. kidul – pengumpul g.kidul – pedagang besar g kidul – pedagang besar wonosari (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar c – pengecer pasar temanggung – konsumen 21. petani g. kidul – pengumpul g.kidul – pedagang besar g kidul – pedagang besar wonosari (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar b – pengecer pasar magelang – konsumen 22. petani g. kidul – pengumpul g.kidul – pedagang besar g kidul – pedagang besar wonosari (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar b – pengecer pasar klaten – konsumen 23. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo– pedagang besar a – pengecer pasar magelang – konsumen 24. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar a – pengecer pasar borobudur – konsumen 25. petani kebumen – tengkulak kebumen – pengumpul kebumen – pedagang besar kebumen– p. besar sayegan (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar d – pengecer bringharjo – konsumen 26. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang besar e – pengecer pasar bringharjo – konsumen 27. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul d – pedagang besar b pengecer pasar magelang – konsumen 28. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul d – pedagang besar b pengecer pasar klaten – konsumen 29. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul d – pedagang besar c pengecer pasar magelang – konsumen 30. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang pengumpul – pedagang besar c pengecer pasar temanggung – konsumen 31. petani kebumen – tengkulak kebumen – pengepul kebumen – pedagang besar kebumen– p. besar sayegan (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer pasar godean – konsumen 32. petani kebumen – tengkulak kebumen – pengumpul kebumen – pedagang besar kebumen– p. besar sayegan (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer a – konsumen 33. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer b – konsumen 34. petani g. kidul – pengumpul g.kidul – pedagang besar g kidul – pedagang besar wonosari (luar daerah) – 30 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer pasar bantul – konsumen 35. petani bantul – pedagang pengecer bantul – pengrajin emping melinjo – pedagang kecil – pengecer pasar bantul – konsumen 36. petani g. kidul – pengumpul g.kidul – pedagang besar g kidul – pedagang besar wonosari (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer pasar gamping – konsumen 37. petani g. kidul – pengumpul g.kidul – pedagang besar g kidul – pedagang besar wonosari (luar daerah) – pengecer pajangan – pengrajin emping melinjo – pengecer pasar temanggung – konsumen aliran produk, aliran uang, dan aliran informasi supply chain emping melinjo aliran produk dalam suatu supply chain ada tiga macam aliran yang harus dikelola yaaitu aliran barang, aliran uang dan aliran informasi (siagian, 2005). pada supply chain emping melinjo, aliran produk adalah aliran barang berupa melinjo dari petani sampai pengrajin kemudian diolah akan menghasilkan emping melinjo. emping melinjo sampai di tangan konsumen melalui pedagang pengumpul, pedagang besar, pedagang kecil dan pedagang pengecer. dalam transaksi jual beli antara petani dan pedagang melinjo, kualitas, kuantitas dan tempat pengiriman sudah sesuai dengan kesepakatan. akan tetapi dalam pengiriman produk 40% petani masih belum tepat waktu. dilihat dari aspek jumlah melinjo yang diminta pengrajin, lebih dari 60% pedagang melinjo belum memenuhi kebutuhan melinjo pengrajin. semua pedagang melinjo sudah memenuhi kualitas yang diinginkan pengrajin, sedangkan dari aspek waktu sebagian pedagang melinjo mengirim sudah tepat waktu dan lebih dari 50% pedagang melinjo sudah mengirim barang sesuai tempat yang disepakati. jenis emping melinjo yang diproduksi oleh pengrajin di kabupaten bantul adalah original dengan kualitas super dan biasa. diihat dari aspek jumlah emping melinjo yang dipasok oleh pengrajin sudah sesuai dengan yang diminta. berdasarkan aspek kualitas emping melinjo yang dihasilkan oleh pengrajin sudah sesuai dengan pedagang emping melinjo. sebanyak 60% pengrajin sudah mengirim tepat waktu dan sebanyak 57,5% mengirim sesuai dengan tempat yang disepakati. aliran produk emping melinjo dari pedagang pengumpul ke pedagang besar berjalan lancar karena produk emping melinjo yang dijual pedagang pengumpul sesuai kesepakatan dilihat dari aspek kuantitas, kualitas, waktu dan tempat pengiriman. dilihat dari jumlah dan kualitas emping melinjo yang dipasok oleh pedagang kecil dan pedagang besar sudah sesuai dengan permintaan. konsumen yang membeli emping melinjo di pedagang pengecer dapat memilih sendiri sesuai dengan jenis dan kualitas yang diinginkannya. aliran produk/ barang pada supply chain emping melinjo yang lancar, terjadi juga pada rantai pasok gula siwalan di kabupaten sumenep yang sudah baik, sustiyana et al (2013). keadaan ini berbeda dengan supply chain daging sapi di kabupaten jember yang menunjukkan bahwa aliran produk belum optimal (emhar et. al., 2014). aliran uang aliran uang dalam supply chain emping melinjo bergerak dari konsumen ke petani melinjo. konsumen dalam penelitian ini adalah orang yang membeli emping melinjo di pedagang pengecer. aliran uang dari konsumen ke pedagang pengecer ke pengrajin berjalan lancar demikian juga aliran uang dari pedagang pengecer ke pedagang kecil serta ke pedagang pengumpul karena sistem pembayarannya secara langsung dan cash demikian juga dengan aliran uang dari pengrajin emping melinjo ke pedagang melinjo dan dari pedagang melinjo ke petani. keadaan ini berbeda dengan yang terjadi pada supply chain daging sapi di kabupaten jember, bahwa aliran keuangan tidak berjalan secara optimal (emhar et. al., 2014). aliran informasi aliran informasi yang terjadi dalam supply chain emping melinjo bergerak dua arah, yaitu aliran yang bergerak dari petani melinjo ke pengrajin kemudian sampai ke konsumen serta aliran yang bergerak sebaliknya dari konsumen ke pengrajin kemudian sampai di petani melinjo. alat yang biasa digunakan oleh pelaku supply chain untuk berkomunikasi yaitu handphone. aliran informasi dari petani ke pedagang melinjo kurang lancar, hal ini terjadi pada petani yang menjual melinjo dengan sistem tebasan. aliran informasi dari pedagang melinjo ke pengrajin berjalan lancar dan sebagian besar pedagang melinjo sudah menget ahui k ualitas yang dibutuhkan pengrajin. akan tetapi informasi yang berkaitan dengan kuantitas yang diminta dan waktu pengiriman sudah sesuai. informasi tempat pengiriman dan kualitas emping dari 31 vol.3 no.1 januari 2017 pedagang ke pengrajin sudah lancar karena masing-masing pengrajin sudah mempunyai pasarnya sendiri. pedagang meminta emping melinjo jenis original dengan kualitas super dan biasa. informasi yang kurang lancar terjadi pada jumlah yang diminta pedagang yang melebihi jumlah yang diproduksi. aliran informasi tentang kualitas emping melinjo, tempat pengiriman, dan jenis emping melinjo yang diminta dari pedagang pengumpul, pedagang kecil, dan pedagang besar ke pengecer pada umumnya lancar. aliran informasi yang kurang lancar terjadi pada waktu pengiriman dan kuantitas. hal ini karena tidak ada stok atau produksi belum selesai dan permintaan pedagang pengecer banyak padahal emping melinjo tidak hanya dijual ke satu pedagang pengecer. aliran informasi tentang jenis dan kualitas emping melinjo yang diminta konsumen lancar karena konsumen dapat memilih emping melinjo sesuai dengan jenis dan kualitas yang diinginkannya. aliran informasi pada supply chain emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul dapat disimpulkan masih belum lancar. keadaan ini berbeda dengan yang terjadi pada rantai pasok gula siwalan di kabupaten sumenep yang sudah baik, sustiyana et. al. (2013) efisiensi supply chain emping melinjo efisiensi supply chain dianalisis menggunakan program linier (linear programming) dengan tujuan meminimumkan biaya supply chain dengan kendalanya pasokan emping melinjo dari pengrajin dan permintaan emping melinjo di berbagai pasar di bantul, kota yogyakarta, sleman, klaten, magelang dan temanggung, dimana konsumen membeli emping melinjo yang berasal dari kabupaten bantul. hasil analisis disajikan pada tabel 3. berdasarkan tabel 3 diketahui bahwa ke 22 jaringan supply chain yang efisien terdiri dari 14 jaringan diawali dari petani melinjo di gunungkidul, 5 jaringan dari petani di kebumen dan 3 jaringan diawali dari petani melinjo di bantul. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar pengrajin emping melinjo di kabupaten bantul menggunakan melinjo yang berasal dari gunungkidul. dengan kata lain melinjo dari gunungkidul mempunyai daya saing yang lebih kuat dibandingkan daerah kebumen dan bantul. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa semua permintaan konsumen akan emping melinjo sudah terpenuhi dari pengrajin emping melinjo di bantul. produksi emping melinjo di bantul mencapai 25.361 kg/minggu dan telah didistribusikan ke konsumen melalui pedagang pengecer di berbagai pasar di bantul, sleman, kota yogyakarta, klaten, temanggung dan magelang sesuai permintaannya. pengrajian emping di kabupaten bantul yang menggunakan melinjo dari gunungkidul dapat meminimumkan biaya supply chain jika mendistribusikan empingnya menggunakan 14 jaringan sampai ke pengecer di pasar kotagede (420 kg), ngablak (210 kg), prambanan (350 kg), piyungan (567 kg), ngipek (105 kg), demangan (105 kg), imogiri (700 kg), pasar beringharjo (1680 kg), pasar sentul 700 kg), pengecer di parakan (1400 kg), klaten (5600 kg), pasar bantul (245 kg), pasar gamping (245) dan temanggung (1050 kg). sedangkan pengrajin emping yang menggunakan melinjo dari tabel 3. distribusi dan pemenuhan permintaan emping melinjo pada keadaan biaya minimum no. produksi/ tujuan produksi/ permintaan (kg) terdistribusi/ terpenuhi (kg) sisa/ kekurangan (kg) dual price (rp) 1 pengrajin 25361 25361 0 2728 2 pasarkotagede 420 420 0 2112 3 pasar ngablak 210 210 0 2198 4 prambanan 350 350 0 2148 5 piyungan 567 567 0 2118 6 pasar ngipek 105 105 0 2348 7 pasar demangan 105 105 0 1948 8 pasar imogiri 700 700 0 2045 9 pasar bringharjo 1680 1680 0 2102.7 10 pasar parakan 1400 1400 0 252.3 11 pasar klaten 5600 5600 0 0 12 pasar sentul 700 700 0 793 13 magelang 1190 1190 0 2148 14 borobudur 700 700 0 2148 15 muntilan 2100 2100 0 2048 16 klaten 5600 5600 0 1584 17 bringharjo 1680 1680 0 2038 18 godean 546 546 0 2198 19 bantul 245 245 0 2148 20 gamping 245 245 0 2198 21 temanggung 1050 1050 0 2148 22 pengecer a 49 49 0 2248 23 pengecer b 119 119 0 2568 32 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research kebumen mengeluarkan biaya minimum jika pengrajin mendistribusikan empingnya menggunakan 5 jarinagn sampai ke pasar magelang (1190 kg), pasar borobudor (700 kg), pasar muntilan (2100 kg), pasar godean (546 kg) dan pengecer a di bantul (49 kg). pengrajin yang bahan bakunya berasal dari petani di bantul, mengeluarkan biaya supply chain minimum jika distribusi emping melinjo menggunakan 3 jaringan sampai ke pengecer b di bantul (119 kg), pasar beringharjo (1680 kg) dan pasar klaten (5600 kg). supply chain emping melinjo dengan alokasi tersebut membutuhkan biaya yang minimum yaitu sebesar rp. 33.969.264,00/ minggu. biaya ini meliputi biaya pengupasan, pengemasan, penyimpanan, transportasi, bongkar muat, sortasi dan grading. kesimpulan pelaku supply chain emping melinjo terdiri dari pelaku di bagian hulu meliputi petani dan pedagang melinjo serta pelaku di bagian hilir yaitu pengrajin dan pedagang emping melinjo. baik pelaku di bagian hulu maupun hilir melakukan aktivitas pertukaran (pembelian dan penjualan), fisik (pengupasan, pengemasan, penyimpanan, pengangkutan dan bongkat muat) serta aktivitas fasilitas (sortasi dan grading). terdapat 37 jaringan supply chain emping melinjo mulai dari hulu hingga hilir, yaitu diawali dari petani melinjo yang berada di wilayah diy (bantul, gunungkidul) dan kebumen (jawa tengah) melewati pedagang melinjo, pengrajin emping, pedagang emping hingga konsumen emping yang tersebar di wilayah bantul, sleman, gunungkidul, kota yogyakarta, klaten, solo, magelang dan temanggung. berdasarkan analisis linear programming, biaya distribusi akan minimum jika 22 jaringan digunakan, yaitu 14 jaringan diawali dari petani melinjo di gunungkidul, 5 jaringan dari petani melinjo di kebumen dan 3 jaringan dari petani melinjo di bantul, dan berakhir pada konsumen di berbagai daerah di diy serta jawa tengah. semua jaringan supply chain memungkinkan digunakan dan supply chain tetap akan efisien jika produksi emping di kabupaten bantul meningkat. oleh karena itu diperlukan pengelolaan usahatani melinjo yang lebih baik agar produksi melinjo meningkat sehingga produksi emping melinjo juga akan naik. daftar pustaka badan pusat statistik (bps). 2013. bantul dalam angka. yogyakarta chopra, s., & meindl, p. 2001. supply chain management–strategy, planning and operating. pretice hall inc, new jersey. dinas perindustrian, perdagangan dan koperasi. 2012. data industri makanan di kabupaten bantul. emhar, a., joni, m. m. a., & titin a. 2014. analisis rantai pasok (supply chain) daging sapi di kabupaten jember. berkala ilmiah pertanian 1(3): 53-61. furqon, c. 2014. analisis manajemen dan kinerja rantai pasokan stroberi di kabupaten bandung. image iii(2): 109-126. indrajit, r. e., & richardus, d. 2002. konsep manajemen supply chain. pt. gramedia widiasarana indonesia, jakarta. kotler, p. 2003. marketing management. eleventh edition. prentice hall inc, new jersey. mccullen, p. & towill, d. 2002. diagnosis and reduction of bulwhip effect in supply chain. supply chain management: at international journal 7(3): 164-179. moharana, h. s. et. al. 2010. coordination, collaboration and integration for supply chain management. international journal of interscience management review (imr) 2(2): 46–50. pujawan, i. y. 2005. supply chain management. guna widya, surabaya. sarmah, s. p., acharya, d., & gayol, s. k. 2005. buyer vendor coordination models in supply chain management. european journal of operational research 105: 115. siagian,y. m. 2005. supply chain management. grasindo, jakarta. sustiyana, syafrial, & mangku, p. 2013. analisis supply chain dan efisiensi pemasaran gula siwalan di kabupaten sumenep jawa timur. jurnal habitat xxiv(2): 110-119. widodo, k. h., abdullah, a., & kharies, p. d. a. 2010. sistem supply chain crude palm oil indonesia dengan mempertimbangkan aspek economical revenue, social welfare dan environment. jurnal ternik industri 12(1): 47 -53. 4 r-4 r-4 31-32 ayu putri merry anisya1, lestari rahayu waluyati2 1program pasca sarjana ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta 2deprtemen sosial ekonomi, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta *) email korespondensi: merryanisya@gmail.com agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 peluang desa lumbung pangan dalam meningkatkan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani the opportunity of food barns village in increasing farmer household food security doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5284 abstract food security has three subsystems namely food availability, food access and food utilization. to reduce poverty and to improve food security, yogyakarta city implements food barn program. this research was conducted in food barns village and non food barns villages in seyegan district. samples were taken, namely the household of farmers as much as 100 respondents. sampling was done by a random sampling method. using cross classification analysis between food expenditure share (ppp) and energy adequacy rate (ake) to determine the level of food security and using the method of logit ordered model to see the influence of the status of food barns against food security opportunities for farm households. the result showed that food barns in foodresistant state was 58%, vulnerable to food was 8%, less food 9% and foodprone to 4%, while non food barns villages showed food-resistant state 56%, food vulnerable 5%, less food 6 % and food prone 11%. food security opportunities for food-resistant farmers in food barns village are higher than the village of food barns. the results of the analysis using ordinal logit method showed that the price of tempe and tofu, household income, the number of household members and dummy village status, affects the opportunity of food security farmers ' households. keywords: ordered logit, food security, household farm, food barns village intisari ketahanan pangan memiliki tiga subsistem yaitu ketersedian pangan, akses pangan dan pemanfaatan pangan. untuk menurunkan kemiskinan yogyakarta memiliki program lumbung pangan guna meningkatkan ketahanan pangan. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani dan untuk menganalisis pengaruh status desa lumbung pangan terhadap peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan. penelitian ini dilaksanakan di desa lumbung pangan dan desa bukan lumbung pangan di kecamatan seyegan. sampel yang diambil yaitu rumah tangga tani yang berusahatani sebanyak 100 responden. pengambilan sampelnya dilakukan dengan cara random sampling. menggunakan analisis klasifikasi silang antara pangsa pengeluaran pangan (ppp) dan angka kecukupan energi (ake) untuk menentukan tingkat ketahanan pangan dan mengunakan metode model logit ordered untuk melihat pengaruh status desa lumbung pangan terhadap peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. berdasarkan analisis ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani desa lumbung pangan dalam keadaan tahan pangan 58%, rentan pangan 8%, kurang pangan 9% dan rawan pangan 4%, sedangkan desa bukan lumbung pangan dalam keadaan tahan pangan 56%, rentan pangan 5%, kurang pangan 6% dan rawan pangan 11%. peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani tahan pangan di desa lumbung pangan lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan desa bukan lumbung pangan. hasil analisis menggunakan metode ordinal logit bahwa harga tempe dan tahu, pendapatan rumah tangga, jumlah anggota rumah tangga dan dummy status desa mempengaruhi peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. kata kunci: ordered logit, ketahanan pangan, rumah tangga tani, desa lumbung pangan 152 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pendahuluan kemiskinan salah satu masalah yang harus dihadapi setiap daerah dari segi ekonomi dan bidang lainnya yang bersifat multidimensi (nuryitmawan, 2016). untuk mengatasi kemiskinan perlu ditelaah penyebab kemiskinan itu sendiri, hal ini karena kurangnya pemahaman tentang penyebab kemiskinan. pemerintah melakukan program penanggulangan kemiskinan menggunakan sumber data secara makro berasal dari survey sosial dan ekonomi nasional (susenas) yang dilakukan oleh badan pusat statistik (ras, 2013). fenomena di indonesia dalam mengurangi kemiskinan juga terjadi di yogyakarta, karena dari tahun ketahun angka kemiskinan hanya turun sedikit. angka kemiskinan yogyakarta tahun 2013 sebesar 37.400 jiwa (9,38%), lalu turun menjadi 35.600 jiwa (8,67%) di tahun 2014. tahun 2015 jumlah penduduk miskin yogyakarta naik 36.00 jiwa (8,75%), dengan kepadatan penduduk mencapai 12.699 jiwa per km2 (bps, 2017). menurut who kepadatan penduduk normal 9.600 jiwa per km2 (abraham et al., 2013). dengan banyaknya penduduk akan mendorong timbulnya pemukiman kumuh bagi mereka yang tidak bisa mengakses hunian layak dan konsumsi masyarakat itu sendiri. kemiskinan tidak hanya indentik dengan rumah yang kumuh tetapi juga dapat dilihat dari daya beli masyarakat. pengukuran kemiskinan dapat dilihat dari kemampuan daya beli, pendapatan dan konsumsi pangan (cobbinah, black, & thwaites, 2013). pangan merupakan kebutuhan dasar yang diperlukan oleh manusia. pangan sangat diperlukan untuk kelangsungan hidup bagi manusia, sehingga kebutuhan akan pangan harus terpenuhi bagi setiap orang. di indonesia pangan diatur dalam undangundang nomor 18 tahun 2012. ketentuan umum ketahanan pangan yaitu kondisi terpenuhinya pangan bagi negara sampai dengan perorangan. yang tercermin dari tersedianya pangan yang cukup baik jumlah maupun mutunya, aman, beragam, merata, dan terjangkau (maleha & susanto, 2006). untuk fokus ketahanan pangan di indonesia tidak hanya pada akses penyediaan pangan melalui usaha swasembada pangan, tetapi dengan upaya mewujudkan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga untuk mengurangi masyarakat rawan pangan (hanani, 2012). di yogyakarta salah satu program untuk mengurangi kemiskinan yaitu melalui program desa lumbung pangan. kecamatan seyegan merupakan daerah sentral penghasil padi untuk daerah diy. salah satu desa yang ada di kecamatan seyegan merupakan desa program lumbung pangan yaitu desa margoagung. desa margoagung menjadi desa program lumbung pangan karena desa tersebut dapat meningkatkan potensi untuk mencapai tahan pangan dan dapat menghapuskan desa tersebut dari kategori rawan pangan. sehingga kemiskinan akan mempengaruhi tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga (lindawati & saptanto, 2016). ketahanan pangan sendiri memiliki tiga subsistem yaitu ketersedian pangan, askes pangan (keterjangkauan) dan pemanfaatan pangan (suryana, 2014). ketersediaan pangan berfungsi untuk menjamin pasokan pangan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat. askes pangan (keterjangkauan) memiliki fungsi untuk menciptakan sistem distribusi yang efisen dan efektif guna menjamin masyarakat luas dapat memperoleh jumlah pangan yang cukup, kualitas pangan yang baik, dan harga pangan yang terjangkau. pemanfaatan berguna untuk mengatur pola pemanfaatan pangan yang memenuhi mutu, keragaman, kandungan gizi, dan keamanan pangan. ketersediaan pangan yang cukup secara nasional atau regional belum bisa dijadikan indikasi bahwa daerah tersebut tahan pangan, tetapi juga melihat pada sektor rumah tangga juga harus memiliki ketahanan pangan (salinem et al., 2001). adanya program lumbung pangan akan meningkatkan tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga, sehingga mengakibatkan kemiskinan akan berkurang. untuk mengurangi kemiskinan pada suatu daerah maka masyarakat tersebut harus dapat memenuhi kebutuhan dasarnya (alkire et al., 2015). kebutuhan dasar yang harus terpenuhi salah satunya pangan, karena pangan merupakan kebutuhan pokok bagi manusia. kebutuhan akan pangan akan beriringan dengan tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga (omonona & agoi, 2007). 153 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 suatu wilayah yang secara regional masuk dalam ketegori tahan pangan dan memiliki ketersediaan pangan yang cukup belum tentu dalam rumah tangga nya tahan pangan. penelitian yang dilakukan oleh bashir et al. (2012) data sekunder menyebutkan bahwa pakistan merupakan negara yang cukup pangan serta aman pangan ditingkat nasional. namun analisis menghasilkan sebanyak 23 % rumah tangga pada kondisi rawan pangan. jadi dapat dikatakan bahwa daerah yang memiliki ketersediaan pangan yang melimpah secara nasional atau regional belum tentu pada sektor rumah tangga memiliki ketahanan pangan yang tahan pangan. tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga antara lain usia, jenis kelamin, pendidikan, remitansi, pengangguran, inflasi, dan aset (abdullah et al., 2019). setiap rumah tangga memiliki faktor-faktor yang berbeda, hal tersebut karena setiap rumah tangga memiliki kebutuhan yang berbeda. pendapatan kepala keluarga berpengaruh positif terhadap ketahanan pangan, sementara itu kemampuan memenuhi kebutuhan keuangan berpengaruh negatif terhadap tingkat ketahanan pangan (pratiwi, 2016). faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani akan menunjukkan bahwa rumah tangga tani tersebut tahan pangan apa tidak. ketahanan pangan rumah tangga dapat dipengaruhi oleh luas lahan pertanian rumah tangga, pendapatan kotor dari pertanian, total pendapatan diluar pertanian, dan jumlah anggota rumah tangga (adewumi, omotesho, & fadimula, 2010). jadi dari penelitian sebelum-sebelumnya banyak faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani antara lain usia, jenis kelamin, pendidikan, remitansi, pengangguran, inflasi, aset, pendapatan, jumlah anggota rumah tangga, luas lahan pertanian dan pendidikan. penelitian ini berupaya melihat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani jika memiliki ketersediaan pangannya yang cukup. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk 1) menggambarkan tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan, 2) menganalisis pengaruh status desa lumbung pangan terhadap peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan. metode penelitian sampel dari penelitan ini adalah rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan yaitu desa margoagung yang merupakan desa lumbung pangan dan desa margodadi merupakan desa bukan lumbung pangan. desa margoagung memiliki jumlah keluarga sebanyak 424 rumah tangga, sedangkan desa margodadi sebanyak 493 rumah tangga (profil uptd bp4 wilayah iii, 2019). diambil 100 dipilih secara acak (random sampling). menjawab tujuan pertama menggambarkan tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani menggunakan klasifikasi silang antara kecukupan kalori dan pangsa pengeluaran pangan menurut johnson dan toole (1991) dalam (maxwell et al., 2000). menjawab tujuan kedua untuk melihat pengaruh status desa lumbung pangan terhadap peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani menggunakan metode model logit ordered (regresi logistic ordinal). model logit ordered merupakan regresi dengan respon yang bersifat kategorik dan bertingkat (ordinal). untuk mengetahui tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga menurut johnson dan toole (1991) dalam (maxwell et al., 2000), maka harus mengetahui pengasa pengeluaran pangan dan angka kecukupan energi. angka kecukupan energi (ake) angka kecukupan energi diperlukan untuk pemenuhan energi yang dibutuhkan dalammenjalani aktivitas sehari-hari. angka kecukupan energi berhubungan erat dengan konsumsi pangan dengan jumlah, kualitas yang diperlukan tubuh diukur dengan kilo kkl/ kap/hari (sudrajat & sinaga, 2016). untuk menganalisis ketahanan pangan dengan pendekatan angka kecukupan energi (ake) menggunakan pengukuran yang ada yaitu mengikuti persamaan (mulyo, sugiyarto, & widada, 2015). untuk memperoleh angka kecukupan energi diperoleh dari perbandingan antara konsumsi energi dan protein orang dewasa (ked) dengan ketetapan 154 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research serapan energi 2.150 kkl/kap/hari yang dinyatakan dalam persen. rumus diatas dinyatakan sebagai berikut: pke = ked 2.150 x 100% untuk mendapatkan konsumsi energi dan protein orang dewasa (ked) diperoleh dari perbandingan dari konsumsi energi riil rumah tangga dengan jumlah anggota rumah tangga yang dinyatakan dalan kkl/kap/hari. rumus diatas dinyatakan sebagai berikut: ked = kert / jued pangsa pengeluaran pangan (ppp) pangsa pengeluaran pangan merupakan besaran jumlah pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk pangan dari total pengeluaran rumah tangga diukur menggunakan persen. mengukur tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani dengan pendekatan pangsa pengeluaran pangan (ppp) menggunakan persamaan berikut seperti yang disampaikan (ilham & bonar, 2007). untuk memperoleh pangsa pengeluaran pangan (ppp) didapatkan dari perbandingan antara pengeluaran pangan (fe) dengan totan pengeluaran rumah tangga (nfe) dan dinyatakan dalam persen. rumus diatas dinyatakan sebagai berikut: ppp= fe te x 100% pengukuran ketahanan pangan rumah tangga dapat ditentukan dengan menyilangkan pangsa pengeluaran pangan dan angka kecukupan energi johnson dan toole (1991) dalam (maxwell et al., 2000) sebagai berikut: a. rumah tangga tahan pangan (kp=4) yaitu bila proporsi pengeluaran pangan rendah (<60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) dan cukup mengkonsumsi energi (>80% dari syarat kecukupan energi) b. rumah tangga rentan pangan (kp=3) yaitu bila proporsi pengeluaran pangan rendah (≥60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) dan cukup mengkonsumsi energi (>80% dari syarat kecukupan energi) c. rumah tangga kurang pangan (kp=2) yaitu bila proporsi pengeluaran pangan rendah (<60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) dan cukup mengkonsumsi energi (≤80% dari syarat kecukupan energi) d. rumah tangga rawan pangan (kp=1) yaitu bila proporsi pengeluaran pangan rendah (≥60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) dan cukup mengkonsumsi energi (≤80% dari syarat kecukupan energi. regresi ordinal logit merupakan salah satu metode statistika untuk menganalisis variabel respon yang mempunyai skala ordinal yang terdiri atas tiga atau lebih. dengan demikian hubungan antara kategori memiliki sifat berjenjang, maka estimasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga dilakukan dengan model ordered logistic regression . jika dilihat dari klasifikasi di atas keadaan yang diharapkan dari kp 4 yaitu lebih tinggi atau lebih baik dari kp 3, selanjutnya kp 3 lebih baik dari kp 2, kp 2 lebih baik dari kp 1. dengan demikian dari ke empat kategori tersebut dapat dikatakan memiliki sifat berjenjang karena kp 4> kp 3> kp 2> kp 1. dengan demikian hubungan antara kategori memiliki sifat berjenjang, maka estimasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga dilakukan dengan model ordered logistic regression . fungsi logistic logit secara umum sebagai beriktu: pi = e(y=1|xi) = 1 1+e-(βi+ β2xi) di dalam model ordinal logit kategori kp = 4 didefinisikan sebagai nilai (jenjang) terbaik, kp = 3 sebagai jenjang berikutnya dan seterusnya. maka persamaan yang dapat ditulis sebagai berikut: p(y=1) = 1 1+exp (𝑍𝑖−𝐾1) p(y=2) = 1 1+exp (𝑍𝑖−𝐾2) 1 1+exp (𝑍𝑖−𝐾1) p(y=3) = 1 1+exp (𝑍𝑖−𝐾3) 1 1+exp (𝑍𝑖−𝐾2) p(y=4) = 1 1 1+exp (𝑍𝑖−𝐾3) keterangan: 155 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 y = ketahanan pangan (kp) zi = persamaan hasil estimasi logistik βk = koefisien regresi 1=1, ...,k ki = titik potong ke-i = 1,..., i xki = variabel indipenden k = jumlah kategori dalam penelitian ini tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga sebagai variabel dependen. diduga faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga (kp) adalah pendapatan rumah tangga (pdrt), jumlah anggota rumah tangga (jart), umur kepala rumah tangga (ukrt), tingkat pendidikan kepala rumah tangga (tpkrt), tingkat pendidikan ibu rumah tangga (tpirt), harga beras (hp), harga telur (ht), harga tempe dan tahu (htt), kontribusi beras produksi sendiri bagi beras rumah tangga (kbpsbbrt), dummy status desa (dsd). berdasarkan model tersebut dengan mengasumsikan 4 kategori (kp = 4) sebagai basis pilihan, faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi probabilitas untuk kategori (kp) sebagai berikut: kp = βo + β1 hb + β2 ht + β3 htt + β4 pdrt + β5 ukrt + β6 tpirt + β7 tpkrt + β8 jart + β9 kbpsbbrt + d dsd + ε hasil dan pembahasan rata-rata jumlah anggota keluarga yang dimiliki tiap rumah tangga adalah 2 orang dengan kepala rumah tangga yang berusia 59 tahun. mata pencaharian kepala rumah tangga sebagian besar adalah petani dan buruh bangunan. pendidikan kepala keluarga rata-rata memiliki pendidikan sma dan rata-rata luas lahan yang dimiliki rumah tangga sebesar 2.358 m2. rata-rata pendapatan rumah tangga sebesar rp. 28.995.313 per tahun, pendapatan tersebut terdiri dari pendapatan on farm sebesar 61,10%, off farm 1,04%, dan non farm 37,85% (analisis data primer, 2019). ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani berdasarkan pangsa pengeluaran pangan (ppp) pengeluaran rumah tangga tani terdiri dari pengeluaran pangan dan pengeluaran non pangan. pangsa pengeluaran pangan dapat diartikan dengan perbandingan antara pengeluaran tunai untuk membeli pangan rumah tangga tani dengan pengeluaran rumah tangga total. hubungan tingkat ketahanan pangan dengan pangsa pengeluaran pangan yaitu berbanding terbalik, dimana semakin besar pengeluaran rumah tangga tani maka tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga semakin ke tingkat kategori rawan pangan. sebaliknya jika pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga tani rendah maka tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga pada tingkat kategori tahan pangan. tabel 1. distribusi rumah tangga tani berdasarkan pangsa pengeluaran pangan (ppp) no. kategori pangsa pengeluaran pangan persentase (%) 1 rendah (<60% pengeluaran total) 76 2 tinggi (≥60% pengeluaran total) 24 total 100 sumber : analisis data primer, 2019 pengeluaran rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan memiliki pangsa yang rendah. pangsa pengeluaran pangan yang sendah dapat diartikan bahwa alokasi pengeluaran untuk mencukupi kebutuhan pangan lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan pengalokasian pengeluaran untuk non pangan. penelitian yang dilakukan di daerah marginal kabupaten bojonegoro menghasilkan pangsa pengeluaran pangan sebesar 87% menunjukkan pangsa pengeluaran pangan < 60% dari pengeluaran total (mulyo et al., 2015). pada tabel 2 dapat menunjukkan berdasarkan ppp rumah tangga tani masuk pada kategori tahan pangan. tabel 2. rerata pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan per tahun jenis pengeluaran desa lumbung pangan desa bukan lumbung pangan nilai (rp) persentase (%) nilai (rp) persentase (%) beras 1.080.600 18,28 1.310.426 17,04 lauk pauk 1.835.544 31,05 2.034.640 26,45 sayur dan bumbu 1.250.680 21,16 1.489.320 19,36 minuman gula, teh, kopi 648.040 10,96 711.240 9,25 rokok 1.096.625 18,55 2.145.333 27,89 total 5.911.489 100 7.690.959 100 sumber: analisis data primer, 2019 156 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga tani terbesar yaitu membeli lauk-pauk sebesar 18,288% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 17,04% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. hampir seluruh lauk pauk yang dikonsumsi oleh rumah tangga tani didapatkan dengan cara membeli, baik membeli makanan jadi maupun bahan pangan mentah. pengeluaran pangan terbesar kedua yaitu rokok sebesar 18,55% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 27,89% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. rokok hanya dikonsumsi oleh kepala keluarga dan tidak memberikan sumbangan nutrisi atau gizi pada kebutuhan pangan. pengeluaran rokok harus menjadi perhatian karena pengeluaran rokok dapat ditekan dan dialokasikan ke kebutuhan pangan yang lain guna pemenuhan serapan energi 2.150 kkl/kap/hari. pengeluaran pangan yang cukup besar yaitu sayur dan bumbu dengan persentase 21,16% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 19,36% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. selain lauk-pauk, sayur merupakan pelengkap ketika makan. sayur sebagian besar didapatkan dengan cara membeli dan menanam sendiri. sayuran banyak ditanam oleh petani untuk dikonsumsi sendiri maupun dijual. pengeluaran untuk membeli bumbu cukup besar karena hampir 100% didapatkan dari membeli. bumbu sangat dibutuhkan oleh petani karena bumbu merupakan bahan perasa yang penting guna menambah cita rasa pada masakan. pengeluaran pangan beras sangat sedikit yaitu sebesar 18,28% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 17,04% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. hal ini karena di kecamatan seyegan rata-rata mengkonsumsi beras yang ditanam sendiri. selain pengeluaran pangan masyarakat mengalokasikan pengeluarannya untuk non pangan. pengeluaran non pangan terbesar yaitu pada kegiatan sosial sebesar 33,64% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 30,27% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. hal ini dapat menunjukkan bahwa rumah tangga tani mengeluarkan banyak uang untuk kegiatan sosial misalnya kondangan, sumbangan orang meninggal, sumbangan lahiran bayi dan khitanan. umumnya jika yang mengadakan hajatan kerabat dekat maka pengeluaran uang lebih banyak dari pada tetangganya. pengeluaran non pangan terbesar kedua yaitu alokasi untuk pendidikan yaitu sebesar 16,18% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 10,59% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. meskipun masyarakatnya tinggal di desa dan sebagian besar bekerja sebagai petani akan tetapi pendidikan sudah menjadi prioritas. tabel 3. rerata pengeluaran non pangan rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan per tahun jenis pengeluaran desa lumbung pangan desa bukan lumbung pangan nilai (rp) persentase (%) nilai (rp) persentase (%) bensin, bbm 789.264 10,03 1.038.204 10,54 listrik 687.235 8,73 1.185.551 12,04 gas/ minyak tanah 527.040 6,70 710.640 7,22 pbb 38.878 0,49 61.014 0,62 pajak kendaraan 269.972 3,43 444.625 4,51 komunikasi (pulsa dan internet) 334.080 4,24 311.020 3,16 biaya pendidikan 1.273.200 16,18 1.042.800 10,59 mck (sabun mandi, sampo, pasta gigi , dll. 601.200 7,64 701.600 7,12 pakaian 280.952 3,57 919.828 9,34 kesehatan 421.277 5,35 451.714 4,59 kegiatan sosial 2.647.200 33,64 2.980.800 30,27 total 7.870.298 100 9.847.797 100 sumber : analisis data primer, 2019 hal ini dapat dibuktikan banyak anggota keluarga memiliki pendidikan hingga sma dan perguruan tinggi. pengeluaran non pangan yang terbesar ketiga yaitu listrik sebesar 8,73% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 12,04% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. bbm sebesar 10,03% di desa lumbung pangan, sedangkan sebesar 10,54% di desa bukan lumbung pangan. kebutuhan masyarakat terhadap energi masih besar terutama untuk mobilitas anggota keluarga rumah tangga tani. pengeluaran bbm juga digunakan untuk usahatani dan luar usahatani. pada usahatani digunakan untuk pergi ke sawah, menyedot air di sawah jika musim kering. untuk di luar usahatani anggota keluarga menggunakan motor untuk pergi ke kota, sekolah, berdagang. jika jarak tempuh suatu tempat semakin jauh maka bensin yang dibutukan akan semakin banyak sehingga rumah tangga tani memiliki pengeluaran lebih besar. tabel 4. rerata pengeluaran rumah tangga tani kategori pengeluaran desa lumbung pangan (%) desa bukan lumbung pangan (%) pangan 46,06 43,88 non pangan 53,94 56,12 total 100,00 100,00 sumber: analisis data primer, 2019 rata-rata pengeluaran pangan dan non pangan rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan lebih banyak dialokasikan untuk non pangan. tabel 4 157 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 tersebut dapat menunjukkan bahwa secara umum pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga tani desa lumbung pangan sedesar 46,06% sedangkan pengeluaran non pangan sebesar 53,94%. pengeluaran pangan rumah tangga tani desa lumbung pangan sebesar 43,88% sedangkan non pangan sebesar 56,12%. pada pengeluaran pangan yang kurang dari 60% menunjukkan bahwa rumah tangga tani tersebut pada kategori tahan pangan jika menurut perhitungan menggunakan pangsa pengeluaran pangan (ppp). hasil penelitian ini sesuai dengan penelitian yang dilakukan di daerah marginal kabupaten bojonegoro bahwa pengeluaran pangan sebesar 44% dan pengeluaran non pangannya 56% (mulyo et al., 2015). ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani berdasarkan angka kecukupan energi (ake) dalam beraktivitas sehari-hari setiap orang membutuhkan energi yang dapat diukur dengan angka kecukupan energi (ake). ake merupakan nilai yang dapat menunjukkan serapan energi setiap individu dari makanan yang dikonsumsi dan ake diukur dalam satuan kilo kalori per kapita per hari. rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan dengan pengukuran ake dapat mencerminkan tahan pangan, jika konsumsinya telah memenuhi kebutuhan energi sebesar 80% dari angka tetapan serapan energi sebesar 2.150 kkal/kap/hari. dibawah ini hasil analisis distribusi rumah tangga tani bersadarkan serapaan energi. tabel 5. distribusi rumah tangga tani berdasarkan ake no. kategori angkakecukupan energi persentase (%) 1 kurang (≤80% kecukupan energi) 32 2 cukup(>80% kecukupan energi) 68 total 100 sumber: analisis data primer, 2019 dari tabel 5 diatas dapat dilihat bahwa distribusi angka kecukupan energi rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan lebih banyak diatas 80% dari ake sebesar 2.150 kkl/kap/hari. hal ini dapat diartikan bahwa 70% masyarakat dari golongan rumah tangga tani yang serapan energinya cukup atau lebih dari 80% yang artinya tingkat ketahanan pangan masuk dalam kategori tahan pangan. penelitian ini sesuai teori menurut johnson dan toole (1991) yang menyatakan rumah tangga tahan pangan jika kebutuhan energinya >80% dari syarat kecukupan energi. hal ini berbeda dengan penelitian yang dilakukan di daerah marginal di kabupaten bojonegoro menghasilkan angka kecukupan energi masih kurang dari 80% dari kecukupan energi (mulyo et al., 2015). rata-rata serapan energi pada kategori kurang sebesar 1602 kkl/kap/hari, sedangkan pada kategori cukup sebesar 2012% kkl/kap/hari. ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani ketahanan pangan tingkat rumah tangga tercermin dari tingkat tinggi rendahnya status gizi anggota keluarga. menurut (suryana, 2003) ketahanan pangan tingkat rumah tangga dapat artikan (1) kemampuan rumah tangga untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pangan anggota rumah tangga dalam jumlah, mutu, dan ragam sesuai budaya setempat; (2) kemampuan rumah tangga untuk memenuhi kecukupan pangan anggotanya dari produksi sendiri dan atau membeli untuk hidup sehat; (3) kemampuan rumah tangga untuk menuhi kecukupan pangan anggotanya dari waktu ke waktu. untuk mengetahui ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan menggunkan kombinasi silang antara pangsa pengeluaran pangan dan angka kecukupan energi menurut johnson dan toole (1991). kategori dari tingkat ketahanan pangan dibagi menjadi empat antara lain tahan pangan, rentan pangan, kurang pangan, dan rawan pangan. hasil dari kombinsi antara ppp dan ake yang diperoleh dari jumlah rumah tangga tani pada setiap kategori dan dinyatakan dalam persentase. tabel 6. hasil kombinasi silang tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani desa lumbung pangan (%) desa bukan lumbung pangan (%) tahan pangan ( ake >80% dari syarat kecukupan energi dan ppp<60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) 58 56 rentan pangan ( ake >80% dari syarat kecukupan energi dan ppp≥60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) 16 10 kurang pangan ( ake ≤ 80% dari syarat kecukupan energi dan ppp<60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) 18 12 rawan pangan ( ake ≤80% dari syarat kecukupan energi dan ppp≥60% dari pengeluaran rumah tangga) 8 22 sumber: analisis data primer, 2019 158 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research distribusi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan paling banyak pada kategori tahan pangan. artinya rumah tangga tani memiliki pangsa pengeluaran pangan yang rendah dan serapan energi cukup. pangsa pengeluaran yang rendah artinya rumah tangga tani sudah dapat mencukupi kebutuhan pangan dengan baik, sehingga setiap rumah tangga tani mulai mengalokasikan pengeluarannya untuk kebutuhan non pangan.. penelitian ini sejalan dengan penelitian yang dilakukan di kecamatan pojong menyatakan bahwa ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani lebih banyak pada kategori tahan pangan dan rentan pangan rahmi et al. (2013). dapat dilihat dari tabel 6 bahwa tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga kecamatan seyegan sudah banyak yang tahan pangan dan paling sedikit pada kategori rawan pangan. dari tabel 3 alokasi biaya pendidikan sudah mulai menjadi prioritas sehingga akan berpengaruh dengan pengetahuan tentang makanan yang bergizi dan berkualitas untuk dikonsumsi. setiap keluarga akan memperhatikan makan yang berkualitas dan kandungan gizi yang cukup untuk memenuhi serapan energinya, semakin setiap rumah tangga mencukupi serapan energinya maka masuk kedalam kategori tahan pangan. dengan pendidikan yang tinggi maka akan memberikan dampak untuk memilih, mengolah makanan yang dibutuhkan oleh tubuh. terpenuhinya asupan energi yang cukup akan menggeser ketahanan pangan setiap rumah tangga dari rawan pangan menjadi tahan pangan. faktor – faktor yang mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani pada penelitian ini dianalisis menggunakan metode model logit ordered (regresi logistic ordinal). variabel-bariabel yang digunakan dalam penelitan ini yaitu pendapatan rumah tangga, umur kepala rumah tangga, tingkat pendidikan kepala rumah tangga, tingkat pendidikan kepala rumah tangga, jumlah anggota rumah tangga, kontribusi beras produksi sendiri bagi beras rumah tangga, harga beras, harga telur, harga tempe tahu dan dummy status. tabel 7. hasil pengujian ordinal logit variabel exp. sig koefisien se p>(z) harga beras (hb) 0,00006 0,00006 0,322 harga telur (ht) 0,00002 0,00004 0,532 harga tempe dan tahu (hpp) -0,00045 0,00024 0,064*** pendapatan rumah tangga (pdrt) + 1,54e-07 2,63e-08 0,000* usia kepala rumah tangga (ukrt) _ 0,02577 0,03508 0,463 tingkat pendidikan ibu rumah tangga (tpirt) + 0,12000 0,12156 0,324 tingkat pendidikan kepala rumah tangga (tpkrt) + 0,02278 0,12355 0,854 jumlah anggota rumah tangga (jart) -0,97051 0,34427 0,005*** kontribusi beras produksi sendiri bagi beras rumah tangga (kbpsbbrt) + 0,01519 0,01479 0,304 dummy status desa (dsd) + 2,82596 1,52984 0,065*** sumber: analisis data primer, 2019 keterangan: *signifikan pada α 1% **signifikan pada α 5% ***signifikan pada α 10% dari tabel 7 dapat dilihat bahwa terdapat tiga variabel yang berpengaruh secara signifikan (p-value < α) yaitu variabel harga tempe dan tahu (hpp), jumlah anggota rumah tangga (jart), pendapatan rumah tangga (pdrt), dummy status desa (dsd). sedangkan variabel tingkat pendidikan kepala rumah tangga (tpkrt), usia kepala rumah tangga (ukrt), tingkat pendidikan ibu rumah tangga (tpirt), harga beras (hp), harga telur (ht), kontribusi beras produksi sendiri bagi beras rumah tangga (kbpsbbrt) tidak signifikan. harga tempe dan tahu berpengaruh terhadap ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan. harga tempe dan tahu memiliki pengaruh negatif yang artinya bahwa setiap kenaikan harga tempe dan tahu akan menurunkan peluang rumah tangga tani tahan pangan. penelitian yang dilakukan di kecamatan pojong memiliki hasil bahwa harga tempe berpengaruh terhadap ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani dengan tingkat kepercayaan 95% rahmi et al. (2013). hal tersebut dapat terjadi karena jika harga tempe dan tahu meningkat maka pangsa pengeluaran pangan juga akan meningkat, sehingga mengindikasikan tingkat ketahanan pangan semakin menurun. rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan hampir setiap hari mengkonsumsi tempe dan tahu 159 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 sehingga jika harga tempe dan tahu naik akan mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. pendapatan rumah tangga berpengaruh positif terhadap peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan. jika pendapatan semakin meningkat maka rumah tangga tani akan tahan pangan. hasil penelitian ini sejalan dengan penelitian yang dilakukan di timbulharjo, sewon menyatakan bahwa pendapatan mempunyai pengaruh positif terhadap peluang rumah tangga tani untuk tahan pangan dengan anggapan variabel lainnya konstan damayanti & khoirudin (2016). hal ini dapat terjadi karena peningkatan pendapatan rumah tangga maka menyebabkan semakin turun pangsa pengeluaran pangan, sehingga ketahanan pangan semakin meningkat. penelitian yang dilakukan di nepal bahwa pendapatan mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga, jika suatu rumah tangga memiliki pendapatan yang tinggi maka ketahanan rumah tangga dalam keadaan tahan pangan (maharjan & joshi, 2011). semakin meningkatnya pendapatan maka penggunaan pendapatan tidak seluruhnya untuk pengeluaran pangan tetapi juga untuk non pangan. suatu rumah tangga tani dikatakan tahan pangan jika persentase pengeluaran non pangan lebih besar dari pada persentase pengeluaran pangan. jumlah anggota rumah tangga berpengaruh negatif terhadap peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani kecamatan seyegan. jika jumlah anggota rumah tangga tani bertambah maka akan merunkn peluang rumah tangga tani tahan pangan. hasil penelitan ini sesuai dengan penelitian yang dilakukan di rumah tangga tani miskin di gunungkidul bahwa jumlah anggota keluarga berpengaruh negatif terhadap ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani sukarniati (2018). hal tersebut dapat terjadi jika jumlah anggota rumah tangga semakin banyak maka pengeluaran pangan juga semakin banyak, sehingga akan menyebabkan rumah tangga tani tidak tahan pangan. penelitian lain dilakukan di desa rawan pangan kabupaten oku selatan bahwa jumlah anggota rumah tangga memiliki hubungan yang negatif dengan ketahanan pangan hernanda, indriani, & kalsum (2017). hal ini karena semakin banyak anggota keluarga akan meningkatkan pangsa pengeluaran pangan, sehingga akan menurunkan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. dummy status desa berpengaruh positif terhadap peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. desa lumbung pangan memiliki peluang lebih tinggi untuk meningkatkan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani dibandingkan dengan desa bukan lumbung pangan. pada model regresi ordinal logistik yang digunkan untuk interpretasi koefisien yaitu odds ratio. berikut merupakan nilai dari odds ratio dari variabel harga tempe tahu, pendapatan rumah tangga, dan jumlah anggota rumah tangga. tabel 8. nilai odds ratio masing-masing variabel variabel koefisien z odds ratio harga tempe dan tahu (htt) -0,00046 -1,85 0,99954 pendapatan rumah tangga (pdrt) 1,54e-07 5,84 1 jumlah anggota rumah tangga (jart) -0,97052 -2,82 0,37888 dummy status desa (dsd) 2,82596 1,85 16,8771 sumber: analisis data primer, 2019 variabel harga tempe tahu setiap kenaikan 1 satuan harga tempe dan tahu akan mengakibatkan penurunan perbandingan probabilitas ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani sebesar 0,9999543 kali. jika dilihat dari data hampir semua rumah tangga tani di kecamatan seyegan sehari-hari mengkonsumsi tahu dan tempe digunakan lauk pauk. hal ini berarti bahwa apabila harga tempe dan tahu naik maka semakin banyak alokasi pengeluaran untuk konsumsi, sehingga akan menurunkan tingkat ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. variabel pendapatan setiap keniakan 1 satuan pendapatan rumah tangga menyebabkan peningkatan perbandingan probabilitas ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani sebesar 1 kali. hal tersebut disebabkan dengan adanya peningkatan pendapatan akan meningkatkan daya beli rumah tangga tani. peningkatan pendapatan rumah tangga akan menjadi akses rumah tangga untuk memperoleh pangan lebih mudah, serta berakibat pada rumah tangga tahan pangan. hasil penelitian ini sejalan dengan penelitian yang dilakukan di negeria bahwa pendapatan rumah tangga berpengaruh positif dan memiliki sigifikansi 10% (abu, 2016). semakin besar pendapatan rumah 160 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tangga, maka semakin tinggi probabilitas ketahanan pangan rumah tangga menjadi tahan pangan. diharapkan dengan meningkatnya pendapatan akan meningkatkan akses pangan. variabel jumlah anggota rumah tangga setiap penambahan 1 orang anggota rumah tangga akan menyebabkan penurunan perbandingan probabilitas ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani sebesar 0,378887 kali. bertambahnya jumlah anggota rumah tangga akan meningkatkan jumlah konsumsi pangan rumah tangga, sehingga alokasi pengeluaran pangan juga akan bertambah. penelitian ini sesuai dengan penelitian yang dilakukan di desa rawan pangan bahwa jumlah anggota rumah tangga memiliki hubungan yang negatif dengan ketahanan pangan hernanda, indriani, & kalsum (2017). dummy status desa memiliki odds ratio 16,87714 dengan koefisien positif. artinya nilai odds ratio sebesar 16,87714 menunjukkan bahwa rumah tangga di desa lumbung pangan memiliki peluang untuk tahan pangan sebesar 16,87714 kali. desa lumbung pangan memiliki peluang untuk terjadinya tahan pangan lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan desa bukan lumbung pangan. adanya program desa lumbung pangan akan membantu petani dalam meningkatkan kesediaan pangan dan meningkatkan modal untuk usahatani, sehingga dapat membantu meningkatkan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. kesimpulan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani desa lumbung pangan dalam keadaan tahan pangan 58%, rentan pangan 8%, kurang pangan 9% dan rawan pangan 4%, sedangkan desa bukan lumbung pangan dalam keadaan tahan pangan 56%, rentan pangan 5%, kurang pangan 6% dan rawan pangan 11%. peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani tahan pangan di desa lumbung pangan lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan desa bukan lumbung pangan. hasil analisis menggunakan metode ordinal logit bahwa harga tempe dan tahu, pendapatan rumah tangga, jumlah anggota rumah tangga dan dummy status desa mempengaruhi peluang ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani. upaya untuk meningkatkan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga tani perlu meningkatkan pendapatan dengan dengan menambah keragaman tanaman yang memiliki nilai jual tinggi dan menciptakan inovasi teknologi pertanian. selain itu perlu pengendalian tingkat kelahiran dengan mengikuti program keluarga berencana (kb). daftar pustaka abdullah, zhou, d., shah, t., ali, s., ahmad, w., din, i. u., & ilyas, a. (2019). factors affecting household food security in rural northern hinterland of pakistan. journal of the saudi society of agricultural sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2017.05.003 abraham, r., lubis, d. i., indrawan, m., komputer, i., pertanian, t. i., & pertanian, t. (2013). visa masuk kota : alternatif kebijakan kaum urban untuk mengatasi. (november 2011). abu, g. a. (2016). analysis of factors affecting food security in rural and urban farming households of benue state, nigeria. international journal of food and agricultural economics, 4(1), 55–68. adewumi, m., omotesho, o., & fadimula, k. (2010). food security and poverty of the rural households in kwara state, nigeria. libyan agriculture research center journal international. alkire, s., foster, j. e., seth, s., santos, m. e., roche, j. m., & ballon, p. 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(2016). analisis faktor faktor yang mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumah tangga petani (studi kasus : desa timbulharjo, sewon, bantul). jurnal ekonomi & studi 161 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 pembangunan, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.18196/jesp.17.2.3735 hanani, n. (2012). e-journal ekonomi pertanian. strategi pencapaian ketahanan pangan keluarga, 1(1). hernanda, e. n. p., indriani, y., & kalsum, u. (2017). jiia, volume 5 no. 3, agustus 2017. pendapatan dan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga petani padi di, 5(3), 304–311. ilham, n., & bonar, d. a n. (2007). penggunaan pangsa pengeluaran pangan sebagai indikator komposit ketahanan pangan. soca (socio-economic of agriculturre and agribusiness), 7(3), 1–22. lindawati, l., & saptanto, s. (2016). analisis tingkat kemiskinan dan ketahanan pangan berdasarkan tingkat pengeluaran konsumsi pada rumah tangga pembudidaya ikan (studi kasus di desa sumur gintung, kabupaten subang, jawa barat). jurnal sosial ekonomi kelautan dan perikanan, 9(2), 195. https://doi.org/10.15578/jsekp.v9i2.1221 maharjan, k. l., & joshi, n. p. (2011). determinants of household food security in nepal: a binary logistic regression analysis. journal of mountain science, 8(3), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-011-2001-2 maleha, & susanto, a. (2006). maleha.pdf. kajian konsep ketahanan pangan, 13, 194–202. maxwell, d., levin, c., armar-klemesu, m., ruel, m., morris, s., & ahiadeke, c. (2000). urban livelihoods and food and nutrition security in greater accra, ghana. in research report of the international food policy research institute. mulyo, j. h., sugiyarto, & widada, a. w. (2015). households’ food security and food self sufficiency in the rural marginal area of bojonegoro regency. agro ekonomi, 26(2), 121–128. nuryitmawan, t. r. (2016). studi komparasi kemiskinan di indonesia: multidimensional poverty dan monetary poverty. jurnal ilmu ekonomi terapan, 1(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.20473/jiet.v1i1.1847 omonona, b. t., & agoi, g. a. (2007). an analysis of food security situation among nigerian urban households: evidence from lagos state, nigeria. journal of central european agriculture, 8(3), 397–406. https://doi.org/10.5513/jcea.v8i3.477 pratiwi, r. (2016). kenongorejo kecamatan bringin kabupaten ngawi rosiana pratiwi abstrak. iv(1), 1–6. profil uptd bp4 wilayah iii. (2019). rahmi, r. d., suratiyah, k., & mulyo, j. h. (2013). ketahanan pangan rumah tangga petani di kecamatan ponjong kabupaten gunungkidul. agro ekonomi, 24, 190–201. ras, a. (2013). pemberdayaan masyarakat sebagai upaya pengentasan kemiskinan. socius, xiv(oktober-desember), 56–63. salinem, h. p., ariani, m., marisa, y., purwantini, t. b., & lokollo, e. m. (2001). analisis ketahanan pangan tingkat rumah tangga dan regional. pusat penelitian dan pengembangan sosian ekonomi pertanian. bogor: badan litbang departemen pertanian. sudrajat, a. s., & sinaga, t. (2016). analisis biaya makan terhadap ketersediaan makanan serta tingkat kecukupan gizi santri di pondok pesantren darul arqam garut. gizi indonesia journal of the indonesian nutrition association, 2(2), 115–124. sukarniati, w. l. (2018). food security analysis of poor household. jurnal analisis bisnis ekonomi, 16. suryana, a. (2003). kapita selekta evolusi pemikirankebijakan ketahanan pangan. yogyakarta: bpfe. suryana, a. (2014). toward sustainable indonesian food security 2025: challenges and its responses. 123–135. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.2 juli 2017 nur rahmawati, triyono program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta rahma_wati_mf@umy.ac.id keberanian dalam mengambil keputusan dan risiko oleh petani padi organik di kabupaten bantul h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3253 abstract entrepreneurship on organic farming is often faced with high risks. this study aims to determine the courage of farmer in decision making and risk taking on organic rice farming and to know the factors that influence it. the research was conducted by survey method. data were collected through interviews to 116 organic rice farmers in bantul regency, then analyzed descriptively and regression analysis. the results showed that the courage of farmers in decision making and risk taking on the organic rice farming is strong enough. age, training, market orientation and cooperation network have a positive effect on the courage of farmer in decision making; while government support has a negative effect. meanwhile, the courage of farmer in risk taking on organic rice farming is influenced by market orientation. keywords: decision making, entrepreneurship, organic rice farming, risk taking. intisari kewirausahaan pada pertanian organik sering dihadapkan pada risiko usahatani yang tinggi. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui keberanian petani dalam mengambil keputusan dan mengambil risiko usahatani padi organik serta mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya. penelitian dilakukan dengan metode survei. data dikumpulkan melalui wawancara kepada 116 petani padi organik di kabupaten bantul, kemudian dianalisis secara deskriptif dan analisis regresi. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa secara umum keberanian petani dalam mengambil keputusan dan mengambil risiko pada kewirausahaan usahatani padi organik sudah cukup kuat. umur, pelatihan, orientasi pasar dan jaringan kerjasama berpengaruh positif terhadap keberanian petani dalam pengambilan keputusan; sedangkan dukungan pemerintah berpengaruh negatif. sementara itu, keberanian pengambilan risiko usahatani padi organik dipengaruhi orientasi pasar. kata kunci: kewirausahaan, mengambil keputusan, mengambil risiko, usahatani padi organik. pendahuluan indonesia merupakan negara agraris yang sebagian besar penduduknya bekerja di sektor pertanian. namun demikian, sebagian besar petani indonesia masih dalam kategori miskin dengan tingkat pendapatan yang rendah. rendahnya pendapatan petani disebabkan oleh skala usahatani yang kecil, bahkan sebagian besar termasuk dalam skala usahatani rumah tangga yang masih bersifat subsisten, dengan pengelolaan usahatani sederhana. hal demikian akan berdampak pada rendahnya kuantitas dan kualitas produksi yang dihasilkan. peningkatan produktivitas dan kualitas produk pertanian antara lain dilakukan melalui pengembangan pertanian organik. sistem pertanian organik merupakan suatu sistem pertanian holistik yang bertujuan meningkatkan kesehatan agroekosistem termasuk keanekaragaman hayati, siklus biologi, dan mailto:rahma_wati_mf@umy.ac.id 129 vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 aktivitas biologi tanah untuk mengoptimalkan produksi tanaman (budiasa, 2014). oleh karena itu produk pangan organik selayaknya dihasilkan dari suatu sistem pertanian yang mempertahankan kesehatan tanah, ekosistem dan manusia (usda, 2010). di samping itu, secara finansial produk organik memiliki nilai jual yang lebih tinggi dibanding produk dari pertanian konvensional (stone & francis, 2008; hidayat & lesmana, 2011). di indonesia, penerapan metode bertani secara organik mulai dikenal pada pertengahan tahun 1980-an yang sebagian besar dipelopori oleh perseorangan dan lembaga non pemerintah (sulaeman, 2006). walaupun pemerintah telah mencanangkan berbagai kebijakan dalam pengembangan per tania n orga nik yaitu ‘go organi c 2010’, na mun perkembangan pertanian organik di indonesia masih sangat lambat. luas areal pertanian organik di indonesia dari tahun 2007-2010 mengalami peningkatan, namun pada tahun 2011 kembali mengalami penurunan (tabel 1). kondisi demikian secara umum terjadi di berbagai wilayah, termasuk di daerah istimewa yogyakarta yang dikenal sebagai wilayah dengan masyarakat petani yang responsif terhadap pembaharuan. pada tahun 2009, baru sebanyak 3% dari total 58.000 hektar sawah di daerah istimewa yogyakarta dikelola dengan menerapkan sistem organik. tabel 1. perkembangan luas areal pertanian organik di indonesia no tahun luas (ha) 1. 2007 40.970 2. 2008 208.535 3. 2009 214.985 4. 2010 238.872 5. 2011 225.063 sumber: spoi, 2011 di daerah istimewa yogyakarta, kabupaten bantul dikenal sebagai wilayah dengan perkembangan pertanian organik relatif lebih baik. dari 16.000 hektar lahan padi, sudah 5% lahan dikelola dengan menerapkan sistem organik, bahkan produk yang dihasilkan beberapa sentra sudah tersertifikasi organik (http://www.trubus-online.co.id). namun demikian, jika dilihat dari luasnya lahan sawah yang diusahakan untuk tanaman padi, baru sebagian kecil potensi dikembangkan untuk menangkap peluang pasar padi organik yang masih cukup terbuka. hal ini disebabkan secara umum kemampuan kewirausahaan petani masih rendah, baik dalam kemampuan pemasaran maupun minat dan motivasi dalam mengembangkan pertanian organik. pemanfaatan potensi sumberdaya alam pertanian, dalam hal ini lahan, sangat tergantung pada potensi sumberdaya manusia, khususnya petani. selama ini peran petani sebagai pelaku utama yang memiliki kemampuan kreativitas dan daya cipta kurang dioptimalkan. keberhasilan petani mencapai kinerja usahatani yang tinggi tidak hanya ditentukan oleh kegiatan teknik budidaya semata, tetapi juga ditentukan oleh kemampuan manajerial petani baik sikap, pengetahuan dan ketrampilan yang diaktualisasikan dalam menjalankan usahataninya, mulai dari persiapan tanam sampai pemasaran produk yang dihasilkan. petani berperan sebagai manajer, juru tani dan manusia biasa yang hidup dalam masyarakat (mosher, 1991). sebagai manajer, petani akan berhadapan dengan berbagai alternatif pilihan dalam mengambil keputusan yang harus dipilih untuk diusahakan termasuk keputusan pilihan teknologi dan alokasi sumberdaya usahataninya. keberanian dalam mengambil keputusan, merupakan pola pikir kewirausahaan yang akan terbentuk melalui interaksi dalam keluarga. keberanian dalam mengambil keputusan akan tumbuh dengan baik, ketika petani mendapat dukungan dari lingkungan keluarga (hisrich, peters, & shepherd, 2005). keberanian dalam mengambil keputusan dan risiko merupakan bagian dari ciri kewirausahaan. karakter kewirausahaan merupakan ciri yang melekat pada diri wirausahawan itu sendiri, antara lain motivasi, inovasi dan kreativitas, serta keberanian dalam mengambil keputusan dan mengambil risiko. salah satu ciri watak wirausaha adalah kemampuan mengambil risiko dan suka pada tantangan (meredith, nelson, & neck, 1995). orang yang memiliki karakter kewirausahaan digambarkan sebagai orang yang mempunyai naluri (semangat, jiwa, nalar, intuisi, dan kompetensi) untuk berbisnis, pengambil resiko, berani memutuskan dengan cepat dan benar (heflin, 2011); mempunyai ambisi dan motivasi yang kuat (hendro, 2011); memiliki kemampuan mengambil resiko yang wajar dan suka tantangan, keorisinilan inovatif dan kreatif, serta fleksibel (abidin, 2007). inovasi, pengambilan risiko, dan proaktif membentuk kontribusi unik terhadap karakter kewirausahaan (lumpkin & dess, 2001). inovatif, kebutuhan berprestasi, berani mengambil risiko dan percaya diri merupakan beberapa karakter kewirausahaan (koh, 1996). kewirausahaan petani merupakan salah satu faktor yang sangat penting dalam menentukan keberhasilan usaha yang berori enta si pa sar (saragi h, 1996). kelompok yang berorientasi bisnis diharapkan mampu menumbuhkan dan mengembangkan petani inovator dan motivator yang berjiwa wirausaha (hartono, 2003). semakin tinggi karakter http://www.trubus-online.co.id). 130 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research kewirausahaan, maka semakin besar kemungkinan seorang individu berkeinginan untuk menjadi pengusaha. jiwa kewirausahaan petani perlu ditumbuhkan menghadapi tekanan lingkungan pasar yang tidak kondusif (wibowo, 2005). penguatan inovasi, keberanian mengambil risiko, kepemimpinan, motivasi berwirausaha, kekompakan, serta kebijaka n pemerintah dap at meningkatkan perilaku kewirausahaan (nursiah, kusnadi, & burhanuddin, 2015). keberanian dalam pengambilan keputusan merupakan hal kritis dalam tahap pengembangan usaha. persiapan bagi keputusan yang efektif untuk waktu yang akan datang seharusnya didasarkan pada antisipasi terhadap perubahan lingkungan (papalova & andrea, 2016). namun demikian hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa para manajer tidak mengetahui faktor lingkungan yang harus dipahami, diuji dan diperkirakan. penggabungan tiga pendekatan, yaitu faktor kepribadian (kebutuhan akan prestasi dan efikasi diri); faktor lingkungan (seperti akses terhadap modal, informasi dan jaringan sosial); dan faktor demografis (jender, umur, latar belakang pendidikan dan pengalaman bekerja) sebagai faktor penentu semangat kewirausahaan (indarti, 2004). umur dan gender wirausahawan signifikan mempengaruhi kinerja bisnis (ainin, kamarulzaman, farinda, & azmi, 2010), kemauan seseorang memulai suatu usaha baru, setelah sebelumnya mengalami kegagalan, tergantung pada kemampuannya bela jar dari p engalama n (minniti & naude, 2010). pendidika n berdampak posi tif terhadap kinerja dan berkontribusi terhadap pertumbuhan usaha (mat & razak, 2011). bantuan finansial atau aksesibilitas kredit merupakan faktor lingkungan yang paling penting dalam aktivitas wirausaha (mat & razak, 2011). bagi wirausaha kesenjangan akses terhadap pelatihan dan konsultasi merupakan alasan utama yang selalu digunakan untuk menjelaskan kinerja mereka yang rendah (roomi & harrison, 2008). skala usaha menjadi salah satu faktor penting bagi proses organisasi dan kinerja (baum, locke, & smith, 2001). kurangnya jaringan merupakan hal yang banyak ditemukan sebagai permasalahan dalam kewirausahan (itani, hanifa, sidani, & imad, 2009). sementara itu, beberapa kasus kebijakan pengembangan kelompok (cluster development policies) di indonesia belum berjalan dengan sukses karena terbatasnya dukungan dari pemerintah lokal dan organisasi lainnya (tambunan, 2005). kajian terkait dengan keberanian dalam pengambilan keputusan dan risiko di bidang usaha pertanian, usahatani padi organik, masih belum banyak mendapat perhatian. studi ini mengkaji keberanian petani dalam mengambil keputusan dan mengambil risiko usaha, dan menganalisis faktor yang menentukannya. melalui informasi yang disajikan, berbagai pihak yang mempunyai perhatian terhadap pengembangan pertanian organik dapat mengambil langkah strategis untuk memperkuat karakter kewirausahaan, khususnya keberanian dalam mengambil keputusan dan mengambil risiko usaha. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan dengan metode survei pada petani padi organik di sentra pengembangan padi organik di kabupaten bantul, yang meliputi kecamatan bambanglipuro, kecamatan pandak, kecamatan imogiri, kecamatan pundong dan kecamatan srandakan. dari lima kecamatan terdapat enam desa yang memiliki kelompok tani masih aktif dalam pengembangan usahatani padi organik. dari masing-masing kelompok tani diambil 20 sampel petani secara acak. namun, dari 120 petani yang dijadikan responden, hanya 116 responden yang datanya lengkap untuk dianalisis. penelitian ini menggunakan sejumlah variabel gabungan, yakni: keberanian mengambil keputusan, keberanian mengambil resiko, akses mendapatkan kredit, pelatihan, orientasi pemasaran, jaringan kerjasama, dan dukungan pemerintah yang diukur dengan skor pada (lampiran 1). karakteristik kewirausahaan, yang dilihat dari keberanian mengambil keputusan dan keberanian menanggung risiko dianalisis secara deskriptif, dengan kriteria sebagai berikut. tabel 2. kriteria dan kisaran skor keberanian mengambil keputusan dan risiko no skor rata-rata kriteria 1 1,00 2,33 lemah 2 2,34 3,67 cukup kuat 3 3,68 5,00 kuat pengaruh faktor individu dan lingkungan usaha terhadap keberanian mengambil keputusan dan keberanian mengambil risiko dianalisis menggunakan regresi linier. variabel terikat dalam penelitian ini merupakan data ordinal (skor), sehingga dalam regresi linier digunakan skor normal. model regresi linier dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut. ∗ = 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ⋯ + 9 9 adalah skor normal pengambilan keputusan/skor nor-mal keberanian mengambil risiko, adalah akses mendapatkan kredit (skor), adalah pelatihan (skor), adalah orientasi pemasaran (skor), adalah jaringan kerjasama (skor), adalah dukungan pemerintah (skor), adalah 131 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 umur (tahun), adalah pendidikan (tahun), adalah tanggungan keluarga (orang), adalah pengalaman (tahun). hasil dan pembahasan keberanian mengambil keputusan salah satu karakter kewirausahaan petani padi organik adalah keberanian mengambilan keputusan. keberanian petani dalam mengambil keputusan merupakan akumulasi dari dukungan pribadi dan dukungan orang di sekitarnya, yaitu istri, keluarga, petani lain dan ketua kelompok. semakin besar dukungan pribadi dan dukungan lingkungan, maka keberanian petani dalam mengambil risiko semakin kuat; sebaliknya dalam kondisi kurangnya dukungan pribadi dan lingkungan, maka keberanian mengambil keputusan semakin lemah. keberanian petani padi organik dalam mengambil keputusan termasuk dalam kategori cukup kuat, dengan ratarata skor sebesar 3,36 dari kisaran skor 1-5 (tabel 3). namun jika dicermati setiap indikator, untuk indikator dukungan pribadi, istri dan keluarga termasuk dalam kategori sangat kuat; sedangkan dukungan petani lain dan kelompok termasuk dalam kategori lemah. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa keberanian petani organik dalam mengambil keputusan mendapat dukungan kuat dari istri dalam keluarga. mayoritas pengambilan keputusan adopsi inovasi dilakukan oleh suami atau istri (batoa, amri, & susanto, 2008). lemahnya dukungan dari lingkungan sosial (petani lain dan kelompok tani) menyebabkan usahatani padi organik kurang berkembang, yang diindikasikan dari lambatnya peningkatan luas lahan usahatani organik dari tahun ke tahun. berbagai studi mengungkapkan pentingnya peran kelompok tani dalam pengembangan usahatani padi organik mengingat fungsi kelompok sebagai agen perubahan, yang memudahkan petani yang tergabung dalam kelompok untuk mendapatkan akses informasi, teknologi dan dukungan kebijakan pemerintah (kustiyah, mustadjab, & anindita, 2009; nuryanti & swastika 2011; prihtanti 2013). dengan demikian penting untuk mendapat perhatian pemerintah untuk meningkatkan peran kelompok dalam pengembangan usahatani padi organik. ketika kelompok menjalankan fungsi fasilitasinya, baik dalam dalam pemasaran, pendampingan teknologi serta implementasi kebijakan, maka akan semakin kuat keberanian petani untuk mengambil keputusan mengusahakan padi organik. keberanian mengambil resiko keberanian petani dalam mengambil risiko usahatani padi organik diukur dari tiga indikator, yakni keberanian menanggung risiko, kesiapan menanggung risiko dan kesukaan untuk mencoba. secara keseluruhan keberanian petani dalam mengambil risiko termasuk dalam kategori kuat (tabel 4). namun, jika dilihat per indikator, skor kesukaan mencoba (3,19) jauh lebih rendah dari keberanian (4,05) dan kesiapan (4,11) petani menangung risiko. dalam arti lain, petani berani dan siap menanggung risiko yang harus dihadapi dalam mengusahakan padi organik, tetapi petani kurang suka untuk mencoba hal baru. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa keberanian dan kesiapan petani untuk mengambil tabel 3. skor keberanian petani padi organik dalam mengambil keputusan indikator skor rerata skor 1 2 3 4 5 dukungan pribadi jumlah (orang) 1 3 0 97 15 4,04 % 0,86 2,59 0 82,76 12,93 dukungan istri jumlah (orang) 1 0 3 76 36 4,26 % 0,86 0 2,59 65,52 31,03 dukungan keluarga jumlah (orang) 3 0 0 74 39 4,27 % 2,59 0 0 63,79 33,62 dukungan petani lain jumlah (orang) 16 77 13 8 2 2,15 % 13,79 66,38 11,21 8 1,72 dukungan ketua kelompok jumlah (orang) 16 81 12 7 0 2,08 % 13,79 69,93 10,34 6.03 0 skor keberanian mengambil keputusan 3,36 132 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research risiko belum didukung sikap kreatif dan inovatif petani dalam mengembangkan usahatani padi organik. gambaran k ondi si k arak teri st i k p ri badi dan lingkungan bisnis petani padi organik faktor yang mempengaruhi keberanian dalam mengambil keputusan dan keberanian menanggung risiko usahatani padi terdiri dari faktor individu petani dan faktor lingkungan bisnis. faktor individu terdiri faktor dari dalam diri petani padi organik yaitu umur petani, pengalaman berusahatani padi organik dan pendidikan petani. faktor lingkungan bisnis merupakan faktor di luar yang berpengaruh terhadap karakter kewirausahaan. faktor lingkungan bisnis terdiri dari akses untuk mendapatkan modal, syarat mendapatkan modal, frekuensi pelatihan, orientasi pasar, network/kerjasama dan dukungan pemerintah. umur. petani padi organik rata-rata berumur 55 tahun. lebih dari 75% petani berumur lebih dari 47 tahun, dengan komposisi umur yang terbanyak (52%) berkisar antara 47-60 tahun (tabel 5). artinya, petani organik termasuk dalam usia produktif. dalam kondisi ini, petani memiliki kekuatan fisik dan kematangan mental untuk mengelola usahatani secara kreatif dan inovatif. pengalaman. petani padi organik rata-rata sudah memiliki pengalaman dalam mengelola usahatani padi selama 15 tahun, tetapi sebagian besar (42%) memiliki pengalaman 810 tahun (tabel 5). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa petani yang mengelola usahatani organik memiliki pengalaman berusaha yang sudah cukup lama, sehingga kemampuannya dalam mengelola usahatani padi tidak diragukan lagi . tingkat pendidikan petani padi organik bervariasi mulai dari sd, smp dan sma, bahkan perguruan tinggi. sebagian besar petani (41,38 %) berpendidikan sma, bahkan sudah terdapat 2,59 % petani yang berpendidikan tinggi atau sarjana (tabel 5). kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa tingkat pendidikan petani sudah sangat baik, sehingga memudahkan petani dalam menerima transfer teknologi baru dalam rangka meningkatkan pendapatan petani. tabel 5. distribusi petani padi organik berdasarkan karakter pribadi no komponen jumlah (orang) persentase (%) 1 umur (tahun) 19-32 2 1,72 33-46 25 21,55 47-60 61 52,59 61-74 25 21,55 >74 3 2,59 2 pengalaman (tahun) 8-10 49 42,24 11-19 18 15,52 20-28 22 18,97 29-37 13 11,21 >37 14 12,07 3 pendidikan sd 40 34,48 smp 25 21,55 sma 48 41,38 pt (sarjana) 3 2,59 akses mendapatkan modal. berdasarkan hasil penelitian hanya 56 % petani yang memanfaatkan kredit atau pinjaman modal. akses untuk mendapatkan modal yang terdiri dari jarak (skor = 2,08) dan waktu tempuh (skor = 1,92) untuk mendapatkan modal usaha menunjukkan keadaan yang kurang terbuka. jarak yang harus ditempuh petani untuk mendapatkan kredit kurang lebih 2 km dengan waktu tempuh 15 menit. oleh karena itu, masih banyak petani organik (44%) yang belum memanfaatkan kredit. tabel 4. skor keberanian mengambil risiko indikator skor rerata skor 1 2 3 4 5 berani menanggung resiko jumlah (orang) 2 0 2 94 18 4,08 % 1,72 0 1,72 81,03 15,52 siap menanggung resiko jumlah (orang) 2 0 1 93 20 4,11 % 1,72 0 0,86 80,17 17,24 suka mencoba jumlah (orang) 12 30 7 53 13 3,19 % 10,34 25,86 6,03 45,69 11,21 rata-rata skor keberanian mengambil risiko 3,76 133 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 tabel 6. skor akses mendapatkan modal dari lingkungan bisnis indikator skor rerata skor 1 2 3 4 5 jarak mendapatkan kredit jumlah (orang) 30 66 8 5 7 2.08 % 25,86 56,90 6,90 4,31 6,03 waktu tempuh jumlah (orang) 43 55 6 8 4 1.92 % 37,07 47,41 5,17 6,90 3,45 tabel 7. skor frekuensi mengikuti pelatihan indikator skor rerata skor 1 2 3 4 5 pelatihan pertanian organik jumlah (orang) 23 33 44 3 13 3,21 % 19,8 28,45 37,9 2,59 11,21 pelatihan padi organik jumlah (orang) 21 41 12 37 5 2,69 % 18,1 35,3 10,3 31,9 4,3 pelatihan membuat pupuk organik jumlah (orang) 50 33 21 3 9 2,03 % 43,1 28,4 18,1 2,6 7,8 pelatihan membuat obat organik jumlah (orang) 32 43 29 8 4 2.22 % 27,59 37,07 25 6,90 3,45 keterangan: skor 1 (tidak ikut pelatihan), skor 2 (pelatihan 1-3 kali), skor 3 (pelatihan 4-6 kali), skor 4 (pelatihan 7-9 kali) dan skor 5(pelatihan >9 kali) tabel 8. skor orientasi pasar indikator skor rerata skor 1 2 3 4 5 ditebas di lahan jumlah (orang) 51 59 3 3 0 1.64 % 43,97 50,86 2,59 2,59 0 dijual bentuk gabah basah jumlah (orang) 33 64 3 15 1 2.03 % 28,45 55,17 2,59 12,93 0,86 dijual bentuk gabah kering jumlah (orang) 18 54 6 30 8 2.62 % 15,52 46,55 5,17 25,86 6,90 dijual bentuk beras jumlah (orang) 14 7 1 64 30 3.77 % 12,07 6,03 0,86 55,17 25,86 dijual bentuk benih jumlah (orang) 35 38 15 21 7 2.37 % 30,17 32,76 12,93 21 6,03 134 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research frekuensi mengikuti pelatihan. frekuensi pelatihan yang diikuti petani organik berkisar antara 1-10 kali untuk pelatihan tentang pertanian organik secara umum; dan berkisar 1-6 kali untuk pelatihan padi organik, membuat pupuk organik dan membuat pestisida organik. pelatihan pertanian organik paling sering diselenggarakan, sehingga petani pun lebih sering mengikuti pelatihan ini dibandingkan pelatihan yang lebih khusus. hal ini ditunjukkan dari skor frekuensi petani mengikuti pelatihan pertanian organik (3,21) yang jauh lebih tinggi dari skor frekuensi mengikuti pelatihan padi organik, pembuatan pupuk dan obat-obatan (tabel 7). petani organik mengikuti pelatihan dengan frekuensi ratarata sebanyak 4 kali untuk pertanian organik, 3 kali untuk pelatihan padi organik, dan masing-masing 2 kali untuk pelatihan pembuatan pupuk organik dan pestisida organik. orientasi pasar bagi petani padi organik sudah cukup baik, artinya petani sudah berani membuka terobosan baru dalam pemasaran, yaitu menjual padi dalam bentuk beras tabel 9. skor jaringan kerjasama indikator skor rerata skor 1 2 3 4 5 frek ketemu dengan penyedia input jumlah (orang) 50 17 24 7 18 2,36 % 43,10 14,66 20,69 6,03 15,52 frek pertemuan dengan kelompok tani jumlah (orang) 67 17 12 5 15 2,00 % 57,76 14,66 10,34 4,31 12,93 frek pertemuan dengan produsen jumlah (orang) 70 6 12 10 18 2,14 % 60,34 5,17 10,34 8,62 15,52 kedekatan emosional dengan kelompok tani jumlah (orang) 4 4 7 88 13 3,88 % 3,45 3,45 6,03 75,86 11,21 kehangatan dan komitmen terhadap kelompok tani jumlah (orang) 6 9 18 71 12 3,64 % 5,17 7,76 15,52 61,21 10,34 tabel 10. skor dukungan pemerintah indikator skor rerata skor 1 2 3 4 5 adanya bantuan modal jumlah (orang) 87 0 0 0 29 2.00 % 75 0 0 0 25 adanya pelatihan per tahun jumlah (orang) 100 8 2 2 4 1.29 % 86.21 6,9 1,72 1,72 3,45 adanya perbaikan irigasi jumlah (orang) 6 6 15 61 28 3.97 % 5,17 5,17 12,9 52,59 24,1 adanya perbaikan jalan jumlah (orang) 3 11 2 61 39 4.05 % 2,59 9,48 1,72 52,59 33,62 kemudahan akses pasar jumlah (orang) 11 30 10 28 37 3.43 % 9,48 25,86 8,62 24,14 31,90 kemudahan sarana transportasi jumlah (orang) 12 28 6 36 34 3.45 % 10,34 24,14 24,14 31,03 29,31 135 vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 sehingga harganya bisa lebih tinggi dibanding dijual dalam bentuk gabah kering atau basah apalagi ditebaskan di lahan. tabel 8 menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar petani tidak setuju (50,86%) bahkan sangat tidak setuju (43,97%) untuk memasarkan padi organik melalui sistem tebasan; tetapi setuju (55,17) bahkan sangat setuju (25,86%) untuk memasarkan dalam bentuk beras. jaringan kerjasama. indikator lingkungan bisnis yang lain adalah jaringan kerjasama bisnis. sebagian besar petani mempunyai intensitas pertemuan yang relatif rendah, yang ditunjukkan dari rendahnya skor frekuensi pertemuan antara petani dengan penyedia input (2,36); kelompok tani (2,00); dan dengan produsen (2,14) (tabel 9). walaupun frekuensi pertemuan antara petani dengan kelompok mendapat skor yang paling rendah, namun petani memiliki kedekatan emosional yang kuat dengan kelompok (skor 3,88); demikian juga dengan kehangatan dan komitmen terhadap kelompok (skor 3,64). duk ungan pemerint ah. adanya perbaik an jalan merupakan indikator dukungan pemerintah yang mendapat skor paling tinggi (4,05) diikuti dengan adanya perbaikan irigasi (3,97); sedangkan indikator adanya pelatihan (1,29) mendapat skor terendah diikuti indikator adanya bantuan modal (2,00) (tabel 10). artinya, dukungan pemerintah yang bersifat fisik, berupa prasarana irigasi, jalan dan pasar sudah banyak dirasakan petani. sementara dukungan finansial, berupa bantuan modal, hanya dirasakan 25% petani. demikian juga dengan dukungan peningkatan keterampil, 87% petani hanya menapat pelatihan satu kali dalam satu tahun. pengaruh faktor individu dan lingkungan usaha terhadap keberanian dalam mengambilan keputusan dan risiko keberanian dalam pengambilan keputusan dipengaruhi oleh kondisi individu petani dan lingkungan usaha. koefisien regresi hasil estimasi faktor yang mempengaruhi keberanian dalam pengambilan keputusan disajikan dalam tabel 11. kondisi individu petani yang berpengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan usahatani padi organik adalah umur petani (tabel 11). umur petani berpengaruh positif terhadap pengambilan keputusan usahatani padi organik. secara umum umur petani masih dalam kondisi produktif dengan rata-rata umur 55 tahun. hal ini berarti makin tua umur petani dalam masa usia produktif semakin berani mengambil keputusan usahatani padi organik. kondisi lingkungan usaha yang berpengaruh terhadap pengambilan keputusan usahatani padi organi adalah pelatihan, orientasi pasar, jaringan kerjasama dan dukungan pemerintah. pelatihan, orientasi pasar dan jaringan kerjasama berpengaruh nyata secara positif terhadap keberanian pengambilan keputusan. pelatihan memberikan bekal ketrampilan bagi petani sehingga akan mampu mengambil keputusan. hal ini sesuai dengan hasil penelitian bahwa pelatihan dan refleksi diri dapat meningkatkan kinerja manajerial termasuk dalam penyelesaian masalah untuk suskes dalam usahanya (donovan, guss, & naslund, 2015). tabel 11. koefisien regresi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan variabel koefisien t-hit sig konstanta -1,408 -1,475 0,143 umur 0,016 1,580** 0,117 pendidikan -0,036 -1,035 0,303 keluarga -0,083 -1,344 0,182 pengalaman -0,012 -1,225 0,223 akses kredit -0,038 -0,704 0,483 pelatihan 0,069 2,473** 0,015 orientasi pasar 0,073 2,754*** 0,007 jaringan kerjasama 0,057 1,848* 0,067 dukungan pemerintah -0,049 -1,772* 0,079 keterangan: *** signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan 1% ** signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan 5% * signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan 10% orientasi pasar yang jelas bagi petani membuat petani lebih berani dalam pengambilan keputusan. demikian juga jaringan kerjasama akan memperkuat keyakinan dalam pengambilan keputusan karena kepercayaan dari mitra usaha yang dijalin. sementara itu dukungan pemerintah berpengaruh sebaliknya, yakni berpengaruh negatif terhadap pengambilan keputusan usahatani padi organik. hal ini menunjukkan keberanian petani organik yang kuat seakan tidak memerlukan dukungan pemerintah. bagi wirausahawan dukungan pemerintah terkadang bisa menimbulkan kecurigaan, sehingga menurunkan keberanian dalam pengambilan keputusan. oleh karena itu perlu komunikasi dan peningkatan hubungan antara petani organik dengan pemerintah, agar petani dan pemerintah dapat saling mendukung program pengembangan pertanian. hal ini sesuai dengan hasil penelitian yang menyatakan bahwa dukungan pemerintah merupakan salah satu karakteristik sosial ekonomi yang berpengaruh terhadap penentu keputusan investasi oleh investor agribisnis di nigeria tenggara (nwibo & alinbo, 2013). pengambilan risiko merupakan suatu unsur kewirausahaan yang sangat penting bagi petani dalam menanggung risiko keuntungan atau kerugian. manajer akan selalu menghadapi dan sulit menghindari risiko yang semakin 136 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research meningkat dalam penentuan alternatif pilihan usahanya (naguchi &thomas, 2016). keberanian dalam pengambilan risiko dipengaruhi oleh lingkungan usaha dan kondisi individu petani. besarnya elastisitas keberanian pengambilan risiko karena pengaruh lingkungan usaha dan kondisi individu dapat dilihat dari koefisien estimasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keberanian pengambilan risiko disajikan dalam tabel 12. tabel 12. koefisien regresi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keberanian mengambil risiko variabel koefisien t-hit sig konstanta -0,990 -1,058 0,292 umur 0,007 0,698 0,486 pendidikan 0,032 0,937 0,351 keluarga -0,020 -0,327 0,744 pengalaman 0,003 0,298 0,766 akses kredit 0,009 0,164 0,870 pelatihan -0,006 -0,218 0,828 orintasi pasar 0,096 3,681*** 0,000 jaringan kerjasama -0,037 -1,234 0,220 dukungan pemerintah -0,019 -0,710 0,479 keterangan: *** signifikan pada tingkat kesalahan 1% keberanian pengambilan risiko hanya dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh lingkungan usaha, yaitu orientasi pasar. orientasi pasar merupakan kebiasaan petani yang paling efektif untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pelanggan selain itu mendapatkan harga padi organik yang terbaik sehingga bisa meningkatkan nilai tambah dibanding beras non organik. orientasi pasar berpengaruh nyata secara positif terhadap keberanian pengambilan risiko, keberanian dan kesiapan petani untuk mengambil risiko yang didukung sikap kreatif dan inovatif petani dapat mengatasi risiko baik risiko produksi maupun risiko harga. penjualan padi organik dalam bentuk beras curah atau dalam bentuk kemasan merupakan langkah yang berorientasi pasar dan lebih menjanjikan dalam meningkatkan karakter berwirausaha untuk mengembangkan usahatani padi organik dan meningkatkan pendapatan petani. kesimpulan hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa secara umum keberanian petani dalam mengambil keputusan dan risiko sebagai karakter kewirausahaan pada pengelolaan usahatani padi organik cukup kuat. namun, keberanian petani dalam m engam bi l keputusan kura ng m enda p at dukunga n kelompok, sehingga perkembangan usahatani padi organik tidak begitu pesat. keberanian petani dalam mengambil resiko tidak disertai dengan kesukaan petani dalam mencoba sesuatu yang baru. umur, pelatihan, orientasi pasar dan jaringan kerjasama berpengaruh positif terhadap keberanian petani dalam pengambilan keputusan; sedangkan dukungan pemerintah berpengaruh negatif. sementara itu, keberanian pengambilan risiko usahatani padi organik hanya dipengaruhi orientasi pasar. dalam rangka penguatan kewirausahaan petani padi organik maka pengembangan lingkungan usaha sangat diperlukan berupa pelatihan, kepastian pasar dan jaringan kerjasama dalam kelompok. dukungan pemerintah dapat dilakukan dengan membangun kepercayaan petani pada pemerintah melalui komunikasi dan pendampingan yang terarah secara intensif dan berkelanjutan. daftar pustaka abidin, m. 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(2005). state of the art ilmu ekonomi pertanian indonesia. jurnal agro ekonomi, edisi khusus tahun xxxv, oktober 2005. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 achmad fachruddin, lestari rahayu program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta fachru.dreamer@gmail.com evaluasi prasyarat keberhasilan sistem resi gudang di kabupaten bantul h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3250 abstract during 2011-2016, there was a decreasing trend of warehouse receipt sistem (wrs) transactions in bantul regency and the participants of the wrs came from a small part of the districts. this condition indicated that there was an unfulfilled prerequisites for success of the wrs. this study aims to identify the role of stakeholders in the implementation of wrs and evaluate the prerequisites for success of wrs in bantul regency. the research was conducted by indepth interviews to stakeholders of the wrs. data analysis was done using descriptive method. the result showed that stakeholders that have a big role in increasing warehouse receipts transactions were warehouse manager and department of trade. the increasing of production was a prerequisite that reinforces the existence of wrs in bantul regency. the success of the wrs were depends on two prerequisite of the commitment of local government and education and socialization to farmers. these findings indicate the need for the local governments to supports programs related to wrs and to intensify the dissemination of wrs to farmers in potential villages. keywords: large harvest, prerequisite evaluation, warehouse receipt system (wrs), wrs transaction. intisari dalam kurun waktu 2011-2016, transaksi sistem resi gudang (srg) di kabupaten bantul cenderung menurun dan peserta srg berasal dari sebagian kecil kecamatan. kondisi ini mengindikasikan ada prasyarat keberhasilan srg yang belum dipenuhi. penelitian ini bertujuan (i) mengidentifikasi peranan stakeholder dalam pelaksanaan srg dan (ii) mengevaluasi prasyarat keberhasilan sistem resi gudang di kabupaten bantul. pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui wawancara mendalam dengan stakeholder srg, selanjutnya data dianalisis secara deskriptif. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa stakeholder yang mempunyai peranan yang besar dalam peningkatan transaksi resi gudang adalah pengelola gudang dan dinas perdagangan. peningkatan produksi merupakan prasyarat yang menguatkan eksistensi srg di kabupaten bantul. keberhasilan srg bergantung pada komitmen pemerintah daerah dan edukasi & sosialisasi kepada pelaku usaha. temuan ini mengindikasikan perlunya pemerintah daerah mensinergikan program yang berkaitan dengan srg dan mengintensifkan sosialisasi srg kepada kelompok tani di beberapa desa yang potensial. kata kunci: panen raya, prasyarat keberhasilan, sistem resi gudang (srg), transaksi srg. pendahuluan sistem resi gudang (srg) dilatarbelakangi oleh adanya kondisi panen raya komoditas pertanian yang berimplikasi pada turunnya harga komoditas tersebut. mailto:fachru.dreamer@gmail.com 104 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sistem ini hadir sebagai solusi tunda jual yang memfasilitasi petani dalam m enyi mpan ha sil pert ania nnya untuk menunggu harga komoditas kembali stabil atau naik. melalui tunda jua l tersebut, p et a ni berkesemp a t an untuk mendapatkan selisih kenaikan harga jual yang selama ini dinikmati oleh para tengkulak/pedagang (suryani, erwidodo, & anugrah, 2014). selain itu, resi gudang dapat digunakan petani sebagai agunan untuk memperoleh kredit jangka pendek dari perbankan. motivasi untuk mendapatkan fasilitas kredit tersebut merupakan motivasi utama penerapan resi gudang oleh petani padi di cianjur (masithoh, 2016). oleh karena itu, srg menjadi alternatif pembiayaan selain kredit ketahanan pangan, kredit usaha rakyat, dan kredit penguatan modal usaha kelompok (rahayu, 2015). manfaat srg telah dibuktikan secara empiris di beberapa negara. di afrika, menilai bahwa penerapan srg dapat memberi kan sejumlah keuntungan berup a fasili ta si perdagangan, meningkatkan efisiensi pemasaran produk pertanian, memudahkan akses kepada lembaga pembiayaan pedesaan, mitigasi risiko harga, dan meningkatkan efektivitas biaya manajemen cadangan pangan publik (coulter & onumah, 2002). di indonesia, petani peserta srg di warungkondang cianjur memperoleh peningkatan harga gabah kering panen (gkp) antara rp 400 – rp 600/kg, sehingga pendapatannya meningkat sebesar rp 2,2 juta per hektar sawah (ashari, ariningsih, supriyatna, adawiyah, & suharyono, 2013). demikian pula penerapan srg di turki, petani gandum dan petani jagung dapat meningkatkan profitnya berturut-turut sebesar 2-18% dan 12% (zakiæ, kovaèeviæ, ivana, & miroviæ, 2014). meskipun perkembangan srg dalam tahun 2008-2010 cenderung positif, proporsi volume komoditas yang disimpan dibandingkan dengan hasil produksi nasional masih sangat kecil sekitar 0,003% (ashari, 2011). bahkan pada tahun 2015, terjadi penurunan nilai transaksi srg yang cukup besar yaitu 30,32% (tabel 1), padahal kementerian perdagangan menargetkan pertumbuhan sebesar 1,8%. penurunan yang drastis ini disebabkan oleh dua hal, yaitu: i) harga gabah di tingkat petani pada tahun 2015 cukup tinggi, sehingga petani tidak melakukan tunda jual melalui srg, dan ii) terhentinya operasionalisasi gudang srg di beberapa daerah karena keterba t asa n sd m p engelola guda ng (kem enteria n perdagangan, 2016). beberapa permasalahan dalam implementasi srg di beberapa wilayah di indonesia ditemukan oleh beberapa studi sebelumnya. peserta srg didominasi oleh kalangan pedagang (widiyani, 2014; suryani, erwidodo, & anugrah, 2014) dan terbatasnya gudang yang memenuhi persyaratan (suryani, erwidodo, & anugrah, 2014; sugiono 2014). selain itu, ada keterbatasan pemahaman tentang srg baik di tingkat petani maupun instansi pelaksana terkait (anugrah, erwidodo, & suryani, 2015; widiyani 2014). permasalahan lainnya yaitu terbatasnya dukungan dan keterlibatan pemerintah daerah (suryani, erwidodo, & anugrah, 2014). tabel 1. perkembangan nilai transaksi srg di indonesia tahun 20132015 tahun nilai (rp) pertumbuhan (%) 2013 108.948.556.100 2014 116.416.391.200 + 6,85 2015 81.135.514.490 -30,32 sumber: kementerian perdagangan, 2016 keberhasilan srg pada sebuah wilayah pada hakikatnya ditentukan oleh beberapa prasyarat. dengan memenuhi prasyarat tersebut, rencana dan target sebuah srg dapat berlangsung dengan baik. lima prasyarat keberhasilan srg antara lain: i) adanya komitmen pemerintah daerah, ii) terintegrasinya kelembagaan pada sebuah wilayah, iii) edukasi dan sosiasilisasi kepada pelaku usaha, iv) adanya peningkatan produksi, dan v) terdapat buyer (pasar lelang) untuk menjual komodi ta s ya ng di simp a n (b ali tba ng kem enteri a n perdagangan, 2014). dengan demikian, keberhasilan srg satu wilayah dengan wilayah lainnya dapat diperkirakan melalui identifikasi kelima faktor tersebut pada sebuah srg. tabel 2. perkembangan transaksi resi gudang di bantul tahun 20112016 tahun volume transaksi (ton) % terhadap kapasitas gudang daerah asal peserta 2011 86,75 6,20 kec. sanden, bambanglipuro, pleret, bantul 2012 207,77 14,84 semarang, kec. pandak 2013 3,00 0,21 kec. pandak 2014 20,00 1,42 kec. pandak 2015 2016* 19,65 1,40 kec. pandak sumber: pengelola gudang srg bantul, 2016 (diolah) keterangan: *: data sementara sampai september 2016 implementasi srg di kabupaten bantul menghadapi permasalahan yang hampir sama dengan permasalahan umum yang dihadapi srg di wilayah lain di indonesia. di samping terjadi kekosongan pengelola gudang pada tahun 2015, transaksi srg di kabupaten bantul masih jauh di bawah kapasitas gudang (tabel 2). selama tahun 2011-2016, volume gabah yang ditransaksikan sekitar 5% dari kapasitas gudang (kapasitas maksimum gudang 1.500 ton). selain itu, sebaran wilayah asal peserta srg belum merepresentasikan 105 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 sentra produksi padi di bantul. bahkan dalam tiga tahun terakhir, transaksi srg hanya melibatkan petani dari satu wilayah, yakni kecamatan pandak. dalam upaya memahami permasalahan implementasi srg di kabupaten bantul, diperlukan identifikasi lembaga yang berperan dalam implementasi srg dan evaluasi prasyarat keberhasilan yang seharusnya mendukung pelaksanaan srg. dengan demikian, strategi yang dapat dikembangkan untuk meningkatkan pelaksanaan srg dapat direkomendasikan. metode penelitian penelitian ini merupakan studi kasus implementasi srg di kabupaten bantul, yang transaksinya masih jauh di bawah kapasitas gudang dan cenderung mengalami penurunan. data primer diperoleh melalui wawancara mendalam dengan stakeholder srg, yakni: (i) pengelola gudang (kud tani harjo), (ii) dinas perdagangan, (iii) dinas pertanian, pangan, kelautan dan perikanan, (iv) dan penyuluh pertanian. sementara itu, data sekunder diperoleh dari stakeholder srg dan badan pusat statistik bantul berupa laporan pencatatan penerbitan resi gudang, dokumen perundang-undangan srg, laporan subbidang pemberdayaan distribusi dan konsumsi tahun anggaran 2015, bantul dalam angka 2013-2015. pendekatan prasyarat keberhasilan srg merujuk pada publikasi ilmiah badan penelitian dan pengembangan kementerian perdagangan tahun 2014. prasyarat keberhasilan meliputi: (i) komitmen pemerintah daerah, (ii) kelembagaan yang terintegrasi pada suatu wilayah, (iii) edukasi dan sosialisasi kepada pelaku petani, (iv) peningkatan produksi padi, (v) keberadaan buyer atas komoditas yang disimpan. setiap prasyarat keberhasilan dijelaskan sejumlah indikator (tabel 3) yang menjadi panduan dalam melakukan wawancara mendalam, selanjutnya dianalisis secara deskriptif. hasil dan pembahasan stakeholder pelaksanaan sistem resi gudang di kabupaten bantul stakeholder dalam pelaksanaan sistem resi gudang di kabupaten bantul terdiri dari: (i) pengelola gudang (kud tani harjo), (ii) dinas perdagangan, (iii) dinas pertanian pangan kelautan dan perikanan, (iv) penyuluh pertanian, dan (v) stakeholder lainnya (lembaga penilaiaan kesesuaian-bulog dan lembaga perbankan-bank bri). berikut peranan masingmasing lembaga dalam pelaksanaan srg di kabupaten bantul. pengelola gudang sejak 23 desember 2016, gudang srg di kabupaten bantul dikelola secara penuh oleh koperasi unit desa (kud) tani harjo. pengelola gudang berperan dalam penyimpanan dan pemeliharaan komoditas yang disimpan, penerbitan resi gudang, dan pemeliharaan aset gudang. selain peran utama tersebut, pengelola gudang berperan melakukan promosi untuk meningkatkan transaksi resi gudang. dalam penerbitan resi gudang, pengelola gudang berkoordinasi dengan berbagai pihak (petani/kelompok tani, lembaga uji kesesuaian, lembaga penjamin, dan pusat registrasi) sebagaimana dirinci pada gambar 1. waktu yang diperlukan untuk seluruh alur penerbitan resi gudang sekitar 4-9 hari, tergantung kecepatan dari lembaga uji kesesuaian dan lembaga penjamin. komunikasi antara pengelola gudang dan pusat registrasi didukung oleh sistem informasi resi tabel 3. indikator prasyarat keberhasilan sistem resi gudang prasyarat keberhasilan indikator dukungan pemerintah daerah 1. surat keputusan bupati untuk pengembangan sistem resi gudang 2. dokumen roadmap / rencana pengembangan srg 3. pencapaian target 4. alokasi apbd untuk pelaksanaan srg dan subisidi 5. kejelasan tugas pokok dan fungsi instansi yang terlibat dalam srg 6. koordinasi dan sinergisitas antar instansi terkait keberadaan pasar lelang 1. keberadaan pasar lelang 2. frekuensi pengadaan di pasar lelang 3. keterlibatan masyarakat dalam pasar lelang edukasi dan sosialisasi kepada petani 1. jumlah sdm penyuluh untuk srg 2. frekuensi sosialisasi 3. pemetaan sasaran tingkatan organisasi kelompok tani (utama, madya, lanjut) 4. tools penyuluhan peningkatan produksi 1. perkembangan produksi padi per kecamatan 2. perkembangan luas panen padi per kecamatan 3. perkembangan produktivitas padi per kecamatan 4. perkembangan harga gabah kering panen (gkp) per kecamatan kelembagaan yang terintegrasi pada suatu wilayah 1. jarak lokasi antar lembaga yang terlibat dalam pelaksanaan srg 2. jarak lahan petani potensial dengan gudang 106 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research gudang pusat registrasi (is-ware). sistem informasi tersebut mencatat seluruh transaksi resi gudang meliputi pengalihan, pembebanan hak jaminan, dan penyelesaian transaksi. promosi dilakukan oleh pengelola gudang dengan membuat demplot padi pada luasan lahan 1 ha, bekerja sama dengan kelompok tani di dusun tegalayan, desa caturharjo (tahun 2016) dan pemerintah desa gilangharjo (tahun 2017). produksi padi dari demplot tersebut direkomendasikan oleh pengelola gudang untuk diresigudangkan. selain kegiatan promosi tersebut, pengelola gudang mempercayakan pada penyuluh pertanian atau sosialisasi yang diadakan oleh dinas perdagangan dalam mempromosikan resi gudang kepada petani. tabel 4. transaksi resi gudang tahun 2016-2017 tahun kuantitas (ton) proporsi peserta (%) petani poktan koperasi 2016 19,6 21,1 0 78,9 2017* 6,7 100,0 0 0 ket: *angka sementara sampai agustus 2017 meskipun upaya promosi sudah dilakukan, capaian transaksi resi gudang pada tahun 2016-2017 masih rendah. kapasitas maksimum gudang srg sebanyak 1.500 ton dan ditargetkan terisi 500 ton per tahun, sedangkan transaksi srg tahun 2016-2017* belum mencapai 50 ton (tabel 4). dilihat dari proporsi peserta, belum ada kelompok tani yang terlibat dalam transaksi resi gudang. selain itu, transaksi pada periode tersebut berasal dari kecamatan yang sama. untuk meningkatkan minat petani/kelompok tani terhadap srg, pengelola gudang bekerja sama dengan pihak ketiga (badan usaha pt) dalam mengaktifkan mesin penggiling (rice milling unit/rmu) kapasitas 2-3 ton per jam. selain rmu, gudang srg menyediakan berbagai fasilitas pendukung antara lain: dryer, lantai jemur, truk pengangkut, dan lain-lain. melalui pengaktifan rmu, petani/kelompok tani yang bertransaksi srg mendapatkan beberapa manfaat. pertama, jika gabah yang akan disimpan tidak memenuhi syarat uji kesesuaian, gabah dapat langsung digiling di gudang srg. kedua, jika gabah sudah selesai disimpan, petani tidak perlu mengeluarkan biaya transportasi ke tempat penggilingan. bagi pengelola gudang, pengaktifan rmu dapat menjadi unit bisnis dengan aktivitas: jasa penggilingan atau produksi beras kemasan (dengan membeli gabah petani). berdasarkan surat keputusan kepala bappebti nomor 51/ bappebti/kep-srg/sp/gd/12/2016, gudang srg bantul tergolong ke dalam klasifikasi a. artinya, kondisi gudang srg bantul lebih baik dari kondisi gudang yang disebutkan pada beberapa studi kasus srg di wilayah lain. sugiono (2014) menyebutkan bahwa gudang srg di gambar 1. alur penerbitan resi gudang 107 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 kecamatan perak kabupaten jombang tidak sesuai dengan spesifikasi. suryani, erwidodo, & anugrah (2014) juga menyebutkan bahwa kondisi pergudangan di subang dan indramayu secara umum kurang memadai. gudang merupakan infrastruktur srg, srg dapat berfungsi memberikan jaminan kepada bank dan pembeli komoditas ketika gudang memiliki lisensi yang reliable (jovièiæ, jeremiæ, miliæeviæ, & zeremski, 2014). dinas perdagangan lembaga negara yang berwenang melakukan pembinaan, pengaturan, dan pengawasan pelaksanaan sistem resi gudang yaitu badan pengawas perdagangan berjangka komoditi (bappebti). gudang yang akan dijadikan sebagai gudang srg dan pengelola gudang srg harus mendapatkan persetujuan dari bappebti (dan sebelumnya direkomendasikan oleh dinas perdagangan setempat). selanjutnya, dinas perdagangan menjadi perpanjangan tangan bappebti dalam pengawasan kinerja pengelola gudang srg. sejak srg beroperasi pada tahun 2011, target dinas perdagangan kabupaten bantul1 adalah memunculkan pengelola gudang serta menjamin keberadaan stakeholder srg & kelancaran transaksi resi gudang. selama kurun waktu 2011-2014, calon pengelola gudang srg kabupaten bantul yaitu kud tani mulyo dengan didampingi pt pertani dalam penerbitan resi gudangnya. penunjukan kud tani mulyo dijustifikasi oleh keputusan bupati bantul nomor 182 tahun 2010. namun, di akhir tahun 2014, kud tani mulyo mundur untuk menjadi pengelola gudang srg. selanjutnya, dinas perdagangan mengadakan lelang pengelolaan gudang srg dan kud tani harjo terpilih sebagai calon pengelola gudang. kud tani harjo disetujui oleh bappebti sebagai pengelola gudang pada desember 2016 melalui surat keputusan kepala bappebti nomor 49/bappebti/kepsrg/sp/gd/12/2016. terkait stakeholder yang mendukung kelancaran transaksi antara lain: bulog pajangan, bank rakyat indonesia, dan bank pembangunan daerah (bpd) diy. selain fungsi pengawasan kepada pengelola gudang srg, dinas perdagangan juga mengadakan sosialisasi penyuluhan srg kepada ketua/koordinator gabungan kelompok tani (gapoktan), koperasi unit desa (kud), dan atau pelaksana penyuluh lapang (ppl) se-kabupaten bantul. sosialisasi tersebut biasanya dilakukan 1-2 kali setahun di gudang srg atau di kantor dinas perdagangan. materi sosialisasi meliputi: latar belakang srg, manfaat srg, proses mendapatkan resi gudang, syarat-syarat komoditi, dan subsidi srg. berdasarkan peranan-peranan tersebut, pemerintah daerah kabupaten bantul telah memberikan dukungan dalam pengembangan srg. hal ini menunjukkan kondisi yang lebih baik jika dibandingkan studi kasus srg di kabupaten subang (suryani, erwidodo, & anugrah, 2014). studi kasus tersebut menyebutkan bahwa peran pemerintah daerah baru sebatas sosialisasi dan kurang merespon usulan kelancaran srg dari gapoktan atau pengelola gudang. dinas pertanian & penyuluh meskipun sistem resi gudang di bawah pengawasan dinas perdagangan, dinas pertanian juga memiliki peranan penting, sebab peserta resi gudang adalah petani atau kelompok tani. maka dari itu, dinas pertanian kabupaten bantul2 termasuk dalam tim asistensi pengelolaan gudang sistem resi gudang yang dibentuk oleh bupati bantul melalui surat keputusan nomor 58a tahun 2010. dengan tergabungnya badan ketahanan pangan dan pelaksana penyuluhan (bkp3) dalam dinas pertanian, terdapat tiga bidang3 dalam dinas pertanian yang terkait dengan eksistensi srg: bidang tanaman pangan, bidang penyuluhan, dan bidang ketahanan pangan. pertama, bidang tanaman pangan saat ini sedang berusaha meningkatkan luas tambah tanam (ltt) untuk mencapai swasembada beras. dengan adanya ltt, lahan dapat ditanami padi kembali satu minggu setelah panen. peningkatan ltt didukung dengan perbaikan teknik budidaya, pengendalian opt, termasuk perbaikan irigasi. kedua, bidang penyuluhan memegang peranan utama dalam penyampaian informasi kepada petani. bidang ini setiap awal bulan mempertemukan koordinator balai penyuluhan pertanian di setiap kecamatan dengan seluruh bidang yang ada di dinas pertanian, untuk penyamaan arus informasi ke petani. khusus untuk sistem resi gudang, bidang penyuluhan mengalokasikan dua penyuluh untuk menjadi penyuluh resi gudang. keduanya merupakan penyuluh yang aktif mengikuti pelatihan srg yang diadakan oleh bappebti tahun 2010, 2012, dan 2014. ketiga, bidang ketahanan pangan mempunyai keterkaitan dengan srg karena komoditi srg merupakan komoditas pangan: gabah, beras dan jagung. bidang ini mempunyai peranan penting dalam pengawasan distribusi, konsumsi, dan stabilitas harga pangan. sebagai upaya menstabilkan harga gabah di sentra-sentra produksi, bidang ketahanan pangan melaksanakan program lembaga distribusi pangan masyarakat (ldpm). di kabupaten bantul, ldpm dikembangkan sejak tahun 2009, dua tahun sebelum srg beroperasi. meskipun akhir tahun 2015, program ldpm dimoratorium oleh pemerintah pusat, ldpm yang dibangun sejak tahun 2009 sampai 2015 masih eksis sampai saat ini. 108 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research stakeholder lainnya stakeholder lainnya yang mendukung kelancaran transaksi resi gudang antara lain: bulog pajangan untuk pengujian kesesuaian barang yang disimpan; bank rakyat indonesia (bri) untuk pengajuan kredit dengan agunan resi gudang; dan b ank pem ba ngunan d a erah (bpd ) diy untuk pelaksanaan pasar lelang. dalam pengujian gabah/beras, bulog pajangan menggunakan standar nasional indonesia: sni 01-0224-1987 untuk gabah (tabel 5) dan sni 01-6128-1999 untuk beras. selama ini, sebagian besar gabah yang disimpan berhasil memenuhi ketentuan sni. namun, ketentuan sni yang terkadang tidak dipenuhi pada komoditi gabah petani yaitu kadar air gabah lebih dari 14% dan gabah hampa berkisar 4-5%. tabel 5. standar mutu gabah jenis uji syarat maksimal kadar air 14% gabah hampa 3% butir rusak + kuning 7% butir mengapur + gabah muda 10% butir merah 4% benda asing 1% benda varietas lain 10% dalam pengajuan kredit dengan agunan srg ke bri, petani mendapatkan subsidi biaya bunga, sehingga hanya membayar sebesar 6% per tahun atau 0,5% per bulan. besarnya kredit yang diberikan oleh bank bri sebesar 70% dari nilai resi gudang atau maksimum rp 75 juta. dalam menentukan nilai resi gudang, pihak bri mengkonfirmasi pengelola gudang tentang besaran harga jual komoditi, karena resi gudang tidak mencantumkan nilai nominal komoditas yang disimpan. harga jual komoditi biasanya ditentukan berdasarkan tingkat harga yang terjadi di pasar. sejak 2016, terdapat dua resi gudang yang diagunkan ke bri. hal ini sejalan dengan listiani & haryotejo (2013) bahwa resi gudang belum digunakan sebagai agunan oleh semua perbankan. dari pengalaman pengajuan, petani menemukan dua kesulitan dalam mengakses kredit. pertama, pihak bank mensyaratkan npwp (nomor pokok wajib pajak). kedua, pihak bank tidak akan memberikan kredit jika petani sedang menerima kredit bersubsidi lain seperti kredit usaha rakyat (kur). sementara itu, pasar lelang yang diadakan oleh bpd diy sampai saat ini belum dimanfaatkan oleh peserta resi gudang. hal ini disebabkan peserta resi gudang telah memperoleh pembeli atas komoditi yang disimpan tanpa harus menjual melalui pasar lelang. pasar lelang dilaksanakan sebanyak enam kali dalam setahun di gedung pusat bpd diy. prasyarat keberhasilan sistem resi gudang dukungan pemerintah daerah. dukungan pemerintah daerah dimanifestasikan dengan kinerja dinas perdagangan dan dinas pertanian dalam mendukung srg. sebagaimana yang telah disebutkan bahwa dinas perdagangan berperan dalam memunculkan pengelola gudang dan menjamin kelancaran transaksi. dinas perdagangan juga mengadakan sosialisasi srg kepada ketua/koordinator gapoktan dan kud se-kabupaten bantul. namun, sosialisasi tersebut belum ditindaklanjuti sampai tingkatan yang lebih rendah, yaitu kecamatan dan desa. sela ma 2012-2014, p emerinta h daera h juga telah memberikan subsidi biaya penyimpanan di gudang srg berdasarkan peraturan bupati bantul nomor 59 tahun 2012. untuk komoditas gabah, besaran subsidi yang diberikan rp 75/kg per 3 bulan. artinya, subsidi pemerintah dapat menutupi seluruh biaya penyimpanan (tabel 6), atau dengan kata lain petani/poktan/gapoktan/koperasi mendapatkan biaya penyimpanan secara gratis. sejak 2016, subsidi biaya penyimpanan sudah tidak ada. jika petani menyimpan gabah sebanyak 3 ton selama 3 bulan, biaya penyimpanannya sebesar rp 345.000,-. tabel 6. biaya penyimpanan komoditi di gudang srg* lama penyimpanan 2011-2014 2016-2017 gabah/beras/ jagung gabah beras jagung 1 bulan (rp/kg) 45 85 90 90 2 bulan (rp/kg) 60 100 105 105 3 bulan (rp/kg) 75 115 120 120 keterangan: *belum termasuk biaya bongkar/muat dan biaya kantor fungsi peningkatan produksi padi telah dilakukan dengan baik oleh dinas pertanian, tetapi fungsi penyuluhan srg belum dilakukan secara optimal. dari 17 balai penyuluhan pertanian (bpp) di kabupaten bantul, hanya dua bpp yang memiliki penyuluh yang telah mendapatkan pelatihan srg: yaitu bpp kecamatan bantul dan bpp kecamatan sewon. selain itu, terdapat program dinas pertanian yang mempunyai latar belakang masalah yang sama dengan srg yaitu lembaga distribusi pangan masyarakat (ldpm). ldpm bertujuan menstabilisasi harga padi, jagung, kedelai dan ubi kayu serta peningkatan cadangan masyarakat (bkp3 kab. bantul, 2015). agar harga jual gabah tidak jatuh pada saat panen raya, ldpm menstabilisasi harga dengan membeli harga petani dengan harga pembelian pemerintah4 atau di atasnya. untuk dapat membeli gabah petani, ldpm diberikan dana 80 juta rupiah dari apbn bantuan sosial. sasaran ldpm adalah gapoktan di desa sentra produksi padi 109 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 (tabel 7). sampai tahun 2015, sebanyak 14 ldpm tersebar di 9 kecamatan sentra produksi padi di kabupaten bantul. tabel 7. kecamatan dan desa penerima program ldpm di kabupaten bantul no. kecamatan desa (tahun penumbuhan) ldpm 1 kretek donotirto (2009) 1 2 bambanglipuro sidomulyo & sumbermulyo (2009) 2 3 pandak wijirejo (2009), triharjo (2011) 2 4 bantul bantul (2009) 1 5 sewon pendowoharjo (2009), bangunharjo (2011) 2 6 jetis sumberagung (2011), canden (2013), patalan (2015) 3 7 imogiri karangtalun (2012) 1 8 piyungan srimilyo (2012) 1 9 sedayu argomulyo (2013) 1 jumlah 14 sumber: bkp3 kab. bantul 2015 sinergisitas srg dan ldpm merupakan hal yang harus dipenuhi untuk keberhasilan srg ke depan. sebab, kedua program ini mempunyai latar belakang yang sama, yakni keduanya hadir untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan petani ketika harga jual gabah jatuh. ketika harga jual gabah jatuh saat panen raya, srg menawarkan gudang untuk menunggu harga jual meningkat & resi gudang dapat dijadikan agunan, sedangkan ldpm menawarkan harga jual yang fair kepada petani secara langsung. selain itu, sasaran ldpm yaitu sentra produksi padi yang merupakan wilayah berpeluang panen raya atau musim panen serentak. keberadaan buyer/pasar lelang. prasyarat keberadaan pembeli atas komoditas yang disimpan sangat mudah terpenuhi tanpa adanya pasar lelang. sebab, komoditas gabah atau beras merupakan pangan utama masyarakat indonesia. seluruh peserta srg kab. bantul belum ada yang menjual resi gudangnya melalui pasar lelang yang diadakan oleh bank bpd diy. edukasi dan sosialisasi kepada petani. sampai saat ini, pola sosialisasi yang digunakan oleh stakeholder srg hanya ke ketua gapoktan di tingkat kabupaten. sosialisasi belum dilakukan di balai-balai penyuluhan di tingkat kecamatan atau desa. hal ini berimplikasi pada informasi srg yang belum sampai secara utuh kepada petani, baik secara individu maupun kelompok tani. oleh karena itu, pemerintah daerah perlu mengalokasikan anggaran untuk sosialisasi yang lebih intensif ke kecamatan atau desa potensial. kondisi penguasaan lahan yang sempit secara individu, mengharuskan pola sosialisasi dan tindak lanjut yang intens kepada kelompok tani. bahkan, pengelompokkan organisasi petani (utama, madya, lanjut) belum dijadikan pertimbangan yang penting dalam perumusan strategi sosialisasi. selain itu, jumlah sdm penyuluh untuk srg masih sangat minim. kondisi ini sejalan dengan studi kasus widiyani (2014) yang menemukan minimnya sosialisasi srg kepada petani. hal inilah yang menyebabkan rendahnya pengetahuan petani terhadap srg serta berimplikasi terhadap rendahnya pemanfaatan srg oleh petani. padahal, wijaya (2016) menilai bahwa srg masih menjadi alternatif strategi bagi petani dalam meningkatkan kesejahteraan petani. peningkatan produksi. srg dapat berjalan dengan baik, jika produksi komoditas pada wilayah tertentu mengalami peningkatan. peningkatan produksi yang sampai pada taraf berlebihanakan berimplikasi pada turunnya harga jual, sehingga srg diperlukan sebagai sarana tunda jual. produksi padi pada tahun 2011-2016 terbagi menjadi dua periode, yaitu 2011-2013 yang dicirikan dengan produksi yang meningkat dan 2014-2016 yang produksi fluktuatif (tabel 8). selama 2011-2016, luas panen fluktuatif dan produktivitas cenderung menurun. turunnya produktivitas disebabkan sebagian wilayah mengalami gagal panen. wilayah produsen padi di bantul hampir merata. sentra produksi padi diindikasikan oleh kondisi irigasi yang baik sepanjang tahun, seperti kecamatan jetis, banguntapan, sewon, piyungan, bantul, pandak, bambanglipuro, dan lainlain (gambar 2). wilayah-wilayah yang mempunyai topografi pegunungan seperti pajangan dan dlingo umumnya hanya tabel 8. luas panen, produktivitas, dan produksi komoditas padi tahun 2011-2016 indikator 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 luas panen (ha) 30.699 30.205 32.692 30.190 29.642 30.009 produktiv. (ku/ha) 64,50 67,99 64,04 63,88 67,18 60,18 produksi (ton) 198.004 205.355 209.364 192.846 199.141 180.593 sumber: bantul dalam angka 2013, 2014, 2015 110 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research panen padi satu kali setahun. ditinjau dari keikutsertaannya di srg, kecamatan-kecamatan sentra belum memanfaatkan srg. dari data transaksi srg di latar belakang, hanya kecamatan pandak yang memberikan kontribusi peserta sejak 2 tahun terakhir. gambar 2. grafik luas panen per kecamatan di kabupaten bantul tahun 2014 di sisi lain, perkembangan harga gabah (gabah kering panen/gkp) di setiap kecamatan menunjukkan tren yang hampir sama: musiman (gambar 3). harga gkp cenderung menurun sampai ke harga kurang dari rp 3.500/kg pada bulan januari, februari, maret dan april, lalu setelah itu mulai meningkat pada bulan-bulan setelahnya. pada ketiga bulan tersebut, terjadi panen bersamaan sebab sentra hortikultura seperti kecamatan sanden, srandakan dan kretek menanam komoditas padi pada musim hujan. turunnya harga pada empat bulan tersebut hampir terjadi di sebagian besar kecamatan. bahkan, rendahnya harga jual gkp terjadi hampir sepanjang tahun di kecamatan pundong, pleret dan pajangan. kondisi jatuhnya harga jual gabah menguatkan bahwa srg masih relevan sebagai sarana tunda jual di kabupaten bantul. hal ini sejalan dengan hasil kajian yang dikemukakan ashari (2010). gambar 3. grafik perkembangan harga gkp per kecamatan di kabupaten bantul januari 2016-juni 2017 kelembagaan yang terintegrasi. prasyarat ini belum menjadi hambatan penting dalam pelaksanaan srg di k abupaten bantul, karena beberapa alasan. pertama, komunikasi dan koordinasi pengelola gudang dengan lembaga penilai kesesuaian dan perbankan dimudahkan dengan berbagai media it, seperti e-mail dan whatsapp. kedua, setiap jenis transaksi srg menggunakan aplikasi is-ware, sehingga jarak gudang srg dengan pusat registrasi bukan masalah. ketiga, pengelola gudang srg menyediakan jasa transportasi yang relatif terjangkau untuk petani dari sentra produksi. lokasi gudang yang berlokasi di jalan bantul memang relatif jauh dari sentra produksi seperti kecamatan jetis, piyungan, banguntapan, dan imogiri. namun, membangun ulang gudang srg yang lebih dekat dengan sentra-sentra produksi tersebut bukan solusi tepat saat ini. terlebih lagi, kondisi transaksi srg yang saat ini masih rendah, padahal gudang srg saat ini dekat dengan kecamatan sewon dan bantul yang juga sentra produksi padi. kesimpulan lem ba ga ya ng m emp unya i peranan besa r da la m peningkatan transaksi resi gudang adalah pengelola gudang dan dinas perdagangan, sedangkan lembaga lainnya belum proaktif dalam pengembangan srg. dari kelima prasyarat, “peni ngk at an produksi” m erupa k an p rasya ra t yang menguatkan eksistensi srg di kabupaten bantul, sebab masih terjadi panen raya yang berimplikasi jatuhnya harga gabah (sekitar bulan januari-april). di sisi lain, keberhasilan srg ke depan bergantung pada prasyarat “komitmen pemerintah daerah” dan prasyarat “edukasi & sosialisasi kepada pelaku usaha”. temuan ini mengindikasikan perlunya pemerintah daerah untuk mensinergikan program-program yang berkaitan dengan srg dan mengintensifkan sosialisasi srg kepada kelompok tani di desa-desa yang potensial. ucapan terima kasih studi ini merupakan bagian dari hibah penelitian dosen muda lp3m umy yang berjudul eksplorasi sistem resi gudang kabupaten bantul tahun 2016-2017. catatan akhir 1 sebelum tahun 2017, dinas perdagangan tergabung dalam dinas perindustrian, perdagangan dan koperasi 2 sebelum tahun 2017 bernama dinas pertanian dan kehutanan, setelah tahun 2017 bernama dinas pertanian, pangan, kelautan dan perikanan 3 penulisan secara lengkap: bid. tanaman pangan, hortikultura dan perkebunan; bid. sarana prasarana dan penyuluhan. 111 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 4 hpp mengikuti instruksi presiden tahun 2015: gkp rp3.700; gkg rp4.600; beras rp7.300. daftar pustaka anugrah, i.s., erwidodo, & suryani, e. (2014). sistem resi gudang dalam perspektif kelembagaan pengelola dan pengguna di kabupaten subang: studi kasus ksu annisa. analisis kebijakan pertanian, 13(1), 55-73. ashari. (2010). pospek sistem resi gudang (srg) sebagai alternatif pembiayaan sektor pertanian (icaseps working paper no. 102). pusat penelitian sosial ekonomi dan kebijakan pertanian. bogor. ————. (2011). potensi dan kendala sistem resi gudang (srg) untuk mendukung pembiayaan usaha pertanian di indonesia. forum penelitian agro ekonomi, 29(2), 129-143. ashari, ariningsih, e., supriyatna, y., adawiyah, c. r., & suharyono, s. (2013). kajian efektivitas sistem resi gudang dalam stabilisasi pendapatan petani. pusat sosial ekonomi dan kebijakan pertanian. badan pengkajian dan pengembangan kebijakan perdagangan. (2014). analisis implementasi sistem resi gudang komoditi lada. balitbang kp-pusat kebijakan perdagangan dalam negeri kementerian perdagangan. badan ketahanan pangan dan pelaksana penyuluhan (bkp3) kab. bantul. (2015). laporan distribusi, konsumsi, dan stabilitas harga pangan kabupaten bantul 2015. bantul. badan pusat statistik kab. bantul. (2014). bantul dalam angka 2013. bantul. —————. (2015). bantul dalam angka 2014. bantul. —————. (2016). bantul dalam angka 2015. bantul. coulter, j., & onumah, g. (2002). the role of warehouse receipt systems in enhanced commodity marketing and rural livelihoods in africa. food policy, 27(2002), 319-337. jovièiæ, d., jeremiæ, l., miliæeviæ, l., & zeremski, a. (2014). warehouse receipt functioning to reduce market risk. economics of agriculture, 61(2), 347-365. kementerian perdagangan. (2016). laporan kinerja kementerian per dagangan tahun 2015. jakarta. re trie ved from http:// www.kemendag.go.id/id/about-us/strategic-planning listiani, n., & haryotejo, b. (2013). implementasi sistem resi gudang pada komoditi jagung: studi kasus di kabupaten tuban, provinsi jawa timur. buletin ilmiah litbang perdagangan, 7(2), 193-212. masithoh, d. (2016). biaya transaksi sistem resi gudang gabah. institut pertanian bogor. retrieved from http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/ 123456789/81706 rahayu, l. (2015). aksesibilitas petani bawang merah terhadap lembaga keuangan mikro sebagai sumber pembiayaan. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1 (1), 52-60. sinha, p. & mathur, k. (2014). efficient indian commodity markets – need for comprehensive warehousing system. (mpra paper no. 59930). munich. sugiono (2014). pengaruh sistem resi gudang terhadap pendapatan usahatani padi di kecamatan perak kabupaten jombang. institut pertanian bogor. suryani, e., erwidodo, & anugrah, i.s. (2014). sistem resi gudang di indonesia: antara harapan dan kenyataan. analisis kebijakan pertanian, 12(1), 69-86. widiyani, m. (2014). analisis program sistem resi gudang di kabupaten ind ramayu. institut pertanian bogor. r etrie ved from http :// repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/71086 wijaya, o. (2016). strategi pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan ketahanan pangan wilayah (studi kasus di kabupaten batang, propinsi, jawa tengah). agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 3 (1), 48-56. zakiæ, v., kovaèeviæ, v., ivana, i., & miroviæ, v. (2014). importance of public warehouse system for financing agribusiness sector. economics of agriculture, 61(4), 929-943. http:// http://www.kemendag.go.id/id/about-us/strategic-planning http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/ http:// agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no.1 januari -juni 2018 ni putu ayuning wulan pradnyani mahayana1, yusman syaukat2, dwi rachmina3 1program pascasarjana manajemen dan bisnis, sekolah bisnis ipb gedung sb – ipb jl. raya pajajaran, bogor 16151 2departemen ekonomi sumberdaya dan lingkungan, fakultas ekonomi dan manajemen, ipb gedung fem lantai 2, jl. agatis, kampus ipb dramaga, bogor 16680 3departemen agribisnis, fakultas ekonomi dan manajemen, ipb jl. kamper wing 4 level 5, kampus ipb dramaga, bogor 16680 email korespondensi: ayuningwulanpradnyani@gmail.com pengaruh variabel makroekonomi terhadap penyaluran transaksi ekspor dan impor dengan metode pembayaran letter of credit h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4159 abstract letter of credit (lc) is one of term of payments on export import transaction. the purpose of this study is to analyze the impact ofmacroeconomic variables i.e exchange rate, inflation and the bank indonesia (bi) rateto value of lc, with study case in one of bank in indonesia.this study also analyze the differences in impact of the commodity on export import by using lc between agricultural and non-agricultural products. the data is analyzed by using error correction model (ecm) to investigate the long run and short run relationship between macroeconomic variables and value of lc over the period of 2013–2016. the result show that the long run relationship between macroeconomic variables changes and value of lc is significant. over all, the result show that all of the macroeconomic variable in this study was significantly influence the value of lc export, whereas the value of lc import was not influence by inflation variable. differences of the commodity on export import by using lc also showing the different impact to the value of lc especially for inflation variable. the value of lc export and import of agricultural products was not influence by inflation variable. the recommendation for the bank to optimize the lc transaction is when domestic currency have depreciation, then the bank can increasethe lc transaction on export side either on agricultural or non-agricultural products. and then for bi rate factor, the bank should be wary of increase of the bi rate because it can be impact to decrease the lc transaction. keywords: ecm, export, import, letter of credit. intisari letter of credit (lc) merupakan salah satu metode pembayaran dalam transaksi ekspor impor. tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis dampak perubahan variabel makroekonomi seperti kurs, inflasi dan tingkat suku bunga bank indonesia (bi) terhadap nilai lc dengan studi kasus pada salah satu bank di indones ia. penelitian ini juga menganalis is p erbed aan p engaruh variab el makroekonomiterhadap nilai lc produk pertanian dan non pertanian. data diolah menggunakan error correction model (ecm) untuk mengetahui hubungan jangka pendek dan jangka panjang antara variabel makoekonomi dan nilai lc selama periode tahun 2013–2016. hasil penelitian menunjukkan secara signifikan terdapat hubungan jangka panjang antara perubahan variabel makroekonomi dan nilailc. secara keseluruhan nilai lc ekspor dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh tiga variabel makroekonomi dan relatif lebih responsif dalam menghadapi perubahan tiga variabel tersebut, sedangkan pada sisi impor variabel kurs tidak berpengaruh signifikan pada nilai lc impor. nilai lc jika dibedakan atas produk pertanian dan non pertanian juga menunjukkan perbedaan pengaruh yang ditimbulkan khususnya pada variabel inflasi. variabel inflasi tidak berpengaruh mailto:ayuningwulanpradnyani@gmail.com 45 vol. 4 no. 1 januari-juni 2018 signifikan terhadap nilai lc ekspor dan impor pertanian. alternatif kebijakan yang dapat dipilih untuk mengoptimalkan penyaluran lcdiantaranya pada saat nilai tukar mengalami depresiasi, lembaga perbankan dapat meningkatkan transaksi dari sisi ekspor baik untuk produk pertanian maupun non pertanian. sementara itu, lembaga perbankan juga harus waspada jika tingkat suku bunga bi mengalami peningkatan, karena hal tersebut akan mendorong penurunan nilai penyaluran lc. kata kunci: ecm, ekspor, impor, letter of credit. pendahuluan aktivitas ekspor impor indonesia dalam kurun waktu lima tahun sejak 2012 hingga 2016 menunjukan tren yang fluktuatif (gambar 1). selain itu, salah satu variabel makro ekonomi yaitu kurs rupiah terhadap dollar amerika serikat juga mengalami fluktuasi dengan kecenderungan tren yang meningkat diduga memberikan pengaruh terhadap aktivitas ekspor impor nasional. gambar 1. data statistik ekspor impor nasional dan kurs rupiah terhadap us dollar tahun 2012-2016 sumber: badan pusat satistikdan bank indonesia (data diolah) risiko gagal bayar ataupun pengiriman barang yang tidak sesuai dalam transaksi perdagangan internasional berpeluang terjadi, khususnya bagi pembeli atau penjual baru yang belum diketahui historikal transaksinya. lembaga perbankan dapat menjembatani mitigasi risiko tersebut dengan berperan sebagai penjamin kepastian pembayaran dari pihak pembeli serta kepastian adanya pelaksanaan kewajiban dari pihak penjual sesuai spesifikasi dan persyaratan dalam kontrak. para pelaku bisnis ini dapat memanfaatkan produk penjaminan melalui produk letter of credit (lc). produk lc merupakan salah satu mekanisme pembayaran yang disyaratkan oleh eksportir. dokumen lc diterbitkan oleh bank pembeli yang berjanji untuk membayar sejumlah nilai tertentu kepada penjual dalam kondisi yang telah ditetapkan (ball, geringer, minor, & mcnett, 2014). penyaluran transaksi lc yang didasarkan oleh adanya transaksi ekspor impor diduga juga akan dipengaruhi secara tidak langsung oleh perubahan variabel makroekonomi seperti kurs, inflasi, dan tingkat suku bunga. penerbitan lc impor di bangladesh mengalami peningkatan ketika tingkat inflasi meningkat, tetapi nilai koefisien korelasinya rendah (islam, 2013). hubungan jangka panjang antara siklus ekspor produk elektrik, nilai tukar yen/us dollar dan ekspor malaysia menunjukkan adanya pengaruh diantara keduanya, jika nilai tukar yen/us dollar terapresiasi maka ekspor malaysia akan mengalami peningkatan (kadir, hussin, zaini, rashid, marwan, & helmi, 2013). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa nilai tukar atas mata uang domestic memiliki pengaruh positif terhadap kegiatan ekspor dalam negeri. komoditas berbasis pertanian memiliki peranan yang penting dalam neraca perdagangan nasional. perbedaan sektor dalam aktivitas perdagangan akan memberikan dampak yang berbeda pula jika terjadi perubahan kondisi ekonomi suatu negara misalnya perubahan kurs mata uang domestik (mundlak, cavallo, & domenech, 1989). pada penelitian tersebut aktivitas perekonomian menjadi dua sektor dibedakan yaitu sektor pertanian dan non pertanian. sektor pertanian dinilai lebih tradable dibandingkan dengan sektor non pertanian, hal ini mengakibatkan sektor pertanian lebih sensitif terhadap perubahan kurs. bank x merupakan salah satu dari 10 besar bank dengan aset terbesar di indonesia berdasarkan hasil laporan keuangan yang disampaikan ke bursa efek indonesia. bank x juga merupakan salah satu bank devisa yang memberikan layanan produk lc. berdasarkan data pencatatan kewajiban lc bank umum nasional yang dirilis oleh otoritas jasa keuangan per september 2016 menunjukkan bahwa bank x memiliki share yang mendominasi sebesar 17,7%. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh perubahan kurs, inflasi dan tingkat suku bunga bi terhadap nilai penyaluran transaksi lc di bank x. penelitian ini juga menganalisis pengaruh perubahan variabel makroekonomi tersebut terhadap nilai lc komoditas pertanian dan non pertanian di bank x. dengan demikian, dapat dirumuskan rekomendasi alternatif kebijakan dalam pemasaran lc yang dap a t di lak uk an oleh lem baga perbank a n da la m mengoptimalkan penyaluran transaksi lc dikaitkan dengan perubahan kurs, inflasi dan tingkat suku bunga bi. 46 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di salah satu perusahaan perbankan yaitu bank x pada unit bisnis trade finance. pengambilan dan pengolahan data dilakukan pada bulan april –juni 2017.data yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah data sekunder yang bersifat bulanan sejak tahun 2013-2016.data terdiri dari realisasi nilai lc baik lc impor maupun lc ekspor yang diterbitkan melalui bank x. data variabel makroekonomi yang terdiri dari data kurs, inflasi dan tingkat suku bunga bi juga bersifat bulanan dan bersumber dari bank indonesia. pengumpulan data dan informasi dilakukan dengan metode dokumentasi dengan mengumpulkan data dan dokumen terkait yang diperlukan. data yang terkumpul disajikan dalam bentuk tabel dan grafik menggunakan alat bantuprogram microsoft excel. pengolahan data dan analisis data dalam penelitian ini menggunakan analisis error correction mechanism (ecm) untuk mengetahui pengaruh variabel makroekonomi terha da p ni la i lc ya ng terea lisa si di b a nk x da n keterkaitannya dalam jangka panjang. pengolahan dan analisis data dalampenelitian ini menggunakan alat bantu perangkat lunak eviews. pengolahan data menggunakan analisis regresi dengan penerapan asumsi classical linear regression model (clrm) yang dievaluasi dengan asumsi klasik ordinary least square (ols) ya ng m enca k up uji m ulti koli nea ri ta s, uji heteroskedastisitas, dan uji autokolerasi.beberapa asumsi m odel regresi li near kla si k a da la h ti da k a danya multikolinieritas, tidak adanya heteroskedastisitas dan tidak adanya korelasi berantai atau autokorelasi (gujarati, 2006). uji statistik diawali dengan uji stasioneritas mengingat data yang digunakan pada penelitian ini merupakan data time series. penggunaan data time series dalam suatu analisis harus memperhatikan satu persyaratan yang menjadi penting yaitu stasioneritas dari observasi (nachrowi & usman, 2006). jika observasi tidak stasioner maka dikhawatirkan akan muncul spurious regression (regresi palsu). observasi yang tidak stasioner dapat menghasilkan residual yang stasioner atau menunjukkan bahwa adanya kointegrasi. kointegrasi menunjukkan adanya hubungan atau keseimbangan jangka panjang. penggunaan model ecm merupakan salah satu tekni k ya ng dap a t di guna k an untuk m engoreksi ketidakseimbangan jangka pendek menuju keseimbangan jangka panjang. nilai koefisien error correction harus signifikan dan diharapkan bernilai negatif (nachrowi & usman, 2006). koefisien ini menunjukkan besarnya penyesuaian menuju keseimbangan jangka panjang (asteriou & hall, 2006). nominal koefisien yang dihasilkan berkisar pada nilai 0< à < 1. nom i na l yang di ha silk an m enunjukka n p ersent ase penyesuaian yang terjadi pada masing–masing model. analisis ecm dapat menunjukkan pengaruh yang timbul dari masing–masing model. penelitian yusuf & widyastutik (2007) juga melakukan analisis menggunakan ecm yang menunjukkan bahwa ekspor impor komoditas pangan dalam jangka pendek dan jangka panjang berpengaruh negatif terhadap neraca perdagangan non–migas indonesia. uji asumsi klasik yang dilakukan dalam analisis pada penelitian ini diantaranya adalah uji multikolinearitas. multikolinearitas terjadi ketika antar variabel bebas berkorelasi dalam suatu model (lind, marchal, & samuel, 2014). pengukuran uji ini dinilai lebih tepat menggunakan faktor inflasi variansi yang umumnya dikenal sebagai vif (variance inflation factors). pengujian ini mengacu pada nilai koefisien determinasi (r2). jika nilai vif lebih kecil dari 10 maka tidak terdapat multikoliniearitas.selain itu, aturan umum yang dapat digunakan untuk menguji adanya multikolinieritas adalah jika korelasi antara kedua variabel di antara – 0,70 dan 0,70 kemungkinan tidak terdapat masalah dalam menggunakan keduavariabel bebas tersebut. uji asumsi klasik berikutnya yang dilakukan adalah uji autokorelasi. autokorelasi adalah kondisi residual pada persamaan regresi saling berkorelasi pada data runtut waktu karena peristiwa pada satu periode waktu sering memengaruhi peristiwa pada periode berikutnya (lind, marchal, & samuel, 2014). autokorelasi dapat diukur menggunakan statistik durbin-watson. nilai statistik durbin–watson (d) dapat berkisar dari 0 hingga 4. nilai d sebesar 2.00 ketika tidak terdapat autokorelasi diantara residualnya. ketika nilai d mendekati 0 maka hal ini menunjukkan autokorelasi positif. d= ∑ (eu-eu-1) 2n u=2 ∑ eu2nu=1 uji asumsi klasik terakhir yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah uji heterokedastisitas digunakan untuk mengetahui bahwa tidak terdapat variasi pada residu untuk setiap nilai dugaan untuk seluruh nilai variabel bebas pada model (lind, marchal, & samuel, 2014). ketika terjadi heterokedastisitas pada model, hal ini dapat mengakibatkan pengujian hipotesis memberikan hasil analisa yang tidak tepat (gujarati, 2006). persamaan ecm yang dibentuk untuk melihat hubungan nilai lc dan variabel makroekonomi disesuaikan dengan tujuan 1 (model 1) dan tujuan 2 (model 2) pada penelitian ini yang dapat dirumuskan pada persamaan sebagai berikut: 47 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 model 1: ln_yi= β0 + βi1 ln_x1t+ βi2 x2t+ βi3 x3t+ ect(-1) + e model 2: ln_yij= β0 + βij1 ln_x1t+ βij2x2 + βij3 x3 + ect(-1) + e keterangan:i=1 untuk impor; i= 2 untuk ekspor; j=1 untuk pertanian; j= 2 untuk non pertanian; y adalah nilai lc yang disalurkan melalui bank x baik dari sisi impor maupun ekspor (usd);  0 = konstanta; j 1 =koefisian variabel nilai tukar; j 2 =koefisian variabel tingkat suku bunga bi; i 3 =koefisian variabel inflasi; x 1 = nilai tukar (rp/usd); x 2 = bi rate (%); x 3 = inflasi (%); ect =koefisien error correction term; e = error. berdasarkan model penelitian yang telah dirumuskan, maka hipotesis dalam penelitian ini dapat dinyatakan sebagai berikut: 1. pada lc ekspor, baik pertanian dan non pertanian maka:  1,2,3 : j 1,2,3 > 0 2. pada lcimpor, baik pertanian dan non pertanian maka:  1,2,3 : j 1,2,3 < 0 hasil pembahasan pengujian model penelitian dan uji asumsi klasik pengujian pengaruh dari variabel akan membentuk model regresi. salah satu persyaratan dalam melakukan regresi atas data time series adalah data harus bersifat stasioner. hal ini akan berkaitan dengan estimasi yang akan dihasilkan dan menghindari munculnya spurious regression. data pada penelitian ini stasioner pada first difference (tabel 1). tahapan lanjutan setelah diketahui bahwa seluruh variabel belum stasioner pada level namun telah stasioner pada first difference adalah dengan melakukan uji kointegrasi. uji ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui keterkaitan adanya hubungan jangka panjang dari model regresi. uji kointegrasi juga dilakukan melalui uji adf pada residual (error) dari setiap model regresi pada penelitian ini.pada keenam model regresi diperoleh hasil nilai adf t-statistic yang lebih kecil dari nilai kritis mackinnon baik pada taraf 5% dan 10% (tabel 2). perbandingan lain juga dapat dilihat dari nilai prob. < taraf nyata 5% dan 10%. hal ini menunjukan bahwa residual pada seluruh persamaan regresi tersebut telah stasioner pada level. hubungan kointegrasi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa analisis tabel 1. hasil uji stasioneritas pada first difference atas variabel penelitian variabel nilai adf t-statistics nilai kritis mackinnom prob. keterangan 1% 5% 10% ekspor -9,660 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0000*** stasioner ekspor pertanian -9,423 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0000*** stasioner ekspor non pertanian -10,831 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0000*** stasioner impor -11,744 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0000*** stasioner impor pertanian -8,028 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0000*** stasioner impor non pertanian -12,090 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0000*** stasioner inflasi -5,317 -3,585 -2,928 -2,602 0,0001*** stasioner kurs -5,095 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0001*** stasioner bi rate -4,953 -3,581 -2,927 -2,601 0,0002*** stasioner keterangan: ***data stasioner pada taraf 1% tabel 2. hasil uji kointegrasi pada variabel penelitian model nilai adf t-statistics nilai kritis prob.* keterangan 1% 5% 10% ekspor -4,313 -3,577 -2,925 -2,600 0,001 stasioner ekspor pertanian -4,729 -3,577 -2,925 -2,600 0,000 stasioner ekspor nonpertanian -4,867 -3,577 -2,925 -2,600 0,000 stasioner impor -2,712 -3,581 -2,966 -2,601 0,079 stasioner impor pertanian -2,432 -2,615 -1,947 -1,612 0,016 stasioner impor nonpertanian -5,958 -3,577 -2,925 -2,600 0,000 stasioner *mackinnon (1996) one-sided p-values 48 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dengan error correction mechanism (ecm) dapat digunakan dalam model penelitian ini. beberapa asumsipada model regresi linear klasik adalah tidak adanya multikolinieritas, tidak adanya heteroskedastisitas dan tidak adanya korelasi berantai atau autokorelasi (gujarati, 2006). data pada seluruh model dalam penelitian ini tidak memiliki autokorelasi (tabel 3). berdasarkan uji statistik durbin–watson, masing – masing residual pada model bersifat independen. nilai statistik durbin-watson (d) mendekati nilai 2 maka tidak terdapat autokorelasi di antara residualnya. berdasarkan uji breusch-pagan, nilai breuschpagan-godfreyyang dihasilkan lebih besar dari taraf nyata á=0,05 (5%). hal ini menunjukkan tidak terdapat heteroskedastisitas pada model. tabel 3. hasil uji autokorelasi dan heterokedastisitas pada model penelitian model statistik durbin watson keterangan heteroskedasti city test: breuschpagan-godfrey keterangan ekspor 1,936 tidak ada autokorelasi 0,277 tidak ada heterokedastisitas ekspor pertanian 1,968 tidak ada autokorelasi 0,393 tidak ada heterokedastisitas ekspor nonpertanian 1,935 tidak ada autokorelasi 0,548 tidak ada heterokedastisitas impor 1,948 tidak ada autokorelasi 0,706 tidak ada heterokedastisitas impor pertanian 1,957 tidak ada autokorelasi 0,556 tidak ada heterokedastisitas impor nonpertanian 1,892 tidak ada autokorelasi 0,714 tidak ada heterokedastisitas tabel 4. hasil uji multikolinieritas pada model penelitian variabel bebas variabel bebas inflasi kurs bi rate inflasi 1,000 -0,300 0,403 kurs -0,300 1,000 0,395 bi rate 0,403 0,395 1,000 berkaitan dengan multikolinearitas, hasil pengujian terhadap hubungan antar variabel bebas pada seluruh model dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa tidak terdapat multikolinieritas pada seluruh model yang diteliti (tabel 4). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa antar variabel bebas yang digunakan yaitu kurs, inflasi dan bi rate tidak memiliki korelasi satu sama lain pada model dalam penelitian ini. jika korelasi antara masing – masing variabel di antara –0,70– 0,70 menunjukkan bahwa kemungkinan tidak ada masalah dalam menggunakan kedua variabel tersebut (lind, marchal, & samuel, 2014), dengan kata lain tidak terdapat multikolinieritas. analisis pengaruh variabel makroekonomi terhadap nilai lc di bank x pelaksanaan ekspor impor dapat dipengaruhi oleh kondisi makroekonomi nasional suatu negara. salah satu variabel makroekonomi yang berpengaruh adalah kurs. berdasarkan teori kondisi marshall lerner, devaluasi akan memberikan dampak dalam neraca perdagangan (caves, frankel, & jones, 2000). devaluasi mengakibatkan penurunan nilai impor dan berdampak sebaliknya yaitu meningkatkan nilai ekspor. hasil analisis menggunakan error correction model (ecm) pada penyaluran lc ekspor impor di bank x secara keseluruhan maupun jika dilakukan pengklasifikasian atas komoditas yang diekspor maupun impor berdasarkan pertanian dan non pertanian, menunjukkan pengaruh yang beragam dari variabel makroekonomi yang digunakan yaitu inflasi, kurs dan bi rate. hasil uji kointegrasi pada tabel 2 menunjukkan bahwa adanya keterkaitan dalam jangka panjang dari variabel penelitian. hal tersebut dapat diukur melalui nilai koefisien error correction term (ect) pada model yang dihasilkan dari pengolahan data menggunakan analisis ecm. besarnya koefisian ect berada pada -1 < a < 0, dan signifikan dengan nilai prob. < taraf nyata 5%. besar koefisien error correction menunjukkan persentase yang menggambarkan seberapa cepat equilibrium tercapai kembali kepada keseimbangan jangka panjang. hal tersebut dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. secara garis besar, hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel kurs berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap nilai lc ekspor dan pengaruh yang ditimbulkan sejalan dengan teori ekonomi (tabel 5).hal ini sejalan dengan penelitian pada beberapa negara yang menunjukkan hubungan yang positif antara kegiatan ekspor dan kurs (khalighi & fadaei, 2015; ratana, achsani, &andati, 2012; li, li, & dong, 2016;pamungkas, karma, puspitarini,& adlan, 2013; nonejad & mohammadi, 2016). sementara itu pada lc impor, variabel kurs justru tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan. hal ini diduga karena mayoritas produk yang diimpor merupakan bahan baku dan mesin produksi dari perusahaan dalam negeri. sedangkan jika dilakukan spesifikasi terhadap sektor komoditas yang diperdagangkan, hasil analisis menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbedaan yang nyata atas pengaruh variabel kurs. hal ini dapat dibandingkan pada lc ekspor pertanian maupun non 49 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 pertanian, terlihat variabelkurs berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap dua variabel dependen tersebut. sementara pada lc impor, baik pertanian maupun non pertanian, variabel kurs tidak berpengaruh signifikan. sementara itu, hasil penelitian menunjukkan perbedaan pengaruh yang ditimbulkan jika dibandingkan dengan penelitian isnowati & kurs berpengaruh positif terhadap harga impor di indonesia (setiawan, 2017), hal serupa juga terlihat pada pengaruh perubahan kurs terhadap ekspor dan impor di iran (ahmadi, 2013). hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa perubahan kurs mengakibatkan angka ekspor dan impor di iran relatif konstan, bahkan sedikit mengalami penurunan sampai dengan akhir tahun di periode yang diteliti. variabel inflasi pada model lc ekspor maupun lc impor secara keseluruhan memberikan pengaruh positif yang signifikan. kondisi ini terkait dengan peran masing– masing baik dari aktivitas ekspor maupun impor dalam transaksi perdagangan internasional. lc ekspor mewakili sisi penawaran dari dalam negeri. jika terjadi inflasi, dikhawatirkan permintaan di dalam negeri akan mengalami penurunan sehingga para produsen relatif memilih memasarkan produknya keluar negeri melalui aktivitas ekspor. sedangkan lc impor mewakili sisi permintaan yang ada di dalam negeri. jika terjadi inflasi, harga produk di dalam negeri dinilai tidak kompetitif sehingga alternatif yang dipilih yaitu mencari sumber barang dari luar negeri yang dinilai memiliki harga yang lebih efisien.hasil penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa inflasi tidak berpengaruh terhadap aktivitas ekspor di negara turki (akalpler, 2013), sementara itu penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa inflasi berpengaruh negatif terhadap neraca perdagangan (alemu & jin-sang, 2014). hasil penelitian lain menunjukkan bahwa tingkat inflasi berhubungan positif dengan volume lc impor di bangladesh (islam, 2013). berbeda halnya dengan pengaruh variabel inflasi dan kurs, variabel suku bunga bank indonesia (bi rate) memberikan respon yang sama terhadap seluruh variabel dependen dalam penelitian ini. kondisi tersebut sesuai dengan hipotesis awal, yaitu bi rate erat kaitannya dengan penetapan pricing dalam aktivitas pembiayaan pada lc ekspor maupun impor. jika biaya mengalami peningkatan maka permohonan pengajuan pembiayaan akan berkurang karena para nasabah menuntut pricing yang kompetitif. berdasarkan output yang dihasilkan nilai koefisien ect menunjukkan persentase penyesuaian menuju keseimbangan jangka panjang dari setiap model. sementara itu nilai r2yang dihasilkan pada tabel 5 memberikan output sebesar 7–31% yang menggambarkan kemampuan variabel independen untuk menjelaskan model penelitian. hal ini menunjukkan masih banyak faktor yang diduga dapat memberikan pengaruh terhadap nilai penyaluran lc di bank x.lc merupakan produk jasa, maka pengaruh dari faktor internal bank x seperti persaingan tarif dengan bank pesaing, service level agreement yang ditetapkan, dapat mempengaruhi keputusan para nasabah untuk memilih bank x sebagai fasilitator dalam memenuhi kebutuhan atas layanan berbasis trade finance. selain itu, pengaruh kondisi permintaan dan penawaran baik di dalam negeri maupun internasional yang tergolong sebagai variabel mikro dinilai relatif berpengaruh juga terhadap aktivitas ekspor impor yang menggunakan lc. kesimpulan variabel makroekonomi yaitu kurs, inflasi dan bi rate memiliki keterkaitan jangka panjang terhadap nilai lc. pada jangka panjang variabel kurs, inflasi dan bi rate berpengaruh signifikan terhadap nilai lc total ekspordan nilai lc ekspor non pertanian.sementara nilai lc ekspor pertanian hanya tabel 5. rangkuman hasil analisis pada seluruh model penelitian model variabel makroekonomi nilai koef. ect nilai r2 inflasi kurs bi rate ekspor signifikan (+) signifikan (+) signifikan (-) -0,601 0,315 impor signifikan (+) tidak signifikan signifikan (-) -0,644 0,156 ekspor pertanian tidak signifikan signifikan (+) signifikan (-) -0,668 0,131 ekspor non pertanian signifikan (+) signifikan (+) signifikan (-) -0,733 0,285 impor pertanian tidak signifikan tidak signifikan signifikan (-) -0,266 0,071 impor non pertanian signifikan (+) tidak signifikan signifikan (-) -0,896 0,120 50 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh variabel skurs dan bi rate.nilai lc total impor dan nilai lc impor non pertanian dalam jangka panjang dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh variabel inflasi dan bi rate. sedangkan nilai lc impor pertanian hanya dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh variabelbi rate. varibel bi rate berpengaruh negatif dan signifikan pada semua model penelitian. hal ini terkait dengan biaya financing yang timbul untuk produk lc ekspor maupun impor. produk lc diduga dapat memberikan kontribusi dalam jangka panjang dalam bisnis perbankan dan merupakan salah satu lini bisnis yang potensial dalam mendukung pencapaian target bisnis bank. berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini, kecenderungan peningkatan kurs dapat dimanfaatkan oleh ba nk untuk fok us p ada si si ekspor da la m ra ngk a meningkatkan pencapaian target revenue dari bisnis trade finance. penetapan pricing yang kompetitif dalam pembiayaan untuk transaksi lc baik dari sisi ekspor maupun impor dapat meningkatkan nilai lc yang disalurkan melalui bank. penelitian ini hanya menganalisis pengaruh variabel makroekonomi terhadap nilai lc yang disalurkan dengan mengambil studi kasus pada bank x. saran yang dapat diberikan untuk penelitian selanjutnya yaitu dengan melakukan analisis dari sisi faktor mikro (internal faktor dari perusahaan) ataupun memperluas objek penelitian tidak hanya pada satu bank saja melainkan pada seluruh bank di indonesia yang menawarkan layanan produk lc kepada nasabah. hal ini dapat memperkaya hasil kesimpulan yang 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(2006). pendekatan populer dan praktis ekonometrik untuk analisis ekonomi dan keuangan.jakarta: lembaga penerbit fakultas ekonomi universitas indonesia. nonejad, m., &mohammadi, m. (2016). the effect of exchenge rate fluctuation on economic activities of iran.international review of management and business research.5(2): 353 – 365. pamungkas, s. b., karma, i. p. s., puspitarini, d.,& adlan, y. a. (2013). analysis of the influence export and import on the exchange rate of indonesian rupiah by using simulation method. international conference on emerging trends in engineering and technology; 2013 dec 7-8; phuket, thailand (th).hlm.47-52. ratana, d. s., achsani, n. a., &andati, t. (2012).dampak perubahan kurs mata uang terhadap ekspor indonesia.jurnal manajemen agribisnis. 9(3): 154 – 162. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17358/jma.9.3.154-162 yusuf, & widyastutik. (2007). analisis pengaruh ekspor-impor komoditas pangan utama dan liberalisasi perdagangan terhadap neraca perdagangan indonesia. jurnal manajemen agribisnis. 4(1): 46-56. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17358/jma.4.1.46-56 zuhroh, i., &kaluge, d. (2007).dampak pertumbuhan kurs riil terhadap pertumbuhan neraca perdagangan indonesia (suatu aplikasi model vector autoregressive, var). journal of indonesian applied economics. 1(1):59-73. doi: 10.21776/ub.jiae.2007.001.01.3 http://dx.doi.org/10.17358/jma.9.3.154-162 http://dx.doi.org/10.17358/jma.4.1.46-56 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2: july-december 2020 article history: submitted at november 11th, 2019 accepted at october 21th, 2020 puteri fadjria insan sa'diyah*, dwidjono hadi darwanto universitas gadjah mada, indonesia *) correspondence email: puterifadjria@gmail.com indonesian cinnamon competitiveness and competitor countries in international market doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6295 abstract indonesia is the largest cinnamon producing country in the international market. the presence of competing countries causes competition for completed cinnamon demand in the international market. international trade requires that each country has specialization and the ability to be able to compete for existing markets. this study analyzes the competitiveness of indonesia's cinnamon exports and the competitors (china, vietnam, sri lanka, and madagascar) by looking at comparative and competitive advantages along with factors that can influence them. the analysis period used in this study is from 2000 to 2017. competitiveness analysis is measured by using the trade specialization index (tsi) and export competitive index (xci) analysis methods, while the analysis of factors that can affect competitiveness performance is analyzed using the panel data regression method. the results of this study indicated that indonesia and the competitors have comparative advantages and tend to be cinnamon exporting countries in the international market, besides that indonesia and competitors (china, vietnam, and madagascar) have competitive advantages and cinnamon exports of these countries increase from the previous year, so that the country was able to compete for cinnamon exports on the international market. factors that can affect the performance of the export competitiveness of cinnamon in indonesia and competitors are productivity, market share, export prices, and domestic consumption. keywords: cinnamon, competitiveness, export, international market introduction cinnamon is one of indonesia's leading spices which has great potential for export in the international market. the availability of natural resources such as land area, a climate that is in accordance with the conditions for growing cinnamon, and followed by abundant human resources are indonesia's potential to increase exports (ferry, 2013). availability of land area for indonesian cinnamon has increased every year. the growth rate of indonesia's cinnamon land area during the 2000-2017 period increased by 3.05% (faostat, 2019).the land area of indonesian cinnamon in 2000 was 66,000 ha, and continued to increase until 2017 reaching 105,530 ha. based on data faostat (2019), indonesia is a country that has the largest land area for cinnamon in the international market. the land area that continues to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 124 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research increase has a positive impact on indonesia to be able to continue to produce cinnamon in a sustainable manner (pradipta & firdaus, 2014). the growth rate of indonesia's cinnamon production during the 2000-2017 period increased by 5.09% (faostat, 2019). the availability of abundant land areas makes indonesia one of the countries with the highest cinnamon production in the world compared to other major producing countries, namely china, vietnam, sri lanka, and madagascar (faostat, 2019). the growth of indonesian cinnamon production, which tends to increase every year, is in line with the increasing demand for indonesian cinnamon in the international market. the rate of demand for indonesian cinnamon in the international market during the 2000-2017 period increased by 5% (uncomtrade, 2019). this shows that indonesian cinnamon still has a prospective market in the international market. the demand for indonesian cinnamon which tends to increase in the international market is due to the use of processed cinnamon. the processed product of cinnamon is not only used for food flavoring ingredients, but cinnamon can be processed into essential oils to be used in the industrial sector, namely as an ingredient in cosmetics, perfume, and as medicine, which is a special attraction for importing countries (hermawan, 2015). the existence of competing countries results in competition to meet the demand for cinnamon in the international market. therefore, in international trade, every country must have specialization and also the ability to be able to compete for existing markets (bustami & hidayat, 2013). research on the export competitiveness of cinnamon in particular in the international market has not been widely found. research conducted by nurhayati (2018) described the analysis of the competitiveness of indonesia's leading spices in ten main destination countries (malaysia, uae, canada, turkey, the netherlands, germany, brazil, usa, dominica, and algeria). nurhayati (2018) states that the rca value of indonesian cinnamon in the ten main destination countries was competitive, whereas based on the epd analysis, indonesian cinnamon commodity exports were in a rising star position in the markets of malaysia, canada, turkey, the netherlands, brazil, the united states and the dominican republic. on the contrary, the markets of the united arab emirates and algeria are in a falling star position, and the german market is in a lost opportunity position. research by anggrasari & mulyo (2019) used the intra industry trade (iit) method to see whether the trade in indonesian spice commodities in the international market is partially interindustry. anggrasari & mulyo (2019) stated that in 2002-2016 indonesian cinnamon had an iit index which was still relatively low in the international market so that the indonesian cinnamon trade was interindustry and only relied on comparative advantage. in this study, a novelty measurement of the export competitiveness of indonesian cinnamon and competing countries was carried out based on the trade specialization index (tsi) analysis method, the export competitive index (xci), and the panel data regression method that had not been used in previous studies. the trade specialization index (tsi) analysis is used to measure competitiveness based on comparative advantage, the export competitive index (xci) is used to measure competitiveness based on competitive advantage, and panel data regression is used to determine the factors that affect the performance of the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 125 indonesian cinnamon competitiveness ….. (sa’diyah et al) competitiveness of cinnamon exports. analysis of the factors that can affect the performance of competitiveness needs to be done because the competitiveness of a traded commodity from time to time may change, such as at certain times it can have strong competitiveness, but at other times it can change and is not competitive. there are two kinds of factors that can affect the export competitiveness of a commodity, namely factors from the demand side and factors from the supply side. the demand factor consists of income, tariffs, and the tastes of the world community or destination countries, while the supply factor is influenced by the domestic industry in terms of providing capital, human resources, and technology (tambunan, 2004). iskandar et al., (2012) stated that the factors that can affect the performance of the competitiveness of indonesian cinnamon in the american market include export volume and world cinnamon prices. this study explains that the export volume and world cinnamon prices have a positive effect on the performance of indonesia's cinnamon export competitiveness in the american market. this shows that the higher the volume of indonesian cinnamon exports and the higher the world price of cinnamon will have an impact on improving the competitiveness performance of indonesian cinnamon in the american market. in this study, the variables used in the panel data regression model are productivity, market share, export prices and domestic consumption. the research objective was to determine the competitiveness of indonesian cinnamon in the international market based on its comparative and competitive advantages, as well as to find out what factors can affect the export competitiveness performance of indonesian cinnamon and competing countries in the international market. this research contributes to complementing the results of previous research on the export of indonesian cinnamon in the international market, beside that the results of this study also provide benefits in policy formation, which can be taken into consideration in formulating factors that can increase the competitiveness of indonesian cinnamon export commodities. this can be used as information in consideration of decision making regarding business strategies and provide an overview of the prospects for indonesian cinnamon commodity. research method the basic method used in this research is descriptive method. the type of data used in this research is secondary data and quantitative data. the data used is in the form of time series data. secondary data can be obtained from the food and agriculture organization statistics division (faostat), and the united nations commodity of trade (un comtrade), as well as trademarks for the 18-year period (2000-2017). harmonized system or hs trade code of cinnamon observed in this study is (0906). the hs trade code is the numbering on each item which is formed with the aim of facilitating trade transactions on the international market. the analytical method used is as follows: competitiveness performance analysis tsi is one of the competitiveness methods used to see if a country tends to be an exporter or importer of a commodity being traded and the export stage of a traded commodity based on its comparative advantage. mathematically, tsi can be formulated as follows: http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 126 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tsi = 𝑋𝑖 𝑘 − 𝑀𝑖 𝑘 𝑋𝑖 𝑘+ 𝑀𝑖 𝑘 note: 𝑋𝑖 𝑘 : export value of commodity k (cinnamon) country i 𝑀𝑖 𝑘 : import value of commodity k (cinnamon) country i the tsi has a value ranging from -1 to +1. if the value of tsi > 0, then the commodity concerned has strong competitiveness or in other words a country tends to be the exporter of the commodity, if the tsi value < 0 means that the commodity concerned has low competitiveness or in other words a country tends to be the importer of the commodity (ikasari & ngatindriatun, 2016). tsi can be used to identify the growth rate of a commodity in the international market, which can be grouped into five stages, namely the introduction stage (-1 < tsi ≤ -0.5), the import substitution stage (-0.5 < tsi ≤ 0), the expansion stage export (0 < tsi ≤ 0.8), the independence stage (tsi = 1), and the re-import stage (0.8 > tsi ≤ 0). the export competitive index is used to identify the success of export production in competition in the international market for a country based on a country's competitive advantage (rochmat et al., 2017). mathematically, xci can be formulated as follows: 𝑋𝐶𝑖 𝑘 = (𝑋𝑖 𝑘/𝑋𝑤 𝑘 )t / (𝑋𝑖 𝑘/𝑋𝑤 𝑘 )t-1 note: 𝑋𝑖 𝑘 : export value of commodity k (cinnamon) country i 𝑋𝑤 𝑘 : export value of commodity k (cinnamon) in the world t : current year t-1 : the year before the criteria used are as follows: xc > 1, indicates that the export of commodity (k) from country (i) has increased from the previous year, meaning that the country is able to compete for commodity exports (k) in the international market. xc ≤ 1, indicating that the export of commodity (k) from country (i) has not increased and even decreased from the previous year, meaning that the country is unable to compete for commodity exports (k) in the international market. factor analysis analysis of the factors that influence the performance of cinnamon trade in international markets using panel data regression analysis. panel data regression has data characteristics that are cross section and time series. panel data is considered capable of overcoming the intercorrelation between the independent variables which in turn can lead to inaccurate data estimates so that the panel data method is more appropriate to use (ajija et al., 2011). the crosssection data used in this study were five major cinnamon producing countries in the international market (indonesia, china, vietnam, sri lanka, and madagascar), while the time series data used were 2000-2017 data. the panel regression model used is as follows: http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 127 indonesian cinnamon competitiveness ….. (sa’diyah et al) 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐸𝑖 𝑡 = α + β1lnpro𝑖 𝑡 + β2lnpp𝑖 𝑡 + β3 lnhe𝑖 𝑡 + β4 lnkd𝑖 𝑡 + e note: ln 𝑁𝐸𝑖 𝑡 : the export value of cinnamon country i in year t α : interception β1 – β4 : regression coefficient ln 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑖 𝑡 : productivity of cinnamon country i in year t ln 𝑃𝑃𝑖 𝑡 : the market share of cinnamon country i in year t ln 𝐻𝐸𝑖 𝑡 : the export price of cinnamon country i in year t ln 𝐾𝐷𝑖 𝑡 : the domestic consumption of cinnamon country i in year t e : error term in this study, the best model was selected from three possible models in the panel data regression analysis. these models include the common effect, fixed effect, and random effect. generally, three tests are used, namely the chow, hausman, and breusch-pagan tests in selecting the best model (ajija et al., 2011). this test is done by comparing the results of one model with another model after regression. result and discussions export competitiveness is the ability of a commodity to enter a foreign market and the ability to survive in that market. tsi is used to determine the tendency of a country as an exporter or importer country and to determine the stages of development of the cinnamon commodity trade in the international market. comparison of the development of indonesian cinnamon commodity tsi and its competitors in the international market can be seen in table 1. based on the results of the analysis over a period of 18 years, from 2000 to 2017, the average tsi value of indonesian cinnamon tends to be positive, indicating that indonesia is a net exporter country in the cinnamon trade in the international market (aprilia et al., 2013). the tsi value of indonesian cinnamon, which tends to be positive and close to 1, shows that the supply of indonesian cinnamon is greater than the demand for cinnamon in indonesia, so that indonesia tends to export. the development of indonesian cinnamon commodity exports in the international market from 2000-2017 has fluctuated every year even though it tends to be an exporter country. in 2000-2003 indonesia was at the stage of expanding exports, which means that indonesia has reached an abundant production stage so that it began to develop cinnamon exports in the international market. based on table 1, the value of indonesia's tsi in 2004 was 1, which means that in that year indonesia had reached the stage of independence. the independence stage is the stage where the indonesian cinnamon commodity has experienced technological standardization. however, even so in 2005-2017 the tsi value of indonesian cinnamon actually decreased so that indonesia was at the stage of importing again. at the stage of independence or maturity, the tsi value can decrease between 1 and 0, because these product industries begin to reduce their exports because they gradually fail to compete with industrial newcomers from other countries in the international market, but in the domestic market the production is still more than by request. the decline in the value of indonesian cinnamon tsi in the international http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 128 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research market, which is decreasing at the re-import stage, is because the average rate of increase in imports of indonesian cinnamon each year is greater than the rate of increase in exports. in addition, the reason why indonesia is at the stage of re-importing in the cinnamon trade is because indonesia is still importing cinnamon from other producing countries which aims to improve the quality of indonesian cinnamon to be exported. table 1. development of tsi in indonesian and major cinnamon producing countries in the international market, 2000-2017 development of tsi cinnamon year indonesia china vietnam sri lanka madagascar 2000 0.95 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 2001 0.88 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 2002 0.92 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 2003 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.97 2004 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.00 2005 0.93 0.99 0.96 1.00 1.00 2006 0.96 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.00 2007 0.92 0.98 0.96 0.99 0.99 2008 0.95 0.97 0.93 0.99 1.00 2009 0.84 0.99 0.92 0.98 1.00 2010 0.93 0.99 0.89 1.00 1.00 2011 0.93 0.98 0.93 0.99 1.00 2012 0.93 0.98 0.95 0.99 1.00 2013 0.92 0.99 0.92 1.00 1.00 2014 0.99 0.98 0.91 0.98 1.00 2015 0.93 0.97 0.94 1.00 1.00 2016 0.91 0.97 0.91 1.00 1.00 2017 0.96 0.98 0.78 0.99 1.00 average 0.94 0.98 0.94 0.99 1.00 source: secondary data analysis (uncomtrade, 2019) indonesia's position, which tends to be a cinnamon exporter in the international market, also does not make indonesia a leading country in exporting cinnamon in the international market. based on the results of the tsi calculation analysis, the average tsi calculation for indonesian cinnamon and its competing countries shows that the five main cinnamon producing countries in the international market have a tendency to become cinnamon exporters and are at the stage of re-importing (sri lanka, china, indonesia and vietnam.), while madagascar is already at a stage of independence. madagascar can be in an independent stage because it is able to increase cinnamon exports and reduce cinnamon imports from 2008-2017 so that it has a tsi value equal to 1. this is indicated by the average growth rate of madagascar cinnamon imports is smaller than indonesia and its main competitor countries other. export competitiveness index (xci) analysis is used to see whether the indonesian cinnamon commodity and competing countries have the ability to compete based on their http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 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(sa’diyah et al) competitive advantage. the competitive advantage of a country can only be built through continuous innovation. continuous innovation can be done by utilizing technology, entrepreneurship, increasing productivity, and providing skilled labor (salvatore, 2014). table 2 shows the xci development of indonesian cinnamon and its competitors in the international market. table 2. development of xci in indonesian and major cinnamon producing countries in the international market, 2000-2017 development of xci cinnamon year indonesia china vietnam sri lanka madagascar 2000 0.9 0.77 1.34 1.03 0.86 2001 0.82 1.37 1.01 0.89 1.10 2002 1.07 1.06 0.95 0.96 0.95 2003 1.05 0.8 0.92 1.11 0.90 2004 1.16 1.15 1.26 0.86 1.05 2005 0.83 0.85 0.97 1.17 0.72 2006 1.00 1.01 1.38 0.91 1.36 2007 1.21 0.94 0.98 0.99 2.78 2008 1.01 0.85 1.06 1.10 1.04 2009 0.81 1.28 1.27 0.85 1.05 2010 1.34 0.97 1.09 0.95 1.11 2011 0.92 1.06 0.92 1.07 0.63 2012 0.86 0.9 0.95 1.13 0.87 2013 1.25 0.97 1.27 0.86 1.26 2014 1.20 0.97 1.28 0.81 1.27 2015 0.94 1.28 0.85 0.97 1.2 2016 0.87 0.85 1.05 1.16 0.94 2017 1.47 1.12 1.26 1.19 1.47 average 1.04 1.01 1.10 1.0 1.14 source: secondary data analysis (uncomtrade, 2019) the xci development of indonesia's cinnamon export trade for 18 years (2000-2017) has fluctuated, but tends to increase every year. the average xci value of indonesian cinnamon from 2000-2017 has a value greater than 1, which means that indonesia's cinnamon commodity exports have increased from the previous year and can compete in the international market (hidayati & suhartini, 2018). the trend of increasing competitiveness is in line with developments in the export value and export volume of indonesian cinnamon, which also continues to increase every year in the international market. although indonesia is able to compete in the international market, indonesia's xci value is not in the highest position when compared to competing countries. this happens because indonesia is still unable to maintain a consistent increase in exporting cinnamon in the international market. based on the results of the xci analysis, the xci mean value of cinnamon was obtained from the largest order, namely madagascar (1.14), vietnam (1.10), indonesia (1.04), china (1.01), http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 130 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research and sri lanka (1.00). madagascar has an xci average value of more than 1 because the average export volume growth rate and the export value growth rate of madagascar cinnamon are greater than indonesia, china, vietnam, and sri lanka. china has an xci value of (1.01), which means that china's cinnamon exports have increased from the previous year and are able to compete in the international market. however, the value of china's xci when compared to indonesia, vietnam and madagascar still has very little chance of being competitive. this is because the growth rate of cinnamon consumption in china also continues to increase every year. in 2008, 2010, and 2012 there was a drastic decline in export volume due to an increase in domestic cinnamon consumption in china, namely 35%, 75%, and 45%. this also happened to sri lanka, which has an xci value of 1, which means that the export of cinnamon in sri lanka did not increase and even decreased from the previous year, so that sri lanka was unable to compete in the export of cinnamon in the international market. this occurs due to a decrease in export volume as a result of an increase in domestic cinnamon consumption in sri lanka by 61% in 2010 and 52% in 2014. an increase in domestic cinnamon consumption in a country can reduce the country's competitiveness performance if the country does not increase production. therefore, china and sri lanka must increase production by increasing their productivity in order to meet domestic needs and needs in the international market which tend to increase. with changes in the performance of the competitiveness of indonesian cinnamon and competing countries from year to year, it is necessary to know what factors affect the performance of the export competitiveness of indonesian cinnamon and competing countries in the international market. the dependent variable used is the export value of cinnamon from indonesia and competitors, while the independent variables used are productivity, market share, export price, and domestic consumption of cinnamon from each country in indonesia, and competitors. in panel data regression, the best model is chosen to be used, namely the common effect, fix effect, or random effect models. table 3. chow test results test summary prob f result decision chow 0.0000 h0rejected fixed effect source: secondary data analysis (2019). based on the results of the chow test in table 3, the probability value f is 0.0000, so the probability value < α (0.05) and h0 is rejected so that the selected model is a fixed effect model rather than a common effect model. after it is known that the best model chosen is the fixed effect model, the next test is carried out, namely the hausman test. table 4. hausman test results test summary prob result decision hausman 0.0000 h0rejected fixed effect source: secondary data analysis (2019). the hausman test results obtained a probability value of 0.0000, then the probability value <α (0.05) and h0 is rejected, so the model chosen is the fixed effect model rather than the random effect model. the fixed effect model was chosen by using these two approaches, so testing the model with the lagrange multiplier can be ignored. based on the best model selection test, it can be concluded that a more appropriate model is used to explain the effect http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 131 indonesian cinnamon competitiveness ….. (sa’diyah et al) of productivity, market share, export price, and domestic consumption on the performance of indonesia's cinnamon export competitiveness and competitors is the fixed effect model. table 5 shows the results of panel data regression with a fixed effect model. table 5. analysis results of factors affecting the competitiveness performance of cinnamon in indonesia and major producing countries in the international market 2000-2017. variable coefficient std. error prob. c 6.705086*** 0.471143 0.0000 ln productivity 0.556858** 0.214502 0.0112 ln market share 1.254767*** 0.092185 0.0000 ln export price 1.063756*** 0.074539 0.0000 ln domestic consumption -0.051744*** 0.016271 0.0021 r2 0.982789 adjusted r2 0.981089 prob (f-statistic) 0.000000 source: secondary data analysis (2019) notes: *) significant at alpha 90% (α = 0,1) **) significant at alpha 95% (α=0,05) ***) significant at alpha 99% (α=0,01) ns) non significant the value of adjusted r2 shows the accuracy or goodness of fit of the model used. the greater the r2 value (close to 100 percent), the better the regression model. the estimation results of panel data regression with fixed effects resulted in an adjusted r2 value of 0.9810 which means, 98.10% of the variation in the dependent variable (the export value of the main cinnamon exporting country on the international market) can be explained by the independent variables used in the model (productivity, share market, export prices, and domestic consumption), while the remaining 1.9% is explained by other variables outside the model that are not included in this study. based on the results of the panel data regression analysis of the fixed effect model, the probability value of f is 0.0000, so based on the f test, productivity, market share, export prices, and domestic consumption together have an effect on the performance of the competitiveness of cinnamon in the main exporter of cinnamon in the international market. based on the results of panel data regression analysis in table 5, it can be seen that the constant value has an effect on the level of 99% with a regression coefficient of 6.7051, which means that the minimum export value of the main cinnamon producing countries in the international market when the independent variables in the regression model are considered fixed or zero is 6.7051% or equal to 816,55 us $. productivity cinnamon productivity has a positive and significant impact on the export value of cinnamon in the main cinnamon producing country in the international market. it means that every one percent increase in the productivity of cinnamon in the main cinnamon producing country in the international market will increase 0.55% of the export value of http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 132 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research cinnamon in that country. productivity is the ability of a land to produce certain crops under certain land cultivation conditions (nurmala et al., 2011). productivity describes the achievement of targets in the form of crop production related to quality and quantity. when productivity increases, product availability will also increase. the increase in productivity explains the increasing number of cinnamon production in certain unit per unit of land availability for the main cinnamon producing countries in the international market. the greater the production that can be produced, the more it can meet the availability of cinnamon to meet domestic and international market needs. the abundance of cinnamon production in indonesia, china, vietnam, sri lanka and madagascar can certainly have an impact on the progress of cinnamon exports in these countries. the resulting cinnamon production can support the country to continue to export to meet the demand for cinnamon in the international market, so that productivity will affect the performance of cinnamon exports in the international market. productivity can be used as a yardstick to measure the effectiveness of cultivation in utilizing the available land. ashari et al (2015) states that productivity can have a positive effect on the export performance of indonesian mangosteen fruit. market share the market share of cinnamon has a positive and significant impact on the export value of cinnamon in the main cinnamon producing countries in the international market, which means that every one percent increase in the market share of cinnamon in the main cinnamon producing countries in the international market will increase 1.25% of the export value of cinnamon in the country. market share is the total demand for an item in an area (widyaningtyas & widodo, 2016). market share shows how big the market can be controlled by the exporting countries in the international market. the greater the market share of a country means the greater the reach of the market that can be controlled by an exporting country. the greater share of the cinnamon market in indonesia, china, vietnam, sri lanka and madagascar shows that these countries can meet the demand for cinnamon in the international market, thereby increasing the value of their exports. purnamasari et al (2014) states that the higher the level of a country's market share, the more competitive it is because of the larger share of the market that country can control. in addition, it also explains that the wider market share controlled by an exporting country will enable the industry to maintain and increase the competitiveness in facing its competitors (wijayanti et al., 2011). export price the export price of cinnamon has a positive and significant effect on the export value of the main cinnamon producing countries in the international market. every one percent increase in export price will increase 1.06% of the export value of cinnamon in that country. this is not in accordance with the research hypothesis which states that export prices will have a negative effect on the competitiveness performance of the main cinnamon producing countries in the international market. gul et al (2013) states that if there is an increase in the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 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(sa’diyah et al) price of an item, the demand for that item will decrease and consumers will switch to other goods with a much cheaper price. a decrease in demand in the destination country will certainly affect the performance of competitiveness, because there will be a decrease in export volume and export value. however, in this study, the results showed that the higher the price of cinnamon in indonesia, china, vietnam, sri lanka and madagascar, the higher the competitiveness of those countries. this can happen because the export price or selling price can describe the quality of a commodity to be exported. muharami & novianti (2018) state that the export price of a good describes the quality of the product to be sold, an increase in the export price will encourage the export value of a commodity so that it can increase in the international market followed by an increase in quality. in addition, an increase in the export price of cinnamon from major producing countries can have a positive effect on the performance of competitiveness because the largest importer of cinnamon in the world is the us, which does not have a comparative advantage in producing cinnamon and requires quality products from exporting countries. domestic consumption the domestic consumption of cinnamon has a negative effect on the export value of the main cinnamon producing countries in the international market, which means that every 1 % decrease in the domestic consumption of cinnamon in the main cinnamon producing countries will increase 0.05 % the export value of cinnamon in that country. the decline in domestic consumption shows that domestic demand for cinnamon is smaller than foreign demand, so that the country tends to be an exporter country. ashari et al (2015) states that the lower domestic consumption while domestic production continues to increase, a country will increase its competitiveness because the country will tend to export to the international market. if domestic consumption in the main cinnamon producing countries increases, these countries need to increase their production maximally in order to meet the demands of the domestic market and the international market. efforts to increase production can be done by increasing productivity, expanding the area of land and optimizing land, and increasing the management skills of cinnamon farmers (sujaya et al., 2018). based on the regression analysis of panel data, the main factor affecting the performance of indonesia's cinnamon export competitiveness and competing countries is market share. market share has the highest coefficient value, which means that this variable has a greater influence on the export competitiveness performance of the main cinnamon producing countries. indonesia and its competitors must continue to increase their share of the export market for cinnamon in the international market if they are to continue to compete in the international market. the greater the market share or market reach, the more competitive the country will be, and that country can get the cinnamon market share in the international market. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 134 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research conclusions the performance of indonesia's cinnamon export trade shows that indonesia and its main competitor countries have comparative competitiveness and tend to be the exporters of cinnamon in the international market. based on the competitive advantage of indonesia and the main competing countries, except sri lanka, they have a competitive edge. the factors that influence the performance of the export competitiveness of indonesian cinnamon and competing countries are productivity, market share, export prices, and domestic consumption. productivity, market share, and export prices have a positive effect, while domestic consumption has a negative effect on the export competitiveness performance of indonesian cinnamon and its main competitors. references ajija, s. r., sari, d. w., setianto, r. h., & primanti, m. r. (2011). cara cerdas menguasai eviews. jakarta: salemba empat. anggrasari, h., & mulyo, j. h. (2019). the trade of indonesian spice comodities in international market. jae: jurnal agro ekonomi, 30(1), 13-26. aprilia, f., arifin, z., & sunarti. (2013). indonesia dalam menghadapi globalisasi (studi pada ekspor lada indonesia tahun 2009-2013). jab: jurnal administrasi bisnis, 27(2), 1–7. ashari, t. d., setiawan, b., & syafrial. (2015). indonesia policies simulation analysis to increase indonesian. habitat, 26(1), 61–70. bustami, b. r., & hidayat, p. (2013). analisis daya saing produk ekspor provinsi sumatera utara. jurnal ekonomi dan keuangan, 1(2), 56–71. faostat. (2019). production (crops) cinnamon commodity statistic. retrieved from http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/qc ferry, y. (2013). prospek pengembangan kayu manis (cinnamomum burmanii l) di indonesia development. srinov, 1(1), 11–20. gul, s., siddiqui, m. f., & malik, f. 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(2011). dampak kebijakan tarif dan non-tarif terhadap permintaan dan daya saing tuna indonesia di pasar uni eropa, amrika, dan jepang. jurnal agro ekonomi, 18(1), 9-20. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 4 no. 2 juli-desember 2018 joko mariyono1*, hanik a. dewi2, putu b. daroini2, evy latifah2, abu z. zakariya2, arief l. hakim3, victor afari-sefa4 1) program studi magister manajemen, program pascasarjana, universitas pancasakti, tegal 2) balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian jawa timur. 3) universitas islam raden rahmat, malang, jawa timur 4) world vegetable center, west and central africa regions, mali *) corespondence e-mail: mrjoko28@gmail.com farming practices of vegetables: a comparative study in four regions of east java and bali provinces doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4263 abstract agronomic and ecological aspects play important roles in vegetable production, because the aspects will be used for determining suitable interventions. this study aims to provide current farmers’ practices of vegetable production, particularly for agronomic and ecological aspects of chilli and tomato in four regions of east java and bali. this study uses of analytical tool of descriptive approach by comparing and contrasting each production practices across regions. data were compiled from a field survey of 360 farmers during 20132014. results of analysis were presented in graphical and tabular forms. farmers mostly selected hybrid varieties of vegetables because of economic reasons, such as high yield, good appearance and high number of fruits. anthracnose and late blight were perceived as the most important disease in chilli and tomato respectively. farmers controlled pests and diseases using pesticides. in general, farmers perceived that irrigation was one of limiting factors of vegetable farming. poor drainage was one of the crucial issues in bali. farmers mostly sold vegetable once harvested. post-harvest handling was still traditional, where farmers still less pay attention on post -harvest, even though they observed the economic advantage of post-harvest. based on the existing practices, a special extension on vegetable production needs to be formulated appropriately, based on the specific characteristics of each region. keywords: agronomic and ecological aspects; farmer’s perception; vegetable farming introduction along with population growth, indonesia is coping with food and nutrition security concerning household hunger and malnutrition. the production of vegetable crops in indonesia has grown both for domestic consumption and in exports to some extents. diversification into vegetables could benefit many rural people by increasing both production and employment. diversification into vegetables could thus play a significant role in supporting food and nutrition security in indonesia (weinberger & lumpkin, 2007). vegetables are high-value cash crops; their production could well be targeted for inter-island and export marketing. as a major source of nutrients in the diet, providing a broad spectrum of essential micronutrients including pro-vitamin a, iron, and zinc (latifah, andri, & mariyono, 2014), vegetables can contribute to the prevention of malnutrition disorders (kuntariningsih, 2018). while global types of vegetables (such as tomato and onion) are often more popular, there is a need to rise the utilisation of indigenous vegetables' enormous potential for daily sustenance, to diversify production systems and diets with indigenous vegetables, and to expand their use as cash crops. there is a potential to explore the vegetable production in a local economy (widodo, 2015; istiyanti, khasanah, & anjarwati, 2015). 82 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research indonesian vegetable production grew by an average of 8% per annum, from 6.9 million tons in 2001 to more than 9 million tons in 2005, to cover almost one million hectares with an average productivity of 9.6 tons per hectare. chilli production accounts for 20% of the land currently used for vegetable production but produces only 12% of the total vegetable production due to low average yields. in comparison, cabbage and potato use only 6.3% and 6.8% respectively of vegetable land and have much higher yields, resulting in significant production volumes. the major vegetables cultivated in indonesia (besides mushrooms) and their average yields are cabbages (22.4 t/ha), chilli (4.7 to 6.4 t/ha), potato (16.4 t/ha), shallot and onions (8.8 t/ha), and tomato (12.6 t/ha) (white et al., 2007). the production of vegetables increased during the last decade (figure 1). chilli had the highest growth rate. production of chilli increased from 1.2 million tons in 2003 to almost 1.9 million tons in 2013. this is due primarily to substantial improvements in irrigation infrastructure and the use of better cultivars over the period. other vegetables also increased steadily because of the same factors noted for chilli. among the vegetables grown in indonesia, chilli is the highest in terms of acreage and volume of production. source: (bps, 2014) figure 1. the dynamic trend of vegetable production in indonesia, 2003-2013 improvements in agronomic practices of vegetable production help farmers increase production. for example, seed technology can lead to use of other technology (bhattarai & mariyono, 2016). this is because vegetable production depends on conditions of the agroecosystem. agroecosystem conducive for vegetables leads to potential production. many factors are affecting vegetable production, starting from seed selection, land preparation, crop maintenance, crop protection, harvest and postharvest handling (istiyanti et al., 2015). before interventions for improving agronomic practices in vegetable production, we need to understand the current practices of vegetable production. as agroecosystem in indonesia varies across regions, it is essential to see the regional variation of agroecosystem that makes farmers cope with local problem wisely. the specific local problem needs a different approach, and this is useful for appropriate project intervention. this study aims to provide current farmers’ practices of vegetable production, particularly for chilli and tomato, in main four vegetable-producing areas in east java and bali provinces. the results are expected to be used by policymakers in formulating appropriate intervention programs. methods this study used a survey and adopted a framework of integration of qualitative and quantitative survey to meet the above objectives. the qualitative survey approach used for the collection of social and institutional issues involved in chilli farming and the information at the community or group level average in the village. quantitative one used the individual interview. this was conducted by interviewing selected farmers. interviews were conducted by enumerators using structured questionnaires. each selected farmer was questioned individually to avoid farmers from being influenced by one another. every response from farmers was recorded in a questionnaire. each questionnaire only recorded one farmer. this survey illustrated agronomic production issues involved in vegetable cultivation in east java and bali provinces of indonesia. east java was selected because this province is the second largest vegetable 83 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 production in indonesia, but the productivity was lower than that in other provinces (bps, 2016). bali was selected because there was a unique farming system in the regions, particularly the cultural and business environment that differ from other provinces of indonesia (bps, 2015). the assessment was based on farmers' survey carried out during the research period of 2013-2014 in four communities: kediri and blitar of east java; and bangli and tabanan of bali. data for this study were compiled from a quantitative survey of 360 farm households located in four major vegetable producing regions. each of the communities/districts selected was the centre of vegetable production, particularly chilli, tomato, eggplant, shallot and cabbage/lettuce. however, tomato and chilli are the leading vegetable crops grown by surveyed farmers, thus this paper mainly discussed both commodities. other crops such as eggplant, shallot, cabbage only minors, and usually grown as intercrops along the site of the land border; and thus, such crops were not discussed. each site represents a distinct variation of production characteristic and agro-ecology settings of vegetable farming practice in the region. three major forms of descriptive data were analysed: sample means, frequency and proportion, and weighted rank order. analyses on frequency were carried out by counting the number of farmers who responded to a certain category of response/issue in the questionnaire. once the data were obtained, the percentage of those from the sub-total of each district and total samples in the project area were calculated. if the frequency of a certain variable is higher than the others, then this particular variable is considered more important. mean (average) value of a particular variable was estimated by calculating the sample average of the variable. the report uses descriptive analysis. mean comparison of quantitative data among regions was tested using simple t-test. for non-quantitative data, the analysis focused on the frequency of farmers' response. qualitative data are represented by proportion (percentage) of farmers providing response relative to total farmers in each region and overall. the common formula of proportion is expressed as: (1) where n is the number of farmers providing response, n is total number of sampled farmers. further analysis of the importance of information was conducted using a weighted average. graphs were used to help in comparing important selected information visually. the mean value was calculated using the formula: (2) where xi is the variable of ith to be analysed, n is the number of sampled farmers. to provide information on the significance, a statistical t-test was provided as reported by the spss software package, which is formulated as: (3) where subscript k and j refer to the different districts, and sdjk is the standard deviation obtained from xj and xk . in this case, if the value of t-test is greater than the value t-table at 90% confidence interval, then the average of the particular variables is significantly different from other survey sites. for particular important factors, analyses on weighted rank were conducted by calculating the score reported by farmers. the weighted average rank is formulated as (4) where n is the number of farmers responding to each category, s is the score, and n is the total number of samples. a higher score was focused on a particular variables (responses) when farmers reported that such a variable was more important. for example, during the field survey, if there are five choices, and a farmer gave the first rank for a specified variable in a list, then the particular variable is scored (ranked) as one. if the farmer located it in the second rank, then it is scored two, and so on. if the farmer mention nothing, then the score for this particular factor is considered zero. thus, the higher the value of weighted average rank, the more important the factor (response) mentioned by many farmers during the survey. the statistical analysis was run by using the software package of spss® and msexcel®. results and discussion 84 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research variety selection farmers cultivated small, curly and big chillies, and leafy vegetables and fruit tomatoes. almost all varieties of chilli and tomato were identified hybrids. farmers got the varieties from agricultural input stores around their villages. small chilli was mostly grown in kediri, and the popular variety was bhaskara; curly chilli was mostly grown in blitar, and the popular variety was tm999. while big chilli was also grown in blitar, and the popular variety was gada-mk. in bali, farmers cultivate hot chilli, and the most popular variety was wibawa. for tomato, timothy was the popular variety in east java. while in bali, martha and menara were the hybrid variety of tomato that was mostly grown by farmers. the variation in types and varieties of chilli and tomato in each location was to fulfil market demand and consumer preferences (mariyono et al., 2018). colour, shape, aroma and size were characteristics of tomato and chilli. the characteristics of chilli became more matter when the supply of both commodities was high. different characteristics during peak season led to a low price. other factors such as agro-climate condition, pests and diseases also affected the selection of types and varieties. farmers selected such variety because of various reasons. almost all farmers in all regions stated that economic reasons, such as high yield, good appearance and a high number of fruits behind the variety selection. it is common that economic motives are behind the choice of varieties. resistance to pests and diseases was also a strong motive for farmers to select varieties (mariyono et al., 2010). the seed becomes one of the important factors affecting the productivity of vegetables (sita & hadi, 2016). pests and diseases pests and diseases are major limiting factors (paramanandham et al., 2017). farmers need to cope with pests and diseases to get the potential of production. table 1 shows the most important pests and diseases in tomato and chilli. anthracnose was perceived as the most important disease in chilli, which potentially causes yield loss of up to around 27%. in bali, potential yield loss caused by the disease was higher than that in east java. table 1. top three of pests and diseases in chilli and tomato crop pests and diseases percentage of loss (%) tabanan bangli blitar kediri total anthracnose 51a 38a,b 25b 20b,c 27 chilli fruit fly 30a,b 71a 25b 22b,c 32 aphids 10b 18a 13a 23a 18 late blight 7.94a 5.00a,b 0.22b 2.80a,b 3.97 tomato phytophthora 8.97a 0.23b 0.02b 3.21a,b 3.39 fruit borer 4.21a 0.68a 0.00a 1.97a 1.82 note: numbers in the same row and sub-table not sharing the same subscript denote significantly different evaluated at p< .05 in the twosided test of equality for column means. cells without subscript are not included in the test. tests assume equal variances. for tomato, late blight and phytophthora were perceived the most important, despite low potential of yield loss. the rate of yield loss of tomato caused by pests and diseases were perceived low. this is an indication that farmers were able to control. but, if such pests and diseases were not controlled, the rate of yield loss could be very high, even could reach up to 100%, during bad weather. table 2. the results of the control measure of pests and diseases crop results % farmers’ statement tabanan bangli blitar kediri effective 12.36 10.11 28.09 49.44 chilli partly effective 6.45 17.20 38.71 37.63 not effective 2.56 25.64 38.46 33.33 effective 65.22 2.17 4.35 28.26 tomato partly effective 19.23 15.38 7.69 57.69 not effective 50.00 50.00 0.00 0.00 in all areas, farmers made efforts to reduce the yield loss by controlling pests and diseases. farmers did not carry out a single method, but they apply a combination of control measures to reduce the attacks of pests and diseases. farmers always applied pesticides with the frequency of spray 2-3 per week, during 5-8 weeks. chilli was applied more than tomato because chilli takes longer than tomato to harvest. pesticides were the primary control measure, and sometimes pesticides were combined with other controls measures such as mechanical and cultural methods. many factors affecting the use of pesticides. these include age, education, experience, market 85 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 price of products and alternative measures of pests and diseases (mariyono et al., 2018a). table 2 shows that the effectiveness of control measures that were taken by farmers. mostly farmers perceived that the control measures were effective or partially effective. the case of not effective occurred during the outbreak and very bad weather and farmers were late to apply pesticides, particularly fungicides. when farmers perceived that the control measures were ineffective, the causes included wrong targets, incorrect time, and inappropriate dosage of pesticides. sometime farmers were too late to take actions. it is interesting to note that synthetic pesticides should be wisely used because such pesticides lead to health and environmental problems (mariyono et al., 2018a). irrigation-related issues irrigation is also essential in vegetable farming (mukherjee, sarkar, & sarkar, 2018). during the dry season, the availability of water for irrigation determines the performance of vegetable farming. table 3 shows the irrigation condition in the project areas. table 3. condition of irrigation type and source of irrigation proportion (%) tabanan bangli blitar kediri overall source of water water canal 0 0 68.3 38.7 22.3 well 4.8 0 15.0 19.4 9.3 water tank 0 0 6.7 4.8 2.4 lake 8.0 90.9 0 0 17.2 rain fed 86.4 9.1 0 37.1 46.4 drinking water 0.8 0 5.0 0 1.4 irrigation method flooding 6.4 0 3.4 0 3.4 flooding with bed 12.8 0 69.5 51.6 45.9 manual from well 18.4 0 6.8 0 9.3 manual from tank 51.2 0 15.3 32.3 32.1 pumped 11.2 100 5.1 12.9 8.6 drip irrigation 0 0 0 1.6 0.3 other 0 0 0 1.6 0.3 overall, the common source of water came from rain-fed and the conventional method of irrigation flooding with the bed. particular in bangli, the primary source of water was a lake; and in blitar, the primary source of water was the water canal or rivers. in tabanan, the primary source of water was rain-fed. the difference in the source of water determines the cropping pattern in each area. farming relying on rain-fed as the sole source of irrigation will be operated during the rainy season. figure 2 shows the proportion of farmers facing irrigation problem. overall, 70% of farmers perceived that irrigation was one of limiting factors of vegetable farming. in bangli, more 90% farmers stated that irrigation is a severe problem. during the rainy season, there was too much water such that the land flooded by the rising water lake. during the dry season, water was available from the lake, but the cost of watering was high because irrigation needed to be carried out every day. this is because the soil type of land was sandy. figure 2. problem of water irrigation of those perceiving that irrigation was the problem in vegetable farming, categorised into several issues, which are shown in figure 3. in general, scarce water during the dry season was perceived by farmers as the most critical issue. another critical issue is that fact that vegetable farming was mostly situated in the sloped land, such that it was quite challenging to get adequate water. within the area of bangli, even though 95% of farmers stated that irrigation was one of limiting factors, they perceived that such a problem had been overcome using the water pump. they only stated that the issue of irrigation became important when fuel was scarce leading to the high price of fuel. figure 3. the importance of issues related to irrigation 86 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 4 shows the seriousness of water scarcity. among farmers providing response, the water scarcity was not too serious. if those who did not provide response perceived that scarcity of water was not the problem. overall, only about 10% of farmers stated that such a problem was severe. not that, in bangli, water is always available from the lake, so they did not provide response related to water scarcity. table 4. seriousness of scare water irrigation response proportion of farmers (%) tabanan bangli blitar kediri overall no response 40.3 81.8 68.3 52.5 55.0 very lack 5.6 2.3 10.0 8.2 6.6 slightly lack 18.5 0 5.0 8.2 10.7 fair 22.6 13.6 8.3 23.0 18.3 serious 2.4 0 1.7 6.6 2.8 very serious 10.5 2.3 6.7 1.6 6.6 despite such problem, farmers were able to cope with such that the problem did not stop farmers from operating vegetable farming. farmers made efforts to cope with the problem by purchasing water from local government and use it as efficient as possible. during high water scarcity, farmers gave water to crops using a watering can together with fertiliser application. soil-related issues soil condition determines the performance because it is essential ecological capital (manea, 2017). agricultural and will be useless if the condition is unable to support crops (morillas et al., 2017). figure 4 describes the main issues related to soil condition in surveyed areas. overall, poor drainage was the main issues for vegetable farming. this is understandable because several high valued vegetables such as tomato and chilli are sensitive to water lodging. in bali, the issue was more critical than in east java, where poor drainage was as important as low soil fertility and low soil nutrient. more than 80% of farmers in bali perceived that poor drainage was the important issue; contrast to that in east java, which only accounted for about one-third. figure 4. percentage of farmers perceiving the main problem of soil condition figure 5 shows more detail of drainage condition in surveyed areas. overall, drainage condition was not too bad. about 30% of farmers perceived that drainage condition was just good and fair. in bali however, more than 80% of farmers perceived that drainage in their land was poor. figure 5. percentage of farmers perceiving drainage problem figure 6 describes soil fertility of agricultural land in the surveyed areas. overall, the soil fertility was not too bad, except in tabanan. one bad situation is the fact that about 50% of farmers in bangli had no idea about soil fertility in their owned land. compare to those in other areas, this situation is worrying. without knowing their soil fertility, they would just do “trial and error” in their farming. it was figure 6. percentage of farmers perceiving soil fertility of land 87 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 suggested that farmers knew the soil fertility such that they were able to determine the right dose of fertilisers (latifah et al., 2018). figure 7. percentage of farmers with different soil types drainage issue could be associated with the soil types (wang et al., 2018). figure 7 describes the composition of soil types. overall, soil types in surveyed areas were sandy clay and sandy. in bangli of bali, where the drainage condition is the main issue was relevant to the soil type, which was sandy clay. in blitar of east java, the situation was quite similar to that in bangli. in east java, poor soil fertility and low soil nutrient were relevant to the sandy soil. sandy soil was able to keep the soil humid, and soil nutrient is easily leached together with water. figure 8. percentage of farmers knowing soil acidity (ph) one factor that determines soil fertility is the acidity of the soil. this factor is important since it affects the availability of soil nutrient to crops (fangueiro et al., 2017). extreme soil acidity enables essential nutrient will not be available to plants, and the condition also leads to crop intoxication. unfortunately, more than 75% of farmers did not know the soil acidity of their land; even in bangli, more than 95% farmers did not know the soil acidity of their land (figure 8). this is condition could be the root of a soil problem in bangli. figure 9. percentage of farmers have conducted a soil test lack of knowledge on soil acidity is explainable because about 90% of farmers have not tested soil of their land in an adequate soil laboratory (figure 9). thus, they did have any information related to physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil. as the farmers lack information on soil fertility, they have not been observing the signs and symptoms of nutrient deficiency related to soil fertility. post-harvest handling a potential risk is because vegetables are perishable products, which relate to post-harvest losses. after harvest, fresh vegetables are transported from the farm to either a packing house or distribution centre. for some crops such as fruits, vegetables, and root crops, being less hardy than cereals, post-harvest losses can reach 50% (anonymous, 2008). reduction in these losses would increase the amount of food available for human consumption and enhance global food security (anonymous, 2008; trostle, 2010). post-harvest handling is the last action of farming before marketing. this step is important because it determines the price of vegetable produces. many factors affect the quality of vegetable produces. one of them is the variety of crops since each variety 88 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research has distinctive characteristics. table 5 shows that more than 50% of farmers in east java giving response perceived that variety of chilli influenced the quality. there is an indication that the variety chilli in east java was more important than that in bali. this is understandable since chilli in east java was marketed at a national level. whereas, chilli in bali was marketed only to fulfil local market in bali. table 5. effect of variety on product quality crops proportion of farmers tabanan bangli blitar kediri overall chilli no response 79.4% 65.9% 26.7% 12.9% 45.0% affect 12.7% 25.0% 40.0% 48.4% 31.9% not affect 7.9% 9.1% 33.3% 38.7% 23.1% tomato no response 63.5% 75.0% 95.0% 77.4% 77.7% affect 20.6% 15.9% 1.7% 8.1% 11.4% not affect 15.9% 9.1% 3.3% 14.5% 10.9% the case of chilli is different from that of tomato. variety of tomato was perceived to not to have a huge influence on the quality. market preference on tomato did not affect much by the variety. in the case of tabanan, where farmers have particular market for tomato, the verity of tomato is more important than other regions. table 6: factors affecting quality of chilli factors rank order (the higher the better) tabanan bangli blitar kediri overall size 1.41 3.18 4.57 5.84 3.78 colour 1.33 2.52 3.90 5.34 3.32 shape 1.24 2.84 3.82 4.08 2.99 taste 0.93 0.33 0.83 1.60 1.00 water content 0.44 0.25 0.72 2.06 0.92 aroma 0.51 0.27 1.27 1.39 0.90 since each variety has different special characteristics, many factors characterized the variety affect the quality of vegetable produces. table 6 shows that size, colour and shape of chilli were the important factors affecting the quality of chilli. in east java, farmers put more weight on these factors than those in bali. in the case of tomato, size, colour and shape were also important factors in affecting the quality of tomato (table 7). however, the rank of such factors in tomato was lower than that in chilli. in contrast to east java, farmers in bali posited greater weight for such factors than those in east java. one of the sensible reasons is that bali and east java have a different target of marketing. table 7. factors affecting quality of tomato factors rank order (the higher rank the better quality) tabanan bangli blitar kediri overall size 2.71 2.27 0.50 1.53 1.73 colour 2.41 1.82 0.50 1.05 1.43 shape 2.48 1.93 0.35 0.97 1.41 taste 1.27 0.32 0.35 0.23 0.56 water content 0.81 0.18 0.33 0.29 0.42 aroma 0.73 0.20 0.20 0.15 0.33 there are potentials to improve and modernise the vegetable farming practices since many farmers still in traditional and subsistence stages (mariyono et al., 2018b). the role of extension services become essential. farming practices can be improved by sending the farmers in informal schools (kuntariningsih & mariyono, 2013a), and encouraging farmers with the use of modern technology (kuntariningsih & mariyono, 2014), particularly for ecological technology (latifah et al., 2018). the training enables farmers to increase farm productivity (luther et al., 2018) and the efficiency of resource use (mariyono, 2018). as many factors affecting the use of modern technology (kuntariningsih & mariyono, 2013b), the extension services should be updated with the current condition (wulandari, 2015). the use of information and communication technology might be one of the best alternatives to complement the extension services because farmers could access technology and market information directly (negoro et al., 2018). farmers also could plan the best time to grow vegetables when 89 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 they have access to market information (negoro & mariyono, 2014). conclusion agroecological aspects that play important roles in vegetable production include selection of hybrid variety of vegetables, and crop protection practices. anthracnose and late blight were perceived as the most important disease in chilli and tomato respectively. farmers perceived that irrigation was one of limiting factors of vegetable farming. poor drainage was one of the crucial issues in bali. soil fertility was not the main issues, but there was a bad situation that farmers did not know about soil fertility of their land. farmers mostly sold vegetable once harvested. postharvest handling was still traditional, where farmers did not pay attention to much on it. thus, postharvest handling still need more attention by farmers since only a small fraction of farmers were aware on that, even though they observed that high quality of produce provides price premium. this study is expected to provide good guidance in formulating policies. from the specific condition of farming practices in each location, policies related to vegetable farming development need to be formulated wisely to cope with local specific problems. in this case, agricultural district services (dinas pertanian) in each region should formulate appropriate policies accordingly. for example, in bali, water irrigation was perceived to be the problem, unlike in east java. then the local government need to solve this problem appropriately. another instance is in east java where product quality matters when the variety of chilli is the cause. local government should provide more alternatives for farmers. acknowledgement this study is a part of the “vegetables for indonesia” project, funded by united states agency for international development (usaid)-indonesia, led by dr greg luther of the world vegetable center, in collaboration with indonesian vegetables research institute, assessment institute for agricultural technology east java and bali, agricultural extension service of east java and bali, udayana university and yayasan field indonesia. the authors thank the farmers and enumerators who provided and recorded information related to vegetable production in east java and bali, and acknowledge all co-principal 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(2015). information needs and source information of agricultural extension workers in diy. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1(2), 85–97. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 3 no.2 juli 2017 nurliza*, eva dolorosa, abdul hamid a. yusra agribusiness dept., faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura nurliza.spmm@gmail.com rice farming performance for sustainable agriculture and food security in west kalimantan h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .3248 abstract for more than three decades, domestic rice production was not able to meet its growing demand and showed in poor performance. this research aims to analyze the performance of rice farming in west kalimantan. the research was conducted using descriptive methods through interviews. the data was analyzed to describe farmer p ers onal character, s k ill and knowlwdge, risk analysis, and technical efficiency employing stochastic frontier model. this study proved that farmer had 3 to 6 years of pupilage attainment; used rainfed; widely used ciherang seeds; most of them had 0.25-1.25 ha; only 20% of rice farming could achieve over 6.5 tons/ha. the distribution of technical efficiency showed that only 17.41% of rice farmer is able to achieve sufficient; while 60-70% of technical efficiency is achieved by 30.37% of rice farmer. however, the risk of production, prices, and income each was than 0.5. keywords: farming performance, rice farmers, risk analysis, technical efficiency. introduction rice is one of the necessary strategic food for more than 90 percent of indonesian. in addition, it’s also a strategic political commodity since the early of independence so that indonesia has tried enormous to extend rice production. however, for more than three decades, domestic rice production wasn’t able to meet its growing demand that proved by increasing of rice import from other countries. this condition was created worse harassed from the growth of palm oil plantation, particularly in west kalimantan and low rice productivity. rice productivity in west kalimantan in line with data statistics indonesia in 2013 showed 3.184 tons/ha and contributed 2 percent of domestic production. however, there have been still several rice was imported, from java through inter-island trade and there have been 13.69% per annum of rice unloading at pt. pelindo. thus, there’s a possible chance to extend rice production in west kalimantan, both amount and quality. furthermore, in recent years, there have been many programs issued by government to implement sustainable development of rice. however, these efforts haven’t successful yet. several researches further as recent surveys in indonesia have also shown a considerably lower performance of farm management. this is often because of farmers lacking the management skills to manage their farming systems properly. consequences include reductions in crop yields and a waste of some natural resources. to enhance farm performance, it’s necessary not solely to promote the implementation of farming programming strategies, however also improving system designs and performance and upgrading farmers’ skills to control and manage their farming system more efficient. the on-farm performance, highly depends on farmers’ management abilitys for usually no provision is created for adopting systems to the local operating conditions or to the farmers’ technical skill for managing their systems. any problems also need to dig deeper by using farm production performance data, either alone or in combination with financial data. then, the next step is to diagnose the specific cause(s) that should be followed by efforts to find alternative solutions. the most promising solutions should be evaluated by developmailto:nurliza.spmm@gmail.com 85 vol. 3 no. 2 juli 2017 ing budgets to find the impacts on profitability and on cash flow. for major changes, developing an implementation plan is needed to go with these changes and continue monitoring farm performance to see if these changes are working as intended. the used of data performance assessments are crucial for the farmers because it can help farmers to plan for the longterm staffing and worker development that by considering the three ps-productivity (what was done), personal traits (how it was done, conduct) and proficiency (skill) (billikopf, 2014). the data performance assessments can also use to raise the wages or other rewards, to set up a coaching session and disciplinary procedures. the benefit of performance data also in line with (elferink, kuneman, visser, & van der wal, 2012) that also allowed farmers to compare and track their performance to others in the same region over the years. the performance data also give more comprehension for farmers to understand of various practice impacts and adapt over time for sustainability and mitigate those impacts. food companies could assess the performance of their supply base (farmers) and extensive benchmark of sourcing agricultural products over the years for own or other food companies in the same region. however, farmers need carefully to strike the right balance between productivity and personal traits because the over-emphasis on personal traits may increase compliance, at the expense of both creativity and performance or unethical behavior. therefore, this research aims to analyze the performance of rice farming in west kalimantan. methods the research was conducted within the three districts (kubu raya, singkawang, and sambas) that was the central location of food crop production and appropriate area for the rice development program in west kalimantan with interviews using 270 participants. the size of rice farmers met the criteria of multivariate analysis to estimate the appropriate indicators. the inteview using an unstructured or semi-structured set of questions to get devote complete attention to every participant, listen actively and establish good result; helpful with difficult recruiting; elicit the candid responses during a private setting the personal and/or professional topics of discussion; fewer distractions; faster and cheaper; and deeper insights (turner, 2010; alshenqeeti, 2014). the findings of this study are structured base on farm performance assessment to meet sustainable farming. one way to classify on-the-job farmer behavior base on data performance assessments is to respond these following questions (i) what was done (such as productivity); (iii) how it was done (personal traits); (iii) what skill farmers had (proficiency). productivity here can be measured in terms of specific performance accomplishments. while, personal traits such as motivation and willingness to join on cooperation may considered that can be translated into an achievement and how well an employee reports on assignment completion (productivity). furthermore, proficiency, skill and knowledge plays an important role in work performance. when assessments address worker proficiency factors to help assure in overcoming deficiency that may be blocking future performance or growth. the data was analyzed using descriptive table to describe how the farming was done and the farmers skill. the model is based on the assumption of variable returns to scale (vrs) and decision-making unit (dmu) in optimal condition. criteria for efficiency of technical efficiency of rice farming in indonesia is above 70% (kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto, 2011); (murniati, mulyo, irham, & hartono, 2014); (suharyanto, darwanto, & widodo, 2015). results dan discussions data on socio-demographic profile of the rice farmers were collected in terms of age, religion, ethnic, marriageable age, family members, and family expenses (table 1). based on the ages, majority of rice farmers is over forty years old and followed by over 30-40 year olds and over 20-30 year olds. the biggest proportion of population concerned in agriculture has faced a great challenge since most of youth as next generation doesn’t intend in agriculture. the large mass of farmers still found in farming corroborates the justification for the study and in line with (lasmini, nurmalina, & rifin, 2016) and (khanal, koirala, & regmi 2016); this can be not a good index to improved productivity as a result of farmers’ productivity is deemed to decrease as they age. this makes it almost impossible for farmers in most developing countries to retire from active agricultural service and thus requires an inquiry into the effects of ageing on their agricultural activities as this has rural-urban migration and disenchantment of the younger generations from farming (fasina, 2013). ministry of agriculture (2007) additionally declared that agriculture sector doesn’t offer an attractive incentive because of the relatively low output prices, expensive of input prices, and the narrow of land tenure. on religion aspect, 97.41% farmers are muslim. this find86 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research ing was in line with majority population’s faith in west kalimantan as muslim (59.52%). according to statistics indonesia (bps, 2015), 57.41% farmers are melayu ethnic because the center of paddy farming are within the coastal area that are usually dominated by this ethnic and solely small amount of farmers are madura ethnic. meanwhile, considering marriageable ages, farmer usually had married over 11 to 22 years (45.93%) and over 22 to 33 years (47.41%). the fact that the majority of the respondents is married over 11 years in line with their age that mostly over 40 years and will imply that couples are engaged in cooperative efforts in farming activities or operation. their wives can so be a source of support for them even in their old age (fasina, 2013). regarding members of the family, most of the farmer has more than equal to 2 to 4 of relations (71.85%). this finding was in line with (deptan, 2007) and it indicated that farmers have started to pay attention to the quality of life for family members. the impact on farming indicated that there have been labor shortage within the family that further led to a rise in labor from outside the family and mechanization. for information on expense of household farmers were collected to explain the proportion of food expenses and non-food expenses. it had been found that 72.59% of rice farmers had spent on food but rp.1, 500,000.00/ month, because the non-food spending has reached 80th. the most of rice grown has spent on food is slightly under the non-food goods indicated that the amount of social welfare is slightly increased and they want to change the level of life. (deptan, 2007) verified that the spending on non-food goods are typically more popular within the aspects of health and education for their children to induce better occupation outside the agricultural sector within the future and based on a national survey of rice consumption tends to decrease for farmers household too. meanwhile, personal trait and proficiency-skill knowledge of rice farmers considered in the study included educational attainment, farm experiences, type of irrigation, member in farmers group, type of seed, sources of seed, family income, and working time as presented in table 2. table 1. socio-demographic characteristics of the rice farmers socio-demographic characteristics freq. (%) age: > 2030 years 3 1.11 > 3040 years 59 21.85 > 40 years 208 77.04 religion: islam 263 97.41 christianity 3 1.11 catholic 4 1.48 ethnicity: bugis 41 15.19 melayu 155 57.41 jawa 56 20.74 madura 9 3.33 others 9 3.33 marriageable ages: <11 years 3 1.11 ≥11-22 years 124 45.93 >22-33 years 128 47.41 >33-44 years 13 4.81 >44 years 2 0.74 family members: <2 50 18.52 ≥2-4 194 71.85 >4-6 21 7.78 >6-8 2 0.74 >8 3 1.11 expenses/month: food: < rp 1,500,000.00 196 72.59 > rp 1,500,000.00 rp.3,500,000.00 62 22.96 > rp 3,500,000.00 rp.5,000,000.00 12 4.44 non-food: < rp 1,500,000.00 216 80.00 > rp 1,500,000.00 rp.3,500,000.00 52 19.26 > rp 3,500,000.00 rp.5,000,000.00 2 0.74 in table 2, the level of pupillage attainment of the rice farmers shown that the majority of the respondents had 3-6 years (52.59%) that mean they only finished or unfinished on elementary school education (lasmini, nurmalina, & rifin, 2016) this means that the levels of illiteracy among older rice farmers are higher as the majority of the farmers can neither read nor write. this had implication for farmers’ use of agricultural information or technology adoption, market access, competitiveness, and the development of the agricultural sector (hobbs, 2003); livingston, schonberger, & delaney, 2011; (ferroni, & zhou, 2011); (awotide, diagne, & amonona, 2012). (ophanhdala, 2009) even expressed that the farmers’ education is quantitatively important role in the agricultural performance. while, concerning farm experience, 41.11% of rice farmers had over 12-24 years that was indicated that farm performance have significant impact on the 87 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 variation of output (julius, & chukwumah, 2014). on types of irrigation, most of rice farmers in west kalimantan used rainfed and followed by irrigation (27.78%). the use of rainfed is because of the constraints of funds allocated for irrigation by local governments. however, in each rainfed and irrigated agriculture, farm yields and financial returns are also ruled briefly to medium-term by alternative factors, including: the quality of soil and land resources on the farm; the systems of land use and rotations that best suit the land resource and conjointly the climate; and the way a lot of money is invested with in optimising economic returns and adopting improved farming practices to overcome constraints on yield. this finding was in line with (cassman, 2016); to identify the foremost promising solutions requires robust assessment of crop yield trajectories, food production capacity at local to global scales, the role of irrigated agriculture, and water use efficiency is effective; the policies and regulations are required to make sure that water resources aren’t being depleted or degraded. regarding members in farmers group, 60.37% rice farmers belong to farmers groups for seed, fertilizers, pesticide aid and 9.26% for tractors, sprayers, rice thresher aids from the government. the link between social capital and collective action among farmers has been well documented in the literature; highlighted the importance of collective action specific to rising small-holder benefits inside the value chain and enabling them to comprehend market access and bargaining power (ramdwar, valerie, & ganpat, 2014). considering types of seed, ciherang is more widely used than the inpara 1, inpara 3, hybrid, and inpara 2. in direct seeding, seeds are sown directly within the field. whereas in transplanting, the seedlings are at the start raised in seedbeds before they are planted within the field. rice farmers habitually select the appropriate seed base on locality, kind of soil, rice ecosystem, and additionally the availability of inputs and labor. however, a number of the things that are done for many years by rice farmers in west kalimantan to create rice plants grow have unfortunately reduced their natural potential. this new system of rice intensification changes these ancient practices to bring out of the rice plant vital prospects for increasing production. the yields that will be achieved by every individual farmer will rely on several things: in the care of source of seed also became one of a way to make sure the rice productivity is guaranteed. this finding proved that source of seed from the government was most preferred by rice farmers (28.89%) because the quality is more secure and reliable. table 2. personal trait of rice farmers personal trait freq. (%) pupilage attainment: < 3 years 31 11.48 ≥ 3 6 years 142 52.59 > 6 9 years 64 23.70 >9 -12 years 30 11.11 > 12 years 3 1.11 farm experiences: < 12 years 47 17.41 ≥ 12-24 years 111 41.11 > 2436 years 71 26.30 >36-48 years 31 11.48 > 48 years 10 3.70 types of irrigation: rainfed 193 71.48 irrigation 75 27.78 tidal 2 0.74 members in farmer group: yes (support with tractors, sprayers, rice thresher) 25 9.26 yes (support with seed, fertilizers, pesticides) 163 60.37 yes (support with training) 31 11.48 no (no training) 45 16.67 no (no information) 6 2.22 types of seed: inpara 1 58 21.48 inpara 2 36 13.33 inpara 3 54 20.00 ciherang 81 30.00 hybrid 41 15.19 sources of seed: government 78 28.89 private 47 17.41 one’s own 26 9.63 government and private 64 23.70 government and one’s own 55 20.37 family income: on-farm: < rp.1,500,000.00 88 32.59 > rp.1,500,000.00 rp.3,500,000.00 84 31.11 > rp.3,500,000.00 rp.5,000,000.00 51 18.89 > rp.5,000,000.00 rp.7,000,000.00 42 15.56 > rp.7,000,000.00 5 1.85 off-farm : < rp.1,500,000.00 37 78.72 > rp.1,500,000.00 rp.3,500,000.00 7 14.89 > rp.3,500,000.00 rp.5,000,000.00 3 6.38 non-farm : < rp.1,500,000.00 45 48.39 > rp.1,500,000.00 rp.3,500,000.00 22 23.66 > rp.3,500,000.00 rp.5,000,000.00 16 17.20 > rp.5,000,000.00 rp.7,000,000.00 8 8.60 > rp.7,000,000.00 2 2.15 88 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research one of the biggest constraints of the consecutive adoption of improved varieties is that the provision of seed. meanwhile, access to seed may be a necessary condition for improved seed adoption and also the adoption of improved seed is a crucial component of agricultural productivity, food security and sustainable economic process. therefore, the persistence of lack of access to certified improved rice seed can jeopardize the efforts to attain self-reliance in rice production, and also the dependence on import would still expose the state to international shocks. knowledge of existing varieties, perception regarding the attributes of improved varieties, household wealth and accessibility of the active labor force are major determinants for adoption of improved technologies. the adoption of improved agricultural technologies has a significant positive impact on farmers’ integration into output market and also the findings are consistent that suggesting the strength of the results. this confirms the potential direct role of technology adoption on market participation among rural households, as higher productivity from improved technology interprets into higher output market integration (asfaw, shiferaw, simtowe, & hagos, 2011). regarding with the family income, off-farm income generates more revenue than non-farm and on-farm. farm households rely upon income from each off-farm and non-farm activities. consequently, for several farm households, economic decisions (including technology adoption and different production decisions) are probable to be formed by the allocation of time among such activities. whereas time allocation decisions are typically not measured directly, we tend to observe the outcomes of such decisions, like off-farm and non-farm income. (fernandez-cornejo, 2007) found that a farm operator’s off-farm employment and off-farm income vary reciprocally with the scale of the farm. operators of smaller farm operations, improve their economic performance by compensating for the scale disadvantages of their farm business with more off-farm involvement. off-farm work reduces farm-level technical efficiency, however, can increase household-level technical efficiency. adoption of agricultural innovations that save management time is expounded to higher off-farm income. this finding also proved that the household income of rice grower has not, however, met all the needs of households in order that they look for other sources of income outside of farming, such as labor, fishing, merchants, transport suppliers, industrial household or alternative work that’s unskilled job (nasir, mulyana, & yunita, 2015). those findings have been strengthened by the characteristics of land tenure, productivity, and the revenue of rice farmers per season that are presented in table 3. table 3. land tenure, productivity, revenue of rice farming land tenure (ha) freq. % <0.25 9 3.33 0.25 – < 0.50 17 6.30 0.50 – < 1.00 67 24.81 1.00 – < 1.25 90 33.33 1.25 – < 1.50 6 2.22 1.50 – <1.75 20 7.41 1.75 – < 2.00 0 0.00 2.00 – < 2.25 42 15.56 ≥ 2.25 19 7.04 productivity (kg/ha) < 500 kg/ha 4 1.48 500 – < 1,250 47 17.41 1,250 – < 2,000 40 14.81 2,000 – < 2,750 40 14.81 2,750 – < 3,500 20 7.41 3,500 – < 4,250 40 14.81 4,250 – < 5,000 3 1.11 5,000 – < 5,750 13 4.81 5,750 – < 6,500 9 3.33 ≥ 6,500 kg/ha 54 20.00 revenue (rp/ha) < 1,500,000 0 0 1,500,000 – < 3,000,000 13 4.81 3,000,000 – < 4,500,000 16 5.93 4,500,000 – < 6,000,000 20 7.41 6,000,000 – < 7,500,000 24 8.89 7,500,000 – < 9,000,000 27 10.00 9,000,000 – < 10,500,000 23 8.52 10,500,000 – < 12,000,000 20 7.41 12,000,000 – < 13,500,000 17 6.30 13,500,000 – < 15,000,000 17 6.30 ≥ 15,000,000 93 34.44 on land tenure, mostly rice grower only had 0.25–less than 1.25 ha (58.14%) and this finding proved that the land owned is limited not only in java but also outside java, particularly in west kalimantan (table 3). these conditions had an impact on the society in the region. land ownership is not only important for agriculture, but also for varying needs in society. the land serves as a productive asset and commodity that could be traded. the shrinkage problems of productive land for farming generally due to rampant conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural (suhartanto, 2009). (winarso, 2012) also stated that the shrinkage of land tenure occurs in all types of rice field land because of some reasons. first, the transaction of sale and buy of land; second, the distribution of inheritance or grants which had re89 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 sulted in the marginalization of land ownership and small farmers tend to sell their land because of the income earned from the land does not meet the needs of the household; third, land conversion. while, on rice productivity, only 20% of rice grower could make over 6.5 ton/ha and mostly rice farmers (80%) got less than it. land tenure were proved have a positive significant relationship with the value of rice production, rice productivity, and the technical efficiency (koirala, mishra, & mohanty, 2014); (shaikh, hongbing, khan, & ahmed, 2016). (koirala, mishra, & mohanty,2014) also stated that yield improvement is governed mainly in two ways; either shifting the yield frontier or by developing and promoting yield-enhancing technologies. improving rice productivity can give to higher yield and in reducing poverty, especially in rural areas, increased productivity may also help in increasing the income and food security of small farmers, who depend on rice production for a living. land tenure would also affect the household income levels and show that the gini index in some villages had great value (cervantes-godoy, & dewbre, 2010). the relationship between farm income and land tenure levels indicates that income distribution was affected by the strata of land ownership, the land owned will increase the income of households. thus, the farmers households that have a large of land tenure, have a greater range of the nonagricultural sources (winarso, 2012). this finding was proved by the ownership of highest income, 34.44% of rice farmers had more than equal to 2.25 ha of land tenure. table 4. the distribution of technical efficiency level for rice farming tehnical efficiency rice farming freq. (%) 0% 20% 0 0 > 20% 30% 1 0.37 > 30% 40% 3 1.11 > 40% 50% 62 22.96 > 50% 60% 75 27.78 > 60% 70% 82 30.37 > 70% 47 17.41 average 0.439 maximum 0,779 minimum 0,255 furthermore, the distribution of technical efficiency for rice farmers farming are presented in table 4. technical efficiency is concerned with producing goods and services with the optimal combination of inputs to produce maximum output for the minimum cost. to be technically efficient means the economy must be produced on its production possibility frontier. technical efficiency is also closely related to the concept of productive efficiency. this technical efficiency of rice farming was measured to assess the achievement of the target application of technology to increase production and productivity or technical efficiency can explain the adoption rate of technology. table 4 showed the distribution of technical potency level for rice farmers farming shown that only 17.41% rice grower who are able to accomplish sufficient; while over 60-70% technical efficiency achieved by 30.37% of rice farmers and the others less than the accomplishment of this technical efficiency. so, only a few of rice farmers were able to attain sufficient on farming in west kalimantan. average accomplishment of technical efficiency was 43.9%, whereas minimum accomplishment of technical efficiency was 25.5% and 77.9% of maximum achievement of technical efficiency. this finding was signaled for the government to accelerate the adoption of technology for rice grower, even though the appliance of technological innovation is determined by the financial ability or the rice farmers household that were occurring on all domestic food crop farmers already (aji, satria, & hariono, 2014); (sumarno, harianto, & kusnadi, 2015). future improvements may be expected from continued innovations in both agronomic practices and genetic improvement, although current seed company business models are in question given rush to merge for all major seed firms, and appropriate business models have yet to be developed to require full advantage of farmer-reported information on crop management, high resolution spatial information on soils and climate, as well as advances in computing power, remote sensing, communication technologies, and crop simulation models (cassman, 2016). the characteristics that ensure an innovation’s rate of adoption are: relative advantage; compatibility; complexity; trialability; and observability to those people among the social structure (rogers, 2003). (lasmini, nurmalina, & rifin, 2016) stated that the benefits of technology adoption can be done by presenting the figure of the progressive farmers who have higher technical efficiency characteristics than other farmers, grasp more regarding rice farming, respond positively and had extension recommendation adopting best of rice farming. therefore policies leading to raising the educational level of the farmer, increasing their technical efficiency, guaranteeing greater access to microfinance, crop specific regional focusing and strengthening the extension services through a lot of intensive on-farm demonstrations might be useful to increasing technical efficiency and adoption of technology. 90 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (galero, & tiongco, 2014) in their research also gave some recommendation related empirical findings, an urgent to extend and sustain investments in agriculture, particularly on research and development, infrastructures and smallholder productivity. through these, there can be low cost irrigation and resource-efficient technologies, like integrated soil fertility management using the combination of each fertilizer and manure or compost, particularly for the rainfed areas. there’s additionally a desire to enhance and depend upon human resource capability through education, coaching and extension to boost investments further, the government should encourage non-public sector participation, particularly wherever market failure is clear. next, the govt ought to improve access to the main agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers and seeds. these should be at a low price so that the farmers will afford them and for the distributors to urge back their prices and still earn profits. lastly, the govt ought to overcome institutional contraints. the government should also safeguard the right of the farmers particularly to their land. furthermore, relating to risks of rice farming are given in table 5. assessing risk at the farming levels helps rice farmers to understand risk, create better decisions and build risk mitigation scenarios. risk assessments also cause accurate plans that are less likely to steer to budget overruns or delays. cost commitments, revenue pipelines, and profit forecasts are going to be accurately stated for each level of risk. the sensitivity of the forecasts are going to be better understood. when informed by the risk assessment, the whole farming are going to be more profitable. table 5 demonstrated the risk assessment of rice farming used the standards of coefficient of variance. if the coefficient of variance value is over 0.5 then the rice farming risks borne by rice farmers was at the lower limit value, whereas if the constant of variance worth less than equal to 0.5 then the rice farmers continuously take the profit or break even at the lower limit value. these findings tested that the risk of production, prices, and financial gain on rice farming were low or the coefficient of variance value were less than 0.5 so rice farmers will take profit. these findings were contrary to the findings of (suharyanto, darwanto, & widodo, 2015) that higher risk was occured in rice farming and it had been influenced principally by land tenure, organic fertilizers, and pesticides. less of rice farmers able to attain the technical efficiency, productivity, profit and income in farming or to avoid risks as their expected as a result of several factors, which might be controlled (internal) or that can’t be controlled (external), and since of the intensity of the input and output price. table 5. risk analysis of rice farming description value production: average 3,314.9519 standard deviation 12.629670 lower limit 3,289.9519 the coefficient of variance 0.004000 price: average 4,597 standard deviation 1.337824 lower limit 4,594.3244 the coefficient of variance 0.000291 income: average 13,795,770 standard deviation 844,163.146300 lower limit 12,107,443.71 the coefficient of variance 0.061115 thus, some methods can be taken that were based on the outline and abstract of empirical results. first, ex-ante strategy that’s the strategy before the shock happens. it’s designed to anticipate when the shocks are coming so the farm isn’t within the prone position. second, interactive strategy, the strategy is taken at the time of shocks by being relocated the resource so impact risks are often reduced. third, ex-post strategy that’s strategy when the shock happens to reduce its impact. while, (roy, chan, & xenarios, 2016) in their findings suggest that pluralistic (the government and non-government) agricultural consultative services can serve as an engine of transition in rice production, sustainability during which a multi-year coming up with and strategy formulation is crucial besides investment in the modernization of extension services. the sustainable farm techniques also consistent with (flynn, 2015), policy makers would like information on the situation of rice production and on improved technologies that are obtainable for sustainable intensification of rice production in order to formulate acceptable policies for supporting rice production. on the opposite hand, global rice production is endeavor issues like international global climate change and also the insufficiency of water, land and energy resources. the issues and opportunities for a sustainable increase of rice production differ from one rice ecosystem to a distinct due to the variations in environmental and socioeconomic conditions, degrees of intensification. there are existing improved and promising technologies that may be accustomed boost farmers’ production and to increase their incomes, whereas guaranteeing environmental conservation, i.e. genetic improvement, minimizing the effects of the scarcity of water, land, and labor resources, minimum and/or zero tillage, land levelling victimization laser beam, direct seeding in lowland rice production, motility and intermittent irrigation, aerobic rice or irrigated upland rice, 91 vol.3 no.2 juli 2017 and innovation in a traditional trade (flynn, 2015). (oxfam, 2014) ensured that smallholders and agro-ecological farmers are concerned in shaping policies and investments in agriculture. this requires putting in or strengthening multi-stakeholder platforms at native, national, and regional levels that embrace small-scale food producers. second, develop adequate public incentives to push agro-ecological practices; make sure that the proper policies are in place to support agro-ecological approaches; and make sure that strong farmerled, bottom-up knowledge and research systems are in place. conclusions this research found that socio-demographic characteristics of the rice farmers were over 40 years old; muslim; melayu ethnic; had married for over 11 years; has more than equal to 2 to 4 of family members; and slightly spend less on food than the non-food goods. meanwhile, personal trait and proficiency-skill knowledge of rice farmers proved that pupillage attainment had 3 to 6 years; used rainfed; widely used ciherang seeds; and off-farm income generates more revenue than non-farm or on-farm. this finding was proved by the ownership of highest income, 34.44% of rice farmers had more than equal to 2.25 ha of land tenure. the distribution of technical efficiency showed that only 17.41% rice grower who are able to achieve sufficient; while over 60-70% technical efficiency achieved by 30.37% of rice farmers. however, the risk of production, prices, and income were low or less than 0.5 so that rice farmers can take a profit. references aji, a. a., satria, a., & hariono, b. 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(2009). ketersediaan lahan pertanian pangan secara berkelanjutan untuk menjaga ketahanan. jakarta: direktorat jenderal pengelolaan lahan dan air-departemen pertanian. suharyanto, mulyo, j. h., darwanto, d. h., & widodo, s. (2015). analisis produksi dan efisiensi pengelolaan tanaman terpadu padi sawah di propinsi bali. penelitian tanaman pertanian pangan, 34(2), 131-144. suharyanto, rinaldy, j., & arya, n. n. (2015). analisis risiko produksi usahatani padi sawah di propinsi bali. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 1(2), 70-77. sumarno, j., harianto, & kusnadi, n. (2015). peningkatan produksi dan efisiensi jagung melalui penerapan pengelolaan tanaman terpadu (ptt) di gorontalo. jurnal manajemen & agribisnis, 12(2), 79-91. turner, d. w. (2010). qualitative interview design: a practical guide for novice investigators. the qualitative report, 15(3) , 754-760. winarso, b. (2012). dinamika pola penguasaan lahan sawah di wilayah pedesaan di indonesia. jurnal penelitian pertanian terapan, 12(3), 137149. http://www.oxfam.org. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 4 no. 2 juli-desember 2018 adi suyatno*, imelda, komariyati program studi agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas tanjungpura, pontianak *e-mail korespondensi: adi01istiqomah@gmail.com pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap pendapatan dan penggunaan tenaga kerja pada usahatani padi di kabupaten sambas the effect of tractor utilization on revenue and use of labor on rice farming in sambas regency doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4264 abstract development of agriculture mechanization in sambas regency is needed in order to support the increased of rice production. technically, agricultural mechanization is expected to increase the productivity of the land and, economically, it is expected to increase farmers' income. the purpose of this research is to analyze the effect of tractor usage on income and availability of labor in rice farming. this research was conducted in sambas regency, using survey method. the results showed that the use of tractors for soil processing significantly increased the productivity and income of rice farming. the use of tractors on soil treatment has increased productivity by 667 kg/ha. the use of tractors on land treatment also increased revenues by rp.2.843.400,/ha, although raising the cost. in-house labor and farming families are available for soil cultivation, but farmers generally prefer to use the tractors for soil treatment. the use of tractors has reduced the use of labor, thus accelerating land preparation and planting activities. farmers who do not use tractors because of environmental factors farming, namely the unavailability of irrigation. keywords: income, labor, mechanization, production. intisari pengembangan mekanisasi pertanian di kabupaten sambas perlu dilakukan untuk dapat mendukung peningkatan produksi padi. secara teknis mekanisasi pertanian diharapkan dapat meningkatkan produktivitas lahan dan secara ekonomi diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani.penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap pendapatan dan penggunaan tenaga kerja pada usahatani padi. penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten sambas, dengan metode survey. hasil penelitian menunjukkan penggunaan traktor untuk pengolahan tanah dapat meningkatkan produktivitas dan pendapatan usahatani padi. penggunaan traktor pada pengolahan tanah telah meningkatkan produktivitas sebesar 667 kg/ha. penggunaan traktor pada pengolahan tanah juga telah meningkatkan pendapatan sebesar rp.2.843.400, -/ha, walaupun meningkatkan biaya. tenaga kerja dalam dan luar keluarga petani tersedia untuk pengolahan tanah, namun umumnya petani memilih menggunakan traktor untuk pengolahan tanah. penggunaan traktor telah mengurangi penggunaan tenaga kerja sehingga dapat mempe rcepat kegiatan persiapan lahan dan penanaman. petani yang tidak menggunakan traktor karena faktor lingkungan usahatani, yaitu tidak tersedianya pengairan yang memadai. kata kunci: mekanisasi, pendapatan, produksi, tenaga kerja. pendahuluan kebutuhan pangan masyarakat terutama beraspada tingkat nasional dan regional terus meningkat seiring dengan peningkatan jumlah penduduk setiap tahun. indonesia pernah mencapai swasembada beras pada tahun 1984 tetapi hanya mampu bertahan sampai pada tahun 1993 dan setelah itu indonesia mulai melakukan impor beras dari dari negara lain. untuk mewujudkan ketahanan pangan dan mencapai kembali swasembada beras, dibutuhkan 93 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 peningkatan produksi beras melalui usaha intensifikasi (peningkatan produktivitas lahan) dan ekstensifikasi (perluasan areal pertanaman padi) di sentra-sentra produksi (suwarno, 2010). provinsi kalimantan barat memiliki potensi sumber daya lahan yang cukup tinggi untuk pengembangan usaha pertanian, terutama tanaman padi sawah. data bps mencatat luas lahan sawah tahun 2016 di provinsi kalimantan barat sebesar 530.578 ha yang terdiri dari lahan sawah irigasi sebesar 105.608 ha dan lahan sawah non irigasi sebesar 424.970 ha.kabupaten sambas merupakan salah satu daerah sentra produksi pertanian di kalimantan barat, terutama untuk pengembangan tanaman pangan seperti padi sawah. luas lahan sawah di kabupaten sambas mencapai 69.535 ha atau 10,87 % dariluas kabupaten sambas yaitu 639.470 ha. luas panen padi sawah di kabupaten sambas tahun 2015 mencapai 101.266 ha, dengan jumlah produksi 286.159 ton (bps, 2017). penduduk kabupaten sambas berjumlah 526.367 jiwa dengan kepadatan penduduk sebesar 82 jiwa/km2dan laju pertumbuhan penduduk tahun 2010–2016 sebesar 0,94 % dan jumlah petani 137.172 orang. kepadatan penduduk kabupaten sambas yang relatif rendah dan masih rendahnya produktivitas padi sawah, diduga merupakan faktor utama penyebab masih luasnya lahan pertanian yang belum dimanfaatkan dan perlu adanya peningkatan produktivitas. penerapan mekanisasi pertanian melalui penggunaan alat dan mesin pertanian dapat menjadi solusi permasalahan tersebut melalui upaya intensifikasi (peningkatan produktivitas lahan) dan ekstensifikasi (perluasan areal tanam), serta menurunkan kehilangan hasil panen. penggunaan alat mesin pertanian juga dapat meningkatkan kualitas hasil produksi tanaman padi, yaitu meningkatkan rendemen beras, penurunan kadar beras patah, meningkatkan tingkat keputihan beras, dan menurunkan kandungan kotoran dalam beras. pemerintah daerah kalimantan barat, khususnya dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura, telah melakukan pengembangan sektor pertanian dengan menggunakan alat dan mesin pertanian yang difokuskan untuk mendukung pertanaman padi dan palawija. di kalimantan barat, mekanisasi pertanian mulai dikembangkan oleh pemerintah pada tahun 1998 melalui program usaha pelayanan jasa alsintan (upja), yang meliputi traktor tangan, pompa irigasi, power thresher, penggiling padi dan alat mesin pengering, dan setiap tahun terjadi penambahan alsintan, baik dalam jumlah maupun jenis alsintan. adanya keberadaan kelembagaan usaha pelayanan jasa alsintan (upja) menjadi penting terutama dalam hal penyediaan jasa alsintan tepat waktu dan dengan biaya yang terjangkau oleh petani. pada tahun-tahun belakangan ini di sebagian daerah, keberadaan alsintan juga berasal dari bantuan dana aspirasi anggota dprd, baik dprd tingkat i maupun tingkat ii. tabel 1. data jenis dan jumlah alsintan di kalimantan barat dan kabupaten sambas no. jenis alsintan jumlah alsintan kalimantan barat kabupaten sambas 1. hand tractor 3.438 33 2. power thresher 1.221 22 3. reaper 11 4. transplanter 17 5. pady mower 8 6. dryer 8 7. mesin penggerak 9 8. seed cleaner 12 9. cultivator 45 10. pompa air 708 85 11. rmu 490 6 12. corn seller 98 13. combine harverster 8 sumber: (dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura, 2016) ketersediaan jenis dan jumlah alsintan di kabupaten sambas masih sangat minim dan perlu penambahan alsintan, sebagaimana dapat dilihat pada tabel 1, mengingat jumlah luas lahan sawah di kabupaten sambas yang sangat luas yaitu 57.114 ha atau sebesar 29,09 % dari luas lahan sawah kalimantan barat. salah satu jenis alsintan yang sangat penting peranannya dan banyak digunakan pada usahatani padi di kabupaten sambas adalah traktor. alsintan di kalimantan barat khususnya hand tractor berjumlah 3.438 unit, sedangkan jumlah hand tractor di kabupaten sambas yaitu 33 unit (dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura, 2016). jumlah hand tractor di kabupaten sambas yang masih sedikit mengindikasikan bahwa adopsi petani 94 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research terhadap teknologi mesin pertanian berupa traktor yang rendah dan pengembangan mekanisasi pertanian yang berjalan lambat di wilayah tersebut. jika dibandingkan antara luas lahan sawah dengan ketersediaan hand tractor di kabupaten sambas tersebut, maka masih diperlukan tambahan hand tractor yang cukup banyak, yaitu sekitar 3.424 unit. keunggulan penggunaan traktor yaitu dapat mensubstitusi penggunaan tenaga kerja yang semakin mahal dan langka di daerah pedesaan kalimantan barat, terutama untuk kegiatan persiapan lahan usahatani padi. selain itu, traktor adalah alat pertanian yang digunakan untuk kegiatan persiapan lahan, yang memiliki proporsi kebutuhan terhadap tenaga kerja relatif tinggi, sehingga biaya yang diperlukan juga relatif tinggi. efisiensi biaya pada kegiatan persiapan lahan akan memberikan pengaruh pada peningkatan pendapatan usahatani padi. traktor juga dapat mempercepat kegiatan persiapan lahan, sehingga memungkinkan petani untuk melakukan penanaman tepat waktu pada musim tanam. penelitian takele & selassie (2018) menyatakan bahwa penggunaan traktor di negara ethiopia meningkat seiring dengan berkurangnya kepemilikan ternak yang bisa digunakan untuk membajak sawah. penelitian pengembangan mekanisasi pertanian di kabupaten sambas perlu dilakukan untuk dapat mendukung peningkatan produksi padi. secara teknis mekanisasi pertanian diharapkan dapat meningkatkan produktivitas lahan dan kualitas beras, secara sosial diharapkan dapat memberikan dampak terhadap semangat kerja petani, dan secara ekonomi diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani dan pertumbuhan perekonomian di sektor lain. tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap pendapatan dan penggunaan tenaga kerja pada usahatani padi. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan dengan metode survey yaitu penelitian yang mempelajari data dari sampel yang mewakili populasi untuk menjelaskan kondisi-kondisi relatif, distribusi dan hubungan antar variabel (sugiyono, 2012). usahatani padi dalam penelitian ini adalah usahatani padi sawah tadah hujan. sampel lokasi penelitian dipilih secara sengaja, yaitu di kecamatan tebas dan kecamatan semparuk, dengan pertimbangan dua lokasi tersebut memiliki karakteristik yang berbeda, yaitu di kecamatan tebas, pengolahan tanahnya dilakukan dengan tenaga manusia, sedangkan di kecamatan semparuk pengolahan tanahnya menggunakan traktor. sampel penelitian berjumlah 60 petani dengan perincian 30 petani mewakili kecamatan tebas dan 30 petani mewakili kecamatan semparuk. pengumpulan data bersumber dari data primer dan data sekunder. data primer berupa hasil wawancara dengan petani responden meliputi karakteristik petani responden, biaya produksi, hasil produksi, harga jual dan penggunaan tenaga kerja. data sekunder berasal dari arsip dan laporan bps serta dinas pertanian tanaman pangan dan hortikultura. penelitian ini dilakukan pada dua lokasi kecamatan yang berdekatan, sehingga dapat diasumsikan menggunakan varietas padi dan teknik budidaya yang sama. penelitian dilakukan pada musim tanam penghujan (rendengan) tahun 2017. pendapatan usahatani (rp) merupakan total penerimaan usahatani (rp) dikurangi tc adalah biaya eksplisit (rp), total penerimaan usahatani (rp) adalah harga padi (rp/kg) dikalikan produksi padi (kg), sedangkan biaya eksplisit (rp) adalah penjumlah biaya variabel (rp) dan biaya tetap (rp) (irianto, 2009):untuk melihat pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap produktivitas dan pendapatan usahatani padi menggunakan uji beda terhadap produktivitas dan pendapatan usahatani padi, dari kelompok petani yang menggunakan traktor dan kelompok petani yang menggunakan tenaga kerja manusia dalam pengolahan tanah. produktivitas dan pendapatan usahatani padi dibandingkan dengan menggunakan independent sample t-test (irianto, 2009). untuk mengetahui pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap penggunaan tenaga kerja, dilakukan analisis secara deskriptif, dengan melihat perbandingan penggunaan tenaga kerja pada usahatani padi yang menggunakan traktor dan yang menggunakan tenaga manusia. 95 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 hasil dan pembahasan keragaan usahatani padi kabupaten sambas memiliki tiga komoditas utama yang berpotensi untuk dikembangkan yaitu padi, palawija dan hortikultura. khusus komoditas padi, ketersediaan luas lahan potensial sebesar 26.723 ha. luas yang sudah digunakan sebesar 22.000 ha, sehingga tersisa 3.790 ha lahan untuk pengembangan padi (bps, 2016). dua lokasi sampel, yaitu di kecamatan tebas dan kecamatan semparuk, luas panen padi meningkat dari tahun ke tahun. tabel 2. luas panen padi di kecamatan tebas dan kecamatan semparuk, kabupaten sambas tahun luas panen (ha) kecamatan tebas kecamatan semparuk 2012 6.090 3.820 2013 6.110 3.930 2014 6.220 3.955 2015 6.730 4.180 2016 6.835 4.350 sumber: (bps, 2017) tabel 2 menunjukkan bahwa rata-rata luas panen di kecamatan tebas lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan di kecamatan semparuk. namun produktivitas padi di kecamatan tebas sebesar 2.260 kg/ha dan lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan ratarata produktivitas di kecamatan semparuk yaitu sebesar 2.970 kg/ha. perbedaan produktivitas ini terjadi karena beberapa sebab salah satunya karena hambatan teknologi. hambatan teknologi bisa terjadi karena belum optimalnya penggunaan input produksi dan minimnya adopsi teknologi budidaya seperti pengolahan tanah untuk kegiatan penanaman padi. usahatani padi di wilayah kecamatan tebas dan kecamatan semparuk memiliki karakteristik yang berbeda. budidaya tanaman padi di kecamatan tebas sebagian besar dilakukan dengan pengolahan tanah tanpa traktor, yaitu pengolahan tanah dengan tenaga kerja manusia. sebagian besar lahan merupakan sawah tadah hujan dengan kondisi ketersediaan air yang kurang. hal tersebut mengakibatkan penggunaan traktor untuk pengolahan tanah jarang dilakukan. budidaya tanaman padi di kecamatan semparuk sebagian besar menggunakan traktor untuk kegiatan pengolahan tanah. pengolahan tanah dilakukan dengan cara dibajak. awalnya rumput yang ada di lahan disemprot menggunakan herbisida. setelah satu minggu lahan dibajak dengan traktor dan diratakan. saat ketersediaan air di lahan kurang, terutama di musim kemarau, petani yang lahannya berdekatan dengan sumber air tetap melakukan pembajakan tanah dengan menyuplai air ke lahan menggunakan mesin pompa air. pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap produktivitas usahatani padi perbedaan cara dalam pengolahan tanah di kecamatan tebas dan kecamatan semparuk, dimana lokasi pertamatidak menggunakan traktor dan lokasi kedua menggunakan traktorberpengaruh terhadap produktivitas usahatani padi. tabel 3. produktivitas dan penggunaan input usahatani padi di kecamatan tebas dan kecamatan semparuk kabupaten sambas input kecamatan (penggunaan alsintan) kecamatan tebas kecamatan semparuk produktivitas (kg/ha) 2.248,00 2.925,00 produksi (kg) 1.349,00 2.925,00 lahan (ha) 0,60 1,00 pupuk (kg/ha) urea 61,00 87,00 npk 141,00 136,00 benih (kg/ha) 20,00 34,0 tenaga kerja (hok/ha) 52,00 44,00 herbisida (lt/ha) 2,70 2,70 insektisida (lt/ha) 0,47 0,44 sumber :analisis data primer, 2017 tabel 3 menunjukkan penggunaan input benih, pupuk dan tenaga kerja yang hampir sama pada dua lokasi, namun memiliki produktivitas yang berbeda. hasil uji t (tabel 4) menunjukkan adanya perbedaan nyata antara produktivitas padi di kecamatan tebas dengan produktivitas padi di kecamatan semparuk. tabel 4. uji beda terhadap produktivitas dan pendapatan usahatani padi di kecamatan tebas dan kecamatan semparuk kabupaten sambas variabel t sig keterangan produksi 5,148* 0,000 signifikan pendapatan 3,484* 0,000 signifikan sumber : analisis data primer, 2017 96 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research perbedaan produktivitas terjadi karena adanya penggunaan traktor untuk pengolahan tanah di kecamatan semparuk. penerapan sistem pengolahan tanah yang lebih baik akan meningkatkan produksi berbagai jenis tanaman (gribaldi, 2015; prasetyo, nugroho, & moenandir, 2014). pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap pendapatan usahatani padi untuk melihat pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap pendapatan usahatani padi perlu dilihat terlebih dahulu perbedaan penerimaan dan biaya usahataninya. pada aspek penerimaan usahatani, diantara dua lokasi perbedaan produktivitas, dengan asumsi tidak ada perbedaan harga di dua lokasi tersebut karena tempatnya yang berdekatan pada satu kawasan. sedangkan pada aspek biaya, perbedaan biaya diantara dua lokasi disebabkan adanya biaya sewa traktor di kecamatan semparuk. uji t terhadap pendapatan (tabel 4) pada dua keragaan usahatani padi tersebut menunjukkan terdapat perbedaan yang nyata antara pendapatan usahatani padi dengan melakukan pengolahan tanah dengan dan tanpa traktor. pendapatan usahatani padi dengan pengolahan tanah menggunakan traktor lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan menggunakan tenaga kerja manusia. artinya terdapat pengaruh pengolahan tanah dengan menggunakan traktor terhadap pendapatan usahatani padi. tabel 5. analisis biaya usahatani padi dengan traktor dan tanpa traktor uraian tanpa traktor dengan traktor jumlah (kg/ha) harga (rp/kg) jumlah (rp) jumlah (kg/ha) harga (rp/kg) jumlah (rp) 1 biaya benih 20 5.000 100.000 34 5.000 170.000 2 tenaga kerja jumlah (oh) upah (rp/oh) jumlah (rp) jumlah (oh) upah (rp/oh) jumlah (rp) a persiapan lahan 13 50.000 650.000 9 50.000 450.000 b penanaman 16 50.000 800.000 10 50.000 500.000 c pemeliharaan 7 50.000 350.000 7 50.000 350.000 d panen 12 50.000 600.000 14 50.000 700.000 e pasca panen 4 50.000 200.000 4 50.000 200.000 jumlah biaya tenaga kerja 2.600.000 2.200.000 3 pupuk jumlah (kg/ha) harga (rp/kg) jumlah (rp) jumlah (kg/ha) harga (rp/kg) jumlah (rp) a urea 61 2.500 152.500 87 2.500 217.500 b npk 141 2.700 380.700 136 2.700 367.200 jumlah biaya pupuk 533.200 584.700 4 pestisida jumlah (lt) harga (rp/lt) jumlah (rp) jumlah (lt) harga (rp/lt) jumlah (rp) a herbisida 2,7 50.000 135.000 3 50.000 150.000 b insektisida 240.000 210.000 jumlah biaya pestisida 375.000 360.000 5 biaya lain a sewa traktor (rp/ha) 350.000 350.000 b penyusutan alat (rp/th) 380.000 380.000 380.000 380.000 c pasca panen 184.000 184.000 307.000 307.000 jumlah biaya lain 564.000 1.037.000 total biaya (1+2+3+4+5) 4.172.200 4.351.700 selisih biaya, dengan dan tanpa traktor 179.500 sumber : analisis data primer, 2017 pengolahan tanah dengan menggunakan traktor mengakibatkan kenaikan biaya sebesar rp. 150.000,perha, sebagai akibat dari substitusi tenaga kerja manusia oleh traktor. sedangkan produksi yang dihasilkan perha berbeda dengan rata-rata sebesar 677 kg/ha, sehingga ditemukan perbedaan penerimaan sebesar rp. 2.843.400,-. akibatnya terjadi perbedaan pendapatan sebesar rp.2.663.900,-/ha, atau petani 97 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 mendapatkan tambahan pendapatan sebesar rp.2.663.900,-/ha,. penggunaan alsintan traktor menimbulkan kenaikan biaya, tetapi menguntungkan bagi petani. penelitian narayanamoorthy, bhatttarai, suresh, & alli (2014) juga menyatakan bahwa di india, penggunaan mekanisasi pertanian memang secara nyata telah meningkatkan biaya usahatani dan menurunkan jam kerja petani. tabel 6. analisis pendapatan usahatani padi dengan traktor dan tanpa traktor uraian tanpa traktor dengan traktor produksi (kg) 2.248 2.925 harga (rp/kg) 4.200 4.200 penerimaan (rp) 9.441.600 7.933.300 selisih penerimaan (rp) 2.843.400 pendapatan (rp) 5.269.400 7.933.300 selisih pendapatan (rp) 2.663.900 sumber : analisis data primer, 2017 tabel 6 menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan traktor untuk pengolahan tanah telah mampu meningkatkan pendapatan bagi petani dan akan menjadi motivator bagi petani dalam menggunakan alsintan tersebut. teknologi yang diterapkan harus memenuhi kriteria ekonomis dan menguntungkan bagi petani sehingga mendorong petani untuk mengadopsi teknologi tersebut. keberanian petani dalam mencoba inovasi juga tergantung dengan kesukaan terhadap inovasi tersebut dan risiko yang harus dihadapi (rahmawati & triyono, 2017). proses adaptasi teknologi pertanian berupa penggunaan traktor berpeluang untuk meningkatkan hasil produksi pertanian (sukartini & solihin, 2013). pengembangan teknologi mekanisasi pertanian yang diselaraskan dengan kondisi fisik wilayah dan sosial ekonomi masyarakat akan meningkatkan perkembangan usaha pertanian (umar, 2013). persoalan yang muncul adalah masih banyak petani di lokasi penelitian yang tidak menggunakan traktor untuk pengolahan tanah. hal ini ternyata berkaitan dengan faktor lain berupa pengairan yang tidak tersedia di lokasi penelitian. usahatani di kecamatan semparuk memilki pengairan yang bersumber dari aliran sungai dekat lokasi sawah, sedangkan pengairan di kecamatan tebas belum memadai. perbedaan kondisi pengairan ini yang mengakibatkan tidak dilakukannya pengolahan tanah dengan traktor di wilayah kecamatan tebas. selain berkaitan dengan hal teknis tersebut, penggunaan alsintan ini juga dipengaruhi oleh kondisi sosial ekonomi petani. adopsi terhadap suatu teknologi dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor, yaitu tingkat pendidikan petani, luas lahan, umur, pengalaman bertani, jumlah tanggungan keluarga, pendapatan petani dan status pemilikan lahan (soekartawi, 2002). mekanisasi pertanian di negara india umumnya pertama kali diadopsi oleh petani-petani yang lebih mampu secara ekonomi (singh, 2015). faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi petani dalam menerapkan mekanisasi pertanian yaitu pendapatan dan luas lahan (rasouli, sadighi, & minaei, 2009). rangkuti (2009) menyatakan bahwa ada hubungan signifikan antara karakteristik petani, karakteristik usahatani, kecepatan adopsi teknologi dan jaringan komunikasi terhadap kecepatan adopsi teknologi penggunaan traktor olah tanah. pengaruh penggunaan traktor terhadap penggunaan tenaga kerja pada usahatani padi pengaruh penggunaan traktor untuk olah tanah berkaitan erat dengan penggunaan tenaga kerja usahatani. umar (2013) menyatakan bahwa untuk mengatasi kelangkaan tenaga kerja, perlu masukan teknologi mekanisasi terutama pada kegiatan penyiapan lahan. tabel 7. penggunaan tenaga kerja usahatani padi dengan traktor dan tanpa traktor uraian tanpa traktor dengan traktor tenaga kerja jumlah (oh) upah (rp/oh) jumlah (rp) jumlah (oh) upah (rp/oh) jumlah (rp) persiapan lahan 13 50.000 650.000 9 50.000 450.000 penanaman 16 50.000 800.000 10 50.000 500.000 pemeliharaan 7 50.000 350.000 7 50.000 350.000 panen 12 50.000 600.000 14 50.000 700.000 pasca panen 4 50.000 200.000 4 50.000 200.000 jumlah biaya tenaga kerja 52 2.600.000 44 2.200.000 sumber : analisis data primer, 2017 98 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tabel 7 menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan traktor telah mengurangi penggunaan tenaga kerja manusia terutama pada kegiatan pengolahan lahan dan mampu mengurangi biaya tenaga kerja keseluruhan sebebesar rp 400.000,perha. walaupun penggunaan traktor meningkatkan biaya produksi secara keseluruhan (karena biaya sewa traktor yang lebih besar dari pada substitusi tenaga kerja), akan tetapi hal tersebut akan dikompensasi dengan meningkatnya pendapatan usahatani akibat peningkatan produktivitas dan penerimaan usahatani. selain itu penggunaan traktor telah dapat menghemat penggunaan tenaga kerja yang dapat mempercepat kegiatan persiapan lahan, karena ketersediaan tenaga kerja yang semakin berkurang dan petani dapat melakukan penanaman tepat waktu pada musim tanam. penerapan mekanisasi pertanian dalam jangka panjang akan mempengaruhi permintaan tenaga kerja manusia, meningkatkan efisiensi tenaga kerja manusia, serta meningkatkan kuantitas dan kualitas hasil produksi pertanian (zhang, et al., 2018), (fulin, shengxue, & xiaoming, 2016), (yinggang, et al., 2013). petani yang tidak menggunakan traktor lebih disebabkan karena faktor lingkungan usahatani yang tidak memungkinkan, yaitu tidak tersedianya pengairan yang memadai. hal ini sesuai dengan yang dikemukakan oleh djamhari (2009), bahwa pengoperasian alat dan mesin pertanian pada tingkat usahatani (baik dalam pelayanan jasa atau usaha kelompok maupun pribadi), harus sesuai dengan kondisi setempat. sehingga apabila kondisi lingkungan setempat tidak sesuai untuk pengoperasian alat, maka peralatan mesin pertanian tersebut tidak dapat digunakan. fadli, daulay, & ichwan (2015) menyatakan bahwa sumber daya dan waktu pengolahan tanah pada lahan sawah dapat mempengaruhi kapasitas kinerja dan efisiensi tenaga mesin pertanian. penerapan teknologi usahatani merupakan kebijakan yang harus terus ditingkatkan pada waktu yang tepat dan dengan biaya yang minimum, sehingga bisa meningkatkan produktivitas dan pendapatan usahatani (owombo, akinola, ayodele, & koledoye, 2012; wijaya, 2017). lebih lanjut lagi, wahyuni & indraningsih (2003) menyatakan bahwa tidak mudah untuk mengintroduksi teknologi ke masyarakat. perlu adanya sosialisasi program secara menyeluruh agar program tersebut akan berjalan dengan lancar dan berkelanjutan. kesimpulan penggunaan alsintan berupa traktor meningkatkan produktivitas usahatani padi. penggunaan traktor pada pengolahan tanah telah meningkatkan produktivitas rata-rata 667 kg/ha sehingga meningkatkan penerimaan sebesar rp. 2.843.400,-. penggunaan traktor pada pengolahan tanah telah meningkatkan pendapatan sebesar rp. 2.663.900,-/ha, walaupun menimbulkan kenaikan biaya, sebagai akibat dari substitusi tenaga kerja manusia oleh traktor. tenaga kerja dalam dan luar keluarga petani tersedia untuk pengolahan tanah, namun umumnya petani memilih menggunakan traktor untuk pengolahan tanah. penggunaan traktor telah mengurangi penggunaan tenaga kerja. penghematan penggunaan tenaga kerja dapat mempercepat kegiatan persiapan lahan, karena ketersediaan tenaga kerja yang semakin berkurang dan petani dapat melakukan penanaman tepat waktu pada musim tanam. sebagian petani yang tidak menggunakan traktor lebih disebabkan karena faktor lingkungan usahatani yang tidak memungkinkan, yaitu tidak tersedianya pengairan yang memadai. saran yang dapat diberikan adalah perlu ada upaya pemerintah untuk menyediakan kondisi lingkungan usahatani padi, yang memungkinkan diterapkannya teknis budidaya penggunaan alsintan (traktor), berupa penyediaan pengairan untuk peningkatan produktivitas usahatani padi. ucapan terima kasih penulis mengucapkan terimakasih kepada direktorat jenderal 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(2018). review of precision rice hill drop drilling technology and machine for paddy. international journal agricultural and biological engineering, 11(3), 1-11. 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181103.4249 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history : submitted : march 24th, 2019 accepted : june 17th, 2020 titik ekowati1*, edy prasetyo2 and mukson3 program study of agribusiness, diponegoro university *) correspondence email: tiekowati@yahoo.co.id the stability of supply and rice price in sukoharjo regency doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6190 abstract the economic conditions of rice, whether aspect of supply, demand, or rice price is continue to fluctuate due to changes of the phenomena. therefore, this commodity needs to be examined in regarding its supply, demand and price aspects. this study aims to analyze the supply and price stability of rice. the study used a secondary data method. the study was conducted in tawangsari and mojolaban districts of sukoharjo regency. data were analyzed by co variance analysis. the study results showed that supply and rice consumption were surplus and stable. the stability of prices and supply for paddy and rice is occurred in tawangsari and mojolaban districts and sukoharjo regency as well. key words: paddy, price, rice, stability, supply introduction background food has become a serious concern of the government and the public in early 2013. this is highly related to indonesia's population of more than 250 million people who need a huge production and consumption of food commodities. merely food availability is not enough to bring food security into realization but food access and food absorption are also important factors. if these three indicators i.e. food security, food access, and food absorption cannot be fulfilled, food insecurity as a condition where it is unable to obtain sufficient food will occur. if there is food insecurity, then economic, political, and social stabilities of a country will be threatened. food insecurity is one of the causes of inefficient land use due to the limited land tenure of farmers. this in turn will result in low productivity. development of agricultural commodities requires an understanding of market prospects, resource capabilities and technological potential. the imbalance between supply and demand will affect the price and profitability, so that it requires an intervention policy and planning to deal with the situation. projection of supply or demand is very important for production planning which will have an impact on what level of supply to maintain price stability. food supply and price stabilization is a problem faced by almost every region in indonesia. some factors that affect the stability of supply and food prices are the amount of production, population increase, demand, climate change, trade barriers. mailto:tiekowati@yahoo.co.id 53 the stability of supply ….. (ekowati, et.al) rice is a strategic commodity that can affect economic, social and even political stability. rice commodity is still one of the key commodities in influencing the stability of general prices. the increase in rice prices can trigger an increase in the prices of other goods (sari 2010). this can be seen from the significant role of rice in people's lives, among others: (i) a staple food of most of indonesia's population; (ii) from perspective of household expenses, 63% is spent for food and 17% is allocated for rice consumption; (iii) contributors to calorie and protein requirements and; (iv) the rice industry involves total of 18 million farmers, most of whom are small farmers, as well as workers involved in the supply of production inputs and factors, processing, and marketing (saifullah, 2005, widadi and sutanto, 2012). thus, it is not surprising if the rice situation has a strong correlation with the development of economic and non-economic situations. history has proven that the instability of food supplies, especially rice, has triggered riots and criminal acts at the beginning of reformation era. this indicates the important role of the government in maintaining rice availability throughout the year, as well as its even distribution and stable prices. the economic conditions of rice, whether related to the aspect of supply, demand, and price are continue to fluctuate. thus there are many quantitative economic relations found between the economic models of rice, whether concerned to the supply, demand, and the price stability of both paddy and rice. one of agricultural characteristics is scattered production in several areas. the price per unit volume or per unit for the similar commodity is different from one area to other areas. according to chen and shagaian (2016), variations in the price of one particular commodity between two regions are caused by: 1) different ability in commodity production and transfer costs between regions, 2) differences in farming operational costs, 3) differences in demand condition and local supply, 4) market imperfections. agricultural commodities will move from surplus areas with relatively cheap prices to deficit areas with relatively high prices, thus there is movement from surplus to deficit areas. in fact, transfer costs are required for trading purposes between two areas, which include terminal area and transportation costs. the flow of agricultural commodities from surplus area y to deficit area x will be stopped if the transfer costs are equal to the difference in prices between the deficit area and the surplus area, supply stability and price stability will occur. based on the background, the formulation of the problem is how the conditions of paddy and rice supply in the study area. while this study aims to analyze the paddy and rice stability of supply and price in the study area. methods the analysis of stability of paddy and rice supply and price in sukoharjo regency, especially in tawangsari and mojolaban districts, was conducted by using the analytical descriptive method to get a systematic, factual, and accurate description of the situation of study area concerning the facts, nature and relationship between the phenomena studied (nasir, 1988). 54 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sukoharjo regency is determined as the location of the study because it has the highest rice productivity in central java, which is 7,466 tons/ha while the average rice productivity in central java is 5.74 tons/ha. whereas the determination of tawangsari and mojolaban districts is based on activities related to efforts to increase production and land productivity, namely the existence of a land consolidation program. secondary data method was used in this research with the kind of data are paddy production, rice supply, population, rice consumption, paddy prices and rice prices in the year of 2016, 2017 and 2018. meanwhile the variety of paddy was ir64 and c4. the analytical method used is descriptive analysis by observing the rice supply and demand so that its supply stability is known, while the other method is coefficient of variance analysis. fluctuations of paddy and rice price / supply are measured by the coefficient of variation (cv) (setiawan, 2012 and proborini, 2018) where the supply is said to be stable if the price variation (coefficient of variation) of rice on the market is less than 9 (the indonesian ministry of trade, 2019). the coefficient of variation (cv) is the ratio between the standard deviation and the average value, expressed as a percentage, which is useful for looking at the distribution of data from the calculated average (walpole, 2000). where: σ cv = ---------- x cv = coefficient of variation σ = standard deviation x = mean variable result and discussions general description of study location the area of sukoharjo regency is 46,666ha wide or 1.43% of the total area of central java. the land in sukoharjo regency is allocated for rice fields of 20,617ha (44.18%) and nonrice fields of 26,049ha (55.82%). rice fields are classified into technical irrigated of 14,655ha (71.08%), semi-technical irrigated of 2,161ha (10.47%), simple irrigated of 1,967ha (9.54%), and rain fed area of 1,834ha (8.89%). the population of sukoharjo regency in 2017 was 871,397 people consisting of 431,686 male (49.54%) and 439,711 female (50.46%). an overview of the regional potential is presented in table 1. table 1. the area wide by utilizing in grobogan regency, 2018 component rice fields (ha) non rice fields (ha) wide area 20,617 26,049 technical irrigated 14,655 semi-technical irrigated 2,161 simple irrigated 1,967 rain fed area 1,834 55 the stability of supply ….. (ekowati, et.al) central java province is one of the main food producers for national stock lead to promote paddy productivity. in 2018, the level of wetland paddy productivity is about 6.099 tons/ha, with the harvested area 1.80 million ha and production of wetland paddy 11.00 million tons. meanwhile, sukoharjo regency is one of regencies that support food in central java, so the productivity food crops, especially paddy, is continually increased. in 2018 productivity of paddy reached 7.208tons/ha, while production of paddy reached 391,675 tons and 54,339 ha of harvested area. productivity of paddy in sukoharjo is higher among the paddy productivity in other regency/municipality, while the lowest productivity was recorded in the pekalongan regency in the amount of 4.312 tons/ha. the high productivity of paddy in sokoharjo showed that the ability of farmers in paddy farming has been going well. the research approach taken is paddy and rice stability. so there is a conversion from paddy to rice. the central statistics agency said that the conversion rate of milled unhusked rice (gkg) to rice that is now used is 64.02%. this figure is up from the previous calculation at 62% which is often used as a reference for farmers and rice mills before. the change in number was caused by an improvement in the paddy production sector, "the processing technique has improved. supply stability stability of price/supply represents fluctuations (increase or decrease) in price / supply over a certain period of time. the smaller the price/supply fluctuations during certain period, the price/supply conditions are said to be stable, and vice versa. fluctuations of food price/supply re measured by variation coefficient values (cv). demand is very important for production planning to be have an impact on how big the rate is supply to keep price stability. total commodity demand is useful for food as one input in determining food commodity production targets, how much is needed as well overview of future price developments. meanwhile the number of supply is useful for food commodities as description of the level of commodity production concerned agriculture that can achieved based on assumptions that are used. by comparing the results of demand and can be known the condition of the demand balance and supply of the relevant commodity whether in a state of surplus or deficit. in the short term and medium condition will be related to current distribution of food commodities which impact on supply and price stability. the main actors in development agriculture is a farmer that cultivate the certain agricultural commodities. farmers have an important position as one of the subject actor’s economy in the local, regional order even nationally. important thing farmers are expected to be sustainable farm is price certainty. so that agricultural business that it runs able to provide an income feasible and sustainable, then commodities which should be cultivated properly is a prospective commodity on the market. a. stability of rice supply distribution of rice availability and demand for consumption needs to be known, so that regions with potential rice production can be better developed and areas with no potential of rice production can develop their approriate food potential. the aim is to increase the rice 56 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research availability. the balance between supply and demand of rice consumption is strongly influenced by the population. if the rice availability is greater than the consumption, then the area is said to be a rice surplus area, otherwise the area is said to be a rice deficit if the rice availability is smaller than its consumption. this is consistent with nuryanti (2005), that the fluctuating dynamics of bidding are highly vulnerable because the population increases so consumption also increases. the amount of food available must meet the interests of all people, whether sourced from domestic or imported production. second, accessibility both physically and economically. physical affordability requires that food is easily accessible to individuals or households. whereas economic affordability means the ability to obtain or buy food or is related to the people's purchasing power for food. third, the aspect of stability (stability), refers to the ability to minimize the possibility of food consumption below the level of standard needs in difficult seasons (famine or natural disasters) (fuad, 2009). one aspect of food, namely food availability, has a correlation with rice field area (tambunan, 2008), harvested area, planting area (suwarno, 2010), rice productivity (mulyo and sugiarto, 2014), and rice production. the increase of rice field area, harvested area, planting area, rice productivity, and rice production can increase the rice availability. the net production of rice is assumed to be the condition of rice availability. in this case, the operational limit used is rice availability from the perspective of domestic production generated to meet the demand of community consumption without considering the rice produced from the study area. the rice demand for consumption can be calculated through the following formula: rice consumption demanded = population x 113.48 kg/capita/year. the figure of 113.48 kg/capita/year is the standard value of rice consumption demand per-capita determined by central bureau of statistic. this figure means that each population needs 113.48 kg of rice per year. this study assumes that each population has the same amount of rice consumption needs. in this case, the assumption used is that all the rice available in an area is entirely used to meet rice consumption needs in the area. if the stock of rice available is greater than the needs of rice consumption, then the area is said to2be a rice surplus area, whereas if the stock of rice available is smaller than the needs of rice consumption, then the area is said to be a rice deficit. it was found that the results of rice production in tawangsari, mojolaban and sukoharjo regency each is 32,115 tons, 46,795 tons and 391,675 tons respectively, with total population of 48,021 people for tawangsari, 93,841 people for mojolaban, and 871,397 people for sukoharjo regency. the amount of rice supply can be seen from the conversion of paddy to rice by 62.74%. the values of production, consumption, and supply stability are summarized in table 2. the results of rice production in the districts of tawangsari, mojolaban and sukoharjo regency were converted to rice using a reference rate of 65.4%. the conversion results illustrate the availability of rice which is a source of public consumption. the need or 57 the stability of supply ….. (ekowati, et.al) consumption of rice is the result of the population with a reference to rice consumption, which is 113.48 kg / per capita / year. of the availability and need of rice in the districts of tawangsari and mojolaban and sukoharjo regency are in a surplus condition. the existence of a rice surplus shows that the consumption needs of the population have been met. however, the surplus condition needs to be studied further to find out the stability of supply. meanwhile the projected supply useful for food commodities as description of the level of commodity production concerned agriculture that can achieved. table 2. analysis of coefficient of variance of availability and consumption of rice in tawangsari, mojolaban district and sukoharjo regency district paddy production (ton) rice supply (ton) population (person) rice consumption (ton) surplus (ton) cv year tawangsari 2016 32,12 21,003.21 47,94 5,439.78 15,563.43 6.35 2017 35,17 22,999.87 47,99 5,446.13 17,553.74 2018 32,39 21,181.10 47,95 5,441.14 15,739.96 mojolaban 2016 46,79 30,603.93 93,845 10,641.57 19,962.36 7.88 2017 45,64 29,846.60 95,06 10,779.69 19,066.91 2018 40,53 26,503.35 96,27 10,916.79 15,586.56 sukoharjo 2016 391,68 256,155.45 871,39 98,886.13 157,269.32 7.78 2017 387,98 253,738.92 878,37 99,677.88 154,061.04 2018 341,59 223,403.13 880,35 99,902.23 123,500.90 source: central java in numbers of 2018, tawangsari in numbers of 2019, mojolaban in numbers of 2019 the results of rice production in the districts of tawangsari, mojolaban and sukoharjo regency were converted to rice using a reference rate of 65.4%. the conversion results illustrate the availability of rice which is a source of public consumption. the need or consumption of rice is the result of the population with a reference to rice consumption, which is 113.48 kg / per capita / year. of the availability and need of rice in the districts of tawangsari and mojolaban and sukoharjo regency are in a surplus condition. the existence of a rice surplus shows that the consumption needs of the population have been met. however, the surplus condition needs to be studied further to find out the stability of supply. meanwhile the projected supply useful for food commodities as description of the level of commodity production concerned agriculture that can achieved. changes in the amount and supply of rice are presented in illustration 1 and 2. the amount of rice supply and consumption in the tawangsari district and mojolaban district showed that both regions have been able to meet the consumption even in the third year the supply of rice is decerase. it is mean that the amount of rice supply is higher than rice consumption resulting in a surplus of rice supply. the occurrence of a rice surplus is one of the factors of stability. the amount of rice supply is stable if the co variance value is smaller than 9. 58 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 1: rice supply and rice consumption in tawangsari district figure 2: rice supply and rice consumption in mojolaban district the results of the cv analysis in the study area showed a value smaller than 9, namely 6.35; 7.88 and 7.87 respectively. this shows that the availability of rice in the study area is stable. the surplus and stability of a region's rice supply illustrates that rice is a potential commodity in the area. furthermore, with the existence of a surplus and stability the distribution of these commodities is possible to other regions. the amount of rice produced at the study area showed its ability to meet the demand or consumption of the population. this can be seen from the amount of production or supply and consumption where the amount of supply is greater than the value demand, so it can be said that in the three areas of the rice supply is stable. therefore, sukoharjo regency and the two study locations are areas with supply stability that can meet their regional consumption and it is also possible to have distribution outside the region as presented in the supply chain. based on the results of one sample t test analysis, it is known that rice in the study area is in a stable condition. this is indicated by the significance value of each cv namely 0.036; 0.041 and 0.046 respectively that less than 0.05. this showed that paddy and rice 59 the stability of supply ….. (ekowati, et.al) commodities are potential commodities for tawangsari and mojolaban districts and sukoharjo regency. the stability of rice supply is a potential for the region to distribute to other regions. because the amount of availability is greater than population consumption and is an area that has food security, especially rice. b. price stability annual production pattern of paddy and rice in the production center shows that paddy and rice production during the main harvest is always abundant while monthly demand for paddy and rice is relatively stable. this matter causing the price of paddy and rice to fall. conversely when it does not occur harvest, less paddy and rice production so it is lower than paddy and rice needs. as a result, prices will increase and not affordable, which occurs when farmers actually do not have inventory. this shows that the price of paddy and rice fluctuates according to season. fluctuations in commodity prices basically occur due to an imbalance between the quantity of supply and the quantity of demand needed by consumers. if there is an oversupply, the commodity prices will go down, on the other hand the commodity prices will rise if there is a lack of supply. for agricultural commodities that depend on the season, price fluctuations during the harvest season and non harvest season will occur. prices play an important role in the market economy. price is one of the factors that determine every decision of producers and consumers in allocating limited resources in order to go to the optimal pareto condition or balance condition (brummer et al., 2009). according to nicholson (2004), market prices have two main functions, namely: (i) as information about the quantity of commodities that producers should offer to obtain maximum profits; and (ii) as a determinant of the level of demand for consumers who want maximum satisfaction. there are at least two reasons why an analysis of rice prices is important to do, in this case related to the purpose of conducting a price analysis namely (1) to estimate certain economic coefficients (parameters) such as the elasticity of demand for rice prices, and (2) to forecast (price) in the future and the factors that influence the price level of rice. price fluctuations are actually a normal thing and are needed to keep the market functioning, ie creating a competitive market. changes in prices will become a problem if prices soar very high and unpredictable, which in turn will create uncertainty that can increase risks for producers, traders, consumers, and of course also the government. supply stability is illustrated by the price, so it can be examined to the stability of paddy and rice prices. the paddy data were approached with prices at each harvest season, while the rice price can be approached every month. 60 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 3 average paddy prices and coefficient variance in study locations description districts average paddy price (idr/kg) coefficient variance c4 ir64 c4 ir64 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 tawangsari 4,607.1 4,642.8 4,478.5 4,528.5 5.3 5.4 5.1 4.6 mojolaban 4,528.5 4,485.7 4,432.1 4,485.7 4.8 4.3 4.8 4.4 sukoharjo 4,261,4 4,608.6 4,265.0 4,558.6 5.7 5,6 5.0 5.1 based on the analysis results, it is known that there is price variation in paddy prices in tawangsari and mojolaban districts and sukoharjo regency with the c4 and ir64 varieties. it can be said that there is no difference in the paddy in price of c4 variety in research location for 2017-2018 period, however there has been a flat price reduction of idr 42.8/kg in mojolaban district. this is because the supply or harvest during the planting season 1 of 2018 in mojolaban is greater than tawangsari so that the price declines. this is in accordance with the opinion of brummer et al. (2013) concluded that price fluctuations are basically strongly influenced by supply and demand in the market. for agricultural commodities, input markets and fossil fuels greatly affect price fluctuations. stock can also affect prices, low stock will cause prices to increase in the market. price fluctuations in the study area did not cause price volatility. this is indicated by the cv value lower than 9, which means that the price of paddy is in a stable condition. price variations also occur in rice prices. variations in rice prices in the study area were approached with c4 and ir64 varieties in 2017 and 2018. it is presented at table 4. table 4. average rice price and coefficient variance in study locations description location average rice price (idr/kg) coefficient variance (%) c4 ir64 c4 ir64 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 tawangsari 10,438.4 10,692.3 9,507.7 9,580.7 2.12 2.3 0.29 1.69 mojolaban 9,984.6 10,615.4 8,769.2 9,076.9 5.6 5.8 4.4 7.1 sukoharjo 10,615.4 12,150.0 9,534.6 11,600.0 5.8 6.1 4.9 7.5 in 2017, the average price of c4 variety in tawangsari district was idr 10,500/kg with coefficient variance of 0. this is happened because throughout 2017 period the price of c4 variety is stagnant so that it could be said to be very stable. likewise, the price of ir64 variety in 2018 is also stagnant. unlike the price variations of c4 and ir64 varieties in mojolaban district, the average price of rice in mojolaban is lower than tawangsari, but there are variations in price progression for the two rice varieties above. the value of coefficient variance for the two rice varieties in mojolaban is greater than tawangsari with the largest cv from ir64 of 7.0. if it is carefully examined, the cv values of both c4 and ir64 varieties for the two districts and sukoharjo regency can be categorized into minor because the values are less than 9. this is consistent with proborini (2018) that the minimum standard of cv value for price stability set is less than 9%. based on inferent and descriptive analysis, it can be stated that the stability of rice prices in the study area is maintained. 61 the stability of supply ….. (ekowati, et.al) prices and cv in sukoharjo regency are greater than tawangsari and mojolaban districts. this happens because sukoharjo is an area that encompasses several districts where each district varies greatly in the price of rice. moreover, not all districts are paddy granaries and rice. the smaller the coefficient of variation can be interpreted that the price is relatively stable or has a low level of fluctuation. price stability is one indicator that can be used to give a signal to producers of price risk factors that may be faced by a producer and the government in order to protect producers and consumers. actually, food price stability can be achieved if it can built sufficient government food reserves for respond to food insecurity due to natural disasters and social and reduce the sharp rise in food prices (suryana et al., 2014). conclusions based on the research result, it can be concluded that: the amount of rice produced at the study area showed its ability to meet the demand or consumption of the population. the rice consumption is smaller than rice supply, so sukoharjo regency is a rice supply area. paddy and rice supply and price fluctuations in the study area did not cause volatility. this is indicated by the cv value lower than 9, which means that the supply and price of paddy and rice is in a stable condition. acknowledgements i would like to thank to the directorate of research and community service, directorate general of strengthening research and development at the ministry of research, technology and higher education regarding the research and community service funding agreement for fund year of 2018 through the national strategic research scheme. references brümmer bs, taubadel vc, zorya s. 2009. the impact of market and policy instability on price transmission between wheat and flour in ukraine. european review of agricultural economics. 36(2):203-230. brummer b. korn o. schlubler k. jaghdani tj. saucedo a. 2013. volatility in the after crisis period – a literature review of recent empirical research. working paper 1, ulysses project, eu 7th framework programme, project 312182 kbbe.2012.1.4-05. chen, b. and s. h. saghaian. 2016. market integration and price transmission in the world rice export markets. journal of agricultural and resource economics 41(3):444– 457 fuad, f. m. 2009. analisis stok pangan dalam sistem distribusi penunjang ketahanan pangan. agrointek, 4(1): 39-48. kasryno, f., p. simatupang, e. pasandaran and s. adiningsih. 2001. formulasi kebijakan perberasan nasional. fae. 19 (2): 1-23 62 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research mulyo, j. h dan sugiyarto. (2014). ketahanan pangan: aspek dan kinerjanya. dalam b.h. sunarminto (editor), pertanian terpadu untuk mendukung kedaulatan pangan nasional (page. 54-55). yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. nasir, m. 1988. metode penelitian. ghalia indonesia. jakarta. nicholson w. 2004. microeconomic theory: basic principles and extensions, ed 9. new york (us): thomson south western. nuryanti, s. 2005. analisa keseimbangan sistem penawaran dan permintaan beras di indonesia. agro-economic journal, 3(1): 71-81. nur, h.d., yati n., ranni r., and santoso a.s. 2012. analisis faktor dan proyeksi konsumsi pangan nasional: kasus pada komoditas: beras, kedelai dan daging sapi. buletin ilmiah litbang perdagangan, 6(1): 37-52 proborini, a., t. ekowati & d. sumarjono. 2018. analisis efektivitas pelaksanaan pasar murah bulog dalam menjaga stabilitas harga beras di dki jakarta. bise: jurnal pendidikan bisnis dan ekonomi. 4 (1) : 38-49 saifullah, a. 2002. peran bulog dalam perberasan nasional. paper. 1-14 sari dl. 2010. analisis spread harga gabah dan beras serta integrasi pasar dan komoditas [tesis]. ie-ipb. bogor setiawan, a. 2012. perbandingan koefisien variasi antara 2 sampel dengan metode bootstrap (studi kasus pada analisis inflasi bulanan komoditas beras, cabe merah dan bawang putih di kota semarang). jurnal d’cartesian 1(1) : 19 – 25. suryana, a., benny r. and maino dh. 2014. dinamika kebijakan harga gabah dan beras dalam mendukung ketahanan pangan nasional. pengembangan inovasi pertanian. 7(4): 155-168. suwarno. (2010). meningkatkan produksi padi menuju ketahanan pangan yang lestari. food journal, 19(3), 236 tambunan, t. 2008. pembangunan ekonomi dan utang luar negeri. jakarta: pt. rajagrafindo persada. walpole. 2000. pengantar statistik. edisi ke-3. gramedia pustaka utama. jakarta. widadie and sutanto. 2012. model ekonomi perberasan : analisis integrasi pasar dan simulasi kebijakan harga. sepa. 8(2): 51-182 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history: submitted : august 5th, 2019 accepted : march 30th, 2020 nurliza1*, agus ruliyansyah2, rini hazriani3 1agribusiness dept., faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura 2agrotechnology dept., faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura 3soil dept., faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura *) correspondence email: nurliza.spmm@gmail.com performance behavior of corn smallholders for sustainable cooperative change in west kalimantan doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6186 abstract the production of corn as the second most important cereal crops after rice is dominated by smallholders, particularly in west kalimantan. however, smallholders in farmer cooperatives are unsustainable because of the lack of decision-making power at the grassroots level; limited access to land, capital, technologies, information and financial services; low market competitiveness; weak management; and limited policy and socio-cultural norms. this research aims to construct the behavior model for performance change of cooperative farmers in rasau jaya, kubu raya district, west kalimantan. it involved 75 smallholders recruited using purposive sampling technique. in-depth interviews using the structural equation modeling/sem based on the new institutional approach and the theory of planned behavior were used in the study. the findings proved that intentions and past behaviors have positive and negative influence on farmers' cooperative behavior, but contradicted with control. therefore, there are several efforts for changing the behavior in corn farmers’cooperatives, i.e. the perceived behavioral control can stimulate the motivation to be long-lived performing based on the resources and opportunities; pro-environmental behavior needs to engage a supportive injunctive norm and a supportive descriptive norm; a subjective norm for motivation to exhibitthe positive experiential attitude; and the confidence to perform and control their performance. keywords: corn smalholders, behavior change, cooperative, theory of planned behavior, new institutional approach introduction gross domestic product (gdp) from the agricultural sector in indonesia increased to 73.3% in the first quarter of 2019 from 46173.20 idr billion in the fourth quarter of 2018, reaching an average of 68735.56 idr billion from 2010 until 2019 (trading-economics, 2019). therefore, certain agricultural products with high self sufficiency received special attention in the blueprint of the asean economic community (aec). in particular, this applies to corn which by far is among the four strategic commodities. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gdp.asp issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 2 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research corn is also the second most important cereal crops after rice with significant growth of production over the last three decades. thus, the government will continue to strengthen its competitiveness to take advantage of export opportunities to the border countries, particularly in west kalimantan i.e. aruk-biawak (sambas), entikong-tebedu (sanggau) and nanga badau lubuk antu (kapuas hulu) (agriculture-ministry, 2017). while, kubu raya district is one of the centers of corn commodity development in west kalimantan through the integrated agribusiness business zone (kuat), the sustainability of the production center development program to accelerate the development of agribusiness-oriented agriculture into a fast-growing region. thus, kubu raya government prepared 14 hectares of land in sub-district of rasau jaya as part of intergreted farming for hybrid corn planting due to the market demand for sweet corn reaches 100 tons per month this is also in line with minister of agriculture decree no. 472 in 2018 that every program and activity must be landed in an agricultural area with food priority commodities. moreover, there are some urgent matters related to farmers' cooperatives in supporting the sustainable development of corn. first, an increasing challenges of corn demand, such as the natural resource depletion and climate change, which require collaboration between farmers, extension, researchers, policy makers, private sectors, and many other development agencies. therefore, the empowerment of smallholder farmers are expected to be able to facilitate smallholder mechanisms to improve the economic and social situation of farmers' households and communities, such as price and production, dissemination and adoption, and other indicators of member performance (diis, 2004; alho, 2015). second, the production modes of corn are dominated by smallholders, which then pushes the indonesian agriculture minister to empower and synergize the farmer cooperatives with business activities in education for the food sovereignty (andoko et al., 2018). third, farmers’ performance behavior within the context of cooperative societies is related to achieving effective translation of cooperative farmers’ mission. however, farmer cooperatives, particularly small farming groups, are unsustainable and not fully accommodate the interests of farmers (nuraini, darwanto, masyhuri, & jamhari, 2016) because of the lack of decision-making power at the grassroots level, limited access to land, capital, technologies, information and financial services, urbanization of the workforce, intense competition, weak management skill, limited supporting policy, and sociocultural norms particularly for women (diis, 2004; chen, 2014; ishemo & bushell, 2017; lazarte, 2017; jaka & shava, 2018). thus, the research aims to construct the behavior model of corn farmers to optimize and encourage the farmers’ performance for cooperative change toward sustainable farming and safeguard the environment. the research is based on the new institutional approach combined with the theory of planned behavior (tpb). the new institutional approach framework for stakeholders is related to organizations in social science due to simplification of the workings of institutions that focus on regulatory issues and constraints in particular institutions (lang, 2018). while, the theory of planned behavior (tpb) links one's beliefs and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 3 performance behavior of corn….. (nurliza, et.al) behavior in agriculture as a cohesive social institution that provides stability and meaning to social life. in the theory of planned behavior (tpb), attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, control, perceived behavioral control; and intentions, together with perceptions of behavioral control can be used to predict the intentions to perform behaviors of different kinds, which account for considerable variance in actual behavior (ajzen, 1991). thus, the framework of the corn farmers' performance behavior model is expected to be able to promote and encourage changes in farmers’ behavior in institutions, especially farmers’ cooperatives as a liaison between agro-food supply chains of small-scale producers and sustainable institutions for gaining more added values. methodology the research was conducted in sub-district rasau jaya, kubu raya district, which is the center of corn production between april and may 2019 and one of the integrated agribusiness business zone (kuat), the sustainability of the production center development program to accelerate the development of agribusiness-oriented agriculture into a fast-growing region in west kalimantan. the number of respondents are 75 participants with 10% of a margin of error in a sample (omair, 2014). the purposive sampling technique based on the criteria of corn farmers’ who are members of farmer cooperatives in a new urban area (kpb)/independent integrated city (ktm) rasau jaya compiled by referring to the regulation of the minister of manpower and transmigration number: 9 of 2012 concerning guidelines for managing transmigration data and information. in-depth interviews are used not only to provide information but also produce an understanding of challenging field conditions (guest et al., 2013; alshenqeeti, 2014; palinkas et al., 2015) as complement in further quantitative method with the structural equation modeling/sem. the structural equation modeling/sem was used as a model framework based as statistical techniques to construct and test the statistical of causal models of the new institutional approach and the theory of planned behavior (tarka, 2018), which behavior of members in the institution is influenced by three kinds of considerations, i.e. control beliefs, intentions, and past behavior from tpb questionnaire construction (ajzen, 1991). control is structured by instrumental and experiential aspects; intentions is structured by attitude, perceived norm, perceived behavioral control; past behavior is structured by past experience; behavior is structured by relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and observability, and trialability. sem is also a stronger hybrid technique in terms of confirmatory aspects of factor analysis, path analysis and regression or considered as having interaction modeling, nonlinearity, correlated independent variables (narimawati & sarwono, 2017). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 4 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research result and discussions the framework of the corn farmers' performance behavior model, especially farmers’ cooperatives, as a liaison between agro-food supply chains of small-scale producers and sustainable institutions for gaining more added values, is determined by the farmers' characteristics. the participants were mostly 40 to 45 years old; their ethnic is java. they had been married for more than 20 until 25 years, they had 4 family members, their education background is 9 years, and most of them had 2-10 year farming experience. table 1. farmers’ characteristics charachteristics percentage (%) age (year): ≤ 30 6.56 > 30-35 6.56 > 35-40 13.11 > 40-45 18.03 > 45 6.56 religions: islam 100 ethnics: java 95.08 malay 3.28 dayak 1.64 family members (people): ≤ 2 8.20 3 22.95 4 42.62 5 16.39 > 5 9.84 education (years): <6 26.23 6 26.23 <9 1.64 9 29.51 > 12 16.39 farming experiences (years): ≤ 0.5 16.39 > 0.52 11.48 > 210 45.90 > 1015 9.84 > 1520 14.75 > 20 1.64 source: author’s analysis (2019) as table 1 indicates, aging may affect different dimensions of (ng, 2008), which may add value to their institution over their competition and encouraging long-term participation in social groups to help adapt to various activities (lindsay-smith et al., 2018). the older http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 5 performance behavior of corn….. (nurliza, et.al) workers also represents a committed and diverse set of workers, which become a source of institutional knowledge, wisdom, and life experience (vasconcelos, 2018). while, the effects of ethnic culture on cooperative and competitive behavior are confirmed by the collectivist culture of java, which shows more cooperative behavior to adapt to changes (cox et al., 1991; dionne, 2015) and reflect social identity for facilitating cooperative assortment in complex societies (smaldino, 2019). moreover, joining agricultural cooperatives has a positive impact on the wellbeing of smallholders, particularly for a bigger number of families due to their heterogeneous impact on wellbeing (ahmed & mesfin, 2017). there is also significant relationship between education levels and farming experiences with attitudes towards organizational changes and their cognitive dimension for improving cooperative role in today’s competitive world (ravangard et al., 2014). then, the behavior model of corn farmers was analyzed using sem and tested for its validity and reliability, as presented in table 2. tabel 2. validity and reliability test source: author’s analysis (2019) in the goodness of fit test of the re-specification model, there were eleven criteria in the gof test which had good fit. cooperative behavior as the unobserved variable/construct no. criterias standard values initial final estimate values conclusion estimate values conclusion 1 chi square /χ2 small value 158.89 (p=0.00001) poorly 82.44 (p=0.00004) poorly 2 χ2/df 1,0 ≥ x ≤ 5,0 2.34 good 2.36 good 3 ncp small value with narrow interval 15.89 (0.0 ; 28.59) good 12.46 (0.0 ; 29.18) good 4 sncp (ncp/n) small value 0.43 good 0.33 good 5 rmsea ≤ 0,08 0.112 poorly 0.076 good 6 ecvi small value and close to saturated ecvi m=6.02 s=4.92 i=11.11 poorly m=3.61 s=2.97 i=7.76 poorly 7 aic small value and close to saturated aic m=152.89 s=182.00 i=410.93 good m=106.44 s=110.00 i=287.05 good 8 caic small value and close to saturated caic m=413.55 s=422.02 i=445.22 good m=214.19 s=255.07 i=313.43 good 9 nfi ≥ 0,90 0.62 poorly 0.80 poorly 10 nnfi ≥ 0,90 0.66 poorly 0.79 poorly 11 pnfi higher value 0.82 poorly 0.59 poorly 12 cfi ≥ 0,90 0.65 poorly 0.90 good 13 ifi ≥ 0,90 0.58 poorly 0.90 good 14 rfi ≥ 0,90 0.63 poorly 0.86 poorly 15 gfi ≥ 0,90 0.84 poorly 0.91 good 16 agfi ≥ 0,90 0.72 poorly 0.84 poorly 17 pgfi 0-1 0.66 good 0.46 good 18 rmr ≤ 0,05 0.076 poorly 0.042 good 19 cn ≥ 200 89.64 poorly 178.52 poorly http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 6 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research latent can be estimated through the observed variable or indicators of control, intentions, and past behavior which are 79 percent as considerable variance of actual behavior (figure 1). (a) t-value (b) coeficient estimate figure 1. (a) t-value and (b) coeficient estimate of performance behavior model the structural model in figure 1 shows that intentions and past behaviors have positive and negative influence on farmers' cooperative behavior, which are contradictory to the control. this shows that intentions will encourage farmers to actively engage in cooperatives, conversely with the behavior of the past that is felt to be useless. the positive influence of intentions on farmers 'cooperative behavior is due to the leaders' attitude, environmental factors, and non-economic drivers, such as socio-psychological aspect which influences the farmers’ willingness to participate in cooperation (may, 2012; wang et al., 2019). however, inefficiency occurred because of an increase in heterogeneity of attitudes and objectives, particularly in terms of commitment and participation from their members (grashuis & su, 2019). therefore, an attitude as instrumental and experience together with http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 7 performance behavior of corn….. (nurliza, et.al) a subjective norm can be motivation for the positive experiential attitude as its’ influence to the intention (wan et al., 2017). on the other hand, the negative past behaviors shape their attitudes to farmers' cooperative behavior due to members’ perceptions, beliefs and knowledge of agency problems, in terms of the decision problem and the follow-up problem (bhuyan, 2007; hakelius & hansson, 2016). control has no influence on farmers' cooperative behavior because of their lack capability in providing certain services; government officials and policy makers also poorly encourage the cooperative to improve their service quality (chen et al., 2018). it also implied that the cooperatives’ degree of success is weak due to the limited commitment of members towards cooperatives, also the members’ trust towards farm operations profitability, age and experience of their leaders. meanwhile, the measurement model indicates that that most intentions have been influenced by perceived norms as an injunctive and descriptive aspect, followed by attitude as an instrumental and experience aspects, and perceived behavioral control as capacity and autonomy aspects. therefore, we need to consider the relationship between injunctive and descriptive norms to understand their influence on behavioral intention. a conflict between the injunctive and descriptive aspects is usually associated with weak intentions to engage in pro-environmental behavior (smith et al., 2012). furthermore, perceived behavioral control as capacity and autonomy aspect also affects intention because it can stimulate the motivation to be long-lived performing for the foundation of behavior formation and change (yzer, 2012). this motivation is based on the resources and opportunities which are possible if they have confidence to perform and control their performance. then, the negative past behavior is mostly influenced by experience and direct knowledge due to scanning bias, dissonance distortion, heuristics in self-perception and use of behavior from others' reactions (albarracín & wyer, 2000). besides, individuals can rely on cues, other than directing experience to develop perceptions about injective norms. thus, understanding the cognitive reasoning process that drives decisions is the key to understanding farmers' behavior and the best approach to change behavior (rose et al., 2018). farmers can make decisions in different ways and each farmer's decision is influenced by unique social, psychological and contextual factors (mankad, 2016). conclusions the findings proved that intentions will encourage farmers to actively engage in cooperatives, conversely with the behavior of the past that is felt to be useless. perceived norm as an injunctive and descriptive aspect are mostly influenced the intentions, followed by instrumental and experience aspects (attitude), and capacity and autonomy aspects (perceived behavioral control), which happend due to the leaders' attitude, environmental factors, and non-economic drivers, such as socio-psychological, influence farmers’ willingness to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 8 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research participate in cooperation. meanwhile, past experience caused the inactivity of farmers in cooperatives due to scanning bias, dissonance distortion, heuristics in self-perception and use of behavior members' perceptions, beliefs and knowledge. however, the control did not influence farmers' cooperative behavior due to the lack of capability of providing certain services; poorly government officials and policy makers for encouraging their service quality improvement in cooperatives. therefore, there are several efforts for changing the behavior of cooperative corn farmers, as follows: the perceived behavioral control based on the resources and opportunities that stimulate the motivation to be long-lived performing; proenvironmental behavior needs to engage a supportive injunctive norm and a supportive descriptive norm; a subjective norm for motivation to exhibit positive experiential attitude; and the confidence to perform and control their performance. acknowledgements we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the directorate of research and community service, directorate general for strengthening research and development of the ministry of research, technology and higher education (ristekdikti) for funding this research through services to communities in community partnership program in 2019. references agriculture-ministry. 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(2019). farmer cooperatives’ intention to adopt agricultural information technology—mediating effects of attitude. information systems frontiers, 21(3), 565–580. yzer, m. c. (2012). perceived behavioral control in reasoned action theory: a dual-aspect interpretation. annals, aapss, 640, 101-117. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no. 1 januari -juni 2018 m. agus maryanto1), ketut sukiyono2), dan basuki sigit priyono2) 1) jurusan magister manajemen agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas bengkulu 2) jurusan sosial ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian, universitas bengkulu email korespondensi: ksukiyono@unib.ac.id analisis efisiensi teknis dan faktor penentunya pada usahatani kentang (solanumtuberosum l.) di kota pagar alam, provinsi sumatera selatan h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4154 abstract this study aims to determine and analyse the level of technical efficiency and the factors influencing technical efficiency of a potato farming in north dempo, sub-district pagar alam city, south sumatera province using 51 farmers who are censused. frontier production function, estimated using the mle method, is used to determine the level of technical efficiency. meanwhile, multiple regression estimated using ols approach is used to determine factors influencing technical efficiency level. the research showed that, land area, seed, organic fertilizer, za fertilizer, ponska fertilizer, and fungiside were significantly affect potato production. the research finds that the level of technical efficiency of potato farming was, on the average, 81.336 percent. the research also shows that the intensity of extension and farmers’ experience affect significantly and negatively technical inefficiency while formal education, age, and land ownership status do not. keywords: determinant factors, frontier production, potato, technical efficiency. intisari penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan dan menganalisis tingkat efisiensi teknis dan faktor yang mempengaruhi capaian efisiensi teknis pada usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara, kota pagar alam, provinsi sumatera utara dengan melakukan sensus terhadap 51 petani kentang. fungsi produksi frontier yang diestimasi dengan menggunakan metode mle digunakan utnuk menentukan tingkat capaian efisiensi teknis. sementara itu, regresi berganda yang diestimasi dengan pendekatan ols diaplikasikan untuk menentukan faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi capaian efisiensi teknis. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa capaian efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang rata-rata 81,336 persen. hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa intensitas keikutsertaan dalam penyuluhan, pengalaman petani berpengaruh nyata secara negatif terhadap capaian inefisiensi teknis sementara pendidikan dan umur petani serta status kepemilikan lahan tidak berpengaruh. kata kunci: efisiensi teknis, faktor determinan, kentang, produksi frontier. pendahuluan permasalahan yang sering dihadapi dalam usahatani adalah adanya kendala pada teknik budidaya, termasuk pada usahatani kentang. kendala pada budidaya menyebabkan penurunan produktivitas kentang, terutama pada saat musim hujan petani harus mengeluarkan biaya yang lebih besar untuk pengendalian hama penyakit yang menyerang tanaman (balai pengkajian teknologi pertanian sumatera selatan, 2011). selain itu, kendala lain adalah penggunaan bibit, pemupukan, dan penggunaan pestisida yang kurang tepat baik dosis maupun waktu. petani kentang mengeluhkan banyaknya bibit yang busuk dan serangan hama dan penyakit karena waktu penanaman yang kurang tepat. padahal, mailto:ksukiyono@unib.ac.id 2 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research penggunaan input produksi ini memegang peranan penting untuk menghasilkan produksi. kurang tepatnya jumlah dan kombinasi faktor produksi tersebut berpengaruh pada produksi yang dihasilkan dan biaya yang dikeluarkan. hal tersebut menuntut petani untuk menggunakan faktor-faktor produksi yang dimiliki dalam pengelolaan usahatani secara efisien. jika petani tidak menggunakan faktor produksi secara efisien, terdapat potensi yang tidak tereksploitasi untuk meningkatkan pendapatan usahatani dan menciptakan surplus (darwanto, 2010). lebih lanjut, rendahnya produksi dan tingginya biaya pada akhirnya akan mengakibatkan rendahnya pendapatan petani (rahayu & riptanti, 2010). untuk itu perlu pengukuran efisiensi penggunaan faktor produksi. hal ini didasari pada anggapan bahwa tingkat efisiensi yang tinggi akan menguntungkan karena efisiensi tidak lepas dari kombinasi faktor produksi yang optimal. salah satu cara yang dapat digunakan untuk mengetahui efisien penggunaan faktor produksi usahatani kentang yaitu dengan menghitung nilai efisiensi teknisnya. efisiensi teknis menujukkan hubungan antara input dan output. efisiensi teknis mengukur sampai sejauh mana seorang petani mengubah input menjadi output pada tingkat produksi, faktor ekonomi dan teknologi tertentu (sukiyono, 2005). pendekatan untuk mengestimasi tingkat efisiensi teknis yang sering digunakan adalah fungsi produksi frontier stochastik. model ini telah banyak digunakan untuk meneliti efisiensi teknis usahatani maupun usaha perikanan di indonesia, diantaranya adalah usahatani cabai (sukiyono, 2005; saptana, daryanto, daryanto, & kuntjoro, 2011), usahatani padi (darwanto, 2010; sukiyono & sriyoto, 2010; kurniawan, 2012; utama, 2014), usahatani tembakau (fauziyah, 2010), usahatani kentang (maganga, 2012), usahatani kubis (darmansyah, sukiyono, & sugiarti, 2013), dan perikanan tangkap (sukiyono & romdhon, 2016). lebih lanjut, penelitian–penelitian efsiensi teknis ini sering menggunakan fungsi produksi cobb-douglas. pengukuran efisiensi teknis cukup sensitif terhadap pemilihan bentuk fungsional model produksi karena properti ini terkait dengan pergeseran isokuan (maddala, 1979). di samping itu, fungsi produksi ini mudah untuk mengestimasi dan mengintepretasikan karena parameternya langsung menunjukkan nilai elastisitas dari masing-masing faktor produksi serta jumlah elastisitas dari masing-masing faktor produksi atau merupakan pendugaan skala usaha (returns to scale). faktor penentu efisiensi teknis atau inefisiensi yang telah dianalisis dalam banyak penelitian yang mencakup berbagai variabel sosial ekonomi spesifik pertanian, seperti ukuran lahan, status kepemilikan, pendidikan dan pengalaman petani, akses terhadap modal, kredit dan informasi, dan teknologi (sukiyono, 2005; alen & zelner, 2005; saptana, daryanto, daryanto, & kuntjoro, 2011). langkah pertama untuk menyelidiki hubungan antara efisiensi dan variabelvariabel ini adalah mengukur efisiensi. langkah ini diikuti dengan memperkirakan model regresi dimana skor efisiensi yang diprediksi dinyatakan sebagai fungsi dari atribut sosioekonomi. beberapa ekonom mengkritik prosedur ini (battese & coelli, 1988; kumbhakar & ghosh, 1991; reifschneider & stevenson, 1991; battese & coelli 1992). mereka berpendapat bahwa variabel sosioekonomi harus digabungkan langsung ke dalam perkiraan model frontier produksi karena variabel tersebut mungkin bersifat langsung pengaruh terhadap efisiensi produksi. berangkat dari diskusi di atas, penelitian ini memiliki dua tujuan, yaitu mengestimasi tingkat efisiensi teknis dan menganalisa faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat efisiensi yang dicapai pada usahatani kentang (solanum tuberosum l). penelitian ini dilakukan di kota pagar alam, provinsi sumatera selatan yang merupakan salah satu sentra produksi kentang di sumatera selatan. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di kota pagar alam provinsi sumatera selatan yang selanjutnya dipilih kecamatan dempo utara dengan pertimbangan kecamatan ini merupakan sentra produksi kentang di provinsi sumatera selatan. jumlah populasi petani kentang di kecamatan pagar alam sebanyak 51 petani yang disensus untuk mengukur capaian efisiensi teknis. pengambilan data dilakukan pada oktober – desember 2014. dalam penelitian ini, fungsi produksi frontier stochastik untuk usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara diasumsikan mempunyai bentuk persamaan cobb-douglas, yang ditransformasikan kedalam bentuk logaritma natural sebagai berikut: lnyi =β0+β1ln area+β2ln bbt+β3ln kndng+β4ln pnska+ β 5 ln za+β 6 ln sp36+β 7 ln fungi+β 8 ln insekt+β 9 ln labor+vi-ui (1) y adalah jumlah produksi kentang (kg), area adalah luas lahan (ha), bbt adalah jumlah bibit kentang (kg), kndng adalah pupuk kandang (kg), pnska adalah pupuk phonska (kg), za adalah pupuk za (kg), sp36 adalah pupuk sp36 (kg), fungi adalah fungisida (kg), insekt adalah insektisida cair (ltr), labor adalah tenaga kerja (hksp) dan vi adalah kesalahan acak model, serta ui adalah variabel acak yang merepresentasikan inefisiensi teknis dari sampel usahatani ke i. 3 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang ke-i diduga dengan menggunakan persamaan yang dirumuskan oleh battese dan coelli (1988) dan kumbhakar dan lovell (2000) sebagai berikut: tei= yi yi * = exp (xiβ+vi-ui) exp (xiβ+vi) =exp(-ui) (2) sedangkan untuk dapat mengetahui sumber-sumber yang menjadi penyebab terjadinya efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara, dianalisis dengan model regresi berganda seperti yang dilakukan oleh sukiyono (2005), sebagai berikut: effi=a0+a1edu+a2exp+a3ext+a4age+a5skl+ε1 (3) eff i adalah tingkat efisiensi teknis yang dicapai oleh petani ke i, edu adalah lama pendidikan formal (tahun), exp adalah pengalaman berusahatani (tahun), ext adalah intensitas penyuluhan (kali), age adalah umur petani (tahun), skl adalah dummy status kepemilikan lahan (skl = 1, jika statusnya milik sendiri, dan skl=0, untuk sewa). model (1) di atas diduga dengan menggunakan metode maksimum likelihood (mle = maximum likelihood estimation) sedangkan model (3) diduga dengan metode ols (ordinary least square). hasil dan pembahasan karakteristik petani keberha si la n usa hat a ni sa nga t di tentuka n oleh karakteristik petani sebagai pelaku usahatani, pembuat dan pengambil keputusan dalam menjalankan kegiatan usahatani. karakteristik petani terkait dengan keberhasilan usahatani terutama menyangkut aspek umur, tingkat pendidikan, pengalaman berusahatani, dan luas penguasaan lahan usahatani. petani kentang di daerah penelitian sebagian besar termasuk pada golongan usia produktif. lebih dari 82% petani memiliki umur kurang dari 47 tahun dengan rata– rata umur 41,16 tahun (tabel 1). petani dalam usia produktif diha rapkan bisa m emberik an hasil maksimal untuk usahataninya sehingga dapat memenuhi kebutuhan rumah tangganya sendiri. petani tergolong usia produktif akan mampu bekerja dan memberikan hasil yang maksimal jika dibandingkan pada petani yang tergolong belum dan atau tidak produktif (bakhri, depparaba, hutahaean, & zaenaty, 2002). tabel 1. karakteristik petani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara kota pagar alam no karakteristik jumlah (orang) persen tase ratarata 1. umur (tahun) a. ≤ 33 b. 34 – 47 c. > 47 7 35 9 13,73 68,63 17,65 41,16 2. pendidikan formal (tahun) a. < 4 b. 4 – 8 c. > 8 5 18 28 9,80 35,29 54,90 8,06 3. intensitas penyuluhan (kali) a. < 4 b. 4 – 8 c. > 8 34 0 17 66,67 0,00 33,33 4,20 4. pengalaman berusahatani kentang (tahun) a. < 10 b. 10 – 20 c. > 20 50 0 1 98,04 0,00 1,96 2,03 5. luas lahan usahatani kentang (ha) a. ≤ 0,57 b. 0,58 – 1,13 c. ≥ 1,7 40 10 1 78,43 19,61 1,96 0,42 6. status kepemilikan lahan a. milik sendiri b. sewa c. sakap 26 18 7 50,98 35,29 13,73 sumber: data primer diolah (2015) terkait dengan tingkat pendidikan, rata–rata petani kentang memiliki lama pendidikan 8,06 tahun. ini artinya, petani kentang di daerah ini memiliki tingkat pendidikan di atas sekolah dasar. banyak penelitian yang menyimpulkan bahwa pendidikan berkaitan dengan keberhasilan petani dalam mengelola usahataninya karena pendidikan berkaitan dengan cara berfikir petani dalam mengambil keputusan terkait dengan aktivitas usahataninya. dilihat dari sisi pengalaman, petani kentang di daerah penelitian relatif belum lama mengelola usahatani kentang. hal ini terlihat dari pengalaman petani yang sebagian besar kurang dari 10 tahun, yakni sebesar 98% dari total petani kentang. beberapa petani mengatakan bahwa awal menanam kentang di kecamatan dempo utara karena mendapatkan bantuan benih kentang sebanyak 500 kg pada tahun 2003 dan 600 kg pada tahun 2013. kurangnya pengalaman petani dalam usahatani kentang tentunya akan berdampak pada capaian produktivitas usahataninya. kurangnya pengalaman ini tidak diimbangi dengan intensitas penyuluhan pertanian yang diberikan. data di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa 57% 4 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research petani kentang belum pernah mengikuti penyuluhan dan lebih dari 66% yang berpartisipasi dalam kegiatan penyuluhan mengikuti kurang dari 4 kali. padahal, keikutsertaan dan intensitas penyuluhan dapat mempengaruhi kemampuan petani dalam pengambilan keputusan untuk menerapkan teknologi baru pada usahataninya, karena dapat menambah pengetahuan, kecakapan dan keterampilan individu. deskripsi usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara penggunaan input produksi pada kegiatan usahatani m erup ak a n ha l ya ng sa nga t p enti ng k a rena ak a n mempengaruhi produksi yang dihasilkan. input produksi yang dianalisis dalam penelitian ini meliputi luas lahan, bibit, tenaga kerja, pupuk organik, ponska, sp-36, za, fungisida, dan insektisida. statistik deskripsi untuk semua peubah kegiatan yang digunakan untuk usahatani kentang per musim tanam disajikan pada tabel 2. tabel 2. deskripsi usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara variabel n rata – rata per usahatani per hektar produksi (kg) 51 4.694,30 11.374,06 luas lahan (ha) 51 0,42 1,00 benih (kg) 51 404,37 968,12 pupuk organik (kg) 51 1.497,50 2.574,02 phonska (kg) 51 97,01 403,82 sp – 36 (kg) 51 78,38 232,44 za (kg) 51 79,36 354,54 fungisida (kg) 51 8,65 33,09 insektisida (ltr) 51 1,41 4,51 tenaga kerja (hksp) 51 85,12 250,04 sumber: data primer diolah (2015) dalam kegiatan usahatani luas lahan menjadi faktor yang sangat penting, karena besarnya luas lahan yang diusahakan untuk suatu usahatani akan mempengaruhi besarnya produksi yang diperoleh dalam suatu waktu dan areal tertentu. luas lahan akan berpengaruh terhadap besar kecilnya produksi yang dihasilkan petani sehingga pada akhirnya akan berpengaruh terhadap biaya yang akan dikeluarkan oleh petani. rata-rata produksi usahatani kentang di daerah penelitian per musim tanam sebesar 4.694,3 kg atau 11.374,06 kg per ha dengan penggunaan luas lahan usahatani rata-rata sebesar 0,42 ha. luas lahan yang diusahakan petani untuk usahatani kentang tergolong sempit karena sebagian petani belum berani mengusahakan seluruh lahannya untuk tanaman kentang dan masih mengusahakan jenis tanaman sayuran lainnya. benih yang digunakan dalam usahatani kentang akan berpengaruh terhadap produksi yang akan dicapai. benih yang ditanam petani kentang adalah benih lokal dengan jenis benih yang digunakan adalah granola 1, granola 4, dan merbabu. untuk mendapatkan produksi kentang sebanyak 4.694,3 kg dibutuhkan lahan sebesar 0,42 ha dan benih sebanyak 404,37 kg atau 968,12 kg/ha. penggunaan ini relatif kecil dibandingan dengan penggunaan benih kentang di daerah lain seperti penelitian maganga (2012) di malawi. untuk input lain, ada dua jenis pupuk yang digunakan oleh petani pupuk organik, dan pupuk anorganik. pupuk organik berupa kotoran ayam sedangkan pupuk anorganik berupa pupuk phonska, pupuk sp-36 dan pupuk za. ratarata penggunaan pupuk organik sebesar 1.497,50kg/mt atau 2.574,02 kg/ha, phonska sebesar 97,01kg/mt atau 403,82 kg/ha, sp-36 sebesar 78,38 kg/mt atau 232,44 kg/ha dan za sebesar 79,36 kg/mt atau 354,54 kg/ha. sama seperti penggunaan benih, rata–rata penggunaan pupuk juga relatif kecil dibandingkan dengan penggunaan pupuk di daerah lain di indonesia (ridwan, nurmalinda, sabari, & hilman, 2010). kurangnya modal dan kurangnya pengetahuan dapat menjadi kendala utama bagi petani untuk mengaplikasikan input pupuk sesuai dengan kebutuhan. fak t or-fakt or yang memp engaruhi p roduksi usahatani kentang hasil analisis fungsi produksi frontier stokastik pada usahatani kentang di daerah penelitian dilihat pada tabel 3. dari hasil estimasi diketahui nilai koefisien determinasi r2 sebesar 0,9528. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa faktor-faktor yang diduga, secara bersama-sama mempengaruhi produksi sebesar 95,28%. tabel 3 menunjukkan nilai ã (– 2 54,83) dan ó (0,32402) c uk up besar dan berbeda denga n nol. hasi l i ni mengindikasikan bahwa asumsi tentang distribusi setengah normal (half-normal distribution) harus diterima. untuk mengetahui apakah semua petani telah melakukan usahatani kentang efisien dilakukan uji hipotesis dengan menggunakan uji likelihood ratio test. hasil estimasi didapatkan bahwa nilai lr = – 23,22696. hasil nilai lr test kemudian dibandingkan dengan nilai kritis ÷2 dengan tingkat kesalahan 5%. setelah dibandingkan, didapatkan hasil bahwa nilai – lr test lebih kecil daripada nilai kritis – x2. hal ini membuktikan bahwa fungsi produksi frontier mampu dengan baik menjelaskan data yang ada mengenai terjadinya fenomena efisiensi teknis pada usahatani kentang. 5 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 tabel 3. hasil estimasi fungsi produksi frontier stokastik pada usahatani kentang di kota pagar alam variabel koefisien se(bi) thitung intersept 3,7474000 0,1997600 18,76000 luas lahan (ha) 0,1998000 0,0323660 6,17310** benih (kg) 0,8210000 0,0352210 23,31000** pupuk kandang (kg) 0,0034660 0,0011330 3,05910** pupuk sp-36 (kg) -0,0229460 0,0025563 -8,97610** pupuk za (kg) 0,0195830 0,0032783 5,97360** pupuk ponska (kg) -0,0891600 0,0184860 -4,82320** tenaga kerja (hksp) 0,0198730 0,0251720 0,78948 insektisida (ltr) 0,0044948 0,0145940 0,30799 fungisida (kg) 0,0280760 0,0109760 2,55780**  -254,8300000 180,7500000 -1,40990*  0,3240200 0,0270720 11,96900** r2 : 0,9528 t tabel** : 2,0195 ket:* dan ** masing-masing nyata pada 80% dan 95% dengan derajat bebas 41 sumber: data primer diolah (2015) selanjutnya, hasil estimasi fungsi produksi frontier stokastik pada tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa hampir semua variabel yang dimasukan berpengaruh secara nyata terhadap produksi kentang, kecuali untuk variabel tenaga kerja dan insektisida yang tidak berpengaruh secara nyata walaupun memiliki tanda koefisien yang positif. variabel pupuk phonska dan pupuk sp–36 berpengaruh nyata tetapi m emp unya i t a nda nega tif. ta nda koefi sien nega ti f menjelaskan bahwa semakin banyak pupuk phonska dan sp– 36 yang digunakan maka hasil produksi akan semakin menurun, cateris paribus. tanda negatif ini bertentangan dengan teori produksi dimana penambahan pupuk phonska dan sp–36 seharusnya memiliki tanda positif. penggunaan pupuk organik berpengaruh nyata dan positif terhadap produksi usahatani kentang. kesimpulan ini diperoleh dari uji t dimana nilai t hitung lebih besar dari nilai t tabel . hasil ini menginformasikan bahwa penambahan penggunaan pupuk organik dapat memberikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap peningkatan produksi. peningkatan penggunaan pupuk organik sampai di bawah batas dosis maksimum dapat meningkatkan potensi hasil umbi kentang sehingga produksi dapat meningkat. hasil penelitian ini sesuai dengan hasil penelitian sukiyono (2005) pada usahatani cabai, susilowati (2012) pada usahatani tebu, maganga (2012) pada usahatani kentang yang menyimpulkan bahwa jumlah pupuk organik yang digunakan berpengaruh secara nyata dan positif terhadap jumlah produksi. tabel 3 juga menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan benih mempunyai nilai elastisitas tertinggi yakni 0,8210. ini berarti bahwa faktor produksi benih mempunyai pengaruh yang paling besar terhadap produksi kentang. hasil penelitian ini sama dengan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan maganga (2012) pa da usahata ni kentang, yang menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan benih kentang berpengaruh secara nyata dan positif terhadap produksi. faktor kedua yang mempunyai nilai elastisitas yang tinggi adalah lahan. luas lahan memiliki elastistas sebesar 0,1998 yang memiliki makna peningkatan luas lahan sebesar 1% akan meningkatkan produksi sebesar 0,1999%. dalam usahatani, kepemilikan atau penguasaan lahan sempit sudah pasti kurang efisien dibanding dengan kepemilikan lahan yang lebih luas. semakin sempit lahan usaha, semakin tidak efisien usahatani yang dilakukan kecuali bila usahatani dijalankan dengan tertib. luas pemilikan atau penguasaan berhubungan dengan efisiensi usahatani. penggunaan masukan akan semakin efisien bila luas lahan yang dikuasai semakin besar (soekartawai, 1990). temuan ini didukung hasil penelitian sukiyono (2005) pada usahatani cabai, rifiana, rahmawati, & wilda (2010) dan tien (2011) pada usahatani padi sawah, abedullah & bakhsh (2006) dan maganga (2012) pada usahatani kentang, dan susilowati (2012) pada usahatani tebu, yang menyatakan variabel luas lahan berpengaruh sangat nyata dan positif terhadap jumlah produksi. capaian tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang tingkat efisiensi teknis yang dicapai oleh petani kentang di kota pagar alam disajikan pada tabel 4. rata-rata efisiensi 81,3365% ini menunjukkan bahwa rata-rata petani kentang dapat mencapai produksi kentang sebesar 81,336% dari potensi produksi yang didapat dari kombinasi faktor–faktor produksi yang dikorbankan oleh petani. hal ini juga dapat menunjukkan bahwa petani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara kota pagar alam masih dapat meningkatkan produksi kentang sebesar 18,664% melalui penggunaan teknologi terbaik. capaian tingkat efisiensi teknis cukup tinggi di mana tingkat efisiensi teknis terkecil adalah 34,1% dan tertinggi sebesar 99,7%. sebaran capaian efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara kota pagar alam tahun 2014 dapat dilihat pada gambar 1 gambar 1 menunjukkan bahwa efisiensi teknis kentang paling tinggi yaitu pada kategori antara 87–100% yaitu sebesar 39,22%, sedangkan kategori terkecil yaitu pada kisaran antara 45–58% sebesar 1,96 %. dari hasil distribusi efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang, menunjukkan bahwa efisiensi teknis pada petani kentang sudah efisien yaitu dengan rata-rata tingkat efisiensi sebesar 81,336%. hal ini menunjukkan secara ratarata petani masih mempunyai peluang untuk memperoleh 6 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research hasil potensial yang maksimum seperti yang diperoleh petani paling efisien secara teknis. hal ini berimplikasi produktivitas kent a ng dap a t di tingk atk a n denga n m enggunak a n manajemen teknik terbaik. jika petani mencapai efisiensi ratarata dan ingin mencapai efisiensi maksimum, peluang untuk meningkatkan produksi adalah sebesar 18,46% (1–81,336/ 99,743). perhitungan yang sama jika petani yang tidak efisien ingin mencapai efisiensi maksimum, peluang peningkatan produksi sebesar 65,8% (1–34,113/99,743). tabel 4. hasil estimasi efisiensi dari fungsi produksi fronteir stokastik usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara kota pagar alam statistik skor efisiensi jumlah sampel 51,000000 rata-rata 0,813360 standar deviasi 0,157080 ragam 0,024674 minimum 0,341130 maksimum 0,997430 sumber: data primer diolah (2015) gambar 1. distribusi capaian efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara kota pagar alam faktor-faktor determinan yang mempengaruhi tingkat efisiensi teknis hasil estimasi menunjukkan bahwa secara bersama–sama faktor pendidikan formal, pengalaman berusaha tani, intensitas penyuluhan, umur petani, dan status kepemilikan lahan mempengaruhi efisiensi teknis sebesar 65,54%. hal ini dapat dilihat dari besaran nilai r2 sebesar 0,6554. dari hasil estimasi juga dapat diketahui bahwa variabel pengalaman berpengaruh nyata pada taraf kepercayaan 90% sedangkan variabel intensitas penyuluhan berpengaruh nyata pada taraf kepercayaan 95%. untuk lebih mengetahui hasil estimasi faktor determinan tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang di kecamatan dempo utara kota pagar alam disajikan pada tabel 5. tabel 5. hasil estimasi faktor determinan tingkat efisiensi teknis pada usahatani kentang di kota pagar alam peubah koefisien galat thitung konstanta 0,8747700 0,129800 6,74100 pendidikan formal -0,0022901 0,005708 -0,40120 pengalaman berusahatani -0,0065848 0,003753 -1,75500** intensitas penyuluhan -0,0218890 0,003201 6,83800*** umur petani 0,0019786 0,002174 0,91030 status lahan -0,0296020 0,035370 -0,83700 r2 : 0,6554 fhitung : 17,1210 t tabel ** : 1,6790 t tabel ** : 2,0140 sumber: data primer diolah (2015) ket: ** dan ***masing-masing nyata pada 90%dan 95% faktor pendidikan formal petani tidak berpengaruh nyata dan bertanda negatif terhadap capaian efisiensi teknis. ratarata tingkat pendidikan petani masih cukup rendah yaitu 8,06 tahun atau setingkat tidak tamat sekolah menengah pertama sehingga dengan rendahnya tingkat pendidikan ini berpengaruh terhadap sikap dalam menerima inovasi baru dalam usahatani kentang. petani yang berpendidikan tinggi relatif lebih cepat dalam melakukan anjuran penyuluh. tingkat pendidikan yang rendah pada umumnya kurang menyenangi inovasi sehingga sikap mental untuk menambah ilmu pengetahuan khususnya ilmu pertanian kurang. tabel 5 juga menunjukkan bahwa variabel pengalaman berusa ha t a ni kent a ng dan i ntensi t a s p enyuluha n berpengaruh nyata dan bertanda negatif terhadap efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang. nilai koefisien yang bertanda negatif dapat diartikan bahwa variabel pengalaman dan intensitas penyuluhan dapat menurunkan capaian efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang. dengan kata lain, semakin banyak pengalaman berusahatani dan mengikuti penyuluhan pertanian maka efisiensi petani akan semakin menurun. dugaan ini akan dapat terjadi karena rata-rata pengalaman berusahatani kentang masih rendah sehingga peluang untuk lebih menurunkan inefisiensi masih cukup besar. rata-rata pengalaman usahatani kentang sebesar 2,03 tahun hal ini menandakan bahwa pengalaman petani berusahatani kentang relatif baru. banyak penelitian yang menemukan bahwa kesimpulan yang berbeda–beda terkait dengan variabel ini. penelitian maganga (2012) pada usahatani kentang yang 7 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 menyatakan bahwa pengalaman petani berpengaruh nyata dan negatif terhadap inefisiensi teknis. namun tidak sama dengan hasil penelitian sukiyono (2005) pada usahatani cabai, rifiana, rahmawati, & wilda (2010) dan tien (2011) pada usahatani padi yang menunjukkan pengalaman berusahatani tidak berpengaruh nyata pada efisiensi teknis. faktor peubah umur menunjukkan nilai koefisien positif. tanda positif menunjukkan bahwa semakin bertambah umur petani (semakin tua) dapat meningkatkan inefisiensi teknis, artinya semakin muda umur petani semakin efisien dan sebaliknya semakin tinggi umur petani semakin tidak efisien dalam menjalankan usahataninya. hal ini sesuai dengan anggapan bahwa semakin tua umur petani maka kemampuan kerja dan kemampuan teknisnya semakin menurun dan berdampak negatif terhadap efisiensi teknis. tanda positif pada koefisien umur sesuai dengan hasil penelitian maganga (20l2) dan abedullah & bakhsh (2006) yang menyatakan bahwa umur memiliki tanda koefisien positif terhadap inefisiensi teknis usahatani kentang yang artinya semakin tinggi variabel umur akan meningkatkan efesiensi teknik. namun demikian pada kasus usahatani kentang di kota pagar alam ini, peubah umur mempunyai pengaruh yang nyata terhadap capaian efisiensi teknis. kesimpulan ha sil esti masi fungsi produksi frontier stokastik menunjukan bahwa hampir semua faktor produksi yang dimasukan berpengaruh secara nyata terhadap produksi kentang, kecuali untuk tenaga kerja dan insektisida yang tidak berpengaruh nyata. tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang yang dicapai petani berbeda-beda, paling rendah sebesar 0,34113 dan tertinggi sebesar 0,99743. adapun rata-rata efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang sebesar 0,81336. hasil analisis sumber-sumber penyebab efisiensi teknis menunjukkan bahwa pengalaman petani dan intensitas penyuluhan menurunkan tingkat capaian efisiensi teknis, sedangkan pendidikan formal, umur dan status lahan tidak berpengaruh secara nyata terhadap capaian efisiensi teknis. lebih jauh, rata-rata hasil capaian tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang menunjukkan bahwa produksi usahatani kentang di daerah penelitian masih dapat lebih ditingkatkan. benih kentang merupakan faktor penting dan paling responsif dalam upaya peningkatan produksi kentang. rata-rata hasil capaian tingkat efisiensi teknis usahatani kentang menunjukkan bahwa produksi usahatani kentang di daerah penelitian masih dapat lebih ditingkatkan. benih kentang merupakan faktor penting dan paling responsif dalam upaya peningkatan produksi kentang. kemudahan akses terhadap lembaga keuangan sangat penting untuk memudahkan petani dalam mendapatkan benih yang berkualitas serta input produksi lain yang tepat waktu, jumlah dan harga. petani juga dapat meningkatkan produksi kentang dengan cara meningkatkan pengalaman petani, penyuluhan dan pelatihan dalam teknik budidaya baik dalam teknik pembibitan, penggunaan varietas unggul maupun teknik budidaya lainnya. oleh sebab itu, perlu adanya peningkatan peran penyuluh dalam memberikan penyuluhan-penyuluhan secara berkesinambungan dalam rangka memberikan pengetahuan dan pemahaman tentang teknologi dan teknik budidaya kentang yang benar, terutama pada daerah usahatani kentang yang tidak pernah tersentuh penyuluhan ini bertujuan agar petani lebih dapat menggunakan teknik budidaya kentang dengan baik. tidak kalah pentingnya adalah penguatan kelembagaan petani agak dapat mempunyai daya saing dan daya tawar yang tinggi. daftar pustaka abedullah, b. a. & bakhsh, k. 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(2010). efisiensi teknis dan ekonomis usahatani padi sawah lahan pasang surut di kabupaten banjar kalimantan selatan. jurnal agroscientiae. 3 (1): 128 – 133. saptana, daryanto, a., heny, k. d., dan kuntjoro (2011). analisis efisiensi teknis produksi usahatani cabai merah besar dan cabai merah kriting di provinsi jawa tengah: pendekatan fungsi produksi frontir stokastik. jurnal forum pascasarjana 34(3): 173 – 184. soekartawi (1990). teori ekonomi produksi: dengan pokok bahasan analisis. cobb douglas. rajawali pers: jakarta. sukiyono, k., & romdhon, m. m., (2016). assessing technical eûciency for bengkulu province catching fishery industries and determination of it’s technical efciency. international journal of fisheries and aquatic studies. 4(6): 168 – 174. sukiyono, k., & sriyoto. (2010). efisiensi teknik usahatani padi pada dua tipologi lahan yang berbeda di provinsi bengkulu. soca 10(1): 3339, sukiyono, k. (2005). faktor penentu tingkat efisiensi teknik usahatani cabai merah di kecamatan selupu rejang, kabupaten rejang lebong. jurnal agro ekonomi. 23(2): 176 – 190. susilowati, s. h., & tinaprilla, n. (2012). analisis efisiensi usahatani tebu di jawa timur. jurnal littri. 18 (4): 162 172. tien, t. (2011). analisis efisiensi teknis usahatani padi sawah aplikasi pertanian organik (studi kasus di desa sumber ngepoh, kecamatan lawang) kabupaten malang mt 2009 – 2010. jurnal el-hayah. 1 (4): 182 – 191. utama, s. p. (2014). kajian efisiensi teknis usahatani padi sawah pada petani peserta sekolah lapang pengendalian hama terpadu (slpht) di sumatera barat. jurnal agrisep. 2(1): 58 – 70. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021, pages: 78-90 article history: submitted: march 1st, 2019 accepted: february 20th, 2021 asma sembiring*, rini roro murtiningsih, kusmana indonesian vegetables research institute (ivegri), lembang, west java, indonesia *)correspondence email: rangkayoamah@gmail.com g0 potato seed production management in indonesia: an overview and the challenges doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.5943 abstract the availability of indonesian potato seed and production of potato for consumption depends on the availability and quality of generation 0 (g0) potato seed. this study aims to observe g0 potato seed production management in indonesia. data were collected through focus group discussion (fgd) and survey. thirty-seven g0 potato seed producers participated in the survey. data were analyzed descriptively, while the feasibility of the farm budget of g0 potato production was calculated using the enterprise budget method. the results showed that the producers had challenges on capital to broaden the screen house to extend the production scale and limited plantlet availability. meanwhile, they did not have any problems with other production aspects, such as controlling pests and diseases and the marketing of the g0 seed. government supports to provide screen houses to fulfil producers' necessity and delegate the legality of potato plantlets are needed to create a better indonesia's potato seed system. keywords: enterprise budget method, g0 potato, seed production introduction indonesian potato consumption production tended to increase from 2013 to 2017. the average production increased and accounted for 1,278,191.2 ton due to the rise of potato harvesting land area from 2013 to 2017. the average harvesting land area was about 71,104 hectares, with a productivity rate of 17.1 ton per hectare. meanwhile, the per capita consumption also grew with an average consumption of 2.01 kg per capita over the last five years (pusat data dan sistem informasi pertanian & indonesia k.p.r., 2018). seed support was necessary for the development of indonesian potato production. the availability of high-quality and affordable seed was important to produce the potatoes in the long term continuously and to provide a benefit for farmers as the producers (handayani, sahat, & sofiari, 2015; kiloes, puspitasari, syah, & udiarto, 2019; mulyono, syah, sayekti, & hilman, 2017; urrea-hernandez, almekinders, & dam, 2016). potato seeds become the main attention of potato production because of their influence to yield productivity (hidayat, 2011; mulijanti et al., 2015; wicaksana et al., 2013). another factor that makes the seed important is the significant allocation of potato seeds in the component cost of potato production. it is accounted for more than 30% (ridwan et al., 2010). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 79 g0 potato seed production management ….. (sembiring et al.) the cost is higher when using the certified seeds, reaching 47% (kiloes, sayekti, & syah, 2015; sayaka & hestina, 2011). production potency, seed purity, and resistance to pest and disease are several factors considered by potato farmers when selecting or buying certain potato seed varieties (adiyoga et al., 2014; handayani, 2015; wicaksana et al., 2013). the indonesian potato farmers generally save their seeds from the previous harvest (fauzi, baga, & tinaprilla, 2016). the seeds are used several times because they could not afford new seeds (ogola, orawo, & ayieko, 2012; sayaka et al., 2012; shafarina & perdana, 2016). thus, potato production is not optimum (adiyoga et al., 2014; mulyono et al., 2017; wicaksana et al., 2013). the farmers need to be supported for the availability of high-quality and affordable potato seeds. hence, potato production can increases. ideally, the farmer potato production (recalled as the potato consumption) is planted from g4 certified seed. nevertheless, the availability of certified seeds is limited. moreover, the price is not affordable for the farmer; hence, they use uncertified derivative seeds (g5 to g7) (mulyono et al., 2017). the g4 quality is influenced by the excellency of its previous seed (g3). the potato seed consists of various generations. in indonesia, the potato generations are grouped into five classes: g0, g1, g2, g3, and g4 (sayaka et al., 2012). the quality and availability of g0 seed affect the continuity of the next seed classes: g1, g2, g3, and g4, and potato consumption. g0 is free from virus and bacterial wilt disease (the seed contains zero virus and bacterial wilt disease) (handayani, 2015; mulyono et al., 2017). the virus presence in the seed and the virus attack on the potato plant will impact the yield (damayanti & kartika, 2015; soesanto, mugiastuti, & rahayuniati, 2011). multiplication of the high-quality g0 seed could be done through tissue culture and a micro tuber (astarini, chappell, scheuring, thompson, & jr, 2016; hidayat, 2011; suliansyah, helmi, santosa, & ekawati, 2017). the potato tissue culture provision will guarantee the g0 and the derivative seed provision (rainiyati, neliyati, & h, 2011). previous studies stated that a potato that originates from g0 seed had increased production in generating its next seed class (g1) compared to other seed classes (from g1 to g2, and on the next generation classes) (mulyono et al., 2017). various studies to increase the g0 seed production have been undertaken (dianawati et al., 2019; dianawati et al., 2013; sumarni et al, 2016; waluyo & karyadi, 2017). however, research regarding g0 seed production management conducted by the breeder / potato farmers in indonesia is very limited. the study aims to identify the indonesian g0 potato seed management production, pictures, and challenges. the results are expected to help understand the required indonesian g0 seed management production and improvements to encourage the national potato seed system. research method this descriptive study was conducted from april to december 2017 in 12 districts in six provinces in indonesia, including: garut and west bandung (west java), banjarnegara and wonosobo (central java), simalungun and karo (north sumatera), east lombok (west http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 80 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research nusa tenggara), gowa (south sulawesi), and pasuruan, probolinggo, and malang (east java). locations and respondents were selected purposively. the selected regions were the 12 biggest potato production centres in indonesia. also, there were g0 potato seed breeders in those areas (table 1). table 1. province potato productions in the research areas in 2017 and the rank (the biggest to the lowest potato production ) no. province production (ton) rank 1. north sumatera 96,893 4 2. west java 277,187 1 3. central java 269,476 2 4. east java 241,180 3 5. west nusa tenggara 1,804 12 6. south sulawesi 31,831 9 source : pusat data dan sistem informasi pertanian & indonesia (2018) thirty-seven respondents were selected through census to g0 potato seed breeders in the research locations and have produced the seed in the last two years (2016-2017). information about g0 potato respondents was gained from local agricultural institutions, seed certification inspection office, parent seed institution, potato seed institution, and farmer associations from 12 research area districts. this study limitation was that some data were incomplete. the information about g0 seed production and the marketing areas were only obtained from 36 respondents; one respondent did not answer. meanwhile, only 18 respondents had complete data productions, and we assumed that these data were representative for farm feasibility analysis. the data were collected through focus group discussion (fgd) and survey, using a structured questionnaire. fgd was conducted in the pangalengan sub-district, engaging eight g0 potato breeders to grasp an insight into the g0 seed production process. pangalengan was chosen as the fgd location because it was the biggest potato center production in west java (ridwan et al., 2010). the fgd result was used as the basic information to design a structured questionnaire for the survey. data were analyzed descriptively, while the feasibility of farm budget analysis of g0 potato production was calculated using farm cost and revenue analysis with the following formula as equation 1 (ningsih, felani, & sakdiyah, 2015; sundari, 2011). π=tr-tc (1) where, π referred to profit (idr), tr was total farm revenue (idr), and tc was total farm cost (idr). while the efficiency of g0 potato seed production was calculated using the following formula (equation 2): 𝑅/𝐶 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (2) where, if r/c > 1 it means that the farming was efficient, if r/c = 1 it means that the farming achieves breakeven point, and if r/c < 1 it means that the farming was not efficient. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 81 g0 potato seed production management ….. (sembiring et al.) result and discussions respondents characteristic the majority of respondents (70.3%) were under 50 years old (table 2) and categorized as a productive age (rahmadona, fariyanti, & burhanuddin, 2015). the respondents had a good education, about 48.6% of hold associate, bachelor, and postgraduate degrees. a farmer with a higher educational level was more open to accepting new knowledge and innovations (sasongko, witjaksono, & harsoyo, 2014). these can be seen from most of the respondents (73%) who had joined in training, comparative studies, and internships related to g0 potato seed production. table 2. respondents’ demography characteristics of g0 potato seed production no variables range respondents (n=37) number % 1. educational level elementary 3 8.1 junior high school 5 13.5 senior high school 11 29.7 associate degree 3 8.1 bachelor 13 35.1 postgraduate 2 5.5 2. age 20-30 7 19 31-40 5 13.5 41-50 14 37.8 > 50 11 29.7 the motivation to be involved in training/comparative study/internship of potato seed was dominated by the respondent’s intention (54%). the rest were motivated by the financial support from some institutions, such as indonesian vegetable research institute (ivegri), wonosobo agricultural institution, indonesian higher education ministry, seed certification inspection office; in indonesia called balai pengawasan dan sertifikasi benih (bpsb), parent seed institution; in indonesia called balai benih induk (bbi), local seed bodies, a company such as urban independent community empowerment program; in indonesia called program nasional pemberdayaan masyarakat (pnpm) mandiri, or from a university such as mataram university (unram). farmers engaged in training because they want to increase their competency, including knowledge and farming skills. hence, they could increase their productivity and income (kuntariningsih, 2013; manyamsari & mujiburrahmad, 2014). talking about a screen house, the average screen house managed by the respondents for g0 seed production was 222 m2. of this, the smallest area was 9 m2 and the biggest was 3,456 m2. the majority of the screen houses were self-ownership (64.8%), followed by government ownership (16.2%) (table 3) managed directly by governments’ body, such as bbi, and potato seed institute; in indonesia called balai benih kentang (bbk) or used by farmers as government assistance. besides, some respondents also used the rented screen house and the government screen simultaneously. the government screen house usually is free of charge. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 82 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the screen house had various areas. the biggest screen house area was governmentowned (727 m2), followed by breeder ownership (about 498 m2) and rented (447 m2). for some breeders, the expansion of screen houses was challenging because of limited capital. the respondents said that at least more than 100 million was needed to build a 480 m2 iron frame screen house, and the respondents could not afford it. the north sumatera g0 potato breeders had a similar opinion regarding the screen house. they stated that they needed around 20 million idr to build a simple 60 m2 screen house (dewantoro, 2017). the desire to expand the screen house increased as the demand for g0 potato seed was higher. table 3. respondents’ business characteristics no variables categories respondents (n=37) number % 1. screen house ownership self-ownership 24 64.8 rent 3 8.1 governments’ 6 16.2 others 4 10.9 2 duration to produce g0 seed 1-2 years 10 27.02 3-5 years 10 27.03 > 5 years 17 45.95 3 potato varieties usage granola lembang 34 91.9 granola kembang 7 59.5 mz 17 18.9 agria 4 10.8 rgh01 4 10.8 medians 4 10.8 atlantik 5 13.8 others 4 10.8 4 sources of plantlet companies 4 10.8 governments 27 73.0 others 6 16.2 considering the time producing g0 seed, about 45.95% of the respondents had done it for more than five years. the three most varieties used by the respondents were granola lembang, granola kembang, and mz. those varieties were used by about 91.9%, 59.5%, and 18.9% of respondents, respectively (table 3). fewer respondents also were planted other potato varieties, such as agria, rgh01, medians, atlantik, ar 08, dayang sumbi, merbabu, and amabile. to date, the granola variety is the most potato planted by the breeders and potato farmers in indonesia (adiyoga et al., 2014; gunadi, karjadi, & sirajuddin, 2014). in terms of the source of the plantlet, the respondents bought it from various sources. about 73% of respondents bought it from governments’ institutions, such as ivegri, assessment institute of agricultural technology (aiat) east java, horticulture seed garden in indonesia called kebun benih tanaman pangan dan hortikultura (kbtph kledung), potato seed development institution in indonesia called balai pengembangan benih kentang (bpbk), and bbi. the rest (four respondents) bought the seeds from companies. specifically for the granola http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 83 g0 potato seed production management ….. (sembiring et al.) l, the respondents purchased it from ivegri lembang, while the granola kembang provided by aiat east java (prahardini, sudaryono, & andri, 2016). the respondents stated that the availability of plantlets from producers was limited. also, it took time to get the plantlet, especially for areas such as lombok and north sumatra. sometimes, the plantlet is damaged or died when it arrived at the respondent's place. these happened due to a long trip, temperature changing, inappropriate delivery and bad packaging. this result was in line with the previous study, stating that the challenges to distribute potato plantlets to every region in indonesia is that the plantlet could be damaged when not handled carefully (hidayat, 2011). g0 potato seed production management by the breeders plantlet cutting planting g0 potato seed production was conducted in the screen house. the production process of all respondents from the six provinces was relatively similar, starting from washing the plantlet roots. then, it was planted in the seedbed to be made as a mother plant. during the planting, the plantlet was covered for two to three weeks. respondents from wonosobo, garut, and banjarnegara districts covered it for two weeks. whilst respondents from brastagi, lombok, pasuruan, malang, gowa, and west bandung districts covered the plantlet for three weeks. the cover was then opened for a week until the root grows. this process is conducted so the plantlet can adapt to its new environment, and it is recalled as acclimatization. total acclimatization time is about three to four weeks (dianawati et al., 2019; waluyo & karyadi, 2017). after the plantlet’s root was grown, a cutting was done. ideally, four times cuttings can be done from one plantlet, resulting in 20 to 30 potato seeds (dirjen hortikultura, 2014). in reality, the cutting practice was done seven to ten times. next, they were transplanted to the bigger seedbeds or polybags to produce the g0 tuber. when planting in the seedbed, respondents applied the plant distance of 10 cm x 10 cm or 10 cm x 20 cm. respondents used various kinds of plant media for the potato cutting, such as rice husk charcoal, fern root, cocopeat, topsoil, compost, and chicken manure. all respondents used rice husk charcoal and cocopeat as the main plantlet cutting plant media. some respondents from wonosobo added fern-root as the media. whilst the respondents from garut, simalungan, and gowa added fern-root and compost, and west java's respondents added manure as the media. the media was sterilized by steaming, boiling, or washing and mixing it with chemical materials, such as basamid, lysol and nupam. sterilization should be done for the potato plant grows well and healthy (dirjen hortikultura, 2014). fertilizing and spraying a breeder should pay attention to fertilizing potato plantlet cutting for the optimum g0 potato production. nine respondents (51.3%) used npk. it is a basic fertilizer for g0 potato seed production (dianawati et al., 2019; hidayat, 2011). other respondents used kascing (24.3%), chicken manure (10.8%), sp 36, and kcl (5.4%). vermicompost http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 84 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (kascing) was used in wonosobo, banjarnegara, and simalungun. the fertilization frequency was varied, on average, one to two times during the production. the most common disease attacking the potato plant is phytophthora infestans (alaux et al.,2018; kumbar et al., 2019). nine respondents (from wonosobo, banjarnegara, west bandung, simalungun, east lombok, pasuruan, and gowa) reported that phytophthora attacked their plants, decreasing the g0 potato production by 10 to 100%. to control the disease, respondents sprayed the potato plants using antracol, mancozeb, ridomil or pulled out the infected plant. these attempts could control the disease from 60 to 100%. the potato tuber moth (ptm) was the dominant insect attacking the respondents’ potato plants. the ptm attacked potato leaves and tubers as experienced by 13 respondents from wonosobo, garut, west bandung, karo, simalungun, brastagi, pasuruan, malang, probolinggo, and gowa, decreasing the potato yield by 5-100%. the respondents succeeded to control the ptm using mipcinta, metindo, sevin, and decis insecticides, or a natural way by lantana/tratapan flower. five respondents from banjarnegara, wonosobo, garut, and west bandung also said that ptm attacked their potatoes, decreasing the yield by 70%. they controlled the pest using mipcinta, calicron, and metindo insecticides. the frequency of spraying in one cycle of g0 production (three months) was varied, ranging from seven to 23 times. irrigation and weeding the potato plant must have enough water and be cleaned from weeds. in contrast, excessive irrigation would decrease potato production (utami, rahayu, & setiawan, 2015). all respondents watered the potato plants regularly (one to three times a week). on average, the watering frequency was 43 times per planting season. as for weeding, on average, the respondents did two to three times per planting season. harvesting and post-harvest on average, respondents from 12 districts produced eight tubers of g0 seed per plant. the total biggest yield of g0 production resulted from east java province, 1,292,300 tubers (table 4). table 4. the average of g0 potato yield per plant and the total yield per province (n=36) provinces districts respondents (person) average yield per plant (tuber) total yield (tuber) central java wonosobo, banjarnegara 11 7 802,600 west java garut, west bandung 7 5 642,800 north sumatera simalungan, karo, brastagi 5 7 72,600 west nusa tenggara east lombok 2 16 190,000 east java pasuruan, malang, probolinggo 9 7 1,291,300 south sulawesi gowa 2 8 120,000 all respondents were graded and sorted the yield. then the yield was given a treatment hence they were not easily rotten or attacked by diseases. the treatment was by dipping or stirring the g0 potato tuber into a fungicide/insecticide, such as metindo or mipcin, before storing it in a warehouse for two to three months. while storing, the seed was sorted two to four times, and the rotten seed was thrown away. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 85 g0 potato seed production management ….. (sembiring et al.) the indonesian government encourages the potato farmers/breeders to produce a high-quality g0 seed by certification (sayaka & hestina, 2011). in indonesia, g0 seed certification is conducted by bpsb. however, in the study location, only 18 respondents (48.6%) certified their g0 (table 5). the rest did not certify the seed due to the complicated certification process and the high cost. besides, some breeders assumed the quality of their g0 production was good even though it was uncertified. table 5. number of respondents based on certification status of g0 potato seed (n=37) certification status respondents (per cent) percentage (%) certified 18 48.6 uncertified 19 51.4 amount 37 100 the g0 potato seed marketing g0 potato seed production has resulted from respondents in different regions. the survey showed that the three biggest g0 potato seed producers in indonesia were east java (1,291,300 tubers), followed by central java (802,600 tubers) and west java (642.800 tubers). about 35 respondents (97.2%) sold their g0 seed to the local breeders or other region breeders in indonesia. the marketing of g0 seeds is commonly by consumer’s order. the percentage of g0 seed production sold by central java, west java, north sumatra, and east nusa tenggara respondents reached 90 to 99% (table 6). table 6. g0 potato production and the marketing distribution (n=36) provinces districts total yield (tubers) percentage of yield to be sold (%) central java wonosobo, banjarnegara 802,600 90 west java garut, west bandung 642,800 90 north sumatera simalungan, karo, brastagi 72,600 91 west nusa tenggara east lombok 190,000 99 east java pasuruan, malang, probolinggo 1,291,300 81 south sulawesi gowa 120,000 50 the remaining 1 to 10% did not sell the seeds as they were rotten due to a pest attack. east java respondents sold 81% of the g0 yield, whilst the rest (19%) was not sold as the tuber was too small. the respondents from south sulawesi only sold about 50% of the g0 and planted the rest. previous studies showed that g0 seeds were produced by government institutions as well as collaboration between universities and farmer groups. for example in west java, the g0 was generated by ivegri lembang, then distributed or sold by bbi, pd hikmah, and pesantren darul fallah bogor (sayaka & hestina, 2011; sayaka et al., 2012). meanwhile, the g0 in east java was produced by aiat, bbi province, and horticulture and crops seed supervision and certification office in indonesia called balai pengawasan dan sertifikasi benih tanamanan pangan dan hortikultura (bpsbtph) of east java. later, they were distributed and sold to east java agricultural institutions, bbi, pasuruan agricultural district institution, east java bpsbtph and potato breeders (prahardini et al., 2016). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 86 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research central java g0 seed marketing areas were west sumatra, brastagi, jambi, pekalongan, aceh, kerinci, east java, wonosobo, and banjarnegara. meanwhile, west java g0 potato breeders sold the seed around west java, jambi, west sumatra, dieng, probolinggo, pasuruan, malang, west nusa tenggara, bali, north sulawesi, east nusa tenggara, aceh, and makassar. north sumatra g0 potato seed producers sold the seed around north sumatra, such as portibi, whilst, east lombok distributed the seed to sembalun-lombok. east java g0 production marketed around central java, medan, papua, bali, west sumatra, and east nusa tenggara. whereas half of g0 from south sulawesi marketed to north sumatra and pangalengan. g0 potato seed production feasibility the g0 potato seed production feasibility was measured based on the average of cost and revenue from 18 g0 producers from eight districts in four provinces: banjarnegara, and wonosobo (central java), karo, and simalungun (north sumatra), bandung, and garut (west java), also pasuruan and malang (east java). the respondents’ screen house average size was 152 m2, with the average number of potato plants planted were 3,594 plants/cuttings. the average g0 yield was eight tubers per cutting. the average total production was 21,370 tubers. the two biggest respondents’ production cost was depreciation cost (screen house, seeded, water pump, irrigation, etc.), which was 4.09 million idr (33%), and planting media, which was 2.46 million idr (19.9%). meanwhile, the two smallest production cost allocations were pesticide and screen house maintenance, making up 310,500 idr (2.5%) and 376,900 (3.1%). the g0 seed was sold at various prices in different regions. central java respondents sold it for 1,600 idr per tuber. while, the price was 1,700 idr, 3,125 idr, 2,500 idr per tuber in west java, south sumatera and east java, respectively. the average g0 price was 2,150 idr per tuber (table 7). table 7. g0 potato seed farm cost revenue analysis at four provinces in indonesia (n=18) description amount (idr) percentage of the total cost (%) costs plantlet 1,299,600 10.5 fertilizer 1,179,900 9.5 planting media 2,461,700 19.9 pesticide 310,500 2.5 labour 2,155,000 17.4 depreciation 4,087,400 33.0 other costs (certification, seed treatment, screen rent, fuel) 505,600 4.1 screen house maintenance 376,900 3.1 total cost 12,404,100 100 revenue g0 production (tuber) 21,370 g0 selling price (idr/tuber) 2,150 revenue (idr) 45,945,000 profit (idr) 33,541,400 r/c 3.7 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 87 g0 potato seed production management ….. (sembiring et al.) the average g0 cost production and revenue were 12,404,100 idr and 45,945,000 idr, respectively, resulting in 33,541,400 idr profit. hence, the r/c value was 3.7, meaning that each 1 idr of g0 seed production cost spent would create the revenue of 3.7 idr. this finding indicated g0 potato seed production was still efficient to be run by the producers. a previous study showed that the g0 potato seed production is very profitable. the g0 seed production in the 500 m2 size area was 144,000 tubers with the b/c value was 10.3 (basuki et al., 2020). conclusion g0 potato seed production at 12 districts in indonesia showed that challenges on the g0 production were screen house expansion and the availability of potato plantlets. in contrast, there was no problem with other production aspects, such as controlling pest and disease and marketing the yield. the enterprise budget analysis from four provinces in indonesia indicated that g0 potato production is efficient and profitable. governments and private contributions in providing screen houses that fit with breeder/producer needs will optimize the g0 potato seed business scaling expansion in indonesia. whilst, the limited plantlet could be minimized by encouraging legality delegation propagation. it means that the authority should be handed over to g0 potato producers, such as universities or local seed companies around g0 potato seed production areas, to multiply a source seed released by a breeder or a variety owner. in this case, the source seed is propagated through potato cutting. acknowledgment we thank the indonesian agricultural agency research and development, indonesian ministry of agriculture to fund the g0 potato seed production research conducted in 2017. references adiyoga, w., suwandi, & kartasih, a. 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(kasus di kecamatan bumiaji, kota batu. habitat, xxiv(3), 184–193. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january-june 2021, pages: 1-10 article history: submitted: september 17th, 2020 accepted: november 12th, 2020 dwi apriyani1,*, rita nurmalina2, burhanuddin2 1 department of agribusiness, universitas siliwangi, indonesia 2 magister sains agribusiness, ipb university, indonesia *) correspondence email: dwi.apriyani@unsil.ac.id bullwhip effect study in leaf organic supply chain doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9842 abstract the mismatch between the availability of vegetables and consumer demand was one of the causes of inefficient supply chains. this study aims to analyze the bullwhip effect on the organic leaf vegetable supply chain at pt. simply fresh organic (sfo). the analysis method used was a comparison between the coefficients of variation of orders created with the coefficient of variation in requests received by each supply chain institution. the data used were secondary data obtained from pt. sfo. the measurement results show that the supply chain flow of organic leaf vegetables had a bullwhip effect at the pt. sfo level and no bullwhip effect occurs at the retail level. the value of the be supply chain value calculation at pt. sfo shows a higher figure than at the retail level. the bullwhip effect at pt. sfo occurred because of a rationing and shortage gaming policy. therefore, each member of the supply chain must maintain transparency of data information and utilize digital technology to improve the accuracy of data forecasting requests and reservations quickly. keywords: bullwhip effect, rationing, and shortage gaming introduction the raising of vegetable production in indonesia had large potential. it is supported by the increase of vegetable field area from 1,033,817 ha in 2012 to 5,678,554 ha in 2016 (bps, 2017a). that increase surely had a positive impact on the amount of vegetable crop production. in 2012, the amount of vegetable crop production in indonesia attains 10,762,704 tons, and it is to get higher became 15,682,656 tons in 2016. because of that, the vegetable stock in the market is going overflow and make it easier to reach for the consumer. from the data of vegetable consumption per capita per year, it can be seen the consumer ability. according to the data from 2010-2016, there was an increase in the consumption rate of fresh vegetables in indonesia as much as 27.04 kg/capita per year (bps, 2017b). it is shown that consumption-ability per capita corresponded with field area increase, amount of production, and vegetable stock in the market. as quick as information transfer about organic vegetables in indonesia, most indonesian started to consume organic vegetables. most of them are from south jakarta. (aufanada et al., 2017). besides, the educational background became a factor for the consumer to choose organic vegetables. it is mean that a higher education background, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 2 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research a higher probability for a consumer to choose organic vegetables for consumption (devi et al., 2015). since education predisposed how a person thinks both directly or not, then make an impact on decision-making. for example, a society who have high educational background tended to healthy live orientation with organic vegetable consumption. according to aliansi organic indonesia’s data in 2017, the amount of organic consumer increased 1% compared to the last year (aoi, 2017). except the good taste from organic vegetable, health advantage become the rationale from consumer (silitonga, 2014). west java is crowned to be the most food producer that use organic methods in indonesia that is 34 in total (aoi, 2011). besides, all of them had certified from a credible national of organic farming certification; in indonesia called lembaga sertifikasi organik (lso). then, one of them called kelompok tani mandiri (dependent farmer group) which was certified from lso inofice (indonesian organic farming certification). all of their crops are supplied to pt. simply fresh organic (a company retail). pt. sfo is a company that motto “fresh from field to table” and bridge the farmer to various retail in jabodetabek area that made cooperation with pt. sfo company. pt. sfo had 62 variances organic vegetables which have been certified, and one of the most superior products is horenso (japanese spinach). horenso belonging to a kind of spinach that had the most shipping among the other company’s vegetable products. that amount can be seen in figure 1 below: figure 1. amount of order and shipping of leaf vegetables in pt. sfo in 2017 figure 1 shown that amount of order and shipping in 2017 was always fluctuating. order and shipping activity had an opportunity to increase in april and mei, yet get a decrease in june. it happened since june was concurrent with fasting month and eid mubarok, so there were some long holidays and no shipping activity. the amount of leaf vegetable shipment, both horenso and spinach, always get smaller than the order value given by retail. whereas the company had ordered to the farmer due to the needs, even more, exaggerated to anticipate vegetable breakage during the shipping. farmer not surely can comply with the demand optimally. meanwhile, the stock is an important key that had to get http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 3 bullwhip effect study in leaf ….. (apriyani et.al) the attention of the vegetable supply chain (marimin & hadiguna, 2007). christopher (2011) clarified that the supply chain is an organization network that made interaction in every different activity from the upstream to the downstream that can make value aimed at the last consumer. leafy vegetables that are prone to damage and rotten make supply chain executant had to be more careful with leaf vegetable handling. moreover, if those left in outdoor temperature, those will be rotten in an hour. likewise, spinach is easier to rotten if not saved in a refrigerator because its stem had lots of water. that characteristic make supply chain executant hard to determine how many vegetables must be prepared. besides, the unpredictable demand and stock should be minimized to prevent loss of offers. that fluctuating condition plus difficulties to ensure leaf vegetable stock resulted in adversity in demand forecasting in the company. eventually, that will make the bullwhip effect phenomenon and inexpediency of vegetable stock with consumer demand. the bullwhip effect is considered to be the main cause of the inefficiency of the supply chain, whereas the success of a company related to supply chain efficiency (tarasewicz, 2016). similar to previous research in pt. lotte chemical titan nusantara, a company that produced polyethylene (pe), shown a result that the main cause of the bullwhip effect is price fluctuation and rationing and shortage gaming. price fluctuation in global caused unstable order amount and demand company. besides, the cause that must be suspected is forecasting activity performed on sales target, because the company cannot be ready with the amount of stock if it just focusing on the target (sari et al., 2013). technically, the bullwhip effect phenomenon will have appeared if there is no effective booking system in the company (lestari et al., 2017). the determination of how much vegetable amount will be ordered will affect total cost in any supply chain network unit. data shown the suppliers were not counting the exact number of order. that happened since suppliers assumed that all consumer order fulfillment will reduce the supply chain cost. this assumption is often not realized and lead to the supplier to make mistake in order forecasting. in the other research resulted, the total cost is linear with the total amount of booking goods. besides, it is important to know that the information of the total amount of order must be centered and be discovered by all of supply chain network because the number of ordered goods in consumer-level do not represent consumer needs in real-time. ordered variation in consumer-level had covered safety stock (lestari et al., 2017). the other bullwhip effect research had been conducted previously on horticulture commodities in lottemart bogor which is grape, onion, big chili, and import carrot. some factors that lead to the bullwhip effect on that commodities are price fluctuating, irregular order grouping, and updating of demand forecasting is done by many supply chain executants (tsaqiela et al., 2016). the novelty from previous research is the bullwhip effect measured in two supply chain levels, the first one is the company level and the second one at the retail level. that result aimed to determine as well as compare any condition upstream and downstream, because the bullwhip effect phenomenon did not always happen in every supply chain level. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 4 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research some scientists regarded that demand forecasting methods can reduce the bullwhip effect (alwan et al., 2003 and hayya et al., 2006). another bullwhip effect research in locarvest bandung aimed to observe the most effective forecasting methods for determining the amount stock of vegetables before shipping on the modern market. largest agreed on a swap-trade system with the condition that the cost for goods which are not sold will be borne by locarvest and replaced on the next day. however, this agreement turned out to be detrimental to locarvest because too many vegetables were not sold and damage. therefore, locarvest must determine the right forecasting methods in order to minimized product return (samangi & perdana, 2018). this trading system is used by locarvest and pt. sfo is better known as a consignment. trade of a consignment is an agreement between the product owner and seller to help to sell the product for getting some commission as a benefit (apriyani et al., 2018). in contrast to previous research, this research aimed to find the right strategy for the minimized bullwhip effect. the bullwhip effect phenomenon showed that variabilities tended to rise from the customer supply chain to the supplier (talitha, 2010). this mean, the number of order to farmers is much higher and fluctuate in upstream level (pt. sfo). however, the number of order in retail is much more stable. from that case, it is important to evaluate the bullwhip effect to formulate the best solution to optimize the benefit. this effort engaged all of the supply chain levels, so that will affect any chain activity, as well as profits. therefore, this research aimed to analyze the bullwhip effect phenomenon along the supply chain of vegetable and organic leaf in pt. sfo. research method pt. sfo was chosen as a subject in this study since this company was the first organic food company in the cipanas subdistrict and contributed to reducing unemployment around. also, pt. sfo was bridging sales for any kind of vegetables to the modern market. this selection used purposive sampling with a case study approach. order and demand data in every supply chain agency were using as secondary data in this study. those data, which was a literature review, were obtained from the company archive during a year. both data had a daily period with two chosen commodities as well as spinach and horenso. those commodities are chosen with purposive sampling since have the highest shipping total than others. the occurrence of the bullwhip effect phenomenon can be identified by calculating two components namely coefficient of variation out of the amount of order and coefficient of variation from demand total appeared in related level (pujawan & mahendrawathi, 2017). bullwhip effect measurements are performed in every echelon and every product within it. its value calculation will engage the coefficient of variation value showed homogeneity of demand data distribution, and supply chain executant order of organic leaf vegetable during 2017. the smaller coefficient value, the more homogeneity its data distribution and vice versa. mathematically as follows: http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 5 bullwhip effect study in leaf ….. (apriyani et.al) (1) where: (2) (3) while the parameter for the bullwhip effect as follows: (4) where, cv (order) was coefisien var. sales, cv (demand) was coefisien var. demand, s(order) was sales deviation standard, mu (order) was average of sales (pak), s (demand) was demand deviation standard, mu (demand) was average of demand (pak), l was lead time order accomplishment, p was observe period (day). bullwhip effect parameter was a result calculated from a constant value which summed up with a comparison of order accomplishment lead time and observation period. that parameter in a supply chain can be different on other chains because its value was affected by lead time duration and observation period. some criteria used as parameter reference were; if be scores bigger than parameter score then there will be bullwhip effect phenomenon. however, if be scores smaller than the parameter score, the bullwhip effect will not appear. result and discussions one must-be-noticed element in the supply chain is the information flow, except money and goods, in every activity. that is because, the more supply chain network, the more complex information need to be managed (jakfar et al., 2015). information distortion, since slow information delivery, affected order and product demand mismatch of company. that information distortion even can be understood as an important factor that triggered the bullwhip effect phenomenon (susilo, 2008). since information distortion affected inaccuracy of company decision to manage consumer demand (perdana, 2015). bullwhip effect can appear from a fault of the forecasting process in supply chain institute. bullwhip effect analysis was performed in order to find out the order and demand variability level of leaf organic vegetables in every commodity in every supply chain institute and echelon. the result can be seen in table 1. table 1 showed that the bullwhip effect average score in every supply chain in pt. sfo had a bullwhip effect. it can be seen from the be score that bigger than its parameter. be score of spinach commodities was 1.6897 or bigger than 1.0065 as parameter score then bullwhip effect appeared in the supply chain of spinach. likewise horenso commodities, the bullwhip effect average score was 1.4324 or bigger than its parameter. therefore, it can be concluded that the bullwhip effect appeared in the supply chain of leaf organic vegetables in pt. sfo level. bullwhip effect phenomenon was marked using a coefficient score of order http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 6 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research variation that bigger than consumer demand coefficient variation so order data’s spread tend to be more heterogeneous than accepted demand data. table 1. bullwhip effect score of leaf organic vegetable in pt. sfo explanation vegetable types spinach horenso variable order demand order demand total 44,317 55,847 40,156 43,768 average 138.92 186.16 126.68 148.37 stdv 68.5 53.24 67.22 55.51 cv 0.49 0.29 0.53 0.37 be score 1.6897 1.4324 parameter 1.0065 1.0065 result false false there were so many factors that caused the inefficiency of the supply chain activity of leaf organic vegetables and triggered the bullwhip effect phenomenon. it can be expected that bullwhip effect appearance since decision-making which is rationing and shortage gaming (apriyani et al., 2018). this decision-making was taken when leaf organic vegetable was higher than its company stock. this condition had been anticipated by exaggerating the number of order to the farmer, but sometimes still missed (error forecasting) because it depends on the season and the weather (which is hard to predict). when leaf organic vegetable demand was higher than the stock provided by the company, pt. sfo will only fulfill a portion of the number of costumer only. later, since the customer know that half of its order that had fulfilled, retail increased the number of demand with the expectation that if using rationing they still got enough shipment. yet the company stock is enough to fulfill all of the orders, retail canceled, or reduce the order. the error forecasting event that caused missed approximation was suspected since there was inaccurate base data used by the company, because of pt. sfo still used manually flow-movement records not computerized yet. bullwhip effect in pt.sfo cannot be avoided since the number of shipping was performed by forecasting events. based on that case, it can be said that the bullwhip effect happened is a price to pay for unstable demand forecasting activity and an effort to detect what trend is happening at the consumer level (dejonckheere et al., 2003). rationing and shortage gaming factors or demand forecasting based on sales targets is causing a bullwhip effect on the supply chain system in pt. lotte chemical titan nusantara especially on polyethylene (pe) product. the improving strategy performed by pt. lotte chemical titan nusantara is reducing bullwhip effect score in any echelon using discrete simulation on microsoft excel. reducing the bullwhip effect score is expected to stabilize the price in the market, then every echelon obtained fair profit (sari et al., 2013). this study measured order and demand score at the retail level, as well as company level, to see the bullwhip effect possibilities on the next chain. the next bullwhip effect measurement was performed in every leaf organic vegetable supply chain of four partners retails of pt.sfo such as top cibubur, total buah thamrin, duta buah, and allfresh http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 7 bullwhip effect study in leaf ….. (apriyani et.al) gatot subroto. retail is the nearest supply chain institute with the last consumer based on that fact, retail should more be aware of the characteristics and dynamics demand data of consumers more detailed than the institute in the upstream level because leaf organic vegetable demand in the retail (downstream level) is more stable. the bullwhip effect measurement result in four retails can be seen in table 2. table 2. bullwhip effect score of sinach organic vegetable in four partners retails retail name variable total average stdv cv be para-meter explanation top cibubur order 1,690 17.42 6.85 0.39 0.6190 1.013 demand demand 934 10.38 6.55 0.63 total buah thamrin order 4,090 42.16 19.97 0.47 0.6528 1.013 demand demand 2,067 23.22 16.75 0.72 duta buah order 1,109 11.43 12.01 1.05 0.9459 1.013 demand demand 434 5.43 6.01 1.11 allfresh gs order 701 7.23 7.08 0.98 0.2979 1.013 demand demand 233 2.59 8.52 3.29 table 2 showed that the bullwhip effect score in the supply chain of spinach commodities in every retail had be score smaller than 1.013 as a parameter score. it was mean that there was no bullwhip effect on order and demand fulfillment of spinach in partner retails. the highest average of be score in the supply chain of spinach commodities happened in duta buah retail that was 0.9459, while the lowest average of be score happened in allfresh gs that is 0.2979. therefore, it can be said that allfresh gatot subroto retail was the retail that had order data that closest to consumer demand. thus, the acceptance and profit in allfresh gatot subroto can be optimized. the reason was allfresh gatot subroto was the main branch of allfresh company in jabodetabek from many allfresh shops in many locations, then it was natural if that branch has procurement and demand management performed by professional. except for spinach, the result of the bullwhip effect measurement of organic horenso’s supply chain can be seen in table 3. table 3. bullwhip effect score of organic horenso in four partners retail. retail name variable total average stdv cv be para-meter explanation top cibubur order 1,428 14.72 6.5 0.44 0.8462 1.013 demand demand 842 9.36 4.82 0.52 thamrin fruit total order 4,335 44.69 19.81 0.44 0.7719 1.013 demand demand 2,986.5 33.56 19.29 0.57 duta buah order 4,395 45.31 41.89 0.92 0.8519 1.013 demand demand 2,315 28.94 31.29 1.08 allfresh gs order 1,400 14.43 6.88 0.48 0.8276 1.013 demand demand 958 10.64 6.16 0.58 table 3 showed be score on the supply chain of horenso commodities in every partner retail was smaller than 1.013 or less than its parameter score, thus it was mean that there is no bullwhip effect on organic horenso's supply chain at the retail level. the highest average be score on horenso happened in duta buah that was 0.8419. while the lowest average be score of horenso happened in total buah thamrin, which was 0.7719. therefore, it can be said that total buah thamrin had a good management so that can provide horenso’s needs close to the number of horenso’s demand of the consumer. thus, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 8 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research it can be concluded that there was no bullwhip effect on this study and observation for spinach and horenso at the retail level. it can be provided with a be score which lower than its parameter score, which was mean true, so there was no bullwhip effect. the differences between pt. sfo and retail analysis result showed that the bullwhip effect phenomenon did not always happen in every supply chain network at the same time since every level had different supervision management. because of that, it is important to do the bullwhip effect’s score measurement in aggregate of institute level of the supply chain. that measurement was performed to discover the overall variability of vegetable demand of the supply chain network from upstream and downstream. the bullwhip effect score in every supply chain institute can be seen in table 4. table 4. bullwhip effect score in every supply chain institute echelon/institute bullwhip effect score pt simply fresh organic 1.56106 partner retail 0.94698 bullwhip effect measurement in every supply chain institute of leaf organic vegetable intended to find out which institute had a higher bullwhip effect score and need quicker handling. table 4 showed the bullwhip effect score measurement on the supply chain of vegetable commodities in pt. sfo was 1.56106 or higher than the bullwhip effect score on organic vegetable’s supply chain at the retail level that was 0.94698. the be score in pt. sfo tended to be higher than the average be score in retail because order variability tended to go up from the consumer to the supplier (talitha, 2010). based on the calculation of demand and sales score at the company or retail level, it can be said that there was a bullwhip effect phenomenon in pt. sfo was upstream. this phenomenon was very impactful to the number of demands and sales of the company. because of that, it needs to resolve the bullwhip effect phenomenon to optimize company profit. one of the strategies is to concentrate demand information for reducing the number of bullwhip effect frequencies. technically, the solution is making demand data from downstream sites to be available in the upstream site. however, that solution does not completely remove the bullwhip effect. even every chain had the demand information at the retail level, the bullwhip effect cannot be removed perfectly. therefore it can be assumed that concentrate the information on customers’ demand just reduce the bullwhip effect (chen et al., 2000). yet, this solution is considered to be the most effective way to apply in organic vegetable’s supply chain in pt. sfo. technically, pt. sfo can determine which level of the supply chain on duty to be the center of information about demand and sales of leaf organic vegetables. in the future, periodically control must be carried out for the number of orders or demand for leaf vegetables. information shared in detail between retailers and suppliers is believed can reduce the bullwhip effect as a whole (wang et al., 2005). retailer as a final distributor played an important role to share actual demand information (paik & bagchi, 2007). this actual information is important for pt. sfo to become a basis to determine vegetable order to the farmer. the smoothness of information sharing, exchanging goods, and money, have a relevance that affects the success elimination http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 9 bullwhip effect study in leaf ….. (apriyani et.al) process of the bullwhip effect. therefore, that smoothness becomes an important factor after every level’s profit is balanced (susanawati et al., 2017). conclusion and suggestion the result of the bullwhip effect measurement was there was a bullwhip effect in pt. sfo while it did not appear at the retail level. bullwhip effect phenomenon in pt. sfo has happened since rationing and short game gaming policy performed by the company to its partner retail. the reason, there was an inaccuracy of basic estimate data which caused an error in the customer demand forecasting process. we can suggest that every supply chain of leaf organic vegetable members should keep the information to be transparent to guarantee the accuracy of forecasting basic data. that transparency must be performed in a central institute and its information data can be accessed by all supply chain network members. therefore, it is required for pt. sfo and its partner to start using a computerized storage system. references aoi. (2011). statistik pertanian organik indonesia 2011. aliansi organis indonesia. aoi. (2017). statistik pertanian organik indonesia 2016. aliansi organis indonesia. alwan, l. c., liu, j. j., & yao, d. (2003). stochadtic characterization of upstream demand processes in a supply chain. iie transactions, 35 (3), 207-219 https://doi.org/10.1080/07408170304368 apriyani, d., nurmalina, r., & burhanuddin, b. (2018). kinerja rantai pasok sayuran organik di pt. simply fresh organic (sfo) kecamatan cipanas kabupaten cianjur. institut pertanian bogor (ipb). aufanada, v., ekowati, t., & prastiwi, w. d. (2017). kesediaan membayar produk sayuran organik di pasar modern jakarta selatan. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 3(2), 67-75. https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.3246 bps. (2017a). luas panen dan produksi sayuran di indonesia. badan pusat statistik. bps. 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(2016). integrated approach to supply chain performance measurement results of the study on polish market. transportation research procedia, 14, 1433–1442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2016.05.216 tsaqiela, b. q., arkeman, y., & sanim, b. (2016). reducion of bullwhip effect on comodity supply chain in fresh fruits and vegetables wholesale lottemart bogor. indonesian journal of business and entrepreneurship (ijbe) 2(1), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.17358/ijbe.2.1.43 wang, j., jia, j., & takahadhi, k. (2005). a study on the impact of uncertain factors on information distortion in supply chains. production planning & control, 16(1), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537280412331309235et al. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history : submitted : april 9th, 2020 accepted : may 8th, 2020 malose m. tjale1, marizvikuru mwale2*, beata m. kilonzo3 university of venda, institute for rural development, south africa *) correspondence email: marizvikuru.manjoro@univen.ac.za satisfaction of restituted farms beneficiaries with performance of farms in waterberg district, south africa doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6188 abstract south african government guided by the restitution of land rights act 22 of 1994, implemented land restitution as one of the pillars of land reform programme. the mandate was to promote land ownership and equality between white and black people. this study determined the extent to which farm beneficiaries are satisfied with the performance of the restituted farms in waterberg district. quantitative approach was used to examine closed-ended data using stratified random sampling procedure. interviews, photo-voice and non-participatory observation methods were additionally used to collect data through qualitative approach. the statistical package for the social sciences (spss version 25) was used to compute descriptive statistics and cross-tabulations while content analysis was used for the qualitative data. the study revealed that participation in the restituted farms was dominated by males (73.0 %). about 77 % of the farm beneficiaries were not satisfied with the performance of the farms and 60.5 % of them confirmed that their livelihoods were not changed due to lack of farm income. moreover, (90.3 %) reported that farms did not create job opportunities for beneficiaries. it is recommended that intervention strategy, be implemented to enhance farm performance that will satisfy farm beneficiaries. key words: farm beneficiary, farm performance, land restitution, livelihoods, satisfaction introduction many countries such as brazil, india, zimbabwe, kenya and south africa have implemented land reform policies and programmes to address challenges like poverty, inadequate agricultural farm performance and inequality, especially in rural areas (luwanda & stevens, 2015). in support of the above statement, mafa, gudhlanga, manyeruke, matavire, & mpofu (2015) indicate that land is very important because it is the core for agricultural production in the sub-region. as such disadvantaged people deserve agricultural land. furthermore, land policies were implemented to ensure that farm beneficiaries are satisfied with the performance of the farms. in brazil for example, “viable family smallholder farms policy” that received government support was implemented”, however, the policy focused on the domestic market, while large-scale commercial farms served export markets (erlank, 2014). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 25 satisfaction of restituted farms….. (tjale, et.al) thus, family smallholder farms could not grow quickly enough to enhance livelihoods of the people, as more attention was given to large commercial farms to serve the export market. the “ceiling reforms” system of india that was implemented, impacted on economic growth while asset accumulation tended to diminish over time (deininger, jin, & nagarajan, 2009), and the poor farm beneficiaries did not benefit more from ceiling legislation. in zimbabwe the government also introduced the fast track land reform programme (ftlrp) in 2000 to redistribute land to the peasants and working people (moyo, 2013), however, dugmore (2012) confirmed that agricultural production declined especially in the communal and settled areas dominated by small-scale farmers. the decline in agricultural production contributed to high unemployment rate estimated at 90% in zimbabwe, with a collapsed economy because of the restituted farms that were not being utilised (dugmore, 2012). kenya changed the property rights post-independence, where land holdings were privatized to benefit the pastoral inhabitants of the east african rangelands (galaty, 2013). however, land reform that was implemented was based on complex economic development policies influenced by western models, whereby the poor farm beneficiaries at the local levels failed to benefit (lesorogol, 2010). in order to redress the colonial policies of imbalances in land reform and also mitigate the challenges of land dispossession, some interventions have been put in place to deal with land reform challenges mentioned above. a survey conducted by the rural support service (rss) in latvia, confirmed that unused agricultural land in 2014 was 294 thousand hectares accounting for 12 % of the total agricultural land (parsova & kapostins, 2015). most of the land was not used for effective agricultural production. the research gap identified is that land restitution act 22 of 1994 was criticised in south africa for not contributing to socioeconomic development to change lives of the restituted farms’ beneficiaries. under the land restitution initiative, black people are given back the property that was taken away from them under apartheid legislation. however, the allocated land is not utilised to benefit the farm beneficiaries (mutanga, 2011). the current study was, accordingly, based on the hypothesis that “farm beneficiaries are not satisfied with the performance of the restituted farm”. although land reform has played a vital role in development of people in rural areas in the country, lack of farming skills as one of the challenges among the farm beneficiaries undoubtedly led to farm performance challenges in south africa. hence, the impetus to conduct the current study to determine the extent to which the farm beneficiaries are satisfied with the performance of the restituted farms, and to necessitate change in land restitution policies that could bring more income into the farms, in order for beneficiaries in south africa to receive income benefits to satisfy their socio-economic status now and in future. methodology the study was conducted between july 2016 and may 2017 whereby two research paradigms were used for the study. the first was emancipatory research paradigm using quantitative approach with closed-ended responses to investigate the satisfaction of the restituted farms’ beneficiaries regarding performance of the farms. the paradigm provided data on how beneficiaries make collective decisions that could inform individuals and group http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 26 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research action to improve the lives of the beneficiaries. a positivist paradigm was also used to focus on quantitative study relating instruments used to collect data to avoid potential bias and error. structured questionnaire was used to collect data through one-on-one interview. nonparticipatory observation was used to observe day-to-day activities, such as farm production and commitment to farming. photo-voice method was similarly used to collect data through photography whereby beneficiaries took photos on their own and convene for discussion. to enhance the reliability of the study results, triangulation of research approaches, data collection methods and tools was applied. triangulating data from multiple data collection sources within one design fusch, fusch, & ness (2018), was achieved through asking same questions using three different data collection tools. study area the study was conducted at waterberg district which is located within the limpopo province of south africa. the district shares boundaries with botswana to the north-west of the district. to the north-east is the capricorn district municipality, to the east is the greater sekhukhune district municipality, gauteng province to the south of the waterberg district and north west province in the south-west side. there are six towns and 10 townships within the district (waterberg district municipality integrated development program (idp), 2018). the unemployment rate is higher in the district at 28.1 %, which is closer to 29.1 % of the entire country statistics south africa (2019). the district municipality consists of six local municipalities with 79 wards (waterberg district municipality idp, 2018). the local municipalities are mogalakwena, mookgophong, modimolle, belabela, thabazimbi and lephalale, and most of the farms are predominantly in mogalakwena and mookgophong. (waterberg district municipality idp, 2018). out of 79 wards in the district, focus was given to wards with restituted farms (figure 1). population and sampling methods the target population was 4 409 constituting farm beneficiaries and farm executive members. stratified sampling method was used to select 448 participants in which 64 were executive members of the farms; one chairperson and one secretary from each of the 32 farms while 384 were mere farm beneficiaries. source: waterberg district municipality idp (2018) figure 1. map of waterberg district in limpopo province of south africa http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 27 satisfaction of restituted farms….. (tjale, et.al) data collection data was collected from 289 respondents. these were 32 chairpersons of the farms, 32 secretaries, and 225 farm beneficiaries from the restituted farms. moreover, a photo-voice was used where farm beneficiaries took photographs of their own farms and discussed them with the view of finding solutions to the challenges they are facing. observation was also conducted on the farms during the interviews to confirm the status of the farms and study behaviours of the farm beneficiaries on the farms. data analysis statistical package for the social sciences (spss version 25) was used to compute descriptive statistics and cross-tabulations of quantitative data. furthermore, photo-voice data as well as observation data were transcribed, so that farm beneficiaries could as a collective, analyse photos and voices to bring meaning or solutions to their challenges. ethical considerations the ethics adhered to include confidentiality and respect when collecting data in particular when taking photos, information was not divulged to different farm beneficiaries unless consent had been sought. the researcher and the beneficiaries agreed by signing a consent form that the photos taken should be published only to serve the purpose of the study. avoiding harm to respondents during research was one of the ethics considered. added to this, the institutional ethical clearance was secured from the university of venda research ethics committee (uvrec). the clearance number was sardf/16/ird/07/2904. the researcher informed the participants about the research objectives, the expected outcomes and the intentions of the researcher. result and discussions in south africa, the land reform programme was implemented in the past 26 years, with the need to redress the past historical and socio-economic injustice on land ownership imposed on the people by the former apartheid form of government (mabuza, 2016). this land reform programme was implemented in waterberg district and the entire south africa. land dispossession prior 1994, produced negative consequences in south africa which included unproductive land, inequitable distribution of land ownership largely in favour of the white minority, and dislocation of social and economic systems of the indigenous people in relation to land use (land reform policy discussion document, 2012). consequently, the south african government has shown commitment to eradicate the inequalities and injustices of the past, and has initiated land reform programme (kloppers & pienaar, 2014). generally, the impact of restituted farms as part of land reform programme in south africa is not realized. the lisbon estate in mpumalanga province is an example that has proved to be a failure (mutanga, 2011). the estate used to export citrus fruits and mangoes as well as employing over 2 000 workers. currently, the entire estate is now a grazing land with dilapidated infrastructure. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 28 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research an empirical study was undertaken in kwazulu-natal province to compare the output of the sugar farmland prior and after transfer to smallholder farmers in uthungulu and ilembe areas; results showed that, half of the farms have reduced productivity ‘during the year of takeover’ (van royen, 2008). moreover, most of the land recipients have had their land or farms back for more than ten years, yet they have not attained the anticipated socio-economic benefits such as improved livelihoods (kloppers, 2014). the benefits from land restitution have fallen far short of public expectations when restituted farms were taken back to its original owners in south africa, and restituted farm beneficiaries suffered more than before receiving the farms. as such, the current study was undertaken to determine the satisfaction of resituted farm beneficiaries in waterberg district of limpopo province, south africa. the results were presumably to lay foundation for devising an intervention strategy to improve productivity and hence livelihoods or restituted farm beneficiaries. the results of the current study are presented and discussed below. gender representation at restituted farms the government of south africa supports land restitution programmes that empower women in the rural areas, who are regarded as the pillars in the households, to participate in land reform projects. although this is the aim, the results of this study reveal that males (73.0 %) were the dominant participants in the restituted farms as compared to their female counterparts (27.0 %). reagrding participation of beneficiaries in restituted farms in terms of gender, one of the principles of land reform is to ensure that women are prioritised in land reform projects (maboa, 2014), however, the study reflected the skewedness in terms of women participation in income generation, land reform projects and employment opportunities in the restituted farms. men are still in the majority at the restituted farms. this shows that women experience more land acquisition challenges than their male counterparts because women have limited access to information pertaining to land. added to this, women do not have access to credit which discouraged them to participate in the restituted farms. the government of south africa, hence, should encourage more women to participate in the restituted farms by supporting them with more funds and access to land. quality of the products close to half (43.9 %) of the respondents indicated that products were poor and likewise, they were not suitable for agricultural markets (table 1). the photographs in figure 2 below are showing cattle that over-grazed more than a hector of land at die hoop farms. another photograph shows cabbages at lethlakaneng cpa that were not good for the market. this indicated clearly the lack of farming skills among the farm beneficiaries. however, 21.8 % respondents were of the opinion that products were of moderate quality because some products could be sold. about 16 % indicated that their products were very good while 18.3 % confirmed that their products were good. beneficiaries who confirmed that their products are very good, are those who used farming experience that they gained while they were under the control of the former white farm owners. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 29 satisfaction of restituted farms….. (tjale, et.al) table 1: quality of the farm products response frequency proportion (%) very good 46 15.9 good 53 18.3 moderate 63 21.8 poor 127 43.9 total 289 100.0 figure 2: photographs showing poor utilisation of the farm at lethlakaneng farm with poor cabbages and over-grazing by cattle at die hoop farm in belabela municipality despite interventions brought by the land restitution programme, poverty and the socio-economic status of the restituted farm beneficiaries, has not been transformed. majority of people agreed to the fact that performance of the restituted farms was not satisfactory and their livelihoods remained the same. the farm beneficiaries claimed that they are suffering more now than before receiving restituted farms. in limpopo province, farm production in some restituted farms was stopped due to misunderstanding and quarrels among farm beneficiaries. in support of this, daniels et al. (2014) proved the unsuccessful outcomes of land reform projects in three rural communities, namely, mashishimale (limpopo province), momphela (kwazulu-natal) and ebenhaeser (western cape). these three rural communities are located in areas that are suitable for agriculture, however, it was found that beneficiaries preferred employment than farming activities. this automatically discouraged farm beneficiaries from participating in the restituted farms because there were no tangible benefits that they received from the farms. quality of products is one of the four core aspects of marketing in all organisations, including the restituted farms, yet, most farm beneficiaries indicated that quality of produce on their farms was very poor. a clear indication of this is that, there would not be any income from the farms; this would compromise the benefits that farm beneficiaries were supposed to receive from farm proceeds. the photographs in figure 2 above indicate the poor quality of the products that were produced within the two mentioned farms. in the majority of the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 30 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research restituted farms, it was observed that nothing was taking place with regard to production except a few farms across the waterberg district, hence, it is critical to note that improved access to input and output markets is a key precondition for the transformation of the agricultural sector from subsistence to commercial production (salami et al., 2010). according to operation phakisa programme (opp) (2016), rural areas generally suffer from “thin” markets, while the formal market structures at the national level tend to shut new and small producers out of the richer areas of the country. in turn, limited local demand makes it less worthwhile for private investors and producers to set up marketing institutions in rural areas to assist farmers with marketing their products. similar scenario of poor marketing of products was experienced in ethiopia, kenya, tanzania and uganda where agriculture is the backbone of their economies. these countries are in east africa where agriculture is dominated by smallholder farmers who occupied the majority of the land and produced most of the crop and livestock (salami et al., 2010). however, the countries are still grappling with marketing of both agricultural inputs and outputs, with markets not adequately equipped to serve the needs of the poor (salami et al., 2010). if the farmers are more experienced, they would be able to produce more products that are good for the market. therefore, the government, private sectors and other stakeholders should consider farming skills development in restituted farm beneficiaries. cross tabulation for age of farm beneficiaries and farm income generated per month most respondents (64.3 %; table 2) indicated that there was no income generated on the farms, raising issues such as lack of production inputs, equipment and finance to kick start production process. the trends on the income of the restituted farms also indicated that farms were not generating income. about 22 % respondents generated between r500 and r20 000 ($ 41.87 – $ 1 675.04 @ 1usd= 11.94 zar) while 5.8 % respondents indicated that their farms generated r20 000-r50 000 (1 675.04-$ 4 187.60); 4.1 % of the farm beneficiaries confirmed that their farms generated between r50 000 and r100 000 (4 187.60$ 8 375.20 @ 1usd= 11.94 zar), while 3.8 % generated r100 000 and above (8 375.20 and above @ 1usd= 11.94 zar). of the 64.3 % who do not generate income, majority are the elderly (more than 50 years; table 3.) while few are youth (less than 20 years and between 26 and 30 years old). farm income generated in the farms was insufficient to run the day-to-day farm activities. this affected even 19 youth aged between 20 and 35, indispensable for restituted farms sustainability. in namibia, werner (1999) found that none of the settlement projects older than four years have achieved self-sufficiency to provide income and furthermore, all the farms depended heavily on the government. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 31 satisfaction of restituted farms….. (tjale, et.al) table 2: farm income in rands and us dollars per month income in rand (zar) income in us dollars (us$) @ 1usd= 11.94 zar exchange rate proportion of respondents (%) no income at all none 64.3 500 –20 000 41.87 – us$ 1 675.04 21. 7 20 000 –50 000 1 675.04-us$ 4 187.60 5.8 50 000–100 000 4 187.60us$ 8 375.20 4.1 100 000 and above us$ 8 375.20 and above 3.8 total 100 table 3: cross tabulation for age categories of beneficiaries and farm income generated per month age no income r500 r20 000 (us$41.87-– us$ 1 675.04 ) r20 000 r50 000 (us$ 1675.04— us$ 4 187.60) r50 000-r100 000 (us$ 4 187.60us$ 8 375.20) total less than (20 years) 2 0 0 0 2 20-25 8 3 2 0 13 26-30 1 1 0 0 2 31-35 8 2 0 2 12 36-40 5 2 0 0 7 41-45 28 2 2 1 33 46-50 12 5 2 1 20 more than 50 122 48 11 19 200 total 186 63 17 23 289 jobs created for the farm beneficiaries about 90.3 % (261) respondents indicated that restituted farms created less than 50 jobs during the period 2005 to 2015. most of the farm beneficiaries who confirmed that less than 50 jobs were created up to 2015 were youth aged between 20 and 35. the reasons stated by the farm beneficiaries were that farms have not been operating since occupation, while other farms were abandoned because of internal fights. on the other hand, 7.9 % of the farm beneficiaries aged between 36 and 45 confirmed that their farms have created between 50-100 jobs (figure 3). interestingly, elderly farmers (more than 50 years old) confirmed that farms had created 150 jobs and above citing that older people enjoy working in the farms even if there is no income. the issue of restituted farms jobs creation was also discussed through photo-voice at morongoa community property association (cpa) in lephalale area, majority of farm beneficiaries confirmed struggling to survive from the restituted farms due to shortage of jobs at the farms (figure 4). the farm beneficiaries highlighted that restituted farms should http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 32 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research be supported with sufficient funds that could boost productivity and subsequently job creation. figure 3: jobs created for the farm beneficiaries figure 4: photo-voice discussion at morongoa cpa farm in lephalale municipality one of the main objectives of land reform was to alleviate poverty among farm beneficiaries through job creation within the restituted farms. however, the study revealed majority with 90.3% responded that restituted farms have not created employment for the poor beneficiaries. although they own the farms, the farm beneficiaries remain unemployed because their farms are inactive. this is supported by maboa (2014) that job creation in the rural economy still remains the responsibility of mostly smallholder farmers. maboa (2014) further revealed the failure of land reform projects to create job opportunities in elias motsoaledi local municipality in limpopo province. the majority of land reform beneficiaries 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 less than 20 years 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 more than 50 n u m b e r o f jo b s respondent age jobs created http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 33 satisfaction of restituted farms….. (tjale, et.al) were not working on their farms and those who were employed were working outside the farms. contrary to the above statement, world bank appraisal report (2004) revealed venezuela as one of the countries that promoted conditions for holistic rural development to generate employment and guarantee the peasant population an adequate level of well-being as well as their incorporation into national development. all relevant stakeholders, other governments, including south africa should imitate this good practice of supporting rural development including land restituted farms. salaries for the farm beneficiaries the majority (83.3 %) of the respondents indicated that they had benefited nothing in terms of salaries or wages from the restituted farms, while 10.7 % reported that they had received between r500-r1000 ($ 41.87 $ 83.75 @ 1usd= 11.94 zar) per month from the farms as their benefits (table 4). the former findings were confirmed by the majority of elderly farm beneficiaries. about 4.8 % cases confirmed that they receive salaries between r1000 and r5000 (83.75 $418.76). few (1.0 %) received salaries of more than r5000 ($418.76) per month. the key finding was that the majority of the farm beneficiaries are not benefiting at the end of the month. the fact that farm beneficiaries are not satisfied with the performance of the farms makes them not believe that restituted farms could improve their livelihoods (business enterprise on evaluation of recapitalisation and development programme, 2013). also in malawi the average of the farm incomes for beneficiary households, substantially went down two years after the phasing out of the community based rural land development project (crldp) that was implemented to assist in improving the performance of the land reform projects (luwanda & stevens, 2015). business enterprise on evaluation of recapitalisation and development programme (2013) further mentioned that land reform programmes aimed at poverty alleviation need to incorporate farming enterprises that can generate immediate benefits that can satisfy farm beneficiaries. this would help to improve the livelihoods of the beneficiaries. added to this, the majority of the beneficiaries who were not satisfied with the benefits from the farms, in particular different services from other departments, claimed that they received minimal support in terms of funding, non-renovation of dilapidated infrastructure, equipment, and non-provision of inputs, and that is one of the reasons why most farms were dormant. in order to address the challenges of the farm beneficiaries, there is a need for the government to prioritise the said support to the farm beneficiaries. generally, this is also happening in most regions where the poor beneficiaries have not benefited from either the land redistributed or land restituted in terms of wages or salaries due to poor farm production. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 34 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 4: salaries for the farm beneficiaries respondent age salary ranges total nothing r500r1000 (us$ 41.87 us$ 83. 75) r1000-r5000 (us$83.75 us$ 418.76) r5000 (us$ 418.76) and above less than 20 years 2 0 0 0 2 20-25 8 4 1 0 13 26-30 1 0 1 0 2 31-35 10 1 1 0 12 36-40 7 0 0 0 7 41-45 26 4 2 1 33 46-50 18 1 1 0 20 more than 50 169 21 8 2 200 total 241 31 14 3 289 conclusions the majority of restituted farm beneficiaries in waterberg district were not satisfied with the performance of the restituted farms. they claim not to benefit from the farms and that their livelihoods are still the same because of the decline in production due to lack of resources and support from the government. the beneficiaries still suffer as they did before they received the farms, therefore without the intervention from the government, the resource-constrained restituted farmers would not realize self-sustenance. the male beneficiaries were the most affected because they are the majority owners of the restituted farms as compared to females. hence, it is imperative to conduct studies to develop an intervention strategy that will inform land restitution policies for enhanced production at restituted farms. this could ultimately improve livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries. acknowledgements the researchers acknowledge the university of venda in particular the research unit that provided financial support to undertake the study (project no: sardf/16/ird/07/2904), and to ensure that the paper is finally published. furthermore, the support from the waterberg district municipality, department of rural development and land reform, department of agriculture, house of traditional council and restituted farm beneficiaries is highly appreciated. references deininger, k., jin, s., & nagarajan, h. k. 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(2004). world bank appraisal report 2004. washington dc. retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/5986wdr%2020 04% http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 5 no. 1 januari-juni 2019 adhitya marendra kiloes1*), puspitasari1), muhamad jawal anwarudin syah1), bagus kukuh udiarto2) 1)pusat penelitian dan pengembangan hortikultura, kampus penelitian pertanian cimanggu, bogor, indonesia 2)balai penelitian tanaman sayuran, lembang, bandung barat *) email korespondensi: adhityakiloes@pertanian.go.id strategi pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci strategy for potato seed farming development in kerinci regency doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5172 abstract there are several problems of potato seed in the production center of kerinci. the purpose of the study was to develop strategies for developing potato seed farming at the production center of kerinci. the primary data gained from the focussed group discussion (fgd) to formulate internal and external factors in the development of potato seed farming. fgd’s participants were expert respondents stakeholders in potato farming in kerinci. the analysis technique uses swot analysis and analytic hierarchy process (ahp). the results showed that there were four internal factors of strength such as of agroecological conditions, the existence of potato seedling hall, the presence of breeders, and the development of processing industries. while three internal weaknesses were non-strategic locations, the dependent on seeds from outside the area, and limited seed supervisors. external factors of opportunity were preferred superior varieties, opportunities to be seed suppliers, and investment, as well as three threat external factors such as faked labeled seed, continuity of supply is not guaranteed, and the government is not paying enough attention to potato agribusiness. from these factors, eight alternative strategies were formulated. the results of ahp followed by sensitivity analysis indicate that the alternative policy that must be taken is strengthening the breeder to produce certified seeds and produce massively certified seeds at affordable prices. keywords: swot, ahp, potato, seed farming. intisari terdapat beberapa permasalahan pada aspek perbenihan kentang di sentra produksi kabupaten kerinci. tujuan penelitian adalah untuk menyusun strategi pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di sentra produksi kabupaten kerinci. data yang digunakan berupa data primer hasil focussed group discussion (fgd) berupa identifikasi faktor-faktor internal dan eksternal pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang. peserta fgd merupakan responden pakar pemangku kepentingan agribisnis kentang di kabuapten kerinci. teknik analisis menggunakan analisis swot dan dilanjutkan dengan analytic hierardhy process (ahp). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat empat faktor internal kekuatan berupa kondisi agroekologi, adanya balai benih induk kentang, adanya penangkar, dan berkembangnya industri pengolahan, tiga faktor internal kelemahan berupa lokasi tidak strategis, masih bergantung kepada benih dari luar daerah, dan keterbatasan pengawas benih, empat faktor eksternal peluang berupa varietas unggul yang disukai, peluang menjadi pemasok benih, dan penanaman modal, serta tiga faktor eksternal ancaman berupa benih berlabel palsu, kontinuitas pasokan tidak terjamin, dan pemerintah yang kurang memperhatikan agribisnis kentang. dari faktor-faktor tersebut kemudian dirumuskan delapan alternatif strategi untuk mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci. hasil dari ahp dilanjutkan dengan analisis sensitifitas menunjukkan bahwa alternatif kebijakan priortias yang harus diambil adalah penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat dan memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara masal. kata kunci: swot; ahp; kentang; usahatani perbenihan 22 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pendahuluan tanaman kentang umumnya ditanam di dataran tinggi, meskipun ada beberapa varietas kentang dapat dibudidayakan di dataran medium (prabaningrum et al., 2014; hermawan et al., 2013; suharjo et al., 2010). kabupaten kerinci di provinsi jambi merupakan salah satu dataran tinggi sentra produksi kentang di indonesia selain pangalengan bandung dan curup bengkulu (suharjo et al., 2010). kondisi agroekosistem kabupaten kerinci pada beberapa kecamatan memiliki cukup ketinggian untuk dilakukannya budidaya kentang. selain dijual sebagai sayur, kentang di kabupaten kerinci juga menjadi bahan baku kentang olahan. beberapa olahan kentang yang ada di kabupaten kerinci antara lain keripik dan dodol kentang menjadi oleh-oleh khas kabupaten kerinci. seperti yang ditemui dari daerah sentra produksi lain kebanyakan petani kentang di kabupaten kerinci hanya menggunakan satu varietas kentang saja yaitu granola (gunadi, 2009; basuki et al., 2005), meskipun telah tersedia banyak varietas kentang baik kentang untuk olahan maupun kentang untuk sayur (handayani, 2014). beberapa petani juga telah mengenal beberapa varietas kentang lain seperti cipanas dan atlantik namun beberapa varietas tersebut belum banyak digunakan. permasalahan dalam agribisnis perlu diatasi melalui perubahan kebijakan dan penajaman program ke arah perencanaan pembangunan agribisnis yang menguntungkan, stabil, berkelanjutan, efisien dan efektif serta berkualitas (saptana et al., 2005). strategi pengembangan sistem agribisnis tersebut dapat dimulai di suatu kawasan. pengembangan teknologi yang akan menunjang sistem agribisnis terutama yang bersifat spesifik lokasi di dalam suatu kawasan perlu dilakukan agar teknologi tersebut dapat menguntungkan secara ekonomis, sesuai secara teknis, dan dapat mendukung kebijakan pemerintah daerah setempat (sudana, 2005). kaitannya dalam pengembangan agribisnis kentang perlu adanya sinergitas antara input-input produksi dengan kondisi kawasan setempat termasuk bagaimana caranya untuk meningkatkan efisiensi rantai nilai melalui penyediaan benih bermutu. ketersediaan benih unggul kentang merupakan salah satu masalah dalam agribisnis kentang di kabupaten kerinci (palgunadi et al. 2011). kondisi ini akan berpengaruh terhadap produksi kentang baik itu dari segi kualitas maupun kuantitas. salah satu faktor yang menentukan keberhasilan usahatani kentang adalah mutu benih yang digunakan (ridwan et al., 2010), yang dalam hal ini yang disebut dengan benih kentang bermutu adalah benih yang berlabel. untuk mengembangkan rantai nilai agribisnis kentang yang optimal dibutuhkan upaya-upaya yang dapat mendukung pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci sehingga rantai nilai agribisnis kentang secara keseluruhan dapat berjalan dengan optimal. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk melakukan analisis strategi pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di sentra produksi kabupaten kerinci berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria dan juga kondisi faktor-faktor internal dan eksternal yang ada. diharapkan dari hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan rekomendasi kebijakan bagi pemerintah daerah kabupaten kerinci maupun pemerintah pusat dalam hal ini kementerian pertanian melalui direktorat jenderal terkait untuk lebih mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di sentra produksi kentang kecamatan kayu aro kabupaten kerinci pada tahun 2016, dan merupakan bagian dari kegiatan diseminasi yang dilakukan oleh pusat penelitian dan pengembangan hortikultura. pada kegiatan diseminasi tersebut diperkenalkan beberapa varietas kentang hasil penelitian balai penelitian tanaman sayuran (balitsa), yaitu institusi penelitian di bidang tanaman sayuran dibawah koordinasi pusat penelitian dan pengembangan hortikultura, badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian, kementerian pertanian. penelitian dilakukan dengan metode focussed group discussion (fgd) serta wawancara mendalam kepada beberapa orang pemangku kepentingan yang akan bertindak sebagai responden pakar. para pemangku kepentingan tersebut dijadikan narasumber fgd karena mengetahui kondisi aktual perbenihan 23 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 kentang di kabupaten kerinci. pemangku kepentingan peserta fgd diantaranya perwakilan dari balai benih induk kentang (bbik) kayu aro kerinci, penyuluh pertanian kabupaten kerinci, petugas dinas pertanian kabupaten kerinci, bpsb provinsi jambi, peneliti balitsa, penangkar benih kentang, dan beberapa orang petani kentang di kabupaten kerinci untuk mengidentifikasi dan menyepakati faktor-faktor internal dan eksternal berupa kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang, dan ancaman pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci, alternatif yang dapat diambil dalam pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci, dan kriteria-kriteria pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang. proses pengumpulan dan analisis data untuk memperoleh informasi alternatif prioritas dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kerinci dilakukan dalam beberapa tahap yaitu: 1. identifikasi atribut-atribut faktor internal dan eksternal. identifikasi ini dilakukan dengan cara menyepakati apa saja atribut-atribut yang menjadi kekuatan, kelemahan, peluang, dan ancaman kabupaten kerinci dalam mengembangkan perbenihan kentang di daerahnya oleh responden pakar para peserta fgd. 2. penyusunan matriks swot. berdasarkan atributatribut faktor-faktor internal dan eksternal yang telah teridentifikasi melalui fgd maka selanjutnya akan dibuat matriks swot yang akan berisi alternatif strategi yang dapat diambil dengan membandingkan antara kekuatan dan dan peluang (s-o), kelemahan dan peluang (w-o), kekuatan dan ancaman (s-t), serta kelemahan dan ancaman (wt). selain penentuan alternatif-alternatif kebijakan yang dapat diambil, diidentifikasi juga kriteriakriteria dari alternatif strategi agar dapat dilaksanakan. penentuan alternatif strategi dan kriteria alternatif dapat dilaksanakan juga dilakukan melalui pengambilan kesepakatan dalam fgd. 3. penentuan alternatif strategi pengembangan perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci menggunakan analytic hierarchy process (ahp). pengkombinasian analisis swot dan ahp bertujuan untuk menyusun rekomendasi strategi (purnama et al., 2014) sekaligus mengkuantifikasikan perencanaan strategis yang dilakukan (görener et al., 2012). analisis ini dimulai dengan pembuatan dan pengisian kuesioner perbandingan berpasangan (pairwaised comparation) yang diisi oleh responden pakar untuk membandingkan kepentingan antar kriteria dan alternatif strategi yang telah teridentifikasi berdasarkan hasil fgd. langkah untuk mengisi kuesioner perbandingan berpasangan adalah dengan cara memilih angka 1 hingga 9 sesuai dengan arah dari kriteria atau alternatif yang dianggap lebih penting. angka 1 dipilih apabila atribut yang diperbandingkan sama pentingnya. angka 2 dan seterusnya dipilih berdasarkan tingkat kepentingan dari atribut yang dianggap lebih penting dibandingkan atribut pembandingnya. setelah para responden pakar selesai mengisi kuesioner perbandingan berpasangan, maka akan dilakukan tabulasi data hasil pengisian kuesioner. hasil tabulasi berupa nilai rata-rata dari kuesioner yang telah diisi kemudian diolah menggunakan bantuan software superdecision sehingga dapat diketahui konsistensi dari penilaian yang dilakukan. apabila nilai konsistensi lebih kecil dari 0,01 maka penilaian yang dilakukan dianggap konsisten. hasil pengolahan menggunakan software superdecision selanjutnya akan memperlihatkan posisi masingmasing kriteria dan alternatif secara peringkat, dimana peringkat pertama merupakan kriteria atau alternatif yang dianggap paling penting diantara kriteria dan alternatif lainnya. 4. analisis sensitivitas. langkah selanjutnya adalah melakukan analisis sensitivitas untuk mengetahui alternatif strategi mana yang paling sensitif sehingga dapat berubah posisi apabila terjadi perubahan kepentingan dari kriteria yang ada (kousalya & supraja, 2013; syamsuddin, 2013). hasil dan pembahasan berdasarkan hasil penelitian kiloes et al. (2017) diperoleh informasi bahwa komponen biaya usahatani terbesar dalam produksi kentang di kabupaten kerinci adalah benih, yang mencapai 64,55% dari total biaya usahatani. hal ini sesuai 24 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research dengan hasil penelitian kiloes et al. (2015), dan ridwan et al. (2010) yang juga menyatakan bahwa biaya produksi terbesar dalam usahatani kentang adalah benih. hal ini dikarenakan benih yang digunakan pada budidaya kentang adalah benih yang berbentuk umbi sehingga harga satuan untuk benih akan dikalikan dengan satuan yang besar. komponen biaya usahatani terbesar selanjutnya adalah tenaga kerja yang menghabiskan total 17,13% dari biaya usahatani. benih bermutu sangat diperlukan untuk peningkatan kualitas dan kuantitas produksi sayuran (anwar et al., 2005), dimana hal ini juga berlaku juga untuk komoditas kentang. selain itu hartati dan setyadji (2012) serta lestari et al. (2014) juga menyatakan bahwa benih secara nyata berpengaruh terhadap produksi kentang. oleh karena itu penggunaan benih yang berkualitas menjadi salah satu kunci untuk keberhasilan usahatani kentang. hal ini perlu menjadi perhatian untuk menyediakan benih kentang baik dari sisi kualitas maupun kuantitas. berdasarkan perhitungan usahatani, input benih kentang yang dibutuhkan sebanyak 3.871 kg dalam satu hektar yang akan memproduksi 23.459 kg kentang konsumsi atau sebanyak 6,06 kali dari benih yang digunakan ( kiloes et al., 2017). produksi kentang di kabupaten kerinci berdasarkan data statistik mencapai 83.583 ton pada tahun 2016 (bps kabupaten kerinci, 2017). hal ini berarti setidaknya dibutuhkan 13.793 ton benih kentang untuk mencapai produksi seperti pada tahun 2016 tersebut baik benih kentang bersertifikat maupun benih kentang yang tidak bersertifikat. oleh karena itu pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang untuk mendukung agribisnis kentang secara keseluruhan di kabupaten kerinci merupakan hal yang potensial untuk dapat dilakukan. identifikasi atribut-atribut faktor internal dan eksternal kabupaten kerinci dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang kabupaten kerinci sebagai salah satu sentra produksi kentang yang ada di indonesia memiliki beberapa kekuatan sebagai faktor internal yang dapat menjadi titik ungkit pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di lokasi tersebut. balai benih induk kentang (bbik) kayu aro yang terletak di kecamatan kayu aro merupakan institusi yang ada di bawah koordinasi pemerintah daerah setempat yang tugasnya untuk memproduksi benih kentang yang dibutuhkan petani. dari pengamatan di lokasi terlihat bahwa bbik kayu aro telah dilengkapi oleh beberapa fasilitas yang mendukung untuk produksi benih kentang sendiri baik itu dalam bentuk planlet ataupun dalam bentuk umbi. selain itu sebagai perpanjangan tangan dari bbik telah terdapat 13 orang penangkar yang bersertifikat di wilayah kayu aro dan sekitarnya. para penangkar ini merupakan penyedia benih kentang yang memperoleh material benih dari bbik kayu aro atau membeli langsung benih kentang g0 dari pangalengan jawa barat. seperti diketahui bahwa pangalengan di kabupaten bandung, jawa barat merupakan salah satu sentra produksi kentang di indonesia (kiloes et al., 2015). kekuatan lain yang dimiliki kabupaten kerinci dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang adalah sudah berkembangnya industri kecil pengolahan kentang yang menghasilkan beberapa produk dengan bahan baku kentang. produk-produk yang dihasilkan antara lain kripik kentang, dodol kentang, dan perkedel. produk-produk ini sudah menjadi ciri khas dan menjadi oleh-oleh dari kabupaten kerinci. selain beberapa kekuatan sebagai faktor internal kabupaten kerinci dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang, juga terdapat beberapa faktor internal kelemahan yang telah diidentifikasi. bbik dan beberapa penangkan kentang yang ada masih bergantung kepada pasokan benih g0 dari luar daerah dalam memproduksi benih bersertifikat terutama dari pangalengan jawa barat. selain itu lokasi kabupaten kerinci dinilai jauh dan tidak strategis sehingga dengan kondisinya yang masih mengandalkan benih g0 dari luar daerah akan membuat biaya transportasi meningkat. selain itu jumlah pengawas benih terbatas untuk semua komoditas pertanian yang ada di kabupaten kerinci. selain faktor-faktor internal berupa kekuatan dan kelemahan diidentifikasi juga beberapa faktorfaktor eksternal berupa peluang dan ancaman. berdasarkan wawancara terhadap beberapa orang petani, beberapa varietas unggul balitsa yang 25 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 sebelumnya telah diujicobakan dalam bentuk demplot seperti varietas cipanas, granola, amabile, dan maglia cocok dan diminati petani. selain itu kabupaten kerinci berpotensi menjadi pemasok benih kentang untuk daerah-daerah lain khususnya daerah-daerah lain di pulau sumatera. penanaman modal dari luar juga cukup banyak dilakukan di kabupaten kerinci terutama untuk agribisnis kentang secara umum. halhal tersebut menjadi faktor-faktor eksternal berupa peluang yang ada di kabupaten kerinci dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang. selain peluang, beberapa ancaman sebagai faktor eksternal dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang juga diidentifikasi. dari identifikasi yang dilakukan banyak beredar benih tidak bersertifikat yang dijual sebagai benih bersertifikat dengan label palsu. hal ini menjadi ancaman tersendiri karena petani harus membayar lebih mahal untuk benih yang sebenarnya tidak bersertifikat yang mungkin akan memberikan hasil yang tidak maksimal. ancaman lain yang ditemui adalah pasokan benih dari sentra produksi lain seperti pangalengan yang tidak kontinyu. selain itu program pemerintah yang menempatkan kentang bukan sebagai komoditas hortikultura strategis sehingga kurang diperhatikan pengembangannya. penyusunan matriks swot untuk pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci dari faktor-faktor internal berupa kekuatan dan kelemahan serta faktor eksternal berupa peluang dan ancaman tersebut kemudian dibuatlah suatau matriks swot yang akan menghasilkan beberapa alternatif yang dapat diambil untuk mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabuapaten kerinci. matriks ini akan menjadi satu alat formulasi pengambilan keputusan untuk menentukan strategi yang akan diambil untuk memaksimalkan kekuatan dan peluang, namun secara bersamaan dapat meminimalkan kelemahan dan ancaman (fauzi et al., 2016; ikhsan & aid, 2011). terdapat enam alternatif kebijakan yang dapat diambil untuk mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci berdasarkan matriks swot, seperti dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. tabel 1. analisis swot pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci internal eksternal kekuatan (s) 1. kondisi agroekologi yang mendukung untuk perbenihan kentang 2. adanya bbik yang sudah memiliki fasilitas dan sumberdaya yang mencukupi untuk menyediakan benih 3. banyaknya penangkar yang sudah tersertifikasi oleh bpsb 4. industri kecil pengolahan kentang sudah berkembang kelemahan (w) 1. lokasi yang jauh dan tidak strategis 2. bbik dan penangkar masih bergantung kepada pasokan benih umbi g0 bersertifikasi dari luar daerah 3. jumlah pengawas benih yang terbatas untuk semua komoditas peluang (o) 1. varietas unggul kentang cipanas, granola, amabile dan maglia yang cocok dan hasilnya disukai petani 2. dapat menjadi sentra produksi benih kentang untuk menyuplai benih di sentra produksi lain di sumatera 3. penanaman modal dari luar yang cukup meningkat 1. program penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat (s1, s3, o2, o3) 2. pengembangan benih varietas olahan (s2, s4, o1) 1. delegasi legalitas dari balitsa ke bbik untuk memproduksi planlet beberapa varietas kentang sendiri (w1, w2, w3, o1, o2) ancaman (t) 1. benih tidak bersertifikat yang dijual dengan label palsu 2. kontinuitas pasokan benih yang tidak terjamin 3. program pemerintah yang kurang memperhatikan perkembangan agribisnis perbenihan kentang 1. sosialisasi penggunaan benih bersertifikat ke petani (s1, s2, t1, t3) 1. memperkuat peran bpsb dalam pengawasan benih (w3, t1, t3) 2. memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara masal (w1, w2, t1, t2) sumber: hasil fgd (2016) alternatif strategi program penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat diambil berdasarkan pertimbangan kekuatan berupa beberapa lokasi di kabupaten kerinci yang kondisi agroklimatnya cocok untuk perbenihan kentang dan banyaknya penangkar yang sudah tersertifikasi oleh bpsb, serta peluang berupa dapat menjadi sentra produksi benih kentang untuk menyuplai benih di sentra produksi lain di sumatera dan penanaman 26 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research modal dari luar yang cukup meningkat. dukungan tersebut dapat diberikan baik oleh pemerintah maupun pihak swasta. saat penelitian dilakukan di kabupaten kerinci terdapat 13 orang penangkar benih kentang yang sudah bermitra dengan bbik dalam memproduksi benih kentang. berdasarkan diskusi yang dilakukan, penguatan penangkar tersebut dapat dilakukan dengan pemberian penyuluhan dan pelatihan, penguatan pemodalan, dan akses terhadap benih sumber. alternatif strategi pengembangan benih varietas olahan diambil berdasarkan pertimbangan kekuatan berupa adanya bbik yang sudah memiliki fasilitas dan sumberdaya yang mencukupi untuk menyediakan benih, industri kecil pengolahan kentang sudah berkembang, dan peluang berupa varietas unggul kentang cipanas, granola, amabile dan maglia yang cocok dan hasilnya disukai petani. dengan berkembangnya industri pengolahan kentang maka varietas baru khusus untuk olahan seperti amabile dan maglia dapat dikembangkan sebagai bahan baku olahan. melalui kegiatan diseminasi varietas kentang yang dilakukan oleh puslitbang hortikultura menunjukkan bahwa varietas-arietas tersebut cukup disukai petani. alternatif strategi delegasi legalitas dari balitsa ke bbik untuk memproduksi planlet beberapa varietas kentang sendiri diambil berdasarkan pertimbangan kelemahan berupa lokasi yang jauh dan tidak strategis, bbik dan penangkar masih bergantung kepada pasokan benih umbi g0 bersertifikasi dari luar daerah, jumlah pengawas benih yang terbatas untuk semua komoditas, serta peluang berupa varietas unggul kentang cipanas, granola, amabile dan maglia yang cocok dan hasilnya disukai petani, dan dapat menjadi sentra produksi benih kentang untuk menyuplai benih di sentra produksi lain di sumatera. varietas cipanas, granola, amabile dan maglia merupakan kentang varietas unggul yang telah dilepas oleh badan litbang pertanian melalui balai penelitian tanaman sayuran (handayani, 2014). untuk dapat mengembangkan benih sumber kentang diperlukan adanya delegasi legalitas dari pemilik varietas yang dalam hal ini adalah balai penelitian tanaman sayuran kepada institusi yang telah memenuhi kemampuan dan kapasitas untuk memungkinkan memproduksi benih sumber. oleh karena itu delegasi legalitas yang dilakukan dapat mengatasi kelemahan-kelemahan berupa lokasi yang jauh dan ketergantungan benih dari luar daerah, serta berpeluang untuk mempermudah akses benih sumber penangkar benih kentang sehingga dapat mensuplai benih kentang di sentra produksi lain di pulau sumatera. alternatif strategi sosialisasi penggunaan benih bersertifikat ke petani diambil berdasarkan pertimbangan kekuatan kondisi agroekologi yang mendukung untuk perbenihan kentang, adanya bbik yang sudah memiliki fasilitas dan sumberdaya yang mencukupi untuk menyediakan benih, untuk meminimalisir ancaman berupa benih tidak bersertifikat yang dijual dengan label palsu, dan program pemerintah yang kurang memperhatikan perkembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang. sosialisasi penggunaan benih bersertifikat dapat dilakukan dengan cara sosialisasi, penyuluhan, dan demplot penggunaan benih bersertifikat agar petani dapat melihat manfaat dari penggunaan benih bersertifikat tersebut. ridwan et al. (2010) menyatakan bahwa penggunaan benih kentang bersertifikat dapat meningkatkan hasil produksi kentang. alternatif strategi memperkuat peran bpsb dalam pengawasan benih diambil berdasarkan pertimbangan terbatasnya petugas pengawas benih serta adanya benih berlabel palsu dan kontinuitas benih yang tidak terjamin. penguatan peran bpsb dalam pengawasan benih dalam hal ini dapat dilakukan dengan menambah jumlah pengawas benih serta meningkatkan kompetensi pengawas benih melalui berbagai kegiatan peningkatan kapasitas. alternatif strategi memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara masal diambil berdasarkan pertimbangan lokasi yang jauh, penangkar yang masih bergantung kepada pasokan benih dari luar serta adanya benih berlabel palsu dan kontinuitas benih yang tidak terjamin. beberapa teknologi dapat diapliaksikan untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau. beberapa teknologi telah tersedia untuk meningkatkan produksi umbi kentang g0 lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan teknologi produksi benih kentang konvensional. 27 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 upaya ini dapat dilakukan dengan beberapa teknologi yang tersedia seperti teknologi produksi umbi mikro (hidayat, 2011), aeroponik (gunawan and farrizal, 2009; dianawati et al., 2013; sumarni et al., 2016) dan kultur jaringan (karjadi, 2016). karena keterbatasan sumberdaya, tentunya akan timbul kemungkinan seluruh alernati strategi yang telah diidentiikasi tersebut tidak dapat dijalankan seluruhnya. oleh karena itu perlu dilakukan pemilihan prioritas strategi berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria yang telah ditentukan. beberapa alternatif strategi yang telah teridentifikasi tersebut juga dapat diterjemahkan menjadi beberapa program kerja teknis baik itu yang sifatnya rutin maupun program berjangka yang dapat dikerjakan secara bertahap (fauzi et al., 2016). penentuan alternatif strategi pengembangan perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci menggunakan analytic hierarchy process (ahp) berdasarkan diskusi yang dilakukan bersama para stakeholders di kabupaten kerinci, telah dirumuskan beberapa kriteria suatu program pengembangan dapat dilakukan, khususnya untuk pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci. kriteria-kriteria yang telah disepakati harus dipenuhi diantaranya adalah program yang akan dijalankan secara teknis mudah dilakukan, sumberdayanya tersedia, program yang akan dijalankan harus yang dibutuhkan, menguntungkan secara ekonomi, dan tidak memakan waktu yang lama dalam operasionalnya. gambar 1. model pemilihan prioritas kebijakan pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci dalam pemilihan prioritas kegiatan, akan digunakan dalam analytic hierarchy process (ahp). analisis menggunakan ahp ini merupakan analisis yang lebih cepat dibandingkan dengan perhitungan secara manual (darmanto et al., 2014). selain itu oreski (2012) dan (görener et al., 2012) mengatakan bahwa penggunaan kombinasi antara swot dan ahp dapat membantu perencanaan strategik yang akan dibuat. model pemilihan prioritas kebijakan dapat dilihat pada gambar 1, dimana masing-masing alternatif kebijakan yang diperoleh dari analisis swot akan dibandingkan berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria yang telah dirumuskan. hasil perhitungan pemilihan kriteria yang paling penting dapat dilihat pada tabel 2, sedangkan prioritas kebijakan berdasarkan kriteria dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. dalam pemilihan prioritas kegiatan, akan digunakan dalam analytic hierarchy process (ahp). analisis menggunakan ahp ini merupakan analisis yang lebih cepat dibandingkan dengan perhitungan secara manual (darmanto et al., 2014). selain itu oreski (2012) dan (görener et al., 2012) mengatakan bahwa penggunaan kombinasi antara swot dan ahp dapat membantu perencanaan strategik yang akan dibuat. model pemilihan prioritas kebijakan dapat dilihat pada gambar 1, dimana masing-masing alternatif kebijakan yang diperoleh dari analisis swot akan dibandingkan berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria yang telah dirumuskan. hasil perhitungan pemilihan kriteria yang paling penting dapat dilihat pada tabel 2, sedangkan prioritas kebijakan berdasarkan kriteria dapat dilihat pada tabel 3. 28 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tabel 2. prioritas kriteria pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang kabupaten kerinci berdasarkan perhitungan menggunakan analytic hierarchy process no kriteria skor urutan prioritas 1 mudah dilakukan 0.111595 5 2 sumberdayanya tersedia 0.208942 3 3 dibutuhkan masyarakat 0.266311 1 4 menguntungkan secara ekonomi 0.245678 2 5 tidak memakan waktu yang lama 0.167474 4 sumber: data primer diolah (2016) dari perhitungan menggunakan ahp diperoleh hasil yang menunjukkan bahwa kriteria yang dianggap paling penting dalam pemilihan alternatif strategi pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang adalah kriteria dibutuhkan masyarakat yang memperoleh skor sebesar 0,266311. skor yang dimaksud merupakan skor dari hasil perbandingan berpasangan yang menunjukkan bahwa pemangku kebijakan menilai kriteria tersebut merupakan kriteria yang paling penting sebesar 26,63% dibanding kriteria yang lain. kriteria selanjutnya yang dianggap penting untuk pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang adalah menguntungkan secara ekonomi dengan skor sebesar 0,245678 diikuti oleh kriteria sumberdayanya tersedia, tidak memakan waktu yang lama, dan terakhir adalah kriteria mudah dilakukan. tabel 3. prioritas alternatif pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang kabupaten kerinci berdasarkan kriteria alternatif kriteria mudah sumberdaya tersedia dibutuhkan masyarakat menguntungkan tidak memakan waktu lama penguatan penangkar 0.252172 0.220615 0.183871 0.241783 0.235873 pengembangan benih varietas olahan 0.184813 0.118775 0.142576 0.133380 0.179779 delegasi legalitas 0.159704 0.201793 0.175798 0.199991 0.185740 sosialisasi benih bersertifikat 0.168071 0.153646 0.128308 0.125514 0.172410 memperkuat bpsb 0.102514 0.151830 0.137719 0.147046 0.136596 memproduksi benih massal 0.132726 0.153340 0.231728 0.152286 0.089603 sumber: data prier diolah (2016) dari perhitungan menggunakan analytic hierarchy process (ahp) dapat diidentifikasi alternatif kebijakan mana yang paling penting pada setiap kriteria. alternatif program penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat merupakan alternatif strategi prioritas yang dipilih pada kriteria mudah dilaksanakan, sumberdayanya tersedia, menguntungkan secara finansial, dan tidak memakan waktu yang lama. sedangkan pada kriteria dibutuhkan oleh masyarakat alternatif strategi yang menjadi prioritas untuk dilaksanakan adalah memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara massal. tabel 4. prioritas alternatif berdasarkan perhitungan menggunakan analytic hierarchy process no alternatif skor urutan prioritas 1 program penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat 0.2221 1 2 pengembangan benih varietas olahan 0.1463 4 3 delegasi legalitas dari balitsa ke bbik untuk memproduksi planlet beberapa varietas kentang sendiri 0.1870 2 4 sosialisasi penggunaan benih bersertifikat ke petani 0.1447 5 5 memperkuat peran bpsb dalam pengawasan benih 0.1388 6 6 memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara masal 0.1610 3 sumber: data prier diolah (2016 secara total dari enam alternatif strategi pengembangan yang telah diidentifikasi sebelumnya, diperoleh hasil alternatif program yang perlu menjadi prioritas untuk dilaksanakan dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci yaitu penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat. namun dengan begitu bukan berarti alternatif strategi yang lain tidak dianggap penting melainkan harus juga diperhatikan sebagai pendukung dari prioritas strategi yang terpilih. analisis sensitifitas dalam menjalankan suatu program, pemerintah baik itu di tingkat pusat maupun di tingkat daerah memiliki kebijakannya masing-masing. terutama dalam melakukan program pengembangan di era perdagangan bebas, sebaiknya pengembangan diarahkan untuk melakukan proses produksi yang produktif dan efisien, yang tentunya memiliki kualitas unggul yang perlu didukung oleh kebijakan yang mendukung dan memudahkan (wuryandani dan 29 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 meilani, 2013). begitu pula dalam menentukan alternatif kebijakan untuk mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci. analisis sensitifitas diperlukan untuk menilai secara langsung stabilitas dan kekuatan dari keputusan yang diambil, serta untuk menguji kemampuan dari keputusan tersebut terhadap beberapa faktor di masa depan yang dapat menjadi pertimbangan dalam membuat suatu keputusan (bujoreanu, 2011). dalam aplikasi pemilihan alternatif menggnakan ahp, analisis sensitifitas digunakan untuk mengetahui alternatif mana yang paling sensitif dapat berubah posisinya sesuai dengan pertimbangan perubahan kriteria (syamsuddin, 2013; kousalya dan supraja, 2014). dalam kaitannya dengan pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci, para pembuat kebijakan di tingkat daerah maupun tingkat pusat memiliki kriterianya sendiri-sendiri. kriteria-kriteria tersebut yang awalnya dianggap paling penting dapat berubah posisi apabila ada instruksi atau arahan dan kebijakan langsung dari pembuat kebijakan. hasil analisis sensitifitas kriteria-kriteria pengembangan usahatani perbenihan kentang di kabupaten kerinci dapat dilihat pada gambar 2. sensitifitas perubahan kepentingan dari masing-masing kriteria akan berdampak kepada perubahan posisi alternatif kebijakan. alternatif program penguatan penangkar akan tetap menjadi prioritas kebijakan yang dapat dilakukan apabila kriteria mudah dilakukan, sumberdayanya tersedia, menguntungkan secara ekonomi, dan tidak memakan waktu yang lama menjadi satu-satunya kriteria yang dianggap penting meskipun pada kriteria sumberdayanya tersedia akan mengalami sedikit penurunan prioritas. posisi prioritas alternatif kebijakan berubah apabila terjadi perubahan kepentingan pada kriteria dibutuhkan masyarakat. semakin tinggi kepentingan pada kriteria dibutuhkan masyarakat dibandingkan kriteria lainnya akan menyebabkan alternatif kebijakan memproduksi benih dengan harga murah secara massal menjadi prioritas kebijakan yang terlebih dahulu harus dilakukan, sedangkan alternatif untuk penguatan penangkar akan menurun. gambar 2. perubahan posisi proritas strategi apabila masingmasing kriteria menjadi satu-satunya kriteria yang paling penting 0,100 0,150 0,200 0,250 0,300 kriteria mudah dilakukan 0,100 0,150 0,200 0,250 kriteria sumberdayanya tersedia 0,100 0,150 0,200 0,250 kriteria dibutuhkan masyarakat 0,100 0,150 0,200 0,250 kriteria menguntungkan secara finansial 0,100 0,150 0,200 0,250 kriteria tidak membutuhkan waktu lama penguatan penangkar pengembangan benih varietas olahan delegasi legalitas sosialisasi benih bersertifikat memperkuat bpsb memproduksi benih massal 30 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research berdasarkan analisis sensitivitas dapat diperoleh inormasi bahwa alternatif strategi program penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat dan alternatif strategi memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara masal merupakan alternatif-alternatif prioritas yang perlu diutamakan. seiring dengan tahun perbenihan hortikultura yang dicanangkan oleh kementerian pertanian, maka saat ini merupakan saat yang tepat untuk menjalankan beberapa rekomendasi kebijakan yang menjadi prioritas. kesimpulan melalui analisis swot dapat diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa terdapat enam alternatif strategi yang dapat dilakukan berdasarkan pertimbangan faktor-faktor internal dan eksternal yang dimiliki kabupaten kerinci dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang. beberapa alternatif tersebut diantaranya program penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat, pengembangan benih varietas olahan, delegasi legalitas dari balitsa ke bbik untuk memproduksi planlet beberapa varietas kentang sendiri, sosialisasi penggunaan benih bersertifikat ke petani, memperkuat peran bpsb dalam pengawasan benih, dan memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara masal. seluruh alternatif yang telah disebutkan mungkin tidak dapat seluruhnya dikerjakan karena keterbatasan yang ada. berdasarkan analisis ahp dan analisis sensitivitas, program penguatan penangkar untuk memproduksi benih bersertifikat dan alternatif memproduksi benih bersertifikat dengan harga terjangkau secara masal merupakan alternatif yang perlu diutamakan. alternatif yang lain dapat juga dilaksanakan sebagai pendukung dalam bentuk program-program kerja yang disusun. disarankan bagi para penentu kebijakan baik itu di tingkat pusat maupun daerah untuk mengalokasikan sebagian besar sumberdaya yang dimiliki baik itu fisik maupun anggaran untuk menjalankan program-program yang berkaitan dengan prioritas strategi terpilih tersebut sebelum menjalankan program lainnya dalam mengembangkan usahatani perbenihan kentang di 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(2013). peranan kebijakan pemerintah daerah dalam pengembangan usaha mikro, kecil, dan menengah di provinsi daerah istimewa yogyakarta. jurnal ekonomi dan kebijakan publik, 4(1), 103–115. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 4 no. 2 juli-desember 2018 mohammad rondhi*, ad hariyanto adi department of agribusiness, university of jember *) e-mail korespondensi: rondhi.faperta@unej.ac.id pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan terhadap produksi, alokasi tenaga kerja, dan efisiensi usahatani padi the effects of land ownership on production, labor allocation, and rice farming efficiency doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4265 abstract land is the main input in agricultural production and also a wealthgenerating asset for farmers. there are three common forms of agricultural land ownership:owned land, rented land, and sharecropped (kedokan) land, where each of them are directly affects the farming performance. the purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of land ownerships on farm production, labor use, and farm economic efficiency. the sample used in this study were 150 farmers equally distributed in each ownership group from a population of 1039 farmers. cobbdouglas production function, f-test, and rc ratio were used to estimate production function, the difference in labor use, and farm economic efficiency. the results showed that rented land has the highest productivity followed by owned and sharecropped (kedokan) land. meanwhile, the sharecropped (kedokan) land has the lowest labor use, followed by rented and owned land. however, in term of profitability, owned land is the highest followed by rented and sharecropped land. the results also showed that sharecropped (ngedok) as an informal contract farming between farmer and landlord was the best economic choice for the landlord. furthermore, to improve farmers welfare, the landless farmers should be facilitated to own their own land. keywords: farmer welfare, informal contract farming, kedokan, land ownership, intisari lahan adalah input utama dalam produksi pertanian dan juga aset produktif bagi petani. terdapat tiga pola pemilikan lahan pertanian: lahan milik sendiri, sewa, dan bagi hasil, dimana masing–masing pola secara langsung mempengaruhi kinerja usahatani. tujuan peneliatian ini adalah menganalisis pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan pada produksi, alokasi tenaga kerja, dan efisiensi ekonomi usahatani. jumlah sampel yang digunakan adalah 150 petani yang tersebar merata pada tiap pola pemilikan lahan dari populasi sebanyak 1039 petani. fungsi produksi cobb -douglas, uji-f, dan rc ratio digunakan untuk mengestimasi fungsi produksi, per bedaan alokasi tenaga kerja, dan efisiensi ekonomi usahatani. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa lahan sewa memiliki produktivitas tertinggi, diikuti lahan milik, dan lahan bagi hasil. sementara itu lahan bagi hasil memiliki penggunaan tenaga kerja paling rendah, diikuti lahan sewa dan lahan milik. akan tetapi dalam hal profitabilitas, lahan milik sendiri memiliki profitabilitas tertinggi, diikuti lahan sewa dan lahan bagi hasil. hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa kedokan sebagai bentuk kemitraan usahatani informal antara petani/pengedok dan pemilik lahan adalah pilihan ekonomi terbaik bagi pemilik lahan. penelitian ini menyarankan bahwa dalam usaha meningkatkan kesejahteraannya, petani perlu difasilitasi untuk memiliki lahannya sendiri. kata kunci: kemitraan usahatani informal, kesejahteraan petani, pola pemilikan lahan, sistem bagi hasil kedokan pendahuluan berdasarkan pola pemilikannya, lahan usahatani dibagi menjadi tiga jenis yakni lahan milik sendiri, lahan sewa, dan lahan bagi hasil (hayami & otsuka, 1993). persentase masing–masing jenis lahan di beberapa negara asia pada tahun 1970yakni 84% lahan milik sendiri, 5,9% lahan sewa, dan 10,1% lahan bagi hasil. angka tersebut 102 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research menunjukkan bahwa ketiga pola pemilikan lahan tersebut telah diterapkan secara luas dan bertahan cukup lama di asia, termasuk di indonesia. lebih jauh lagi, perbedaan pemilikan lahan secara signifikan mempengaruhi efisiensi dan pendapatan usahatani (koirala, mishra, & mohanty, 2016; mubyarto, 2006). oleh karena itu pembahasan mengenai pola pengelolaan lahan ini penting dalam usaha mencapai ketahanan pangan dan kesejahteraan petani. secara umum pola lahan milik sendiri dan sewa cenderung sama di berbagai wilayah di indonesia, tetapi perbedaan yang cukup signifikan terjadi pada pola pengelolaan lahan bagi hasil. pola lahan bagi hasil memiliki nama dan aturan tersendiri pada berbagai wilayah, seperti maro di jawa tengah (wahyuningsih, 2010); maro, mertelu, mrapat, dan kedokan di jawa timur (malik, wahyuni, & widodo, 2018); nengah atau jejuron dan ceblokan di jawa barat (sihaloho, purwandari, & mardiyaningsih, 2010); memperduai di sumatera barat, toyo di minahasa, serta teseng di sulawesi selatan (darwis, 2016). perbedaan aturan masing–masing sistem bagi hasil berhubungan dengan proporsi bagi hasil dan juga kewajiban dan hak dari petani pemilik dan petani penggarap. seperti contoh pada sistem maro di kabupaten sleman dimana proporsi bagi hasil antara pemilik lahan dan petani penggarap adalah 50%:50% dan petani penggarap menanggung seluruh input produksi, alat pertanian, dan risiko gagal panen sementara pemilik lahan berkewajiban menyediakan lahan serta membayar pajak lahan (ash shidiqie & priyadi, 2015). sementara pada sistem sakap (istilah lain maro) di jawa barat petani pemilik lahan juga berkewajiban untuk membiayai setengah biaya bibit dan proporsi bagi hasil sama dengan sistem maro sebelumnya (hadiana, 2017). perbedaan proporsi bagi hasil serta aturan pembagian hak dan kewajiban akan mempengaruhi kinerja petani penggarap yang pada ahirnya akan mempengaruhi kinerja usahatani. lebih jauh lagi, perbedaan struktur usahatani petani pemilik (farmer), petani penggarap lahan sewa (tenant farmer), dan petani penggarap lahan bagi hasil (sharecropper) juga akan membuat kinerja masing–masing petani berbeda. pengaruh pola pemilikan lahantelah banyak diteliti dan menunjukkan bahwa masih terdapat perbedaan. pada usahatani padi di kabupaten minahasa selatan, pendapatan tertinggi dimiliki petani penyewa, sementara petani penggarap memiliki pendapatan terendah (manatar, laoh, & mandei, 2017). sementara di kabupaten buru, kinerja petani pemilik dan penyewa relatif sama akan tetapi berbeda dengan petani penyakap (bagi hasil) dimana kinerja petani penyakap lebih rendah (bahasoan, 2011). berbeda dari dua penelitian sebelumnya, pada usahatani padi di kabupaten kendal, produktivitas petani pemilik, penyakap, dan penyewa tidak berbeda cukup signifikan (mudakir, 2011). hasil tersebut menunjukkan bahwa masih terdapat perbedaan pendapat terkait pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan terhadap kinerja usahatani. sehingga penelitian ini berusaha untuk berkontribusi pada pembahasan tersebut. sistem kedokan adalah sistem yang relatif jarang dibahas pada penelitian sebelumnya secara rinci. pada sistem kedokan yang terjadi pada komoditas padi di kabupaten jember, pengedok (petani penggarap) hanya berkewajiban sebagai penyedia tenaga kerja panen dan mendapatkan 20% gabah yang diproduksi (fauzi, hariyati, & aji, 2014). sementara itu, sistem kedokan di kabupaten lumajang memiliki pola yang sedikit berbeda, pengedok berkewajiban menyediakan biaya benih, pupuk, sewa traktor dan biaya irigasi dengan proporsi bagi hasil yang berbeda tergantung dari kondisi usahatani (malik et al., 2018) pelaksanaan sistem kedokan mempunyai banyak keragaman, sehingga penelitian sistem kedokan di desa jatimulyo, kecamatan jenggawah, kabupaten jember memberikan informasi baru tentang sistem kedokan dimana pengedok hanya berkewajiban untuk melakukan perawatan padi. selain itu, penelitian ini juga menguraikan alokasi tenaga kerja pada masing-masing pola pemilikan lahan. pembahasan ini jarang dilakukan pada penelitian sebelumnya. alokasi tenaga kerja usahatani penting untuk dibahas karena 48,23% total biaya usahatani digunakan untuk ongkos tenaga kerja (badan pusat statistik, 2015). secara spesifik, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan terhadap produksi usahatani padi; alokasi tenaga kerja usahatani pada masingmasing pola pemilikan lahan; dan efisiensi usahatani padi pada masing-masing pola pemilikan lahan. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilaksanakan di desa jatimulyo, kecamatan jenggawah kabupaten jember, jawa timur. desa jatimulyo secara umum menggambarkan kondisi umum wilayah perdesaan di indonesia yang dicirikan dengan perekonomian utamanya adalah pertanian tanaman pangan khususnya padi. desa 103 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 jatimulyo terletak di kecamatan jenggawah dan merupakan bagian dari wilayah lumbung padi di kabupaten jember. berdasarkan pola pemilikan lahan, petani padi di desa jatimulyo dibagi menjadi tiga yakni petani pemilik, petani penyewa, dan petani pengedok. pengambilan sampel penelitian dilakukan dalam tiga tahap yakni, penentuan populasi penelitian, pengukuran jumlah sampel, dan penentuan petani responden. populasi penelitian adalah seluruh petani padi yang ada di desa jatimulyo. penentuan populasi dilakukan dengan mengidentifikasi identitas petani yang mencakup nama, luas lahan, dan pola pemilikan lahan. secara teknis penyusunan data populasi dilakukan dengan melakukan wawancara pada ulu-ulu. pemilihan uluulu dalam penyusunan data populasi karena ulu-ulu mengetahui secara rinci setiap petani yang menjadi anggota di wilayah kerjanya. selain itu, wilayah kerja hippa berbasis desa sehingga petani anggota hanya petani yang sawahnya terdaftar secara administratif di desa jatimulyo. terdapat 15 ulu-ulu yang diwawancarai yang membawahi 1039 petani yang dirangkum pada tabel 1. tabel 1. populasi petani padi di desa jatimulyo berdasarkan pola pemilikan lahan pengelolaan lahan jumlah populasi (petani) persentase (%) miliksendiri 798 76,80 sewa 131 12,60 kedokan 110 10,60 total 1039 100 sumber: data primer (2018) selanjutnya pengukuran jumlah sampel dilakukan dengan menggunakan rumus slovin dengan tingkat kesalahan sebesar 7,5 persen. berdasarkan hasil perhitungan diperoleh jumlah sampel sebesar 150 petani. selanjutnya, dikarenakan subpopulasi (petani pemilik, penyewa, dan pengedok) bersifat homogen, alokasi sampel untuk tiap sub populasi ditetapkan 50 petani pemilik, 50 petani penyewa, dan 50 petani pemilik lahan kedokan. pengumpulan data penelitian dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode wawancara terstruktur menggunakan kuesioner. data yang dikumpulkan terkait dengan gambaran umum usahatani; faktor produksi yang meliputi luas lahan, jumlah serta jenis benih yang digunakan, jumlah dan jenispupuk yang digunakan, jumlah dan jenis pestisida yang digunakan dan jumlah tenaga kerja pada setiap kegiatan usahatani; serta biaya yang dikeluarkan dalam usahatani antara lain biaya pajak atau sewa lahan, biaya benih, biaya pupuk, biaya pestisida dan biaya tenaga kerja.satuan luas lahan di lokasi penelitian menggunakan ukuran sepripit, seperempat dan sebahu yang kemudian ukuran luas lahan tersebut dikonversikan menjadi satuan hektar. statistik deskriptif beberapa variabel penelitian terpilih dari data penelitian yang telah dikumpulkan dirangkum pada tabel 2. tabel 2. statistik deskriptif data penelitian variabel pemilik penyewa pengedok luas lahan (ha)* 0,3 (0,22) 0,36 (0,42) 0,44 (0,27) biaya benih (rp)** 155.420 (8,4) 182.920 (4,6) 200.460 (9,5) biaya pupuk (rp)** 406.380 (22,1) 423.250 (10,7) 503.320 (24) biaya pestisida (rp)** 43.610 (2,3) 36.620 (0,9) 37.200 (1,7) biaya tenaga kerja (rp)** 581.600 (31,9) 753.800 (19,1) 545.684 (26) biaya sewa mesin pertanian (rp)** 586.504 (31,9) 734.196 (18,6) 731.382 (34,9) biaya sewa lahan (rp)** 0 1.783.470(45, 2) 0 jumlah observasi 50 50 50 sumber: data primer (2018) * angka dalam kurung menunjukkan simpangan baku ** angka dalam kurung menunjukkan persentase dari total biaya data pada tabel 2 menunjukkan adanya kesesuaian antara data di lokasi penelitian dengan gambaran umum usahatani padi di indonesia. struktur biaya usahatani padi sawah di indonesia menunjukkan bahwa biaya usahatani terbesar adalah biaya tenaga kerja dan sewa mesin pertanian (badan pusat statistik, 2015). secara spesifik terdapat perbedaan dalam penguasaan lahan dimana petani pemilik mengusahakan lahan paling sempit, diikuti dengan penyewa, dan yang terluas adalah petani pengedok. luasan tersebut adalah rata–rata luasan lahan yang dimiliki oleh pemilik lahan yang memilih untuk mengedokkan lahannya. pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan terhadap produksi dianalisis dengan menggunakan fungsi 104 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research produksi cobb-douglas. variabel yang digunakan dalam model regresi tercantum padatabel 3. variabel yang digunakan dalam model terdiri dari variabel jenis input usahatani dan pola pemilikan lahan. variabel input usahatani mencakup luas lahan (x1), jumlah benih (x2), jumlah pupuk urea(x3), jumlah pupuk za(x4), jumlah pupuk phonska(x5), jumlah pestisida(x6), dan jumlah tenaga keja(x7). tenaga kerja usahatani tidak dibedakan berdasarkan gender karena upah yang dibayarkan kepada tenaga kerja pria dan wanita memiliki nilai sama. variabel terahir adalah variabel dummy pemilikan lahan yang terdiri dari lahan sewa (d1), dan lahan bagi hasil kedokan (d2). model fungsi produksi cobb-douglas (persamaan 1) diestimasi menggunakan metode ordinary least square dan digunakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan produksi pada masing-masing pola pemilikan lahan. 3 5 6 7 81 2 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 b b b b bb b b y ax x x x x x x d (1) model tersebut ditransformasikan dalam bentuk double logaritme natural (ln) untuk memudahkan proses estimasi. hasil transformasi ditunjukkan pada persamaan 2. 7 8 1 ln i i i y a b x b d     (2) data penelitian memiliki variabel yang bernilai nol, seperti pupuk za, ada petani tidak menggunakan pupuk tersebut sehingga data pupuk za untuk petani tersebut bernilai nol. nilai 0 pada salah satu data akan menjadi masalah dalam proses estimasi fungsi produksi cobb-douglas karena ketika dilakukan transformasi logaritma variabel dengan nilai 0 akan menjadi tak hingga. solusi dari permasalahan ini adalah dengan melakukan estimasi dua tahap. estimasi pertama menggunakan data asli sementara estimasi kedua menggunakan data yang sudah ditransformasi dengan menambahkan angka yang sama pada setiap variabel. berdasarkan hasil estimasi dua tahap diperoleh hasil yang tidak berbeda secara statistik, sehingga hasil estimasi yang dimuat adalah hasil estimasi data asli. uji statistik yang dilakukan untuk mengetahui kelayakan model adalah uji f dan uji t (setiawan & kusrini, 2010) alokasi tenaga kerja pada masing–masing pola pemilikan lahan dibagi berdasarkan jenis tenaga kerja (dalam keluarga dan luar keluarga) dan tahapan usahatani yakni pembersihan lahan, pengolahan tanah, persemaian benih, pembuatan bedengan, pencabutan bibit, penanaman, penyiangan, pemupukan, penyemprotan, dan panen. selanjutnya untuk mengetahui untuk mengetahui apakah terdapat perbedaan alokasi tenaga kerja pada usahatani petani pemilik, penyewa, dan pengedok dilakukan uji anova(setiawan & kusrini, 2010). sementara efisiensi usahatani masing–masing pola pemilikan lahan dianalisis menggunakan metode rc ratio(soekartawi, 1995). terdapat dua nilai rc ratioyang akan dihitung yakni rc ratio dengan memperhitungkan biaya implisit dan tanpa memperhitungkan biaya implisit tenaga kerja dalam keluarga(soekartawi, 1995). hasil dan pembahasan mekanisme pelaksanaan pola bagi hasil kedokan sistem kedokan adalah bentuk kemitraan informal antara pemilik lahan dan petani penggarap atau pengedok. seperti kemitraan pada umumnya terdapat pembagian hak dan kewajiban dari masing– masing pihak yang menjalin kemitraan. tabel 4 merangkum hak dan kewajiban pemilik lahan dan pengedok dalam sistem bagi hasil kedokan. tabel 3 pembagian hak dan kewajiban dalam sistem bagi hasil kedokan pihak hak kewajiban pemilik lahan menerima 80% produksi 1. membayar biaya pengolahan tanah, penanaman, dan panen 2. menyediakan benih, pupuk, pestisida, dan input produksi lainnya 3. menanggung seluruh risiko produksi pengedok menerima 20% produksi 1. melakukan persiapan lahan, persemaian, pemupukan, panen, dan pemeliharaan. sistem kedokan merupakan sistem kerjasama revenue sharing dimana pengedok memperoleh 105 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 seperlima hasil produksi sementara sisanya menjadi hak pemilik lahan. proporsi bagi hasil sesuai dengan kewajiban yang harus dipenuhi oleh masing–masing pihak. pemilik lahan menyediakan seluruh input produksi serta tenaga kerja untuk pengolahan tanah (sewa traktor), penanaman, dan panen. sementara pengedok menyediakan tenaga untuk persiapan lahan, persemaian (pembuatan uritan), pemupukan, panen, dan pemeliharaan. pembagian hak dan kewajiban dalam sistem kedokan sesuai dengan karakteristik dasar masing– masing pihak. pemilik lahan pada umumnya adalah masyarakat ekonomi memengah akan tetapi tidak memiliki waktu untuk mengelola lahannya sendiri. sehingga pemilik lahan selain menyediakan lahan juga menyediakan seluruh input dan juga tenaga kerja luar keluarga selain pengedok. selain itu pemilik lahan juga menanggung seluruh risiko produksi dimana ketika terjadi kegagalan panen maka kerugian seluruhnya ditanggung pemilik lahan. sementara pengedok berkewajiban melakukan persiapan lahan, persemaian, perawatan, dan panen. semua tugas tersebut dilaksanakan sendiri oleh pengedok. keuntungan bagi pengedok adalah tidak menanggung risiko produksi sama sekali. berbeda dengan sistem bagi hasil lainnya seperti maro dan sakap dimana penggarap masih harus menyediakan sebagian input produksi dan menanggung sebagian risiko produksi. pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan terhadap produksi usahatani pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan terhadap produksi diestimasi menggunakan fungsi produksi cobb-douglas. uji f digunakan untuk melihat apakah seluruh variabel independen berpengaruh terhadap produksi usahatani (h0 :seluruh koefisien variabel independen bernilai 0). nilai f statistik model yang diestimasi adalah 137,313 dan lebih besar dibandingkan nilai f tabel 1,95 (p< 0,05; p = 0,000). hasil tersebut menunjukkan bahwa seluruh variabel independen berpengaruh nyata terhadap produksi usahatani (h0 ditolak). kemudian nilai r2 adalah 0,892 yang artinya 89,2 persen varian produksi bisa dijelaskan oleh variabel independen dalam model. nilai tersebut baik karena data yang digunakan terbebas dari permasalahan multikolinearitas, normalitas, dan heteroskedastisitas. berdasarkan hasil tersebut model yang diestimasi layak digunakan untuk menjelaskan pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan pada produksi.hasil estimasi ditunjukkan pada tabel 4. tabel 4 hasil estimasi fungsi produksi cobbdouglas variabel koefisien t hitung (signifikansi) konstanta − 1,030 −4,493 (0,000)* luas lahan 0,284 7,812 (0,000)* benih 0,467 8,484 (0,000)* pupuk urea 0,037 1,849 (0,067)*** pupuk za 0,007 0,679 (0,499)ns pupuk phonska 0,008 0,643 (0,521)ns pestisida − 0,028 −1,589 (0,114)ns tenaga kerja 0,120 1,893 (0,060)*** dummy sewa 0,123 3,042 (0,003)** dummy kedokan − 0,061 −1,049 (0,146)ns r2 0.892 f hitung 137,313 keterangan, *** = p < 0,01, ** = p <0,05, *= p < 0,1, ns: tidak signifikan berdasarkan hasil esimasi didapatkan bahwa bibit, tenaga kerja, dan luas lahan merupakan faktor produksi yang memiliki pengaruh positif besar terhadap produksi karena memiliki koefisien produksi sebesar 0,467; 0,284; dan 0,120. nilai tersebut jauh lebih besar dibandingkan dengan faktor produksi lain seperti pupuk dan pestisida. pupuk—baik urea, za, dan phonska—memiliki pengaruh positif akan tetapi tidak terlalu besar, besar koefisien regresi ketiga jenis pupuk tersebut adalah 0,037; 0,008; dan 0,007. artinya, produksi usahatani padi di desa jatimulyo tidak terlalu bergantung pada penggunaan pupuk. penambahan jumlah pupuk yang digunakan hanya meningkatkan produksi dalam jumlah yang relatif kecil. sementara itu, pestisida memiliki pengaruh negatif akan tetapi relatif kecil terhadap produksi dengan koefisien regresi sebesar −0,028. kondisi produksipadi di desa jatimulyo yang tidak bergantung pada penggunaan pupuk ini juga terjadi pada usahatani padi di provinsi lampung (asnawi, 2013), di desa kirisik, kecamatan jatinunggal, kabupaten sumedang (hadiana, 2017), di kabupaten kendal (mudakir, 2011), di desa haekto, kecamatan neomuti timur, kabupaten timor tengah selatan 106 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (neonbota & kune, 2016), di kelurahan koya, kecamatan tondano selatan, kabupaten minahasa (onibala, sondakh, kaunang, & mandei, 2017), di desa lawang agung, kecamatan kedurang, kabupaten bengkulu selatan (sumantri & fauzi, 2006), dan di kecamatan wirosari, kabupaten grobogan (yuliana, ekowati, & handayani, 2017). berbagai penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa usahatani padi di indonesia merupakan struktur produksi yang berbasis lahan dan tenaga kerja. selanjutnya pengaruh pola pemilikan lahan pada produksi dapat diketahui dari nilai konstanta, dummy sewa, dan dummy kedokan. nilai konstanta mewakili pola lahan milik sendiri dengan nilai −1,030 dan signifikan secara statistik, koefisien dummy sewa memiliki nilai 0,123 dan signifikan secara statistik. artinya lahan sewa memiliki produksi yang lebih baik dibandingkan dengan pola milik sendiri. selanjutnya lahan kedokan secara statistik tidak berpengaruh signifikan pada produksi dan juga memiliki koefisien negatif, sehingga pola kedokan tidak lebih baik dibandingkan dengan pola milik sendiri dan sewa.kondisi tersebut sejalan dengan pola pemilikan lahan usahatani padi di kabupaten buru dimana usahatani padi pada pola lahan sewa memiliki nilai produksi tertinggi, diikuti dengan pola lahan milik, dan pola lahan sakap (bagi hasil) memiliki koefisien negatif (bahasoan, 2011). sementara itu, kondisi lahan sewa di desa jatimulyo memiliki kesamaan dengan dengan usahatani di desa tumani, kecamatan maesaan, kabupaten minahasa yang memiliki produksi tertinggi, akan tetapi produksi terendah tidak terjadi pada lahan bagi hasil melainkan pada lahan milik sendiri (manatar et al., 2017). alokasi tenaga kerja usahatani pada masing–masing pola pemilikan lahan terdapat sepuluh pos alokasi tenaga kerja dalam usahatani padi yakni persiapan lahan, pengolahan tanah, persemaian benih, pembuatan bedengan, pencabutan bibit, penanaman bibit, penyiangan, pemupukan, penyemprotan obat, dan panen. terdapat dua jenis tenaga kerja yang digunakan dalam usahatani padi yang diteliti yakni tenaga kerja dalam keluarga (tkdk) dan tenaga kerja luar keluarga (tklk). tabel 5 merangkum alokasi tenaga kerja pada masing–masing pola pemilikan lahan. satuan yang digunakan adalah hari orang kerja (hok)/hektar. tabel 5 alokasi tenaga kerja usahatani padi berdasarkan pola pemilikan lahan pengelolaan lahan milik sendiri sewa kedokan tkdk tklk tkdk tklk tkdk tklk pembersihan lahan 0,603125 0,525 0,8675 0,5225 0,0575 1,055 pengolahan tanah 0 0,81 0 1,735 0 1,165 persemaian benih 0,234375 0,18 0,2575 0,15 0,005 0,44 pembuatan bedengan 0,46875 0,23 0,46 0,2875 0,075 0,875 pencabutan bibit 0,25 0,5575 0,095 0,6525 0,1775 1,0675 penanaman 0 7,91 0 9,7275 0 11,0275 penyiangan 0,80625 0,2425 1,1375 0,5425 0,225 1,6 pemupukan 1,5 0,3975 1,2825 0,705 0,1575 2,295 penyemprotan 0,4 0,165 0,5125 0,1525 0 1,225 panen 0 3,5225 0 4,37 0 4,4575 rata-rata total hok/luasan 4,2625 14,54 4,6125 18,845 0,6975 25,2075 rata-rata total hok/hektar 37,3573 75,8573 23,172 81,669 1,5820 68,8268 rata-rata total tenaga kerja untuk lahan milik sendiri, sewa dan kedokan adalah 113,21 hok, 104,84 hok, dan 70,408 hok. penggunaan tenaga kerja pada masing–masing pola pemilikan lahan juga berbeda secara statistik dengan signifikansi uji anova sebesar 0,659. penggunaan tenaga kerja terbesar terdapat pada kegiatan penanaman dan panen. kedua kegiatan ini membutuhkan tenaga kerja dalam jumlah yang banyak karena penanaman dan panen harus diselesaikan dalam waktu satu hari. sehingga, penggunaan tenaga kerja luar keluarga pada kedua kegiatan tersebut sangat besar. sebaliknya kegiatan perawatan usahatani membutuhkan tenaga kerja luar keluarga lebih sedikit karena bisa dilakukan oleh petani sendiri. data tersebut menunjukkan bahwa petani pengedok (contract labor) merupakan tenaga kerja pengganti tenaga kerja keluarga (family labor), sementara buruh tani (hired labor) adalah tenaga kerja komplementer bagi tenaga kerja keluarga, hubungan ini juga telah teridentifikasi pada struktur tenaga kerja pertanian di prancis (dupraz & latruffe, 2015) selanjutnya, akan dibandingkan jumlah tenaga kerja yang menjadi tanggungan pengedok, petani sewa, dan 107 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 petani milik sendiri. terlebih dahulu perlu dilakukan pemisahan antara tenaga kerja yang menjadi tanggungan pemilik lahan kedokan dan juga pengedok. kemudian, alokasi tenaga kerja petani pengedok dibandingkan dengan alokasi tenaga kerja petani sewa dan milik sendiri. tabel 6 merangkum jumlah tenaga kerja yang menjadi tanggungan petani pengedok, pemilik lahan kedokan, petani sewa, dan petani milik sendiri. tabel 6 perbandingan alokasi tenaga kerja tiap petani (hok/musim) kegiatan usahatani kedokan petani sewa petani milik sendiri pemilik lahan pengedok pembersihan lahan 0 3,1539 6,1528 8,209696 pengolahan tanah 3,1787 0 0 0 persemaian benih 0 1,23685 1,9 3,22729 pembuatan bedengan 2,44067 0 0 0 pencabutan bibit 0 3,02078 3,319 4,870801 penanaman bibit 29,3752 0 0 0 penyiangan 0 4,75308 6,84 7,949813 pemupukan 0 6,940385 11 13,73953 penyemprotan obat 0 3,41436 3,59 2,578979 panen 0 12,5182 18,5 20,60296 jumlah 34,9946 35,03755 51,302 61,1791 rata-rata 11,6649 5,005365 7,3288 8,73987 jumlah tenaga kerja pada sistem kedokan yang menjadi tanggungan pemilik lahan sebesar 34,994 hok/ha sedangkan yang menjadi tanggungan pengedok (untuk kegiatan perawatan) sebesar 35,038 hok/ha. sementara, curahan tenaga kerja dalam perawatan pada pola sewa sebesar 51,371 hok/ha dan pada pola milik sendiri sebesar 61,179 hok/ha. nilai tersebut menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan tenaga kerja dalam pola sewa dan milik sediri lebih besar dibandingkan dengan penggunaan tenaga kerja pada pola kedokan, khususnya penggunaan tenaga kerja pengedok. kondisi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa nilai marginal produk tenaga kerja pada model sewa dan garap sendiri lebih besar dibandingkan dengan nilai marginal produk tenaga kerja pada model kedokan (pengedok). rendahnya nilai marginal produk tenaga kerja pengedok disebabkan karena pengedok tidak akan mendapatkan insentif untuk bekerja lebih keras, karena proporsi yang didapatkan tetap yakni sebesar 20%.kondisi tersebut merupakan ciri dari sistem bagi hasil, seperti sistem bagi hasil di ethiopia dimana petani penggarap (sharecropper) cenderung mengeluarkan curahan usaha dibawah curahan kerja optimalnya (tran, 2016). efisiensi usahatani pada masing– masing pola pemilikan lahan sebelumnya telah dijelaskan bahwa sistem kedokan memiliki produksi paling rendah serta kecilnya proporsi bagi hasil menyebabkan pengedok menurunkan curahan kerjanya. akan tetapi, fakta bahwa banyak pemilik lahan yang tetap memilih untuk mengedokkan lahannya membuat perlu dilakukan analisis pendapatan lebih mendalam. pemilik lahan yang tidak mengelola sendiri lahannya memiliki dua pilihan yakni menyewakan atau mengedokkan lahannya. ketika pemilik lahan memilih untuk menyewakan lahannya maka pendapatannya adalah biaya sewa lahan sementara apabila memilih mengedokkan lahan maka pendapatannya adalah 80% nilai produksi dikurangi biaya usahatani. secara lebih rinci biaya usahatani masing–masing pola ditunjukkan pada tabel 7. pemilik lahan yang memilih untuk menyewakan lahannya akan mendapatkan pendapatan sebesar rp 5.347.419/ha/musim sebagai pendapatan dari sewa lahan, sementara apabila memilih mengedokkan lahannya maka pendapatan yang diperoleh adalah rp 9.933.737/ha/musim. oleh karena itu meskipun produksi yang lebih rendah, pemilik lahan mendapatkan pendapatan yang lebih besar dengan mengedokkan lahannya dibandingkan dengan menyewakan lahan. akan tetapi pada sistem kedokan, pemilik lahan harus menyediakan biaya usahatani dan menanggung risiko produksi. sementara kedua konsekuensi tersebut tidak harus ditanggung pemilik lahan apabila memilih untuk mengelola lahannya. sehingga, apabila tidak ada batasan biaya (budget constraints) maka pemilik lahan akan memilih untuk mengedokkan lahannya. kondisi tersebut secara umum sama di beberapa wilayah di indonesia baik di jawa maupun di luar jawa dimana 108 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research petani cenderung menyewakan lahan ketika memiliki kebutuhan ekonomi yang mendesak (winarso, 2012). tabel 7 struktur biaya dan penerimaan usahatani berdasarkan pola pemilikan komponen pola pemilikan milik sendiri sewa kedokan biaya tetap penyusutan (rp) 237.287 161.108 94.548 sewa lahan (rp) 5.347.419 pajak lahan (rp) 236.292 100.774 total biaya tetap (rp/ha/musim) 475.578 5.598.527 195.359 biaya variabel benih (rp) 738.336 690.812 492.732 pupuk (rp) 1.883.905 1.620.570 1.233.577 pestisida (rp) 194.694 173.803 91.015 tenaga kerja luar keluarga (rp) 3.034.291 3.266.759 1.028.208 sewa traktor, dores dan upah pengairan (rp) 2.827.012 2.866.698 1.827.691 total biaya variabel (rp/ha/musim) 8.678.238 8.618.641 4.673.223 total biaya (rp/ha/musim) 5.765.950 14.217.169 4.868.582 penerimaan produksi (ton/ha/musim) 7,126 7,7 4,88 proporsi bagi hasil pemilik lahan (kw) petani pengedok (kw) 9,76 harga (rp/kg) 3.800 3.800 3.800 total penerimaan (rp/ha/musim) 27.078.80 0 29.273.499 14.825.703 pendapatan (rp/ha/musim) 21.312.85 0 15.056.330 9.933.737 efisiensi biaya 4,696 2,059 3,045 selanjutnya perlu dilihat penerimaan dari sisi pengelola lahan, yakni petani lahan milik sendiri, penyewa, dan pengedok. pendapatan petani lahan milik sendiri adalah rp 17.925.216/ha/musim dengan nilai rc ratio sebesar 4,696. sementara pendapatan petani penyewa adalah rp 15.056.330/ha/musim dengan nilai rc ratio 2,059. selanjutnya pendapatan pengedok adalah rp 3.708.800/ha/musim, karena pengedok secara finansial tidak mengeluarkan biaya usahatani maka nilai rc ratio tidak bisa dikalkulasi. hasil tersebut menunjukkan bahwa lahan merupakan faktor produksi utama dalam usahatani di indonesia karena dengan jumlah luasan lahan yang dikelola sama, petani akan mendapat pendapatan tertinggi ketika mengelola lahan milik sendiri. kondisi ini merefleksikan kondisi sosial yang ada pada masyarakat petani, dimana kepemilikan lahan merupakan ukuran utama status ekonomi. selain itu dengan memiliki lahan sendiri, petani akan bisa mendapatkan manfaat ekonomi yang maksimal dari peningkatan aspek lain dalam usahatani seperti peningkatan produktivitas. selain didukung oleh hasil estimasi fungsi produksi sebelumnya, hasil penelitian ini juga didukung dengan data produktivitas usahatani padi pada masing–masing pola. produktivitas pola milik sendiri, sewa, dan kedokan secara berturut–turut adalah 6,44 ton/ha, 7,37 ton/ha, 4,98 ton/ha. perbedaan nilai produktivitas tersebut signifikan karena alokasi biaya usahatani untuk masing–masing pola pemilikan lahan cenderung sama (lihat tabel 2). berdasarkan wawancara yang dilakukan pada pemilik lahan kedokan dan pengedok, juga dapat diketahui bahwa melakukan sistem bagi hasil bukan merupakan keputusan paling optimal yang bisa mereka lakukan. keputusan pemilik lahan untuk mengedokkan lahannya disebabkan karena tidak memiliki kesempatan untuk mengelola lahan sendiridan alasan kemanusiaan untuk membantu perekonomian pengedok. alasan tersebut mengindikasikan bahwa apabila memiliki kesempatan maka pemilik lahan akan lebih memilih untuk mengelola lahannya sendiri. sementara pengedok memilih untuk menggarap lahan kedokan sementara karenatidak memiliki modal untuk sewa lahan dan membiayai usahatani. alasan lainnya adalah risiko mengedok lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan menyewa, mengedok bisa dikerjakan sebagai pekerjaan sampingan serta hasil dari kedokan bisa digunakan sebagai tabungan. kondisi yang sama juga terjadi di filipina, dimana pola pemilikan lahan berpengaruh signifikan terhadap efisiensi teknis usahatani dan lahan yang dikelola oleh penyewa memiliki produktivitas tertinggi, diikuti lahan milik sendiri dan yang terendah adalah lahan bagi hasil (koirala et al., 2016). kesimpulan hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pola pemilikan lahan berpengaruh signifikan pada produksi usahatani padi, dimana lahan sewa memiliki produksi tertinggi, diikuti dengan lahan milik sendiri, dan yang paling rendah adalah pola lahan bagi hasil dengan sistem kedokan. berdasarkan alokasi tenaga 109 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 kerja, lahan milik sendiri menggunakan jumlah tenaga kerja terbanyak, diikuti dengan lahan sewa dan lahan bagi hasil menggunakan tenaga kerja paling sedikit. sementara, lahan milik sendiri memiliki efisiensi biaya usahatani yang paling tinggi, diikuti dengan lahan bagi hasil kedokan dan yang memiliki efisiensi terendah adalah lahan sewa. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa dengan produksi yang rendah sistem bagi hasil merupakan keputusan ekonomi terbaik dari pemilik lahan dan juga petani penggarap. selain itu, dengan sistem bagi hasil kedokan, pengedok bisa melakukan usahatani tanpa menanggung risiko produksi. ahirnya, hasil penelitian ini juga mengkonfirmasi bahwa lahan merupakan aset terpenting bagi petani karena meskipun memiliki produktivitas rendah dibandingkan lahan sewa, lahan milik sendiri memiliki keuntungan lebih tinggi. sehingga untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan petani dalam jangka panjang, petani harus difasilitasi untuk memiliki lahan milik sendiri. karena manfaat ekonomi dari peningkatan produktivitas usahatani tidak akan diperoleh secara maksimal oleh petani apabila petani tidak memiliki lahan sendiri. daftar pustaka ash shidiqie, j. s., & priyadi, u. 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(2012). dinamika pola penguasaan lahan sawah di wilayah pedesaan di indonesia. jurnal penelitian pertanian terapan, 12(3), 137–149. yuliana, ekowati, t., & handayani, m. (2017). efisiensi alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi pada usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari kabupaten grobogan. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 3(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.3143 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january-june 2021, pages: 11-23 article history: submitted: october 3rd, 2020 accepted: november 21st, 2020 ndivhoniswani nephawe, marizvikuru mwale*, jethro zuwarimwe, and malose m. tjale university of venda, institute for rural development, south africa *) correspondence email: marizvikuru.manjoro@univen.ac.za the impact of water-related challenges on rural communities food security initiatives doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9935 abstract water scarcity has been a critical concern in many countries of the world. the same concern has been discussed, analyses and researched at different platforms to find better solutions to the challenges of water scarcity, and in most cases water scarcity directly influence food security in terms of food production. south africa, being one of the water scarce countries that derives its food from the agricultural sector; water scarcity remains at the center stage of the national socioeconomic debate. water scarcity is one of the major challenges in many countries such as zimbabwe and ethiopia particularly for the farmers. however, there is insufficient information on the impact of water scarcity challenges on rural communities’ food security initiatives. this review is focused on unearthing water scarcity challenges in rural communities, their impact on agriculture and ultimately food security initiatives. this paves way for possible research areas, practical implications and strategies to mitigate water security effects on food security. keywords: food security, resilience, smallholder famers, water scarcity, water security introduction water has been a central issue on the international agenda for several decades, and it is regarded as the most important resource for life (mancosu et al., 2015). in some of the european countries, water scarcity is already a recurring problem. water continues to be a problem even in the african continent where most of the sub-saharan regions are severely affected by lack of water due to drought, low rainfall and minimal water storage resolution. as compared to other countries, south africa is vulnerable to droughts and high temperatures throughout all seasons as a result smallholder irrigation scheme (sis), which was introduced as response to this unforeseen condition. the focus in establishing sis had been in rural areas where most of the people still practice farming in one form or another. most of this sis became a rapid remedy to hunger and poverty in rural villages and outskirts. they become an answer to food production employment and rural development at large. food and agriculture organization indicated that smallholder agriculture is the mainstay of food production in the world’s developing countries and is the key to ensuring long-term global food security. mailto:marizvikuru.manjoro@univen.ac.za issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 12 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) research method the study employed an exploratory case study design to understand context specific challenges at the irrigation scheme. the rational to use the methodology for this paper is that extreme or unique cases may occur that justify a study in its own right. in this regard an intensive study of one instance or a small number of instances is undertaken in order to produce detailed descriptions of these cases (thomas, 2004). this kind of research design is economical and generalizes results for the whole population. however, high costs of conducting the project and limited time were major limitations in conducting research at the irrigation scheme. result and discussions causes of water scarcity globally and in africa in many regions in europe, climate change impacts on water resources and threatens the sustainability of the agricultural system. the increased occurrence of drought and water scarcity is predicted in many regions throughout europe, and recent events over the last ten years have demonstrated that drought episodes typically for southern european countries are expanding to eastern and western europe (hunink et al., 2019). some asian countries such as the arabic states are also affected by lack of water e.g saudi arabia, whereas most of the african states are affected by drought and climate change causing water scarcity to be very devastating. africa is the most vulnerable region notably exposed to the impact of climate variability and climate change. in africa, agriculture forms the backbone of most of the continent’s economies, providing about 60% of all employment. during the last decade per capita, agricultural production has not kept pace with population growth. irrigation is a very old practice, dating back to the earliest civilization of humankind. it served as one of the key drivers behind the growth of agricultural productivity, increasing household income and alleviation of rural poverty, thereby highlighting the various ways that irrigation can impact on poverty (mengistie & kidane, 2016). in order to meet food requirements by 2020, food and agricultural organization (food and agriculture organization, 2000) has estimated that food production from irrigated areas will need to increase from 35% in 1995 to 45% in 2020. this indicates that access to water for irrigation will become a global concern, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world (mengistie & kidane, 2016). an example of water scarcity countries in africa is ethiopia (azene et al., 2018). this was also supported by taye, dyer, hirpa, & charles (2018) who indicated that ethiopia is an example of a country whose river basins are vulnerable to changes in climate. the adoption of sustainable water management and irrigation development programs is essential for water security. furthermore, strong linkages with private sectors and markets with institutional support are also essential elements that ensure water security. these could provide plenty of opportunities in terms of coping strategy for climatic change, poverty reduction, wealth creation, growth of economy and reducing the environmental impact of issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 13 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) agricultural expansion to marginal land under rapid population growth (mengistie & kidane, 2016). directly or indirectly, smallholder irrigation scheme (sis) has positive impact on food security, asset ownership and well-being of rural farm households. there are also clear increases in agricultural production through diversification and intensification of crops grown, household income, sources of animal feed, human health improvements, and assets ownership (mengistie & kidane, 2016). in 2003, the african ministerial council on water programs and actions were articulated under the new partnership for african development (nepad) framework. one of the 21 targets in the millennium development goals is to reduce the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 50% by 2015. hence sustainable development goal six (sdg 6) targeted to increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity by 2030. water scarcity has not impacted on water for the basic needs, but it also affected agricultural production, resulting in increased food scarcity concerns (esmaeili & vazirzadeh, 2009). world-wide, irrigation water still remains an essential input in agricultural production (esmaeili & vazirzadeh, 2009). the sustainable development goals (sdgs) report indicates that although progress has been made towards better food security, hunger remains an issue in many households in south africa (dotse, 2016). most of the smallholder famers’ schemes remain dysfunctional due to water related challenges such as lack of water storage, poor or out dated water supply systems and lack of resources to water the crops. it is very important to note that most of the smallholder’s irrigation schemes were implemented to help produce more fresh produces, to be a solution during drought periods and create employment to alleviate poverty. most of these smallholders’ schemes were situated near rivers, fountains or dams where there is running water. south africa is a water scarcity country which relies mainly on agricultural activities for its food production (fanadzo & ncube, 2018). in most cases water used in irrigation schemes in most of south african provinces was not conserved, but of late, the municipalities and local governments have started building dams, reservoirs and erecting bulk water tanks. it is only during the new government period from 1994 where the state is trying to make measures to conserve water for household and irrigation purposes. it is crucial for water to be conserved in order to use it productively and economically, though water supply to irrigation schemes may be considered costly. it is important for irrigation scheme members to gain more professional training on how to get water into their schemes. it is possible to reduce water consumption on a large scale, without significant sacrifices in the day to day life of south africans e.g. the municipality water tariffs and famers associations including famers’ cooperatives (crookes et al., 2018). in limpopo and mpumalanga, the backlogs on the establishment and renewal of the smallholder schemes are attributed to water scarcity since human settlements are located in issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 14 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) scarce river catchments, and developments are primarily hampered by lack of water resources and related bulk infrastructure (crookes et al., 2018). major bulk water resource development as well as bulk infrastructure planning and development are underway such as de hoop dam and nwamitwa, and this development will take several years (crookes et al., 2018). small irrigation schemes must, therefore, secure water rights in order to be part of water transformation program introduced by water user’s association (tlou et al., 2006). in limpopo the most contributing factor to water scarcity is the untimely drought. during the drought period most rivers dry up affecting the irrigation schemes which are dependent on these rivers for irrigation water. secondly the climate change in more devastating to the irrigation schemes as the extreme high temperatures hamper the anticipated production. low rainfall in the province makes productivity unpredictable. most of the irrigation schemes in limpopo are not yet modernized, living them running on high costs as they still embark on primitive ways of irrigation (maponya & mpandeli, 2016) . an example of luvhada irrigation scheme in nzhelele, vhembe district does not differ with the rest of irrigation schemes in limpopo province mentioned by maponya and mpandeli above. the luvhada irrigation scheme was established by king p.r mphephu (former venda land president) in the 1960s. the luvhada irrigation scheme is regarded as one of the major solutions to food security and poverty alleviation programs. mpumalanga province as compared to limpopo province, remains the largest production region for forestry, and the majority of the people living in mpumalanga are farmers who contributed immensely to promote food security. however, due to the threat by climate variability and change, sectors such as the agriculture, and water affairs etc. are experiencing pattern such as putting livelihoods and food production at serious risks due to extreme climate events, climate variability and climate change (maponya, mpandeli, & oduniyi, 2013). the impact of water security in agriculture drought is a serious challenge in limpopo province (maponya & mpandeli, 2016). considering the fact that the province is in semi-arid area with low, unreliable rainfall, these has negative effects on the agricultural sector, resulting in decreased agricultural activities, loss of livestock, shortage of drinking water, low yields and shortage of seeds for subsequent cultivation. these was also affirmed in 2015 by the by the limpopo department of agriculture (2015) that limpopo was declared a drought disaster area. other provinces that were declared drought disaster areas with water crisis were north west, kwazulu-natal, mpumalanga, and the free state. however, limpopo province is drought prone province which face challenges of drought from time to time. as a result of the severe drought, the province experienced low water supply for irrigation which negatively impacted the agricultural sector (maponya & mpandeli, 2012). importance and use of water in agriculture the majority of the non-operational smallholder schemes were those that involved pumping of water (njoko, 2014). according to averbeke, denison, & mnkeni (2011), about 84% of the 90 non-operational schemes were gravity fed. this is because it is cheaper to issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 15 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) derive water from running streams and cisterns and most of the smallholder’s farmers prefer easy and cheaper way. this implies that there is a higher chance of gravity-fed smallholder schemes remaining operational compared to those involving pumping water. the overhead costs associated with pumps, and high maintenance of pump make smallholder irrigation scheme unsustainable. according to (darko et al., 2016), water scarcity in agriculture is becoming a major problem due to increasing demand for agricultural use, and intensive crop management on existing croplands to meet the needs of expanding global population. thus, water scarcity ravels challenges on water supply and conservation for agricultural purposes. negative impact of water scarcity in agriculture water supply and conservation in 2015, the department of agriculture, forestry & fisheries (daff) stated that south africa can no longer afford water losses, and, therefore, it is imperative that focus on water conservation and water demand measures must be strengthened. there is a great return on investment through water loss control and water use efficiency. the department will also prioritize the establishment of the water demand funding facilitation unit to provide support to municipalities in their effort to introduce water conservation and demand management (crookes et al., 2018). the maintenance of water conservation and water supply are costly, leaving most of the water infrastructure not maintained for a long period of time (schreiner et al., 2010). hadebe, modi, & mabhaudhi (2016) indicated that declining water availability or increasing water scarcity can have a negative impact on cropland and pasture productivity. these findings are supported by meng et al. (2016) confirming that a failure to meet the water requirements of crops lead to decreasing yields of staple such as maize in the country. water supply most of the farmers in the country are experiencing water supply challenges. there are only few commercial farmers using modern technology and techniques to maximize production, but it is difficult for small farmers and non-commercial farmers to afford modern machinery and equipment, since they are very costly. farmers would like to see the state subsidizing non-commercial farmers and sis to afford them improvements in productivity. one of the great challenges is to safeguard the supply for food production (food and agriculture organization, 2011). this is generally approached through the adoption of farm management practices and technologies that are meant to increase water productivity (haacker et al., 2019). agriculture is the largest consumer of water, where the irrigation of cropland accounts for 70% of water withdrawals (mcdaniel et al., 2017).since the balance between water demand and water availability has reached critical concern in many regions of the world, increased for water and food production is likely to be sustained in future because of water resources management agriculture which is essential (mancosu et al., 2015). issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 16 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) water conservation the building of dams and reservoirs need a lot of capital, hence it is important to conserve water in order to use it efficiently and productively. the private sector should assist with solutions on how to conserve water such as bulk water tanks reservoirs and dams, in order to improve food security. the above statement is supported by (daus et al., 2019) that dams, reservoirs and bulk water tanks are the resources that can store and retain water which can be used fruitfully. according to hamilton (2019), the private sector is increasingly recognizing that it is not immune to the global water crises which is ranked as one of the top five risks facing the world’s economy since 2012. thus, private sectors are assisting in acquiring bulk water tanks and reservoirs. largely, the multinational companies to date are still responsible for the management of water. hence, koda, girmay, berihu, & nagumo (2019) indicated that using reservoir water for irrigation, can be a potential solution to simultaneously address soil and water constraints that increases food security challenges. water storage according to crookes et al. (2018), the country has a good and satisfactory dam storage yielding an average of 81%. although dams in limpopo, north west and eastern cape are at a lower capacity of around 70%, however, the government is doing very well in conserving useful water. the only challenge is how water is being used from this storage (crookes et al., 2018). in some rivers e.g., vaal river, there is overuse of water which endangers the species and life span of the rivers concerned (crookes et al., 2018). in the context of rural development, rural communities use water for a wide range of productive and domestic uses, which are important to their live hood. however, the water from streams, rivers and reservoirs is no longer enough to the increasing water demand in many rural areas under semi-arid conditions. therefore, there is a need to promote water related technology. many times people maintain that improving irrigation efficiencies would lead to water saving, which means that water would become available for other users or uses. water storage through reservoirs and natural infrastructure provides intra-seasonal averaging of water availability and contributes to increasing climate resilience by contributing to the control of flooding (world health organization, 2009). water scarcity and food security water is a critical driver of agricultural production (gashu et al., 2019). added to this, weak support services are a persistent problem in most sis assessments (machethe et al., 2004). however, training in farm and scheme management is needed to assist people in particular farmers to have knowledge on how to manage water in their farms. the provision of support to develop reliable networks for the marketing of products beyond the local environs is also critical (averbeke et al., 2011). according to (machethe et al., 2004), provision of these support services to smallholder schemes became the principal mandate of public agricultural extension some 18 years ago, following withdrawal of provincial departments of agriculture from active involvement in scheme management. most of the issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 17 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) small-scale irrigation schemes (sis) have been dysfunctional for many years due to lack of managerial skills and infrastructural deficiencies. a number of such schemes are found in limpopo and eastern cape provinces (averbeke et al., 2011). the central government developed a reform program to revitalized small-scale irrigation schemes, whereby the municipalities and provincial governments are given funds by the national governments to assist smallholder farmers to re-establish and refurbish their schemes in order to be more productive (yokwe, 2005). as a result, small scale irrigation schemes in south africa are placed under the irrigation management transfer program (imt). numerous sis in south africa were planned and established following a centralized estate design (fanadzo et al., 2010). according to perret (2002), control and decision-making over farming activities was strictly enforced by central management, with little or no input from farmers, thus creating a high level of dependency among farmers in the schemes that contributed to poor performance when farmers were left to manage the schemes on their own. improving water usage and food security in rural communities food production is hugely impacted by water scarcity. without water people do not have a means of watering their crops and therefore, to provide food for the fast-growing population. water for food is one of the main global issues while irrigation is a limiting factor in agricultural production (dotse, 2016). agriculture remains the most likely route to escape poverty (njoko, 2014). since most of the rural people are employed in the agricultural sector where they get food and salaries to maintain their household. this is supported by findings from several studies that reported a strong positive relationship between increased agricultural productivity and poverty reduction (njoko, 2014; koppen et al., 2017). small irrigation schemes in south africa are essential for rural development, job creation, income generation and enhanced food security (njoko, 2014). hence improvement in agricultural productivity could reduce rural poverty by ensuring a sustainable supply of food, reducing food prices, generating export earnings and higher income for farmers, increasing on-farm employment and farm wage rates, and by creating linkages between farming and other sectors that are drivers of the rural economy. improving agricultural productivity will provide capital and labour for growth in other sectors of the economy (gashu et al., 2019). smallholder schemes produce a large part of their subsistence food requirements mainly to protect themselves from food insecurity arising from failure of marketing system. resilience to water scarcity peoplecan play a major role in making sure that water is used properly and gainfully, so that there can be less risk of losing water unnecessarily. one way to do so is by birth control. because population growth is influenced by high rate of birth, if people can reduce birth rate to a maximum of three per household, this would help to preserve, conserve and use water for a long period of time. secondly if people can avoid unnecessary damage to environment i.e. cutting of trees, dumping dangerous chemicals in rivers, dams and avoiding water pollution, then the threat to water availability can be reduced. hence, simonovic & issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 18 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) arunkumar (2016) indicated that water scarcity is due to global change in population growth, land use change and climate change. this is a serious concern since it can cause loss of human lives and seriously damage the economy of the country. due to population growth and changes in lifestyle the demands towards the watercourses are constantly rising (daus et al., 2019). farmers can help to reduce water risk by taking care of the soil. farmers can also use organic matter in soil through regenerative farming practices to make the land better able to retain the moisture and to withstand drought. the soil has more integrity and it’s less likely to be washed away in a storm. finally, farmers can advance regenerative agriculture practices to involve organic and conversional farmers and suppliers among others. conclusion and recommendations conclusion water scarcity is a challenge experienced by many countries in the world including south africa. some of the major causes of water scarcity in africa are climate change, drought and population growth. the impact of water security in africa are loss of livestock, low yields, shortage of seeds for subsequent cultivation, low water supply for irrigation, shortage of drinking water, and lower food production. water scarcity in agriculture has negative impact in rural communities on water conservation, water supply and water storage. water scarcity and food security in rural communities are jeopardized by lack of water for irrigation, insufficient food production to meet the needs of the communities. but there are many opportunities and chances that if proper procedures and measures are put in place, water scarcity can be dealt with once and for all. in order to improve the standard of living of the african people, there must be improvements on the reduction of high birth rate to a maximum of three per household, this would help to preserve, conserve and use water for a long period of time. people should avoid unnecessary damage to environment i.e. cutting of trees, dumping dangerous chemicals in rivers, dams and avoiding water pollution, then the threat to water availability can be reduced. recommendation it is crucial for water to be conserved in order to use it economically as this will address lack of food and unemployment to communities. if small irrigations schemes (sis) are transformed, they will be able to secure water rights and chance of their growth will be maximised. to farmers famers should utilize water resources and strive to improve food production in order to be productive and maintain food security status positive. food production is on demand from the food supply chain and production markets, and these and other stakeholders must be involved when addressing food security issues from the grass root level. awareness and training must be encouraged between smallholders’ farmers, department of agricultural and the communities to achieve maximum cooperation on production and sustainability. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 19 the impact of water-related challenges….. (nephawe et.al) for policy the government should encourage all sectors that are dealing with water to discuss water challenges so that they do policy formation and policy reviews periodically, in order to guide and guard the implementation of water usage. this should involve state departments, local municipalities and famers association and other stakeholders who are affiliated to the agricultural sector. water scarcity can be resolved by involving different stakeholders and different state bodies globally. the use of water must be debated, demonstrated and be taught to all water users to avoid unnecessary water losses. water supply and water conservation must be funded so that there can be bulk water stored for future use. it is in this note that we can have guarantee on food security if water is properly conserved. for research information should be made available to all sectors and people to provide clear direction on how to conserve and use water. furthermore, there should be researches that will be carried out on water scarcity that will inform researchers, the government as well as private sector about the findings, in order for them to scrutinize issues surrounding the intended research. the transmission of white pepper prices from the producer market to the exporter market, from the producer market to the world market, and from the exporter market to the world market shows that in the short period it runs asymmetrically, whereas in the long period it runs symmetry. on the other hand, the transmission of white pepper prices from the world market to the exporter market runs symmetrically in the short period but in the long period it runs asymmetrically. the pepper association in the bangka belitung islands province provides information on the price of white pepper that is easily accessed by farmers. in addition, farmers still have a weak bargaining position in the decision to determine the selling price of white pepper so farmers should sell collectively, for example by forming groups in marketing white pepper to improve their bargaining position. acknowledgements i would like to express my sincere appreciation to the institute for rural development (ird) under the leadership of prof j. francis for the support i received, that enabled me to successfully complete my research paper. i deeply acknowledge the guidance, moral support, advice, supervision, assistance and encouragement in my work from my supervisor dr. m manjoro, cosupervisor dr. j. zuwarimwe and co-supervisor dr. m tjale. my sincere gratitude to the university of venda for affording me the opportunity to study this honours degree. the authors are grateful for the partnership they have with usaid who financially assisted in publication of this journal (subawardee number 20000092). issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 20 the impact of water-related challenges….. 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(2005). investigation of the economics of water as used by smallholder irrigation farmers in south africa [university of pretoria]. https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/26912/00dissertation.pdf?seque nce=1 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 4 no. 2 juli-desember 2018 yudi l.a salampessy1*, djuara p. lubis2, le istiqlal amien3, didik suharjito4 1) universitas sultan ageng tirtayasa, kampus serang, banten, indonesia 2) institut pertanian bogor, kampus darmaga. bogor, indonesia 3) balitklimat, kampus penelitian cimanggu, bogor, indonesia 4) institut pertanian bogor, kampus darmaga. bogor, indonesia *) email korespondensi: ysalampessy@gmail.com relasi variabel-variabel komunikasi dan kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim petani padi sawah (kasus kabupaten pasuruan jawa timur) relation of variable of communication and adaptation capacity of rice farmer on climate change (case of pasuruan regency, east java) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4269 abstract as a seasonal crop, rice production is highly depend on the carrying capacity of the climate, that the changing climate requires the adaptive capacity of the farmers. on the other hand, climate change is still a new and complex issue for most people which is followed by differences in response to its impact. this research tries to describe the relationship between communication variables and adaptive capacity to climate change of rice farmers. the survey method is applied in lowland, midland, and upland agroecosystem zones affected by climate change which are represented by 32 rice farmers each. the result shows that there is a very strong relation between climate change communication variables of the farmers and their capacity in adapting to the climate change. therefore, the diversity of sources of climate change information of the farmers and the frequency of its use, and the exposure to climate change information and convergence of climate change communication of the farmers need to be improved. keywords: adaptive capacity, climate change, communication, rice farmers intisari sebagai tanaman semusim, produksi padi sawah sangat bergantung pada daya dukung iklim. dengan demikian petani dituntut memiliki kemampuan adaptasi terhadap perubahan iklim. di sisi lain perubahan iklim masih menjadi isu baru dan kompleks bagi kebanyakan orang, yang disebabkan banyaknya perbedaaan respon atas perubahan iklim. penelitian ini mencoba mendeskripsikan relasi antara variabel-variabel komunikasi dengan kapasitas adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim. survey dilakukan di zona agroekosistem dataran rendah, sedang, dan tinggi yang terdampak perubahan iklim, melibatkan 32 petani padi sawah yang dipilih secara acak dari masing-masing zona. hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang kuat antara variabel-variabel komunikasi perubahan iklim dengan kapasitas adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim. oleh karena itu perlu adanya peningkatan keragaman sumber informasi, peningkatan frekuensi pemanfaatan sumber informasi, keterdedahan informasi, dan konvergensi komunikasi terkait perubahan iklim. kata kunci: kapasitas adaptasi, komunikasi, perubahan iklim, petani padi sawah pendahuluan temperatur diperkirakan terus meningkat sampai tahun 2020 dengan indikasi peningkatan level permukaan laut hingga tahun 2100 (ipcc, 2007). hal ini dapat menyebabkan daerah-daerah dataran rendah di pinggir pantai seperti surabaya memiliki resiko mengalami banjir yang lebih tinggi (peace, 2007). disamping itu, curah hujan pada musim 140 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research hujan di wilayah selatan indonesia dan curah hujan di musim kemarau di wilayah bagian utara terus mengalami peningkatan (boer, & faqih 2004; naylor et al. 2007). keberhasilan produksi padi sawah sangat bergantung pada daya dukung iklim. petani di kabupaten pasuruan umumnya mengandalkan naluri atau kebiasaan dalam penetapan pola tanam yang merujuk pada pranotomongso, yaitu penanggalan masyarakat jawa yang dikaitkan dengan kegiatan bercocok tanam. perubahan iklim kemudian menggeser ketentuan-ketentuan pranotomongso yang diikuti penurunan hasil produksi. petani telah merasakan berkurangnya debit air dari sumber air, musim yang tidak menentu, cuaca ekstrim, dan serangan opt yang masif. pengaruh perubahan iklim di indonesia diprediksi akan menyebabkan penurunan produksi padi sawah sebesar 10.473.764 ton di tahun 2050 atau 20.3% dari produksi tahun 2006 sebesar 51.647.490 ton (handoko et al. 2008). untuk wilayah jawa timur produksi diprediksi akan menurun sekitar 1% per tahun (amien et al. 1996). sementara di kabupaten pasuruan, produktivitas padi telah menurun 0.21% dari produksi tahun sebelumnya yang disebabkan oleh anomali iklim dan serangan hama wereng coklat (maria, 2017). pada umumnya, pengelolaan usaha tani padi sawah di kabupaten pasuruan masih kurang adaptif terhadap perubahan iklim. hal ini disebabkan masih banyak petani yang jarang bahkan tidak pernah menerima informasi terkait isu perubahan iklim dan strategi adaptasi terhadap perubahan iklim. akibatnya, kemampuan adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim lemah. hasil penelusuran awal menunjukkan kurangnya ketersediaan sumber-sumber informasi terkait perubahan iklim yang dapat dimanfaatkan dengan baik oleh petani. petani banyak menemui kesulitan dalam menentukan awal tanam dan komoditas yang harus tanam, menghadapi kejadian iklim ekstrim, dan mengendalikan serangan opt. pada sisi lain, perubahan iklim masih menjadi isu-isu baru dan kompleks bagi kebanyakan orang. karenanya, banyak perbedaan respon terhadap dampak perubahan di antara para ahli, tidak peduli sudah seberapa pasti dan mendesaknya isu-isu (moser, 2010; asplund, 2014; buys et al., 2011; wibeck, 2014). hal ini mengingat iklim adalah representasi pemaknaan yang dikonstruksi. masyarakat menyesuaikan representasi mereka mengenai iklim normal selama hidup mereka, merujuk pada pengalaman dan ingatan mereka sendiri dari apa yang pernah terjadi (hulme et al., 2009). hubungan manusia dengan alam (antara lain perubahan iklim) sangat kuat dipengaruhi, dikonstruksi, dan dinegosiasikan dalam proses komunikasi (littlejohn & foss 2009). penelitian ini bertujuan menganalisis relasi variabel-variabel komunikasi sampai tingkat konvergensi komunikasi dengan kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim petani padi sawah di wilayah pertanaman padi yang terdampak perubahan iklim. selama ini kebanyakan penelitian menjadikan variabel komunikasi sebagai bagian dari faktor-faktor penentu kapasitas petani beradaptasi terhadap perubahan iklim bersama faktor non komunikasi lainnya, seperti kondisi agroekologi, karakteristik sosial-ekonomi, penyuluhan, dan partisipasi para petani (hassan & nhemachena, 2008; ozor & cynthia, 2011; esham & garforth, 2012). penelitian ini diharapkan mampu memberikan penjelasan yang lebih rinci mengenai komunikasi perubahan iklim sebagai sebuah proses dan peranannya dalam pembentukkan kapasitas adaptasi petani padi sawah terhadap perubahan iklim. metode penelitian survey dilakukan di kecamatan gempol, kecamatan purwosari, dan kecamatan prigen, kabupaten pasuruan, jawa timur, yang merupakan daerah pertanaman padi sawah di zona agroekosistem dataran rendah, sedang, dan tinggi dan terdampak perubahan iklim. berdasarkan pantauan dampak cuaca ekstrim, pada tahun 2016 jawa timur merupakan salah satu wilayah yang mengalami curah hujan dua kali lebih tinggi dari kondisi normal. sejak bulan mei, sebagian wilayah mengalami hujan lebat bahkan selama musim kemarau normal. di bulan november, curah hujan di banyak wilayah dua kali lipat dibandingkan data rata-rata jangka panjang, [type text] 141 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 sehingga menyebabkan kondisi basah ekstrim. selain itu jawa timur termasuk provinsi yang menerima curah hujan tinggi yang tidak normal (curah hujan bulanan lebih dari 500 mm), serta kedatangan musim hujan yang 1 sampai 2 bulan lebih awal dari siklus normal. kondisi ini banyak menyebabkan banjir; dan pasuruan merupakan salah satu dari tiga kabupaten di jawa timur yang paling terdampak banjir (bmkg 2016). selain itu curah hujan yang berlebih telah meningkatkan serangan organisme pengganggu tanaman (opt) yang terus mengancam kuantitas dan kualitas produksi padi di wilayah tersebut. sebanyak 96 sampel petani padi sawah, terdiri dari 32 petani dari setiap kecamatan diambil secara acak sederhana. data dikumpulkan dengan wawancara mengguunakan kuesioner terstruktur. variabel komunikasi perubahan iklim yang diukur meliputi keragam sumber informasi perubahan iklim, tingkat pemanfaatan sumber informasi, keterdedahan infromasi, dan konvergensi komunikasi perubahan iklim. kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim petani padi sawah diukur melalui indikator pengetahuan, sikap, keterampilan, dan penerapan terkait adaptasi perubahan iklim. variabel komunikasi perubahan iklim diukur dengan skala likert, dan dianalisis menggunakan komposit skor (penjumlahan atau ratarata) dari skor setiap bulir pertanyaan (budiaji, 2013); kemudian didistribusikan dalam kategori rendah, sedang, dan tinggi mengikuti sebaran data normal dengan rentang setengah standar deviasi. variabel kapasitas adaptasi diukur dengan memberikan bobot nilai (0,25 = sangat rendah; 0,50 = rendah; 0,75 = tinggi; dan 1,00 = tinggi) terhadap skor komposit responden dan didistribusikan berdasarkan rentang nilai pembobotan dalam kategori: tidak adaptif (kurang dari sama dengan 0,50); kurang adaptif (lebih dari 0,50 sampai kurang dari sama dengan 0,75); dan adaptif (lebih dari 0.75). hubungan antara variabel komunikasi dengan kapasitas adaptasi dianalisis menggunakan uji korelasi pearson product moment. hasil dan pembahasan ragam sumber informasi terdapat delapan sumber informasi yang digunakan petani dalam mengakses informasi perubahan iklim (gambar 1). penyuluh pertanian dan sesama petani menjadi sumber informasi dominan, lebih dari 80% petani menggunakan kedua sumber ini dalam mendapatkan informasi terkait perubahan iklim. televisi dan para ahli menjadi sumber informasi bagi kurang dari separuh petani, sedangkan, radio, koran, buku, dan internet hanya dijadikan sumber informasi oleh sebagian kecil petani. gambar 1. ragam sumber informasi perubahan iklim dan proporsi responden (%) walaupun sumber informasi yang digunakan cukup banyak, rendahnya penggunaan sebagian beasr sumber informasi mengindikasikan masih rendahnya keragaman sumber informasi perubahan iklim yang digunakan petani. hal ini dibuktikan dari data distribusi petani berdasarkan jumlah sumber informasi yang digunakan, yang menunjukkan sebagian besar petani (41%) mendapatkan informasi kurang dari tiga sumber dan hanya 21% petani mengguunakan sumber informasi lebih dari lima (tabel 1) tabel 1. distribusi responden berdasarkan keragaman sumber informasi perubahan iklim ragam sumber informasi perubahan iklim jumlah sumber informasi frekuensi (orang) persentase (%) tinggi > 5 20 20,83 sedang 3 5 37 38,54 rendah < 3 39 40,62 total 96 100 tingkat pemanfaatan sumber informasi walaupun sebagian besar petani menjadikan penyuluh dan sesama petani sebagai sumber informasi perubahan iklim, proporsi petani yang sering memanfaatkan keduanya tidak mencapai 50% (gambar 2). demikian halnya dengan televisi yang jarang dimanfaatkan sebagai sumber informasi 142 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research perubahan iklim, padahal cukup banyak petani yang menjadikannya sebagai sumber informasi. di samping tidak banyak petani yang menjadikan para ahli, radio, koran, dan buku sebagai sumber informasi perubahan iklim, pemanfaatannya pun cukup sering. bahkan gambar 2. proporsi responden yang sering memanfaatkan setiap sumber informasi perubahan iklim (%) tidak ada petani yang sering memanfaatkan koran dan buku sebagai sumber informasi perubahan iklim. sebaliknya dengan penggunaan internet, walaupun tidak banyak petani yang menggunakan internet sebagai sumber informasi, tetapi cukup banyak yang sering memanfaatkannya. kondisi ini menunjukkan rendahnya pemanfaatan sumber infromasi perubahan iklim kebanyakan responden sebagaimana disajikan pada tabel 2. tabel 2. distribusi responden berdasarkan tingkat pemanfaatan sumber informasi perubahan iklim pemanfaatan sumber informasi perubahan iklim skor frekuensi (orang) persentase (%) tinggi > 14 28 29,17 sedang 7 14 38 39,58 rendah < 7 30 31,25 total 96 100 berdasarkan informasi dari para penyuluh pertanian, hanya petani-petani maju (inovatif), ketua kelompok tani, atau petani yang berpendidikan cukup tinggi yang pernah menanyakan isu-isu perubahan iklim kepada mereka. rendahnya proporsi petani yang sering memanfaatkan orang ahli (seperti narasumber pelatihan pertanian, lsm, mahasiswa, petugas instansi terkait, dan peneliti) sebagai sumber informasi disebabkan rendahnya tingkat interaksi petani dengan mereka. kedatangan para ahli dalam kegiatan penyuluhan atau pendampingan terkait isu perubahan iklim di lokasi penelitian sangat jarang terjadi. televisi, radio, dan surat kabar lebih banyak dimanfaatkan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hiburan atau berita. ketika materi hiburan atau berita memuat informasi terkait isu perubahan iklim, seacara tidak sengaja petani mendapatakan informasi tersebut. berbeda halnya dengan petani berusia muda dan terdidik yang menjadikan internet sebagai sumber informasi perubahan iklim, mereka sering memanfaatkan internet untuk mencari informasi iklim yang terkait dengan usaha pertanian. informasi yang sering diakses antara lain kalender tanam, prakiraan cuaca, periode musim, atau penjelasan ilmiah tentang perubahan iklim. sementara jarangnya pemanfaatan buku dan majalah sebagai sumber informasi perubahan iklim, disebabkan buku dan majalah yang memuat informasi perubahan iklim jarang tersedia. kalaupun tersedia, pemanfaatan smber-sumber tersebut dalam mengakses informasi perubahan iklim terkendala oleh kemampuan membaca dan penguasaan bahasa indonesia petani, yang pada umumnya terbatas. keterdedahan informasi perubahan iklim dalam komunikasi perubahan iklim yang dijalinnya, responden jarang atau bahkan tidak pernah menerima pesan-pesan perubahan iklim yang lengkap atau disampaikan dengan istilah, gambar, tulisan, dan contoh yang jelas. artinya, masih cukup banyak petani yang kurang terterpa informasi perubahan iklim (tabel 3). hal ini terkait dengan ketersediaan informasi, jenis dan kapasitas sumber informasi, serta frekuensi pemanfaatannya oleh petani. para penyuluh sebagai sumber informasi perubahan iklim yang utama bagi kebanyakan petani mengakui bahwa mereka tidak mampu menjelaskan isu perubahan iklim secara intens. penyuluh masih menghadapi kesulitan dalam memahami materi perubahan iklim, yang disebabkan kurangnya referensi. di samping itu, materi perubahan iklim dianggap rumit dan banyak menggunakan istilah yang asing. penjelasan dari penyuluh yang terbatas dan kadang belum tentu benar itulah, yang kemudian disampaikan oleh petani yang menerimanya kepada petani lainnya. penyampaian ini biasanya ditambah [type text] 143 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 dengan pendapat pribadi petani mengenai perubahan iklim yang kebanyakan bersumber dari paranotomongso. tabel 3. distribusi responden berdasarkan keterdedahan informasi perubahan iklim keterdedahan informasi perubahan iklim skor frekuensi (orang) persentase (%) tinggi > 14 31 32,29 sedang 10 14 35 36,46 rendah < 10 30 31,25 total 96 100 radio dan koran di lokasi penelitian sangat jarang memuat informasi terkait isu perubahan iklim, kecuali perkiraan cuaca atau musibah yang terjadi terkait perubahan iklim global. informasi spesifik seperti penjelasan ilmiah perubahan iklim dan teknologi adaptasi hampir tidak pernah dimuat. sementara buku-buku terkait perubahan iklim sangat jarang tersedia baik di tingkat kecamatan maupun di tingkat desa. akibatnya, keterdedahan informasi perubahan iklim pada petani di lokasi penelitian masih rendah. beberapa informasi perubahan iklim yang pernah diterima responden dari beragam sumber informasi antara lain terkait dengan startegi adaptasi, pengendalian opt, ketidakstabilan dan anomali iklim, kalender tanam, perkiraan cuaca dan perubahan musim. konvergensi komunikasi perubahan iklim proporsi petani dengan konvergensi komunikasi perubahan iklim yang termasuk dalam kategori tinggi lebih besar dibandingkan petani dengan kategori konvergensi sedang dan rendah. namun, masih cukup banyak petani dengan tingkat konvergensi komunikasi yang termasuk dalam katagori rendah (tabel 4). tabel 4. distribusi responden berdasarkan konvergensi komunikasi perubahan iklim konvergensi komunikasi perubahan iklim skor frekuensi (orang) persentase (%) tinggi > 12 35 36,45 sedang 8 12 33 34,37 rendah < 8 28 29,16 total 96 100 secara umum, kebanyakan petani percaya terhadap pelaku komunikasi lainnya dan percaya pula pada informasi yang dipertukarkan dalam komunikasi perubahan iklim yang dijalin. kepercayaan ini muncul karena hampir seluruh petani menjadikan penyuluh pertanian dan sesama petani sebagai sumber informasi utama, yang memiliki kedekatan secara personal dalam waktu yang relatif panjang. indikator konvergensi komunikasi yang menjadi pembeda adalah pemahaman petani terhadap informasi perubahan iklim yang dikomunikasikan dan kesamaan pemaknaan petani dengan pelaku komunikasi lainnya. banyak petani yang kurang mampu memahami informasi perubahan iklim sehingga proses komunikasi kurang memusat ke arah pengertian bersama antar pelaku komunikasi. kondisi ini bisa menjadi lebih baik ketika komunikasi berlangsung antar petani atau dengan penyuluh, karena kedekatan personal memungkinkan mereka untuk berkomunikasi secara intens. sebaliknya frekuensi dan durasi komunikasi antara petani dan orang yang dianggap ahli iklim sangat terbatas. biasanya komunikasi menjadi linier karena banyak responden cenderung memosisikan diri hanya sebagai penerima informasi. adapun komunikasi bermedia hampir tidak memberikan peluang penyampaian umpan balik dari petani. dalam kondisi drmikian, pemaham petani dan kesamaan makna atas pesan yang dikomunikasikan sangat dipengaruhi oleh karakteristik petani. oleh sebab itu, semakin tinggi derajat indikator konvergensi komunikasi semakin tinggi pula perbedaan derajat konvergensi komunikasi perubahan iklim petani. tabel 5. distribusi responden berdasarkan kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim skor frekuensi (orang) persentase (%) tidak adaptif < 0,52 35 36,5 kurang adaptif 0,52 0,75 35 36,5 adaptif > 0,75 26 27 total 96 100 kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar petani kurang mampu beradaptasi terhadap perubahan iklim, hanya 27% petani yang adaptif terhadap perubahan iklim (tabel 5). berdasarkan skor kapasitas adaptasi per indikator pun menunjukkan hal 144 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research yang sama, petani kurang adaptif untuk semua indikator kapasitas adaptasi (tabel 6). tabel 6. kapasitas adaptasi per ubahan iklim responden kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim skor kategori pengetahuan adaptasi perubahan iklim 0,66 kurang adaptif sikap terhadap perubahan iklim 0,61 kurang adaptif keterampilan adaptasi perubahan iklim 0,57 kurang adaptif penerapan adaptasi perubahan iklim 0,62 kurang adaptif rata-rata 0,62 kurang adaptif pengetahuan adaptasi perubahan iklim. petani kurang adaptif terhadap perubahan iklim dilihat dari pengetahuan petani dalam adaptasi terhadap perubahan iklim (tabel 7). hal ini disebabkan kebanyakan petani kurang mengetahui nama dan spesifikasi varietas-varietas padi yang toleran terhadap rendaman, kekeringan, dan serangan opt. hampir seluruh responden tetap menanam varietas padi seperti ir64, ciherang, dan way apo buru yang rentan terhadap dampak perubahan iklim. kebanyakan petani kurang mengetahui keberadaan dan pentingnya informasi iklim bagi pengelolaan usaha tani padi sawah. petani masih sering mengalami kebingungan dalam mendefinisikan musim berjalan, menentukan awal tanam, dan menentukan komoditas tanam yang akan. tabel 7. tingkat pengetahuan adaptasi perubahan iklim responden pengetahuan adaptasi perubahan iklim skor kategori pengelolaan air 0,75 kurang adaptif penerapan pola tanam sesuai kondisi iklim 0,72 kurang adaptif pemanfaatan varietas padi sawah toleran perubahan iklim 0,52 kurang adaptif rata-rata 0,66 kurang adaptif meskipun memiliki skor paling tinggi, pengetahuan petani dalam pengelolaan air untuk mengatasi cekaman air masih termasuk dalam kotagori kurang adaptif. hal ini disebabkan masih terdapat sebagian petani yang kurang mengetahui teknologi penyimpanan air. pasuruan memang dikenal sebagai kabupaten yang memiliki banyak sumber air, sehingga petani tidak terbiasa menyimpan air untuk mengatasi kekurangan air akibat pertumbuhan penduduk dan industri atau cuaca yang tidak menentu. petani lebih memilih untuk meminta air irigasi dari kabupaten terdekat, walaupun pasokannya belum tentu dapat memenuhi kebutuhan. sikap responden terhadap perubahan iklim masih termasuk dalam katagori kurang adaptif, terutama sikap terhadap dampak perubahan iklim (tabel 8). masih banyak petani yang mempunyai anggapan bahwa iklim ditentukan tuhan dan tidak dapat diubah manusia. sikap petani juga banyak didasari oleh penilaian atas untung ruginya penerapan strategi adaptasi perubahan iklim. bagi banyak petani, mengistirahatkan lahan berarti kehilangan penghasilan. di lokasi-lokasi dengan kondisi air tersedia sepanjang tahun, menggilir komoditas tanam dinilai merugikan karena beras lebih dibutuhkan. padahal, mengistirahatkan lahan merupakan strategi ampuh untuk mengembalikan unsur hara tanah dan memotong siklus hidup opt. di sisi lain, kebanyakan petani bersikap adaptif terhadap teknologi budidaya padi sawah yang sesuai dengan sebagian strategi adaptasi perubahan iklim, seperti penanaman serentak, penggunaan bahan-bahan organik, dan penyesuaian praktik pertanian dengan kondisi cuaca. artinya, petani lebih bersikap ilmiah terhadap teknologi budidaya padi sawah yang mungkin diterapkan, tetapi cenderung bersikap fatalis terhadap masalah iklim. tabel 8. sikap responden terhadap perubahan iklim sikap terhadap perubahan iklim skor kategori berubahnya iklim 0,67 kurang adaptif strategi adaptasi perubahan iklim 0,63 kurang adaptif dampak perubahan iklim 0,53 kurang adaptif rata-rata 0,61 kurang adaptif keterampilan adaptasi perubahan iklim masih termasuk dalam katagori kurang adaptif, karena kebanyakan petani kurang memiliki keterampilan kerja di luar sektor pertanian (tabel 9). menurut penyuluh, mereka memang tidak memiliki tugas dan keahlian untuk memberikan pelatihan kerja seperti itu. kalaupun ada pihak yang memberikan pelatihan kerja di luar pertanian, petani pada umumnya akan tetap bertani dalam kondisi iklim bagamana pun. kondisi yang hampir sama terjadi pada keterampilan pengelolaan tanaman padi dalam cuaca yang tidak menentu. sebagian besar petani lebih sering [type text] 145 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 mendapatkan pelatihan pengendalian opt, sedangkan pelatihan pemanfaatan kalender tanam dan penanaman varietas padi yang toleran terhadap perubahan iklim hampir tidak pernah didapatkan. keterampilan pengendalian opt diperoleh petani melalui sekolah lapang pengendalian hama terpadu (slpht) yang diselenggarakan terjadwal di rumah atau sawah salah satu anggota kelompok tani. pendekatan ini berhasil meningkatkan keterampilan petani dalam pengendalian opt. tabel 9. tingkat keterampilan beradaptasi terhadap perubahan iklim responden keterampilan adaptasi perubahan iklim skor kategori pengelolaan air 0,62 kurang adaptif pengelolaan tanaman dalam cuaca tidak menentu 0,58 kurang adaptif bekerja di luar sektor pertanian 0,52 kurang adaptif rata-rata 0,57 kurang adaptif keterampilan petani dalam pengelolaan air masih termasuk dalam katagori kurang adaptif. padahal, keterampilan ini biasanya melekat pada diri petani karena sudah dipelajari secara turun-temurun. contohnya, petani di dataran rendah mengurangi resapan air irigasi ke dalam tanah dengan memanfaatkan belahan tong untuk melapisi saluran air dan mengendalikan kelebihan air melalui buka tutup pintu air. petani di dataran tinggi mendistribusikan air ke lahan sawah melalui pipanisasi dan pembagian waktu pengairan. dalam penelitian ini. keterampilan petani dalam pengelolaan air diukur dari kekerapan petani mendapatkan pelatihan teknologi pengelolaan air. perubahan iklim menuntut keterampilan yang lebih beragam seperti teknologi penyimpanan air, pengeboran atau penyedotan air untuk mengantisipasi penurunan debit air dari sumber air, musim yang tidak menentu, dan cuaca ekstrim. realitasnya, petani sangat jarang mendapatkan pelatihan teknologi pengelolaan air yang diperlukan untuk menghadapi perubahan iklim. penerapan adaptasi perubahan iklim petani masih termasuk dalam katagori kurang adaptif, khususnya dalam diversifikasi pekerjaan (tabel 10). sebagian besar petani tetap menjadikan usaha tani padi sawah sebagai sumber pendapatan utama walaupun sulit untuk dilakukan. pengelolaan tanah juga kurang adaptif karena kebanyakan petani hanya mengawasi tingkat kekeringan sawah, tetapi hampir tidak pernah mengistirahatkan lahan yang dapat meningkatkan unsur hara dan memutus siklus hidup opt. tabel 10. tingkat penerapan adaptasi perubahan iklim responden tingkat penerapan adaptasi perubahan iklim skor kategori pengelolaan tanaman 0,60 kurang adaptif pengelolaan tanah 0,62 kurang adaptif pengelolaan air 0,66 kurang adaptif diversifikasi pekerjaan 0,54 kurang adaptif rata-rata 0,61 kurang adaptif walaupun pada umumnya petani selalu memelihara saluran air dan menggunakan air secara efektif dan efisien, namun petani belum menerapkan teknologi penyimpanan air dan pompanisasi dengan alasan biaya atau kondisi geografis. beberapa strategi adaptasi perubahan iklim memang sulit diterapkan oleh petani, seperti penggunaan sumur bor pada saat kekeringan di dataran tinggi. di dataran menengah pun tidak semua tempat mudah dibor karena lapisan tanah dibawahnya berupa berbatuan dan ijin pengeboran relatif sulit didapat. hal ini menyebabkan biaya pengeboran air tanah menjadi mahal dan menambah biaya usaha tani. sebaliknya, responden di dataran rendah yang sering terendam banjir tidak dapat menggunakan pompa air untuk mengurangi genangan banjir, karena letak geografis yang memang rendah dan adanya pendangkalan sungai akibat luapan lumpur lapindo. akibatnya, air hujan dan air limpasan yang melalui daerah tersebut tidak dapat mengalir dengan cepat. kebanyakan petani kurang adaptif dalam pengelolaan tanaman. karena cenderung menerapkan hal-hal yang sudah biasa dilakukan seperti menanam secara serentak dan mengawasi pertumbuhan tanaman. sementara itu, masih jarang responden yang menanam varietas padi toleran perubahan iklim, memanfaatkan informasi iklim, melakukan pergiliran tanaman, menggunakan bahan organik dan perangkap opt. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kegiatan-kegiatan adaptasi yang dilakukan oleh responden selama ini 146 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research lebih berkisar kepada teknologi budidaya padi yang lazim dilakukan secara turun temurun. dalam pengelolaan sut padi sawah yang secara kebetulan juga sesuai dengan sebagian strategi beradaptasi terhadap perubahan iklim yang dikembangkan secara ilmiah dewasa ini. hubungan variabel komunikasi dan kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim realitas komunikasi perubahan iklim yang dijalin petani menunjukkan kurangnya keragaman dan pemanfaatan sumber komunikasi, kurangnya keterdedahan informasi, dengan konvergensi komunikasi yang tinggi. dengan kondisi variabel komunikasi demikian, kapasitas adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim secara keseluruhan atau pun per indikator termasuk dalam katagori kurang adaptif. dalam arti sikap, keterampilan, dan tindakan mereka dalam merespon perubahan iklim masih perlu ditingkatkan. informasi ini dapat membuka wawasn terkait dengan pengetahuan lingkungan yang ada di masyarakat, yang dapat melengkapi pengetahuan keilmuan yang ada saat ini (rambo, 1985). berdasarkan analisis statistik, realitas komunikasi perubahan iklim yang dijalin petani mempunyai hubungan yang erat dengan kapasitas adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim (tabel 11). tabel 11. hasil uji statistik hubungan antar variabel variabel komunikasi kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim korelasi (r) nilai peluang keragaman sumber informasi 0,761 0,000 pemanfaatan sumber informasi 0,785 0,000 keterdedahan informasi 0,774 0,000 konvergensi komunikasi 0,792 0,000 nilai peluang sebesar 0.000 dan koefisien korelasi (r) yang positif menunjukkan semakin baik kondisi variabel komunikasi petani di wilayah penelitian, maka semakin baik pula kemampuan adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim. artinya, jika terjadi peningkatan keragaman sumber informasi, peningkatan pemanfaatan sumber informasi, peningkatan keterdedahan informasi dan konvergens komunikasi perubahan iklim; pad saat yang sama terjadi pula peningkatan kemampuan adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim. hasil analisis ini sesuai dengan penjelasan bahwa komunikasi lingkungan hanya bisa sukses jika didasari oleh kecukupan, keterandalan dan keseimbangan dari informasi, kebebasan akses kepada informasi, serta kelancaran aliran informasi (pillmann, 2002). kesinambungan umpan balik dan interpretasi komunikan dan komunikator merupakan hal yang penting untuk mencapai efektivitas komunikasi (lundgren & mcmakin, 2013). temuan ini mendukung hasil penelitian deressa et al. (2009) bahwa hambatan utama proses adaptasi adalah kesenjangan informasi metode adaptasi. seperti yang diungkapkan yohe & tol (2002) bahwa manajemen informasi yang meliputi proses pengambilan keputusan mengakses dan memastikan kredibilitas sumber informasi, mengkombinasikan beragam jenis pengetahuan, dan belajar dari pengalaman merupakan hal sangat penting bagi adaptasi petani. menurut wilke & morton (2015), informasi iklim dapat membantu usaha tani dalam merumuskan keputusan-keputusan yang melindungi dari ketidakpastian dan resiko perubahan iklim. penelitian ini juga mengungkapkan peran strategis komunikasi dalam mengubah sikap responden yang cenderung fatalistik terhadap perubahan iklim. oleh sebab itu, sains iklim perlu dikomunikasikan dengan serius untuk memastikan sektor agribisnis mengenali nilai adaptasi dan mitigasi resiko ketidakpastian iklim yang efektif (moser, 2010; nisbet, 2009). hal tersebut dapat menanamkan pemahaman dan sikap positif masyarakat terhadap lingkungan, dan kompetensi aksi masyarakat dalam konteks pemberdayaan (monroe et al. 2000). hal yang membuat perubahan iklim menjadi isu yang sulit bagi masyarakat diantaranya adalah ketidakpercayaan bahwa manusia dapat mengubah iklim dan ketidakpastian yang lahir dari kompleksitas perubahan iklim yang besar dan tidak sepenuhnya bisa diprediksi (moser 2010). pada kenyataannya, memang terdapat banyak tantangan yang terasosiasi dalam mengkomunikasikan sains perubahan iklim (weber 2010, weber dan stern [type text] 147 vol.4 no.2 juli-desember 2018 2011). diantaranya, variasi faktor sosial dan kultural yang memengaruhi keyakinan individual mengenai perubahan iklim dan keinginan untuk memanfaatkan sains iklim dalam pengambilan keputusan (hoffman, 2011; nisbet, 2009), khususnya di sektor agribisnis (rejesus et al. 2013). akan tetapi, penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa pendekatan berbasis tempat untuk mendiskusikan perubahan iklim pada spesifik area, komunitas, dan lokasi telah cukup berhasil meningkatan pengetahuan, sikap, dan keterampilan petani dalam hal pengendalian opt yang merebak sebagai dampak negatif perubahan iklim. pendekatan seperti ini memang menjanjikan penyampaian pesanpesan menjadi lebih efektif (grossman, 2005; thompson & schweizer, 2008), sehingga dapat terus dilanjutkan untuk mendorong penerapan penanggulangan opt oleh petani, serta meningkatkan kapasitas petani pada aspek-aspek adaptasi perubahan iklim lainnya. masih rendahnya kemampuan petani dalam memaham informasi perubahan iklim dan mencapai kesamaan pemaknaan dalam komunikasi perubahan iklim yang dijalinnya mengindikasikan kurangnya kesesuaian pesan-pesan perubahan iklim yang dikomunikasikan dengan karakteristik petani. oleh sebab itu, sangat penting untuk menyajikan informasi yang kompleks dalam terminologi-terminologi lokal yang relevan untuk memasilitasi pemahaman isu-isu perubahan iklim (padgham et al. 2013). penggunaan contoh-contoh atau cerita-cerita lokal juga dapat dijadikan kasus untuk menjelaskan kepada petani bahwa perubahan iklim telah terjadi dan memengaruhi kehidupan dan lingkungan saat ini (schweizer et al., 2009). komunikasi konvergen merupakan proses iteratif jangka panjang ketika nilainilai budaya, pengalaman, latar belakang organisasi komunikasi resiko dan khalayak memengaruhi proses komunikasi (lundgren & mcmakin 2013). mengingat komunikasi perubahan iklim juga melekat pada prinsip tidak ada satu pun ukuran pesan yang sesuai untuk semua (moser & dilling, 2004; thompson & schweizer, 2008), maka penyesuaian pesan-pesan dengan karakteristik khalayak bukan hanya terkait dengan desain pesan, tetapi juga kesesuaian isi pesan. hal ini dikarenakan pesan-pesan adaptasi perubahan iklim yang dikomunikasikan sering mencakup seluruh strategi adaptasi perubahan iklim yang dikembangkan secara ilmiah dewasa ini. pada sisi lain, beberapa strategi tersebut memang tidak sesuai dengan kondisi geografis lokasi penelitian sehingga tidak dapat diterapkan dan tidak bisa dijadikan sebagai gambaran kurang adaptifnya para petani terhadap perubahan iklim. komunikasi perubahan iklim akan efektif meningkatkan kapasitas adaptasi perubahan iklim, jika pesan-pesan perubahan iklim yang dipertukarkan bersifat spesifik lokalit. sebagai bagian dari komunikasi lingkungan, komunikasi perubahan iklim juga melekat pada prinsip bahwa tujuan komunikasi adalah saling pengertian dan meyakini sangat mendasarnya model komunikasi konvergensi flor (2004) . kesimpulan variabel-variabel komunikasi perubahan iklim merupakan peubah nyata kapasitas adaptasi petani terhadap perubahan iklim. petani padi sawah dengan sumber informasi yang beragam, pemanfaatan sumber informasi yang lebih sering, keterdedahan informasi dan konvergensi lebih tinggi, sudah dipastikan akan lebih adaptif terhadap perubahan iklim. dengan demikian peningkatan kapasitas adaptasi petani tidak akan efektif, hanya dengan mengalirkan informasi perubahan iklim dan adaptasinya kepada petani; tetapi bergantung pada kesesuaian saluran, media, dan bentuk pesan dengan karakteristik petani. saluran komunikasi masa berbasis media masa cetak dan elektronik dapat digunakan dengan memperbanyak konten pengetahuan iklim dan teknologi adaptasi perubahan iklim dalam siaran radio, televisi, dan surat kabar lokal; serta penyebaran brosur, leaflet, dan poster kepada petani melalui kelompok. pemanfaatan saluran komunikasi interpersonal, khususnya penyuluh pertanian dan penyuluh swadaya, perlu diperkuat melalui peningkatan penguasaan para penyuluh atas isu-isu perubahan iklim dan adaptasinya. untuk itu, isu perubahan iklim dan adaptasinya perlu dimasukkan sebagai konten dalam penyelenggaraan pendidikan dan pelatihan, bagi penyuluh maupun petani. 148 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research desain pesan perubahan iklim dan adaptasinya perlu disesuaikan dengan karakteristik petani, melalui penyederhanaan konsep-konsep dan penggunaan terminologi lokal yang relevan; termasuk penggunaan contoh atau cerita lokal untuk menjelaskan bahwa perubahan iklim telah terjadi dan memengaruhi kehidupan dan lingkungan saat ini. di samping itu, frekuensi dan durasi penyampaian pesanpesan perubahan iklim perlu ditingkatkan. daftar pustaka amien, i., rejekiningrum, p., pramudia, a., & susanti, e. 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(2002). indicators for social and economic coping capacity-moving towards a working definition of adaptive capacity. j gloenvcha, 12(1). 25-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/s09593780(01)00026-7 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 2 july – december 2021, pages: 176-190 article history: submitted : november 29th, 2019 revised : june 9th, 2021 march 12th, 2021 accepted : september 6th, 2021 andrie kisroh sunyigono*, isdiana suprapti, nurul arifiyanti department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, university of trunojoyo madura, east java, indonesia *) correspondence email: andriekisroh@trunojoyo.ac.id inter-market variability of smallholder beef cattle farming in east java indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.7621 abstract indonesia has failed to achieve meat self-sufficiency; meanwhile, east java is among the centers of beef cattle with a relatively high contribution in terms of gdp and employment. therefore, this study aims to identify and analyze the market structure of the beef cattle commodity chain by considering the concentration ratio, gini index, as well as barriers to exit and entry. the study was conducted in malang regency and sapudi island, with 164 respondents, which consisted of calf suppliers, farmers, traders, and slaughterhouses. furthermore, the analytical tools used include descriptive, concentration ratio, gini coefficient, and analysis of barriers to entry and exit. based on the results, the market structures in the beef cattle commodity chain in terms of its input market was perfect competition, while the intermediate and output market was oligopoly. these results were confirmed by the concentration ratios of calf suppliers and farmers, which were lower than the ratios of traders and slaughterhouses. although the market structures were different, their gini coefficients are almost similar because a value of 0.2 showed an equitable distribution. additionally, the barriers to entry into the market were high investment with a large number of import and market problems. meanwhile, the barriers to exit the market were a large number of potential demands, high investment, and a source of income. keywords: beef cattle, concentration ratio, market structure, smallholder farmers introduction in indonesia, beef cattle population is focused in two provinces, namely east and central java (directorate general of livestock and animal health services, 2017). in 2019, east java was the largest beef producer with a total of 99.1 thousand tons, followed by west java with 80.2 thousand tons (statistics indonesia, 2020c). this condition showed that the government's policy needs to focus on the three provinces to increase the population. therefore, the growth of the beef cattle population in east, west, and central java can significantly affect its population nationally. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& mailto:andriekisroh@trunojoyo.ac.id https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i2.7621 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 177 inter-market variability of smallholder beef….. (sunyigono, suprapti, and arifiyanti) the beef cattle production share of east java among2001-2009 was 21.4% of national production, followed by west and central java, as well as jakarta with shares of 18.4%, 14.4%, and 3.0%, respectively. furthermore, in 2010-2019, east java shares 20.9% of the national production, which showed a decrease in production during these periods. there was also a decrease in the share of west java from 18.4% to 15.2% and central java from 14.4% to 11.9%. however, the contribution of these provinces is still high, with approximately 48% (statistics indonesia, 2020b). it showed that the region with a large beef cattle population is not automatically the center of meat production. although jakarta and west java are the main producers of meat, they have no large beef cattle. the proportion of beef production of jakarta and west java was 18.12%, and the beef cattle population was only 2.63% of the national population (statistics indonesia, 2020b; directorate general of livestock and animal health services, 2017). these provinces import beef cattle from other regions such as east and central java, together with lampung. meanwhile, the demand for beef cattle in jakarta and west java tends to increase by approximately 11% per year. these provinces need almost 250,000 and 220,000 beef cattle per year, respectively. from 1990 to 2003, the number of beef cattle imported to west java was 42.49%, while jakarta was 25.74%. these values showed that consumers were concentrated in the provinces. therefore, the government was triggered to make a policy concerning beef cattle importation to meet the demand due to the lack of supply of beef locally. indonesia still imports beef cattle, because approximately 80% of the beef cattle industry is dominated by smallholder farmers (ashari, 2018). in terms of the economics of scale, the beef cattle smallholder farmers also have 2 to 3 heads. furthermore, the characteristics of smallholder farmers that have low bargaining position, low income, and lack production technology (sunyigono, suprapti, & arifiyanti, 2020). in 2013, statistics showed 5 million farmers with 12.3 million beef cattle (statistics indonesia, 2014). the same condition also happens in east java, where the province has a significant contribution in providing beef cattle and meat, however, it cannot meet national demand. the main challenge faced by the beef cattle smallholder farmers is due to the implementation of the traditional production system (purnomo, kurnianto, riskiawan, & destarianto, 2019). this is because most farmers feed the beef cattle based on the habits of their ancestors, which affected the low rate of average daily gain. the large farmers also face a similar problem. however, larger farmers have the problem of continuous production, with a low bargaining position. the illustration above showed that the beef cattle smallholder farmers face a complicated problem. furthermore, there are no sufficient economic incentives for the farmers and calf suppliers because of the low economies of scale, while the productivity and efficiency of the beef cattle industry are low (nuhung, 2015). meanwhile, the structure conduct performance (scp) paradigm is based on the neoclassical microeconomic theory, which focuses on the comparison between perfect http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 178 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research competition and monopoly markets. one of the basic argumentations in the scp paradigm is that market structure affects conduct and further determines market performance. the interaction affects the performance and the competitiveness of the market, which consider the potential benefits of consumers and society as stated in figure 1 (banson, nguyen, & bosch, 2018). structureconduct performance figure 1. the market structure, conduct, and performance relationship source:banson, nguyen, & bosch, (2018), adapted the components of the market structure consist of market share (alfaro, 2020), marketing channels, marketed volumes, degree of market concentration (sutter, webb, kistruck, ketchen & ireland, 2017), size, production scale, and existence or non-existence of barriers to entry (yang, zhang & wang, 2017). it also consists of the number and size of sellers and buyers, the degree of product differentiation, the presence or absence of barriers to entry of new actors, the configuration of cost components, the degree of firms’ vertical integration from raw materials to retailers, and the possibility of product diversification. the most common tools to measure market power are concentration ratio, hirschman herfindahl index (hhi), and gini coefficient (kvalseth, 2018). market conduct represents the firms' behavioral pattern in adapting to the market condition. in addition, it has no theoretical framework for market analysis because human behavior is not easily identified and quantified; therefore, variables are explained in a descriptive manner (dodo & umar, 2015). furthermore, market conduct is associated with price policy and its implementation, explicit and implicit cooperation, related products produced by firms, price efficiency, opportunity to produce and develop the new product, and investment (tan, ridwan, nesti & sartika, 2019). meanwhile, the relationship between market conduct and firms is pricesearchers. based on this relationship, the price-searcher firms have higher market power than price-taker firms. however, a competitor can be forced to exit the market through some output and price policies. the performance of the market can be identified through its contribution to economic growth, which is usually measured by the concept of productive and allocative efficiency. furthermore, it can be identified in terms of the new invention, degree of fairness, and job creation. institutional performance has a significant impact on economic and social resources (amam, jadmiko & harsita, 2020). market performance is measured by considering price, efficiency, profitability rate, technical progress, production quantity, and occupation (rostamnia & rashid, 2019). other indicators include the level of market integration, the relationship between charge transfer http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 179 inter-market variability of smallholder beef….. (sunyigono, suprapti, and arifiyanti) and inter-market price differences, and the relationship between seasonal prices and storage costs to demonstrate the market's competitiveness over time (adam & tabrani, 2014). moreover, one of the related studies is the financial analysis of the input market in semin-gunung kidul, which stated that a calves farm in dryland farming is eligible to run break-even point (bep) on six head of calves (handayanta, rahayu& sumiyati, 2016). this only discussed the condition of the input market; meanwhile, the study of beef cattle fattening activity in bojonegoro regency described that the smallholder farmers' business was profitable and efficient. the farmer is at the break-even point when the beef cattle grow to approximately 86.09 kg (lestari, baga & nurmalina, 2015). subsequently, there was another study that discussed the output market, which was meat marketing. the result of this study showed that the beef supply chain started from the slaughterhouse to the beef distributors, followed by the retailers, and ends at the consumers (hastang, sirajuddin, mappangaja, darma, & sudirman, 2015). the novelty of this study is the comprehensive analysis of several markets along the chain of smallholder beef cattle commodity. the input markets consist of calves, feed, medicine, and intermediate, which comprises the business relationship among beef cattle traders horizontally and vertically, while the output market deals with beef and its by-product. since this kind of comprehensive analysis is still limited, the structure and performance of its markets need to be identified. therefore, the policymaker possibly set policy that has strong backward and forward linkage in the beef cattle commodity chain. in this study, the comprehensive analysis carried out was used as a guide in the beef cattle commodity chain based on the position, roles, and opportunity to support each other. furthermore, it is important to identify the structure of the input, intermediate, and output markets to gain high performance. research method the location of this study was in east java province with several considerations. first, it has the highest population of beef cattle in east java, with its proportion approximately 28% of the national population (statistics indonesia, 2020c). second, the share of the beef cattle industry to the gross regional domestic product was relatively high with approximately 2% a year (statistics of jawa timur province, 2020). subsequently, the industry also provides a lot of job opportunities. the selected regions are malang regency and sapudi island. according to the beef cattle research institute of grati-east java, the intensive smallholder farmers were located in the district of turen (malang) and sapudi island (sumenep). meanwhile, the beef cattle smallholder farmers in malang carried out intensive business (petrokimia, 2012); while the farmers in sapudi island also raised superior species of madura beef cattle (kutsiyah, 2012). in this study, the population used were smallholder farmers that have intensive activities and networking in the beef cattle commodity chain. two types of data were used in this study; moreover, the primary data were from input and calf suppliers, beef cattle farmers, traders, and slaughterhouses. the respondents were interviewed using questionnaires. also, the secondary data were from several institutions, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 180 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research while data on beef cattle were collected from the indonesian ministry of agriculture. subsequently, the consumption level of meat, milk, and egg was gathered from the annual report of animal husbandry office of east java. the sample size of the smallholder farmers was determined using the yamane formula (adam, 2020). the sample size of the smallholder farmers (n) was 81, the population (n) was 418, and the level of precision (e) was 0.1. the number of calf suppliers, traders, and slaughterhouses was determined by using the snowball sampling technique. the number of respondents is shown in table 1. table 1. number of respondents district/ sub-district type of respondent total calf supplier farmer trader slaughterhouse village sub-district district province village sub-district district province malang turen 14 51 3 1 4 73 godanglegi 1 1 2 bululawang 2 2 wajak 20 20 dampit 1 1 donomulyo 2 2 malang 9 1 1 11 kalipare 3 3 ngajum 5 5 tangkel 2 2 pujon 1 1 bumiayu 1 1 sapudi gayam 3 20 1 1 1 26 nonggunong 2 10 1 13 jakarta bekasi 1 1 depok 1 1 total 62 81 4 4 1 1 4 6 0 1 164 descriptive analysis was used as an analytical tool to explain the profile of the beef cattle industry in east java. furthermore, the concentration ratio (cr) was used to determine the level of market concentration in different sub-markets, which consists of input, intermediate, and output markets. the formulation of cr is (kvalseth, 2018): cr= ∑ si r i=1 i = 1,2,3,…., r where cr was concentration ratio, si was the percentage of market share of actor-i, and r was the number of larger actors. based on the herfindahl-hirschman index (h) and the 4-firm concentration ratio (cr4), market condition are as follows: un-concentrated markets: h < 0.15 or cr4 < 0:55, (1) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 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(sunyigono, suprapti, and arifiyanti) moderately concentrated markets: 0:15 ≤ h ≤ 0:25 or 0:55 ≤ cr4 ≤ 0:75, highly concentrated markets: h > 0.25 or cr4 > 0:75 (kvalseth, 2018). lorenz curve and gini coefficient were used with the formula (dai, qin, chen, & guo, 2018): g=1∑ (ti-ti-1)(fi+fi-1 n i=1 ) (2) i = 1,2,3,….,n where g was the gini coefficient, ti was the cumulative proportion of actors, fi was the cumulative proportion of the traded value of beef cattle in idr, and n was the number of actors. the gini coefficient has a value that ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates that there is no concentration, and one indicates the concentration is full. in this study, the three indicators to identify barriers to entry and exit to market include: 1) legal barriers, which consist of patents, franchise, and legal regulatory activities, 2) technical barriers to trade in the areas of technical, labeling, and quality standards (fontagné & orefice, 2018), and 3) superior resources in terms of the condition of capital, access to information about price, demand and supply, and condition of primary resources. result and discussions beef cattle population in east java in east java, beef cattle population rises with a growth rate of approximately 4.5% per year. figure 2 shows the beef cattle population in east java from 2001 2017. the extreme phenomenon happened in 2003, while the beef cattle population decreased by 24%. this was due to the increasing intensity of slaughtering activity to meet the high demand for meat; however, the rate of calves' production remained low. the beef cattle population started increasing from 2007, and the highest growth rate of 25.1% occurred in 2008. government programs for meat self-sufficiency influenced this increase. similarly, the beef cattle population also increased by 23.9% in 2011; however, the population extremely decreased from 4,957,478 to3,586,709 heads in 2013, with approximately 27.7%. this condition was in line with central java as the second center beef cattle population in indonesia after east java. in 2013, the population decreased by 26.88% (statistics indonesia, 2020a) due to the implementation of the government's policy to reduce calves and beef cattle importation. therefore, the slaughtering of local beef cattle, including productive cows needs to meet the demand. in 2010, government programs on increasing the production of livestock were implemented. in this program, several activities that were carried out include the provision of 1,273,528 dosages of livestock cement from the target of 1,450,000. the government also tried to increase the population of calves by artificial insemination program for almost 727,248 heads and realization of acceptors of artificial insemination for approximately 1,060,650 heads (east java animal husbandry services, 2010). furthermore, the growth rate http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 182 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research of beef cattle production in 2004-2014 was 5.05%, while the beef cattle population was 3.91%., which led to a future deficit of the beef cattle population (statistics indonesia, 2020a); statistics indonesia, 2020b). this showed that indonesia needs to increase its beef cattle import. from 2014-2019, the population growth rate of beef cattle tends to increase by approximately 14.1%. figure 2 showed that the growth rate of the beef cattle population tended to fluctuate in the past two years; this was caused by several problems such as 1) weak political support and policies for the development of the cattle industry, 2) management of cattle development which tends to naturally lack new development, 3) development planning for the cattle industry is often difficult to be implemented and far from the target set due to unavailability of valid data for standard planning. moreover, several studies have shown that the meat selfsufficiency target has not been achieved, 4) a large proportion of smallholder livestock (98%) also makes it difficult for the government to develop large farms, 5) the characteristics of small enterprises that are still subsistence, lack land, seeds, feed, and capital, 6) lack of coordination among related stakeholders (nuhung, 2015). figure 2. beef cattle population in east java, 2001-2019 source: statistics indonesia, (2020a) furthermore, it is necessary to prioritize the policy to solve the above evenly distributed problems in all lines starting from the upstream (input providers), livestock business, and downstream sectors (post-harvest and marketing). therefore, it is beneficial to group beef cattle development areas based on forage source, beef cattle base, and regional hierarchy according to service capacity level to support beef cattle development (susanti, priyarsono, & mulatsih, 2017). 2.200.000 2.700.000 3.200.000 3.700.000 4.200.000 4.700.000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 h e a d 4,700,000 4,200,000 3,700,000 3,200,000 2,700,000 2,200,000 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 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(sunyigono, suprapti, and arifiyanti) meat consumption in east java the consumption of meat, egg, and milk in east java tends to increase from 2006 to 2010, as shown in figure 3. furthermore, the average consumption growth rate of livestock products was 9.4% per year. this different phenomenon occurred in 2008 with a negative growth rate of livestock consumption of approximately -6.8%. this decrease in consumption of meat, egg, and milk was due to the pandemic of swine flu which scared the consumers away from consuming eggs and chicken. similarly, the increase in the price of gasoline in 2008 also affected the growth rate of livestock consumption. however, the growth rate of beef consumption remained positive in 2008 at about 23.5%. figure 3. consumption of meat, milk, and egg in east java source: food security agency, (2019) from 2006 2010, the average growth rate of meat was 11.9%, while in 2006, the consumption was 66,782 tons which increased to 103,809 tons in 2010. this positive growth rate occurred because of two factors, namely the increasing population forced the demand for basic needs such as meat to increase. also, the increase in per capita income contributed to the high consumption of meat. this result is in line with rustinsyah (2019), which discovered that the demand for beef tends to increase throughout the year. meanwhile, a positive situation gave the farmers the new market of beef cattle and its by-product. in addition, the government strategies to encourage beef cattle farmers are through the development of farmers groups with good managerial and entrepreneurial aspects. the comparison between figures 2 and 3 showed that beef consumption is greater than beef cattle population growth. in 2018, the development of beef consumption in households in east java was 0.64 kg per cap per year (centre for data and information system of agriculture, 2019). one of the factors that influence beef consumption is the increase in population and per capita income, which significantly impact beef consumption growth (widiyati, widodo, masyhuri & suryantini, 2011). another study also stated that income and meat prices partially have a significant effect on beef consumption (hasanah, lubis, & khadijah, 2018). 50.000 100.000 150.000 200.000 250.000 300.000 350.000 400.000 450.000 500.000 to n meat (beef only) meat (beef and non beef) egg milk 500,000 450,000 400,000 350,000 300,000 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 184 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research analysis of concentration ratio in input, intermediate, and output markets analysis of concentration ratio in the input, intermediate, and output markets was carried out using the value of beef cattle in a specific market. the four largest determinants from each market include calf suppliers, farmers, traders, and slaughterhouses, while their market concentration ratio (cr4) is shown in table 2. table 2. concentration ratio in the input, intermediate, and output market item calf supplier farmer trader slaughterhouse number of participants 62 81 10 11 value of beef cattle for 4 largest participants (000 idr) 138,000 208,500 806,250 1,116,043 total value of beef cattle (000 idr) 1,062,375 1,762,600 1,357,100 2,017,052 cr4 (%) 12.99 11.83 59.41 55.33 the cr4 of the input supplier that represents the input market was 12.99%, which showed that there is an un-concentrated industry. similarly, cr4 of beef cattle farmers was 11.83% which indicated an un-concentrated market. this showed that input and intermediate markets are competitive. furthermore, the calf suppliers and the farmers in this market have insufficient power to induce the price because farmers work individually and there is no strong organization. however, ayele, zemedu, & gebremdhin, (2017) stated that the cr4 for the beef cattle market in dugda district, ethiopia was 93%, which indicated a strong oligopoly market type. this showed that the beef cattle market was inefficient and non-competitive. for traders in all levels such as a village, sub-district, regency, or province, the cr4 was 59.41%. this showed that the type of market in beef cattle trading was strongly oligopolistic. meanwhile, the traders have strong power to influence the market mechanism. this result is similar to a study conducted in kupang east nusa tenggara that analyzed the cr4 from the beef cattle market in 2014 2017, which showed that the cr4 value is within 50.9% 70.8%. this indicated that the market concentration provides some benefits to the farmers or market players since it affects the prices (roy, ratya, nuhfil & wahib, 2018). at the slaughterhouses level, the cr4 value was 55.33%, showing that the processing sector tends to be an oligopolistic market. this indicated that the slaughterhouses have big bargaining power in the market to determine the price and terms of sale. a previous study by chen, polemis, & stengos, (2018) stated that there is a causative relationship between a market structure which is represented by a cr4, and total-factor productivity. also, an industry that has a good bargaining position possesses a strong position. therefore, they determine the important aspects such as volume product, price, and regulation. analysis of gini coefficient and lorenz curve the gini coefficient was used to measure the concentration of different sub-market in the beef cattle commodity chains. it also showed whether concentration or non-concentration exists in each sub-market. furthermore, the lorenz curve was used to make the explanation clearer. the value of beef cattle was used to measure the gini coefficient and draw the lorenz curve. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 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(sunyigono, suprapti, and arifiyanti) table 3 showed that the calf suppliers in the input market have a gini coefficient of 0.249, which indicated relatively equitable distribution. furthermore, there were 62 calf suppliers with the same economic condition and several calves of approximately three heads. this showed that there are no dominant calf suppliers in this market. table 3. gini coefficient of actors in beef cattle commodity chain in east java item calf supplier farmer trader slaughterhouse number of participants 62 81 10 11 gini coefficient 0.249 0.276 0.253 0.207 in the farmer sub-market, the gini coefficient was 0.276, and there were no significant differences among the beef cattle farmers. this showed that the equity in the distribution value of beef cattle is relatively low among farmers compared to other determinants in the beef cattle commodity chain. however, a study conducted in kenya obtained a different result with a high gini coefficient of 0.65. this indicated that beef cattle markets have high concentrations, which showed the inequality in the markets (onduso, onono & ombul, 2020). furthermore, the intermediate sub-market had a gini coefficient of 0.253. this showed that the value of traded beef cattle of ten traders was relatively the same, and there were no dominant traders with more sales. the gini coefficient of slaughterhouses was 0.207, and there were 11 participants with equitable distribution. meanwhile, the smaller gini coefficient was caused by similarity in the value of beef cattle traded at the slaughterhouse level. this result is similar to a study by alvaredo (2011), which stated that when the top group of the population has a very small income distribution, the rest of the population have relatively the same income. the lorenz curve of input, intermediate, and output markets in the smallholder commodity chain is shown in figure 4. in the farmer sub-market, the area between the lorenz curve, which is in blue, and the equitable distribution line in the red line appears wider than other sub-markets. this showed that the farmer sub-market is relatively unequitable distributed compared to other sub-markets. based on the raw data, there were 13 farmers with beef cattle lower than idr 10 million, while others had more than idr10 million. furthermore, 41% had a value of beef cattle of more than idr 20 million. the slaughterhouse sub-market had the narrowest area between the equitable distribution line and the lorenz curve. in line with the lorenz curve, the gini coefficient was approximately 0.207 in this sub-market. these two indicators showed that the slaughterhouse sub-market is more unequitable distributed than others. barriers to entry and exit to the input, intermediate, and output markets there were several barriers to entry to all of the beef cattle sub-markets. according to the respondents, the seven barriers to entry are production technology, capital, price, the impact of imports, marketing, competition, and economies of scale. however, each determinant has diverse main barriers. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 186 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research figure 4. lorenz curve in input, intermediate and output markets in east java http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 187 inter-market variability of smallholder beef….. (sunyigono, suprapti, and arifiyanti) the barriers to entry faced by calf suppliers include production technology (mentioned by 42% of calf supplier respondents), large capital investment (34%), and limited economics of scale (15%). for the farmer, barriers to entry are the low price of beef cattle (38%), large capital investment (28%), and marketing problems (20%). furthermore, traders have problems with large capital investment (50%), large importation (20%), and strong competition (10%). slaughterhouses also faced the same barriers with traders but had problems with marketing activity. this result is similar to a study by yuzaria & rias (2017), where the major barriers to entry were high investment and marketing value. however, a study conducted in kenya showed that the barriers to entry beef cattle market also include lack of information on sources of livestock for trade, price setting of the beef cattle, high capital, and poor trade practices (onduso et al., 2020). barriers to exit from the beef cattle industry include large capital invested, large potential demand, contract, job opportunity, family income, and availability of forage. although all determinants faced the same barriers to exist, the main barriers are large potential demand for meat. this makes the determinants remain in the beef cattle market, and a huge capital is invested by farmers to buy beef cattle, feed, medicine, and managerial cost. conclusion and recommendation conclusion based on the results, the market structures of the beef cattle commodity chain in terms of the input market were perfect competition, while the intermediate market and the output market were oligopolies. these were shown by the lower concentration ratio of calf suppliers and farmers compared to the ratio of traders and slaughterhouses. although the market structures were different, the gini coefficient was almost the same, with approximately 0.2, which indicated an equitable distribution. furthermore, the barriers to entry into the market were a high investment, large import volume, and market problems. meanwhile, barriers to exit the market were a large number of potential demands, high investment, and sources of income. recommendation the government needs to provide a program to increase the bargaining position of calf suppliers and farmers to have the negotiating capacity with other determinants. furthermore, the government needs to encourage and facilitate the organization of strong farmers' associations or cooperatives. to support the local beef cattle industry, a review of the beef cattle import policy is required. this is carried out to ensure that import has no adverse effects on beef cattle prices for the farmers. acknowledgement: the author was grateful to the institute of research and community services of universitas trunojoyo madura for support through the penelitian lektor kepala in 2019. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 188 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research reference adam, a. m. 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(2011). analisis konsumsi daging sapi di provinsi papua barat. jurnal peternakan indonesia (indonesian journal of animal science), 13(2), 149–157. https://doi.org/10.25077/jpi.13.2.149-157.2011 yang, q., zhang, l., & wang, x. (2017). dynamic analysis on market structure of china’s coal industry. energy policy, 106, 498–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.04.001 yuzaria, d., & rias, m. i. (2017). market structure of beef cattle business in payakumbuh west sumatera. journal of advanced agricultural technologies, 4(4), 324–330. https://doi.org/10.18178/joaat.4.4.324-330 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& ryan satya jorgi*, siwi gayatri, tutik dalmiyatun program studi agribisnis, fakultas peternakan dan pertanian, universitas diponegoro semarang *) email korespondensi: ryanjorgi28@gmail.com agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 hubungan tingkat pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani di kabupaten semarang relationship between the level of farmer knowledge and the effectiveness of farmer card program (program kartu tani) implementation in semarang regency doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5278 abstract this research was motivated by the policies of the central java provincial government in overcoming the problem of distributing subsidized fertilizers through the farm card program, which in the implementation still had problems, especially at the farmer level. the study aimed to describe the implementation of farmer card program (program kartu tani) and to analyse the relationship between knowledge level of farmers and the effectiveness of farmer card program (program kartu tani) in semarang regency. this research was conducted from february to may 2018. survey method was used in this study. multistage random sampling method was used for determining respondents. data collection was done by interview using a questionnaire. data analysis were descriptive analysis and rank spearman correlation analysis using spss. this research showed the level of farmers knowledge about farmer card program (program kartu tani) was in the category of knowless. the level of effectiveness about implementation of the farmer card program (program kartu tani) was in the effective category. while the implementation of farmer card program (program kartu tani) at farmer level was effective because of the role farmer group in implementing program assisted by extension agent and related government institution although there were still face some obstacles that need to be improved to increase effectivity of farmer card implementation. there was a strong and significant relationship between the knowledge level and effectiveness of the farmer card program (program kartu tani), with the coefficient number 0.568. keywords: effectiveness, farmer card program (program kartu tani), fertilizer, implementation, knowledge. intisari penelitian ini dilatarbelakangi kebijakan pemerintah provinsi jawa tengah dalam mengatasi permasalahan penyaluran pupuk bersubsidi melalui program kartu tani, yang dalam pelaksanaannya masih terdapat kendala, khususnya di tingkat petani. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan pelaksanaan program kartu tani dan mengungkap hubungan tingkat pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas program kartu tani di kabupaten semarang. penelitian dilaksanakan pada bulan februari – mei 2018 dengan menggunakan metode survey. sampel petani dipilih menggunakan metode multistage random sampling. pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan cara wawancara menggunakan kuesioner. analisis data dilaksanakan menggunakan analisis deskriptif dan korelasi rank spearman. hasil penelitian menunjukkan tingkat pengetahuan petani terhadap program kartu tani termasuk dalam kategori kurang tahu, sementara tingkat efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani termasuk dalam kategori efektif. pelaksanaan program kartu tani di tingkat petani berjalan efektif dikarenakan adanya peran kelompok tani dalam pelaksanaan program dengan dibantu penyuluh dan instiansi terkait. terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara tingkat pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani, dengan koefisien korelasi sebesar 0,568. kata kunci: efektivitas, kartu tani, pelaksanaan program, pupuk bersubsidi, pengetahuan. 89 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 pendahuluan pupuk merupakan sarana produksi yang memiliki peran strategis dalam mendukung sektor pertanian sebagai upaya untuk meningkatkan hasil produksi petani. pemberian pupuk pada tanaman dapat mempercepat pertumbuhan dan meningkatkan produksi (widarti, 2016). penggunaan pupuk yang diarahkan pada penerapan pupuk berimbang dan organik sesuai rekomendasi, perlu didukung akses dalam memperoleh pupuk dengan harga yang terjangkau (kementerian pertanian, 2017). dalam upaya mengontrol peredaran pupuk dan kemudahan petani mengakses pupuk, pemerintah membuat kebijakan penyediaan pupuk bagi petani melalui subsidi harga pupuk. pupuk bersubsidi merupakan pupuk yang pengadaan dan penyalurannya mendapat subsidi dari pemerintah. program ini dilaksanakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan petani terhadap pupuk dengan harga yang terjangkau. adapun jenis pupuk yang mendapat subsidi meliputi urea, sp-36, za, npk phonska dan pupuk organik (peraturan menteri perdagangan, 2013). kebijakan subsidi dan distribusi pupuk telah diterapkan pemerintah yaitu mulai dari tahap perencanaan kebutuhan, penetapan harga eceran tertinggi (het) dan besaran subsidi serta sistem distribusi ke pengguna pupuk (rachman dan sudaryanto, 2010). penyediaan pupuk bersubsidi didasarkan pada rencana definitif kebutuhan kelompok (rdkk) yang merupakan kebutuhan riil petani untuk satu periode dalam pengelolaan usahatani, selanjutnya rdkk digunakan sebagai dasar dalam penyaluran pupuk bersubsidi di tingkat penyalur (widarti, 2016). penyusunan rdkk dilakukan oleh kelompok tani dengan dibantu oleh penyuluh lapangan. sebagai sebuah program dengan target yang sangat luas, implementasi subsidi pupuk menghadapi berbagai masalah dan kendala, yang mengakibatkan terjadinya penurunan efektivitas program. permasalahan dan kendala yang dihadapi, antara lain: 1) penyelewengan distribusi pupuk bersubsidi; 2) kesenjangan antara ketersediaan dan kebutuhan; dan 3) terjadinya bias sasaran/target (susila, 2010); serta 4) terjadinya penyaluran pupuk yang belum tepat sasaran, perembesan, kelangkaan pupuk, dan kenaikan harga di tingkat petani (moko, 2017). pemerintah provinsi jawa tengah bekerjasama dengan kementerian pertanian dan bank bri membuat kebijakan agar distribusi pupuk bersubsidi dapat memenuhi asas 6 tepat (jumlah, jenis, waktu, tempat, mutu, dan harga) serta meminimalisir permasalahan dalam pengawasan, pengadaan dan penyaluran pupuk bersubsidi dengan menggunakan kartu tani (biro infrastuktur dan sumberdaya alam provinsi jawa tengah, 2016). kartu tani merupakan sebuah alat yang digunakan petani untuk menebus pupuk bersubsidi. selain itu, kartu tani dapat digunakan sebagai tabungan bagi petani, tarik tunai, belanja sehari-hari, pembayaran tagihan dan transfer antar bank. untuk mendapatkan kartu tani petani harus tergabung dalam kelompok tani. jenis dan jumlah pupuk subsidi yang diterima petani melalui kartu tani sesuai dengan luas lahan, komoditas dan jenis pupuk yang disusun melalui rencana definitif kebutuhan kelompok (rdkk) oleh penyuluh bersama petani yang kemudian di upload ke sistem informasi manajemen pangan indonesia (simpi). efektivitas program merupakan pendekatan yang digunakan untuk melihat tercapai atau tidaknya tujuan program. program dikatakan efektif apabila sasaran atau tujuan program tercapai sesuai dengan yang telah ditetapkan. subsidi pupuk dikatakan berhasil apabila masyarakat menerima manfaat dari subsidi pupuk untuk meringankan beban penyediaan dan penggunaan pupuk dalam menjalankan kegiatan usahataninya (arisandi, 2016). efektivitas program dapat dilihat dari: 1) tercapainya tujuan kebijakan; 2) tercapainya sasaran kebijakan; 3) ketepatan waktu pelaksanaan; 4) komunikasi berkenaan dengan bagaimana kebijakan disosialisasikan; 5) ketersediaan sumber daya untuk melaksanakan kebijakan; 6) sikap dan tanggap dari para pihak yang terlibat; dan 7) bagaimana struktur organisasi pelaksana kebijakan (yuliani, 2015). program kartu tani di provinsi jawa tengah diinisiasi pada tahun 2016, tetapi baru serentak dilaksanakan pada awal tahun 2018. hal tersebut terjadi karena pelaksanaan dan penggunaan kartu 90 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tani, khususnya di tingkat petani, masih ditemukan banyak kendala di lapangan, serta ditemukan beberapa penolakan di berbagai daerah. kabupaten semarang merupakan salah satu wilayah di provinsi jawa tengah yang sudah menjalankan program kartu tani secara serentak per januari 2018. hingga saat ini belum ada penelitian yang relevan tentang kartu tani sehingga sangat perlu dilakukan penelitian tentang pelaksanaan program kartu tani. hal ini penting dikarenakan kartu tani sebagai kebijakan pemerintah provinsi jawa tengah untuk alat penebusan pupuk bersubsidi diharapkan efektif dalam proses pelaksanaanya. program ini ditujukan kepada petani yang sebagian besar memiliki latar belakang pendidikan rendah dengan kemampuan mengaplikasikan teknologi yang terbatas. keberhasilan dari program ini didukung oleh pengetahuan petani dalam menggunakan kartu tani. pengetahuan petani diduga dapat meningkatkan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani. oleh karena itu penelitian terkait kartu tani perlu direview lebih lanjut. informasi ini penting, mengingat kartu tani merupakan program yang relatif baru, sehingga masih memerlukan berbagai penyempurnaan untuk implementasi yang lebih luas di masa mendatang. tulisan ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan pelaksanaan program kartu tani di kabupaten semarang, dan mengungkap hubungan tingkat pengatahuan dengan efektivitas program. manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah untuk memberikan informasi sebagai bahan kajian untuk evaluasi pelaksanaan program kartu tani jawa tengah sebagai salah satu kebijakan pemerintah daerah maupun pusat dan dapat menjadi referensi untuk penelitian terkait. metode penelitian survei dilaksanakan pada bulan februari – mei 2018 di enam kecamatan di kabupaten semarang yang terpilih sebagai sampel. sampel petani dipilih menggunakan teknik stratified random sampling dengan cara mengelompokkan kecamatan di kabupaten semarang berdasarkan jumlah petani menjadi 3 kategori, yaitu kepadatan tinggi (>6.000 petani), kepadatan sedang (4.000-6.000 petani) dan kepadatan rendah (<4.000 petani). dari setiap kategori diambil dua kecamatan secara random, yakni: kecamatan sumowono dan kecamatan getasan dari kategori kepadatan tinggi, kecamatan banyubiru dan kecamatan bawen dari kepadatan sedang, kecamatan ungaran timur dan kecamatan ambarawa dari kategori rendah. selanjutnya dari setiap kecamatan dipilih secara random 2 kelompok tani, dan dari setiap kelompok tani dipilih 10 petani anggota kelompok secara random, sehingga secara keseluruhan penelitian ini melibatkan 120 petani sebagai responden. pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan cara wawancara menggunakan kuesioner. pengetahuan petani (var x) terhadap program kartu tani didefinsikan sebagai penguasaan informasi yang diterima petani dari sosialisasi program kartu tani yang telah dilaksanakan oleh penyuluh, dinas terkait dan bank bri. indikator tingkat pengetahuan petani mencakup pengetahuan tentang aspek tujuan (terdiri atas 5 soal), ruang lingkup (terdiri atas 5 soal), struktur organisasi (terdiri atas 3 soal), manfaat (terdiri atas 4 soal), pedoman (terdiri atas 4 soal) dan tata cara penggunaan kartu tani (terdiri 4 soal), yang masingmasing diukur menggunakan skor dengan skala 5-1 (sangat tahu, tahu, kurang tahu, tidak tahu, sangat tidak tahu). tingkat pengetahuan responden terhadap penggunaan kartu tani diukur dari skor total yang dikategorikan dalam tiga katagori, yakni tidak tahu untuk kisaran skor 25-57; kurang tahu untuk kisaran skor 58-90; dan tahu untuk kisaran skor 91-125. efektivitas (var y) dalam penelitian ini adalah kemampuan melaksanakan program tanpa adanya tekanan atau ketegangan. efektivitas pelaksanaan program diukur dari indikator distribusi, pengendalian dan pengawasan pupuk bersubsidi sesuai dengan asas 6 tepat, yaitu : aspek tepat jumlah (terdiri atas 4 soal), tepat jenis (terdiri atas 3 soal), tepat tempat (terdiri atas 3 soal), tepat waktu (terdiri atas 3 soal), tepat mutu (terdiri atas 3 soal) dan tepat harga (terdiri atas 2 soal) yang masing-masing diukur menggunakan skor dengan skala 5-1 (sangat setuju, setuju, netral, tidak setuju, sangat tidak setuju). tingkat efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani diukur dari skor total yang dikategorikan dalam tiga kategori, yakni tidak efektif untuk kisaran skor 18-41; 91 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 kurang efektif untuk kisaran skor 42-65; dan efektif untuk kisaran skor 66-90. pelaksanaan program kartu tani dianalisis secara deskriptif, sedangkan hubungan tingkat pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program dianalisis menggunakan korelasi rank spearman (siregar, 2017). hasil dan pembahasan identitas responden hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa mayoritas petani yang terlibat dalam program kartu tani mempunyai karakteristik yang sama dengan petani pada umumnya, yakni berusia (21-60 tahun), berlatar belakang pendidikan sekolah dasar (sd), memiliki pengalaman bertani lebih dari 10 tahun, dan memiliki luas lahan sempit dengan luasan kurang dari 5000 m2 (tabel 1). tabel 1. identitas responden berdasrkan umur, pendidikan pengalaman bertani dan luas lahan kategori indikator jumlah (jiwa) persentase (%) umur 21-30 4 3 31-40 13 11 41-50 35 29 51-60 32 27 61-70 29 24 >70 7 6 pendidikan sd 74 62 smp 18 15 sma 26 22 perguruan tinggi 2 2 pengalaman bertani 1-5 9 8 6-10 29 24 >10 82 68 luas lahan < 5000 m2 61 51 5000-10.000 m2 50 41 > 10.0000 m2 9 8 umur petani terkait dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani. petani yang memiliki rentang usia produktif (21–60 tahun) cenderung mendukung adanya program kartu tani yang mempermudah penebusan pupuk bersubsidi dan dapat digunakan untuk transaksi perbankan; sedangkan petani berusia lanjut cenderung menolak program kartu tani karena petani merasa kesulitan menggunakan kartu tani dalam penebusan pupuk bersubsidi. tingkat pendidikan berpengaruh terhadap penerimaan inovasi, semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan diharapkan pola berpikir semakin rasional. terkait dengan pelaksanaan program kartu tani, petani bependidikan rendah cenderung mengalami kesulitan dalam pelaksanaan kartu tani sehingga perlu dibantu kelompok tani dan penyuluh. sebaliknya, petani yang berpendidikan tinggi cenderung memiliki kemampuan yang lebih tinggi dalam melaksanakan program kartu tani secara mandiri. pengalaman mengelola usahatani berpengaruh terhadap pembentukan sikap petani terhadap inovasi atau program baru yang diperkenalkan pemerintah (suharyanto, 2017). terkait dengan pelaksanaan program kartu tani, petani yang memiliki pengalaman lebih dari 10 tahun cenderung kurang setuju dengan penggunaan kartu tani dan memilih untuk penebusan langsung. petani merasa kesulitan dalam penebusan pupuk bersubsidi menggunakan kartu tani, dan petani kurang berminat dalam memanfaatkan kartu tani untuk kegiatan perbankan yang dilatarbelakangi minimnya pengalaman responden mengakses perbankan. sementara itu, petani yang memiliki pengalaman bertani kurang dari 10 tahun cenderung mendukung program kartu tani dan mau mengikuti anjuran penyuluh. pada umumnya petani tersebut sudah pernah mengakses bank sebelumnya, meskipun kurang berpengalaman dalam mengelola usaha tani. petani di indonesia pada umumnya termasuk petani gurem dengan luas penguasaan dan penggunaan lahan relatif sempit, kurang dari 0,5 ha. petani menggarap lahan baik lahan yang menjadi miliknya, lahan sewa, atau lahan bengkok yang dikelola dengan sistem bagi hasil. petani yang tidak memiliki lahan, menjalankan usahataninya melalui bagi hasil, sewa, dan gadai (susilowati 2013). luas lahan garapan petani tidak begitu terkait dengan pelaksanaan program kartu tani, baik petani dengan luas lahan garapan sempit maupun luas, masingmasing mendapat bagian pupuk bersubsidi sesuai dengan luas lahannya sebagaimana sudah diusulkan melalui rdkk. 92 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pelaksanaan program kartu tani di tingkat petani mayoritas petani mengikuti arahan penyuluh dan mendukung program kartu tani karena mudahnya dalam menebus pupuk bersubsidi. mayoritas petani menghadiri sosialisasi sebanyak 2-4 kali yang dilaksanakan oleh pemerintah baik di tingkat kabupaten melalui dinas serta pemerintah desa yang dibantu oleh bank bri maupun sosialisasi di tingkat kelompok yang biasa disampaikan melalui penyuluh lapangan dan ketua kelompok saat pertemuan kelompok. materi sosialisasi yang disampaikan antara lain pemaparan program kartu tani, manfaat program, cara pembuatan dan penggunaan kartu tani serta pendataan petani. kelompok tani mempunyai berbagai peran dalam pelaksanaan program kartu tani, antara lain: pendataan anggota kelompok dan pendaftaran pembuatan kartu tani dengan cara pengumpulan fotocopy ktp, kk dan sppt tanah; penyusunan rdkk (rencana definitif kebutuhan kelompok) untuk pengajuan pupuk bersubsidi sesuai dengan luas lahan; sosialisasi dan pengenalan program kartu tani; penebusan atau pembelian pupuk bersubsidi di pengecer. rencana definitif kebutuhan kelompok (rdkk) disusun oleh pengurus kelompok tani dibantu oleh penyuluh. kelompok tani memberikan beberapa kebijakan dan menyediakan fasilitas untuk memudahkan anggota dalam menebus pupuk menggunakan kartu tani antara lain: 1) pengaktifan, pembelian dan penebusan pupuk diwakilkan kepada kelompok karena banyaknya petani usia lanjut yang mengalami kendala dalam mengakses bank serta banyak petani tidak memiliki kendaraan bermotor; 2) pendistribusian kartu tani belum merata sehingga kelompok membuat kebijakan untuk membantu anggota yang belum memperoleh kartu dengan meminjamkan kuota pupuk antar anggota kelompok dengan kesepakatan bersama; 3) peminjaman dana melalui kas kelompok karena banyak anggota tidak memiliki cukup biaya untuk membeli pupuk. peran kelompok sangat membantu dan memudahkan petani dalam melaksanakan program kartu tani, khususnya untuk membeli pupuk, dan juga menjadikan kelompok menjadi lebih aktif. petani menilai terdapat perbedaan distribusi pupuk bersubsidi antara sebelum dengan setelah adanya kartu tani. perbedaan ini dikarenakan dahulu pupuk dijual secara bebas, sehingga petani dapat membeli dimana saja bahkan bisa sampai luar daerah, dan pupuk ditebus menggunakan uang tunai atau langsung. sebelum pelaksanaan program kartu tani, harga pupuk cenderung fluktuatif dikarenakan permainan pedagang, sekarang harga pupuk sesuai dengan het (harga eceran tertinggi) yang telah diatur pemerintah. sebelum pelaksanaan program kartu tani terdapat banyak kasus terkait distribusi pupuk bersubsidi, antara lain berupa penyelewengan pupuk bersubsidi yang mengakibatkan kelangkaan pupuk dan waktu pendistribusian pupuk yang lama. dalam pembuatan dan pelaksanaan kartu tani masih ditemukan banyak kendala antara lain: 1) dilihat dari sisi pembuatan yaitu kesulitan mengajak petani untuk mengumpulkan fotocopy ktp dan sppt; 2) dilihat dari sisi penggunaan yaitu petani mengalami kesulitan dalam penebusan/pembelian menggunakan kartu tani disebabkan petani harus aktivasi dan menabung terlebih dahulu ke bank dan membutuhkan banyak waktu dalam pembelian pupuk bersubsidi. hal lain yang dikeluhkan petani adalah antrian yang lama jika berada di bank yang membuat petani mengurungkan niat untuk pergi ke bank. pengetahuan petani terhadap program kartu tani pengetahuan petani terkait pelaksanaan program kartu tani dinilai berdasarkan pemahaman terhadap program kartu tani mencakup tujuan, ruang lingkup, struktur organisasi, manfaat, pedoman, dan cara penggunaan dari kartu tani. skor tingkat pengetahuan yang diperoleh masing-masing petani menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada petani yang memiliki tingkat pengetahuan terkait program kartu tani dengan katagori tidak tahu (tabel 2). mayoritas petani di kabupaten semarang memiliki tingkat pengetahuan terhadap program kartu tani yang termasuk dalam kategori kurang tahu, terdiri atas 62 jiwa dan persentase 52%. hal ini disebabkan petani 93 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 sudah pernah mengakses perbankan, dan adanya peran kelompok tani dan pendampingan penyuluh lapangan dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan petani dengan cara sosialisasi kartu tani secara kontinyu pada saat pertemuan rutin kelompok. penelitian suharyono (2016) mengungkapkan hal yang sama terkait pentingnya sosialisasi dalam mengenalkan suatu program. melalui sosialisasi terjadi interaksi antara petani dengan instansi terkait yang dapat meningkatkan pengetahuan petani, sehingga tujuan program dapat tercapai. tabel 2. distribusi responden berdasarkan pengetahuan petani terhadap program kartu tani katagori pengetahuan responden range total skor jumlah katagori pengetahuan responden tidak tahu 25 – 57 0 0 kurang tahu 58 – 90 62 52 tahu 91 – 125 58 48 total 120 100 jika ditelaah lebih cermat berdasarkan rincian setiap indikator (tabel3) maka dapat dilihat, bahwa terdapat beberapa aspek yang kurang diketahui petani. tabel 3. pertanyaan dan distribusi frekuensi responden per indikator dalam variabel pengetahuan no pertanyaan distribusi frekuensi responden per skor (orang) 1 sangat tidak tahu 2 tidak tahu 3 kurang tahu 4 tahu 5 sangat tahu aspek tujuan 1. program kartu tani adalah terwujudnya distribusi pupuk bersubsidi sesuai dengan asas 6 tepat 20 25 15 48 12 2. program kartu tani sebagai pemberian layanan perbankan bagi petani di jawa tengah 4 2 21 66 27 3. program kartu tani sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan kondisi wilayah petani 1 1 6 89 23 4. program kartu tani dapat terealisasi dengan baik apablia peran penyuluh dan kelompok saling sinergis 0 1 1 67 51 5. program kartu tani adalah pengawasan pupuk bersubsidi serta pendataan petani. 0 1 11 80 28 aspek ruang lingkup 6. program kartu tani merupakan program pengelolaan distribusi pupuk bersubsidi bagi petani 0 0 2 41 77 7. kartu debit bri digunakan untuk membaca alokasi pupuk bersubsidi dan transaksi pembayaran pupuk bersubsidi 1 4 19 50 46 8. program kartu tani terintegrasi dengan aplikasi sistem informasi manajemen pangan indonesia (simpi) 5 35 66 14 0 9. program kartu tani merupakan program pemerintah pusat 0 5 18 87 10 10. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi berdasarkan peraturan daerah setempat 23 32 29 30 6 aspek struktur organisasi 11. subsidi pupuk dalam program kartu tani berasal dari rancangan rdkk (rancangan definitif kebutuhan kelompok) 20 26 26 32 16 12. program kartu tani terlaksana atas bantuan dinas pertanian, badan penyuluhan dan bank bri 0 0 9 70 41 13. rdkk disusun antara kelompok tani dan penyuluh 20 25 24 33 18 aspek manfaat 14. kartu tani memiliki manfaat yang sangat penting bagi bantuan permodalan untuk petani 37 34 12 31 6 15. kartu tani memudahkan petani dalam mengakses perbankan 2 4 13 64 37 16. kartu tani memudahkan petani dalam membeli pupuk bersubsidi 0 0 0 37 83 17. kartu tani memudahkan petani dalam menjual hasil panen 83 24 7 6 0 aspek pedoman 18. petani mengetahui pedoman usulan pembuatan kartu tani 2 6 7 97 8 19. dalam pedoman pelaksanaan kartu tani setelah rdkk disusun akan diserahkan ke bp3k( balai penyuluhan pertanian peternakan perikanan dan kehutanan) 16 26 28 33 17 20. pedoman pelaksanaan kartu tani telah disosialisasikan ke petani 0 0 7 93 20 21. pelaksanaan program kartu tani telah sesuai dengan pedoman yang berlaku 1 4 17 91 7 aspek cara penggunaan 22. petani mengetahui cara penebusan pupuk bersubsidi menggunakan kartu tani 0 1 7 67 45 23. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi tidak dapat diambil sekaligus 6 13 23 64 14 24. pemilik kartu tani hanya dapat melakukan pengambilan alokasi pupuk bersubsidi sesuai dengan waktu kebutuhan yang tertera 5 14 16 78 7 berdasarkan tabel 3 dapat diperoleh hasil bahwa ditinjau dari aspek tujuan kartu tani mayoritas petani mengetahui tujuan dari program, tetapi masih terdapat petani tidak mengetahui tujuan kartu tani perihal program kartu tani mendukung terwujudnya distribusi pupuk bersubsidi sesuai asas 6 tepat (poin 1) 94 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research hal tersebut disebabkan petani tidak memperhatikan penyampaian informasi penyuluh maupun instansi terkait dengan baik dan seksama. dilihat dari aspek ruang lingkup mayoritas petani mengetahui ruang lingkup program kartu tani, namun masih terdapat petani yang kurang mengerti khususnya perihal simpi (sistem informasi pangan indonesia) dan pengalokasian pupuk berdasarkan peraturan daerah. hal ini dikarenakan petani hanya mengetahui bahwa pupuk bersubsidi diatur dan disusun oleh penyuluh serta cenderung acuh perihal alokasi pupuk bersubsidi. dilihat dari aspek struktur organisasi masih terdapat beberapa petani yang kurang mengerti khususnya perihal rdkk (rencana definitif kebutuhan kelompok) untuk permohonan pupuk bersubsidi. hal ini terjadi karena para petani menyerahkan seluruh kewenangan permohonan subsidi pupuk kepada pegurus kelompok dan penyuluh. anggota kelompok cenderung acuh perihal mekanisme permohonan pupuk subsidi dan menerima serta mengikuti keputusan pengurus kelompok. dilihat dari aspek manfaat mayoritas petani mengetahui kartu tani sebagai alat untuk menebus pupuk dan untuk akses kegiatan perbankan, namun masih terdapat petani yang belum mengetahui manfaat kartu tani sebagai bantuan permodalan dan penjualan hasil panen. hal ini dikarenakan kurangnya perhatian petani dalam penyampaian informasi yang diberikan oleh penyuluh maupun instansi terkait. khusus bantuan permodalan harapan awal pemerintah adalah dengan penggunaan kartu tani yang baik dan kemampuan berkelompok yang solid, petani melalui kelompok tani dapat mengusulkan bantuan permodalan kepada bank bri melalui kur (kredit usaha rakyat), tetapi fakta di lapangan masih terdapat kendala, khususnya di tingkat petani, sehingga bantuan permodalan belum dapat tersalurkan dengan baik. untuk menjual hasil panen mayoritas petani di kabupaten semarang menjual secara langsung hasil panen dengan cara tebasan (padi) atau kepada tengkulak/pedagang. khusus penjualan hasil panen harapan awal pemerintah adalah dengan penggunaan kartu tani, petani dapat menyalurkan hasil panennya kepada bulog khususnya petani komoditas padi dan jagung. akan tetapi kurangnya pemahaman dan mekanisme yang berbelit mengakibatkan banyak petani menjual secara langsung. dilihat dari aspek pedoman dan cara penggunaan kartu tani mayoritas petani mengetahui dan tidak terdapat kendala mengenai hal tersebut. petani yang banyak mengetahui program kartu tani adalah pengurus kelompok tani, dan petani anggota kelompok yang memiliki pendidikan tinggi serta memiliki keinginan untuk mengawal program pemerintah; sedangkan petani yang tidak banyak perihal program kartu tani adalah petani anggota kelompok yang memiliki pendidikan rendah, mengikuti keputusan kelompok dan cenderung acuh terhadap program yang disampaikan. pengetahuan petani terhadap program kartu tani sudah tergolong baik, tetapi pelu ditingkatkan khususnya pada aspek ruang lingkup, struktur organisasi dan manfaat program, dengan cara pendampingan yang kontinyu oleh penyuluh dan pihak terkait dalam pelaksanaan program kartu tani. efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani dilihat kesesuaian pelaksanaan dan penggunaan kartu tani dengan tujuan, yaitu terpenuhinya asas 6 tepat (jumlah, jenis, tempat, waktu, mutu, dan harga) dalam pendistribusian, pengendalian dan pengawasan pupuk bersubsidi. tabel 4. distribusi responden berdasarkan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani kategori efektivitas responden range total skor jumlah (jiwa) persentase (%) tidak efektif 18 41 0 0 kurang efektif 42 65 7 6 efektif 66 90 113 94 total 120 100 data pada tabel 4 menunjukkan sebagian besar responden (94%) mendapat perolehan skor efektifitas yang termasuk dalam katagori tinggi. hal tersebut menandakan bahwa pelaksanaan program kartu tani di kabupaten semarang berjalan efektif. artinya, pendistribusian, pengendalian dan 95 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 pengawasan pupuk bersubsidi di kabupaten semarang sudah memenuhi asas 6 tepat, sehingga pendistribusian pupuk bersubsidi tepat sasaran sesuai dengan penerimanya. tabel 5. pertanyaan dan distribusi frekuensi responden per indikator dalam variabel efektivitas no pertanyaan distribusi frekuensi responden per skor (orang) 1 sangat tidak setuju 2 tidak setuju 3 netral 4 setuju 5 sangat setuju aspek tepat jumlah 1. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi pada kartu tani yang diperoleh sudah sesuai jumlah yang diusulkan dalam rdkk 0 18 8 70 24 2. jumlah pupuk bersubsidi yang diedarkan dapat mencukupi kebutuhan petani setiap musim tanam 0 3 2 77 38 3. dengan program kartu tani maka terwujudnya pendistribusian, pengendalian dan pengawasan pupuk bersubsidi kepada para petani yang berhak 0 1 0 74 45 4. program kartu tani sudah tepat sasaran 0 8 10 81 21 aspek tepat jenis 5. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi pada kartu tani yang diperoleh sudah sesuai jenis yang diusulkan 0 0 1 45 74 6. jenis pupuk bersubsidi yang diedarkan selalu tersedia setiap musim tanam 0 0 1 70 49 7. program kartu tani membantu petani dalam akses layanan perbankan. 0 0 19 86 12 aspek tepat tempat 8. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi pada kartu tani yang diperoleh dapat ditebus sesuai dengan tempat / wilayah petani 0 0 3 63 54 9. fasilitas tempat penebusan pupuk sudah memadai 0 8 2 77 33 10. akses ke tempat penebusan mudah dan bagus 0 7 13 91 9 aspek tepat waktu 11. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi pada kartu tani yang diperoleh dapat ditebus sesuai dengan waktunya 0 0 1 43 76 12. pupuk bersubsidi yang diedarkan selalu tepat waktu dalam pendistribusian 0 0 0 63 57 13. program kartu tani sudah dilaksanakan oleh pemerintah dengan baik 0 0 2 81 37 aspek tepat mutu 14. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi pada kartu tani yang diperoleh sesuai dengan mutunya 0 2 4 78 36 15. pupuk bersubsidi yang diedarkan selalu tepat mutu setiap musim tanam dan bukan pupuk palsu 0 1 1 62 56 16. program kartu tani akan memberikan manfaat bagi petani 0 6 6 92 16 aspek tepat harga 17. alokasi pupuk bersubsidi pada kartu tani yang diperoleh sesuai dengan harga eceran tetap (het) 0 0 1 36 83 18. ada pengawasan harga pupuk bersubsidi yang kontinyu dalam program kartu tani. 0 1 2 67 50 dilihat dari aspek tepat jumlah dan tepat jenis, pupuk yang didapatkan mayoritas petani sudah sesuai dengan jumlah dan jenis yang diusulkan di rdkk, serta pupuk yang dijual-belikan selalu tersedia setiap musim tanam (tabel 5). namun demikian, petani yang memiliki pengetahuan rendah cenderung tidak setuju terhadap alokasi yang diberikan, karena menganggap pupuk subsidi yang didapatkan terlalu sedikit dan masih memilki pemikiran kuno (menganggap pupuk subsidi harus banyak agar produksi baik). dengan adanya program kartu tani, petani semakin tahu cara memupuk yang baik, sesuai dengan anjuran, tidak berlebih dan sesuai dengan luas lahan. program sudah tepat sasaran, karena penerima subisidi pupuk adalah petani yang berhak mendapatkannya. namun, masih terdapat petani yang tidak mendapatkan jumlah pupuk yang tepat sesuai dengan luas lahan yang digarap. hal ini dikarenakan kesalahan teknis pada saat input data yang diajukan ke simpi dan minimnya alokasi pupuk bersubsidi. masalah ini diatasi dengan pengusulan rdkk tambahan untuk para petani yang masih kekurangan, dan penambahan alokasi pupuk bersubsidi. jumlah yang diedarkan pengecer juga dapat memenuhi permintaan petani karena dengan adanya program kartu tani pengecer harus menyediakan jumlah yang pas untuk beberapa minggu ke depan dengan jenis pupuk yang lengkap. adanya kartu tani membantu petani mengakses perbankan khususnya untuk menabung dan menebus pupuk bersubsidi. ditinjau dari tepat tempat mayoritas petani menyatakan bahwa tempat menebus pupuk dekat dengan tempat tinggal, akses yang mudah ke pengecer dikarenakan infrastruktur dan transportasi yang memadai serta informasi yang disampaikan dan bagusnya fasilitas yang diberikan pengecer 96 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (pengiriman pupuk secara langsung ke petani) membuat petani paham terhadap program kartu tani. ditinjau dari tepat waktu mayoritas petani menyatakan bahwa dalam pembelian pupuk tidak memerlukan waktu yang lama. demikian juga dalam menunggu distribusi pupuk. ditinjau dari tepat mutu mayoritas petani menyatakan bahwa mutu pupuk yang diperoleh sudah sesuai dengan yang diharapkan, walaupun masih jauh jika dibandingkan dengan pupuk non subsidi. ditinjau dari segi harga mayoritas petani menyatakan bahwa harga pupuk yang dijual ditingkat pengecer sudah sesuai dengan het. fakta di lapangan menunjukkan tidak terjadi permainan harga karena adanya pengawasan harga pupuk oleh aparat dan pemerintah. harga pupuk ditingkat petani terdapat tambahan biaya untuk kas kelompok, biaya administrasi dan biaya angkut pupuk yang sudah disepakati antar anggota kelompok. hal ini selaras dengan pendapat ardiyanto (2013) yang menyatakan bahwa permintaan pupuk bersubsidi yang tinggi memunculkan biaya proses pemasaran pupuk misalnya transport, biaya bongkar muat, dan lain-lain. berdasarkan hasil tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa dibandingkan dengan tahun sebelumnya pendistribusian, pengendalian dan pengawasan pupuk bersubsidi menggunakan kartu tani jauh lebih efektif dibandingkan secara langsung dikarenakan sudah sesuai asas 6 tepat dan sesuai dengan harapan petani. walaupun masih terdapat beberapa petani yang menyatakan netral atau kurang tepat pada aspek tepat jumlah khususnya perihal alokasi pupuk sesuai jumlah yang diusulkan rdkk, tepat sasaran; tepat jenis khususnya program kartu tani membantu petani dalam akses layanan perbankan; serta tepat tempat, khususnya terkait dengan kemudahan mengakses tempat penebusan pupuk bersubsidi. hal tersebut dikarenakan pengetahuan yang minim dan acuh atau kurang berminat untuk mengikuti program pemerintah. berbeda dengan hasil penelitian sularno (2016) terkait pendistribusian pupuk secara langsung, yang masih menemukan beberapa masalah, yaitu terjadinya kelangkaan pupuk, permainan harga, dan keterlambatan pengiriman yang disebabkan minimnya jumlah pupuk subsidi dan lemahnya pengawasan pengedaran pupuk dari pemerintah. adanya program kartu tani mampu meningkatkan pengendalian penggunaan pupuk sesuai dengan luas lahan dan anjuran penyuluh. petani yang mendapatkan pupuk tidak sesuai dengan luasan lahan dapat dibantu dengan pengajuan rdkk tambahan serta penambahan alokasi pupuk. terdapat pengawasan pengedaran pupuk subsidi oleh pemerintah melalui kp3 (komisi pengawasan pupuk dan pestisida) bekerjasama dengan aparat penegak hukum sehingga pupuk benar-benar sesuai didistribusikan kepada petani yang membutuhkan. hubungan pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani hasil uji korelasi rank spearman antara pengetahuan petani terhadap program kartu tani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani sebagaimana ditampilkan pada tabel 6, menunjukkan bahwa pelaksanaan program kartu tani di kabupaten semarang akan lebih efektif jika petani mempunyai pengetahuan yang lebih komprehensif terkait program kartu tani. tabel 6. hubungan pengetahuan dan efektivitas pelaksanaan program variabel (x) efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani (y) korelasi (r) sig. (2-tailed) tingkat pengetahuan petani 0,568 0,000 hasil analisis data pada tabel 6 menunjukkan bahwa nilai koefisien korelasi (r) sebesar 0,568, dan nilai sig. (2-tailed) 0,000 yang artinya terdapat hubungan yang kuat dan sangat signifikan antara tingkat pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani. hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat pengetahuan petani terhadap program kartu tani maka semakin tinggi efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani. hal senada ditemukan dalam penelitian abidin (2015) terdapatnya hubungan yang positif antara aspek pengetahuan dengan pencapaian tujuan penyuluhan, artinya semakin baik pengetahuan petani maka semakin tercapai tujuan penyuluhan. 97 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 meningkatnya pengetahuan petani khususnya pada aspek tujuan, manfaat, pedoman dan cara penggunaan kartu tani akan meningkatkan penggunaan kartu tani dalam penebusan dan pendstribusian pupuk bersubsidi sesuai dengan asas 6 tepat (jenis, jumlah, tempat, waktu, mutu, harga) sehingga dapat meningkatkan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani. adanya hubungan yang signifikan antara tingkat pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani dikarenakan adanya peran aktif kelompok tani dalam memberikan informasi dan bantuan dalam pelaksanaan program kartu tani. bantuan tersebut diberikan dalam bentuk pendataan anggota kelompok dan pendaftaran pembuatan kartu tani; penyusunan rdkk (rencana definitif kebutuhan kelompok) untuk pengajuan pupuk bersubsidi sesuai dengan luas lahan; sosialisasi dan pengenalan program kartu tani; penebusan atau pembelian pupuk bersubsidi di pengecer. dengan demikian petani dapat merasakan manfaat program dengan baik dan sesuai dengan tujuan. meningkatnya pengetahuan petani melalui sosialisasi yang diperoleh petani dari penyuluh, dinas terkait dan bank bri membuat petani semakin tahu terhadap program dan membuat petani melaksanakan program dengan cara menggunakan kartu tani untuk menebus pupuk bersubsidi tanpa adannya paksaan. hal ini diperkuat pendapat pratama (2016) yang menyatakan bahwa peran kelompok tani yang dibantu penyuluh untuk membuat kelompok menjadi kelas belajar dan wahana kerjasama sangat berpengaruh dalam membantu petani melaksanaan usahataninya sehingga keberhasilan dapat dicapai. tingkat pengetahuan petani sangat berpengaruh dalam meningkatkan efektivitas pelaksanaan suatu program. informasi yang diperoleh dari sosialisasi program kartu tani yang telah dilaksanakan oleh penyuluh, dinas terkait dan bank bri membuat petani menjadi sadar akan manfaat program dan petani bersedia melaksanakan program tanpa adanya tekanan atau ketegangan. berjalannya program dengan penerimaan dan pelaksanaan secara dengan baik oleh petani dapat meningkatkan efektivitas suatu program. kesimpulan mayoritas petani mengikuti dan mendukung adanya program kartu tani dikarenakan mudahnya dalam menebus pupuk bersubsidi. program kartu tani dilaksanakan petani melalui kelompok tani mengikuti arahan penyuluh mulai pengusulan, penerbitan sampai penebusan pupuk bersubsidi. mayoritas petani memiliki pengetahuan terhadap program kartu tani yang tergolong kategori kurang tahu. efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani di kabupaten semarang tergolong dalam kategori efektif. hal tersebut menandakan pendistribusian pupuk bersubsidi tepat sasaran sesuai dengan petani yang berhak menerima. terdapat hubungan yang kuat dan sangat signifikan antara tingkat pengetahuan petani dengan efektivitas pelaksanaan program kartu tani. semakin tinggi pengetahuan petani terhadap berbagai aspek terkait program, maka semakin tinggi pula kesadaran petani terhadap manfaat program. sehingga bersedia menerima dan menjalankan program tanpa tekanan. berdasarkan hasil temuan diatas disarankan bahwa pelaksanaan program kartu tani di kabupaten semarang berjalan efektif sehingga perlu disebarluaskan karena memiliki banyak potensi dalam meningkatkan kemampuan petani khususnya terkait erat dengan pengetahuan dalam mengakses dunia perbankan dan pupuk bersubsidi pemerintah. meskipun saat ini masih banyak ditemukan banyak kendala yang dihadapi sehingga sosialisasi perihal kartu tani perlu diperkuat kembali khusunya perihal bantuan akses permodalan dari bank bri melalui kartu tani, dan penjualan hasil panen menggunakan kartu tani. dalam pelaksanaan program kartu tani kedepannya perlu adanya evaluasi, pengawasan dan pelaksanaan khsusnya pendampingan penggunaan kartu tani oleh petani secara mandiri agar kedepannya dapat menggunakan kartu tani dengan lebih baik lagi dan juga harus didukung oleh lembaga terkait agar pelaksanaan kartu tani dapat berjalan lebih efektif. daftar pustaka abidin, n. i., rosnita., dan yulida, r. (2015). efektivitas media penyuluhan yang diberikan kepada petani karet (hevea brasiliensis) di desa 98 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research gunung bungsu kecamatan xiii koto kampar (studi kasus penyuluhan pengendalian jamur akar putih).jurnal online mahasiswa faperta, 2(2), 1–14. ardiyanto, w., dan santoso, p. b. (2013). kajian pupuk bersubsidi di pekalongan (studi kasus di kecamatan kesesi). diponegoro : journal of economics, 2(3), 1-15. arisandi, n. w. w., sudarma, i. m., dan rantau, i. k. (2016). efektivitas distribusi subsidi pupuk organik dan dampaknya terhadap pendapatan usahatani padi sawah di subak sungsang desa tibubiu kabupaten tabanan. jurnal agribisnis dan agrowisata, 5(1), 1-10. biro infrastruktur dan sumber daya alam provinsi jawa tengah.(2016). petunjuk praktis penggunaan kartu tani melalui sistem informasi pertanian indonesia (sinpi) di jawa tengah.retrieved from http://www.biroinfrasda.jatengprov.go. id. kementrian pertanian. (2017). petunjuk pelaksanaan penyediaan dan penyaluran pupuk bersubsidi ta. 2018. jakarta: direktorat jendral prasarana dan sarana pertanian kementrian pertanian. moko, k. w., suwarto., dan utami, b. w. (2017). presepsi petani terhadap program kartu tani di kecamatan kaijambe kabupaten sragen. jurnal caraka tani, 32(1), 10–14. nirzalin., dan maliati, n. 2017. produktivitas pertanian dan involusi kesejahteraan petani (studi kasus di meunasah pinto aceh utara). jurnal sosiologi pedesaan, 5(2), 106-119 . perarturan mentri perdagangan nomor 15. (2013). pengadaan dan penyaluran pupuk bersubsidi untuk sektor pertanian. jakarta: kementrian perdagangan pratama, b. p., sayamar, e., dan tety, e. (2016). peran kelompok tani dalam memingkatkan pendapatan petani swadaya kelapa sawit di desa bukit lingkar kecamatan batang cenaku kabupaten indragiri hulu. jurnal faperta, 3(2), 1-12. rachman, b., and sudaryanto,t. (2010). impacts and future perspectives of fertilizer policy in indonesia. journal food fertilizer and technology, 11(1), 93−104. rangkuti, s. (2012).efektivitas pendistribusian pupuk bersubsidi di kabupaten deli serdang (studi kasus di kecamatan hamparan perak). jurnal administrasi publik, 2(2), 287-317. sarwono, j., dan salim, h. n. (2016). prosedurprosedur populer statistik untuk analisis data riset skripsi. yogyakarta : penerbit gava media, siregar, s. (2017).statistik parametrik untuk penelitian kuantitatif. jakarta : pt. bumi aksara. suharyanto.,rinaldi, j., arya, n. n., dan mahaputra, k. (2017). faktor – faktor yang mempengaruhi persepsi petani terhadap kebijakan perlindungan lahan pertanian pangan berkelanjutan di provinsi bali. jurnal pengkajian dan pengembangan teknologi pertanian, 20(2), 111–124. suharyon., dan busyra, b. s. (2016). kinerja kelompok tani dalam sistem usahatani padi lahan sub optimal dan metode pemberdayaan (studi kasus pada kegiatan padi sawah di lahan sub optimal kabupaten tanjung jabung timur jambi). jurnal penelitian universitas jambi seri humaniora, 18(1), 78-85. sularno., irawan, b., dan handayani, n. (2016). analisis pelaksanaan kebijakan dan distribusi pupuk bersubsidi di kabupaten karawang jawa barat. jurnal agrosains dan teknologi, 1(2), 74-87. susila, w. r. (2010). kebijakan subsidi pupuk : ditinjau kembali. jurnal litbang pertanian, 29(2), 4349 susilowati, s. h., dan maulana, m. (2012). luas lahan usahatani dan kesejahteraan petani: eksistensi petani gurem dan urgensi kebijakan reforma agraria. jurnal analisis kebijakan pertanian, 10(1), 17-30. widarti, s., kurniawan, h.m., dan simpuk, s. (2016).analisis pemasaran pupuk bersubsidi tanaman pangan di kecamatan sanggau ledo kabupaten bengkayang. jurnal agrosains, 2(13), 9-13. yuliani, f. (2015). efektivitas implementasi kebijakan pupuk subsidi pada tanaman pangan di kabupaten rokan hilir. jurnal spirit publik.1(10), 133-162. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural develpoment research vol. 5 no. 1 januari-juni 2019 ani dwi wimatsari, sunarru samsi hariadi, edhi martono fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta *) email korespondensi: anidwi94@gmail.com sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik dan pengaruhnya terhadap minat berusahatani salak organik youth of village attitudes on organic farming of snakefruit and it’s effect toward their interest on farming organic doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5175 abstract one of the problems that occur in agricultural sector is farmer regeneration. farmer regeneration problem does not only occur in food crop sub-sector, but also in horticulture sub-sector. one of the commodities in horticultural sub-sector which also have this problem is salak. this study aims to determine the attitude of the young generation (village youth) toward salak organic farming along with its influencing factors, and to analyze the influence of village youth attitudes towards interest of village youth to continue salak organic farming. the study was conducted in turi district, which is the center for salak production in sleman regency, with a total sample of 164 village youth taken by census technique. data were analyzed using multiple linear regression and simple regression analysis. the results showed that role of new media and the role of agricultural extensionist had negative and significant effect on the attitudes of village youth, while the perceptions of village youth on organic salak farming and the role of parents had a positive effect on village youth attitudes towards labor factors in farming. in addition, the attitude of village youth significantly affected the interest of village youth to continue organic salak farming. keywords: attitude, interest, organic salak farming, village youth intisari salah satu permasalahan yang terjadi di sektor pertanian yaitu regenerasi petani. masalah regenerasi petani tidak hanya terjadi di sub sektor tanaman pangan, namun juga sub sektor hortikultura. salah satu komoditas dalam sub sektor hortikultura yang juga mengalami permasalahan ini yaitu salak. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui sikap generasi muda (pemuda desa) terhadap usahatani salak organik beserta faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi, serta untuk menganalisis pengaruh sikap pemuda desa terhadap minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik. penelitian dilakukan di kecamatan turi yang merupakan sentra produksi salak di kabupaten sleman, dengan total sampel penelitian yaitu 164 orang pemuda desa yang diambil dengan teknik sensus. data dianalisis dengan menggunakan uji regresi linier berganda dan uji regresi sederhana. hasil yang diperoleh yaitu bahwa peran media baru dan peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan berpengaruh negatif dan signifikan terhadap sikap pemuda desa, sedangkan persepsi pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik dan peran orangtua berpengaruh positif terhadap sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. selain itu, sikap pemuda desa secara signifikan mempengaruhi minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik. kata kunci: minat, pemuda desa, sikap, usahatani salak organik pendahuluan permasalahan dalam sektor pertanian yang saat ini banyak dikaji oleh para ahli dan peneliti salah satu diantaranya yaitu regenerasi petani. hal ini disebabkan karena saat ini sebagian besar petani di indonesia tergolong dalam usia tua dan sedikit pemuda yang http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.4269 56 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research berminat untuk melanjutkan bekerja di bidang pertanian (wiyono, 2015). setiawan (2012) menjelaskan bahwa umur petani menjadi salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi keberlanjutan usahatani, sebab umur akan terkait erat dengan aktivitas petani dalam mengelola usahataninya, bahwa umur akan mempengaruhi daya psikologis, daya biologis, potensi dan tingkat kepekaan. semakin tua umur petani, maka petani akan memiliki kemampuan fisik yang terbatas, sehingga keberlanjutan pengelolaan usahatani akan terhambat. isu regenerasi petani tidak hanya terjadi pada sub sektor tanaman pangan, namun juga pada sub sektor lainnya, salah satunya yaitu hortikultura. weinberger dan lumpik (dalam lakitan 2014) menjabarkan bahwa hortikultura merupakan suatu bentuk diversifikasi usahatani yang berpotensi untuk mengurangi kemiskinan dan dapat membuka kesempatan kerja serta meningkatkan pendapatan petani. salah satu komoditas unggulan hortikultura di indonesia yaitu salak. salak merupakan salah satu komoditas hortikultura yang saat ini mulai mendapat dukungan pemerintah untuk meningkatkan peluang ekspor ke negara-negara baru. hal ini dibuktikan dengan baru-baru ini dilakukan penandatanganan kerja sama ekspor buah salak antara indonesia dengan negara selandia baru (julianto, 2017). upaya perluasan pasar penjualan buah salak menjadi potensi penjualan buah salak yang tidak hanya pada pasar lokal maupun nasional, namun juga pada pasar internasional. akan tetapi, peluang ini dihadapkan pada permasalahan adakah generasi yang mau dan berminat untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak, sebab tanpa adanya generasi penerus, ketersediaan salak di masa mendatang akan terancam karena produksi buah salak akan terbatas. oleh karena itu, penting untuk mengetahui bagaimana minat pemuda untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa mendatang. melalui kajian minat pemuda terhadap usahatani salak organik, akan dapat diketahui potensi keberlanjutan usahatani salak organik di masa yang akan datang. imelda, rofi’i, & huwaida (2014) menjelaskan bahwa niat atau minat merupakan ukuran yang menunjukkan seberapa kuat kemauan seseorang untuk melakukan suatu tindakan. engel menyatakan bahwa minat adalah fungsi dari keyakinan dan evaluasi mengenai sikap, serta dipengaruhi oleh keyakinan akan penilaian/pengharapan dari orang lain di lingkungan individu tersebut (norma subjektif) (imelda, rofi’i, & huwaida, 2014). hal ini juga didukung oleh marhaini (2008), yang menjelaskan mengenai hubungan antara sikap, minat dan norma subjektif pada teori tindakan beralasan (theory of reasoned action) oleh ajzen dan fishben. menurut teori sikap, keyakinan normatif dan dorongan untuk mengikuti pendapat orang lain terhadap suatu tindakan (norma subjektif), beserta sikap terhadap suatu tindakan akan menentukan minat seseorang dalam melakukan suatu tindakan. secara garis besar, minat seseorang untuk melakukan suatu tindakan ditentukan oleh dorongan dari dalam diri, motif sosial, motif ekonomi dan faktor emosional (crow dan crow; hurlock dalam budiati, 2014). selain faktor tersebut, beberapa faktor lain yang juga dapat mempengaruhi pembentukan minat dan keputusan pemuda untuk bekerja di bidang pertanian yaitu peran keluarga, akses terhadap informasi, (tarigan, 2004; lakitan, 2014; ningsih dan sjar, 2015) dan tingkat pendidikan (wiyono, 2015; hajrah, siswoyo, & rahayu, 2016). orangtua/keluarga memegang peranan penting dalam pembentukan sikap terhadap pekerjaan di bidang pertanian, serta menentukan minat dan keputusan bagi pemuda desa untuk bekerja atau melanjutkan berusahatani, sebab orangtua/keluarga akan mempengaruhi pembentukan persepsi dan sikap pemuda terhadap pertanian (nugraha, 2012). terkait dengan pembentukan persepsi seseorang terhadap suatu objek/tindakan, penelitian indraningsih (2011) menjelaskan bahwa akses terhadap media akan mempengaruhi pembentukan persepsi seseorang terhadap suatu objek. hal ini didukung oleh susilowati (2016), bahwa citra pertanian yang ditampilkan melalui media baru (media sosial/internet), akan menentukan persepsi pemuda terhadap usahatani. terkait dengan pembentukan persepsi, teori persepsi oleh umstot (1988) menjabarkan bahwa secara garis besar persepsi dapat dipengaruhi oleh orang yang memberi persepsi, objek yang dipersepsikan, dan situasi terjadinya 57 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 persepsi. informasi yang diperoleh individu tidak seluruhnya akan diproses dan diinterpretasikan, namun sebagian akan hilang atau ditolak dalam proses penyaringan. melalui informasi yang diterima tersebut, individu akan menginterpretasikannya yang kemudian akan terbentuk persepsi. berdasarkan persepsi yang terbentuk, akan mempengaruhi pembentukan sikap, perilaku dan perasaan terhadap objek yang dipersepsikan. hal ini didukung oleh penelitian yang dilakukan oleh limpo (2013), bahwa sikap positif siswa terhadap mata pelajaran matematika ditentukan oleh persepsi positif (baik) mereka terhadap lingkungan di sekolah. pembentukan sikap dan minat aktor di bidang pertanian tentu tidak terlepas dari peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan. lionberger dan gwin menjabarkan mengenai peran penyuluh, yaitu komunikator (pembawa/penyampai informasi atau inovasi), motivator, fasilitator proses, agen penghubung, guru yang mengajarkan dan membentuk keterampilan, pengelola program, pekerja kelompok, penjaga batas, promoter, konsultan, pembentuk lembaga, pemimpin lokal, work helper dan pekerja kelompok (narso, asngari, & muljono, 2012). melalui optimalisasi peran-peran tersebut, yang didukung dengan metode, teknik dan sumberdaya yang memadai, diharapkan penyuluh akan mampu merubah sikap, persepsi dan perilaku aktor di bidang pertanian, tidak hanya petani namun juga pemuda desa, sehingga pemuda akan termotivasi, mampu dan mau untuk melanjutkan usahatani di masa mendatang. terkait dengan keberlanjutan pertanian, kajian tersebut tidak hanya difokuskan pada pengukuran sikap dan minat generasi muda untuk melanjutkan bekerja di bidang pertanian, namun juga pelaksanaan usahatani (budidaya) yang ramah lingkungan. pengelolaan usahatani yang ramah lingkungan dapat dilakukan dengan melakukan budidaya tanaman secara organik. kegiatan pertanian yang didasarkan atas perspektif ekologi (penggunaan sumberdaya alam alami yang efisien, meminimalkan penggunaan pestisida dan pupuk kimia), akan mendukung keberlanjutan pertanian di masa mendatang (tumusiime dan matotay, 2014). oleh sebab itu, penelitian ini fokus dalam mengkaji minat pemuda desa dalam melakukan usahatani secara organik, hal ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui bagaimana potensi keberlanjutan pertanian tidak hanya dalam aspek sosial (minat), namun juga dalam aspek ekologis (lingkungan/alam). secara garis besar, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik (sebagai representasi permasalahan regenerasi petani) dan bagaimana pengaruh sikap tersebut terhadap pembentukan minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa yang akan datang. metode penelitian penelitian dilakukan di kecamatan turi, kabupaten sleman, daerah istimewa yogyakarta (diy) pada tahun 2018. kecamatan turi dipilih sebagai lokasi penelitian karena daerah ini merupakan salah satu sentra produksi salak di kabupaten sleman dengan produksi tertinggi jika dibandingkan dengan kecamatan lain (kecamatan tempel dan pakem). sampel dalam penelitian ini adalah pemuda desa berusia 15-35 tahun yang mengusahakan/keluarga mereka memiliki kebun salak organik teregistrasi. sampel penelitian sebanyak 164 orang, yang diambil dengan teknik sensus. data diperoleh dengan teknik wawancara dan menggunakan kuesioner. pendekatan dasar dalam penelitian ini yaitu pendekatan kuantitatif, dimana data yang diperoleh dianalisis dengan uji regresi linier berganda untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik, dan uji regresi sederhana untuk menganalisis pengaruh sikap pemuda desa terhadap minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa mendatang. persamaan rumus regresi linier berganda yaitu (sugiyono, 2014): y1=a+b1x1+b2x2+…+b8x8…………….. (1) y2=a+bxy1…………………………..………… (2) a merupakan konstanta, b adalah koefisien regresi, x adalah variabel independen. pada persamaan 1), variabel independen yang diduga mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik (y1) yaitu jumlah pendidikan formal yang telah 58 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research ditempuh oleh pemuda desa (x1), status keanggotaan pemuda desa dalam kelompok tani (x2), persepsi pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik (x3), peran media baru (x4), peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan (x5), dan peran orangtua (x6). setelah diketahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik, dilakukan analisis regresi sederhana untuk mengetahui pengaruh sikap tersebut (xy1) terhadap minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik (y2), dengan persamaan 2) yaitu persamaan regresi sederhana. x1 memiliki satuan dalam tahun (data rasio), x2 merupakan dummy variabel, dimana kode 0 adalah ‘tidak bergabung dalam kelompok tani’ dan kode 1 adalah ‘bergabung dalam kelompok tani’, sedangkan x3, x4, x5, x6, xy1, dan y2 merupakan data skala likert (satuan skor). sebelum diuji menggunakan analisis regresi, dilakukan pengujian validitas dan reliabilitas kuesioner pada variabel sikap, persepsi, peran media baru, peran orangtua dan peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan. pengujian (baik validitas-reliabilitas kuesioner dan regresi), dilakukan dengan spss 23. kuesioner dinyatakan reliabel jika memiliki nilai cronbach’s alpha based on standardized item (cabsi) > 0,7. apabila nilai cabsi semakin mendekati 1, maka konsistensi kuesioner dalam mengukur di setiap variabel akan semakin tinggi. validitas kuesioner (kemampuan kuesioner/item pertanyaan di setiap variabel untuk mengukur apa yang seharusnya diukur) dinyatakan dengan nilai corrected item total correlation (citc) > 0,1289 (dengan tingkat kesalahan α=10%). hasil dan pembahasan sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik sikap dalam penelitian ini adalah respons pemuda desa, baik secara afektif (perasaan), kognitif (pengetahuan) maupun konatif (kecenderungan bertindak) terhadap usahatani salak organik. respons (sikap) pemuda desa tersebut dapat bernilai positif (setuju) maupun negatif (tidak setuju). secara garis besar, sebaran sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik di lokasi penelitian dijabarkan melalui tabel 1. tabel 1. kategori sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik no. kategori sikap jumlah (orang) persentase (%) 1. sangat tidak setuju 0 0,00 2. tidak setuju 3 1,83 3. ragu-ragu 39 23,78 4. setuju 105 64,02 5. sangat setuju 17 10,37 jumlah 164 100,00 berdasarkan tabel 1., dapat diketahui bahwa sebagian besar pemuda desa memiliki penilaian yang setuju terhadap usahatani salak organik, yang ditunjukkan dengan persentase pemuda desa yang memiliki sikap setuju sebesar 64,02%. hal ini berarti bahwa pemuda desa setuju bahwa ketersediaan tenaga kerja dalam usahatani salak organik akan sangat menentukan keberlanjutan usahatani salak organik di masa mendatang. pemuda desa beranggapan bahwa mereka (pemuda atau anak-anak petani salak) merupakan pihak yang berpotensi untuk dapat melanjutkan usahatani salak organik milik orangtua atau keluarga, sehingga mereka akan dapat berpartisipasi dalam upaya meregenerasi petani di usahatani salak organik. selain setuju terhadap pentingnya ketersediaan tenaga kerja dalam usahatani salak organik, terkait dengan faktor tenaga kerja dalam hal manajemen usahatani salak organik, pemuda desa juga memiliki penilaian yang setuju. hal ini berarti bahwa, selain ketersediaan jumlah, terkait dengan kualitas tenaga kerja dalam memanajemen usahatani salak organik, juga penting untuk dipertimbangkan, dengan kata lain pemuda desa menilai bahwa kecapakan/keterampilan tenaga kerja dalam usahatani salak sangat diperlukan untuk mendukung keberlanjutan usahatani salak di masa mendatang. hal juga didukung melalui tabel 2. tentang deskripsi tingkat sikap pemuda berdasarkan indikator dalam setiap komponen sikap, bahwa rata-rata sikap yang dimiliki pemuda desa terhadap aspek pentingnya kecakapan tenaga kerja, ketersediaan tenaga kerja serta kemudahan manajemen dalam usahatani salak organik 59 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 tabel 2. sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik no. indikator interval skor skor rerata tingkat sikap (%) a. kognitif (pengetahuan) 1. kelangkaan tenaga kerja berakibat pada mundurnya penanaman, sehingga berpengaruh pada kualitas produk yang dihasilkan. 0-5 2,72 54,39 2. kelangkaan tenaga kerja berakibat pada mundurnya penanaman, sehingga berpengaruh pada pertumbuhan tanaman salak. 0-4 2,49 62,24 3. kelangkaan tenaga kerja berakibat pada mundurnya penanaman, sehingga berpengaruh pada jumlah produksi salak yang dihasilkan. 0-4 2,49 62,25 4. tersedianya tenaga kerja dari dalam keluarga berperan dalam menjaga keberlanjutan usahatani salak organik. 0-5 3,89 77,77 5. tersedianya tenaga kerja dari luar keluarga berperan dalam menjaga keberlanjutan usahatani salak organik. 0-4 2,73 68,22 6. tenaga kerja berusia muda cenderung memiliki kemampuan dan kekuatan fisik yang lebih baik jika dibandingkan dengan tenaga kerja yang tergolong tua. 0-4 2,73 68,28 7. tenaga kerja berusia muda diperlukan dalam usahatani salak organik karena mereka mudah/cepat belajar mengenai hal-hal baru (terutama terkait usahatani salak organik). 0-4 2,52 62,99 8. regenerasi petani dalam usahatani salak perlu dilakukan untuk mewujudkan keberlanjutan usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,72 68,01 9. informasi yang tepat mengenai usahatani salak organik dapat mengembangkan usahatani salak. 0-5 3,88 77,67 10. dengan menggunakan bibit/benih organik akan dapat diperoleh produk salak yang berkualitas. 0-6 3,89 64,78 11. dengan penggunaan bibit/benih organik akan dapat diperoleh produk salak yang bernilai jual tinggi. 0-4 2,72 68,12 12. melalui pengolahan produk yang tepat, produk olahan salak akan dapat dipasarkan dengan peluang yang luas. 0-4 2,73 68,20 jumlah (a) 0-53 35,51 rata-rata (a) 67,00 b. afektif (rasa suka/perasaan) 1. melakukan rehabilitasi jaringan irigasi karena mudah dilakukan. 0-6 3,90 64,93 2. melakukan kegiatan penanaman di kebun karena tidak membutuhkan waktu yang cukup banyak. 0-4 2,34 58,46 3. merawat tanaman salak di kebun agar terhindar dari gulma. 0-4 2,73 68,20 4. merawat tanaman salak di kebun agar terhindar dari hama/hewan pengganggu sehingga hasil tetap terjaga. 0-5 3,89 77,75 5. merawat tanaman salak di kebun agar terhindar dari penyakit sehingga hasil tetap terjaga. 0-5 3,89 77,77 6. melakukan pemanenan sesuai waktu panen dan dengan cara yang tepat di kebun. 0-4 2,72 68,09 7. mencari informasi terkait usahatani salak organik untuk mengembangkan usahatani. 0-4 2,34 58,47 jumlah (b) 0-32 21,80 rata-rata (b) 68,13 c. konatif (kecenderungan bertindak) 1. mencari informasi terkait perkembangan iklim karena mudah diperoleh. 0-4 2,34 58,59 2. melakukan rehabilitasi terhadap jaringan irigasi di kebun. 0-4 2,72 68,07 3. melakukan kegiatan penanaman sesuai dengan masa tanam. 0-4 2,49 62,28 4. melakukan perawatan dengan teknik yang tepat untuk menjaga hasil dalam usahatani salak. 0-4 2,72 68,11 5. melakukan pemanenan sesuai dengan waktu panen karena akan mempengaruhi kualitas buah salak yang dipanen. 0-4 2,34 58,49 6. melakukan rehabilitasi jaringan irigasi untuk menjaga ketersediaan air bagi budidaya salak di kebun. 0-4 2,34 58,53 7. mencari informasi terkait usahatani salak organik karena dapat mengembangkan usahatani salak. 0-4 2,49 62,21 jumlah (c) 0-28 17,45 rata-rata (c) 62,33 jumlah (a,b,c) 0-113 74,76 rata-rata (a,b,c) 66,16 keterangan: tingkat sikap (dalam %) 0-20=sangat tidak setuju, 21-40=tidak setuju, 41-60=ragu-ragu, 61-80=setuju, 81-100=sangat setuju 60 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research adalah setuju, yang ditunjukkan dengan nilai tingkat sikap sebesar 66,16%. melalui tabel 2., juga dapat diketahui bahwa komponen sikap dengan nilai tertinggi yaitu pada komponen sikap afektif dengan rata-rata tingkat sikap sebesar 68,13%. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pemuda desa setuju untuk senang dalam melakukan kegiatan manajemen dalam usahatani salak organik, terutama pada kegiatan perawatan tanaman salak di kebun agar terhindar dari penyakit dan serangan hama/opt, sehingga kualitas dan kuantitas buah yang dihasilkan akan tetap terjaga. indikator perawatan tanaman memiliki tingkat sikap tertinggi disebabkan karena sebagian pemuda desa membantu orangtua mereka untuk merawat tanaman salak di kebun milik keluarganya. pemuda menganggap bahwa kegiatan perawatan tanaman ini mudah dilakukan sehingga mereka senang untuk melakukannya. melalui tabel 2., juga dapat disimpulkan bahwa komponen sikap kognitif memiliki nilai tingkat sikap sebesar 67,00% yang berarti pemuda desa setuju bahwa ketersediaan tenaga kerja dari dalam keluarga berperan dalam menjaga keberlanjutan usahatani salak organik dan informasi yang tepat mengenai usahatani salak organik dapat mengembangkan usahatani salak organik. hal ini berarti bahwa rata-rata pemuda desa memiliki evaluasi positif atau setuju tentang pentingnya regenerasi petani salak, yang salah satu upaya untuk mewujudkannya yaitu dengan mau meneruskan usahatani salak milik orangtua mereka. selain itu, melalui kecakapan tenaga kerja pada usahatani salak organik dalam memperoleh informasi terkini dan terbaru terkait usahatani salak organik, akan dapat memajukan usahatani salak organik, atau dengan kata lain tenaga kerja yang secara aktif mencari informasi terbaru terkait usahatani salak organik akan dapat berpeluang mengembangkan usahatani salaknya. pemuda desa dalam hal ini telah memahami akan pentingnya akses terhadap informasi dalam mendukung pengembangan usahatani salak organik. secara keseluruhan, indikator sikap yang memiliki nilai terendah yaitu pengetahuan bahwa kelangkaan tenaga kerja berakibat pada mundurnya penanaman, sehingga berpengaruh pada kualitas produk yang dihasilkan, dimana pemuda desa raguragu akan hal tersebut. hal ini disebabkan karena pemuda desa telah memahami mengenai berbagai faktor di luar tenaga kerja yang juga akan mempengaruhi keberhasilan usahatani salak organik, yaitu faktor modal dan alam-tanah. hal ini didukung oleh suratiyah (2006), bahwa faktor produksi dalam usahatani yaitu faktor alam, tanah; faktor tenaga kerjamanajemen; dan faktor modal, peralatan. faktor manajemen melekat pada tenaga kerja karena aktor di bidang pertanian/petani berperan sebagai manajer dalam aktivitas usahatani, atau dengan kata lain seluruh kegiatan/aktivitas berusahatani sangat ditentukan oleh kecakapan dan kualitas tenaga kerja. faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik berdasarkan tabel 2., dapat diketahui bahwa sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh faktor persepsi pemuda terhadap usahatani salak organik, peran media baru, peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan dan peran orangtua, sedangkan faktor pendidikan dan status keanggotaan tidak berpengaruh secara nyata. secara bersama-sama, variabel-variabel independen tersebut signifikan mempengaruhi pembentukan sikap pemuda desa terhadap aspek tenaga kerja dalam usahatani salak organik sebesar 29,2% dan sebanyak 70,8% diantara dipengaruhi variabel-variabel lain di luar penelitian ini. faktor pendidikan dan status keanggotaan pemuda desa dalam kelompok tani tidak berpengaruh terhadap pembentukan sikap pemuda desa terhadap aspek tenaga kerja dalam usahatani salak organik disebabkan karena berdasarkan observasi di lapangan, diperoleh data bahwa sebesar 80,49% pemuda desa di kecamatan turi menempuh pendidikan setingkat sma. selain itu, dari 164 orang responden, 85,98% diantaranya tidak bergabung dalam kelompok tani. hal ini membuktikan bahwa sebaran pemuda desa berdasarkan pendidikan dan status keanggotaan dalam kelompok tani memiliki kecenderungan bersifat homogen, sehingga tidak terdapat perbedaan yang nyata pada sikap mereka. faktor peran media baru dan peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan memiliki pengaruh signifikan negatif terhadap pembentukan sikap pemuda desa 61 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 terhadap usahatani salak organik. hal ini menandakan bahwa dengan semakin sering media baru berperan dalam menyediakan informasi mengenai usahatani salak organik, dan semakin sering peran penyuluh sebagai organisator, komunikator, motivator dan komunikator maka akan membuat sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik akan semakin negatif (kurang setuju). tabel 3. hasil analisis regresi linier berganda pada faktorfaktor yang mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik no. variabel koefisien regresi (b) t hitung sig. keterangan 1. pendidikan -0,342 -0,654 0,514 ns 2. status keanggotaan -0,380 -0,144 0,885 ns 3. persepsi 0,493 3,885 0,000 *** 4. peran media baru -0,121 -2,216 0,028 ** 5. peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan -0,109 -1,680 0,095 * 6. peran orangtua 0,307 5,477 0,000 *** konstanta 52,380 6,836 0,000 *** adjusted r square 0,292 f hitung 12,213 f tabel 1,812 keterangan: ***, **, *, ns berturut-turut yaitu signifikan pada alfa 1%, 5%, 10% serta tidak signifikan jenis media baru yang banyak digunakan oleh pemuda desa yaitu media sosial dan internet/website, dengan tingkat peran media masing-masing sebesar 29,08% dan 25,02%. hal ini berarti bahwa pemuda desa jarang menggunakan media sosial dan internet/website untuk mencari informasi mengenai usahatani salak organik. namun, nilai tingkat penggunaan tersebut lebih besar jika dibandingkan dengan nilai tingkat intensitas penggunaan aplikasi elektronik pertanian, dimana nilai tingkat intensitas penggunaan media baru ini oleh pemuda desa hanya sebesar 10,72% atau dengan kata lain pemuda desa hampir tidak pernah menggunakan aplikasi elektronik pertanian. pemuda desa lebih banyak menggunakan media sosial dan internet/website untuk mengakses informasi mengenai usahatani salak organik karena dianggap lebih mudah digunakan dan dekat dengan kehidupan mereka sehari-hari. program aplikasi elektronik pertanian hampir tidak pernah digunakan oleh pemuda desa karena sampai saat ini, belum ada sosialisasi yang secara khusus memperkenalkan penggunaan media baru tersebut terutama untuk kalangan pemuda. peran media baru memiliki pengaruh negatif terhadap pembentukan sikap pemuda terhadap usahatani salak organik disebabkan karena informasi yang banyak disediakan melalui media baru terkait usahatani salak organik adalah fluktuasi harga jual produk salak. informasi mengenai fluktuasi harga penjualan buah salak ini akan mempengaruhi penilaian pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik, terutama dalam manajemen penjualan buah salak, dimana pemuda desa akan menilai bahwa harga jual buah salak kurang stabil sehingga menyebabkan pemasaran dan penjualan buah salak menjadi sulit dilakukan, terutama jika memasuki panen raya karena harga jual buah salak akan sangat rendah. hal ini sesuai dengan medium theory oleh marshall mcluhan, yang menjelaskan bahwa media, terlepas dari apapun isi yang disampaikan, akan berdampak pada diri individu dan masyarakat, dimana internet akan mempengaruhi masyarakat tanpa melihat situs apa yang diakses (littlejohn dan foss, 2011). selain itu, teori kultivasi menjelaskan mengenai pengaruh media baru (yang merupakan salah satu bentuk terbaru media massa) terhadap pembentukan keyakinan dan sikap terhadap dunia sekitar. azwar (2015) memaparkan bahwa media massa sebagai media informasi memiliki peranan penting sebagai sarana penyedia informasi dan hal tersebut membuat media massa memiliki pengaruh dalam membentuk opini dan kepercayaan seseorang. hal ini disebabkan karena media massa akan memberikan kognitif baru bagi seseorang, dan kognitif tersebut yang akan mempengaruhi pembentukan sikap pada diri individu. oleh sebab itu, apa yang disampaikan media baru mengenai usahatani salak organik akan mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. selain peran media baru, peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan juga memiliki pengaruh negatif terhadap pembentukan sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. hal ini disebabkan karena sebagian besar kelompok tani salak di kecamatan turi merupakan kelompok tani yang tergolong mandiri dan telah lama mengusahakan budidaya salak secara organik, sehingga mereka memiliki tingkat ketergantungan yang cukup rendah dengan penyuluh pertanian lapangan. faktor selain peran media baru dan penyuluh pertanian lapangan yang juga secara signifikan mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik yaitu faktor persepsi dan peran orangtua, dengan pengaruh positif. hal ini berarti 62 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research bahwa semakin sering peran orangtua dalam mendorong, memberikan informasi dan memfasilitasi pemuda desa dalam kegiatan usahatani salak organik, serta semakin baik interpretasi pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik maka sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik akan semakin positif (setuju). menurut umstot (1988), persepsi individu terhadap suatu objek akan mempengaruhi terbentuknya sikap, perilaku dan perasaan individu tersebut terhadap objek, atau dengan kata lain bahwa persepsi pemuda terhadap usahatani salak organik akan mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. semakin baik persepsi dan interpretasi pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik, maka pemuda desa akan cenderung memiliki sikap setuju terhadap usahatani salak organik, setuju bahwa usahatani salak organik mudah dilakukan baik dalam hal manajemen/perawatan hingga pemasaran. terkait dengan peran orangtua, pemuda desa menilai orangtua memiliki peran penting dalam membentuk sikap mereka terhadap usahatani salak organik, sebab orangtua merupakan pihak yang paling dekat dengan mereka dalam lingkungan sosial terkecil, yaitu keluarga dan pihak yang akan mewariskan kebun salak kepada mereka. orangtua banyak memberikan informasi mengenai usahatani salak organik, selain itu juga banyak melatih pemuda desa dalam praktik berusahatani salak organik karena sering mengajak pemuda desa untuk membantu merawat kebun salak milik keluarga. hal ini sesuai dengan apa yang dikemukakan oleh bandura dalam baron (2004), bahwa sikap yang terbentuk dalam diri sesorang dapat terjadi karena orang tersebut mengimitasi tingkah laku orang lain dan banyak kasus yang menjelaskan bahwa seorang anak akan mengobservasi dan meniru apa yang orangtua mereka lakukan. penelitian ini, selain mengkaji mengenai sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik beserta faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya, juga mengkaji mengenai bagaimana pengaruh sikap tersebut terhadap pembentukan minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa mendatang. hal ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui bagaimana potensi keberlanjutan usahatani salak organik ditinjau dari ketersediaan tenaga kerja di masa yang akan datang. tabel 3. minat pemuda desa dalam usahatani salak organik no. indikator interval skor skor rerata tingkat minat (%) 1. minat untuk menggunakan benih/bibit organik unggul bersertifikat yang diterapkan dalam usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,23 55,65 2. minat untuk menggunakan pupuk organik dalam usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,73 68,13 3. minat untuk menggunakan air irigasi yang tidak terkontaminasi bahan kimia berbahaya dalam usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,23 55,78 4. minat untuk menggunakan pestisida yang ramah lingkungan dalam usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,49 62,19 5. minat untuk selalu mencari informasi tentang pertanian salak organik. 0-4 2,49 62,18 6. minat untuk selalu berpartisipasi dalam diskusi-diskusi terkait usahatani salak di masa mendatang. 0-4 2,72 67,96 7. minat untuk selalu berdiskusi tentang pentingnya pemakaian bahan organik dalam usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,72 68,12 8. minat untuk selalu berpartisipasi dalam pengambilan keputusan dalam usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,34 58,43 9. minat untuk menjalin kerjasama dengan teman sesama petani salak untuk menyukseskan usahatani salak di masa mendatang. 0-4 2,73 68,14 10. minat untuk menjalin kerjasama dengan tenaga pendamping/penyuluh untuk menyukseskan usahatani di masa mendatang. 0-4 2,49 62,20 11. minat untuk menjalin kerjasama dengan lembaga/instansi/dinas untuk menyukseskan usahatani di masa mendatang. 0-5 3,89 77,71 12. minat untuk menjalin kerjasama dengan perguruan tinggi pertanian untuk menyukseskan usahatani di masa mendatang. 0-4 2,49 62,23 13. minat untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik untuk mewujudkan ketersediaan tenaga kerja di bidang pertanian salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-5 3,89 77,72 14. minat untuk menambah keterampilan agar usahatani dapat semakin berkembang. 0-4 2,49 62,18 15. minat untuk menambah pengetahuan agar usahatani dapat semakin berkembang. 0-5 3,88 77,70 16. minat untuk tetap mempertahankan lahan budidaya salak saat ini untuk tetap digunakan sebagai lahan budidaya salak di masa yang akan datang. 0-4 2,48 62,09 jumlah 0-67 44,27 rata-rata 66,07 keterangan: tingkat minat (dalam %) 0-20=sangat tidak berminat, 21-40=tidak berminat, 41-60=ragu-ragu, 61-80=berminat, 81-100=sangat berminat minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik berdasarkan tabel 3., dapat diketahui bahwa secara keseluruhan, rata-rata tingkat minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa mendatang yaitu sebesar 66,07% atau pemuda 63 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 desa berminat untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik. pemuda desa berminat melanjutkan usahatani salak organik terutama disebabkan karena mereka memahami bahwa dengan ikut serta dalam melanjutkan usahatani salak organik, mereka akan berkontribusi dalam meuwujudkan ketersediaan tenaga kerja dalam usahatani salak organik dan mendukung terwujudnya keberlanjutan usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang.pemuda desa memiliki minat yang paling tinggi dalam hal menjalin kerjasama dengan lembaga/instansi/dinas untuk menyukseskan usahatani di masa mendatang. hal ini disebabkan karena dengan menjalin kerjasama dengan berbagai pihak yang terkait dengan usahatani salak organik sebagai upaya untuk mengembangkan usahatani salak organik di masa depan. selain itu, pemuda desa juga memiliki minat yang tinggi untuk menambah pengetahuan tentang usahatani salak organik. hal ini karena pemuda memahami akan pentingnya pengetahuan dasar yang cukup mengenai manajemen dan pelaksanaan usahatani salak organik, sebab dengan berbagai informasi yang tepat mengenai usahatani salak organik, mereka akan melaksanakan usahatani salak organik dengan baik, sehingga kuantitas dan kualitas produksi salak akan terjamin. melalui terjaminnya kualitas dan kuantitas produksi, maka pemasaran/penjualan dan harga jual produk akan semakin baik, sehingga akan berdampak pada semakin banyaknya peluang peningkatan keuntungan dan pendapatan. aspek yang memiliki tingkat minat paling rendah yaitu minat pemuda desa untuk menggunakan benih/bibit organik unggul bersertifikat yang diterapkan dalam usahatani salak di masa yang akan datang. hal ini disebabkan karena sebagian besar tanaman salak yang ada di kebun mereka/di kebun milik keluarga mereka merupakan tanaman yang sudah berasal turun-temurun dari orangtua mereka. saat ini, mereka menganggap tanaman tersebut masih dalam kualitas yang baik untuk memproduksi buah salak, sehingga mereka belum berminat untuk mengganti tanaman salak mereka dengan tanaman salak yang baru. penggantian tanaman salak dengan tanaman baru hanya dilakukan pada sebagian sedikit tanaman di kebun yang mati/rusak karena faktor alam (bencana alam) dan serangan opt (organisme pengganggu tanaman)/penyakit, sehingga mereka belum pernah melakukan pembongkaran lahan secara keseluruhan. selain itu, sebagian besar petani di kecamatan turi melakukan cangkok untuk memperoleh tanaman salak yang berkualitas, dan cangkok tersebut dilakukan pada tanaman yang mereka miliki sendiri. oleh karena itu, mereka tidak terlalu berminat untuk mencari benih/bibit salak lain sebab kualitas tanaman yang mereka miliki sudah tergolong baik. melalui tabel 3., dapat diketahui bahwa tidak ada pemuda desa yang memiliki minat sangat kuat (sangat berminat) untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa mendatang. hal ini disebabkan karena sebagian besar pemuda desa berminat melanjutkan usahatani salak disebabkan karena mereka ingin meneruskan pengelolaan kebun salak dari orangtua mereka, selain itu mereka juga ingin melanjutkan usahatani salak organik (bekerja di bidang usahatani salak organik) sebagai pekerjaan sampingan. hal ini berarti rata-rata pemuda desa ingin memiliki pekerjaan utama di luar sektor usahatani salak organik, dan berminat untuk mengembangkan usahatani salak organik melalui pekerjaan sampingan. pengaruh sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik pada pembentukan minat untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik berdasarkan analisi, dapat diketahui bahwa terdapat pengaruh sikap pemuda desa pada usahatani salak organik terhadap pembentukan minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa yang akan datang. hal ini berarti bahwa semakin setuju penilaian pemuda desa terhadap ketersediaan tenaga kerja, kualitas tenaga kerja dan manajemen dalam usahatani salak organik, maka minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik akan semakin tinggi. secara jelas, hasil analisis regresi sederhana pengaruh sikap pemuda desa terhadap minat melanjutkan usahatani salak organik dijabarkan dalam tabel 4. 64 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tabel 4. pengaruh sikap pemuda desa terhadap minat melanjutkan usahatani salak organik variabel koefisien regresi (b) t hitung sig. minat 0,494*** 9,784*** 0,000 konstanta 7,303*** 1,904*** 0,059 adjusted r square 0,368*** f hitung 95,728*** keterangan: ***, **, *, ns berturut-turut yaitu signifikan pada alfa 1%, 5%, 10% serta tidak signifikan terkait dengan pengaruh sikap pemuda desa pada usahatani salak organik terhadap minat pemuda dalam melanjutkan usahatani salak organik, dapat diketahui melalui tabel 4. berdasarkan tabel 4., dapat disimpulkan bahwa terdapat pengaruh signifikan yang positif antara sikap pemuda desa terhadap minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik. hal ini berarti bahwa semakin positif (baik/setuju) sikap pemuda desa pada usahatani salak organik, maka mereka akan semakin berminat untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik. semakin baik/setuju sikap pemuda desa terhadap kemudahan manajemen/pelaksanaan kegiatan budidaya salak dan pemasaran/penjualan salak, maka pemuda akan semakin berminat untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik. selain itu, dengan semakin pahamnya pemuda desa tentang pentingnya regenerasi petani dan peran mereka dalam mendukung terwujudnya keberlanjutan usahatani salak organik, maka mereka akan semakin berminat untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik di masa yang akan datang. hubungan sikap pemuda desa pada usahatani salak organik dengan minat untuk melanjutkan berusahatani salak organik secara jelas dijabarkan melalui gambar 1. melalui gambar 1., dapat diketahui bahwa melalui kenaikan satu satuan sikap pemuda desa maka akan terjadi kenaikan minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik sebesar 7,303 satuan skor. selain itu, berdasarkan tabel 4., juga dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebesar 36,8% minat pemuda desa dalam melanjutkan usahatani salak organik ditentukan oleh sikap mereka terhadap usahatani salak organik (terutama pada faktor ketersediaan dan keterampilan serta manajemen dalam usahatani salak organik), dan sebesar 63,2% dipengaruhi oleh variabel lain di luar penelitian ini. gambar 1. sikap pemuda desa pada usahatani salak organik terhadap minat melanjutkan usahatani salak organik kesimpulan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik yaitu peran orangtua, peran penyuluh pertanian lapangan, peran media baru, dan persepsi pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. persepsi pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik dan peran orangtua memiliki pengaruh positif terhadap pembentukan sikap pemuda desa, sedangkan peran penyuluh pertanian dan peran media baru berpengaruh negatif dalam membentuk sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. selain itu, dapat disimpulkan bahwa terdapat pengaruh positif yang signifikan antara sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik dengan pembentukan minat pemuda desa untuk meneruskan usahatani salak organik. peningkatan minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik dapat dilakukan dengan memperbaiki persepsi pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. selain itu, juga dapat dengan mengoptimalkan penyebaran informasi positif mengenai usahatani salak organik melalui media baru, terutama melalui media sosial dan internet/website. melalui penyebaran informasi mengenai usahatani salak organik yang positif (misalnya informasi mengenai cerita sukses petani salak, kebijakan baru terkait komoditas salak, peluang dan potensi pengembangan pasar penjualan salak dalam skala lokal, 65 vol.5 no.1 januari-juni 2019 nasional maupun internasional), akan dapat memperbaiki penilaian pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik. apabila interpretasi, penilaian dan sikap pemuda desa terhadap usahatani salak organik akan semakin baik, maka potensi peningkatan minat pemuda desa untuk melanjutkan usahatani salak organik juga akan semakin meningkat. daftar pustaka azwar, s. 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(2011). pengaruh penyuluhan terhadap keputusan petani dalam adopsi inovasi teknologi usahatani terpadu. jurnal agro ekonomi 29 (1) (pp. 1-24). julianto, p. a. (2017). salak pondoh asal sleman tembus pasar selandia baru. kumparan. retrieved from https://kumparan .com/wijinurhayat/salak-ri-mulai-diekspor-ke-selandiabaru-tahun-ini lakitan, b. (2014). identifikasi teknologi yang relevan untuk mendukung diversifikasi usaha petani dan diversifikasi konsumsi pangan di indonesia. jurnal teknovasi indonesia 3(1) (pp. 1-25). limpo, j. n., oetomo, h., dan suprapto, m. h. (2013). pengaruh lingkungan kelas terhadap sikap siswa untuk pelajaran matematika. humanitas 10 (1) (pp. 37-48). littlejohn, s. w. dan foss, k. a. (2011). teori komunikasi (diterjemahkan dari theories of human communication).jakarta: salemba humanika. marhaini. (2008). analisis perilaku konsumen dalam pembelian komputer merek acer (studi kasus: mahasiswa fakultas ekonomi universitas sumatera utara). jurnal manajemen bisnis 1 (3) (pp. 89-96). narso, a. s., asngari, p. s., dan muljono, p. (2012). strategi pengembangan peran penyuluh pertanian lapang di provinsi banten. jurnal penyuluhan 8 (2) (hal. 176-183). ningsih, f. dan sjar, s. (2015). faktor-faktor yang menentukan keterlibatan pemuda pedesaan pada kegiatan pertanian berkelanjutan. jurnal penyuluhan 11 (1) (pp. 23-37). nugraha, y. a. (2012). hubungan orang tua, media massa, dan teman dengan sikap pemuda terhadap pekerjaan di bidang pertanian. tesis: sekolah pascasarjana institut pertanian bogor. setiawan, i. (2012). agribisnis kreatif: pilar wirausaha masa depan, kekuatan dunia baru menuju kemakmuran hijau. jakarta: penebar swadaya. suratiyah, k. (2006). ilmu usahatani, cetakan i. jakarta: penebar swadaya. susilowati, s. h. (2016). fenomena penuaan petani dan berkurangnya tenaga kerja muda serta implikasinya bagi kebijakan pembangunan pertanian. forum penelitian agro ekonomi 34 (1) (pp. 35-55). tarigan, h. (2004). representasi pemuda pedesaan mengenai pekerjaan pertanian: kasus pada komunitas perkebunan teh rakyat di jawa barat. icaserd working paper no.29. pusat penelitian dan pengembangan sosial ekonomi pertanian, badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian, departemen pertanian, bogor. tumusiime, e. and matotay, e. (2014). agriculture sustainability, inclusive growth, and development assistance: insights from tanzania. journal of sustainable development 7 (4) (pp. 181-190). umstot, d. d. (1987). understanding organizational behavior. st. paul: west publishing company. wiyono, s. (2015). kajian regenerasi petani: pada keluarga petani padi dan hortikultura november 2015. bogor: koalisi rakyat untuk kedaulatan pangan (krkp). muhamad ferdian saputra1*, muhammad firdaus2, tanti novianti2 1institut pertanian bogor dan badan pusat statistik, simboro, mamuju, indonesia 2institut pertanian bogor, darmaga, bogor, indonesia *) email korespondensi: ferdian1001@gmail.com agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 pola konsumsi pangan non karbohidrat pada provinsi tahan dan rawan pangan (provinsi kalimantan timur dan nusa tenggara timur) tahun 2017 consumption patterns of non carbohydrate food in secure and insecure provinces (east kalimantan and east nusa tenggara province) in 2017 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5282 abstract the problem of national food security could not be resolved if the problems at the lowest level (household) did not resolved. one of the effective strategy to achieve food security was increasing food diversification. this study compared the patterns of consumption and the level of diversification of household food among provinces that were resistant to food insecurity. this study used national socio-economic survey (survei sosial ekonomi nasional/susenas) data from statistic indonesia and analyzed using the berry index and the almost ideal demand system (la / aids) model. this study found that the level of income and the level of food diversification in food secure province (east kalimantan) were higher than those in food insecure province (east nusa tenggara). the patterns of household food consumption in east nusa tenggara province was more influenced by changes in income, while east kalimantan was subject to price changes. keywords: diversification, elasticity, income, la / aids, price. intisari permasalahan ketahanan pangan nasional tidak dapat diselesaikan apabila permasalahan di tingkat terkecil (rumahtangga) tidak terselesaikan. salah satu strategi yang efektif untuk menuju ketahanan pangan adalah dengan melakukan peningkatan diversifikasi pangan. penelitian ini membanding kan pola konsumsi dan tingkat diversifikasi pangan rumah tangga antara provinsi tahan dengan rawan pangan. penelitian ini menggunakan data susenas dan dianalisis menggunakan indeks berry dan model linear almost ideal demand system (la/aids). penelitian ini menemukan bahwa tingkat pendapatan dan tingkat diversifikasi pangan di provinsi tahan pangan (kalimantan timur/kaltim) lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan provinsi yang rawan pangan (nusa tenggara timur/ntt). pola konsumsi pangan rumah tangga di ntt lebih dipengaruhi oleh perubahan pendapatan, sedangkan kaltim oleh perubahan harga. kata kunci : diversifikasi, elastisitas, harga, la/aids, pendapatan pendahuluan pangan merupakan salah satu kebutuhan mendasar bagi manusia. sektor pangan memiliki keterikatan ke depan yang cukup tinggi dibandingkan dengan sektor lainnya (fortunika et al., 2017). permasalahan pangan nasional tidak dapat diselesaikan apabila permasalahan di tingkat terkecil (rumah tangga) tidak terselesaikan. ketersediaan pangan yang cukup sudah menjadi hak asasi bagi setiap warga negara. kebijakan penyediaan pangan dapat disusun dengan menggunakan informasi pola konsumsi rumah tangga (kementerian perdagangan, 2013). pola konsumsi pangan masyarakat indonesia masih belum beragam dan bergizi seimbang, di mana pola konsumsi pangan pokok per kapita masih didominasi oleh makanan sumber karbohidrat 130 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (rachman dan ariani,2008). pola pangan harapan (pph) indonesia juga belum mencapai angka yang ideal, di mana angka kecukupan energi (ake) penduduk di indonesia memiliki skor 90.4 kkal pada tahun 2017. pendapat lain dipaparkan oleh ariani (2010) yang menemukan bahwa pola konsumsi masyarakat indonesia mulai beragam, khusunya untuk konsumsi protein yang sudah melebihi dari anjuran, namun untuk konsumsi umbi-umbian, pangan hewani, sayur, dan buah masih harus ditingkatkan. faktor harga pangan yang tidak stabil juga menjadi permasalahan bagi rumah tangga. harga pangan menentukan pendapatan riil masyarakat secara positif bagi pedagang pangan dan secara negatif bagi pembelinya yang akan memengaruhi distribusi pendapatan dan investasi, sehingga memengaruhi terjadinya kemiskinan yang juga memengaruhi akses rumah tangga untuk memperoleh makanan (matz et al. 2015). penelitian riyani et al. (2018) juga menyatakan bahwa peningkatan harga komoditas pangan pertanian dapat menyebabkan menurunnya permintaan komoditas tersebut. menurut uu no. 18 tahun 2012 tentang pangan yang menyatakan bahwa penyelenggaraan pangan dilakukan berdasarkan asas kedaulatan, kemandirian, ketahanan, keamanan, manfaat, pemerataan, berkelanjutan, dan berkeadilan. penyelenggaraan pangan yang diamanatkan oleh undang-undang tersebut didorong untuk mewujudkan kedaulatan pangan, kemandirian pangan, dan ketahanan pangan. ketersediaan dan keterjangkauan/akses dalam memperoleh pangan yang cukup menjadi indikator penting dalam ketahanan pangan. strategi pencapaian ketahanan pangan biasanya dilakukan dengan pengembangan komoditas pangan baik dari kuantitas dan kualitasnya. penelitian wijaya (2017) menemukan bahwa pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan dapat meningkatkan produktivitas yang bisa menunjang ketahanan pangan. strategi lainnya yang dapat dijadikan alternatif adalah dengan melakukan diversifikasi pangan. ketika terjadi kenaikan harga barang, diversifikasi pangan menjadi salah satu cara untuk mengatasi ketergantungan terhadap pangan tertentu. diversifikasi pangan tidak hanya fokus pada pemenuhan kebutuhan pangan sumber karbohidrat saja, namun juga pada sumber makanan lainnya baik protein, vitamin, dan mineral. ruel (2003) mendefinisikan bahwa diversifikasi pangan merupakan jumlah atau jenis pangan yang berbeda yang dikonsumsi pada suatu periode tertentu. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa untuk memperoleh makanan yang sehat dengan gizi seimbang, rumah tangga harus mengkonsumsi makanan yang berbeda. pernyataan tersebut mengandung arti bahwa konsumsi makanan sumber non karbohidrat menjadi sangat penting. faktor pendapatan juga turut memengaruhi ketahanan pangan rumahtangga. naiknya pendapatan perkapita menunjukkan peningkatan akses terhadap pangan yang seharusnya diiringi dengan peningkatan diversifikasi pangan, sehingga perlu penelitian untuk membuktikan apakah dengan peningkatan akses terhadap pangan menyebabkan peningkatan diversifikasi pangan rumah tangga di indonesia. penelitian kumar et al. (2011) membuktikan bahwa peningkatan pendapatan mengakibatkan pengalihan alokasi anggaran penduduk dari makanan berbasis sereal/biji-bijian menuju komoditas bernilai tinggi seperti buah-buahan, sayuran, susu, ikan, daging dan produk daging. hasil berbeda ditemukan oleh widodo et al. (2016) menemukan bahwa tingkat pendapatan tidak berdampak pada tingkat kerawanan pangan. informasi pola konsumsi juga dapat digunakan oleh pemerintah untuk memantau tingkat kesejahteraan penduduk yang diukur dengan tingkat konsumsi pangan secara kuantitas (kementerian perdagangan dalam analisis dinamika konsumsi pangan masyarakat indonesia tahun 1996-2011, 2013). kenaikan harga pangan yang tidak terkontrol dalam jangka pendek akan menyebabkan kemampuan akses masyarakat untuk memperoleh makanan menjadi berkurang sehingga dapat menyebabkan terjadinya kemiskinan (headey et al.2016). periode 2017 sampai dengan 2018 ada 5 (lima) komoditas strategis yang konsisten menyebabkan kenaikan harga pangan di ntt yaitu jagung, daging ayam ras, tongkol, tempe dan minyak 131 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 goreng adapun di kaltim yaitu ketela pohon, mie instant, telur ayam ras, pisang, dan minyak goreng. tabel 1. andil inflasi dari komoditas pangan, 2017-2018 nama komoditas 2017 2018 ntt kaltim ntt kaltim beras -0,02 0,18 0,05 jagung 0,01 -0,01 0,01 0,01 ketela pohon 0,02 0,01 0,01 mie instant -0,01 0,02 0,01 0,01 terigu -0,01 -0,01 0,01 -0,01 daging ayam ras 0,05 -0,09 0,38 0,06 daging sapi -0,01 0,02 0,01 -0,03 tongkol 0,07 0,06 0,03 -0,08 telur ayam ras 0,09 0,07 -0,01 0,05 tahu 0,04 -0,02 -0,07 -0,01 tempe 0,02 -0,04 0,01 0,01 apel 0,02 -0,03 -0,02 0,03 pisang -0,03 0,01 -0,02 0,07 bawang merah -0,30 -0,23 -0,08 0,04 cabai merah -0,10 -0,08 0,03 -0,01 minyak goreng 0,04 0,02 0,02 0,01 sumber : bps (2017-2018) perbedaan keadaan pembangunan di masingmasing wilayah di indonesia menyebabkan perbedaan rumah tangga dalam melakukan diversifikasi pangan. wilayah indonesia bagian timur rata-rata merupakan daerah rawan pangan dibandingkan dengan provinsi di kawasan lainnya. berdasarkan data pengeluaran konsumsi bps maret 2017, terdapat 16 provinsi yang memiliki ratarata pengeluaran di atas angka nasional salah satunya adalah kaltim (disebut sebagai provinsi tahan pangan) sebesar 1,443,928 rupiah, sedangkan provinsi dengan rata-rata pengeluaran terendah yaitu ntt (disebut sebagai provinsi rawan pangan) sebesar 681,484 rupiah. kaltim merupakan provinsi yang memiliki pangsa pengeluaran pangan yang terendah diluar pulau jawa dan bali sedangkan ntt memiliki pangsa pengeluaran pangan tertinggi. menurut peta ketahanan dan kerawanan pangan atau food security and vulnerability atlas (fsva) badan ketahanan pangan tahun 2017 menunjukkan bahwa kaltim merupakan provinsi dengan ketahanan pangan yang baik, sedangkan ntt termasuk dalam kategori provinsi yang rawan pangan (gambar 1) sumber: badan ketahanan pangan (2018) gambar 1. peta ketahanan dan kerawanan pangan tahun 2018 (keterangan: warna hijau/tahan pangan, kuning/cukup, merah /rawan pangan) penelitian terhadap komoditas pangan sumber non karbohidrat baik tingkat provinsi maupun nasional di indonesia antara lain dilakukan oleh arthatiani et al. (2018), irawan (2002), mauludyani et al. (2008), miranti et al.(2016), pangaribowo et al.(2011), rizal et al. (2018), dan suroso et al. (2014). namun penelitian-penelitian sebelumnya hanya melakukan pengamatan pada skala provinsi dengan unit sampel rumah tangga golongan tertentu saja, atau skala nasional dengan unit sampel provinsi, atau hanya pada nilai total kelompok komoditas saja. penelitian yang membandingkan antara daerah rawan dan tahan pangan masih terbatas. informasi ini dapat berguna untuk merumuskan kebijakan intervensi pangan yang dirancang untuk meningkatkan konsumsi golongan rumah tangga di daerah rawan pangan serta meningkatkan diversifikasi pangan di provinsi tahan dan rawan pangan. hal tersebut penting bagi pengambil kebijakan, karena komoditas yang diintervensi hanya dikonsumsi oleh golongan yang menjadi target sasaran kebijakan (timmer, 1983). penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis perbedaan pola konsumsi dan tingkat diversifikasi pangan rumah tangga antara provinsi tahan dengan rawan pangan. studi ini juga mengkaji perbedaan pengaruh pendapatan dan harga pangan terhadap diversifikasi pangan rumah tangga. 132 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research metode penelitian penelitian ini menggunakan data sekunder yaitu susenas modul konsumsi bulan maret tahun 2017. unit sampel dalam penelitian adalah sebanyak jumlah sampel susenas tahun 2017 dengan rincian sebagai berikut: sebanyak 5,134 rumah tangga untuk kaltim, dan 10,795 rumah tangga untuk ntt. komoditas yang digunakan yaitu 15 komoditas pangan sumber non karbohidrat yang terdiri dari 9 komoditas strategis dan 6 komoditas lainnya yang banyak dikonsumsi di kedua provinsi. komoditas strategis ini juga terdiri dari komoditas strategis di tingkat individu dan tingkat grosir. adapun rincian komoditas sebagai berikut: 1. komoditas strategis di tingkat individu yaitu kedelai, bawang merah, cabai merah keriting, telur ayam ras, daging ayam ras dan daging sapi; 2. komoditas strategis di tingkat grosir yaitu gula, minyak goreng,; 3. komoditas lainnya yaitu ikan tongkol, tahu, tempe, apel, pisang, vetsin, mie instan. analisis dilakukan berdasarkan penggolongan tipe daerah dan pengeluaran rumah tangga perkapita per bulan (tabel 2). tipe daerah adalah berdasarkan daerah perkotaan dan perdesaan. penggolongan berdasarkan pengeluaran rumah tangga perkapita dilakukan mengikuti penggolongan yang digunakan oleh bps dan diberikan kode untuk memudahkan analisis, sebagai berikut: tabel 2. kode golongan perkapita sebulan golongan pengeluaran perkapita sebulan (rupiah) keterangan <150,000 (g1) golongan 1 150,000 199,999 (g2) golongan 2 200,000 299,999 (g3) golongan 3 300,000 499,999 (g4) golongan 4 500,000 749,999 (g5) golongan 5 750,000 999,999 (g6) golongan 6 1,000,000 1,499,999 (g7) golongan 7 ≥1,500,000 (g8) golongan 8 sumber : bps diolah (2017) pada tahap awal analisis dilakukan secara statistik deskriptif melalui penyajian nilai konsumsi pangan sumber non karbohidrat berdasarkan pada pangsa pengeluarannya. teknik analisis yang sama juga telah dilakukan pada beberapa penelitian sebelumnya mengenai pola konsumsi antara lain mauludyani et al. (2008), miranti et al. (2016), dan arthatianiet al. (2018). hasil tabulasi dari analisis pola konsumsi kemudian digunakan untuk membentuk variabel pada model permintaan pangan yang diduga dalam penelitian. metode analisis yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah model linear aproximation almost ideal demand system (la/aids) yang merupakan modifikasi model yang dikembangkan oleh deaton dan muelbauer (1980) dengan memasukkan berbagai variabel yang secara teoritis dan empiris relevan mempengaruhi permintaan. beberapa kelebihannya yaitu: (1) memberikan kuasa pada pendekatan orde pertama untuk setiap sistem permintaan, (2) memenuhi aksioma pilihan dengan tepat, (3) mengagregasi sempurna para konsumen tanpa melibatkan kurva linear engel paralel, (4) memiliki bentuk fungsional yang konsisten dengan data anggaran rumah tangga, (5) mudah untuk diestimasi, dapat menghindari kebutuhan untuk estimasi non linear, dan (6) dapat digunakan untuk menguji pembatasan homogenitas dan simetri melalui pembatasan linear pada parameter tetap (deaton dan muellbauer 1980). dipilihnya model ini karena telah digunakan dalam berbagai penelitian sebelumnya faharuddin et al. (2015), miranti et al. (2016), dan surianiet al. (2018) dan mampu memberikan hasil yang baik saat diaplikasikan dengan data di indonesia. fungsi permintaan aids dalam bentuk budget share yang digunakan dalam penelitian yaitu: wi=αi+ ∑ γijj log(pj)+βi log { x p* } + θ art + µ log exp + λ dwil +δ imri (1) keterangan: wi : budget share pangan i pj : harga pangan ke-j x : total pengeluaran pangan p : indeks harga stone αi, βi, γij, θ, µ, λ, δ : intersep, parameter dugaan harga pangan, total pengeluaran, jumlah anggota rumah tangga, dummy 133 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 wilayah, dan inverse mills ratio exp : pengeluaran/pendapatan rumah tangga dwil : dummy desa kota imri : inverse mills ratio dari persamaan 1 dihasilkan 15 persamaan operasional untuk setiap provinsi. contoh persamaan umum untuk komoditas ikan tongkol adalah sebagai berikut: wtong=αtong+γtonglogptong+γdsap log pdsap +…+γroklogprok+βtong log { x p } + θ art j+ µ log exp + λ dwil +δ imri (2) setelah memperoleh model permintaan pangan la/aids maka dapat dianalisis lebih lanjut untuk memperoleh besaran nilai elastisitas pengeluaran, elastisitas harga dan elastisitas harga silang untuk dapat menggambarkan respon permintaan terhadap berbagai perubahan yang terjadi dalam variabel. model permintaan dikatakan sesuai teori jika memenuhi syarat-syarat yang harus dipenuhi pada fungsi permintaan. oleh karena itu, model yang digunakan adalah model permintaan pangan dengan restriksi adding up, homogenitas, dan simetri. nilai koefisien determinasi yang cukup tinggi yaitu 55 persen, sisanya dijelaskan oleh faktor lain di luar model. hasil dan pembahasan pangsa pengeluaran pangan berdasarkan pengolahan data maka dapat diketahui komoditas sumber non karbohidrat dengan pangsa pengeluaran tertinggi adalah gula pasir di ntt sedangkan kaltim adalah daging ayam ras. pangsa pengeluaran gula pasir di ntt adalah 0,04 sedangkan daging ayam ras di kaltim sebesar 0,06 (tabel 3). dari data tersebut juga dapat dilihat bahwa ntt memiliki ketahanan pangan yang lebih rendah dikarenakan pangsa pengeluaran pangan non karbohidrat lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan kaltim. analisis model permintaan la/aids yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini diformulasikan berdasarkan data pangsa pengeluaran, variabel harga dan karakteristik rumah tangga. hasil analisis diharapkan dapat menjawab faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan pangan dan respon permintaan pangan rumah tangga sehingga dapat memberikan rekomendasi kebijakan bagi upaya peningkatan konsumsi rumah tangga di kedua provinsi terutama di daerah yang rawan pangan. tabel 3. rata-rata pangsa pengeluaran pangan di ntt dan kaltim, 2017 nama komoditas ntt nama komoditas kaltim gula pasir 0,04 daging ayam ras 0,06 minyak goreng 0,04 telur ayam ras 0,06 mie instant 0,02 minyak goreng 0,05 pisang 0,02 mie instant 0,04 telur ayam ras 0,02 gula pasir 0,04 bawang merah 0,02 bawang merah 0,03 ikan tongkol 0,02 ikan tongkol 0,02 daging ayam ras 0,01 tempe 0,02 daging sapi 0,01 pisang 0,02 tahu 0,01 tahu 0,02 tempe 0,01 apel 0,01 vetsin 0,01 daging sapi 0,01 cabai merah 0,01 cabai merah 0,01 apel 0,01 vetsin 0,01 kedelai 0,01 kedelai 0,01 sumber: badan pusat statistik, (diolah) diversifikasi pangan tingkat diversifikasi pangan dari hasil olahan data menunjukkan bahwa rata-rata tingkat diversifikasi di kaltim sebesar 0,76 yang berarti bahwa sekitar 76 persen komoditas dikonsumsi oleh rumah tangga (tabel 4). tingkat diversifikasi pangan antara daerah di perdesaan dan di perkotaan kaltim juga hampir sama, di mana indeks bery di perkotaan dan di perdesaan hanya selisih sebesar 0,02. ntt memiliki rata-rata tingkat diversifikasi pangan yang lebih rendah sebesar 0,10 dibandingkan dengan kaltim. untuk tingkat diversifikasi pangan antara perdesaan dan perkotaan juga lebih timpang, dimana selisih nilainya sebesar 0,05 lebih tinggi di perkotaan. tabel 4. rata-rata tingkat diversifikasi pangan di ntt dan kaltim, 2017 uraian ntt kaltim provinsi 0,67 0,77 perdesaan 0,66 0,76 perkotaan 0,72 0,78 sumber : badan pusat statistik, (diolah) perbedaan tingkat diversifikasi pangan yang lebih rendah di desa dikarenakan ketersediaan variasi 134 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research jenis makanan lebih banyak di daerah perkotaan. hal ini juga disebabkan keterbukaan perdagangan dan fasilitas publik di perkotaan lebih baik dibandingkan di perdesaan. hal ini menyebabkan akses terhadap pangan yang lebih mudah di perkotaan dibandingkan di perdesaan. hasil pengolahan menggunakan model aids beberapa penelitian pola konsumsi yang menggunakan raw data susenas rata-rata memiliki nilai koefisien determinasi di bawah 50 persen yang rendah antara lain penelitian model permintaan oleh miranti et al. (2016), nugroho dan suparyono (2016). rendahnya koefisien determinasi dapat disebabkan karena data yang digunakan adalah data cross section yang keberagamannya sangat tinggi (gujarati 2003). hasil olah data juga menunjukkan, dari 667 koefisien hanya 307 atau hampir 50 persen diantaranya yang signifikan, sehingga hanya hampir 50 persen variabel bebas saja yang secara bersama-sama dalam model berpengaruh nyata dalam menentukan proporsi pengeluaran untuk semua komoditas pangan. analisis elastisitas pengeluaran pangan dan pendapatan nilai elastisitas komoditas pangan dalam model permintaan adalah salah satu hal penting dalam suatu penelitian terhadap pola konsumsi. elastisitas digunakan untuk mengetahui karakteristik komoditas pangan terhadap perubahan pendapatan rumah tangga dan harga pangan. nilai elastisitas pengeluaran digunakan untuk mengetahui respons dari perubahan permintaan yang disebabkan oleh perubahan pengeluaran rumah tangga untuk pangan. angka elastisitas pendapatan digunakan untuk melihat perubahan permintaan yang disebabkan oleh perubahan pengeluaran total/pendapatan. hasil perhitungan elastisitas pengeluaran dan pendapatan ditampilkan dalam tabel 5. berdasarkan nilai elastisitas pendapatan, seluruh komoditas merupakan barang normal. komoditas apel merupakan komoditas paling responsif di ntt, sebaliknya untuk gula pasir dan mie instant termasuk ke dalam komoditas yang kurang responsif yang ditunjukkan dengan nilai elastisitas pendapatan kurang dari ±1. untuk kaltim komoditas yang responsif adalah daging sapi, dan apel. jika dilihat dari model permintaan, apel memiliki nilai elastisitas yang tinggi dan dapat diartikan konsumsi komoditas tersebut lebih banyak dikonsumsi oleh rumah tangga dengan pendapatan per kapita tinggi. oleh karena itu, apel dapat dikategorikan sebagai barang mewah, dimana peningkatan pendapatan rumah tangga akan meningkatkan permintaan terhadap apel. selain itu, dapat disimpulkan apabila terjadi peningkatan pendapatan maka rumah tangga di ntt akan cenderung meningkatkan konsumsi apel, daging sapi, dan daging ayam ras dibandingkan komoditas lainnya tabel 5. nilai elastisitas pengeluaran pangan dan pengeluaran total/pendapatan komoditas ntt kaltim pengeluaran pangan pengeluaran total/ pendapatan pengeluaran pangan pengeluaran total/ pendapatan ikan tongkol 2,28 1,62 1,46 0,88 daging sapi 5,63 4,01 7,61 4,62 daging ayam ras 5,18 3,68 2,53 1,53 telur ayam ras 2,90 2,06 0,87 0,53 bawang merah 2,16 1,54 1,13 0,69 cabai merah 2,80 1,99 2,26 1,37 kedelai 1,86 1,32 1,17 0,71 tahu 3,68 2,62 1,16 0,70 tempe 3,75 2,67 1,12 0,68 apel 10,35 7,37 5,65 3,43 pisang 2,17 1,54 1,51 0,91 minyak goreng 1,87 1,33 0,93 0,56 gula pasir 1,02 0,73 0,49 0,30 vetsin 2,01 1,42 -2,96 -1,79 mie instant 1,39 0,98 0,35 0,21 sumber : badan pusat statistik, (diolah) elastisitas harga sendiri komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati di ntt nilai elastisitas harga untuk semua komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati di ntt memiliki nilai negatif sesuai dengan teori permintaan. besaran nilai elastisitas harga juga menunjukkan bahwa komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati di ntt bersifat elastis. dari tabel 6 dapat diketahui bahwa di ntt, daging sapi memiliki nilai elastisitas harga sendiri paling elastis yaitu sebesar -3,24. hal ini dapat diartikan jika terjadi kenaikan harga daging sapi 135 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 sebesar 10 persen maka akan terjadi peningkatan permintaan terhadap daging sapi sebesar 32 persen. hasil elastisitas tersebut sama dengan miranti (2016) di mana elastisitas harga sendiri daging sapi merupakan yang paling elastis dengan nilai sebesar 1.956. penelitian irawan (2002) menghasilkan elastisitas harga sendiri yang seluruhnya bernilai negatif dan bersifat inelastis pada komoditas ikan, daging ternak, daging unggas, dan telur. penelitian arthatiani (2018) untuk semua komoditas ikan menghasilkan elastisitas harga sendiri yang negatif. penelitian dengan hasil berbeda yaitu rizal (2018) dengan nilai elastisitas harga ikan laut tangkapan di bandung sebesar -1.932. elastisitas harga silang komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati di ntt ikan tongkol hanya memiliki hubungan substitusi dengan telur ayam ras sedangkan dengan komoditas sumber protein lainnya bersifat komplemen. kenaikan harga ikan tongkol berpotensi merubah rumah tangga untuk beralih ke konsumsi telur ayam ras. elastisitas harga sendiri komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati di kaltim elastisitas harga sendiri dan harga silang di kaltim dapat dilihat pada tabel 6. komoditas kedelai merupakan komoditas dengan elastisitas harga sendiri paling elastis yaitu sebesar 7,08. hal ini dapat diartikan jika terjadi kenaikan harga kedelai sebesar 10 persen maka akan terjadi peningkatan permintaan terhadap kedelai sebesar 70 persen. selain kedelai, daging sapi juga memiliki elastisitas harga sendiri yang bernilai positif sebesar 0,36 nilai elastisitas harga sendiri yang memiliki arah positif di kaltim untuk komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati adalah daging sapi dan kedelai. diduga komoditas-komoditas tersebut merupakan barang veblen, di mana konsumsi komoditas tersebut meningkat seiring kenaikan pendapatan. hal tersebut ditunjukkan dari pangsa pengeluaran komoditaskomoditas tersebut hanya dikonsumsi oleh golongan 6 ke atas yaitu golongan dengan pendapatan perkapita 750.000 rupiah ke atas. argumen serupa terdapat pada penelitian schachmurove dalam veblen (2012), dan leibenstein (1950) bahwa barang mewah atau veblen, kenaikan harganya membuat mereka lebih diinginkan di mata beberapa konsumen. tingginya harga meningkatkan status sosial yang tinggi jika mengkonsumsi barang-barang tersebut. hasil elastisitas harga sendiri bertanda positif juga terdapat pada penelitian (shachmurove et al. 2012) yang menemukan bahwa terjadi hubungan positif antara harga dan jumlah barang yangdikonsumsi untuk komoditas kentang dan roti tahun 1990 dan 1992 di rusia, di mana harga relatif kentang meningkat 36 persen dan jumlah yang dikonsumsi meningkat 13 persen, sedangkan harga relatif roti meningkat 30 persen dan jumlah relatif dikonsumsi meningkat 29 persen. dari tabel 6 dapat diketahui bahwa di kaltim, kedelai memiliki nilai elastisitas harga sendiri paling tinggi yaitu sebesar 7,08, sedangkan yang paling rendah adalah daging sapi sebesar 0,36. daging sapi, daging ayam ras, dan telur ayam ras merupakan komoditas yang memiliki elastisitas harga sendiri yang bersifat inelastis, di mana penurunan permintaan tidak sebesar dengan kenaikan harganya. hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa rumah tangga di kaltim memiliki preferensi yang tinggi terhadap konsumsi ketiga komoditas tersebut. elastisitas harga silang komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati di kaltim elastistitas harga silang kedelai terhadap permintaan daging sapi merupakan yang paling responsif yaitu sebesar -12,32. hal tersebut menunjukkan kedua komoditas tersebut merupakan barang mewah, dan sedikit rumah tangga yang mengkonsumsi sehingga pengaruh perubahan yang ditimbulkan sangat besar. 136 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research tabel 6. nilai elastisitas harga sendiri dan harga silang untuk komoditas sumber protein hewani dan nabati jumlah permintaan harga pangan ikan tongkol daging sapi daging ayam ras telur ayam ras kedelai tahu tempe ntt kaltim ntt kaltim ntt kaltim ntt kaltim ntt kaltim ntt kaltim ntt kaltim ikan tongkol -1,67 -1,11 -0,40 0,60 -0,03 0,35 0,03 -0,15 -0,05 0,03 -0,02 -0,48 -0,11 -0,28 daging sapi -1,25 1,57 -3,24 0,36 1,32 -2,42 0,27 -3,51 0,10 -0,16 -0,22 0,55 -0,15 0,71 daging ayam ras -0,01 0,11 0,22 -0,30 -1,13 -0,81 -0,01 -0,12 -0,00 0,00 0,01 0,00 -0,02 -0,01 telur ayam ras 0,02 -0,05 0,08 -0,48 0,00 -0,02 -1,21 -0,66 0,02 0,00 -0,04 -0,05 0,01 -0,04 bawang merah 0,07 0,26 -0,13 -0,28 -0,14 -0,32 -0,05 -0,02 0,00 -0,01 -0,06 0,03 -0,06 0,11 cabai merah -0,27 0,33 0,58 -1,53 0,53 -0,76 -0,18 -0,03 -0,02 0,02 -0,08 -0,05 0,36 0,36 kedelai -11,74 6,14 7,69 -12,32 -0,58 1,74 9,13 1,65 -2,96 7,08 5,14 1,02 -1,78 3,37 tahu -0,03 -0,57 -0,06 0,29 0,03 0,09 -0,13 -0,16 0,03 0,01 -1,07 -1,41 -0,08 0,07 tempe -0,12 -0,30 -0,03 0,33 -0,06 0,08 0,00 -0,10 -0,01 0,02 -0,07 0,06 -1,09 -2,09 apel -0,05 -0,45 -0,19 0,21 1,08 -1,07 -0,37 0,10 0,08 0,01 -0,02 -0,68 -0,19 0,42 pisang 0,09 -0,71 0,04 0,30 -0,64 0,21 -0,16 -0,23 0,01 0,01 -0,02 -0,06 -0,02 -0,12 minyak goreng -0,09 0,15 -0,07 -0,03 -0,14 -0,19 0,00 0,10 0,01 0,02 -0,01 0,02 0,01 0,07 gula pasir 0,13 0,47 -0,38 -0,07 -0,44 -0,32 0,16 0,43 -0,01 -0,04 0,05 -0,08 -0,07 -0,10 vetsin 1,01 3,72 -2,97 -0,59 -3,52 -2,53 1,26 3,41 -0,10 -0,34 0,38 -0,61 -0,53 -0,77 mie instant -0,16 0,21 0,04 -0,14 -0,01 0,21 0,02 -0,04 0,00 -0,01 -0,06 0,14 -0,04 -0,06 sumber: badan pusat statistik (diolah) elastisitas harga sendiri komoditas sumber vitamin dan mineral komoditas apel merupakan satu-satunya komoditas yang memiliki nilai elastisitas harga sendirinya bernilai positif dan inelastis yaitu sebesar 0,25 di kaltim pada kelompok komoditas sumber vitamin dan mineral (tabel 7). elastisitas harga sendiri bernilai positif terdapat pada penelitian schachmurove dalam veblen (2012), dan leibenstein (1950) bahwa barang mewah atau veblen, kenaikan harganya membuat mereka lebih diinginkan di mata beberapa konsumen. tingginya harga meningkatkan status sosial yang tinggi jika mengkonsumsi barangbarang tersebut. komoditas paling responsif baik di ntt maupun kaltim adalah cabai merah, di mana nilai elastisitas harga sendirinya sebesar -1,40 dan -1,79. hal ini menjadi menarik karena cabai merah merupakan komoditas yang sehari-hari dikonsumsi, namun nilai elastisitasnya bersifat elastis. hasil elastisitas harga sendiri untuk bawang merah dan cabai merah yang bernilai negatif juga diperoleh dari penelitian suroso et al. (2014) di pulau jawa dengan nilai elastisitas masing-masing sebesar -0,83 dan -0,77. tabel 7. nilai elastisitas harga sendiri dan harga silang untuk komoditas sumber vitamin dan mineral jumlah permintaan harga pangan ntt kaltim ba w an g m er ah ca ba i m er ah ap el pi sa ng ba w an g m er ah ca ba i m er ah ap el pi sa ng ikan tongkol 0,08 -0,08 -0,01 0,09 0,31 0,10 -0,15 -0,64 daging sapi -0,58 0,46 -0,27 0,01 -1,20 -1,34 0,24 0,63 daging ayam ras -0,08 0,06 0,20 -0,23 -0,21 -0,10 -0,16 0,05 telur ayam ras -0,03 -0,02 -0,06 -0,05 -0,00 0,01 0,07 -0,08 bawang merah -1,02 -0,07 -0,01 0,03 -1,41 -0,14 0,05 0,00 cabai merah -0,27 -1,40 0,15 -0,37 -0,63 -1,79 -0,22 0,07 kedelai 1,25 -1,57 7,26 1,72 -2,04 1,30 0,95 1,79 tahu -0,10 -0,03 -0,00 -0,02 0,04 -0,01 -0,30 -0,05 tempe -0,09 0,12 -0,08 -0,01 0,15 0,13 0,25 -0,10 apel -0,06 0,10 -1,09 -0,12 -0,01 -0,17 0,25 -0,15 pisang 0,02 -0,13 -0,05 -1,03 -0,01 0,03 -0,02 -1,57 minyak goreng -0,05 -0,05 -0,06 -0,05 -0,16 0,08 -0,00 -0,06 gula pasir 0,14 0,06 -0,03 0,24 0,05 0,00 -0,22 -0,04 vetsin 1,10 0,47 -0,25 1,87 0,41 -0,04 -1,76 -0,30 mie instant -0,03 0,04 0,17 0,04 -0,05 -0,14 -0,04 0,36 sumber : badan pusat statistik (diolah) komoditas yang tidak responsif adalah komoditas apel di kaltim, di mana nilai elastisitas harga sendirinya bersifat inelastis sebesar 0,25. hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa apel merupakan 137 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 komoditas pokok yang sering dikonsumsi rumah tangga di kaltim. hasil elastisitas harga sendiri untuk apel juga menunjukkan bahwa diversifikasi pangan yang terjadi di kaltim terjadi pada konsumsi buahbuahan. komoditas apel menjadi pilihan rumah tangga di kaltim ketika harga komoditas apel tidak mengalami kenaikan yang dapat menyebabkan kemampuan mendiversifikasi pangan rumah tangga menurun. pola konsumsi rumah tangga yang mengkonsumsi apel menunjukkan pola konsumsi yang sehat, di mana buah-buahan banyak mengandung nutrisi yang baik untuk tubuh. elastisitas harga silang komoditas sumber vitamin dan mineral cabai merah memiliki hubungan komplemen dengan bawang merah sesuai dengan kebiasaan rumah tangga di indonesia bahwa kedua komoditas tersebut merupakan bumbu pelengkap dalam masakan. pisang juga memiliki hubungan komplemen dengan apel. hasil elastisitas harga silang cabai merah terhadap permintaan bawang merah bernilai negatif sebesar 0,07 di ntt dan -0,14 di kaltim (tabel 7). hasil yang sama juga diperoleh suroso et al. (2014) di yogyakarta yang menghasilkan nilai elastisitas harga silang cabai merah terhadap permintaan bawang merah sebesar -0,02. elastisitas harga sendiri komoditas makanan instan dan sumber lemak dari tabel 8 dapat diketahui bahwa vetsin memiliki nilai elastisitas harga sendiri paling elastis yaitu sebesar -2,73 di ntt dan -7,51 di kaltim. hal ini dapat diartikan jika terjadi kenaikan harga vetsin sebesar 10 persen maka akan terjadi penurunan permintaan terhadap vetsin sebesar 27 persen di ntt dan 75 persen di kaltim. hal ini menunjukkan suatu yang baik karena berarti vetsin tidak menjadi komoditas pokok. sebagaimana kita ketahui bahwa vetsin tidak baik bagi kesehatan jika kita mengkonsumsinya. elastisitas harga sendiri untuk komoditas minyak goreng di ntt sebesar -0,84 yang berarti inelastis terhadap perubahan harga. penelitian irawan (2002) juga menghasilkan elastisitas harga sendiri untuk komoditas minyak goreng yang memiliki arah negatif yang sama yaitu sebesar -0,082 di perdesaan dan -0,085 di perkotaan. tabel 8. nilai elastisitas harga sendiri dan harga silang untuk komoditas makanan instan dan sumber lemak jumlah permintaan harga pangan ntt kaltim m in ya k go re ng gu la p as ir ve ts in m ie in st an t m in ya k go re ng gu la p as ir ve ts in m ie in st an t ikan tongkol -0,21 0,16 -0,09 -0,31 0,29 0,70 0,05 0,30 daging sapi -0,63 -1,88 0,05 0,01 -0,53 -0,62 0,19 -1,01 daging ayam ras -0,13 -0,32 -0,02 -0,04 -0,26 -0,30 0,00 0,04 telur ayam ras 0,00 0,08 0,02 0,00 0,10 0,28 0,02 -0,06 bawang merah -0,10 0,15 -0,00 -0,07 -0,28 0,04 0,01 -0,11 cabai merah -0,34 0,28 0,04 0,23 0,45 -0,10 -0,07 -0,89 kedelai 6,40 -4,27 -0,06 0,24 7,67 -14,61 -3,18 -3,67 tahu -0,05 0,05 -0,01 -0,16 0,04 -0,17 0,09 0,26 tempe 0,00 -0,15 -0,03 -0,11 0,15 -0,19 -0,14 -0,14 apel -0,33 -0,18 0,09 0,60 -0,27 -1,02 0,19 -0,41 pisang -0,15 0,36 -0,01 0,03 -0,16 -0,11 -0,04 0,62 minyak goreng -0,84 0,06 0,01 0,01 -1,29 -0,09 0,00 -0,33 gula pasir 0,11 -1,22 0,04 0,01 -0,10 -1,81 -0,04 -0,03 vetsin 0,87 -0,68 -2,73 0,09 -0,79 5,24 -7,51 -0,22 mie instant 0,03 0,00 0,01 -1,12 -0,38 -0,02 0,02 -1,44 sumber : badan pusat statistik (diolah) elastisitas harga silang komoditas makanan instan dan sumber lemak elastisitas harga silang paling tinggi di kaltim adalah untuk perubahan harga komoditas gula pasir terhadap permintaan vetsin yaitu sebesar 5,24, di mana kenaikan harga gula pasir akan meningkatkan permintaan terhadap vetsin (tabel 8). elastisitas perubahan harga minyak goreng terhadap permintaan gula pasir sebesar 0,87 merupakan elastisitas silang yang paling tinggi di kaltim. minyak goreng dan gula pasir merupakan komoditas bahan baku yang banyak dibutuhkan sebagai pembuatan makanan jadi. penelitian puspita et al. (2019) menemukan bahwa konsumsi lemak pada anak-anak melebihi standar. hal ini diperoleh dari konsumsi jajanan yang berasal dari makanan yang digoreng. temuan lainnya nilai elastisitas harga sendiri yang memiliki arah positif di kaltim adalah komoditas daging sapi, kedelai, dan apel. komoditas-komoditas tersebut diduga merupakan barang veblen, dimana konsumsi komoditas tersebut meningkat seiring kenaikan pendapatan. hal tersebut ditunjukkan dari pangsa 138 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pengeluaran komoditas-komoditas tersebut hanya dikonsumsi oleh golongan 4 ke atas yaitu golongan dengan pendapatan perkapita 300,000 rupiah ke atas. penelitian veblen (1911), leibenstein (1950) menyatakan bahwa barang mewah atau veblen, kenaikan harganya membuat mereka lebih diinginkan di mata beberapa konsumen. tingginya harga meningkatkan status sosial yang tinggi jika mengkonsumsi barang-barang tersebut. seluruh komoditas yang memiliki elastisitas harga bernilai positif semuanya adalah produk pangan yang sebagian besar diperoleh dari impor untuk pemenuhan kebutuhan dalam negeri. jumlah anggota rumah tangga dan perbedaan wilayah perdesaan maupun perkotaan tidak berpengaruh terhadap konsumsi suatu komoditas. hal tersebut dapat dilihat dari nilai parameter dugaan. ntt maupun kaltim untuk jumlah anggota rumah tangga dan dummy wilayah memiliki nilai parameter dugaan rata-rata <0.01. hasil yang berbeda diperoleh purwaningsih et al. (2015) yang menemukan jumlah anggota rumahtangga berpengaruh signifikan terhadap aksesibilitas pangan rumah tangga. kesimpulan provinsi dengan rata-rata pendapatan per kapita rumahtangga yang tinggi memiliki tingkat diversifikasi pangan yang lebih tinggi. provinsi tahan pangan memiliki nilai pangsa pengeluaran terhadap makanan non karbohidrat yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan provinsi rawan pangan. harga pangan (baik harga sendiri maupun harga silang), pendapatan/pengeluaran, jenis wilayah dan jumlah anggota rumahtangga terbukti berpengaruh terhadap permintaan pangan. berdasarkan nilai elastisitas harga sendiri diketahui bahwa ada 3 (tiga) komoditas yang memiliki nilai elastisitas permintaan yang inelastis untuk ntt yaitu apel, pisang, dan minyak goreng, sedangkan kaltim hanya 2 (dua) komoditas yaitu daging ayam ras, dan apel. pola konsumsi pangan rumah tangga di ntt lebih dipengaruhi oleh perubahan pendapatan, sedangkan kaltim oleh perubahan harga. hal ini ditunjukkan dengan banyaknya komoditas pangan yang memiliki nilai elastisitas pendapatan yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan elastisitas harga di ntt, sedangkan kaltim sebaliknya. jumlah anggota rumah tangga tidak berpengaruh terhadap tingkat diversifikasi pangan rumah tangga baik di kaltim maupun di ntt. ucapan terima kasih ucapan terima kasih penulis sampaikan kepada badan pusat statistik yang memberi kesempatan, dana, dan fasilitas dalam pendidikan program magister penulis. penelitian ini merupakan bagian dari tesis di jurusan ilmu ekonomi institut pertanian bogor dan bagian lain dari tesis ini yaitu untuk komoditas sumber karbohidrat sudah dibuatkan jurnal tersendiri. daftar pustaka ariani m. 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(2017). strategi pengembangan komoditas pangan unggulan dalam menunjang ketahanan pangan wilayah (studi kasus di kabupaten batang, propinsi jawa tengah). agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 3(1), 48-56.. https:// doi.org/10.18196/agr.3144 linda ekadewi widyatami*, ardhitya alam wiguna politeknik negeri jember, jln. mastrip kotak pos 164 jember, indonesia *) email korespondensi: linda.e.widyatami@gmail.com agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 daya saing dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap usahatani padi sri di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi competitiveness and impact of government policies on rice farming with sri method in rogojampi district, banyuwangi regency doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5279 abstract the sri method is one approach in rice cultivation practices that emphasizes the management of land, plants and water through group empowerment and local wisdom based on environmentally friendly activities. one method of rice cultivation which was developed in banyuwangi regency in 2012 was system of rice intensification (sri) method. one area in banyuwangi regency that has succeeded in developing the sri method of rice farming is watukebo village in rogojampi district. the purpose of this reserach was to determine the competitiveness and the impact of government policies on sri rice farming in watukebo village, rogojampi district, banyuwangi regency. the analytical method used was the policy analysis matrix method, which is by calculating tradable input costs, nontradable input costs, revenue, and profits of the private price and the social price of sri rice farming. the research sample were rice farmers who applied the sri method which have joined in sumber urip farmer group. the results of the analysis show that the sri method has a competitive advantage and comparative advantage. government policies on tradable inputs and tradable output have a positive impact on sri method, and together with the government policies on tradable inputs-output and non-tradable inputs have a positive impact on the sri rice farming method. keywords: competitiveness, impact of goverment policy, policy analysis matrix, system of rice intensification intisari system of rice intensification (sri) merupakan salah satu pendekatan dalam praktek budidaya padi yang menekankan pada manajemen pengelolaan tanah, tanaman, dan air melalui pemberdayaan kelompok dan kearifan lokal yang berbasis pada kegiatan ramah lingkungan. di kabupaten banyuwangi metode sri mulai dikembangkan pada tahun 2012. salah satu wilayah di kabupaten banyuwangi yang telah berhasil mengembangkan usahatani padi metode sri adalah desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui daya saing usahatani padi sri dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi. metode analisis yang digunakan adalah metode policy analysis matrix (pam), yaitu dengan menghitung biaya input tradable, biaya input non tradable, penerimaan, serta keuntungan pada tingkat harga privat dan harga sosial usahatani padi sri. sampel data penelitian adalah petani padi di desa watukebo yang menerapkan usahatani padi metode sri yang tergabung dalam kelompok tani sumber urip. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi mempunyai keunggulan kompetitif dan keunggulan komparatif. kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input tradable dan output tradable memberikan dampak positif terhadap usahatani padi sri, dan secara bersamasama kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input-output tradable dan input non tradable memberikan dampak positif terhadap usahatani padi metode sri. kata kunci: dampak kebijakan pemerintah, daya saing, policy analysis matrix, system of rice intensification 100 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research pendahuluan produksi padi pada tahun 2015 di indonesia diperkirakan mencapai 75,40 juta ton gabah kering giling (gkg) dan sekitar 51,69% diantaranya diproduksi di pulau jawa. sentra produksi padi pada tahun 2015 adalah propinsi jawa timur, jawa barat, jawa tengah, dan sulawesi selatan. di propinsi jawa timur, kabupaten banyuwangi pada tahun 2015 termasuk dalam kategori lima besar penghasil komoditas padi terbesar di jawa timur yaitu pada urutan ketiga, dengan hasil produksi sebesar 860.239 ton, setelah kabupaten jember (1.004.898. ton), dan lamongan (935.176 ton) (badan pusat statistik propinsi jawa timur, 2016). pada tahun 2012 di kabupaten banyuwangi mulai digulirkan kegiatan budidaya padi dengan metode system of rice intensification (sri) kepada kelompok tani-kelompok tani yang ada di wilayah banyuwangi. metode sri merupakan salah satu pendekatan dalam praktek budidaya padi yang menekankan pada manajemen pengelolaan tanah, tanaman, dan air melalui pemberdayaan kelompok dan kearifan lokal yang berbasis pada kegiatan ramah lingkungan. di indonesia, uji coba metode sri pertama dilaksanakan oleh lembaga penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian di sukamandi jawa barat pada musim kemarau tahun 1999 dengan hasil 6,2 ton per hektar dan pada musim hujan tahun 1999/2000 menghasilkan padi rata-rata 8,2 tonper hektar (uphoff, 2002; sato, 2007, dalam zulkifli, 2011). pada tahun 2015 di kabupaten banyuwangi terdapat 59 kelompok tani di 18 kecamatan yang masuk dalam pengembangan program sri dengan hasil yang sangat menggembirakan karena mengalami peningkatan produksi dari biasanya, yaitu kira-kira sekitar 37% (yud, 2015). pengembangan usahatani padi dalam upaya meningkatan dan memperkuat kedaulatan pangan nasional salah satunya dipengaruhi oleh daya saing usahatani padi, yaitu dilihat dari daya saing pada kondisi pasar yang berlaku tanpa mempermasalahkan ada tidaknya distorsi pasar (keunggulan kompetitif), yang ditunjukkan dengan pengelolaan usahatani padi yang maksimal, serta daya saing pada kondisi pasar persaingan bebas tanpa distorsi (keunggulan komparatif) yang ditusnjukkan dengan rendahnya penggunaan biaya sumberdaya domestik. menurut sutawi (2002), suatu produk yang memiliki keunggulan komparatif bisa terjadi tidak memiliki keunggulan kompetitif apabila ada hambatan yang bersifat disinsentif, sebaliknya suatu produk yang tidak memiliki keunggulan komparatif bisa terjadi memiliki keunggulan kompetitif apabila pemerintah memberikan proteksi terhadap produk yang bersangkutan. kebijakan pemerintah terhadap usahatani padi seperti kebijakan proteksi perdagangan yang mencakup semua insentif perdagangan baik itu kuota, tarif, maupun subsidi terhadap input produksi dan ouput produksi agribisnis padi, menimbulkan distorsi pasar yaitu mencegah terjadinya pasar persaingan bebas dan dapat berpengaruh terhadap daya saing usahatani padi. pengembangan metode sri masih dihadapkan pada sikap petani yang belum banyak tertarik dan lebih memilih melakukan usahatani padi metode konvensional. di desa watukebo dari enam kelompok tani hanya dua kelompok tani yaitu kelompok tani sumber urip dan kelompok tani harta jaya yang petani anggotanya menerapkam usahatani padi metode sri, sedangkan untuk empat kelompok tani lainnya masih menerapkan usahatani padi metode konvensional. melihat kondisi demikian diharapkan pengembangan usahatani padi metode sri dapat lebih disosialisasikan agar petani lebih yakin tentang manfaat dan keunggulan dari penerapan metode sri. menurut zulkifli, dkk (2011), terdapat beberapa manfaat ekonomi yang diperoleh dari penerapan metode sri pada usahatani padi sawah yaitu peningkatan produksi usahati per hektar per musim tanam, penghematan penggunaan tenaga kerja. serta penghematan biaya produksi dengan penggunaan benih lebih sedikit, penggunaan pupuk organik dan pestisida nabati yang bahannya tersedia secara lokal. berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui daya saing dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap usahatani padi dengan metode sri di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi. hasil penelitian ini dapat dijadikan informasi tentang daya saing (keunggulan 101 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 kompetitif dan keunggulan komparatif) pada usahatani padi metode sri, dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah yaitu kebijakan input (seperti kebijakan subsidi pupuk, kebijakan tarif impor, dll), dan kebijakan output (seperti kebijakan tarif impor beras) terhadap usahatani padi sri, sehingga hasil analisis tersebut nantinya dapat dijadikan pertimbangan dan rekomendasi bagi pengembangan usahatani metode sri di kelompok tani dan atau daerah lain untuk mewujudkan peningkatan produktivitas usahatani padi melalui penerapan metode sri. metode penelitian penelitian ini dilakukan di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi. desa watukebo dipilih menjadi daerah penelitian secara purposive method dikarenakan di desa watukebo terdapat kelompok tani yang telah berhasil menerapkan sistem usahatani padi metode sri (system of rice intensification) sejak tahun 2012 hingga saat ini, yaitu kelompok tani sumber urip. keberhasilan penerapan usahatani ini ditunjukkan dengan telah mendapatkan sertifikat padi semi organik prima 3 untuk hasil usahatani padi yang dikembangkan dengan metode sri. sebelum tahun 2018 desa watukebo adalah desa yang menjadi bagian dari kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi. desa watukebo mulai awal tahun 2018, secara resmi dan administrtasif sudah mulai terpisah dari kecamatan rogojampi dan menjadi bagian dari kecamatan blimbingsari, sebelumnya wilayah blimbingsari juga menjadi bagian dari kecamatan rogojampi. pada pembahasan penelitian ini penulis tetap menulis desa watukebo sebagai bagian dari kecamatan rogojampi dikarenakan awal penelitian ini mulai dilakukan pada tahun 2017. metode pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan metode purposive sampling yaitu metode pengambilan sampel berdasarkan atas adanya pertimbangan dan kriteria tertentu yang berfokus pada tujuan tertentu. kriteria sampel penelitian yang telah ditetapkan oleh peneliti adalah petani yang menerapkan usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo, jumlah sampel sebanyak 30 orang petani yang merupakan petani yang menerapkan usahatani padi sri di desa watukebo dan tergabung dalam kelompok tani sumber urip. metode analisis yang digunakan untuk menganalisis daya saing yang meliputi keunggulan kompetitif, keunggulan komparatif, serta dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap usahatani padi metode sri adalah metode policy analysis matrix (pam) atau matrik analisis kebijakan. pendekatan pam yang dikemukakan monke dan pearson (1989) merupakan sistem analisis dengan memasukkan berbagai kebijakan yang mempengaruhi penerimaan dan biaya produksi pertanian. suatu matriks yang disusun dengan memasukkan komponen-komponen utamanya penerimaan, biaya dan profit. pam disusun untuk mempelajari masing-masing sistem produksi pertanian dengan mempergunakan data usahatani, pemasaran dari petani ke pengolah, pengolahan dan pemasaran dari pengolah ke pedagang. selanjutnya dapat ditaksir dampak kebijakan komoditas dan ekonomi makro dengan membandingkan tanpa adanya kebijakan (monke dan pearson, 1989 dalam soetriono, 2010). tabel policy analysis matrix dapat digambarkan pada tabel 1 berikut ini: tabel 1. policy analysis matrix revenues costs profits tradable inputs domestic factors private prices a b c d social prices e f g h effects of divergences and efficient policy i j k l sumber : monke dan pearson, 1989 keterangan tabel : 1. private profit (d) : d = a – b – c 2. social profit (h) : h = e – f – g 3. output transfer (i) : i = a – e 4. input transfer (j) : j = b – f 5. factor transfer (k) : k = c – g 6. net transfer (l) : l = d – h menurut bandrang, dkk (2015), ada beberapa tahapan sebelum pendekatan dengan menggunakan pam yaitu: (1) penentuan input usahatani padi; (2) penentuan harga bayangan input dan output; (3) pemilahan biaya usahatani kedalam kelompok tradable dan domestik; (4) menghitung penerimaan dari usahatani padi; (5) menghitung dan menganalisis 102 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research berbagai indikator yang bisa dihasilkan dari analisis pam. daya saing usahatani padi metode sri pada analisis pam dapat dilihat dari keunggulan kompetitif dan keunggulan komparatifnya. keunggulan komparatif pada usahatani padi dapat diketahui dengan menggunakan rasio biaya sumberdaya domestik/domestic resources cost (drc), drc merupakan rasio antara biaya faktor domestik dengan nilai tambah output dari biaya faktor domestik yang diperdagangkan pada harga sosial. keunggulan kompetitif pada usahatani padi, dapat diketahui dengan menggunakan private cost ratio (pcr), pcr merupakan rasio antara biaya faktor domestik dengan nilai tambah output dari biaya faktor domestik yang diperdagangkan pada harga di tingkat produsen (harga privat). formulasi drc dan pcr adalah sebagai berikut (soetriono, 2002) : drc= biaya input non tradable (penerimaan sosial-biaya input tradable sosial = g (e-f) kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 1. drc < 1, maka terdapat keunggulan komparatif pada usahatani padi metode sri 2. drc > 1, maka tidak terdapat keunggulan komparatif pada usahatani padi metode sri pcr= biaya input non tradable privat (penerimaan privat-biaya input tradable privat = a (a-b) kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 1. pcr < 1, maka terdapat keunggulan kompetitif pada usahatani padi metode sri 2. pcr > 1, maka tidak terdapat keunggulan kompetitif pada usahatani padi metode sri dampak kebijakan pemerintah pada matrik analisis kebijakan dapat dilihat dari indikatorindikator yaitu: dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap output ditunjukan dari nilai nominal protection coefficient output (npco). dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input tradable ditunjukkan dari nilai nominal protection coefficient input (npci), dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input dan output dapat diketahui dengan menggunakan indicator net policy transfer (npt), effective protection coefficient (epc), profit coefficient (pc), dan subsidy ratio to producers (srp), dengan formulasi sebagai berikut (pearson, dkk, 2005): npco= penerimaan privat penerimaan sosial = a e kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 1. npco < 1, produsen tidak mendapatkan proteksi output dari pemerintah 2. npco > 1, produsen mendapatkan proteksi output dari pemerintah npci= biaya input tradable privat biaya input tradable sosial = 𝐵 𝐹 kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 1. npci < 1, produsen mendapatkan proteksi input dari pemerintah 2. npci > 1, produsen tidak mendapatkan proteksi input dari pemerintah npt=keuntungan privat (d)-keuntungan sosial (h) kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 1. npt positif, terdapat dampak positif dari kebijakan pemerintah 2. npt negatif, tidak terdapat dampak positif dari kebijakan pemerintah. epc= penerimaan privat-biaya input tradable privat penerimaan sosial-biaya input tradable sosial = (a-b) (e-f) kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 1. epc < 1, proteksi input dan output tradable dari pemerintah terhadap produsen tidak efektif 2. epc > 1, proteksi input dan output tradable dari pemerintah terhadap produsen efektif pc= keuntungan privat keuntungan sosial = d h kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 1. pc < 1, kebijakan pemerintah tidak memberikan insentif kepada produsen 2. pc > 1, kebijakan pemerintah memberikan insentif kepada produsen srp= transfer bersih penerimaan sosial = l e kriteria pengambilan keputusan: 103 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 1. srp < 0, produsen tidak mendapatkan proteksi dari pemerintah 2. srp > 0, produsen mendapatkan proteksi dari pemerintah hasil dan pembahasan penelitian ini menggunakan policy analysis matrix (pam) untuk menganalis daya saing dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah pada usahatani padi metode sri (system of rice intensification) di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi. hasil analisis policy analysis matrix (pam) pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi pada matrik analisis kebijakan menunjukkan hasil perhitungan tentang penerimaan, biaya yang meliputi biaya input tradable dan biaya input non tradable (faktor domestik), dan keuntungan usahatani padi pada harga privat dan harga sosial. harga privat merupakan harga yang mencerminkan nilai-nilai yang dipengaruhi oleh kebijakan dan kegagalan pasar, atau harga yang diterima petani setelah ada campur tangan pemerintah yang berupa kebijakan pemerintah. harga sosial merupakan harga yang seharusnya diterima petani tanpa adanya kebijakan pemerintah dan kegagalan pasar. budidaya padi dengan metode sri (system of rice intensification) adalah teknik budidaya padi yang mampu meningkatkan produktivitas padi dengan cara mengubah pengelolaan tanaman, tanah, air dan unsur hara, melalui pemberdayaan petani yang berbasis pada kegiatan ramah lingkungan. sistem sri ini mempunyai ciri khas yaitu input yang kecil tetapi mempunyai output yang besar dibandingkan dengan sistem konvensional (bargumono, 2016). usahatani padi dengan metode system of rice intensification (sri) di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi memiliki ciri-ciri antara lain yaitu: penanaman benih padi usia muda (usia 15 hari), penanaman padi dengan sistem jajar legowo, pengurangan penggunaan pupuk kimia secata bertahap, dan penggunaan agensia hayati dalam pengendalian hama dan penyakit tanaman padi. penanaman sistem jajar legowo yang diterapkan antara lain yaitu: sistem jajar legowo 2:1, dengan jarak tanam antar barisan 25 cm, jarak tanam dalam barisan 15 cm, dan legowo 40 cm, atau sistem jajar legowo 5:1, dengan jarak tanam antar barisan 20 cm, jarak tanam dalam barisan 20 cm, dan legowo 40 cm. pemakaian pupuk kimia untuk usahatani padi yang mengembangkan metode sri di desa watukebo dikurangi seraca bertahap, yaitu untuk pupuk urea dari penggunaan yang awalnya 2 kwintal per ha saat ini dengan metode sri, pupuk urea yang digunakan berkurang 50% menjadi 1 kwintal per ha, dan untuk pupuk npk dari penggunaan yang awalnya 3 kwintal per ha, berkurang 50% menjadi 1,5 kwintal per ha. pengurangan penggunaan pupuk kimia pada metode sri ini digantikan dengan peningkatan penggunaan pupuk organik yaitu penggunaannya sekitar 50 ton per ha. pengendalian hama penyakit tanaman (hpt) pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo sudah tidak menggunakan pestisida kimia, pengendalian hpt tersebut menggunakan pestisida organik atau agensia hayati yaitu menggunakan coryne bacterium likani, bakteri merah, dan verti. agensia hayati bakteri merah dan verti digunakan untuk pengendalian hama, dan agensia hayati coryne bacterium likani digunakan untuk pengendalian jamur atau penyakit. penggunaan agensia hayati bakteri merah, coryne bacterium likani, dan verti tersebut sekitar 15 liter per ha. daya saing usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi daya saing suatu produk dapat diukur dengan dua cara yaitu keunggulan komparatif dan keunggulan kompetitif. menurut irawati, dkk (2015), daya saing merupakan suatu konsep yang menyatakan kemampuan suatu produsen untuk memproduksi suatu komoditas dengan mutu yang cukup baik dan biaya produksi yang cukup rendah. keunggulan kompetitif mengukur daya saing pada usahatani padi berdasarkan harga yang diterima produsen (harga privat), dan keunggulan komparatif mengukur daya saing pada usahatani padi berdasarkan harga sosial. pada policy analysis matrix (pam) nilai keunggulan kompetitif dan komparatif dapat diketahui dari koefisien nilai pcr (private cost ratio) dan drc 104 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (domestic resource cost). pcr merupakan rasio antara biaya faktor domestik dengan nilai tambah output dari biaya faktor domestik yang diperdagangkan pada harga di tingkat produsen (harga privat). drc merupakan rasio antara biaya faktor domestik dengan nilai tambah output dari biaya faktor domestik yang diperdagangkan pada harga sosial. hasil analisis pam yang menunjukkan nilai keunggulan kompetitif atau nilai koefisien private cost ratio (pcr) pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi ditunjukkan pada tabel 2. tabel 2. hasil analisis pam dan nilai private cost ratio (pcr) usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification (sri) di desa watukebo kabupaten banyuwangi musim tanam desember 2017maret 2018 (per ha) output input tradable faktor domestik profit harga privat 25.589.667 2.019.620 16.215.622 7.354.425 harga sosial 24.045.094 3.357.949 14.938.736 5.748.409 divergensi 1.544.573 -1.338.329 1.276.885 1.606.016 pcr = 0,688 sumber: data primer dan skunder diolah tahun 2018 hasil analisis pam pada tabel 2, menunjukkan nilai pcr sebesar 0,677, nilai pcr yang lebih besar dari satu ini menunjukkan bahwa usahatani padi dengan metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi memiliki keunggulan kompetitif. nilai pcr sebesar 0,677, berarti bahwa untuk menghasilkan satu satuan nilai tambah output pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kabupaten banyuwangi pada harga privat diperlukan kurang dari satu satuan korbanan biaya sumberdaya domestik. keunggulan kompetitif usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi disebabkan penggunaan faktor domestik yang cukup efisien dengan pengelolaan padi metode sri yang optimal, selain itu harga jual padi yang diterima petani mampu menutupi biaya produksi dan menghasilkan keuntungan bagi petani. usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi menggunakan faktor domestik antara lain yaitu pupuk organik, pestisida organik atau agensia hayati, tenaga kerja dalam usahatani padi yang meliputi tenaga kerja pengolahan tanah, tenaga kerja penanaman yang dilakukan oleh tenaga kerja wanita, dan tenaga kerja pemeliharaan pada usahatani padi (pemupukan i, pemupukan ii, pemupukan organik, pengendalian hama dan penyakit tanaman, pengendalian gulma tanaman atau penyiangan dan penyulaman, serta pengairan sawah), kegiatan pemanenan, iuran pengairan untuk hippa, penyusutuan peralatan, modal, serta lahan. pada usahatani padi sri kegiatan pemeliharaan pada usahatani padi di kecamatan rogojampi ada yang dilakukan oleh petani pemilik sawah dan ada yang dilakukan oleh tenaga kerja di luar keluarga yang disebut mager sari. kegiatan pemeliharaan yang dilakukan oleh mager sari pada usahatani padi metode sri antara lain meliputi: pemupukan i, pemupukan ii, pemupukan organik, pengendalian hama dan penyakit tanaman, pengendalian gulma tanaman atau penyiangan dan penyulaman, serta pengairan sawah. pada usahatani padi di desa watukebo tersebut bagi hasil antara mager sari dan pemilik lahan atau pemilik modal usahatani padi khususnya di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi yaitu sebesar 1 : 8 dari jumlah karung yang dihasilkan pada saat pemanenan, atau dari penerimaan yang diterima oleh pemilik lahan, sebagai biaya dari pemeliharaan yang telah dilakukan oleh tenaga kerja mager sari tersebut. proses pemanenan pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi antara lain meliputi kegiatan pemotongan padi, perontokan padi dengan menggunakan mesin perontok padi, dan pengangkutan gabah kering sawah (gks) hasil pemamenan dari lahan petani menuju pinggir jalan untuk di angkut ke tempat penggilingan padi. proses pemanenan padi yang dilakukan oleh petani padi metode sri di desa watukebo dilakukan dengan memperkerjakan jasa tenaga kerja pemanenan dengan biaya ongkos potong rata-rata per ha sekitar rp 25.000 per karung, biaya perontokan yang meliputi jasa tenaga kerja den mesin perontok padi sekitar rp 15.000 per karung, dan ongkos angkut karung padi sekitar rp 10.000 – rp 20.000 per karung tergantung dari letak sawah petani di pinggir jalan atau di tengah 105 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 sawah, selain dengan sistem pemanenan tersebut beberapa petani padi metode sri desa watukebo ada yang melakukan pemanenan padi dengan sistem pemanenan tebasan. hasil analisis pam yang menunjukkan nilai keunggulan komparatif usahatani padi metode sri di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi, yang ditunjukkan dengan nilai domestic resources cost terdapat pada tabel 3. tabel 3. hasil analisis pam dan nilai domestic resources cost (drc) usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kabupaten banyuwangi musim tanam desember 2017maret 2018 (per ha) output input tradable faktor domestik profit harga privat 28.256.024 814.359 18.578.389 8.863.276 harga sosial 26.589.164 1.458.274 17.394.054 7.736.837 divergensi 1.666.860 -643.915 1.184.335 1.126.439 drc = 0,692 sumber: data primer dan skunder diolah tahun 2018 hasil analisis pam pada tabel 3 menunjukkan bahwa nilai domestic resources cost (drc) usahatani padi sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi lebih kecil dari satu yaitu sevesar 0,692, nilai lebih kecil dari satu ini menunjukkan bahwa usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi memiliki keunggulan komparatif. nilai drc sebesar 0,692, berarti bahwa usahatani padi sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi dari segi ekonomi efisien dalam menggunakan sumberdaya domestik, karena untuk menghasilkan devisa sebesar satu-satuan hanya dibutuhkan biaya faktor domestik sekitar 0,692 satuan. nilai drc ini juga menunjukkan bahwa biaya memproduksi padi dengan metode sri pada harga sosial hanya sebesar 69,2% dari biaya impor, sehingga apabila pemenuhan permintaan terhadap padi dilakukan dari produksi dalam negeri maka akan mampu menghemat devisa sebesar 30,8% dari besarnya biaya impor yang diperlukan. keunggulan komparatif pada analisis pam dianalisis menggunakan biaya input tradable dan faktor domestik pada kondisi pasar persaingan sempurna (harga sosial) atau kondisi tanpa ada kebijakan pemerintah di dalamnya. perhitungan harga sosial untuk faktor domestik pada usahatani padi sri, output dan input tradable dicerminkan dengan harga bayangan (shadow price) atau berdasarkan pada estimasi the social oppurtunity cost, harga bayangan tersebut dipakai untuk menyesuaikan terhadap harga pasar internasional. menurut gittinger (1986) dalam sukmaya, dkk (2016), harga bayangan merupakan suatu harga yang lebih dekat menggambarkan biaya imbangan sosial. untuk faktor domestik yang tidak dapat diperdagangkan secara internasional seperti tenaga kerja, modal dan lahan harga bayangannya ditaksir dengan berbagai asumsi-asumsi yang telah digunakan dalam penelitian pam sebelumnya, pendugaan harga banyangan untuk harga tenaga kerja usahatani padi diasumsikan sebagai tenaga kerja tak terlatih sehingga untuk menghitung tingkat upah sosialnya digunakan kebijakan pemerintah berupa tingkat upah minimum dan digunakan konversi sebesar 0,8 dari tingkat upah yang sebenarnya. menurut suryana (1980) dalam haryono, dkk (2011), penentuan harga bayangan tenaga kerja sebesar 80% dari tingkat upah yang berlaku. harga bayangan bunga modal diperoleh dari tingkat suku bunga kredit ritel bank rakyat indonesia (bri) yang sering dijadikan lembaga peminjaman kredit bagi petani yaitu sebesar 10,75% dikurangkan dengan tingkat inflasi sebesar 3,36% sehingga diperoleh nilai harga bayangan bunga modal sebesar 7,39%. harga sosial lahan didekati dengan nilai sewa lahan, hal ini dilandasi oleh mekanisme pasar lahan di pedesaan berjalan baik (rachman, dkk, 2004), serta menurut gittinger (2008), harga bayangan yang digunakan dinilai dengan nilai sewanya. harga bayangan untuk biaya faktor domestik lainnya seperti biaya pemanenan, iuran pengairan hippa, biaya penyusutan peralatan diasumsikan sama dengan harga aktual atau harga privatnya. harga banyangan untuk output tradable usahatani padi didasarkan dari harga sosial beras yang nantinya dikonversikan menjadi padi, karena produk yang diperdagangkan di pasar internasional adalah beras, harga bayangan beras dihitung berdasarkan harga cif karena di indonesia beras merupakan produk impor. harga impor beras di tingkat dunia tahun 2017/2018 rata-rata sebesar 432,33 us $/ton. 106 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research harga beras dunia tersebut ditambah dengan freight and insurance cost dan dikonversikan dalam mata uang rupiah, kemudian ditambahkan dengan biaya handling, penyimpanan dan susut, biaya transportasi, serta biaya distribusi ke tingkat petani, dari hasil perhitungan penyesuaian harga sosial impor padi diperoleh harga sosial padi di tingkat petani sebesar rp 4.351,22/kg. harga bayangan nilai tukar rupiah (shadow exchange rate) dihitung dengan membagi nilai tukar rupiah (ntr) dengan faktor konversi baku (scf), dari hasil perhitungan diperoleh harga bayangan nilai tukar rupiah sebesar rp 14,762.826/us $. input tradable pada usahatani padi metode sri meliputi benih dan pupuk anorganik, harga bayangan benih diasumsikan diperhitungkan dari harga privat aktual pada lokasi penelitian yang dikurangi pajak pertambahan nilai (ppn) sebesar 10%. harga bayangan input tradable pupuk urea, dan pupuk npk dihitung berdasarkan harga cif (cost insurance and freight), karena pupuk urea dan npk diasumsikan termasuk produk impor. menurut zakariah, dkk, (2010), untuk input dan output yang diperdagangkan secara internasional, harga sosialnya dihitung berdasarkan harga perdagangan internasional, untuk komoditas yang diimpor dipakai harga cif. hasil perhitungan menunjukkan harga bayangan untuk pupuk urea sebesar rp 4.014,76/kg dan harga bayangan pupuk npk sebesar rp 5.198,27/kg. dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap output pada usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi rasio yang digunakan untuk megukur dampak kebijakan output (output transfer) dalam analisis pam adalah nominal protection coefficient on output (npco), rasio ini menunjukkan seberapa besar output pada harga domestik (harga privat) berbeda dengan output pada harga sosial. hasil analisis pam yang menunjukkan nilai npco pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi ditunjukkan pada tabel 4. tabel 4. transfer output produksi padi pada usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification di desa watukebo kabupaten banyuwangi musim tanam desember 2017maret 2018 (per ha) output npco harga privat 28.256.024 harga sosial 26.589.164 1,063 divergensi 1.666.860 sumber: data primer dan skunder diolah tahun 2018 hasil analisis pam pada tabel 4 menunjukkan bahwa nilai npco lebih besar dari satu yaitu 1,064, yang berarti bahwa usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi menerima dampak positif dari kebijakan pemerintah dan mekanisme pasar output yang berlaku pada tahun 2017/2018. nilai npco sebesar 1,063 berarti bahwa kebijakan pemerintah terhadap output usahatani padi, membuat harga output pada usahatani padi metode sri 6,3% lebih tinggi daripada harga sosialnya. kebijakan pemerintah terhadap output usahatani padi antara lain adalah kebijakan tarif impor beras sebesar rp 450/kg pada tahun 2017/2018, kebijakan tarif impor beras ini akan mampu melindungi harga beras domestik dari beras impor. hasil analisis pada tabel 4 menunjukkan bahwa penerimaan yang diterima petani padi dengan metode sri pada harga privat lebih besar dibandingkan dengan penerimaan yang dihitung dengan harga sosialnya. penerimaan yang diterima petani padi dengan metode sri pada harga privat sebesar rp 28.256.024 per ha, sedangkan penerimaan yang seharusnya diterima petani padi atau penerimaan pada harga sosial sebesar rp 26.589.164 per ha, hal ini berarti bahwa petani padi metode sri memperoleh dampak positif dari kebijakan ouput yang ditetapkan pemerintah. output transfer pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi yang disebabkan oleh proteksi ouput dari kebijakan pemerintah adalah sebesar rp 1.666.860 per ha. 107 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input tradable dan faktor domestik usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification (sri) di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input tradable pada analisis pam ditunjukkan oleh nilai koefisien nominal protection coefficient on input (npci). rasio npci menunjukkan seberapa besar harga domestik dari input tradable berbeda dengan harga sosialnya. hasil analisis pam pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi yang menunjukkan nilai nominal protection coefficient on input (npci) dapat dilihat pada tabel 5. tabel 5. transfer input tradable produksi padi pada usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification (sri) di desa watukebo kabupaten banyuwangi musim tanam desember 2017 maret 2018 (per ha) output input tradable benih pupuk anorganik total harga privat 28.256.024 276,852 537,507 814,359 harga sosial 26.589.164 249,167 1,209,107 1,458,274 divergensi 1.666.860 27,685 -671,600 -643,915 npci = 0,558 sumber: data primer dan skunder diolah tahun 2018 hasil analisis pam pada tabel 5 menunjukkan nilai npci pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi kurang dari satu yaitu 0,558, yang berarti bahwa harga domestik (harga privat) input tradable lebih rendah dari harga sosialnya, dengan kata lain usahatani padi sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi menerima proteksi input dari pemerintah atau menerima dampak positif dari kebijakan pemerintah dan mekanisme pasar output yang berlaku pada tahun 2017/2018. nilai npci sebesar 0,558, berarti bahwa kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input tradable menyebabkan harga input tradable pada usahatani padi hanya 55,8% dari harga sosialnya. kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input tradable pada usahatani padi salah satunya adalah kebijakan subsidi pupuk. pupuk kimia yang digunakan pada usahatani padi sri yang mendapatkan subsidi adalah pupuk urea dengan harga pupuk subsidi sebesar rp 180.000/kuintal dan harga pupuk urea non subsidi sebesar rp 500.000/kuintal, serta pupuk npk dengan harga pupuk npk subsidi sebesar rp 230.000/kuintal dan harga pupuk npk non subsidi sebesar rp 900.000/kuintal. faktor domestik yang digunakan pada usahatani padi meliputi, pupuk organik, pestisida organik atau agensia hayati, tenaga kerja, penyusutan peralatan, biaya pemanenan, iuran pengairan hippa, modal, dan lahan. hasil analisis pam yang menunjukkan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap faktor domestik pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi dapat dilihat pada tabel 6. tabel 6. analisis dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap faktor domestik pada usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification (sri) di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi musim tanam desember 2017maret 2018 (per ha) faktor domestik harga privat harga sosial divergensi pupuk organik 2.350.704 2.350.704 0 pestisida organik (agensia hayati) 1.125.000 1.125.000 0 tenaga kerja 5.819.824 4.655.859 1.163.965 pemanenan 2.778.163 2.778.163 0 iuran hippa 367.390 367.390 0 penyusutan peralatan 95.833 95.833 0 modal 746.197 787.771 -41.574 lahan 5.295.278 5.233.333 61.944 total 18.578.389 17.394.054 1.184.335 sumber: data primer dan skunder diolah tahun 2018 hasil analisis pam tentang dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap faktor domestik pada tabel 6 menunjukkan bahwa faktor domestik tenaga kerja pada usahatani padi metode sri memiliki harga privat yang lebih tinggi daripada harga sosialnya, ini menunjukkan bahwa pemerintah memberikan proteksi kebijakan terhadap tenaga kerja usahatani. tenaga kerja pada usahatani termasuk dalam tenaga kerja yang tidak terlatih, tingkat upah tenaga kerja tidak terlatih pada usahatani pada umumnya tidak mencerminkan tingkat upah sosial yang sesungguhnya, perbedaan tersebut disebabkan oleh 108 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research adanya kebijakan pemerintah, seperti ketentuan tentang upah minimum. ketentuan tingkat upah minimum ini menyebabkan tingkat upah yang diterima tenaga kerja tak terlatih lebih tinggi daripada tingkat upah yang sebenarnya, sehingga dengan adanya kebijakan pemerintah petani padi harus membayar faktor domestik tenaga kerja lebih mahal daripada harga sosialnya, atau dapat dikatakan bahwa kebijakan pemerintah meningkatkan biaya produksi yang seharusnya dikeluarkan petani pada harga sosialnya. divergensi yang disebabkan oleh adanya kebijakan pemerintah terhadap tenaga kerja usahatani padi metode sri adalah sebesar rp 1,163,965/ha, yang artinya petani usahatani padi sri harus membayar biaya faktor domestik tenaga kerja rp 1,163,965/ha lebih mahal daripada harga sosialnya. faktor domestik modal kerja pada usahatani padi memiliki harga privat yang lebih tinggi daripada harga sosialnya, perbedaan harga privat dan sosial tersebut disebabkan karena perbedaan tingkat suku bunga privat dengan tingkat suku bunga sosial yang seharusnya diterima petani. tingkat suku bunga nominal atau privat pada penelitian ini menggunakan tingkat suku bunga kredit usaha rakyat (kur) bank rakyat indonesia (bri). kredit usaha rakyat (kur) merupakan kebijakan pemerintah untuk membantu usaha rakyat termasuk usahatani, yaitu dengan nilai suku bunga sebesar 7%, dan untuk suku bunga sosialnya adalah suku bunga retail bank rakyat indonesia sebesar 10,75% dikurangkan dengan tingkat inflasi sebesar 3,36%, sehingga tingkat suku bunga sosial yang digunalan dalam penelitian ini adalah sebesar 7,39%. tingkat suku bunga sosial yang lebih besar daripada tingkat suku bunga nominalnya, menunjukkan bahwa pemerintah memberikan kebijakan subsidi terhadap tingkat suku bunga yang diterima oleh petani. divergensi pada modal kerja yang disebabkan karena adanya kebijakan subsidi pada kur untuk usahatani padi adalah sebesar rp 41,574 per ha. faktor domestik lahan memiliki harga privat lahan lebih mahal daripada harga sosialnya, hal ini dikarenakan pada perhitungan faktor domestik lahan untuk harga privat lahan memperhitungan pajak tanah yang harus dibayarkan oleh petani padi, sedangkan untuk harga sosial sewa lahan diasumsikan sama dengan harga privatnya. divergensi pada faktor produksi lahan pada usahatani padi metode sri sebesar rp 61.944/ha, yang berarti bahwa petani harus membayar pajak tanah untuk lahan usahataninya sebesar rp 61.944/ha. dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input output usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi kebijakan output dan input pada usahatani padi metode sri di kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi secara keseluruhan dapat diketahui dari indikator-indikator antara lain yaitu efective protection coeficient (epc), net protection transfer (npt), profitability coeficient (pc) dan subsidy ratio to producer (srp). epc merupakan indikator untuk mengetahui efek transfer gabungan yang disebabkan oleh kebijakan, baik transfer output tradable maupun transfer input tradable. npt menggambarkan tambahan surplus produsen atau berkurangnya surplus produsen yang diakibatkan oleh kebijakan pemerintah. pc merupakan rasio antara keuntungan privat dan keuntungan sosial, yang menunjukkan pengaruh dari kebijakan pemerintah yang menyebabkan keuntungan privat berbeda dengan keuntungan sosial, sedangkan srp merupakan perbandingan antara tranfer bersih dengan nilai ouput pada harga sosial. hasil analisis pam yang menunjukkan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input ouput usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi dapat dilihat pada tabel 7. hasil analisis pam pada tabel 7 menunjukkan bahwa nilai net protection transfer (npt) pada usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi sebesar rp 1.666.860 per ha. 109 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 tabel 7. nilai net protection transfer (npt), profitability coefficient (pc) dan subsidy ratio to producer (srp) usaha tani padi metode system of rice intensification (sri) di desa watukebo kabupaten banyuwangi musim tanam desember 2017 maret 2018 (per ha) output input tradable faktor domestik profit pc srp harga privat 28.256.024 814.359 18.578.389 8.863.276 harga sosial 26.589.164 1.458.274 17.394.054 7.736.837 1,146 0,042 divergensi 1.666.860 -643.915 1.184.335 1.126.439 sumber: data primer dan skunder diolah tahun 2018 nilai npt yang positif tersebut menunjukkan bahwa tidak terjadi pengalihan surplus dari produsen atau petani padi ke pihak lain, dengan kata lain kebijakan pemerintah memberikan dampak yang positif terhadap usahatani padi sri. nilai profitability coeficient (pc) menunjukkan nilai lebih besar dari satu yaitu sebesar 1,146, hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input, ouput tradable dan faktor domestik pada usahatani padi sri menambah penerimaan produsen atau petani padi sebesar 14,6%, sehingga usahatani padi sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi memperoleh keuntungan lebih tinggi dari yang seharusnya diterima oleh petani padi, atau dapat dikatakan kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input output secara keseluruhan berdampak positif terhadap usahatani padi metode sri. nilai subsidy ratio to producer (srp) dari hasil analisis pam, diperoleh nilai yang positif, yaitu sebesar 0,042. nilai srp tersebut menunjukkan pengaruh adanya kebijakan pemerintah memberikan dampak kepada petani padi sri yang membayar biaya produksi lebih rendah dari biaya sosialnya, atau berarti bahwa pengaruh dari kebijakan pemerintah dan mekanisme pasar pada saat penelitian berdampak positif terhadap stuktur biaya produksi usahatani padi sri. nilai srp sebesar 0,042 berarti bahwa dampak kebijakan pemerintah mampu menurunkan biaya produksi padi metode sri sebesar rp 0,042/ha, atau dengan kata lain kebijakan pemerintah menyebabkan usahatani padi metode sri menerima biaya produksi lebih rendah 4,2% dari biaya yang seharusnya dikeluarkan. dampak dari keseluruhan kebijakan pemerintah dan mekanisme pasar terhadap input dan output tradable pada usahatani padi ditunjukkan dengan nilai epc (effective profitability coefficient). hasil analisis pam yang menunjukkan nilai epc usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi ditujukkan pada tabel 8. tabel. 8. koefisien proteksi efektif (epc) pada usahatani padi metode system of rice intensification (sri) di desa watukebo kabupaten banyuwangi musim tanam desember 2017-maret 2018 (per ha) output input tradable epc harga privat 28.256.024 814.359 harga sosial 26.589.164 1.458.274 1,092 divergensi 1.666.860 -643.915 sumber: data primer dan skunder diolah tahun 2018 hasil analisis pam pada tabel 8 menunjukkan bahwa nilai epc lebih besar dari satu, yaitu sebesar 1,092. nilai epc sebesar 1,092 berarti bahwa adanya kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input dan ouput tradable menyebabkan nilai tambah yang diterima petani padi 10,92% lebih tinggi dibandingkan tanpa adanya kebijakan. kesimpulan hasil analisis pam untuk usahatani padi metode sri di desa watukebo kecamatan rogojampi kabupaten banyuwangi menunjukkan nilai private cost ratio (pcr) sebesar 0,677, yang berarti bahwa usahatani padi metode sri memiliki keunggulan kompetitif, dan nilai domestic resources cost (drc) sebesar 0,692, yang berarti bahwa usahatani padi metode sri mempunyai keunggulan komparatif. hasil analisis pam untuk mengetahui dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap usahatani padi metode sri menunjukkan bahwa, nominal protection coefficient on output (npco) sebesar 1,063, yang menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan pemerintah terhadap output tradable memberikan dampak positif pada usahatani padi metode sri. nilai protection coefficient on input (npci) sebesar 0,558, menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input tradable juga 110 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research memberikan dampak positif pada usahatani padi metode sri. secara bersama-sama kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input output tradable dan input non tradable (faktor domestik) memberikan dampak positif terhadap usahatani padi metode sri, hal ini ditunjukkan dengan nilai net protection transfer (npt) sebesar rp 1.666.860 per ha, nilai subsidy ratio to producer (srp) sebesar 0,042, yang berarti bahwa dampak kebijakan pemerintah mampu menurunkan biaya produksi padi sebesar rp 0,042/ha, serta nilai profitability coeficient (pc) sebesar 1,146, yang menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input, ouput tradable dan faktor domestik pada usahatani padi sri menambah penerimaan produsen atau petani padi sebesar 14,6%. dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input dan output tradable secara bersama-sama juga memberikan dampak positif pada usahatani padi metode sri, yang ditunjukkan dengan nilai epc lebih besar dari satu yaitu sebesar 1,092, yang berarti bahwa adanya kebijakan pemerintah terhadap input dan ouput tradable menyebabkan nilai tambah yang diterima petani padi metode sri 10,92% lebih tinggi dibandingkan tanpa adanya kebijakan. implikasi dari penelitian ini dapat lebih meyakinkan petani tentang keunggulan usahatani padi metode sri, bahwa usahatani tani metode sri memiliki keunggulan kompetitif dan keunggulan komparatif. keunggulan kompetitif ditunjukkan dengan penggunaan faktor domestik yang cukup efisien dengan pengelolaan padi metode sri yang optimal, serta harga jual padi yang diterima petani mampu menutupi biaya produksi dan menghasilkan keuntungan bagi petani. keunggulan komparatif ditunjukkan dari biaya produksi padi metode sri pada harga sosial lebih kecil dibandingkan biaya impor, sehingga apabila pemenuhan permintaan terhadap padi dilakukan dari produksi dalam negeri maka akan mampu menghemat devisa dari besarnya biaya impor yang diperlukan. hasil penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan pemerintah terhadap output tradable dan atau input tradable memberikan dampak positif pada usahatani padi metode sri. daftar pustaka badan pusat statistik. (2016). provinsi jawa timur dalam angka. surabaya: badan pusat statistik propinvi jawa timur. bargumono. (2016). pertanian organik: solusi alternatif pertanian. yogyakarta: global pustaka utama. bandrang, t. n., ronnie s. 2015. natawidjaja, dan maman karmana. analisis daya saing dan dampak kebijakan terhadap beras organik ekspor (studi kasus di gapoktan simpatik kabupaten tasikmalaya). agrivet jurnal ilmu pertanian dan peternakan. vol. 3. no. 1. 3346. majalengka: fakultas pertanian universitas majalengka. gittinger, j. p. (1986). analisis ekonomi proyek-proyek pertanian. jakarta: ui press. dalam sukmaya, g. s., rachmina, d., saptana. (2016). analisis daya saing dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap komoditas kedelai vs pengusaha kedelai di kabupaten lamongan jawa timur. forum agribisnis. vol 6. no. 1. 21-52. retrieved from http://journal.ipb.ac. id/index.php/fagb/article/view/17230/12462. gittinger, j. p. (2008). analisa ekonomi proyek-proyek pertanian. jakarta: ui press. irawati, d. j., sihombing, l., ginting, r. (2015). analisis daya saing dan dampak kebijakan pemerintah terhadap komoditas padi sawah di kecamatan perbaungan kabupaten serdang bedagai. journal of agriculture and agribusiness socioeconomics. 1-15. monke, e. a. and pearson, s. r. (1989). the policy analysis matrix agriculture development. new york: cornell university press. monke, e. a. and pearson, s. r. (1989). the policy analysis matrix agriculture development. new york: cornell university press. dalam soetriono. (2010). ekonomi dan kebijakan agribisnis tebu”: suatu analisis jawa timur. malang: bayu media. pearson, s., gotsch, c., dan bahri, s. (2005). aplikasi policy analysis matrix pada pertanian indonesia. jakarta: yayasan obor indonesia. suryana, a. (1980). keuntungan komparatif dalam produksi ubikayu dan jagung di jawa timur dan lampung dengan analisa penghematan biaya sumberdaya domestik (bsd). tesis magister sains. sekolah pascasarjana, institut pertanian bogor. dalam haryono, d., soetriono, hartadi, r., aji, j. m. m. (2011). analisis daya saing dan dampak 111 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 kebijakan pemerintah terhadap produksi kakao di jawa timur. jurnal of social and agricultural economics (j-sep). vol. 5 no. 2. 72-82. retrieved from https://jurnal.unej.ac. id/index.php/jsep/article/view/375/233. sutawi. (2002). manajemen agribisnis. malang: bayumedia. soetriono. (2002). the policy analysis matrix pam. jember: universitas jember. rachman, b., p. simatupang, dan t. sudaryanto. 2004. efisiensi dan daya saing sistem usahatani padi. prosiding efisiensi dan daya saing sistem usahatani beberapa komoditas pertanian di lahan sawah. 1-27. isbn: 9793566-22-1. bogor: pusat penelitian dan pengembangan sosial ekonomi pertanian badan penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian departemen pertanian. uphoff, n. (2002). development of the sri in madagascar. http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/abo utsri/cip_upward_sricase.pdf. dalam zulkifli, a. malik, z. fathoni. (2011). analisis ekonomi pengembangan padi sawah dengan metode system of rice intensification di provinsi jambi. retrieved from https://www. academia.edu/8362589/analisis_ekonomi_pa di_sawah_dengan_metode_sri?auto=downl oad. yud. (2015). pemkab banyuwangi kembangkan padi sri 2.500 hektare. retrieved from https:// www.beritasatu.com/nasional/299565/pemk ab-banyuwangi-kembangkan-padi-sri-2500hektare. zakariah, a., wahyuning, k. s. dan r. kustiari. 2010. analisis daya saing komoditas kedelai menurut agro ekosistem: kasus di tiga provinsi di indonesia. jurnal agroekonomi. vol 28. no. 1. 21-37. bogor: pusat sosial ekonomi dan kebijakan pertanian kementerian pertanian. zulkifli, a. malik, z. fathoni. (2011). analisis ekonomi pengembangan padi sawah dengan metode system of rice intensification di provinsi jambi. retrieved from https://www.academia .edu/8362589/analisis_ekonomi_padi_sawah _dengan_metode_sri?auto=download. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history: submitted : june 20th, 2019 accepted : march 15th, 2020 rokhani1,3, mohammad rondhi2,3*, ebban bagus kuntadi2,3, joni murti mulyo aji2,3, anik suwandari2,3, agus supriono2,3, triana dewi hapsari2,3 1department of agricultural extension, faculty of agriculture, university of jember 2department of agribusiness, faculty of agriculture, university of jember 3institutional economic for agribusiness reforms and development (infrared) research group, university of jember *) correspondence email: rondhi.faperta@unej.ac.id assessing determinants of farmer’s participation in sugarcane contract farming in indonesia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6187 abstract the integrated value chain is a prerequisite for the successful industrialization of the agricultural sector. contract farming (cf) is a useful instrument to integrate the agricultural value chain in developing countries such as indonesia. the purpose of this study was to identify the determinants of farmer participation in sugarcane contract farming. the data utilized in this study was obtained from the indonesian plantation farm household survey 2014 for sugarcane. the data consists of 8.831 farmers distributed in 8 provinces. logistic regression was used to estimate the determinants of farmer participation in sugarcane cf. the result shows that age, education, and type of cultivated land negatively affect farmer participation in sugarcane cf. meanwhile, land tenure, cultivation area, cropping system, certified seed, membership in a cooperative, access to extension services, and membership in farmer’s association positively affect farmer participation in sugarcane cf. the policy implication for increasing farmer participation in cf is to intensify the information of cf to the farmer with a large cultivation area. since these farmers tend to participate in cf to anticipate marketing risks. keywords: contract farming, sugarcane, indonesian plantation farm household survey introduction the integration of agricultural value chains is one of the prerequisites for the success of agricultural industrialization. an integrated value chain enables a smooth flow of goods and information so that the agricultural sector can respond and meet market needs precisely and quickly (oecd/wto, 2013). contract farming (cf) is an instrument used to integrate agricultural value chains since it solves high transaction costs, limited access to finance, limited regulatory transparency, and issues related to value chain governance (bellemare & lim, 2018). cf aims to link small-scale farmers to high-value markets (exports and supermarkets) or processing companies. linking small-scale farmers to export markets and supermarkets is the most effective alternative to reduce poverty in developing countries (world bank, 2008). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 13 assessing determinants of farmer’s….. (rokhani, et.al) empirically, participation in cf has proven to be beneficial for farmers and companies. participation in cf reduces the risk of farming for small-scale farmers in india (mishra, kumar, joshi, d’souza, & tripathi, 2018). cf also plays a role in minimizing the costs of providing farm capital for farmers and labor costs for companies (oya, 2012). for farmers, the main benefits of cf are increased income and welfare, such as contract farmers in ghana, india, madagascar, mozambique and nicaragua (barrett et al., 2012), corn farmers, rice farmers and broiler breeders in indonesia (simmons, winters, & patrick, 2005), and contract farmers in several other developing countries (bellemare & bloem, 2018). moreover, cf is the beginning of a structural transformation of the agricultural sector because it encourages the transition from semi-subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture (barrett, christiaensen, sheahan, & shimeles, 2017). these results indicate the importance of farmer participation in cf for the economy of developing countries, such as indonesia. the rate of participation of cf in indonesia is quite low compared to developed countries. the rate of participation of cf in indonesia based on sub-sectors and commodities are livestock subsector: broiler 55.65%; dairy 12.15%; beef cattle 0.28% (bps, 2014), horticulture subsector: cayenne pepper 7.67%; red chilies 8.03%; shallots 3.05%; mango 6.24%; banana 5.09% (bps, 2015a), plantation subsector for all commodities 2.9% (bps, 2015b). this figure is relatively low when compared to developed countries like the united states, where the rate of participation in cf reaches 97% (macdonald & korb, 2012). under these conditions, increasing the participation in cf for strategic agricultural commodities has a vital role in agricultural industrialization in indonesia. one of the strategic agricultural commodities in indonesia is sugar cane. sugar cane is the primary raw material for the indonesian sugar industry. currently, the indonesian sugar industry is only able to supply 2.19 million tons of sugar out of a total demand of 5.7 million tons (iswara, 2017). accelerating the process of industrialization of sugar cane plantations is a crucial step to achieve national sugar self-sufficiency. increasing the participation of sugar cane farmers in cf is a possible solution to accelerate this process. the participation of sugarcane farmers in cf has several positive impacts. for example, cf between jati tujuh sugar mills ( pg ) and sugar cane farmers in west java increases farmers' empowerment through access to capital, the provision of production facilities, and marketing (fadilah & sumardjo, 2011), cf also increase production and profits per hectare for sugar cane farmers in jember (lestari, fauzi, hutagaol, hidayat, & hidayat, 2016). an effective strategy is needed to increase farmer participation in cf. the strategy needs to be based on factors that determine sugar cane farmer's participation in cf. the majority of research on sugar cane cf are case studies (agiesta, widjaya, & hasanuddin, 2017; fadilah & sumardjo, 2011; lestari et al., 2016). these researches can provide a detailed picture of the conditions of cf in an area. however, this research is insufficient as the basis to formulate policies on a national scale. based on these conditions, this study aims to identify the factors that effect sugar cane farmer's participation in cf in indonesia. using data from the sugarcane plantation farm household survey with a total http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 14 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sample of 8831 farmers, this study provides a nationally-representative analysis that suitable for the formulation of national sugar cane policies. methods data the data used in this study is the data of the 2014 indonesian plantation farm household survey (ipfhs) of sugarcane produced by the central statistics agency (bps) of the republic of indonesia. ipfhs is part of the 2013 agriculture census (st2013) and covers the entire territory of indonesia. plantation commodities in the ipfhs are divided into two categories, national plantation commodities (cocoa, rubber, palm oil, coffee) and provincial plantation commodities. sugar cane is a provincial plantation commodity. the ipfhs field data were collected from may 26 to july 7, 2014 (sub-directorate of plantation crop statistics, 2016). figure 1 shows the distribution of smallholder sugarcane farmers respondents and contract-farmer in ipfhs. figure 1. the distribution of respondent smallholder sugarcane farmers in indonesian plantation farm household survey the sampling method used in the ipfhs was two-stage random sampling. the first step is taking random sample blocks from the census block framework. the systematic proportional to size was used in the selection of sample blocks. the intended size for each census block is the number of plantation farm households (pfh). the framework for the selection of sample blocks is twofold, namely ordinary census blocks and census blocks containing the results of st2013, which have been stratified by primary crop. the eligible sample block is a census block that has a minimum of 10 pfh. after the sample block is determined, the second step is to determine the pfh sample. systematic sampling was used to determine the pfh sample with consideration of the types of primary plantation crops, the amount of planting area in m2, and the number of plants produced at the time of enumeration. the framework for pfh selection is the list of pfh in selected blocks that have http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 15 assessing determinants of farmer’s….. (rokhani, et.al) been sorted by the planting area. the eligibility of the pfh sample for sugar cane is pfh with a minimum planting area of 650 m2 (bps, 2015c). table 1 descriptive statistics of research data variable code information average and frequency elementary school dependent variable participation in contract farming y binary category variables (0 = independent farmers; 1 = contract farmers) 1: 3036 (34.4%) 0: 5795 (65.6%) independent variable age x1 age of sugar cane pfh head (years) 51.59 11.82 education x2 length of formal education (year) 5.85 4.46 gender x3 dummy variable (1 = male, 0 = female) 1: 7974 (90.3%) 0: 857 (9.7%) land tenure x4 dummy variable (1 = self-owned, 2 = rent, 3 = sharecropping) 1: 7163 (81.1%) 2: 1098 (12.4%) 3: 570 (6.5%) land area x5 sugar cane planting area (ha) 0.9 3.15 land type x6 dummy variable (1 = paddy farmland, 0 = non paddy farmland) 1: 3006 (34%) 0: 5825 (66%) planting system x7 dummy variable, planting system applied to sugar cane (1 = single, 2 = intercropping, 3 = mixed) 1: 8740 (98.9%) 2:58 (0.7%) 3:33 (0.4%) seeds x8 dummy variable, type of seed used (1 = certified seed, 0 = uncertified seed) 1: 1430 (16.2%) 0: 7401 (83.8%) dependency ratio x9 the ratio between the number of sugar cane farmers in the family and the number of family members 0.32 .17 membership in kud / cooperatives x10 dummy variable (1 = kud / cooperative member, 0 = not a kud / cooperative member) 1: 1347 (15.3%) 0: 7484 (84.7%) access to agricultural extension x11 dummy variable (1 = getting counseling, 0 = not getting counseling) 1: 1383 (15.7%) 0: 7448 (84.3%) membership in the sugar cane farmers association x12 dummy variable (1 = associate member, 0 = non-associate member) 1: 466 (5,3) 0: 8365 (94.7%) distribution of sample farmers distribution of sugar cane rtup distribution of sugarcane rutp in each province (1 = north sumatra, 2 = lampung, 3 = west java, 4 = central java, 5 = yogyakarta, 6 = east java, 7 = south sulawesi, 8 = gorontalo) 1: 3 (0.03%) 2:88 (0.99%) 3:75 (0.84%) 4: 3146 (35.6%) 5: 0.5 (12.2%) 6: 5281 (59.8%) 7: 104 (1.2%) 8:86 (1.0%) source: 2014 indonesian plantation farm household survey in total, 8831 sugar cane pfhs were interviewed in the ipfhs. these farmers are located in the primary province of sugar cane production. table 1 contains the distribution of pfh and descriptive statistics of the variables. in general, sugar cane farmers in indonesia are on java island with the most substantial proportion located in east java and central java, accounting for 59.8% and 35.6%, respectively (see figure 1). other regions with the number of sugarcane farmers sorted from the largest to the smallest proportion are yogyakarta, south sulawesi, gorontalo, lampung, west java, and north sumatra. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 16 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research based on the information in table 1, the number of sugarcane farmers participating in cf is 34.4%. this amount is much higher compared to cf participation in the plantation sector, which is only 2.9%. the average sugar cane farmer is 51.59 years old, with an average level of education being elementary school (average length of education is 5.85 years). the majority of sugarcane farmers are men, with only 9.7% who are female farmers. the average dependency ratio of sugar cane pfh is 0.32, which means that each sugar cane farmer has an average of two dependents. most of the sugarcane farmers cultivated their land (81.1%), while the rest cultivated on leased land (12.4%) and sharecropping (6.5%). most farmers cultivated sugar cane on nonpaddy farmland (66%) while the rest cultivated on paddy farmland. sugarcane planting generally cultivated by single cropping system, and a small portion is cultivated by intercropping and mixed cropping. the use of certified seed is still relatively low, and most farmers still use uncertified seed. the rate of participation of sugarcane farmers in agricultural extension, cooperatives, and agricultural associations is still relatively low. the number of sugar cane farmers in indonesia who are members of the kud / cooperative is 15.3%. similarly, sugar cane farmers with access to an agricultural extension are 15.7%. the membership of sugarcane farmers in the farmers association has a meager value of 5.3%. analytical procedure logistic regression was used to estimate the factors affecting farmer’s decision to participate in cf. logistic regression is a regression method used to estimate the effect of several independent variables on the independent variables in the form of binary variables (field, 2005). twelve independent variables were expected to affect farmer’s participation in cf. the logistic regression model is shown in equation 1.   12 0 1 i ii logit p x       (1) maximum likelihood estimation (mle) method was used to estimate the model. omnibus test of model coefficients and pseudo-r2 values were used to test the robustness of the model. the effect of each independent variable was estimated using the regression coefficient and the odd-ratio. result and discussions logistic regression estimation results the results of logistic regression analysis show that the estimated model is robust. there are ten of twelve independent variables that have a significant effect on farmers' decisions to participate in cf. the logistic regression model has a chi-square value significant at 1% level. it shows that adding independent variables in the model significantly increases the ability of the model to explain the variance of farmers' decisions to participate in cf. farmer's age and education have a negative effect and significant to the decision of sugarcane farmers to participate in cf, while the gender variable does not have a significant effect. land tenure has a positive and significant effect on the farmer’s participation in cf, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 17 assessing determinants of farmer’s….. (rokhani, et.al) while farmers who manage the production on sharecropping land tend not to participate in cf. the land area has a positive and significant effect on farmer’s participation in cf. meanwhile, farmers who cultivate sugar cane on paddy fields tend not to contract. single cropping and intercropping systems have a positive effect on farmer’s participation in cf while the mixed cropping system has a negative effect. table 2 logistic regression estimation results note: ***, **, and * states are significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% respectively. source: author’s analysis, 2019 discussion the logistic regression estimation results show that age has a negative effect with an odd-ratio value of 0.986. it shows that the probability for farmers to contract decreased by 1.14% in line with the addition of age by one year. these results indicate that contract farmers tend to be younger than independent farmers. the average age of sugar cane contract farmers is 50.81 years, while independent sugar cane farmers are 52 years. age is a factor that describes the experience and ability of farmers. this result is different from the results of research by corn and potato contract farmers in okara district, pakistan, where farmers who participated in cf tended to be older because the partner companies preferred farmers with longer farming experience (khan, nakano, & kurosaki, 2019). the reason for this difference is because age is not a company priority in choosing farmers. also, young farmers are more proactive in gaining institutional access (rondhi, pratiwi, handini, sunartomo, & budiman, 2018). farmer education has a negative impact with an odd-ratio of 0.954, which shows that sugar cane farmers with high formal education tend not to participate in cf. several studies indicate that farmer education tends not to have a significant effect on farmers' decisions to participate in cf. a study on corn and potato cf in pakistan shows that education does not variable coefficient sig. odds ratio intercept –2,965 .001 *** 0.052 age –0,014 0,000 *** .986 education –0,047 0,000 *** .954 gender 0.090 0.313 ns 1,094 land ownership one's own 0.462 0,000 *** 1,587 rent 0.527 0,000 *** 1,693 land area .119 0,000 *** 1,126 land type (paddy farmland) –0,145 0,000 *** 0.865 planting system single 2,164 0.009 *** 8,709 intercropping 2,398 0.007 *** 11,000 seedlings (certified) 0.832 0,000 *** 2,297 dependency ratio –0.230 0,131 ns 0.795 membership in kud / cooperatives (members) 1,537 0,000 *** 4,651 access to agricultural extension 1,025 0,000 *** 2,788 membership in the sugar cane farmers association 1,751 0,000 *** 5,759 model robustness omnibus tests of model coefficients (chi-square) 1952,186 0,000 *** cox and snell r2 .198 nagelkerke r2 0.274 n 8831 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 18 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research have a statistically significant effect (khan et al., 2019). similar results were also found in broiler cf in china (mao, zhou, ifft, & ying, 2019). in general, the sugarcane farmers in indonesia have low formal education. most farmers (71.2%) had the highest education at the elementary school level, 25.5% had junior/senior high school education, while less than 5% had high education. meanwhile, the gender of farmers does not have a significant impact on farmers' decisions in partnering. the land aspect consists of three factors: land ownership, type, and area. land ownership is a categorical variable with three categories, owned land, rented land, and sharecropping. estimation results show that farmers who cultivate sugar cane on owned and rented land tend to participate in cf with odd-ratio values of 1.587 and 1.693. land ownership status has an important role in farm decision making, such as decisions related to the use of production inputs (rondhi & adi, 2018), land management (rondhi et al., 2018), and adaptation and mitigation of the impacts of climate change (rondhi, khasan, mori, & kondo, 2019). land ownership status determines the incentives that farmers will get from farming decisions taken. the security of land tenure will encourage farmers to make farming decisions that have the probability of providing benefits. thus, farmers who manage their owned and leased land tend to participate in cf because they have secure land tenure. the land area has a positive effect on farmers' decision to participate in cf with an odd-ratio value of 1.126. it indicates that the probability for farmers to partner will increase by 12.6% along with the addition of 1 hectare of land. similar results were also found in research on partnership oil palm plantations in ghana, where large tracts of land tend to join cf to minimize price risk (väth, gobien, & kirk, 2019). the area of land affects the risk of farming faced by farmers. an increase in the land area will increase farming production, which then increases the value of a significant loss if the price at harvest is low. this risk can be anticipated by participating in cf, where farmers will get certainty about the sale of their products. meanwhile, farmers who cultivate sugar cane on paddy fields tend not to partner. odd-ratio value of paddy land is 0.865, which shows that farmers who cultivate sugar cane on paddy fields have a 14.5% less probability of contracting compared to farmers who cultivate sugar cane on non-paddy fields. the planting system has a positive effect on a farmer’s participation in cf. the planting system is a categorical variable with two criteria, namely single cropping and intercropping. based on the odd-ratio value, farmers who implement a single cropping system have a smaller probability of participating in cf. the odd-ratio value of a single planting system is 8.7, while the intercropping system has an odd-ratio value of 11. intercropping systems can be applied to sugarcane and food crops. the application of this system can provide additional results in the first four months of planting sugar cane (balittas, 2016). meanwhile, the use of certified cane seed has a positive effect on farmers' probability to partner. farmers who use certified seeds have a 120% greater chance of participating in cf. furthermore, the use of certified seed increases sugar cane farm productivity and technical efficiency in indonesia (suwandari et al., 2020). these results are in line with the function of http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 19 assessing determinants of farmer’s….. (rokhani, et.al) cf as an instrument for farmers to obtain quality farm inputs, including seeds (mishra, kumar, joshi, & d’souza, 2016). institutional factors have a positive and significant effect on farmers' participation in cf. membership in cooperatives has an odd-ratio value of 4.651, which shows that sugarcane farmers who are members of cooperatives have a 4.651 times greater probability of participating in cf than those who are not members of cooperatives. a study on pineapple contract farmers in ghana shows that success in cf is determined by self-efficacy and social capital owned by farmers towards cf. both of these factors are strongly affected by the membership of farmers in cooperatives, where farmers who are active in cooperative membership have the confidence and strong social capital to partner (wuepper & sauer, 2016). access to agricultural extension also has a positive effect on farmers' participation in cf with an odd-ratio value of 2.788. farmers who have access to extension services have a probability of participating in cf 2.788 times greater than farmers with no access to extension services. however, access to the extension might be associated with farmers' participation in cf. as in the organic rice cf in india, where extension services are one of the benefits received by farmers from cf (mishra et al., 2018). the similar results were also found in broiler cf (rondhi, aji, khasan, putri, & yanuarti, 2020) and tobacco cf in indonesia (rondhi et al., 2020). membership in sugarcane farmers associations has a positive effect on farmers' farmers' participation in cf with an odd-ratio value of 5.759. as is the case with membership in cooperatives, membership in sugarcane farmers associations strengthens social capital and farmer confidence. farmers' associations in certain cases are implementing cf, such as the corn cf in ghana formed by the corn farmers association called masara (lambrecht & ragasa, 2018). so that association members have a great probability of participating in cf. the association also acts as a price negotiator between farmers and processing plants, as happened between rice farmers and rice mills in senegal (soullier & moustier, 2018). the same condition also occurs in indonesia between the indonesian people's sugar cane farmers association (aptri), which is an organization that represents farmers in negotiating prices and policies related to sugar cane. based on the discussion above, there are factors determining farmer’s participation in cf and factors that are the result of cf. the determinants of cf are factors that encourage farmers to participate in cf, such as land area. land area is closely related to the risks faced by farmers, especially price risk.small-scale farmers maximize profits by exploiting the selling price. small-scale farmers get maximum profits when prices are high, and a small loss when prices are low, due to the small amount of sugarcane production. meanwhile, price speculation is difficult for farmers with large cultivation areas due to the high risk of loss during low prices. other factors that determine farmer’s participation in cf include age, education, land ownership, membership in cooperatives, and farmers associations. meanwhile, access to agricultural extension is a result of farmer's participation in cf because extension service is http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 20 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research one of the facilities provided by cf. another factor which is the result of cfis the certified seed and planting system. both of these factors are the result because cf facilitates farmers to get access to quality farming inputs and a good planting system. conclusions this study aims to identify the factors that affect the decision of sugar cane farmers in indonesia to participate in cf. based on the estimation results of logistic regression, there are ten of the twelve factors that have a significant effect on the decision of farmers to participate in cf. factors that have positive and statistically significant effects include land ownership, land area, planting system, certified seedlings, membership of cooperatives / kud, access to agricultural extension, and membership in farmer associations. meanwhile, factors that negatively affected include age, education, and type of agricultural land. a factor that strongly encourages farmers to participate in cf is land area because the price risk increases with the increase in land area. acknowledgements we are grateful to the university of jember research and community services (lp2m) for funding this research under the 2019 research group research grant (keris), grant number: 1394/un25.3.1/lt/2019. references agiesta, v., widjaya, s., & hasanuddin, t. 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(2016). explaining the performance of contract farming in ghana: the role of self-efficacy and social capital. food policy, 62, 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.05.003 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021, pages: 111-126 article history: submitted: july 20th, 2018 accepted: february 1st, 2021 hardiyanti sultan1,*, dwi rachmina2, anna fariyanti2 1faculty of agriculture universitas tadulako, palu, central sulawesi, indonesia 2department of agribusiness, faculty of economics and management, ipb university, bogor, indonesia *)correspondence email: hardiyantisultan91@gmail.com effect of transaction costs on profit and the capital formation of soybean farming in lamongan regency, east java doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.4427 abstract transaction costs was one of imperfect market characteristic. the transaction costs of soybean farming affected profit level, and profit was one factor of capital formation. this research aimed to analyze the structure and the effect of transaction costs on the profitability and the capital formation of soybean farming. this study applied transaction cost analysis and simultaneous equation as the methods. the respondents were determined using simple random sampling by taking the proportion of 25% for the three selected districts, resulting in 120 respondents. the data were the transaction costs in 2014/2015 and household data from 2012 to 2014, comprising the assets of land, vehicles, farm equipment, crop, and livestock. the results revealed that the transaction costs were idr 144,120.86. the negotiation costs became the highest cost component (60.30%), followed by information costs (14.07%), coordination costs (12.22%), implementation costs (8.03%), monitoring costs (4.23%) and risk costs (1.15%). transaction costs had a significant effect on the profitability of soybean farming. the highest percentage of capital formation on soybean farming was for farmland, reaching 40.43%. other capitals included vehicles (24.59%), plants (19.31%), building (7.37%), and supporting tools (3.09%). transaction costs did not significantly effect on farming capital formation. as a recommendation, collective action was required, farmers should be active on farmers groups to reduce transaction costs. keywords: capital formation, profit farming, transaction costs introduction transaction costs occur due to imperfect information and limitations in processing the information; thus, increasing the total costs incurred in a business. transaction costs in some literature are indirect costs, including costs for setting up, conducting, and monitoring transactions (williamson, 2010). however, it still affects farmers' profits. an increase in transaction costs decreases farmers' welfare both in the lowlands and in the highlands (fallo, sinaga, hartoyo, & simatupang, 2020). in several cases concerning trade in goods and services, especially trade on a small scale, such as agricultural products in rural areas, business actors face difficulty identifying transaction costs. the low level of education of business actors in rural areas makes it difficult for them to distinguish or classify all forms of costs that will be or have been incurred (marimuthu, arokiasamy, & ismail, 2009). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 112 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research this identification difficulty reduces the profit they will receive because they unconsciously incur several other costs outside of production costs not considered and previously allocated. low transaction costs will automatically increase profit, meaning an increase in transaction costs will reduce the profit level (d’hondt & giraud, 2008; wawondos & mustamu, 2014). the growth rate for capital formation in indonesia's agricultural sector is relatively low, around 5-10 percent of the total national capital formation in 1951 2007 (eng, 2008). it indicates the weak internal capacity of farming to form individual capital. likewise, transaction costs in the farming capital formation are rarely carried out, considering the calculation and identification of transaction costs quite challenging. being one of the five primary food commodities (rice, corn, soybeans, sugar and beef) in indonesia, soybean farming was selected as the research object (statistics indonesia, 2014). furthermore, soybeans are the primary source of vegetable protein for most indonesians. soybean production until 2013 continued to decline, inversely proportional to its increasing domestic demand; for example, soybean demand in 2010 reached 2,647,151 tons while the production solely reached 907,031 tons (statistics indonesia, 2014). increased production can be achieved by enhanced productivity and land area. however, agricultural land, including soybean farming, tends to decrease; thus, the effective way to increase production is to enhance productivity. strengthening or increasing capital or capital formation can be performed to increase business productivity (kumar, kumar, & mittal, 2004; kovács, 2018). increasing capital formation at the farm level will encourage enhanced production through increased farming productivity. farm productivity was also certainly influenced by working capital, which will indirectly affect farming's capital formation (prafitri, rachmina, & maulana, 2017). east java was one of indonesia's soybean production centers with the first rank (agricultural research and development, 2020). most soybean farmers in east java farm soybean as an intercropping. soybeans are planted in the second or third planting season after rice or corn plants to eliminate pests' traces and maintain soil fertility. nonetheless, soybean production also determines the source of farmers' income and directly affects soybean farming activities for the next season. one of the suppliers of soybeans to east java was lamongan regency. even though it was not the leading producer, lamongan regency was an area that continuously produces soybeans (statistics indonesia, 2020). hence, this regency can represent soybean farming conditions in east java. transaction costs in soybean farming will affect input and output prices. transaction costs found in both input and output procurement activities. high transaction costs result in a decrease in farmers' profits as business actors (tahir, darwanto, mulyo, & jamhari, 2010). information and negotiation costs were the components of transaction costs mostly found in farming due to information imbalance, one of the market failure characteristics. the highest transaction costs or the most incurred by farmers in farming are information and negotiation costs. information costs occur due to the unbalanced control of http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 113 effect of transaction costs on profit and….. (sultan et al.) information between farmers and traders. this condition also causes farmers to have low bargaining power on output prices to negotiate with traders to get the highest price (sirajuddin, siregar, juanda, & dharmawan, 2011; khapayi & celliers, 2016). high transaction costs lead to market failures and a very low level of corporate profit. industries locating close to each other or within one reach, between the input producing industry and the processing industry, will reduce transaction costs. indeed, it is different when the input producing industry is located far from the processing industry. the transaction costs will definitely be greater (wawondos & mustamu, 2014). high transaction costs and inefficient markets are the main reasons for farmers’ low prices in several developing countries (key, sadoulet, & janvry, 2000). the price received by farmers can be higher when they sell to collection centers from supermarkets than to traditional markets due to the higher prices offered by supermarkets (for high-quality products). moreover, the close location between farmers and the collection centers results in lower transportation costs and commission fees (nuthalapati, sutradhar, reardon, & qaim, 2020). transaction costs occur more frequently in farms in developing countries with limited access to information. this condition will hamper business actors to form networks that can facilitate the purchase of inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides. transaction costs arising are transportation costs. the high transportation costs in obtaining these inputs will reduce farming revenue, thereby affecting farming profit (hardt, 2009). the relationship between transaction costs and capital formation, in this case farming capital formation, is strongly influenced by farming profit factors and an external factor of credit. these two factors have a significant effect on farming capital formation. the farming capital formation will increase farming productivity, thus achieving higher production (erden & holcombe, 2005). the effect of transaction costs on the capital structure will affect the capital formation in a few years. this effect will impact the company’s growth. low transaction costs will potentially increase company savings. reduction in transaction costs also impacts the company’s decision to invest (bencivenga, smith, & starr, 1995). several previous studies link transaction costs and capital formation occurring in a company. meanwhile, in this study, the researchers attempted to discover the relationship between transaction costs and capital formation in soybean farming. as previously mentioned, it is assumed that transaction costs will occur more frequently in small-scale businesses in developing countries. the benefits obtained from the transaction costs will affect farming capital formation. therefore, this study aims to analyze (1) the transaction cost structure in soybean farming activities; and (2) the effect of transaction costs on profit and the capital formation in soybean farming. research method the research location was lamongan regency, east java, purposively selected for being the largest soybean producer in indonesia. the respondents were determined by simple random sampling with an even proportion distribution for each district. the selected http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 114 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research districts were three out of 25 districts in lamongan regency. this method was utilized due to a sampling frame for each selected district, consisting of 200 soybean farmers in tikung district, 72 soybean farmers in kembangbahu district and 208 soybean farmers in mantup district. each district was taken as much as 25 percent, resulting in 120 soybean farmers as the respondents, precisely 50 farmers from tikung district, 18 farmers from kembangbahu district and 52 farmers from mantup district. the data were collected through the survey method. primary data were obtained through structured questionnaires and interviews. direct interviews with respondents (soybean farmers) and key informants (farmer group leaders) were performed to get accurate data. analysis technique transaction cost analysis (tca) 1. total transaction cost equation the calculated component of transaction costs related to soybean farming included both explicit and implicit costs. each transaction cost was classified for financing soybean farming, affecting either the input or the output price. transaction costs for input procurement consisted of information, negotiation, coordination and monitoring costs. these costs belonged to explicit costs, which could be directly estimated even though the transaction had not occurred. transaction costs in input procurement increased input prices, thereby increasing the soybean farming costs. undoubtedly, high costs influenced the benefits obtained. transaction costs in the output procurement consisted of information and risk costs. the transaction costs in procuring output reduced the price of soybean output. thus, the output price decreased, thereby lessening the profit. apart from the procurement of inputs and outputs, transaction costs also found in financing sources. transaction costs in the procurement of financing sources consisted of explicit and implicit costs. the explicit costs included information, negotiation, coordination, monitoring and implementation costs. meanwhile, implicit costs included coordination and implementation costs. these costs were classified as implicit costs as they could not be estimated before the transaction occurred, for example, the implementation costs, namely queuing costs. farmers would have no idea how long they spent queuing. hence, the estimated costs incurred could not be estimated before the queue occurred. this cost was the income that farmers should obtain from work or activities sacrificed to queue up when handling capital loan documents. the equation 1 used to calculate the components of each transaction cost (trc) was: trc= ∑ zi (1) trc was the total transaction costs; zwass a component of transaction costs; i was a component of transaction costs, consisting of information, negotiation, coordination, implementation, monitoring and risk costs. the ratio of each component of transaction costs to total transaction costs was calculated using the equation 2: http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 115 effect of transaction costs on profit and….. (sultan et al.) r𝑍𝑖 = 𝑍𝑖 tr𝐶 ∶ ∑𝑍𝑖 = 1 (2) rzi was the ratio of transaction cost components to total transaction costs, covering information, negotiation, coordination, implementation, monitoring, and risk costs. 2. the ratio of transaction costs to farming profit the equation 3 was applied to determine the proportion of transaction costs to all farming profit: rtrc𝜋 = trc π × 100 (3) rtrcπ was the ratio of transaction costs to profit in percentage; π was the total profit in idr/year; trc was the total transaction costs in idr/year. 3. the ratio of transaction costs to total farming costs the equation 4 was implemented to determine the proportion of transaction costs to the total farming costs: rtrctc = = trc tc+trc × 100 (4) rtrctc was the ratio of transaction costs to total production costs in percentage; tc was the total production costs in idr/year, and trc was the total transaction costs in idr/year. 4. simultaneous equation model a simultaneous equation model was utilized to examine the factors influencing farming profit and farming capital formation comprising the output price, labor wage price, soybean seed price, fertilizer price, land area, credit, formal and non-formal education, farming experience, and transaction costs. the equation was formulated as equation 5 and equation 6: prof = a0 + a1pout + a2pwtk + a3pben + a4ppuk + a5lhn + a6cred + a7fedu + a8nfedu + a9exc + a10trc + µ (5) fcfa = b0 + b1exp + b2lhn + b3sav + b4fedu + b5exc + b6prof + b7trc + µ (6) while, prof was farming profit (idr/year), pout was price of soybean output (idr/year), pwtk was price of labor wages (idr/year), pben was price of soybean seeds (idr/year), ppuk was price of chemical fertilizers (idr/year), lh was land area (ha), cred was credit (idr/year), fedu was formal education (years), nfed was non-formal education (years), exc was farming experience (years), trc was transaction costs (idr/year), and μ was error. the sign and size of the estimated parameters for the first equation are: a0, a1, a5, a6, a7, a8, a9 > 0 and a2, a3, a4, a10 < 0 and for the second equation are: b0, b2, b3, b4, b5, b6 > 0 and b1, b7 < 0. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 116 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research result and discussions transaction cost structure in soybean farming transaction costs in the procurement of financing sources the structure of transaction costs for financing soybean farming in lamongan regency consisted of (1) information costs, (2) negotiation costs, (3) coordination costs, (4) implementation costs, and (5) monitoring costs. information costs are any costs incurred to obtain information regarding business interests, for example, information on price, farming, or financing sources. negotiation costs are incurred when negotiating with parties who want to work with, for example, the provision of wages for people employed to process loan documents or costs incurred to maintain capital loan contracts on non-formal financing. coordination costs are incurred when adjusting the agreement between each business actor involved, for example, when taking a loan and returning the loan (baye, 2010: williamson, 1989). implementation costs are incurred for each activity carried out, in this case, the provision of capital loans, for example, administrative costs and costs for processing documents required as a condition for obtaining a capital loan (coase, 1993). monitoring costs are incurred due to activities to supervise other parties in implementing contracts (baye, 2010). figure 1. the structure of transaction costs in the procurement of financing sources for soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 the components of the transaction costs in the procurement of financing sources exist in figure 1 were (1) information costs, consisting of (a) pulse costs, incurred to obtain information on what financing sources were available in lamongan regency through electronic intermediaries, such as mobile phone (hand phone). these pulse costs were also incurred when farmers had errand workers, and communicated with them to get all the information the workers had; (b) listening costs, incurred to obtain information on financing sources, for example through conversations in coffee shops with other farmers; (2) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 117 effect of transaction costs on profit and….. (sultan et al.) negotiation costs consisting of (a) the costs of wages, incurred when making payments to people employed to process loan documents; (b) bargaining costs, incurred when bargaining on the amount of the capital loan, usually incurred in informal financing; (c) costs of maintaining the contract, commonly spent on non-formal funding, for example when meeting with the capital owner to extend the capital loan contract; (3) coordination costs, comprising (a) meeting costs when borrowing capital, mainly when farmers took capital lent by financial institutions or capital owners; (b) meeting costs on repayment of capital, incurred when repaying or paying the loan capital; (c) waiting costs when capital loan, belonged to implicit costs, namely costs that could not be directly measured before the event; (d) waiting costs when returning capital, a conversion of the waiting time that farmers spent when returning the capital; (4) implementation costs, consisting of (a) administrative costs, incurred when registering to obtain a capital loan, commonly found in formal financing; (b) document processing costs, the total costs incurred to complete the requirements for obtaining a capital loan, for example, for photocopying files (land ownership certificates, id cards, family cards, farm information) (c) queuing costs, included in the type of implicit cost, a conversion of the time when queuing for capital loan document processing, and (5) monitoring costs, comprising (a) the pulse costs, allocated for monitoring/supervising the errand workers assigned to take care of complete documents for borrowing capital. pulse costs were almost incurred for each procurement of financing sources, both formal and non-formal. these study results are in accordance with the research of novindra et al., (2019) and lestari, prasmatiwi, & ismono, (2018), revealing that farmers must pay quite large transaction costs to obtain business capital assistance. the higher the transaction costs of capital assistance, the less the net capital assistance received by farmers, thus reducing the allocation of capital assistance for productive businesses. it resulted in decreased income and welfare of farmers. transaction costs in the input procurement of soybean farming the overall transaction costs of the input procurement affected the soybean input price. transaction costs increased the soybean input price, resulting in greater input procurement costs. however, soybean farmers did not realize it because they merely counted the real price for farming inputs, while the transaction costs were not calculated. the several costs in the input procurement of soybean farming described in figure 2. farmers incurred information costs on the input provision for soybean farming to learn about soybean farming, for example, farming techniques or how to deal with pests and diseases and find workers outside the family. those incurring these costs lacked information about what kind of pesticides used to kill pests attacking their soybean crops. the various types of pesticides demand farmers to be selective. thus, unconsciously, apart from the input price (pesticide), farmers had incurred transaction costs affecting the input price. the respondent farmers also incurred labor costs to employ outside family workers, usually before the harvest season. the high demand for labor during the harvest season http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 118 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research triggered farmers to look for once immediately. in the input procurement of soybean farming, there existed negotiation costs in familiarity costs. farmers incurred these costs to maintain contracts with outside family laborers. they usually invited outside family laborers to have a chat at a coffee shop or a food stall. the farmers paid the entire cost of food and drink, included in the negotiation costs (familiarity costs). figure 2. the structure of transaction costs in the input procurement of soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 negotiation costs, the costs of maintaining land contracts (land tax), became the largest transaction costs of procuring other inputs. the average cost incurred by respondent farmers was idr 119,048.5 per hectare. land and building tax also belongs to transaction costs because the land and building tax nature paid by farmers or landowners maintains their contract for land and buildings from the government (wawondos & mustamu, 2014). coordination costs consisted of meeting and farmer group costs. meeting costs could be defined as the total costs incurred when attending a farmer group meeting, including food and drink costs for farmers' consumption. costs for farmer group contributions must be paid by the farmer group twice a year. meanwhile, village costs were incurred once a year and included in monitoring costs, paid to maintain mutual security in one village, and harvest yields and farming equipment owned by farmers. transaction costs in the output procurement of soybean farming during the harvest season to post-harvest, farmers carried out several activities that generated transaction costs. one of which was information costs to determine the price of soybeans and the risk affecting the soybean output price (figure 3). unfortunately, the respondent farmers did not realize that it would reduce the output price. when the harvest season came, several farmers looked for information on the price of soybeans prevailing in the market. farmers seeking this information were those whose http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 119 effect of transaction costs on profit and….. (sultan et al.) residences and the land location was far from the district center, making them difficult to obtain any information, including price. therefore, farmers incurred costs for meeting other farmers or directly meeting district traders. these costs were part of the costs of finding soybean price information. figure 3. transaction cost structure in the output procurement of soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 other types of information costs on output procurement were the costs of contacting other farmers to sell their crops jointly, carried out because the harvest amount did not meet the amount determined by the intermediary traders. if the yield reached one truck or ± 3 tons, the intermediary traders would pick up the harvest, but the farmers had to deliver it themselves if it did not. therefore, some farmers with low yields collected their crops to meet these requirements. after that, they contacted the intermediary traders. costs incurred to find farmers who wanted to sell their produce jointly were included in transaction costs, specifically in information costs. on the way to intermediary traders, sometimes soybeans were damaged, primarily due to unexpected rainfalls. therefore, some farmers anticipated it by preparing a medium-sized plastic or tarpaulin to cover the soybeans on their way to the intermediary traders. it was included in risk costs to avoid spoilage of soybeans. however, it was different when the soybeans were damaged when they arrived at the intermediary traders. the price received automatically decreased. this lost price belonged to the costs of risk control. a total of six respondent farmers, or 5 percent, spent risk control costs to overcome damaged soybeans. the addition of transaction costs to the output price resulted in the decreased output price, causing it to be lower than the actual price. when viewed from the land area, transaction costs for soybean farming was idr 144,120.86 per hectare. negotiation costs of 60.30 percent dominated the transaction cost component for each procurement activity of financing sources, inputs, outputs and other activities (table 1). these results are in line with research of fadhiela, rachmina, & winandi, (2018) which was found that the largest component of transaction costs in output procurement activities is negotiation costs of 82.10 percent. the costs of maintaining land contracts (land tax) were the main factor determining the value of this transaction cost component. the obligation of farmers to pay land and building tax indicates that they will always hold negotiations with the government, allowing them to continue maintaining the land and buildings they own. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 120 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 1. total transaction costs of soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 types of transaction costs procurement of financing sources procurement of inputs procurement of outputs total (idr) percentage (%) information costs explicit/direct cost 17,317.08 2,512.50 1,308.33 20,275.42 14.07 negotiation cost explicit/direct cost 4,108.33 82,800.00 86,908.33 60.30 coordination costs explicit/direct cost 6,175.00 11,033.33 17,208.33 implicit cost 401.28 401.28 12.22 implementation costs explicit/direct cost 10,510.83 11,373.33 implicit cost 201.25 201.25 8.03 monitoring costs explicit/direct cost 469.58 5,625.00 6,094.58 4.23 risk costs explicit/indirect cost 1,658.33 1,658.33 1.15 total transaction costs 39,183.35 101,970.80 2,966.66 144,120.86 100.00 the tax is a type of unavoidable transaction costs, meaning it must be incurred. in several cases, especially in indonesia, there is a minister of finance regulation number 159 of 2015 on providing a tax holiday or tax deduction for nine industrial sectors, including the agricultural sector. a tax deduction is only granted for large-scale industries. the conditions that must be met are that the industry can earn a minimum of idr 1 trillion with a minimum number of employees of 500 people. this tax holiday is intended to attract investors to invest more in the industrial sectors in question. in the case of farming, especially small-scale farming, the possibility of giving a tax cut policy is so small. it is because small-scale farming not considered an industry, and the income does not reach the specified target, even if it is seen from the number of workers that can reach 500 people if all farmers empower farmer groups. if a farmer group is formed and there is a collective action, efforts to reduce land tax can be submitted to the ministry of finance. the impact generated, especially on transaction costs, namely the land tax's negotiation costs, can be minimized. the transaction cost component with the largest percentage after the negotiation costs was information costs. information costs dominated almost all activities carried out by farmers during soybean farming, for example, in the procurement of financing sources, inputs and outputs. information costs for farming had a percentage of 14.07 percent. the lack of access to get information demanded farmers to always pay for information. even so, the costs incurred were sometimes not yet known by farmers. these expenses were not calculated as other farming costs. this study’s results are in line with the study of hung & khai, (2020) revealing that the most considerable transaction costs in chili farming in tra vinh, vietnam was the negotiation costs due to the need to find the best trade route for chili marketing, requiring negotiation with several traders. in this study, information costs were also the second-largest transaction costs after negotiation costs, followed by monitoring costs, risk costs and socio-economic costs. besides, nasir & qori’ah, (2020) also http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 121 effect of transaction costs on profit and….. (sultan et al.) demonstrated the high negotiation costs on cassava farming in jember, central java. the biggest negotiation costs occurred during ramadhan and idul fitri's months because farmers tried to find traders who could provide the best price for their cassava. the effect of transaction costs on the profit of soybean farming after knowing the structure of transaction costs in soybean farming, the next research objective was to determine the effect of transaction costs on soybean farming profit. table 2 presents the revenue from soybean farming consisting of income from both soybeans and intercropping plants of corn or green beans. farming costs covered both soybean and intercropping farming. thus, the average profit obtained for one hectare in one year of soybean farming is idr 3,685,282.39. table 2. revenue and profit of soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 variables unit total (idr) soybean production kg 1,539.08 soybean price idr/kg 6,683.33 soybean income idr 10,184,200.00 intercropping production kg 222.63 intercropping price idr/kg 1,270.83 intercropping income idr 556,562.50 soybean farming income idr 10,740,762.50 soybean farming costs idr 7,055,480.11 soybean farming profit idr 3,685,282.39 table 3 depicts that the factors with a significant effect on the 10 percent level were the variables of labor wages, price of seeds, fertilizer price, land area, credit, non-formal education and transaction costs. in contrast, the factors with no significant effect were the variables of output price, formal education and farming experience. this is not in line with rachmina, daryanto, tambunan, & hakim (2014) research which found that farmer education is an important factor that is very effective in increasing farming profits. table 3. estimation results of farming profit equation parameter in soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 variables estimated parameters standard error t value pr > |t| constant 41,146,509.00 35,059,891.00 1.17 0.24 output price 1,018.98 2,931.31 0.35 0.73 labor wages -0.86 0.17 -5.03 <.00 price of seeds -19.71 7.47 -2.64 0.00 fertilizer price -6,871.46 3,419.58 -2.01 0.04 land area 7,711,857.00 1,749,396.00 4.41 <.00 credit 27.52 12.42 2.22 0.03 formal education -301,793.00 238,783.30 -1.26 0.21 non-formal education 4,893,805.00 1,408,824.00 3.47 0.00 farming experience 46,522.66 59,674.84 0.78 0.44 transaction costs -7.57 2.28 -3.31 0.00 the transaction costs variable had a negative and significant effect on the soybean farming profit. the transaction cost component with the highest percentage was negotiation http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 122 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research costs of 60.30 percent of the total transaction costs, as seen in table 1. regarding the transaction cost structure, the transaction costs in the procurement of inputs, outputs, and financing sources harmed soybean farming profit. transaction costs could affect profit by indicating no concentration of activities at one point (agglomeration). it results in a market failure and a very low business profit decline. the effect of transaction costs on the capital formation of soybean farming a capital formation is an effort to add assets either quantitatively or qualitatively. in farming, capital formation is also called private capital formation. this study analyzed the capital formation patterns in fixed assets in 3 years, from 2012 to 2014. table 4. the capital formation of soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 no types of assets total (idr) percentage (%) 1. farmland 3,412,500 40,43 2. building 622,059 7,37 3. vehicle 2,075,450 24,59 4. farm equipment hand sprayer 127,917 1,51 hoe 45,625 0,54 sickle 33,625 0,39 tarpaulin 6,347 0,07 basket 49,500 0,58 5. plant 1,630,339 19,31 total 8,438,803 100,00 table 4 reports that the capital formation for farming land had the highest percentage of 40.43 percent. the addition or maintenance of land was not carried out intensively by the respondent farmers at the research location. only a few of them added land for soybean farming. these farmers included farmers with broad land categories. meanwhile, farmers with narrow and medium land categories were likely not to add land for soybean farming in a 3-year-period. they tended to sell their land because of other interests such as household affairs, celebration needs or hospital fees. this study's results align with rachmina, daryanto, tambunan, & hakim, (2014) discovering that the highest capital formation was farming land. the addition of land occurred because of an initiative to make long-term investments. moreover, erden & holcombe, (2005) argued that additional land could also occur due to increased household savings. the increase in savings caused farmers to prefer to buy land instead of buying other assets. the estimation results to determine the factors influencing the capital formation of soybean farming in the study location are presented in table 5. the factors with a significant effect on the ten percent level on the capital formation were household expenses, land area, farming experience and farming profit. conversely, the factors with no significant effect were savings, formal education and transaction costs. the estimation results for the transaction costs did not significantly affect the farming capital formation. it contrasts with the research of bencivenga et al., (1995); erden & holcombe, (2005); dao, (2008), who found a positive and significant effect of transaction http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 123 effect of transaction costs on profit and….. (sultan et al.) costs on capital formation. the higher the transaction costs incurred, the lower the level of capital formation for a business. table 5. estimation results of equation parameter of the capital formation in soybean farming in lamongan regency in 2014/2015 variables estimated parameters standard error t value pr > |t| constant -250,943.00 5,015,505.00 -0.05 0.96 household expenses -0.47 0.29 -1.61 0,10 land area 7,332,617.00 2,453,607.00 2.99 0.00 savings 0.70 0.87 0.80 0.42 formal education -198,123.00 325,879.90 -0.61 0.54 farming experience 162,507.70 86,173.12 1.89 0.06 farming profit 0.22 0.17 1.32 0.03 transaction costs -4.23 2.80 -1.51 0.13 due to the meagre transaction costs for soybean farming, idr 144,120.86 per year, while the profit was idr 3,685,282.39 per year. the ratio of transaction costs to farming profit was only 3.91 percent. hence, even though it had a significant effect on farming profit, transaction costs would not significantly affect farming capital formation. this study’s results are inconsistent with the study of herdiansyah, negoro, rusdayanti, & shara, (2020), which found that transaction costs significantly affected profit and the farming capital formation in oil palm plantations. it was because farmers worked together or took collective action with the village unit cooperative, which caused large and small transaction costs on profit and farming capital formation. conclusion based on the result of the research, found that the transaction cost structure of soybean farming in lamongan regency was divided into three main activities: (1) transaction costs for the procurement of financing sources, consisting of information costs, negotiation costs, coordination costs, implementation costs and monitoring costs; (2) transaction costs for input procurement, comprising information costs, negotiation costs, coordination costs and monitoring costs; (3) transaction costs in the output procurement, consisting of information and risk costs. the tca shows that transaction costs had a negative and significant effect on the soybean farming profit. conversely, transaction costs did not have a significant effect on capital formation. it was due to the very low transaction costs. therefore, although they had a significant effect on farming profit, they did not significantly affect farming capital formation. as a recommendation, collective action is required to reduce transaction costs. farmers can carry it out by being actively involved in farmer groups for every farming activity, either in the procurement of financing sources, inputs or outputs. acknowledgment the authors would like to thank the agribusiness department, which has provided the opportunity for writers to participate in the leading research of the agribusiness http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 124 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research department (pud), faculty of economics and management, ipb university, so that with this participation, the authors obtained assistance in research funds and research data. references agricultural research and development. 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(2010). transaction cost economics: the natural progression. american economic review, 100(3), 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.3.673 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january-june 2021, pages: 37-52 article history: submitted: july 21st, 2020 accepted: november 12th, 2020 natelda rosaldiah timisela1,*, masyhuri masyhuri2, dwidjono hadi darwanto2 1 fakultas pertanian, universitas pattimura, ambon, indonesia 2 fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia *) correspondence email: nateldatimisela@yahoo.com development strategy of sago local food agroindustry using analytical hierarchy process method doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9378 abstract this study aims to formulate the development strategy for sago local food agroindustry in maluku province. the sample was taken deliberately (purposive sampling) because respondents realize the sago development in the province. the respondents, totaling 15 people, consisted of farmers, traders, and experts from several agencies, namely the food security agency, the department of agriculture, the department of industry and commerce, the department of cooperatives and small and medium micro enterprises, universities, and nongovernmental organizations. data analysis utilized the analytic hierarchy process method. the priority analysis results of sago agroindustry development strategy revealed technology as a top priority in the agroindustry development for being associated with very low and limited assistance and access to processing technology. the sago local food agroindustry development focuses on linkages between factors, sub-factors, actors, objectives, and policy scenarios. the recommended policy scenarios are preserving local food, improving technology, arranging marketing strategies, improving production facilities and infrastructure, and improving institutional systems. keywords: strategy, agroindustry, local food, sago, analytic hierarchy process. introduction in indonesia, the economic policy believed to be the key to national economic growth is the industrial sector. the industrial sector has contributed to the largest gross domestic product (gdp), influenced by government policies and strategies, a conducive market climate, and industry players’ response. it contributed 20.07% to economic growth. the government spurs the industrial sector’s performance, thereby continuing to drive the wheels of the indonesian economy. indonesia’s industrial development is inseparable from large and small industries. small industries are frequently found in rural areas in the form of processing local raw materials into valuable finished products. local sources of raw materials available in rural areas are highly prospective to be processed into essential foodstuffs substitute for rice. it is because local food can be processed into value-added and worth-selling food. to realize it, proper processing technology and marketing strategy must change the perspective that local http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 37 development strategy of sago ….. (timisela et.al) 37 development strategy of sago local food ….. (timisela et.al) food as inferior food will become ordinary and superior food (ariani, hermanto, hardono, sugiarto, & wahyudi, 2013). agroindustrial activities are an integral part of the agricultural sector development. the agroindustry effect can transform primary products into processed products and a low valueadded work culture into a modern industrial work culture creating high added value (suryana, 2005). agroindustry refers to an industry utilizing agricultural products as its primary raw material. it can also be defined as an industry producing a product used as a means or input in agricultural business. it includes agricultural product processing industries, industries producing agricultural equipment and machinery, agricultural input industries (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and others) and service industries in the agricultural sector (udayana, 2011). research on agroindustrial development strategies has been carried out, such as strategy planning formulation for agroindustry based on cassava to anticipate climate change (kusnandar, rahayu, setyowati, & sutrisno, 2016), natural silk agrindustry (tarigan, fauzi, sukardi, suryani, & kaomini, 2010), a prospective strategy for the institutional development of gayo coffee agroindustry, a review on the development strategies of agroindustrial institutions (fadhil, maarif, bantacut, & hermawan, 2018; fadhil, syamsul, bantacut, & hermawan, 2017), agroindustrial cluster development strategy (putri et.al., 2015), agroindustrial development strategy based on integrated farming sytems in tidal areas (massinai, sudira, mawardi, & darwanto, 2013), strategic management of agribusiness: determinants and trends (chen, yueh, & liang, 2016), the potentials of agroindustry for growth promotion and quality improvement in indonesia (fatah, 2007), agroindustry development policy: a strategy towards poverty alleviation (yamin, ali, mi, fahmid, & asri, 2018), potential and development strategy of cocoa agroindustry (rosmawaty, wunawarsih, bahari, & yusria, 2017), strategy for developing the capacity of sago managers in central maluku, maluku province (tahitu, saleh, lubis, & susanto, 2016), strategy for developing a sago flour business in tebing tinggi barat district, meranti islands regency (nurhayati, sumarno, & indrawati, 2016), sago agroindustry development strategy, indragiri hilir regency of riau (kurnia & al-irsyadsyah, 2017), development strategy for leading food commodities in support of regional food security (case study in batang regency, central java province) (wijaya, 2017). the agroindustrial development strategy requires government intervention, especially in overcoming limited capital, low quality of products, and limited technology. increasing capital can be carried out by facilitating access to financial institutions, both bank and nonbank. technology improvement assistance can be provided through both central and local governments. increasing human resources, both increasing skills and awareness to make changes to improve product quality, can be performed through training and socialization through government assistance, both central and regional (tarigan et al., 2010). rural communities generally operate sago agroindustry on a small scale, simple equipment and technology, and limited capital, causing low production, quality, and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 38 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research efficiency. agroindustrial development possesses strategic value as it can provide employment, increase added-value and income, and improve the community economy. it is expected that sago agroindustry development can increase community and village income, added and selling values, open jobs, and improve community welfare. the agroindustrial development has linkages from upstream to downstream. upstream actors supporting sago agroindustrial activities are farmers. they have raw materials and labors but limited technology, capital, and information (kurnia & al-irsyadsyah, 2017). so far, the sago industry has grown quite well with the existence of a home industry developed by entrepreneurs in rural areas because it helps improve the living standard of the community. the sago home industry creates value-added products, stimulates rural economic growth, becomes the primary or secondary source of income, and creates jobs for the surrounding community (timisela, masyhuri, darwanto, & hartono, 2014). other researchers have carried out various studies on agroindustrial development strategies. however, research on the sago agroindustry has not been widely conducted. therefore, researchers are interested in researching the development strategy of the local sago agroindustry in maluku province. the research novelty comes from several aspects, such as the research location since maluku province has never conducted a study on the development strategy of the local sago agroindustry; the local food commodity in which sago serves as research icon; the research sample consisting of farmers, artisans, traders, consumers and policymakers; and analysis using process hierarchy analysis. research method the research was conducted in central maluku regency, maluku province. sampling was carried out deliberately (purposive sampling) because the respondents were aware of maluku’s sago development. the respondents consisting of 15 people comprised farmers, traders, business people and experts from several agencies, namely the food security agency, the department of agriculture, the department of industry and commerce, the department of cooperatives and small and medium micro enterprises, universities, and nongovernmental organizations (ngos). the data collection method utilized questionnaires and structured interviews. the theory of measurement by making pairwise comparisons and relying on expert judgment to obtain a priority scale is part of the analytic hierarchy process (ahp) (saaty, 2008). data collection using the ahp method is more efficient as it is based on the experiences and judgments of actors/decision-makers/experts in the field. ahp was designed to capture people’s perceptions on a preference scale (tendency) to various alternatives or choices (raharja, rivani, & afifianti, 2018). the data were measured using a scale of 1 (equally important), 3 (slightly more important), 5 (clearly more important), 7 (very clearly important), 9 (absolutely more important), and 2, 4, 6, 8 (doubtful between two adjacent values or compromise values) depicting the comparison of the element importance. drawing conclusions was carried out by accumulating global values or weights, the priority values of each element. ahp helped solve complex problems by compiling a hierarchy of criteria, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 39 development strategy of sago ….. 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(timisela et.al) assessed subjectively by interested parties, and then drew various considerations to develop weights or priorities (conclusions). data processing was performed using the ahp method. a pairwise comparison was carried out by analyzing the hierarchical relationship between the focus, factors, objectives, actors, and agroindustry development policies from various criteria and alternatives. each element and other elements were made comparisons at the hierarchical level in pairs, then the importance of each element concerning qualitative opinions was obtained (figure 1). after that, the qualitative opinion was quantified using a rating scale and the opinion value was obtained in numbers (quantitative). ahp analysis utilizes human perception to determine comprehensive decisions. each pairwise comparison was evaluated on saaty’s scale 1–9. ahp data analysis employed the expert choice application version 11. the pairwise comparison matrix started at the top of the hierarchy for focus g, which was the basis for making pairwise comparisons between the related variables below it. the first pairwise comparison was carried out on the second level variables (f1, f2, f3, ..., fn) to the focus at the top of the hierarchy, and so on until the last level hierarchy. source : (didu, 2000). figure 1. a framework of decision making hierarchy process result and discussions contributing factors of sago agroindustry development agroindustry players require technological aspects to improve the quality and creativity of their business. the analysis results of factors making up sago agroindustry development are presented in figure 2. the technology related to packaging is still classified as weak so that the product packaging must be ordered from outside the region by sago agro-industry players. the function of packaging is not only protective but also a medium of interaction for communication between consumers and producers (kumar, agarwal, singh, & singhal, 2017). therefore, packaging is a main priority, because packaging must be good and of good http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 40 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research quality so that a positive response from consumers to buy products is created because the purpose of packaging is to create and increase sales (chalids, najib, & suparno, 2019). figure 2. contributing factors of sago agroindustry development sub-factors of human resources (hr), capital, technology, agroindustry production and marketing for sago agroindustry development the results of the hr sub-factor analysis for sago agroindustry development are depicted in figure 3. the hr aspects of agroindustry players consist of three alternatives, technical skills training, business management training, as well as motivation and business skills. technical skills training is a top priority as it is related to the traditional agroindustrial production process. sago agroindustrial entrepreneurs have good technical skills to create sago products. most traditional sago products are more dominant in the market. it is a priority because entrepreneurs do not want to lose maluku sago’s characteristics, famous from the past. many changes in sago production techniques toward modern ones have been carried out due to training and assistance from related agencies to improve technical business skills. management training takes second place due to the weak management aspect among agroindustry players, especially for business bookkeeping, financial management, and production system regulation. this activity must be addressed in a better direction. agroindustry actors’ motivation and business skills are very high, wishing to adopt quality business skills and motivation for sustainable agroindustrial development. it is in line with herdhiansyah & asriani (2018), stating that agroindustry is an effort to increase added-value in cocoa production because it will increase farmer independence through coaching, counseling, and developing partnerships. figure 3. agroindustry hr sub-factors for sago agroindustry development 0.180 0.280 0.314 0.156 0.070 human resources capital technology production marketing inconsistency = 0.06 with 0 missing judgments 0.549 0.249 0.157 technical skills training business management training motivation and business skills inconsistency = 0.05 with 0 missing judgments http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 41 development strategy of sago ….. (timisela et.al) 41 development strategy of sago local food ….. (timisela et.al) figure 4 displays the sub-factor analysis of capital for sago agroindustry development. the agroindustrial business requires capital and skills. entrepreneurs frequently face difficulty obtaining venture capital. they expect access to obtaining capital easier and faster with low interest. agroindustry entrepreneurs urgently require government-owned capital institutions and other capital institutions for sustainable business development. the capital aspect consists of two alternatives, providing capital assistance and opportunities for access to capital. capital assistance is the top priority because business development highly requires it. entrepreneurs run businesses with their capital due to the difficulty in obtaining loan capital because of a convoluted process, many requirements, high loan interest, making a business proposal feasible and profitable, and disbursing funds long. moreover, they expect capital assistance in business equipment and product processing machines. however, the process sometimes takes a long time because entrepreneurs have to form business groups to receive this assistance. figure 4. capital sub-factor for sago agroindustry development opportunities for easy, fast and precise access to capital are hard to obtain. there are many capital institutions in the region, such as banks, cooperatives, private financial institutions and others. however, the opportunity for entrepreneurs to access capital has encountered obstacles. in regards to this, entrepreneurs are quite familiar with banks as capital institutions with collateral requirements. most entrepreneurs have access to other financings, such as investment. if the investment is opened for the agroindustrial business, they must consider several policies, timeframes, taxes, regulations, treatment, land rights, infrastructure, and business climate. figure 5. sub-factor technology for sago agroindustry development the results of the sub-factor analysis of technology for sago agroindustry development are shown at figure 5. the technology aspect consists of three alternatives, easy access to 0.750 0.250 providing capital assistance opportunities for access to capital inconsistency = 0 with 0 missing judgments 0.3270 0.4130 0.2600 ease of access technology providing processing technology assistance coaching and training in new technologies inconsistency = 0.05 with 0 missing judgments http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 42 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research technology, providing processing technology assistance, as well as coaching and training in new technology. technology in the agroindustry is essential because entrepreneurs can design, modify and diversify sago local food into value-added, marketable and competitive products. processing technology assistance is a top priority to support production activities. cheap and fast technological assistance is required to encourage sago agroindustry development. it is supported by the research of (apulu & latham, 2011) that the adoption of technology is vital to compete and improve business services. the results of the sub-factor analysis of production for sago agroindustry development are shown at figure 6. the production aspect consists of three alternatives, modification and production effectiveness, easy access to raw materials, and improving the quality of local food products. easy of access to raw materials is a top priority to allow entrepreneurs to get raw materials more easily. sufficient raw materials are available to answer the needs of the agroindustry to produce more products. figure 6. production sub-factors for sago agroindustry development due to certain limited products, modification and production effectiveness must be increased. sago agroindustrial products are divided into two parts, modern and traditional. however, more traditional products are produced than modern products, thereby requiring an increase in the modification of traditional products into modern ones. creating modifications or innovations or new product variations using materials easier and cheaper aims to attract consumer interest and reduce production costs (gultom & sulistyowati, 2018). modern products produced by entrepreneurs must be more effective. quality products are in demand by consumers; therefore, entrepreneurs should create quality products to increase consumer purchasing power. it is in line with the research of andriani, astari, budhiarti, & zachary (2017) that improving innovative products according to the times and maintaining product quality can compete with other products. figure 7 presents the marketing sub-factor analysis results for sago agroindustry development. the marketing aspect consists of three alternatives, market information nets, promotion, and opening up market opportunities. promotion is a means of introducing products to consumers. it makes consumers aware of new products, educates them about the features and benefits of the brand, and facilitates creating the image of a company that 0.210 0.550 0.240 modification and production effectiveness easy access to raw materials improving the quality of local food products inconsistency = 0.02 with 0 missing judgments http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 43 development strategy of sago ….. (timisela et.al) 43 development strategy of sago local food ….. (timisela et.al) produces a product or service. promotion is a top priority because sago local food products are introduced to local communities and outsiders to increase product sales. consumers will choose products providing satisfaction to repeat purchases. if consumers are satisfied with a product, they will continue to buy it, use it, and inform others about its strength based on experience (timisela, leatemia, luhukay, polnaya, & breemer, 2020). figure 7. marketing sub-factors for sago agroindustry development the promotion aims to build consumers’ perceptions that all family members can consume sago local food. through mouth to mouth and direct marketing, local sago promotion is carried out in the market when transactions occur between buyers and sellers. meanwhile, other promotional components have not been carried out optimally due to limited entrepreneurial capital and local governments’ attention. information networks are the second priority because they build cooperation between agroindustry entrepreneurs and other supply chain actors such as farmers, traders and consumers. sago local food agroindustry entrepreneurs need to seek information about changes and market opportunities for agroindustrial products. opening market opportunities are the last priority because the sago agroindustry begins to utilize market opportunities using outlets, culinary and souvenir center markets, and supermarkets. almost all culinary and souvenir centers in ambon city sell processed sago products (timisela, 2006). role of actors for sago agroindustry development the actors playing an essential role in the sago agroindustry development include the department of industry and commerce, the department of agriculture, the department of cooperatives and small and medium micro enterprises, the food security agency, nongovernmental organizations (ngos), universities, farmers, traders and entrepreneurs. the analysis of the role of actors for sago agroindustry development is presented in figure 8. the analysis results uncover that the department of industry and commerce is a top priority because its policies prioritize maluku’s local food development. the department of agriculture deals with mentoring and fostering farmers’ sago forest management to increase the sago plant’s productivity. the department of cooperatives and small and medium micro enterprises collaborates with agroindustrial entrepreneurs to support business capital and promote local food products. the food security agency pays attention to the production, 0.387 0.443 0.169 market information nets promotion opening up market opportunities inconsistency = 0.02 with 0 missing judgments http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 44 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research distribution, and consumption of sago local food to make people care and not forget sago as the local food of maluku people. figure 8. results of processing the role of actors for sago agroindustry development the local government has carried out various policies to develop the sago local food agroindustry through the related institutions. research of (fakhrurrazi, bantacut, & raharja, 2018) suggests that local government through related agencies is responsible for issuing various policies right on target and providing counseling and assistance to farmers and agrotourism businesses, while universities and research institutions are responsible for producing technology and science, as well as skilled human resources to carry out various kinds of innovations. financial institutions also have an essential role because agrotourism based on the cocoa agroindustry cannot be carried out properly without capital support. higher education institutions and ngos have a stake in preparing science, knowledge, and technology to develop local food agroindustries. community service activities are carried out by the two institutions to empower the sago processing community. it is in line with the seaweed business development research, in which the supporting policy required is intensive assistance from related agencies, policies, regulations, and government intervention to attract as many investors as possible (picaulima, ngamel, hamid, & teniwut, 2016). farmers, traders and entrepreneurs have the smallest weight. farmers as raw material providers sometimes have not received adequate treatment, such as assistance to produce quality raw materials, limited capital, limited production facilities and infrastructure. traditional traders still utilize not environmentally friendly packaging, limited product labeling, not maximized product sales, and limited sales places. entrepreneurs have been unable to manage agroindustrial businesses continuously and adequately. objectives of sago agroindustry development the analysis results of sago agroindustry development objectives are depicted in figure 9. sago agroindustry development’s objectives consist of five alternatives: expanding employment opportunities, increasing integrated supply chain management (mrp), improving marketing mechanisms, increasing businessmen’s income, and increasing regional income. expanding employment is a top priority because job creation can be sourced from 0.261 0.219 0.192 0.130 0.110 0.088 0.092 0.082 0.086 the department of industry and commerce the department of agriculture the department of cooperatives and small and… the food security agency non-governmental organizations (ngos) universities farmer traders agro-industrial entrepreneurs inconsistency = 0.09 with 0 missing judgments http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 45 development strategy of sago ….. 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(timisela et.al) the agroindustry sub-sector. most agroindustries recruit workers in rural areas because it is easier to control work, help people having no job to earn income, and low-skilled workers can be facilitated because the local food agroindustry does not require special skills, thereby overcoming poverty and unemployment in rural areas. increasing integrated mrp is vital because it relates to farmers as suppliers of raw material suppliers, entrepreneurs as producers of products, traders as distributors of products, and consumers as end-users of products. the increase in market mechanisms is not optimal because it requires other parties’ intervention for the smooth marketing of agroindustrial products. figure 9. result of analysis of sago agroindustry development objectives policy scenarios of sago agroindustry development the sago agroindustry policy consists of five alternatives: improving infrastructure facilities, increasing output prices, improving technology, improving the institutional system, and preserving sago local food. figure 10 demonstrates the policy analysis results of sago agroindustry development. preservation of local food is a top priority and is regulated in the regional regulation (perda) of maluku province concerning sago management and conservation no. 10 of 2011. figure 10. result of scenario analysis of sago agroindustry development policy 0.259 0.165 0.129 0.220 0.227 expanding employment opportunities increasing businessmen’s income increasing regional income improving marketing mechanisms increasing integrated supply chain management (mrp) inconsistency = 0.08 with 0 missing judgments 0.117 0.182 0.222 0.201 0.278 improving infrastructure facilities increasing output prices improving technology improving the institutional system preserving sago local food inconsistency = 0.09 with 0 missing judgments http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 46 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the second priority is the improvement of processing technology. it is essential due to the introduction of new technologies for agroindustry development. there needs to be a change in the raw material production process from a manual to a mechanical system. improvement of institutional systems covers financial institutions, business group institutions, farmer group institutions, and supply chain partnership institutions. attention to agroindustry with an institutional design considers all components of the system adapted to a change in the paradigm of decentralized development, prioritizes community initiatives, and impacts social, economic, cultural, and environmental lives. attention to an increase in output prices aims to ensure that prices are set according to product quality and costs incurred in the production process. facilities and infrastructure receive the last priority, whereas the progress and decline of agroindustry depend on facilities and infrastructure such as business equipment, production machinery, roads, bridges, transportation, ports and others. sago local food agroindustry development strategy economic development focuses on shifting from the agricultural to the industrial sector. the transformation of the agricultural sector is essential because of the perishable nature of agricultural products, and it does not last long without special handling, takes up space, is seasonal, varies in quality, and located in rural areas. as the best solution to accommodate agricultural products, agroindustry is further processed into valuable and competitive products. agroindustry is a means of increasing added value, creating jobs, expanding markets for agricultural production, supporting income and increasing farmers’ welfare (basalamah, 2004). the sago agroindustry in rural maluku is an opportunity to create jobs, increase added value, community, and village income, as well as improve the people’s economy. resources based industry as the agroindustry character, development direction, and strategy is based on a regional approach as an area having potential resources with a footing on the comparative advantage concept (syam & ma’arif, 2004). there is a need for a touch of the regional agricultural development policy to improve farmers’ welfare (witjaksono, sulle, & subaedah, 2008). the agroindustry sector serves as a basis for increasing product added value, absorbing excess labor and increasing household income (susilowati, sinaga, limbong, & erwidodo, 2007; indrawanto, 2008). the analysis results using the ahp technique based on combining the opinions of experts and the principle of pairwise comparisons reveal the priority values, as presented in table 1. table 1. priority alternative strategies for sago local food agroindustry development focus priority alternative value main factors technology 0.314 sub-factors capital assistance 0.750 actors department of industry and commerce 0.261 objectives expansion of employment 0.259 policy scenarios preservation of local food 0.278 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 47 development strategy of sago ….. (timisela et.al) 47 development strategy of sago local food ….. (timisela et.al) fi gu re 1 1. r es ul ts o f ah p an al ys is o f sa go l oc al a gr oi nd us tr y de ve lo pm en t st ra te gy http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 48 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research overall, ahp analysis results on aspects and alternatives of sago agroindustry development with an inconsistency ratio of 0.05 are less than 0.1; thus, the analysis is accepted that shown at figure 11. the main factor becoming a priority is technology. it is essential for the agroindustry since it improves product quality, business equipment, and product packaging and labeling. the sub-factors for the sago local food agroindustry development have been analyzed quite a lot, but the priority was capital assistance. so far, entrepreneurs have only relied on their capital to move their business. therefore, capital assistance from financial institutions such as banks, savings and loan cooperatives, and credit unions is essential to help them develop their business. research of raharja, rivani, & afifianti (2018) unveils that it is necessary to improve production techniques and designs and easy access to business capital financing to compete in sustainably increasing export market penetration. it is the same as sudantoko (2010) regarding developing small-scale businesses to become development priorities by opening market opportunities and training to expand entrepreneurial potential and provide trading and marketing houses. actors are the priority of the department of industry and commerce. sago local food agroindustry entrepreneurs require training, assistance, and guidance from the department of industry and commerce because it is an important institution that will help entrepreneurs develop their agroindustry. the department of industry and commerce is usually the provider of equipment technology assistance and training to improve human resources quality for processing sago local food. the priority objective is employment expansion. when the agroindustry business develops well, it will become an employment source for other people in rural areas. the sago local food agroindustry is located in rural areas because it is closer to raw materials. when the business develops well, other people will be motivated to collaborate and even open job opportunities for others so that they can jointly develop the sago agroindustry in the countryside. the priority policy scenario is the preservation of local food. when entrepreneurs continuously introduce sago agroindustry, many people will return to sago and prioritize it as the main local food. nowadays, sago seems to be neglected because people only eat it as a snack, not the main staple food. it is necessary to continuously educate all people about sago local food to better understand the importance of consuming local food. in particular, it is necessary to become a local content in schools to be more familiar with sago local food and consume it as a prestigious food. related agencies need to prioritize it for essential events at the department to continue to introduce sago to the general public. sago local food must be preserved from generation to generation and sustainably for the next generation to make it the primadonna in maluku. preservation of sago local food is essential because most industries such as food, adhesives, cosmetics, textiles, animal feed, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, pesticides, energy materials and by-products are processed into fuel, mushroom medium, hardboard or building materials, the primary source of which is sago raw materials (kindangen & malia, 2003), and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 49 development strategy of sago ….. (timisela et.al) 49 development strategy of sago local food ….. (timisela et.al) edible/biodegradable film (polnaya, talahatu, haryadi, & marseno, 2012; polnaya, ega, & wattimena, 2016) (polnaya, alfons, & souripet, 2019). conclusions priority analysis of sago agroindustry development strategy reveals that technology is its top priority because it is related to assistance and access to processing technology, which is very low and limited. the second priority is capital because capital assistance and entrepreneur access to business capital are minimal, thereby affecting business continuity. the focus of sago agroindustry development requires linkages between factors, subfactors, actors, objectives and policy scenarios. the expected policy scenarios include preserving sago food, improving technology, managing marketing strategies, improving production facilities and infrastructure, improving infrastructure and institutional systems. supply chain actors and the government must have a joint commitment and be serious in advancing the sago agroindustry from upstream to downstream. thus, supply chain actors will ultimately be more independent in ideal agroindustrial management. references andriani, f. y., astari, d. i., budhiarti, d., & zachary, k. m. 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(2018). agroindustry development policy: a strategy towards poverty alleviation. journal of sustainable development, 11(3), 258–269. doi:10.5539/jsd.v11n3p258 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 4 no. 1 januari -juni 2018 nurliza1*, eva dolorosa2, agusmini erawati3 1 2agribusiness dept., faculty of agriculture, university of tanjungpura 3bappeda sambas district, jl. pembangunan, kab. sambas, kalimantan barat email korespondensi: nurliza.spmm@gmail.com strategic policy of coastal sustainability based on local conditions and needs in sambas regency, west kalimantan h t t ps : / / doi .or g/ 10.18196/ agr .4161 abstract recently, there has been a growing controversy on strategic policy issues in coastal areas. coastal regions have the most diverse, complex, and productive ecosystems due to demographic and economic pressure. this ecosystems are important for food security. on the other hand, coastal problems are national issues, not just state or local issues. this research aims to propose the priority dimension of a stakeholder role in a strategic policy to promote the coordination and sustainability of socioeconomic activities in coastal areas involving stakeholders as primary data, i.e. fishermen, merchants, private, and government using sustain indicators with ahp and rap-coastal methods. the result reveals that governance dimension was still the most priority and the most sustainable index to achieve policies; monitoring tools; human resources capacity building, implementation of good management practices; and public participation. meanwhile, social well-being dimension was the most priority to achieve the economy through transportation; and attaining the goal of equity was the priority for government policy. there are three sensitive aspects of coastal sustainability management, including integrated program, identified parties actively informed and involved, and partnership between local governments and communities. keywords: coastal management, governance, strategic policy, sustainability. introduction coastal zones are unique areas with diverse species that connect land and sea. the zones are economically valuable and extremely important for human activities as they provide many benefits to humans, such as biodiversity, food sources, and renewable energy. coastal zones also provide an intangible benefit, i.e. an aesthetic value, recreation, an essential contribution to cultural heritage, and supporting human activities. however, the economy and human activities related to fishery, aquaculture, and tourism activities are environmentally sensitive since they give real pressure as part of the world’s coasts, i.e. loss of biodiversity, contamination by hazardous substances, non-indigenous species and marine litter, and land-claim development (rcs, 2010). furthermore, the exploitation of coastal resources often causes serious environmental problems, such as the global climate change and the rise of sea-level, unexpected natural episodic events, and unexpected man-made disasters (zsamboky, fernández-bilbao, smith, knight, & allan, 2011). recently, adaptive and collaborative approaches to manage coastal areas and shared governance processes has emerged. the coastal management in many regions (siry, 2009; harvey & katon, 2010; newmann, vafeidis, zimmermann, & nicholls, 2015; goble, hill, & phillips, 2017) has also developed over time and reflects global trends due to the growing emphasis on pubmailto:nurliza.spmm@gmail.com 60 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research lic participation, ecological concern, improved integration among sectors, less engineered solution, and the centrality of the concept of sustainability (kenchington, stocker, &wood, 2012). nevertheless, many people and the government are not fully aware of the significant relevance between the coastal areas management and the commitment of the government, which has a responsibility for planning and making decisions, as well as producing regulations which cover a large proportion of land and sea areas in the coastal zone, both at national policy and local implementation scales to consciously integrate social, cultural, ecological and economical aspects. hence, it is equally important to understand the people, as their unique cultures and economies are connected to coasts for understanding the ecological model to manage the coastal sustainable task. a coherent approach in formulating policies for sustainable protection, usage and management of coastal resources which supports long-term sustainable growth with technical innovation and expansion is needed, particularly to address the challenge and new ways to integrate multiple considerations into adaptive implementation in order to respond to the local conditions and needs. what is more concerning is that there is a pronounced lack of experience in implementing the assessment tools in general and practice. the discrepancy between expectations and practical application is one of the key issues that should be addressed. another issue is a lack of methodology standard. often, there is confusion, whether some actions should be considered as a tool as their tools. therefore, this research tried to propose priority dimension of a stakeholder role in a strategic policy to promote the coordination and sustainability of socioeconomic activities in coastal areas with combination of ahp and rap-coastal methods to prove the leading dimension drawn from economic, environmental quality, social well-being, and governance dimensions objectives into coastal management and policy making based on the local conditions and needs. this priority dimension is expected to make the coastal management process more efficient and effective. this also provides the groundwork for sustainable coastal management policies, plans or programs, which can be assessed into decision making for future coastal developments, exploitation of coastal resources, and the management of certain coastal issues, particularly sambas district in west kalimantan that has the largest coastal area of 198.36 km2 for achieving sustainable coastal areas management. methods the research was conducted in the sambas region as the largest coastal areas in west kalimantan, indonesia, using primary data through purposive sampling that were collected from stakeholders as primary data, including fishermen, merchants, government (marine and fishery agency and regional development and planning agency) using a set of semi-structured questions employed in interviews. interview was used as a data collection method as it generates good results due to better sampling, the fewer respondents to get the same results, also elicits distractions, faster and cheaper; and flexible (turner, 2010; mack, woodsong, macqueen, quest, & namey, 2011; alshenqeeti, 2014). the findings are structured based on sustain indicators to create a fully implementable policy tool to deliver sustainability coast management, i.e the economics, environmental quality, social well-being, and governance dimensions (sustain-partnership, 2012). the sustainability dimensions were formulated to answer the priority of the strategy. the chain of evidence and the clear linkages between the dimensions will be established through research questions, relevant litera ture and data tools used to attain conclusions (schernewski, schönwald, & katarzyte, 2014). the data were analyzed in two sections. the first was decomposing the problem into a hierarchy of sub problems to measure the weight of each dimension of sustainable coastal management using analytic hierarchy process (ahp) with 9 scale criterias (1=equal importance up to 9= extreme importance) with expert choice software for making a decision through following steps: (1) define the problem and determine the desired solution; (2) create a hierarchical structure; (3) form a pairwise comparison matrix; (4) normalize data; (5) calculating the eigenvector value and testing its consistency; (6) repeat steps, 3, 4, and 5 for the entire hierarchy level; (7) calculating the eigenvector of each pairwise comparison matrix; (8) the consistency-test for the hierarchy (saaty, 2008; saaty & vargas, 2012). the second was ordinating the entities in attribute space with rap-coastal that was adopted from rap-fish method using mds (multidimensional scaling) with a scale from the worst possible (“bad”) to the best possible score (“good”) with following steps: (1) determine the initial configuration of objects in dimensional space; (2) calculating the euclideal distance between the objects of the configuration; (3) perform monotonic regression; (4) calculate the value of stress; (5) adjust the object configuration as the second stage. in the stan61 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 dard method, scores are assigned on a scale of zero to ten (either 10 or 0 represents good or bad this can be mixed among the attributes if necessary) as it recently has become a standard (kavanagh & pitcher, 2004). results dan discussions respondent characteristics the characteristics of fishermen as one of the stakeholders in priority strategic policy in coastal areas was presented in table 1. table 1 shows that the fishers is predominantly by malay ethnic with majority 40-70 years old as well as the characteristics of coastal populations in other districts in west kalimantan, which illustrates the effect of age and experience of fishermen on the income level of fishers (jamal, 2016). moreover, the majority of fisher’s education is elementary school; the ownership of the boat is also very limited and there are even some fishers who act as tenants/shareholders; the number of family members is dominated by more than 4 people and most fisher’s families have additional income to support family needs; fisher’s wives had strategic roles to maintain the household; and social activities were limited. the position in the community was entirely as a direct beneficiary of the existing environmental resources, thus demonstrating the continuous exploitation of fishery resources without understanding its boundaries and only a small part exploiting fishery resources combined with conservation measures. furthermore, the social characteristics based on the category/status of fishers shown that the fishers were full-time, tenants, individuals, coastal, small, subsistent, non-formal, traditional, local, and micro which provide certain characteristics related to gender systems, patron-client relations, resource exploitation patterns, social leadership due to the influence of the environment characteristics. moreover, the fishers also characterized by three patterns that is more than one day, one day, and the midday fishing pattern. while, the attributes that used as the indicators in governance, economy, environmental quality and social well-being were presented in table 2. table 1. characteristics of fishermen in coastal areas characteristics freq (person) percentage age of householder: ≤40 ages 10 33.34 40 50 ages 12 40.00 51 60 ages 5 16.66 61 70 ages 3 10.00 ethnic group: bugis 1 3.33 malay 29 96.67 education: ≥ elementary school 22 73.33 > junior high school 5 16.67 > senior high school 4 13.33 ownership of ships/boats: none 3 10.00 1 27 90.00 family members: ≤ 4 8 26.67 5 6 19 63.34 > 6 3 10.00 additional work of householder: yes 19 63.33 no 11 36.67 parties that play a role in the economic activities of fisheries: intermediary traders 4 13.33 fisherman owner 8 26.67 fisherman 18 60.00 role of fishing behavior: exploitation without understanding the boundaries 20 66.67 exploiting combined with conservation actions 10 33.33 category/status of fisherman: ministry of fisheries statistics: full fishers 21 70 main part fishers 9 30 ownership of fishing means (fisheries sharing law): fishermen 28 93.33 owner 2 6.67 team work: individual fishers 29 96.67 business group fishers 1 3.33 kind of waters: sea fishers 18 60 teritory fishers 10 33.33 exclusive economic zone fishers 2 6.67 fisheries law: fishers 6 20 small fishers 24 80 livelihood: subsistence fishers 19 63.33 native/indigenous/aboriginal fisher 11 36.67 aspects of professional skills: non-formal fisher 29 96.67 formal akademic fisher 1 3.33 62 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 2. the indicators of governance, economic, environmental quality and social well-being dimensions dimensions indicators means governance policy and sustainability strategy 9.29 monitoring tool for sustainability 7.67 the improvement of human resources capacity 8.00 implementation of appropriate management practices 8.50 stakeholder engagement/ community participation 7.75 economic economic opportunities 4.00 land use 10.00 transportation 4.40 fisheries and aquaculture 2.00 environmental quality biodiversity and natural resource management 2.00 energy and environmental change 2.00 land use 8.00 water resources and pollution 2.00 social well-being demographics 2.00 equity 6.00 local identity and culture 10.00 public health and safety 4.80 the results answer the research questions about strategic priority to achieve sustainable coastal management. they shows that ci result was less than 0.1 (or 0.07). so, the answers to comparisons made by this method through the amount of redundancy in the approach are meeting the requirements. the ahp values of all dimensions are presented in figure 1. in figure 1, the governance dimension is the most prioritized, followed by the economic, environmental quality, and social well-being that commonly happened in the coastal zone management decisions due to inequalities of dimensions contribution involved in the decision (eu, 2012). furthermore, the success and sustainability of efforts to strengthen the public sector organizations and processes depend on legitimate public authority that can be earned through good governance as a proven ability to reinforce public sector systems and processes that respond to the citizens’ needs, while being subject to public evaluation (commgap, 2011). the goals of governance dimensions were analyzed using ahp for each dimension of sustainable coastal management as presented in table 3. table 3. governance goals in sustainability coastal management dimensions goals value result of ahp governance economics environmental quality social wellbeing policies 0.638 0.228 0.078 0.056 monitoring tools 0.595 0.226 0.111 0.068 human resources capacity building 0.633 0.222 0.090 0.055 implementation of good management practices 0.601 0.219 0.116 0.064 public participation 0.601 0.219 0.116 0.064 mean 0.614 0.223 0.102 0.061 this research revealed that governance dimension had the highest value (0.614) in the sustainability coastal management compare than the others and still the most prioritized to meet the policies for sustainability (pisano et al., 2011; urama et al., 2014), followed by monitoring tools (ieep, 2011; oecd, 2015); human resource capacity building, implementation of the good management practices (unido, 2010; uneke et.al., 2012); and public participation (yee, 2010; oecd, 2015). the governance role is proved in many aspects of the environment and sustainable coastal management work such as financial contribution aspects through cost shifting including recycling due to the limitation of local government budgets (unep, 2009; adb, 2010; helgeson & ellis, 2015; asmawi et.al., 2015) and natural resources strategies development (denr, 2010; lgant, 2010; huffman, 2015; denr, 2016). figure 1. the strategic priority dimension of sustainable coastal management 63 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 the involvement of the government in enhancing capacity (gesamp, 2001; brugere, 2006; oecd, 2012; scbd, 2015) is positively correlated with tangible factors, such as the population and expenditure, and negatively correlated with extensiveness of lands (zerenler, 2009; husein, 2012). however, the capability of local governments was limited to place sturdy environmental conditions on approvals and generally best accomplished by negotiating conditions instead of refusing developments or imposing restrictive conditions that might bring on appeals for anticipating and preventing the gradual degradation (river, 2005; river, 2009). the government at local and wider scale tried to facilitate the forestall gradual shifts through strategic plans by formalizing the environmental values (cohn, 2003; schultink, 2007), for example the strategic land (uclg, 2012). the literatures indicates that starting capability, responsiveness, and accountability as central features of good governance are needed to support the success of the sustainability goals (undp, 2011; akhmouch, 2012; un, 2015). meanwhile, the results of the assessment of the goal of economic, environmental quality, and social well-being dimensions are presented in table 4. this research revealed that social well-being dimension had the highest value (0.465) compare than the others and the most prioritized to meet the economic purpose as the main goal for the society and community (ivkoviæ et.al., 2014) since it will give a benefit to the society that implies the objective of well-being dimension (the adequate economic develop ment) a nd the ensui ng p osi ti ve p erc epti on of people towards the right stage within the society. moreover, the social well-being is qualitative aspect and a social dimension as well as the structural policy and public awareness rather that advanced material living standards and quantitative growth (böhnke, 2005). it was also argued that the monitoring and quantification of well-being goal in an economic and a non-economic dimension had totally different levels of overall well-being goal (ivkoviæ et.al., 2014) as the result of the qualitative aspects, progress of the social dimension, the structural policy and public awareness (böhnke, 2005). besides, transportation was the highest value (0.609) in social well-being dimension. this is in line with the notion about the importance of providing infrastructures for sustainable coastal management (crc, 2006; adb, 2010; sccg, 2015) and providing an essential economic and social activities as a critical dimension for households’ socioeconomic well-being (dodson et.al., 2006; stanley et.al., 2011) for the access to transport systems and the systems connection. this finding was followed by the role of fisheries and aquaculture (noaa, 2013; mmo, 2013), land use (race et al., 2007; oecd, 2009; nevado-peña et.al., 2015), and economic opportunity (unrisd, 2012; cae, 2013; undp, 2013). meanwhile, the environmental quality goal should be achieved with the priority on governance dimension, similar to the social well-being goal. attaining the equity in social table 4. dimensions value in sustainability coastal management economics/environmetal quality/sosial well-being goals dimensions value of ahp governance economics environmental quality social well-being economics: economy opportunity 0.588 0.238 0.118 0.059 land use 0.061 0.101 0.249 0.589 transportation 0.057 0.114 0.220 0.609 fisheries & aquaculture 0.069 0.120 0.208 0.602 mean 0.194 0.143 0.199 0.465 environmental quality: biodiversity and natural resources 0.609 0.187 0.133 0.071 energy & climate change 0.609 0.187 0.133 0.071 water resources and pollution 0.575 0.251 0.119 0.055 land use 0.532 0.257 0.138 0.072 mean 0.598 0.208 0.128 0.066 social well-being: demography 0.532 0.257 0.138 0.072 equity 0.618 0.225 0.099 0.058 local and cultural identity 0.588 0.235 0.118 0.059 public health and safety 0.609 0.187 0.133 0.071 mean 0.587 0.226 0.122 0.065 64 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research well-being goal was the most priority for government dimensions due to the government authority to allocate their expenditure to preserve the biodiversity, soil and cultural heritage for natural resource management and environmental protection infrastructure (cbd, 2008; unctad, 2013). therefore, the society needs to take part in progressive actions to solve the serious environmental problems and safeguard the environment with all levels of stakeholder involvement (oecd, 2011) by decoupling economic growth from environmental impact and maintaining sustainable production and consumption patterns (unep, 2011; hennicke & khosla, 2014). next, attaining the goal of equity in social well-being goal was the most prioritized for government policy due to the growing recognition of equity as a central goal of their programming (un, 2009). however, the policy priorities are not consistently or coherently explored (ccsso & aspen-institute, 2016). taking equity as a guiding principle has long been an important policy goal (son, 2011). equity can also assist how to ensure fair treatment for all citizens. there is still considerable inequity in developing countries (kim, 2008; fosu, 2010). the inequality reinforces patterns had intergenerational transmission and various formal and informal institutions (mare, 2011; alesina & giuliano, 2014). so, there are five core priorities approved for addressing equity, i.e. providing public services for fair treatment, such as health and education, improving quality delivery, strengthening the institutions (undp, 2011; dingle et.al. 2013), and infrastructure (oecd, 2006; wef & pwc, 2012); empowering disadvantaged groups (tucker & eva, 2012) as strengthening organizations for producer organizations, social movements, and trade unions (jones, 2009; fernando, 2012); social protection to ensure that nobody at a minimum level of wellbeing creates cycles of disadvantage (domelen, 2007; mukherjee, 2012); redistribution to improve equity by reducing inequality, such as land reform to provide the poor with productive assets (boyce et al., 2005; cotula et al., 2006; meinzen-dick, 2009), priority access to public services in health and education. furthermore, rap-coastal analysis on governance dim ensi ons a s the most priori tized i n the goa ls of sustainability coastal management dimensions that second sections in data analysis used the mds technique ordination method. it proved that sustainability index value for governance dimension was 74.91 (very sustainable) as presented in figure 2. in figure 2, rap-coastal results indicate that the error between mds and monte carlo analysis was small, which indicate that the data input errors and data loss can be avoided. sustainability ordinal scaling was also good and rsq value was closer to 1 proving that the data were increasingly mapped perfectly. meanwhile, leverage analysis as a determining aspect of the sensitive variables that affected the governance dimension for the sustainability of coastal management was presented in figure 3. in figure 3, there were three sensitive attributes which affect the sustainability coastal management for governance dimension. thus, the evaluations and interventions on these sensitive attributes must be done proportionally by considering the correlation amongst them. the first is an integrated program intended to enhance the sustainability of coastal areas. more attention should be given to coastal regions and small islands, particularly because of the intensity of conflicts related to resources use among sectors, including agri(a) mds sustainability index (b) monte carlo sustainability index figure 2. mds sustainability index (a) and monte carlo sustainability index (b) for governance dimension 65 vol.4 no.1 januari-juni 2018 culture, aquaculture, fisheries, industry, recreation and tourism, transport, and urban settlements. thus, a holistic and cross-sectoral approach is needed to achieve sustainable human development, particularly some tangible factors driving local government capacity to initiate environmental programs, such as the beliefs and commitment from the councilors and community, local government officials’ perceptions of their roles and responsibilities to influence the institutions such as effective regional environmental agencies (river, 2009; brokaj, 2014). this finding is in line with agenda 21, the barbados program of action for little island developing states and also therio+5 forum. the proximity to areas with special environmental values, such as world heritage areas, can even aid their environmental commitment and effectiveness providing clues for longrun sustainable management with  sensible support from alternative agencies (river, 2009). the second is identifying all parties informed and actively involved (jones, 2010; epstein & widener, 2011) to enforce and promote in different ways, i.e. the government in the lower levels tried to develop a strategy and actions that flow from the national level, reporting indicators and measurements across the public sector, or legislation to require sustainability reporting. the third is the effective and equal partnerships between local governments and communities (chirenje et.al, 2013; nilo, 2015) for full privatization that assume initiative and co-responsibility in focusing on the sustainability and environmental effect of private firms (ran, 2010) and to access the finance, knowledge of technologies, managerial efficiency, and entrepreneurial spirit that are combined with the social responsibility, environmental awareness, local knowledge and job generation concerns of local governments. this is in line with current trends to emphasize the active involvement and participation of the civil society at massive, with local governments, businesses, and the community for the success of any local initiative (srinivas, 2017). conclusions the priority dimension of a stakeholder role in a strategic policy to promote the coordination and sustainability of socioeconomic activities in coastal areas reveals that the govfigure 3. sensitive attribute of sustainability coastal management 66 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research ernance dimension is the most prioritized factor, followed by the economic, the environmental quality, and the social well-being in the coastal zone management decisions. the governance dimension to achieve policies, followed by monitoring tools; human resources capacity building, implementation of good management practices; and public participation. thus, the starting capability, responsiveness, and accountability as central features of good governance are needed to support the success of the sustainability goals. while, the social well-being was the most prioritized factor to meet the economic purpose as the goal for every society and community. meanwhile, the transportation was the highest value as it provides essential economic and social activities of households’ socio-economic well-being, followed by fisheries and aquaculture, land use, and economy opportunity. furthermore, attaining the equity in social well-being goal was the most prioritized for government dimensions through providing public services for fair treatment; empowering disadvantaged groups; social protection; redistribution to improve equity by reducing inequality. there were three sensitive attributes which affect the sustainability of coastal management for governance dimension. the first is an integrated program using a holistic and cross-sectoral approach through tangible factors, i.e. the beliefs and commitment from the councilors and community, the perception of local government officials’ roles and responsibilities to influence the institutions agencies. the second is identifying all parties informed and actively involved to enforce and promote in different ways, i.e. the lower levels of government tried to develop a strategy and actions, reporting indicators and measurements across the public sector, or legislation to require sustainability reporting. the third is the effective and equal partnerships between local governments and communities 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(2017). an assessment of integrated coastal management governance and implementation using the dpsir framework: kwazulu-natal, south africa. coastal management, 45(2), 107-124. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history: submitted : september 20th, 2019 accepted : june 18th, 2020 amam1*, mochammad wildan jadmiko2, pradiptya ayu harsita3 department of animal husbandry, faculty of agriculture, universitas jember *) correspondence email: amam.faperta@unej.ac.id institutional performance of dairy farmers and the impacts on resources doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6191 abstract farmers institution is an organization that allows farmers to carry out farm agribusiness activities, from upstream (input) to downstream (processing and marketing), and connect with stakeholders. this study aims to investigate the institutional performance of dairy farmers and analyze its impact on resources. the research was conducted on may to september 2019 in pujon sub-district, malang district, east java. the respondents were the 174 farmers registered as the member of tirtasari kresna gemilang joint business group (kub). the data collection utilized focus group discussion (fgd), observation, and survey. the survey was held through interviews and questionnaires with +1 to +5 likert scale. the variables of this study were institutional performance (x), economic resources (y), environmental resources (y2), and social resources (y3). the data was analyzed using the pls (partial least square) method. the result of the study shows that institutional performance affects economic, environmental, and social resources 31.3%, 21.9%, and 45.6%, respectively. this study concluded that the institutional performance of dairy farmers positively and significantly influences the economic and social resources, but insignificantly influences environmental resources. key words: group dynamics, economic, environmental, social, and resources. introduction farmers institution is an organization that allows cattle farmers to carry out on-farm agribusiness activities, from upstream to downstream, and connect with stakeholders. the institutional role is essential and strategic in realizing cooperation and network with stakeholders as an attempt to build and strengthen the institution. this aims to encourage the growth of the more efficient, effective, and continuous on-farm agribusiness. the reinforcement of institute for animal husbandry is the means to improve the institutional capacity through business managerial enhancement, development, and business diversification built in a business institution. the institutional reinforcement aims at strengthening society's independency in establishing continuous animal husbandry. the means of animal husbandry empowerment and competitive farmers institutions were done mailto:amam.faperta@unej.ac.id issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 64 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research through the policy for strengthening farmers institution’s capacity to reinforce farmers' institutional economy. government regulation of the republic of indonesia number 6 of 2013 concerning farmer empowerment defines farmers empowerment as all means done by the government, provincial government, city/district government, and stakeholders in the field of animal husbandry and animal health to improve self-direction, provide convenience and business progress, and improve the competitiveness and welfare of farmers. farmers institution is potential to form and develop its institution, as long as it meets the needs to develop livestock farming business. anantanyu (2011) explained that the farmers institution in rural areas contribute to the acceleration of farmers' socio-economic development, access to agricultural information, access to capital, infrastructure, and market. the market that established through agriculture and animal husbandry commodity is oligopsony, where traders' offer is more intense and caused the need of institutional empowerment on the level of farmers or breeders (abubakar et al., 2013). amam and harsita (2019a) stated that institutional performance positively and significantly influences farmers' human resources (hr). this shows that the better the farmers institutional performance, the better the farmers' hr formed. amam and soetriono (2019) stated that institutional performance positively influences the development of livestock farming business. the positive impacts of institutional performance on farmers hr (amam and harsita, 2019b) and livestock farming business development (amam and soetriono, 2019), thus, the relevance of this research is to examine the effects of institutional performance on livestock business resources. the institute for animal husbandry that works as the object of this study is tirtasari kresna gemilang, a joint business group (kub) institutional dairy cattle farmers. tirtasari kresna gemilang kub is an institutional dairy farmers located in malang district, east java province. tirtasari kresna gemilang kub is an institution formed in 2017 and incorporated with a decree of the minister of law and human rights of the republic of indonesia number ahu 0010084 ah.01.07. the office is located at jl. keramat no. 17 ngabab, pujon sub-district. tirtasari kresna gemilang kub has 174 dairy farmers as the members. the condition of dairy farmers hr in tirtasari kresna gemilang kub often intersects with social, politic, and culture interests. this is the impact of malang district development, especially pujon sub-district as one of the tourism objects that attract tourists; thus, the use of land and the role of resources division became separate issues in livestock farming business development (soetriono and amam, 2020). ironically, malang district becomes the national dairy farms area (kpspn) in accordance with the decree of the minister of agriculture of the republic of indonesia number 43/ kpts/ pd.010/ 1 of 2015, causes various efforts continue to be made to develop dairy cattle business. one of the means is through maximizing the potential of dairy cattle business resources (soetriono et al., 2019). proyono and priyanti (2015) stated that the establishment of dairy cattle development areas was carried out in relation to the national dairy industry development planning. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 65 institutional performance of dairy ….. (amam, et.al) resources is important in the development of livestock farming business (amam et al., 2019a; amam et al., 2019b; amam et al., 2019d). amam et al. (2019c) explain that farmers hr and farmers accessibility on economic resources, environmental resources, and social resources influence the development of livestock business by 34,1%, thus, resources play an important role in livestock business development (amam and soetriono, 2020) and farmers hr (amam et al., 2019f). amam et al. (2019g) also states that the livestock business resources are financial resources, technology resources, and physical resources (amam et al., 2019e; amam et al., 2020b). livestock business resources also consist of economic, environmental, and social resources (amam et al., 2020a). this study aims to investigate the institutional performance of dairy farmers and analyze the effects on the resources. the resources included economic resources, environmental resources, and social resources. the resources were part of the three pillars of livestock business. amam and harsita (2019c) states that there are three pillars in livestock business which are breeding, feeding, and management. the research was conducted at tirtasari kresna gemilang kub, malang district. the novelty of this research is to find the accessibility of dairy farmers resources influenced by the institutional performance of tirtasari kresna gemilang kub dairy farmers. siswijono et al. (2014) stated that the development of farmers institution needs to consider the economic, technical, and social aspects. methods this study used expost facto research approach. the data were collected from may to september 2019 at pujon sub-district, malang district, east java. the research location was determined through purposive sampling with the consideration that malang district is one of the national dairy farm area (kpspn) in accordance with the decree of the minister of agriculture of the republic of indonesia number 43/ kpts/ pd.010/ 1 of 2015. the respondents were the members of tirtasari kresna gemilang joint business group (kub). the number of the respondents were 174 dairy farmers (total sampling). the data were collected through focus group discussion (fgd), observation, and survey. the survey was done by distributing questionnaires and conducting interviews. the questionnaires were +1 to +5 likert scale. the scale +1 showed that the respondents strongly disagree, scale +2 showed that the respondents disagree, scale +3 told that the respondents were neutral, scale +4 indicated that the respondents agree, and scale +5 indicated that the respondents strongly agree. the research variables consisted of institutional performance (x), economic resources (y1), environmental resources (y2), and social resources (y3). the x was an exogenous variable, while y was endogenous variable. the indicators of each variable are defined in table 1. amam et al. (2019f) states that institutional performance of dairy farmers is about the good and poor performance of the farmer institution. economic resources are the resources accessible by the farmers closely related to farmers' current economic condition. environmental resources are resources accessible by the farmers closely related to livestock condition and issues. social resources are resources accessible by the farmers closely related to farmers’ social relation. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 66 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 1. research variables and indicators variable indicator notation institutional performance (x) group tools group goals achievement group functions and task group structure group harmony institutional from x1.1 x1.2 x1.3 x1.4 x1.5 x1.6 economic resources (y1) formal education of farmers informal education of farmers family labor involvement level family health status family nutrition consumption house comfort level opportunity to use spare time for recreation farmers’ credibility level y1.1 y1.2 y1.3 y1.4 y1.5 y1.6 y1.7 y1.8 environmental resources (y2) air pollution level soil contamination level water pollution level noise pollution level utilization of cow dung as fertilizer utilization of agricultural waste as animal feed y2.1 y2.2 y2.3 y2.4 y2.5 y2.6 social resources (y3) farmers’ role in community organization coordination relations with other farmers relations with village officials relations with livestock health workers relations with animal husbandry department relations with animal feed companies relations with field counselors relations with financial institutions relations with dairy processing industry (ips) y3.1 y3.2 y3.3 y3.4 y3.5 y3.6 y3.7 y3.8 y3.9 based on the description of research variables and indicators in table 1, the relationship model between variables is shown in figure 1. the hypothesis built based on figure 1 was that the institutional performance of dairy farmers positively influenced economic, environmental, and social resources. the data analysis utilized pls (partial least square) method with smartpls2.0. tools. pls method generally consists of two types of test i.e. outer model and inner model. outer model test is the evaluation of measurement model and weighting schemes. outer model test consists of outer loading value (indicator test), ave (average variance extracted) value, ca (cronbach’s alpha) value, and r2 value. inner model test is the evaluation of structural model or influence test of exogenous variables toward endogenous variables. inner model test consists of coefficient of determination value, t-statistic value, and parameter coefficient value. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 67 institutional performance of dairy ….. (amam, et.al) figure 1. relationship model between variables based on the description of variables and indicators in table 1 and the relationship model between variables in figure 1, the mathematical equation obtained is as follows: exogenous latent variables (x)/reflective x1.1 = (λ1 ξ1) + δ1 x1.4 = (λ4 ξ1) + δ4 x1.2 = (λ2 ξ1) + δ2 x1.5 = (λ5 ξ1) + δ5 x1.3 = (λ3 ξ1) + δ3 x1.6 = (λ6 ξ1) + δ6 endogenous latent variables (y1)/reflective y1.1 = (λ7 η1) + ε1 y1.5 = (λ11 η1) + ε5 y1.2 = (λ8 η1) + ε2 y1.6 = (λ12 η1) + ε6 y1.3 = (λ9 η1) + ε3 y1.5 = (λ13 η1) + ε7 y1.4 = (λ10 η1) + ε4 y1.6 = (λ14 η1) + ε8 endogenous latent variables (y2)/reflective y2.1 = (λ15 η2) + ε9 y2.4 = (λ18 η2) + ε12 y2.2 = (λ16 η2) + ε10 y2.5 = (λ19 η2) + ε13 y2.3 = (λ17 η2) + ε11 y2.6 = (λ20 η2) + ε14 endogenous latent variables (y3)/reflective y3.1 = (λ21 η3) + ε15 y3.4 = (λ24 η3) + ε18 y3.7 = (λ27 η3) + ε21 y3.2 = (λ22 η3) + ε16 y3.5 = (λ25 η3) + ε19 y3.8 = (λ28 η3) + ε22 y3.3 = (λ23 η3) + ε17 y3.6 = (λ26 η3) + ε20 y3.9 = (λ29 η3) + ε23 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 68 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research result and discussions the research indicators were tested with pls (partial least square) method. the results of indicator test were the outer loading value on outer model system. the indicators considered valid and qualified were those with >0.500 outer loading value. indicators with <0.500 outer loading value were considered invalid and not qualified, thus, they needed to be eliminated from model. the indicator test results are defined in table 2. table 2. indicator test results indicator x y1 y2 y3 result x1.1 x1.2 x1.3 x1.4 x1.5 x1.6 y1.2 y1.3 y1.4 y1.5 y1.6 y1.7 y1.8 y2.1 y2.4 y2.5 y2.6 y3.1 y3.2 y3.3 y3.4 y3.6 y3.8 y3.9 0.912 0.756 0.884 0.526 0.714 0.845 0.964 0.816 0.649 0.552 0.533 0.547 0.747 0.678 0.512 0.834 0.819 0.953 0.826 0.612 0.532 0.674 0.889 0.825 valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid valid description: outer loading value after eliminating invalid indicators outer model system assembled criteria including ave (average variance extracted) value, ca (cronbach’s alpha) value, and r square value. the results of outer model test are defined in table 3. table 3. results of outer model test variable notation ave ca r2 institutional performance economic resources environmental resources social resources x y1 y2 y3 0.844 0.825 0.723 0.938 0.873 0.848 0.765 0.864 0.313 0.219 0.456 model test for influence or structural test consists of coefficient of determination value, t-statistic value, and parameter coefficient value. the results of inner model test are defined in table 4. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 69 institutional performance of dairy ….. (amam, et.al) table 4. results of inner model test test value description coefficient of determination (r2) a. economic resources b. environmental resources c. social resources 0.313 0.219 0.456 t-statistic a. x → y1 2.906 significant b. x → y2 1.615 insignificant c. x → y3 3.854 significant parameter coefficient a. x → y1 0.215 positive influence b. x → y2 0.188 positive influence c. x → y3 0.347 positive influence t table: 1.653 the influence of institutional performance on economic resources the economic resources of dairy farmers are influenced by the institutional performance by 31,3%. institutional performance positively and significantly influences economic resources by 0.215 (2.906 > 1.653). it shows that dairy farmers institution in tirtasari kresna gemilang joint business group (kub) positively influences the economic resources of dairy farmers. the better the institutional performance, the bigger the access of farmers to economic resources. the institutional performance of tirtasari kresna gemilang kub positively influences economic resources of dairy farmers. the excellent institutional performances are group facilities, group achievement goals, group function and group tasks, group/organizational structure, harmony among dairy farmers, dairy farmers institutional model that is considered able to improve farmers' welfare. according to mauludin et al. (2012), institutional role as a production unit needs to describe the group function in encouraging efficient economic scale achievement in producing results. such institutional conditions can positively influence the farmers' accessibility to economic resources. farmers can notice the impacts due to economic improvement. dairy farmers' economic improvement is also supported by tourism development in malang district, especially pujon sub-district. tourism development allows the farmers' income to increase because one of the market orientation of dairy processing industry (ips) in home industry (irt) scale is tourists. however, tourism also negatively impacts the development of cattle business. it is due to the distribution of resources role such as land use. the empty lands that were once planted with forage were turned into parking lot and street vendor stalls. this condition inhibits the availability of forage. generally, the role of tirtasari kresna gemilang kub has accommodate the dairy farmers. hidayanto et al. (2009) states that institutional development is necessary due to several factors: a) many agricultural problems can be solved through farmers institutions, b) knowledge and technology routine sharing, c) establishing competitive farmers with a more open economic structure, and d) strengthening cooperation in the use of resources to be more efficient. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 70 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the influence of institutional performance on environmental resources the environmental resources of dairy farmers are influenced by the instututional performance of dairy farmers by 21,9 %. institutional performance positively but insignificantly influences environmental resources by 0.188 (1.615 < 1.653). it shows that dairy farmers institution in tirtasari kresna gemilang kub (joint business group) positively influences the environmental resources but the farmers have not received the benefits yet. the kub performance has not reduced the level of air, water, and soil pollution, as well as noise pollution as the impacts of livestock business. the institutional performance of tirtasari kresna gemilang kub shows a positive impact on dairy farmers' environmental resources. the good institutional performances are group facilities, group achievement goals, group function and group tasks, group/organizational structure, harmony among dairy farmers, dairy farmers institutional model that is considered able to improve farmers' welfare. such institutional conditions positively influences the farmers' accessibility to environmental resources. farmers gain the benefits due to the improvement of environmental resources. one of the qualities is shown by the level of air and noise pollution. pollution commonly happens to the environment of livestock business. one of the efforts to suppress the pollution level is through utilizing the cow dung. cow dung is utilized as the raw material for biogas and organic fertilizer for agriculture. the environmental quality can also be enhanced by utilizing agricultural waste as animal feed. the agricultural waste commonly used as animal feed are rice straw and corn strover. livestock business with forage land basis has increasingly limited capacity. the tourism development in malang district worsens this condition. the implementation of integrated crop-livestock system is one of the efforts to unravel the problems. saptana and ilham (2015) state that the integration of crops and livestock can increase the financial resources of farmers. regarding the environmental resources, suardi et al. (2016) states that the attempt to maintain agricultural land needs to be done thoroughly. this is closely related to the utilization of agricultural waste as animal feed. hilmi et al. (2016) explains that the main barrier in forage provision is the inconsistent production throughout the year. during rainy season the forage production is abundant, while in the dry season the production level becomes very low. the influence of institutional performance on social resources the social resources of dairy farmers is influenced by the institutional performance of dairy farmers by 45,6%. institutional performance positively and significantly influences social resources by 0.347 (3.854 > 1.653). it indicates that dairy farmers in tirtasari kresna gemilang kub (joint business group) positively influences the social resources. the better the institutional performance, the better the access for farmers to social resources. the institutional performance of tirtasari kresna gemilang kub shows positive impacts on the social resources of dairy farmers. the excellent institutional performances are group facilities, group achievement goals, group function and group tasks, group/organizational structure, harmony among dairy farmers, dairy farmers institutional model that is considered able to improve farmers' social relation. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 71 institutional performance of dairy ….. (amam, et.al) such institutional conditions positively influence the farmers' accessibility to social resources. the benefits are gained as the effects of improved social relation. it indicates that tirtasari kresna gemilang has accommodate dairy farmers in malang district. the access for dairy farmers to social resources allows them to have opportunities to capital loan through financial institutions. capital has become a main barrier in the development of livestock business. amam et al. (2019a) states that livestock business development is influenced by farmers' access to resources. the access to market information on social resources is quite limited, therefore it contributes to the weakening of farmers' offer (rahayu and kartika, 2015). irawati and yantu (2015) state that agricultural farmers groups makes it easier for farmer group members to carry out farming activities, including access to information market. the role of farmers institution may also be in the form of information access such as assistance from the government, credit loans, forage, livestock production facilities, as well as livestock and dairy marketing (siswoyo et al., 2013), for an effective and efficient livestock business. according to suresti and wati (2012), livestock business is integration of production and financial management, production manages input and output. the higher the profit, the more effective and efficient the business is, thus, farmers' offer will improve and create competence in the market to achieve business goals. conclusions institutional performance influences the economic, environment, and social resources by 31.3%, 21.9%, and 45.6%, respectively. institutional performance of dairy farmers positively and significantly influences the economic and social resources, but insignificantly influences environmental resources. acknowledgements this paper is the outcome of long and continuous research that involves many parties. they deserve an appreciation from the authors. the authors would like to thank: a) lp2m (institute of research and community service) of universitas jember; b) keris (research group) agribusiness and agroindustry of animal husbandry (a2p) keris; c) students of animal husbandry study program, faculty of agriculture, universitas jember who were involved in the 2019-2021 research project; and d) dairy farmers in tirtasari kresna gemilang kub malang district. references abubakar, i., yantu, m. r., & asih, d. n. 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(2020). the performance of institutional of dairy cattle farmers and their effect on financial, technological, and physical resources. jurnal ilmu-ilmu peternakan. 30(2), 128-137. doi: https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jiip.2020.030.02.05. soetriono, soejono, d., zahrosa, d. b., maharani, a. d., & amam. strategi pengembangan dan diversifikaso sapi potong di jawa timur. jurnal ilmu dan teknologi peternakan tropis. 6(2), 138-145. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.33772/jitro.v6i2.5571. suardi, i. d. p. o., darmawan, d. p., & sarjana, i. d. g. r. (2016). potensi dan peran kelembagaan pertanian dalam perlingdungan lahan pertanian pangan di provinsi bali. jurnal manajemen agribisnis. 4(1), 1-9. suresti, a. & wati, r. (2012). strategi pengembangan usaha peternakan sapi potong di kabupaten pesisir selatan. jurnal peternakan indonesia. 14(1), 249-262. issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2: july-december 2020 article history: submitted: february 12th, 2020 accepted: october 15th, 2020 marliati* prodi magister manajemen agribisnis, universitas islam riau , indonesia *) correspondence email: marliatiahmad@agr.uir.ac.id factors influencing on entrepreneurial behavior of street vendors (a case in pekanbaru city, riau province) doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6296 abstract one of the informal sectors that happening in urban areas is street vendors, known for its contribution to reduce unemployment despite their existence are often raise urban planning problems. however, street vendors should be given the opportunities by the government to increase their economic empowerment and competitiveness. the purpose of this study is to analyze personal characteristics and business profile, family environment, internal and external environment of the business; and its influence on street vendors’ entrepreneurial behavior. the research was conducted in pekanbaru from march to december 2019. respondents of the study are 131 street vendors. the data is analyzed by using the partial least square (pls) method. the results showed that the average personal characteristics of street vendors’ aged 36.93 years, level of education equivalent to high school with 5.27 years of business experience and average net income per day is idr 442,404 which 52.7 percent do not have any business license. the family environment and the internal business environment are considered "good" and support street vendors. the external business environment, especially government support or policies (capital support, technology and empowerment) are still considered "not good" by street vendors. factors that have a significant influence on entrepreneurial behavior are: formal education factors, parent education method, family support, business financial analysis skills and government support or policies (access to business capital and empowerment). keywords: entrepreneurial behavior, street vendor, street food introduction in a business perspective, according to the category of bank indonesia (2015) the informal sector such as street vendors are a group of small and medium enterprises (smes). according to hadya jayani (2020), smes (including street vendors) have an important and strategic role in national economic development. apart from having impact in economic growth and employment, smes also have important role in the distribution of development results. based on data from bank indonesia, (2015), the number of entrepreneurs in indonesia reached 56,539,560 units and most of them 56,534,592 units or 99.99% are smes. based on bps data (2020), smes have a contribution of 60.3% of indonesia's total http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 137 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) gross domestic product (gdp). in addition, smes absorb 97% frome the total workforce and 99% of total employment. in 2018, there were 64.2 million units of smes. the business circumstance in riau currently is still dominated by businesses classified as micro and small enterprises (smes), including the informal sectors such as street vendors. based on the results of the 2016 advanced economic census, the number of these businesses reached 509.000 or 98.26 percent of the total non-agricultural businesses in riau province. this business is also able to absorb riau's workforce of more than 1.24 million people or about 67.68 percent of the total workforce outside the agricultural sector in riau. while indonesia hit by crisis around 1997-1998, smes proved to be standing firm when other large businesses fell (bps riau province, 2018). pekanbaru city that has the largest population in riau is the center of smes including the street vendors. the number of smes in this city is around 19.47 percent of the total number of smes in riau, which is being the largest in number compared to other regencies/cities. second after that, around 13.50 percent of smes are located in kampar regency and the rest are spread across ten districts/cities in riau (bps riau province, 2018). the strong point of the street vendors as part of smes in surviving the global crisis are for various reasons. first, this sector generally produces consumer goods and services that are most needed by consumers. second, this business does not rely on imported raw materials and makes more use of local resources in terms of human resources, capital, raw materials, and equipment. third, in general, this type of business uses owner’s capital or not rely on bank’s loan. with these advantages, smes and including the street vendors that are not significantly affected by global crisis which usually marked by a steep decline in the rupiah exchange rate (bps riau province, 2018). this has proven the role of smes, including the informal sector, in the national and regional economy stability. even though has several advantages, street vendor as part of smes also has many limitations and does not always running well, they still facing many obstacles, both from internal and external that must be faced by smes, which make it difficult for this business to be able to develop. according to bps riau province (2018), these limitations include the lack of banking access; the capability and knowledge of human resources is still low; traditional management; limited use of technology; and disability to adapt with consumer tastes especially with export-oriented preferences. the similar opinion was conveyed by bank indonesia (2015), the main problems of smes in indonesia are; internal and external business problems. internal factors include: capital, human resources, law and accountability. external problems are: business climate, infrastructure and access. in detail, the smes problems are: around 60-70% have not received access or financing. the businesss management of smes is still operated traditionally and manually, for the most part is in financial management. the household money is still can not divided from business operations’s money by the managers. thus, the rising of smes including the street vendor on the one hand can help the government specifically in reducing the number of unemployment, providing income for households and also increasing regional income. on the other hand it will also cause problems http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 138 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research in urban area arrangement (sulistyo rini, 2013, purnawati, 2016). the increasing number of street vendors in the city center produces unsightly landscape and generate problems such as urban cleanliness and neatness. the main problems faced by micro entrepreneurs such as street vendors are instability in business and lack of funding access. this study focuses on the study of street food vendors. the identification of street vendor problems and performances is expected to have contribution and assisted government to develop smes both through guidance and preparation of regulations so as to protect and improve the performance of smes, it must also receive business opportunities and government attention so that economically competitive and empowered. several studies have shown that there is a significant influence between entrepreneurial behavior and business success. in addition, it can be concluded that entrepreneurial behavior is influenced by a number of internal and external business factors (suharti & sirine, 2011; azwar, 2013; shirokova, et al. 2014; desi martauli et al., 2016; buddhi satyarini, 2016 dan nursiah et al., 2017). based on various literature reviews (schmidt et al., 2018), trying to synthesize the dimensions of entrepreneurial behavior between various terms and concepts into a set of basic ideas or dimensions of entrepreneurial behavior. the dimensions of entrepreneurial behavior are: creative, leadership, planner, seizing opportunities, persistence / resilience, courage to take risks, independence and socialization skills. the business environment is the dynamic of the business environment that affects business performance, which consists of the internal environment (micro) and the economic environment which is the external (macro) environment. based on the background and theoretical studies, the research objectives were to analyze: personal characteristics and business profiles; the family environment, the internal and external environment of the business; entrepreneurial behavior; and factors that influence the entrepreneurial behavior of street vendors of food in pekanbaru city. research method research time and location the research location is in pekanbaru city, riau province. the location is selected based on the consideration that pekanbaru city as the capital of riau province is the center of government, education, culture, urbanization and economic activities which of course had an impact on population growth, business opportunities and market opportunities for the street vendors, especially street food. the research was conducted for 12 months, from march 2019 to february 2020. sampling procedure and data collection respondents were street food vendors in pekanbaru city. respondent is selected using purposive sampling technique. this is in accordance with the objectives of this study with the criteria of research respondents, such as: (1) street vendors who sell street food (self-processed agro-industry products) at prime locations, (2) places, along roadside with temporary carts or http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 139 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) tents. respondents were 131 street vendors selling food in nine center locations of street food in six sub-districts in pekanbaru city. the data collected consists of primary and secondary data. primary data obtained through in-depth interviews (depth interview) and observations (observations) in the field. primary data collected include: characteristics of traders (x1), business profiles (x2), family environment (x3), characteristics of the internal business environment (x4), characteristics of the external business environment (x5) and business behavior (y). data analysis method this research analyzes personal characteristics, business profile, internal and external environment and business behavior. personal characteristics and business profiles are analyzed using descriptive statistics. analysis of the internal environment, the external environment of the business and entrepreneurial behavior are qualitative data that are quantified using a likert scale. after calculating the score for each variable and sub-variable of the study, categorization consisted of: "very good" (score 5), "good" (score 4), "poor" (score 3), "not good" (score 2) and “very bad” (score 1). analysis of the influence between variables used quantitative analysis namely the analysis of the partial least square (pls-path modeling) method. according to jaya and sumertajaya (2008), pls is an alternative method of analysis with variance-based structural equation modeling (sem). using the smart pls version 2 program as tool that is specifically designed to estimate structural equations on the basis of variance. the research hypothesis is: "personal characteristic factors (x1), business profile (x2), family environment (x3), internal business environment (x4), external business environment (x5) have a significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior (y) of street food vendors in pekanbaru. result and discussions street vendors characteristics the characteristics of street vendors are internal factors that are expected to have effect on entrepreneurial behavior. according to johnson, 1990; nishanta, 2008 (in suharti & sirine, 2011), internal factors that come from entrepreuner’s inside can be manifested as character traits, likewise socio-demographic factors like age, gender, family background, work experience and others which have effect on entrepreunerial behaviour of some person. external factors are factors that come from the external side of the entrepreneur which is surrounding environment. based on the research results, street vendors in pekanbaru (table 1), it is known that 95% of street vendors are in the productive age range, with an average age of 36.93 years and dominated (63.36%) by men. the average education level of street vendors is 11.3 years (equivalent to high school). as many as 16.03 percent have an educational background equivalent to a bachelor's degree. according to (welter & smallbone, 2011), well education level and knowledge can help an entrepreneur to adapt easily to their environment. with educational background, entrepreneurs can exploit opportunities, adjust easily to institutional structures shifting, and ability in contacting business networks to develop social networks to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 140 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research overcome institutional barriers, which are expected to also affect the income level of street vendors. in total 63.36% of street vendors had an income of less than idr 500,000 / day with an average income of idr 442,404 / day. this is higher than the provincial minimum wage in pekanbaru based on the decree of the governor of riau kpts.1198 / xi / 2019 (sari dewi, 2019), which is idr 99,932 / day. table 1. characteristics of street vendors in pekanbaru street vendor characteristics number percentage seller age (year): 18 – 27 28 – 37 38 – 47 48 – 57 58 – 67 31 41 31 21 7 23.66 31.29 23.66 16.03 5.34 sex : men women 83 48 63.36 36.64 formal education level (year): elementary school junior high school senior high school associate degree bachelor 20 25 58 7 21 15.27 19.08 44.27 5.35 16.03 entrepreneurial experience (year): 1 – 9 10 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39 107 17 6 1 81.68 12.98 4.58 0.76 familiy dependent: 0 – 3 4 – 6 94 37 71.76 28.24 income (idr)/day < 200.000 200.00 500.00 > 500.000 36 34 61 27.5 25.9 46.6 based on table 1, the entrepreneurial experience of street vendors is 5.27 years on average, with the shortest experience is 1 year and the longest is 39 years. most of the street vendors as much as 81.68% had business experience between 1 to 9 years. time of experience plays a role in influencing a person to become more skillful. through experience, a person can learn many things because with less experience an entrepreneur will hardly to face, solve problems, and achieve opportunities. according to buddhi satyarini, (2016), the business experience possessed by entrepreneurs has the opportunity to give positive values to new businesses that will be opened and or the development of existing businesses. in addition, the number of dependents in the family can be a source of motivation in doing business. the large number of family dependents encourages a person to be even more active in increasing household income. the average number of family dependents among the street vendors is 2 people. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 141 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) street vendors business profile the informal sector, which is the street vendor, is characterized by a variety of businesses, ranging from small businesses to tents (angkringan food stalls). the types of food that sold by street vendors include: juice, crispy fried bananas, meatballs, bandrek, es doger, fried tofu, ankringan, pecel lele and others. street vendors’ business profiles are presented in table 2. tabel 2. food street vendor business profile in pekanbaru profile number percentage time of business (year) 1 ≤ 3 4 – ≤ 7 > 7 83 28 20 63.4 21.3 15.3 capital (million rupiah) 0 ≤ 1 1 ≤ 5 5 – ≤ 10 > 10 15 48 23 45 11.5 36.6 17.5 34.4 capital source own parents inheritance company 124 4 2 1 94.7 3 1.5 0.8 business license own not yet 62 69 47.3 52.7 number of employee (person) no employee 1 2 3 4 .>4 52 59 19 1 39.7 35.1 14.4 0.8 selling schedule everyday monday saturday monday friday monday thursday 125 4 1 1 95.4 3.0 1.8 1.8 based on table 2, the amount of business capital for street vendors varies from idr 200,000 to 50,000,000 with an average starting capital of idr 11,8226,717. the number of capital depends on the type of business, capability and access to funding. based on the sources of business capital for street vendors, it varies, including: own capital (94.7 percent) and other sources of capital, namely parents, inheritance and companies (5.3 percent). this is in line with the research of rachmania et al., (2012), in family businesses in indonesia, 85% of all data obtained are types of businesses registered as self-owned. while 8% are business partnerships, 5% are cooperatives and 2% are other types of business. local governments including pekanbaru city’s government made a policy so that street vendors have business permits or trade registered signs. based on the results of the study (table 2), a total of 47.3% of these street food street vendors have business licenses, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 142 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research while the rest more than half (52.7%) do not have business license. this is similar with what was written by saputra (2019), data from bank rakyat indonesia (bri) there are around 13,531 smes operating in pekanbaru. only about 3,000 (22.17%) of smes have business licenses. those who do not have this business license for various reasons, including some who do not know, some feel unnecessary and some say that it is complicated and difficult to deal with the bureaucracy. this regulation aims to ensure that street vendors can be disciplined and given guidance. the more the number of street vendor businesses that do not have business permits, it means that it is increasingly difficult to control and provide guidance. based on the number of employees, a number of 39.7 percent of street vendors businesses do not have employees or workers, which means using labor in the family. the number of workers/employees varies from one person to 4 employees and the most is having 8 people. based on the sme category according to the world bank (bank indonesia, 2015), this include micro business group, which has maximum workforce of 10 people. based on the selling schedule, the results of the study (table 2) showed that most (95.4%) street vendors were selling every day. this reflects their tenacity to survive or to earn a living. family environment, internal environment, external business and enterpreneurial behavior the business environment is the dynamic of the movement of the business that affects business performance, which consists of the internal (micro) environment and the economic environment which is the external or macro environment (desi martauli et al., 2016). factors that are thought to affect entrepreneurial behavior are the family environment, the internal environment of the business and the external environment of the business. munizu (2010) found that: i) individual manager/owner characteristics, business characteristics, external business environment, the impact of economic and social policies have a positive and significant direct effect on business strategy and business growth; ii) small and micro enterprises will grow in a business environment with supportive regulations/policies and reliable information. supporting policies enable businesses to be well managed and stable. meanwhile, reliable and easily accessible information will have an impact on business success. the results of the study of these three factors (family environment, internal environment, external business) and entrepreneurial behavior are presented in table 3. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 143 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) table 3. family environment, internal environment, business external environment and entrepreneurial behavior of street vendors in pekanbaru variable/ sub variable mean score achievement score (%) category family environment: 3.82 76.33 good parents education method 4.55 90.91 good family member relationship 4.29 85.80 good home atmosphere 4.22 84.43 good family economy condition 4.27 85.49 good (supportive) family supports 4.38 87.63 good family profession background 3.33 66.26 less supportive internal environment 4.24 84.27 good financial aspect 4.08 81,68 good production and operation technology 4.26 84,12 good external environment 3.65 72.36 good general government policy 2.92 58.93 less supportive socio-economic environment 4.40 88.09 good (supportive) market competition 4.20 83.96 supportive entrepreneurial behaviour: enthusiasm (passion) 4.69 93.89 good independence 4.25 85.65 good sensitive to market opportunities 4.46 89.16 good creative and innovative 4.13 82.59 good calculating the risks 4.10 81.83 good service quality 4.63 92.51 good note: score range 1-5 family environment external factors that influence entrepreneurial behavior include: family environment, community environment, college environment, technology environment, and opportunities. the family environment is the smallest group of community involving father, mother, children, and other family member. the family environment is expected to educate and support family members to have a business enthusiasm (mochlasin & krisnawati, 2016). according to rachmania et al., (2012), most micro, small and medium enterprises (ukm) begin from family businesses as a first step. there are many successful entrepreneurs that started from family business backgrounds. then, the knowledge about the business types and the way family members support the business can become a thought for entrepreneurs to build their business. the results of the family environment research are presented in table 3. based on table 3, family environment in supporting entrepreneurial activities in general is in the "good" category. this is evident from the results of the study that the way parents educate, the relationship between family members, the atmosphere of the house, the economic condition of the family, the support of family members is in “good” category. a “less supportive” family environment is profession background of the parents or other family members (entrepreneurship or non-entrepreneurship). street vendors who come from families whose main profession is entrepreneurship mostly foster motivation for doing entrepreneurship, apart from being a media for learning. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 144 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research according to suharti & sirine (2011), family is the first environment that can foster a child's entrepreneurial mentality. the importance of the role of the family in encouraging children's interest in entrepreneurship was recognized by most of the respondents in a study conducted on students interested in entrepreneurship in bandung. likewise, according to mochlasin & krisnawati, (2016), family is the closest social environment of an entrepreneur, which plays a very large role in shaping character, including the entrepreneurial character of a child. internal environment the internal environment of a business is the aspects of the business environment that are thought to have an effect on entrepreneurial behavior and business success. abimbola and agboola, 2011 (in mochlasin & krisnawati, 2016) explain the relationship between entrepreurship and business environment. abimbola and agboola (2011) state that the environment, in this sense, covering factors such as infrastructure, culture, economics, social and political environment. environmental forces have been observed to be capable of inhibiting or facilitating entrepreneurial activity in every society. the results of the internal business environment are presented in table 3. based on table 3, the internal business environment (financial and production technology aspects) is in the “good” category. financial aspects that are in the "good" category are: street vendors using their own capital; perform a capital requirements analysis; conduct business profit analysis; is able to separate business finances from household finances and record business financial expenses and income. street vendor perceptions of production and operation technology are in the "good" category. the aspects included in the production technology of the business are: ease of obtaining raw materials; labor; ownership of machines that have guaranteed business continuity: mastering technical production. maintaining product quality, employee has good technical skills and good morality. external environment the external environment of business are factors or other aspects that come from outside the business that are thought to have an effect on entrepreneurial and entrepreneurial behavior. the aspects covering the external environment of the business analyzed include: general policies of the government; social and economic aspects and marketing environment. based on the research results in table 3, the overall external environment of the business is considered "good". however, there is still an external environment that is still poorly assessed by street vendor which is the government general policy. the things that are perceived as unfavorable are: there is still a lack of government policies that support street vendors' access to finance; less intensive and continuous guidance and assistance for street vendors, lack of assistance in access to production technology, government regulations that do not take sides and support businesses; lack of monitoring and evaluation of empowerment programs that have been carried out. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 145 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) entrepreneurial behaviour street vendor entrepreneurial behavior is all the attitudes and activities of street vendors in running their business. based on the research results (table 3), overall entrepreneurial behavior is declared "good". the entrepreneurial behavior that street vendors think is good is evident from their independent behavior in doing business, among other things 94.7% of capital comes from their own capital. in addition, street vendors are sensitive to market opportunities, creative and innovative, risks management, quality service and managerial behavior that is able to manage a business well and a sustainable business (this is proven from their average time of business which is 36.6% has been established more than 4 years. in this entrepreneurial behavior, the most important thing is that street vendors realize that entrepreneurial behavior is not just to be studied but to be practiced for the sustainability of their business. factors affecting on entrepreneurial behavior the results of outer loadings (measurement model) or convergent validity were employed to test the unidimensionality of each construct. according to vinci et al (2010), the loading factor indicator value that is greater or equal to 0.5 can be said to be valid. thus, there are several invalid indicators (loading factor indicator below 0.5), this will affect the validity of the model. therefore invalid indicators are eliminated so that a new model is formed (figure 1). figure 1. pls output research model with all indicators loading factor valid : factors that influence entrepreneurial behavior of street vendor the results of parameter model estimation statistical test (pls output) research are presented in table 4. based on the test results, it is known that significant indicators, namely the sub-variables and research indicators that have significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 146 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 4. statistical test results of the estimated model research parameters variable sub variable significant indicator t statistics (|o/sterr|) symbol description (x1) personal characteristics x13 educational level (x2) business profile x26 selling schedule (x3) family environment x31 (parent education method x311 set example of independence 13.782112 x312 set example of persistence 14.689882 x32 (family relationship) x321 seeing successful siblings 34.124676 x322 family support 27.339282 x33 (home atmosphere) x331 condusive home atmosphere 21.906355 x332 giving entrepreneurial example activity from home 35.258382 (x4) internal environment x41 (financial aspect) x413 performing a capital requirement analysis 19.061726 x414 perform business profit analysis 35.595937 x415 separation of business and household finances 32.760081 x416 already doing business bookkeeping 19.841872 (x5) eksternal environment x51 (public policy/ government support / related institutions) x511 support for access to finance 123.504708 x512 access training support 182.522797 x513 technology access support 80.509108 x514 conducive government regulation 52.343088 x515 mentoring activities 81.468684 x516 monitoring and evaluation 116.468669 (y) entrepreneurial behaviour y1 (enthusiasm) y11 enthusiasm in seeking information, knowledge and business skills 26.739283 y3 (sensitive to business opportunities) y31 market opportunity seizing behavior 22.936590 y4 (creative and innovative) y41 creating / looking for new ideas 18.861052 y42 turning new ideas into reality 33.922651 y5 (calculating the risks) y53 the courage to take risks 25.031688 based on figure 1 and table 4, the factors that affect the model can be explained as follows: 1. personal characteristics factors affecting entrepreneurship behavior based on the research results (table 4), it can be explained that the personal characteristics of street vendors that significantly influence entrepreneurial behavior are education. in theory, it is believed that providing a person with education and entrepreneurial experience from an early age can increase one's potential to become an entrepreneur. several studies have shown results that support this statement (kourilsky & walstad, 1998; gerry et al., 2008 (in suharti & sirine, 2011)). it turns out that educational factors are important in shaping entrepreneurial behavior and will ultimately affect business success. several studies describe the relationship between education and entrepreneurship. bhattacharjee, et al., (2008) argue that individuals who are more highly educated are desirous to leave from a bad labor market and therefore prefer independent entrepreneurs. this is also in line with the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 147 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) results of research by syahardi et al., (2017) ) that the indicators of personal characteristics that most dominate the business performance of entrepreneurial women are education and family background. 2. family environmental factors that have a significant influence on entrepreneurial behavior in addition to the personal characteristics of street vendors, family environment factor that have significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior are: the way parents educate their children, relationships between families and home atmosphere. the research by fahed-sreih et al., (2009) support the statement that the family plays a main role in business development in a transitional economy that has experienced severe socio-economic turbulence. in this study, the interesting thing about the way parents educate children that affect entrepreneurial behavior is that parents educate children for independence and parents give examples to children so they don't give up easily when their business fails. in entrepreneurship, the factors of independence and never giving up are important things. other factors of the family environment that influence entrepreneurial behavior are: the relationship of family members and the atmosphere of the house. an influential relationship of family members is after seeing their siblings succeed in the business field. the success of family members turns out to be a motivation for street vendors to become entrepreneurs. home atmosphere that supports entrepreneurship is a conducive home condition for entrepreneurship and provides examples of entrepreneurial activities starting from home. the findings of this study are also in line with the results of research by syahardi et al., (2017), which states that the family environment affects entrepreneurial behavior and business performance. 3. business internal environmental factors that have significant influence on entrepreneurial behavior the business environment factor that has a significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior is the financial factor. meanwhile, production and operation technology for street vendors is not the main factor that determines entrepreneurial behavior. this means, with simple production technology, street vendors are able to start their business. financial aspects that have significant effect are: the ability to analyze capital requirements, analyze business profits, ability to separate household and business finances and record financial expenses and income. the results of this study are in line with the business theories studied. the same thing was stated by syahardi et al., (2017), that financial factors significantly influence business behavior and business performance. 4. business external environmental factors that have a significant influence on entrepreneurial behavior the external environmental factors of business that have a significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior are the general policies of the government or related institutions. social and economic aspects of the community do not really influence entrepreneurial behavior and the success of street vendors. this is understandable because street vendors snack food is sold at a price that is affordable to the general public and the street food sold http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 148 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research also varies and is needed by the community. so that the social conditions and economic turmoil of the community do not affect street vendors. this is the specialty and attractiveness of the informal street vendors sector. this also differentiates it from medium and macro scale businesses and commodities outside of street food, which are sensitive to social and economic turmoil in society. general government policy factors or related institutions that have a significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior and business success are: a. government policies support access to finance. because street vendors have limited sources of capital. if the government helps street vendors access to finance it will greatly support entrepreneurial behavior and business success. government support for this financing must be easily accessible to street vendors, among others: financing with no complicated bureaucracy and convoluted administration. financing that is not burdensome to street vendors by repaying loans with interest. b. government support by providing training or financing to street vendors. the findings in the field indicate that street vendors with an average education level are inadequate, that is 11.5 years (equivalent to not completing high school). street vendor empowerment can be improved by increasing knowledge, skills and mental attitudes. the training provided, for example, covers the following aspects: hygiene, product variety, business management, services and others. c. support from government or related institutions so that street vendors given more access to production technology. the quality and quantity of street food can be improved by street vendors if supported by production technology. d. government regulations that support street vendors businesses e. mentoring activities by the government for street vendors f. support from government or related institutions to monitor street vendors the reliability of the research model is also shown in table 5, namely the effect of exogenous latent variables and their indicators on exogenous latent variables. based on the results of data analysis (table 5), it turns out that the variables: personal characteristics, family environment, internal business environment and external business environment have significant effect (test level 5 percent) on the entrepreneurial behavior of street vendors. the variable that does not have significant effect on business behavior is the business profile. this means that entrepreneurial behavior can be improved through: personal characteristics of traders, family environment, internal business environment and external business environment. entrepreneurial behavior that is significantly influenced by personal characteristics, family environment, internal and external business is (1) enthusiasm (enthusiastic in seeking information, knowledge and business skills); (2) creating market opportunities: (3) creating / looking for new ideas; and (4) courage to take risks. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 149 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) table 5. statistical test results of structural model parameter estimates structural equations t statistics effect description r2 endogenous latent variables exogenous latent variables entrepreneurial behavior (y) 1. street vendor characteristics (x1) 4.151654 significant 0.237 2. business profile (x2) 0.826418 not significant 3. family environment (x3) 7.221483 significant 4. internal business environment (x4) 4.133343 significant 5. business external environment (x5) 2.606309 significant enthusiastic behavior means that street vendors have enthusiasm and passion in running a business, even though there are many challenges, problems and risks that will be faced. enthusiasm in the sense of not giving up easily or getting frustrated. enthusiasm and passion are interesting things to describe in more detail. it seems the same but the essence is different. enthusiasm is the energy to do a job because there is a willingness and desire to achieve it, namely the element of benefits and goals. passion also means passionate. passion is the energy needed to do a job because there are elements of love, preferences, and hobbies in it (loving). so, not solely because of the benefits and purposes. the source of energy needed in entrepreneurial activities or any activity is to have enthusiasm (there is hope) and passion to do it. this is supported by the results of research by ayala & manzano, (2014). the results of his research indicate that the three dimensions of resilience (patience), resourcefulness (ingenuity), and optimism / having good expectations) help estimate entrepreneurial success. an important key in creating an entrepreneurial spirit can be grown by several factors, namely: a. a figure for someone to raise enthusiasm for seeing that person successful and rich so he wants to be like that person. b. like to find new challenges to create passion, loving entrepreneurship lifestyle. c. stuck or compulsion because you have to survive and live. d. the desire to improve a better standard of living; do not want poor forever. e. experiencing failure in your work career and taking shortcuts for the spirit of being an entrepreneur. f. indeed, dream since childhood to become an entrepreneur. the main requirement for street vendors to become strong in business is to be able to seize market opportunities by doing a good and precise market analysis. by doing a good and precise market analysis, the street vendors will be able to better understand the real market conditions so that the strategies taken will run well lead to business profits increasing. this point is very important because street vendors cannot serve all consumers or buyers in the market. there are too many buyers with diverse or varied needs and wants, so street vendors must identify which parts of the market it will serve as the target market. thus, business success will affect how well and precisely market analysis is carried out. apart from being able to seize market opportunities, the entrepreneurial behavior of street vendors also determines the success of the business by creating / looking for new ideas (creative and innovative). creativeness and innovation are affect and determine a person's http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 150 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research success. if someone is trained to be creative since the childhood, in the future he is expected to be innovative to solve problems. as creativity of street vendors cannot happen instantly, but it takes a long process to develop until it reaches a certain point, as well as innovative point which needs to be. the courage to take risks. the thing that distinguishes an entrepreneur from others is the readiness to take risks. in contrast to entrepreneurship, risk is used as a challenge to achieve success, not an obstacle that makes us fail. entrepreuners are pushed to be always conscientious in taking risks. self-confidence is have big role in taking risks. the higher the confidence someone posses, the bigger confidence is influencing decisions and results and as a result, the braver someone in facing risks that others doubt. based on table 5, it is proven that all research hypotheses can be accepted. in conclusion, the characteristic factors, family environment, internal business environment and business external environment have a significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior. the latent variable of personal characteristics, family environment, and external environment of business influencing entrepreneurial behavior in the structural model has an r² value of 0.276 which shows a moderate model. 5. model reliability test based on the results of testing the goodness of the model (table 6), for the measurement model seen from the value of composite reliability, ave, and cronbach apla, all of them provide values that meet the criteria for the goodness of the model. so that the measurement model can be stated as good. this model proves that the characteristic factors of street vendors, family environment, internal business environment, and external business environment have a significant effect on entrepreneurial behavior. that is, the entrepreneurial behavior of street vendors can be increased by increasing or improving with non-formal education, support and education from the family, improving the internal business environment (especially capital / finance) and support from the government. table 6. research model goodness test results variable composite reliability ave cronbach alpha information street vendor characteristics (x₁) 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000 good (fit) business profile 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000 good (fit) family environment (x₂) 0.881898 0.557563 0.839513 good (fit) internal business environment (x₃) 0.891719 0.673650 0.842025 good (fit) external business environment (x₄) 0.976007 0.871495 0.971054 good (fit) entrepreneurial behavior (x₅) 0.848125 0.528317 0.776640 good (fit) conclusions the conclusion of the research shows that the personal characteristics of street vendors average are 36.93 years old, the level of education is equivalent to high school, business experience 5.27 years and the average net income per day is idr 442,404,-. street vendors operating capital of idr 200,000 to 50 million with an average starting capital of idr http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 151 factors influencing on entrepreneurial ….. (marliati) 11,8226,717 depending on the type of business, ability and access to capital. the sources of street vendors business capital varied, namely: own capital (94.7 percent) and other sources of capital, namely parents, inheritance and companies (5.3 percent). 52.7 percent of street vendors businesses do not have business permits. the family environment and the internal environment of the business are considered "good" and support street vendors. the external environment of business, especially government support or policies (support for capital, technology and empowerment) is still considered “not good” by street vendors. entrepreneurial behavior which includes: enthusiasm, independence, sensitivity to market opportunities, creative and innovative, calculating risk, service quality and managerial behavior as a whole is perceived as "good" by street vendors. the factors that significantly influence entrepreneurial behavior are: personal characteristics factors (formal education); family environmental factors (independence and resilience education from parents, examples of success from family members and a conducive home atmosphere that supports entrepreneurship); business internal environmental factors (financial analysis and separation of business and household expenditures) and business external environmental factors are government policies that help street vendors to access finance, training, production technology, government regulations that support business, mentoring and monitoring / evaluation of mentoring programs). significant indicators shape entrepreneurial behavior, namely; (1) enthusiasm (enthusiastically seeking information on business knowledge and skills); (2) behavior seizing market opportunities: (3) creating / looking for new ideas; and (4) courage to take risks. based on the research findings, the low level of formal education of street vendors in pekanbaru city and the education factor has a crucial effect on entrepreneurial behavior, it is suggested to improve the entrepreneurial behavior of street vendors in order to obtain business success. this is by increasing the capacity (knowledge, skills and mental attitudes) of street vendors through empowerment programs or capacity building for street vendors and facilitating street vendors to access various resources (capital, technology, policies that support the progress of street vendors) by the government, non-profit organizations, universities, institution or other related institutions. acknowledgements thanks are conveyed to the riau islamic university research and community service institute for funding this research. the same remarks are also conveyed to all parties who have helped the completion of this research. references ayala, j. c., & manzano, g. 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(2011). institutional perspectives on entrepreneurial behavior in challenging environments. journal of small business management. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627x.2010.00317.x http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671 ungki prabowo putra1*, irham2, lestari rahayu waluyati2 1program pasca sarjana magister manajemen agribisnis, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta 2departemen sosial ekonomi pertanian, fakultas pertanian, universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta *) email korespondensi: ungkiprabowo@gmail.com agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 5 no. 2 juli-desember 2019 pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap produktivitas dan rendemen tebu rakyat pabrik gula wonolangan effects of economic orientation and environmental awareness on productivity and yield of smallholder sugarcane in wonolangan sugar factory doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5285 abstract the increasing of sugarcane productivity and yield is not only affected by factors of production such as seeds, fertilizer, labors, and herbicides. other factors such as economic orientation and environmental awareness also show their effects on sugarcane productivity and yield. this research was conducted to determine the effect of economic orientation and environmental awareness both on productivity and yield of sugarcane community partners in the wonolangan sugar factory. the study was conducted in probolinggo and lumajang regency with 102 samples of farmers selected using simple random sampling. the measurement of the level of economic orientation and environmental awareness was carried out using likert scale and was categorized as low, medium and high. the influence of economic orientation and environmental awareness both on productivity and yield of sugar cane were analyzed using multiple regression with the cobb douglas production function. based on the results, the economic orientation and environmental awareness of farmers were relatively high and could increase sugarcane productivity and yield. keywords: economic orientation, environmental awareness, productivity, yield. intisari peningkatan baik pada produktivitas dan rendemen tebu tidak hanya dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor produksi seperti bibit, pupuk, tenaga kerja dan herbisida. faktor-faktor lain seperti orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan juga menunjukkan pengaruhnya terhadap produktivitas dan rendemen tebu. penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan baik pada produktivitas dan rendemen tebu rakyat mitra pabrik gula wonolangan. penelitian dilaksanakan di kabupaten probolinggo dan kabupaten lumajang dengan 102 sampel petani yang dipilih menggunakan acak sederhana. pengukuran tingkat orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan dilakukan dengan skala likert dan dikategorikan menjadi rendah, sedang dan tinggi. pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan baik pada produktivitas dan rendemen tebu dianalisis dengan regresi berganda menggunakan fungsi produksi cobb douglas. berdasarkan hasil analisis, orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan petani tergolong tinggi serta dapat meningkatkan produktivitas dan rendemen tebu. kata kunci : kesadaran lingkungan, orientasi ekonomi, produktivitas, rendemen 163 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 pendahuluan berbagai upaya dilakukan untuk meningkatkan ekonomi petani, salah satunya dilakukan melalui peningkatan produksi komoditas yang diusahakan. aspek ekonomi dinyatakan berhasil bila produksi pertanian tidak hanya mampu untuk mencukupi kebutuhan, tetapi juga dapat memberikan pendapatan yang cukup untuk petani (mayrowani, 2012). peningkatan secara ekonomi dilakukan dengan meningkatkan modal untuk persiapan lahan, penyiangan dan penanaman sehingga menghasilkan peningkatan hasil tebu (owino, odondo, & nelson, 2018). sifat petani saat ini yang cenderung subsisten, mengindikasikan bahwa masih banyak petani yang belum memiliki orientasi ekonomi dalam menjalankan usahataninya. petani perlu dilatih dan diberikan motivasi oleh pemerintah dan penyuluh agar orientasi ekonomi dapat tumbuh. penyediaan pelatihan keterampilan manajemen bisnis dan cara menangani masalah-masalah dirasa perlu diberikan kepada petani untuk membantu meningkatkan hasil panen (masuku, 2011). hal positif yang dihasilkan yakni petani yang memiliki orientasi ekonomi melihat pertanian sebagai sarana memperoleh pendapatan dan semua keputusan didasarkan ekonomi (reimer, thompson, & prokopy, 2012). beberapa fakta menunjukkan kekhawatiran terjadinya kerusakan lahan dan lingkungan pertanian yang berdampak pada ketidakberlanjutan produksi pertanian dikemukakan banyak kalangan. upaya pengurangan bahan kimia dilakukan, agar dapat menjaga kondisi lingkungan pertanian tetap baik, karena selain menambah biaya produksi, penggunaan bahan kimia berlebihan mengakibatkan kerugian bagi kelestarian lahan dan lingkungan (las, subagyono, & setiyanto, 2006) serta membahayakan kesehatan petani (raza et al., 2019). petani tebu sering menggunakan bahan-bahan kimia seperti pupuk dan insektisida untuk meningkatkan produksi, sedangkan dampak negatif yang ditimbulkan berupa resistensi hama dan pencemaran lingkungan bertambah seiring penggunaan bahan–bahan tersebut secara berlebihan (singh, singh, anwar, & solomon, 2011). oleh karena itu peningkatan produksi pertanian harus tetap memperhatikan kelestarian sumber daya alam dan lingkungan. usahatani tebu tidak memerlukan bahan kimia berlebihan, namun sering ditemukan praktik penggunaan bahan kimia secara berlebih dengan alasan peningkatan produksi. kurangnya lembaga untuk mengawasi penggunaan bahan kimia secara aman tanpa membahayakan kesehatan dan mencemari lingkungan saat ini menjadi permasalahan yang perlu dipertimbangkan (butler-dawson et al., 2018) penelitian yang telah dilakukan sebelumnya, produktivitas usahatani tebu dipengaruhi berbagai macam faktor input yaitu varietas, pestisida, tebang muat angkut, dan tenaga kerja manusia karena masing-masing faktor memiliki pengaruh (reza, riazi, & khan, 2016). pemupukan dengan dosis yang sesuai dan diberikan pada tanaman di waktu yang tepat dapat meningkatkan produktivitas tebu (mastur, syafaruddin, & syakir, 2015). penambahan pemberian insektisida diharapkan dapat mengurangi resiko-resiko dalam upaya peningkatan produktivitas tebu (upreti & singh, 2017). selain itu perbaikan kondisi lahan dan proses pemanenan juga mempengaruhi tinggi rendahnya produktivitas usahatani tebu mengingat lahan harus tetap terjaga kandungan unsurhara untuk mendapatkan hasil yang baik (cholid, 2013; hakim, 2010) penelitian lain mengenai rendemen telah dilakukan beberapa peneliti di indonesia. beberapa penyebab rendahnya hasil rendemen tebu rakyat sangat kompleks mulai dari proses budidaya sampai pengangkutan. pemilihan bibit yang baik yang sesuai dengan kondisi lahan akan berpengaruh terhadap rendemen yang dihasilkan, pemberian pestisida dapat mengurangi serangan hama dan penyakit pada tebu serta penggunaan tenaga kerja yang cukup serta terampil berdampak baik tehadap rendemen yang dihasilkan (mazwan & masyhuri, 2019; sutrisno, 2009). untuk proses pemanenan tebu disarankan saat musim kering supaya kandungan air batang tebu menurun dan prinsip yang digunakan untuk panen tebu adalah mbs (manis, bersih dan segar dan proses tebang angkut harus dilakukan dengan baik agar kotoran yang terangkut tidak melebihi batas maksimal (apriawan, irham, & mulyo, 2015). 164 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research penelitian-penelitian yang telah dilakukan belum ada yang mengaitkan produktivitas dan rendemen tebu dengan orientasi ekonomi serta kesadaran lingkungan. orientasi ekonomi dapat dikatakan sebagai tujuan dan pandangan petani dalam melakukan usahatani khususnya dalam hal pendapatan, sedangkan kesadaran lingkungan diperlukan untuk menjaga lahan pertanian supaya memberikan produksi secara berkelanjutan dengan tetap menjaga kondisi dan kelestarian lahan. sementara itu tanaman perkebunan lain seperti kelapa sawit sudah mengkaitkan faktor orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap hasil produksi dan memiliki pengaruh yang positif. keberadaan faktor orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan petani serta tetap menjaga kelestarian lingkungan. tujuan penelitian ini adalah (1) untuk mengetahui tingkat orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan petani dan (2) untuk mengetahui apakah orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan mempengaruhi produktivitas serta rendemen tebu rakyat pabrik gula wonolangan. metode penelitian penelitian dilaksanakan pada petani mitra pabrik gula wonolangan dengan pertimbangan pabrik gula wonolangan menjadi salah satu dari enam pabrik gula ptpn xi yang diupayakan dapat meningkatkan kapasitas produksi. peningkatan kapasitas produksi memerlukan bahan baku tebu banyak dari petani. metode pengambilan sampel petani tebu yang digunakan adalah metode acak sedehana dengan jumlah sampel 102 petani dari 700 petani data diambil dengan wawancara dengan panduan kuisioner. pengukuran skala likert dan analisis regresi berganda dengan model produksi cobb douglas digunakan dalam penelitian ini. pengukuran skor dengan skala likert digunakan untuk mengetahui tingkat orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan petani sedangkan analisis regresi berganda digunakan untuk menganalisis orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan dalam mempengaruhi produktivitas dan rendemen tebu rakyat di pabrik gula wonolangan. pengukuran orientasi ekonomi tingkat orientasi ekonomi petani diukur menggunakan skala likert satu sampai lima dengan menggunakan kuisioner yang terdiri dari dua belas pernyataan dan dibagi men jadi empat indikator utama yaitu perencanaan keuntungan, penggunaan modal, perencanaan produksi dan perluasan lahan. skor 1 jika petani sangat tidak setuju dengan pernyataan, skor 2 jika petani kurang setuju dengan pernyataan, skor 3 jika petani netral dengan pernyataan, skor 4 jika petani setuju dengan pernyataan dan skor 5 jika petani sangat setuju dengan pernyataan. total skor dari semua pernyataan kemudian dijumlahkan dan dikategorikan menjadi tiga kategori orientasi ekonomi yaitu : kategori “rendah” dengan skor 12 sampai 27, kategori “sedang” dengan skor 28 sampai 44 dan kategori “tinggi” dengan skor 45 sampai 60. pengukuran kesadaran lingkungan pengukuran tingkat kesadaran lingkungan juga diukur menggunakan skala likert satu sampai lima dengan menggunakan kuisioner yang terdiri dari empat belas pernyataan dan dibagi menjadi empat indikator utama yaitu penggunaan pupuk kimia, penggunaan pestisida dan herbisida kimia, keselamatan tenaga kerja dan kerusakan tanah. skor 1 jika petani sangat tidak setuju dengan pernyataan, skor 2 jika petani kurang setuju dengan pernyataan, skor 3 jika petani netral dengan pernyataan, skor 4 jika petani setuju dengan pernyataan dan skor 5 jika petani sangat setuju dengan pernyataan. total skor dari semua pernyataan kemudian dijumlahkan dan dikategorikan menjadi tiga kategori kesadaran lingkungan yaitu : kategori “rendah” dengan skor 14 sampai 33, kategori “sedang” dengan skor 34 sampai 52 dan kategori “tinggi” dengan skor 53 sampai 70. pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap produktivitas pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap produktivitas dianalisis dengan regresi berganda menggunakan model fungsi produksi cobb douglas sebagai berikut : 165 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 y = ax1b1x2b2 x3b3 x4b4 x5b5 d1b6 d2b7 d3b8 d4b9e kemudian dilinierkan menjadi : lny = ln a + b1 ln x1+ b2 ln x2+ b3 ln x3 + b4 ln x4 + b5 ln x5 + b6d1 + b7d2 + b8d3 + b9d4 + e y = produktivitas (kuintal/ha) a = konstanta b1 – b9 = koefisien regresi x1 = skor orientasi ekonomi (12-60) x2 = skor kesadaran lingkungan (14-70) x3 = jumlah pupuk za (kg/ha) x4 = jumlah pupuk phonska (kg/ha) x5 = jumlah tenaga kerja (hko) d1 = dummy keprasan (1= ≤ 3 keprasan, 0= >3 keprasan) d2 = dummy varietas (1= bulu lawang), 0 = lainnya) d3 = dummy lahan sewa (1= lahan sewa , 0 = lainnya) d4 = dummy lahan sendiri (1= lahan sendiri, 0 = lainnya) e = standar eror pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap rendemen pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap rendemen dianalisis dengan regresi berganda menggunakan model fungsi produksi cobb douglas sebagai berikut : y = ax1b1x2b2 x3b3 x4b4 x5b5 x6b6 d1b7 d2b8 d3b9 d4b10e kemudian dilinierkan menjadi : lny = ln a + b1 ln x1+ b2 ln x2+ b3 ln x3 + b4 ln x4 + b5 ln x5 + b6 ln x6 + b7d1 + b8d2 + b9d3 + b10d4 + e y = rendemen (%) a = konstanta b1–b10 = koefisien regresi x1 = skor orientasi ekonomi (12-60) x2 = skor kesadaran lingkungan (14-70) x3 = jumlah pupuk za (kg/ha) x4 = jumlah pupuk phonska (kg/ha) x5 = jumlah tenaga kerja (hko) x6 = jarak lahan ke pg (km) d1 = dummy keprasan (1= ≤ 3 keprasan, 0 = >3 keprasan) d2 = dummy varietas (1= bulu lawang) 0 = lainnya) d3 = dummy lahan sewa (1= lahan sewa , 0 = lainnya) d4 = dummy lahan sendiri (1= lahan sendiri, 0 = lainnya) e = standar eror sebelum dilakukan analisis regresi berganda, terlebih dahulu harus dilakukan uji asumsi klasik. uji asumsi klasik yang digunakan diantaranya normalitas, multikolinearitas dan heteroskedasitas. pengujian parameter yang digunakan adalah statistik uji f untuk uji secara serempak, adjusted r2 untuk mengetahui jumlah bagian dari variasi total yang dapat diterangkan oleh model, dan uji t untuk uji secara parsial. hasil dan pembahasan tabel 1 menggambarkan kondisi usahatani tebu petani mitra pabrik gula wonolangan. dilihat dari nilai rata-rata produktivitas dan rendemen terakhir yang diperoleh, nilai tersebut berada lebih tinggi dari pada rata-rata produktivitas dan rendemen seluruh pabrik gula ptpn xi. salah satu upaya petani untuk meningkatan produktivitas dan rendemen dengan menggunakan pupuk za dan phonska, tetapi ada sedikit petani yang tidak menggunakan pupuk phonska karena harganya yang tinggi. sedangkan penggunaan tenaga kerja pada umumnya memerlukan jumlah yang besar pada saat tebang muat angkut. rata-rata lokasi lahan petani mitra berada di kabupaten lumajang yang berbeda kabupaten dengan pabrik gula wonolangan sehingga jarak lahan yang ditempuh relatif jauh. tabel 1. kondisi usahatani tebu petani keterangan satuan minimum maksimum rata-rata produktivitas kuintal/ha 550 950 760 rendemen persen 6,5 9,2 8 pupuk za kg/ha 100 700 350 pupuk phonska kg/ha 0 350 160 jumlah tenaga kerja hok 62 122 83 jarak lahan ke pg km 19 45 30 sumber : data primer, 2019 (diolah) usahatani tebu petani mayoritas sudah mengalami keprasan lebih dari standar yaitu lebih dari tiga keprasan, penggunaan varietas di dominasi bulu lawang dengan persentase 92% dan hanya sedikit 166 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research petani yang tidak memili lahan sewa dengan persentase 27%. tingkat orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan tingkat orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan dibagi menjadi tiga kategori yaitu tinggi, sedang, dan rendah. pada tabel 2, mayoritas orientasi ekonomi petani berada pada kategori tinggi. petani dikatakan termasuk dalam orientasi ekonomi kategori tinggi ketika mempunyai perencanaan keuntungan yang akan didapat dalam usahatani dan dilihat dari penggunaan modal yang digunakan serta luas lahan untuk usahatani tebu. selanjutnya orientasi ekonomi kategori sedang menunjukkan petani yang umumnya masih kekurangan modal dan kurangnya pengetahuan bisnis mengenai usahatani tebu. ketersediaan modal yang terdapat dalam ketiga kategori tersebut berkaitan dengan pembelian input-input produksi dan biaya tenaga kerja (owino et al., 2018). berdasarkan informasi dilapangan, mayoritas petani dengan orientasi ekonomi tinggi berpendapat bahwa, usahatani tebu memberikan keuntungan yang tinggi sehingga bersedia untuk mengeluarkankan modal yang besar dan berupaya memperluas usahatani tebu agar mendapatkan keuntungan yang lebih baik. tabel 2. tingkat orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan petani dalam usahatani tebu orientasi ekonomi persentase (%) kesadaran lingkungan persentase (%) rendah 0,00 rendah 0,98 sedang 34,31 sedang 49,02 tinggi 65,69 tinggi 50,00 total 100 100 sumber: data primer, 2019 (diolah) hasil yang sama menunjukkan mayoritas petani juga memiliki kesadaran lingkungan yang tinggi (tabel 2). fakta dilapangan menunjukkan adanya pengurangan penggunaan bahan-bahan kimia pestisida dan herbisida yang dilakukan oleh petani. pengurangan bahan-bahan kimia yang dilakukan petani bertujuan menjaga kesuburan tanah dan menjaga lingkungan. menurut petani, lahan yang diberikan bahan kimia secara terus-menerus dapat mengakibatkan produksi usahatani tebu menurun dan mengurangi keuntungan. penggunaan bahan kimia dalam jangka waktu lama dapat memberikan dampak buruk bagi usahatani yang dilakukan petani (raza et al., 2019). petani dengan kategori rendah dan sedang umumnya melakukan usahatani tebu dilahan sewa sehingga tidak terlalu mementingkan akibat yang terjadi pada lahan jika menggunakan bahan-bahan kimia secara berlebih dan dalam jangka waktu yang lama. petani dengan kategori rendah dan sedang hanya bertujuan memaksimalkan produksi tanpa memperhatikan akibat yang terjadi pada lingkungan, oleh karena itu petani dalam kategori tersebut perlu mendapatkan penyuluhan supaya mengerti pentingnya kesadaran terhadap lingkungan dalam menjalankan kegiatan usahatani. pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap produktivitas pengujian normalitas data dilakukan dengan one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test didapatkan hasil signifikansi ≥ α, maka data tersebut berdistribusi normal. nilai vif semua variabel dibawah 10 dan nilai tolerance lebih besar dari 0,1 hal ini menunjukkan model terbebas multikolinearitas. nilai chi-square hitung ≤ chi-square tabel menunjukkan data terbebas dari gangguan heteroskedasitas. hasil analisis regresi berganda (tabel 3) menunjukkan uji f signifikan dengan f hitung 12,156 yang berarti variabel terikat yaitu produktivitas tebu rakyat secara bersama-sama dipengaruhi oleh variabel bebasnya. nilai adjusted r2 sebesar 0,436, menunjukkan sebesar 43,6% faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi produktivitas dapat dijelaskan oleh variabel bebas di dalam model, sedangkan 56,4% dijelaskan oleh variabel lain yang tidak ada pada model. variabel lain yang mempengaruhi produktivitas yaitu insektisida, ketersediaan air dan sinar matahari (tando, 2017; upreti & singh, 2017). berdasarkan nilai koefisien diketahui orientasi ekonomi berpengaruh langsung dan positif terhadap produktivitas yang berarti setiap orientasi ekonomi meningkat 1% produktivitas meningkat 0,193%. mayoritas petani berada dikategori orientasi ekonomi tinggi, hal ini ditunjukkan dengan proses perencanaan dalam usahatani tebu. untuk mendapatkan produktivitas tebu yang baik, petani berusaha semaksimal untuk melakukan perencanaanperencanaan yang terkait dengan penghitungan modal 167 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 yang digunakan, biaya yang dikeluarkan dan pendapatan yang diterima setelah tebu digiling. tabel 3. hasil estimasi pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap produktivitas variabel koefisien regresi t-hitung sig constanta ln_orientasi ekonomi ln_kesadaran lingkungan ln_pupuk za ln_pupuk phonska ln_jumlah tenaga kerja dummy keprasan dummy varietas dummy lahan sewa dummy lahan sendiri 4,256 *** 0,193 ** 0,144 ** 0,046 ** 0,020 ** 0,180*** 0,026 ns -0,060 ** 0,040 ** -0,028 ** 10,383 2,025 2,344 2,571 2,559 2,826 1,165 -2,139 2,302 1,012 0,000 0,046 0,021 0,012 0,012 0,006 0,247 0,035 0,040 0,036 adjusted r2 0,436 f hitung 12,156*** sumber: data primer, 2019 (diolah) keterangan : *** = signifikan α = 1% ** = signifikan α = 5% ns = tidak signifikan petani bersedia menambah modal dan memperluas lahan mereka karena yakin usahatani tebu jika dilakukan dengan perencanaan usaha yang baik dapat memperoleh pendapatan yang tinggi. penggunaan modal tinggi pada usahatani tebu berpotensi untuk meperoleh pendapatan yang lebih besar jika dibandingkan dengan penggunaan modal rendah (owino et al., 2018). kesadaran lingkungan berpengaruh terhadap produktivitas, artinya setiap kesadaran lingkungan mengalami peningkatan 1% produktivitas meningkatkan 0,144% kerusakan lingkungan dapat terjadi karena penggunaan bahan kimia yang melebihi dosis sehingga memberikan efek buruk dan merusak lahan pertanian. mayoritas petani sudah memahami pemberian bahan kimia secara besar tidak dapat memberikan produksi yang baik tetapi merusak tebu dan lingkungan. akibat yang ditimbulkan dari penggunaan bahan kimia dalam jangka waktu lama mengakibatkan menurunnya kesuburan tanah (rivai & anugrah, 2011). efek dari menurunnya kesuburan tanah berdampak pada rendahnya produktivitas tebu yang dihasilkan. berbagai upaya sudah mulai dilakukan seperti pengurangan bahan kimia pestisida dan herbisida, tetapi untuk penggunaan pupuk kimia masih tetap digunakan pada dosis yang dianjurkan. pupuk za berpengaruh dan bernilai positif sebesar 0,046, produktivitas dapat meningkat 0,046% dengan penambahan pupuk za 1%. pupuk za diberikan pada tebu sesuai dengan dosis yang tepat, waktu yang tepat dan dengan cara yang tepat supaya tidak merusak tebu. pemberian pupuk za yang didalamnya terkandung unsur n pada dosis tepat dapat meningkatkan produktivitas tebu (mastur et al., 2015). pemberian pupuk za sangat dianjurkan untuk menghasilkan tebu berkualitas karena mengandung unsur n yang dibutuhkan dalam usahatani tebu. ratarata pemberian pupuk za sebesar 350 kg/hektar. kekurangan unsur n dapat menyebabkan perkembangan batang tebu terganggu sehingga dapat menurunkan produktivitas tebu. pengaruh pupuk phonska pada produktivitas sebesar 0,020, kenaikan penggunaan pupuk phonska 1% dapat meningkatkan produktivitas 0,020%. penggunaan pupuk dalam usahatani tebu diantaranya pupuk phonska dan pupuk za dilakukan sesuai aturan dan tidak melebihi dosis pemakaian. pemberian pupuk phonska dapat meningkatkan produksi usahatani tebu karena memiliki kandungan unsur pelengkap yang tidak ada dalam pupuk za (zaky, pambudy, & harianto, 2019). pupuk phonska dikenal mengandung tiga unsur makro yang dibutuhkan oleh tebu dan rata-rata petani yang menggunakan pupuk phonska tidak pernah melakukan bongkar ratoon, sehingga dalam upaya memaksimalkan produktivitas tebu petani memberikan tambahan pupuk phonska. perbandingan penggunaan pupuk phonska dengan pupuk za yaitu satu banding dua, karena harga pupuk phonska lebih mahal dari pada pupuk za. koefisien regresi tenaga kerja menunjukkan besarnya produktivitas tebu dipengaruhi oleh penggunaan tenaga kerja. penambahan tenaga kerja sebesar 1% meningkatkan produktivitas 0,180%. produktivitas tebu identik dengan jumlah tenaga kerja yang dipekerjakan. petani yang memiliki produktivitas diatas rata-rata umumnya menggunakan tenaga kerja lebih banyak dikarenakan setiap proses perawatan usahatani tebu membutuhkan tenaga yang banyak. tenaga kerja tidak hanya dilihat dari jumlah tetapi dilihat dari kualitas pekerja. pada proses tebang muat 168 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research angkut kualitas dan kuantitas tenaga kerja sangat dibutuhkan agar produktivitas tebu dapat maksimal. tenaga kerja pada lahan tegalan dapat mempengaruhi produksi tebu dikarenakan dalam proses panen membutuhkan tenaga kerja cukup besar, tetapi masih mengalami kesulitan untuk memenuhinya (zainuddin & wibowo, 2018). jumlah keprasan tidak mempengaruhi produktivitas tebu dengan koefisien regresi sebesar 0,026 sehingga tidak ada perbedaan produktivitas tebu petani yang sudah melakukan keprasan ≥ 3 dan yang kurang dari 3 kali keprasan. hal ini dikarenakan petani rutin memberikan pupuk yang dapat memacu pertumbuhan tebu sehingga dapat menghasilkan produktivitas baik. dummy varietas memiliki pengaruh terhadap produktivitas tebu yang berarti ada perbedaan produktivitas tebu antara petani yang menggunakan varietas lainnya dengan petani yang menggunakan varietas bulu lawang. koefisien regresi sebesar -0,06 menunjukkan produktivitas tebu petani yang menggunakan varietas bulu lawang 0,06% lebih rendah dari produktivitas tebu petani yang menggunakan varietas selain bulu lawang. tingginya produktivitas tebu yang menggunakan varietas selain bulu lawang dikarenakan varietas ps 862 dan ps 864 termasuk varietas unggul. namun dilapangan petani lebih memilih varietas bulu lawang dari pada ps 862 dan 864 dikarenakan petani tidak berani untuk mengambil risiko gagal panen apabila menggunakan varietas yang berbeda dari petani lainnya. petani cenderung mengikuti petani lainnya dalam penggunaan varietas agar hasil yang didapat tidak jauh berbeda (mazwan & masyhuri, 2019). penggunaan lahan sewa memiliki pengaruh pada produktivitas tebu yang berarti terdapat perbedaan produktivitas antara petani yang berusahatani dilahan lainnya dengan petani yang melakukan sewa. koefisien regresi sebesar 0,040 menunjukkan produktivitas tebu petani pengguna lahan sewa 0,04% lebih besar dari produktivitas tebu petani lahan lainnya. terjadinya perbedaan produktivitas dikarenakan petani yang menggunakan lahan sewa memiliki perencanaan usahatani yang baik dan memiliki modal besar untuk berusahatani tebu. penggunaan modal yang besar untuk persiapan lahan, penyiangan dan penanaman supaya produktivitas tebu dapat meningkat (owino et al., 2018). dummy lahan sendiri berpengaruh terhadap produktivitas tebu dengan koefisien regresi sebesar 0,028 yang artinya produktivitas tebu petani yang berusahatani dilahan lainnya dengan produktivitas tebu petani yang memiliki lahan sendiri berbeda. produktivitas tebu lahan sendiri 0,028% lebih rendah dari produktivitas tebu lahan lainnya. petani yang memiliki lahan sendiri umumnya mengalami kekurangan modal untuk pembelian input produksi usahatani tebu sehingga penggunaan input produksi tidak maksimal. sedangkan petani yang melakukan sewa memiliki modal cukup dan berupaya untuk memaksimalkan produktivitas (reimer et al., 2012). pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap rendemen pengujian normalitas data dilakukan dengan one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test didapatkan hasil signifikansi ≥ α, maka data tersebut berdistribusi normal. nilai vif semua variabel dibawah 10 dan nilai tolerance lebih besar dari 0,1 hal ini menunjukkan model terbebas multikolinearitas. nilai chi-square hitung ≤ chi-square tabel menunjukkan data terbebas dari gangguan heteroskedasitas. tabel 4. hasil estimasi pengaruh orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan terhadap rendemen variabel koefisien regresi t-hitung sig constanta ln_orientasi ekonomi ln_kesadaran lingkungan ln_pupuk za ln_pupuk phonska ln_jumlah tenaga kerja ln_jarak lahan ke pg dummy keprasan dummy varietas dummy lahan sewa dummy lahan sendiri 0,840 ** 0,144 ** 0,086 ** 0,036*** -0,001 ns 0,109*** -0,099 ** 0,007 ns -0,003 ns 0,032 ** 0,019 ns 2,397 2,226 2,114 2,977 -0,228 2,586 -2,264 0,488 -0,160 2,465 0,172 0,019 0,028 0,037 0,004 0,820 0,011 0,002 0,626 0,873 0,031 0,542 adjusted r2 0,452 f hitung 11,394*** sumber: analisis data primer, 2019 keterangan : *** = signifikan α = 1% ** = signifikan α = 5% ns = tidak signifikan 169 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 hasil analisis regresi berganda (tabel 4) menunjukkan uji f signifikan dengan f hitung 11,394, berarti variabel terikat yaitu rendemen tebu secara bersama-sama dipengaruhi oleh variabel bebasnya. nilai adjusted r2 sebesar 0,452, menunjukkan sebesar 45,2% faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi rendemen dijelaskan oleh variabel bebas di dalam model, sedangkan 54,8% dijelaskan variabel lain yang tidak ada pada model. variabel lain yang mempengaruhi rendemen diantaranya waktu tebang, curah hujan, sinar matahari, kotoran yang terangkut, penyiangan, serangan hama penyakit dan waktu tanam (mairiyansyah, 2018; putra, 2012). orientasi ekonomi berpengaruh terhadap rendemen tebu. orientasi ekonomi ditingkatkan menjadi lebih baik dapat mewujudkan tingginya rendemen. artinya setiap orientasi ekonomi ditingkatkan 1% rendemen meningkatkan 0,144%. petani yang dimaksud sudah memiliki orientasi ekonomi dalam hal ini telah memperhitungkan biayabiaya dan aspek ekonomi dalam usahatani tebu. usahatani tebu saat ini sudah memasuki dunia bisnis sehingga peran ekonomi sangat besar untuk pengambilan keputusan (reimer et al., 2012). petani bersedia menambah modal dan memperluas lahan garapan usahatani tebu karena yakin usahatani tebu dapat memberikan keuntungan tinggi selain itu upaya untuk memproduksi tebu semaksimal mungkin dapat dilakukan dengan cara memaksimalkan proses-proses perawatan supaya produksi tebu yang baik dapat tercapai karena dapat mempengaruhi pendapatan petani. upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk meningkatkan rendemen salah satunya dengan meningkatkan kesadaran lingkungan. kesadaran lingkungan berpengaruh positif terhadap rendemen tebu. artinya kesadaran terhadap lingkungan meningkat 1% rendemen meningkatkan 0,086%. kesadaran lingkungan yang dimiliki petani tergolong tinggi dikarenakan petani sudah mengetahui bahaya penggunaan bahan kimia yang berlebih terhadap usahatani tebu dapat mengakibatkan rendemen tebu yang dihasilkan tidak maksimal. selain itu penggunaan bahan kimia dapat menambah biaya oprasional, membahayakan kesehatan petani dan membunuh musuh alami (raza et al., 2019). penambahan pupuk za 1% dapat meningkatkan rendemen dengan tambahan 0,036% karena pupuk za memiliki pengaruh positif terhadap rendemen tebu petani. pemberian pupuk za dapat mempengaruhi produksi tebu mengingat usahatani tebu memerlukan unsurhara makro yang terkandung pada pupuk za (rohmah, suryantini, & hartono, 2016). petani menggunakan pupuk za dengan ratarata 350 kg/hektar. penggunaan pupuk za dilakukan oleh petani setiap tahun karena berdasarkan pengalaman dan kondisi lahan yang ada pemberian pupuk za dapat meningkatkan rendemen tebu mengingat usahatani tebu memerlukan unsurhara yang tinggi diantaranya unsur nitrogen (n) yang dapat diperoleh dari pupuk za. pupuk phonska memiliki koefisien regresi sebesar -0,001 dan nilai signifikan ≥ 5%. hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa pupuk phonska tidak mempengaruhi rendemen tebu petani, dikarenakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan unsurhara tebu dalam upaya meningkatkan rendemen, petani telah memaksimalkan pemberian pupuk za mengingat harga pupuk phonska tinggi. hal ini tidak sejalan dengan hasil penelitian bahwa pemberian pupuk phonska dapat mempengaruhi produksi dalam hal ini rendemen tebu karena dengan penambahan phonska unsurhara pada usahatani tebu akan semakin baik (zaky et al., 2019). tenaga kerja memiliki pengaruh positif terhadap rendemen tebu. penambahan tenaga kerja 1% dapat meningkatkan rendemen tebu dengan tambahan sebesar 0,109%. tenaga kerja pada usahatani tebu berpengaruh terhadap produksi tebu dalam hal ini rendemen, penggunaan tenaga kerja dengan rata-rata terbesar pada proses panen mengingat proses panen harus segera diselesaikan agar rendemen tidak turun (mazwan & masyhuri, 2019). tenaga kerja dibutuhkan dalam jumlah besar dikarenakan usahatani tebu memerlukan berbagai perawatan, biasanya penggunaan tenaga kerja dengan sistem borongan karena dianggap tidak terlalu merepotkan petani untuk mencari tenaga-tenaga untuk dipekerjakan. jumlah tenaga kerja yang 170 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research diperlukan dipengaruhi oleh frekuensi dalam perawatan usahatani tebu, sehingga frekuensi perawatan yang dilakukan semakin banyak tenaga kerja yang dibutuhkan akan bertambah. selain itu proses klentek dan tebang angkut berkontribusi besar pada penggunaan tenaga kerja karena proses tersebut membutuhkan waktu pengerjaan lama dan membutuhkan beberapa hari pengerjaan. jarak lahan ke pabrik gula ikut menentukan rendemen dalam usahatani tebu deengan koefisien regresi sebesar -0,099. hal ini mengindikasikan jika terjadi peningkatan 1% pada jarak lahan ke pabrik gula dapat menurunkan rendemen tebu sebesar 0,099%. rendemen dapat turun bila jarak waktu antara tebu ditebang sampai tebu digiling lebih dari 24 jam (manalu, 2006). rata-rata jarak lahan petani ke pabrik gula wonolangan 30 kilometer dan pada musim giling umumnya tidak ada tebu petani yang tidak digiling pada hari yang sama. hal yang membedakan terdapat pada lokasi lahan, semakin jauh lahan dari pabrik mengakibatkan waktu yang lebih untuk sampai digiling dan cenderung menurunkan rendemen, penurunan rendemen tidak terlalu jauh karena tebu tetap digiling pada hari yang sama. jumlah keprasan tidak mempengaruhi rendemen tebu dengan koefisien regresi -0,007. artinya tidak ada perbedaan rendemen antara petani yang sudah melakukan keprasan ≥ 3 dan yang kurang dari 3 keprasan. petani beranggapan jika usahatani tebu masih tetap menghasilkan meskipun sudah mengalami keprasan lebih dari 3. pengetahuan petani dalam manajemen ratoon tebu masih tergolong kurang baik yang mengakibatkan banyak petani tidak memperhatikan keprasan yang sudah dilakukan. kurangnya pengetahuan petani diakibatkan karena hasil yang didapatkan dari usahatani tebu keprasan lebih dari 3 tidak jauh berbeda dengan yang belum mengalami keprasan lebih dari 3 (patel & vejapara, 2016). rendemen tidak dipengaruhi oleh varietas yang digunakan sehingga tidak ada perbedaan rendemen antara petani yang menggunakan varietas bulu lawang dan yang menggunakan varietas lainnya. tidak adanya perbedaan rendemen terjadi karena dalam proses usahatani tebu, perlakuan yang diberikan pada setiap varietas umumnya sama dengan varietas lainnya. hal ini tidak sesuai dengan penelitian yang menyatakan bahwa rendemen usahatani tebu dapat dipengaruhi oleh varietas yang digunakan karena varietas yang digunakan dilahan yang sesuai dapat tumbuh dengan baik dan menghasilkan rendemen tinggi (gulati et al., 2015). dummy lahan sewa mampu meningkatkan rendemen tebu dengan peningkatan sebesar 0,032 yang berarti terdapat perbedaan rendemen antara petani yang menggunakan lahan lainnya dengan petani yang menggunakan lahan sewa. rendemen tebu petani lahan sewa 0,032% lebih tinggi dari rendemen petani lahan lainnya. petani yang menggunakan lahan sewa mayoritas memiliki modal yang besar untuk usahatani tebu dan upaya peningkatan rendemen memerlukan modal yang besar, dengan modal yang besar hasil dari usahatani tebu dapat maksimal (owino et al., 2018). nilai koefisien dummy lahan sendiri sebesar 0,019 tidak mempengaruhi rendemen tebu yang berarti tidak ada perbedaan rendemen antara petani yang berusahatani dilahan sendiri dengan petani petani dilahan lainnya. hal ini terjadi karena lahan yang digunakan petani penyewa rata-rata masih dalam kondisi baik dan tidak tercemar bahan kimia sehingga rendemen yang dihasilakan sama dengan rendemen di lahan milik sendiri. penggunaan bahan kimia dapat mengakibatkan kerusakan lahan dan menghambat pertumbuhan tebu (las et al., 2006). kesimpulan sebanyak 65,59% petani memiliki orientasi ekonomi tinggi dan 50% petani memiliki kesadaran terhadap lingkungan tinggi. orientasi ekonomi, kesadaran lingkungan, pupuk za, pupuk phonska, tenaga kerja, varietas, lahan sewa dapat meningkatkan produktivitas dan untuk lahan sendiri menurunkan produktivitas. sedangkan orientasi ekonomi, kesadaran lingkungan, pupuk za, tenaga kerja dan lahan sewa dapat meningkatkan rendemen tetapi untuk jarak lahan ke pabrik gula menurunkan rendemen. upaya untuk meningkatkan produktivitas dan rendemen dapat dilakukan dengan cara 171 vol.5 no.2 juli-desember 2019 pemberian informasi dan pemahaman terkait pentingnya indikator-indikator pada orientasi ekonomi serta kesadaran lingkungan mengingat orientasi ekonomi dan kesadaran lingkungan berpengaruh positif terhadap produktivitas dan rendemen tebu. daftar pustaka apriawan, d. c., irham, i., & mulyo, j. h. 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(2019). analisis efisiensi usahatani tebu petani mitra dan non mitra di kabupaten blora jawa tengah. forum agribisnis, 9(1), 85–106. https://doi. org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2 july-december 2020 article history: submitted : november 16th, 2019 accepted : november 3rd, 2020 muhammad joni iskandar*, jamhari universitas gadjah mada, indonesia *) correspondence email: joniiskandar1508@gmail.com efficiency of rice farming in the corporate farming model in central java doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6297 abstract the corporate farming approach on rice is aimed to increase the production on fields with the constraints of limited land area. the present research was aimed to analyze the impact of the implementation of corporate farming on the production, efficiency and inefficiency of the law land farming. the study was determined purposively in farmers’ group union “tani mandiri dalangan” in sukoharjo regency, central java. sampling of the respondents used a census method involving all members totaling 51 farmers over two growing seasons. data were analyzed using the frontier stochastic production function maximum likelihood estimation (mle) method frontier computing program 4.1c. the results showed that the corporate farming of rice production was affected by land area, urea fertilizer and npk fertilizer. technical, economical and allocative efficiency corporate farming of rice farming has not been efficient. technical efficiency shows the lowest efficiency value due to the use of factors of production exceeding the recommended regional dosage. socio-economic factors that significantly affected the technical inefficiency of the low land rice farming are education, family size and extension. keywords: corporate farming, efficiency, inefficiency, production introduction agricultural land is the type of land that has been converted the most, especially paddy fields. land conversion to industrial, service, property and residential sectors causes a transformation of the structure of agricultural land tenure. this is because the opportunity to increase land area is very limited and the proportion of farmers' land ownership is getting narrower (susilowati & maulana, 2016). the average land ownership for farmers nationally is less than 0.5 ha (subejo, 2018). the scale of land tenure is low and tends to be unstable, which affects the ability of farmers to produce. therefore, farming profits are relatively small. even if there is an increase, the profits obtained will show a meaningless increase due to high production costs (suharyanto, mulyo, darwanto, &widodo, 2015). land availability as agricultural input is an absolute prerequisite for realizing a sustainable agricultural sector. land plays an important role in line with regional development, population growth, and economy, while land area is fixed in nature, in the sense http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 155 efficiency of rice farming ….. (iskandar et al) that the total land resources of an area are fixed (zakaria & rachman, 2013). the scarcity of land resources is not only a limited supply but also fragmentation that is difficult to avoid due to the system of inheritance culture that develops among farmers. land fragmentation is an obstacle to agricultural development (asiama, bennett, & zevenbergen, 2017). modernization and mechanization of agriculture are difficult to do on narrow and separate lands (liu et al., 2019). in addition, fragmentation causes a decrease in the production of productive land so that the costs sacrificed by farmers to achieve potential production are high (munnangi, lohani, & misra, 2020). efforts to control land-use change and fragmentation can be carried out by implementing corporate farming. corporate farming is an amalgamation of paddy fields to be managed jointly under the auspices of one managerial (musthofa & kurnia, 2018). in this case, the farmer becomes a shareholder in accordance with the area of land they own so that the distribution of results is based on land area. meanwhile, individual agriculture is managed personally. thus, intensification through corporate farming is a strategic step because increasing production through extensification is not possible, especially the high fragmentation and conversion of land to non-agricultural functions. in addition, farming costs can be minimized by mechanization, although agricultural labor is still available, in limited numbers (scarce) and the wages are quite high, while farmers are faced with limited capital. the corporate farming model is more efficient than traditional farming (kostov, davidova, & bailey (2019). however, the implementation of corporate farming raises various new problems, including farmers who apply their land, as a corporate will lose their jobs because they do not have other alternative jobs that provide better welfare. the existence of sociocultural differences causes some farmers not to fully entrust their land to be managed as a corporate and the distribution of results is not appropriate because the profitsharing is determined based on a land area without considering land fertility (musthofa & kurnia, 2018). the center for low land rice development as well as the implementation of corporate farming is located in sukoharjo regency. the rate of increase in production and productivity of low land rice in sukoharjo regency during the period 2010 to 2016 fluctuated with an average production of 314,753 tons/ha and productivity of 65.46 kw / ha (bps, 2018). the highest increase in production in 2016 was 391,675 tons/ha, but productivity tended to decrease by -3.18 kw / ha or -0.62%. slowing productivity is partly due to inefficient managerial use of production factors. even though the use of inputs is the key to the success of rice farming (yuliana, ekowati, & handayani, 2017). therefore, improving production through efficiency is the right choice. through efficiency, farmers can determine the number and combination of production factors used to produce farming efficiency. previous efficiency research has focused more on the aspects of individual agriculture that are managed independently. among those researches are the estimation of the efficiency of rice farming in central java using frontier analysis (darwanto, 2010), analysis of the efficiency of rice farming in several rice production centers in indonesia using the stochastic frontier estimation (kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto, 2011), technical efficiency http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 156 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research research , economic and allocative rice farming in central lampung regency, the estimation of the cobb-douglas stochastic frontier production function using direct farm input variables (yoko, syaukat, &fariyanti, 2014), analysis of efficiency and income of rice farming in sengahtemila district, landak regency using the stochastic production function frontier analysis (sfa) (pudaka & prasetyo, 2018), research on production analysis and efficiency of integrated rice crop management in bali province by comparing the application of the sl-ptt system using the stochastic function production maximum likelihood estimation (mle) (suharyanto, mulyo, darwanto, & widodo, 2015). meanwhile, the literature on the efficiency of the corporate farming model of rice farming is still rare. therefore, research on the efficiency of rice farming in the corporate farming model needs to be done. this study aims to estimate the efficiency of rice farming using the corporate farming model in sukoharjo regency technically, economically, and allocatively. the application of rice farming with the corporate farming model tends to make farmers more careful in managerial use of production factors to achieve minimum cost efficiency, especially in the use of labor input which until now has experienced scarcity, and ultimately the labor wage is getting higher in production. it is hoped that the results of this research can be used by farmers as a consideration for the sustainability of agriculture in the corporate farming model as an anticipation model for land-use change and increasingly massive fragmentation. research method the research location was determined purposively, namely sukoharjo regency, central java, with the consideration that it is a center for low land rice production as well as a national food barn that implements corporate farming in 2017. the sample is limited to members of farmers’ group union “tani mandiri dalangan”. the samples were taken using a census technique for each farmer group in this farmers’ group union, including 7 farmers for the “ngudi rahayu” farmer group, 16 farmers for the “asri rata” farmer group, 13 farmers for the “ngudi rejeki” farmer group, and 15 farmers for the “ngudi mulyo” farmer group. the total sample as a whole is 51 samples of farmers. the data structure for measuring production factors and efficiency includes low land rice farming input-outputs collected for two growing seasons in order to obtain inter-season variation in production. data were collected through structured interviews with all members of corporate farming. the data is estimated using the stochastic production function frontier, computation program frontier 4.1c. this model is used based on the consideration that corporate farming farmers have reached their limit of production (frontier) so that on the same land, production can still be increased by using proportional input and existing technology. production function parameters estimation, technical efficiency, and source of inefficiency are estimated simultaneously by using the technical efficiency effects model with the maximum likelihood estimation (mle) method. in addition, the source of inefficiency can be estimated whether the dominant term error occurs due to inefficiency (μi) or noise (vi) such as weather, pests and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 157 efficiency of rice farming ….. (iskandar et al) diseases, natural disasters, and so on. furthermore, economic and allocative efficiency is estimated by deriving the dual cost function from the production function. the empirical model of the cobb-douglass frontier stochastic production function which was used to estimate the production function includes rice production (ln y) (kg), intercept (βo), estimator parameters (β1-β6), random/noise variables (vi), technical inefficiency effects. (μi), and x1-x6 are the quantity of conventional input from farming which consists of land area (ha), urea fertilizer (kg), sp-36 fertilizer (kg), npk fertilizer (kg), pesticides (liters), and labor. (hok). the model can be written as follows. ln y= β0 + β1 ln x1 + β2 ln x2 + β3 ln x3. + β4 ln x4 + β5 ln x5 + β6 ln x6 + (vi ui).................................................................................................................................(1) the expected value of all estimating parameters β1-β6> 0 is positive, which means that additional use of production factors can increase rice production. the technical efficiency of corporate farming is analyzed through the ratio of actual production (yi) to potential production (yi^*) as follows (jondrow, lovell, materov, & schmidt, 1982). tei= yi yi∗ = e (yi|ui,xi) e (yi|ui=0,xi) = [exp (-μi)]...........................................................................................(2) tei is the technical efficiency of the i-th farmer, exp (-μi) is the expected value of technical efficiency, namely (0 <tei<1). meanwhile, to determine the value of the distribution parameter (μi), it is assumed that it is free and normally truncated with n (μiσ^2). the effect of technical inefficiency in this study uses the following equation. economic efficiency is analyzed by reducing the stochastic frontier cost function including rice production costs (c) (idr), estimating parameters (β1-β6), random/noise variables (vi), technical inefficiency effects (μi) and p1-p2 is the price of farm input. including rice production (kg), urea fertilizer price (idr/kg), sp-36 fertilizer price (idr/kg), npk fertilizer price (idr/kg), pesticide price (idr/lt) and labor wage-price (idr/hok). the equation for the corporate farming cost function of rice is as follows. ln c = β0 + β1 ln p1 + β2 ln p2 + β3 ln p3 + β4 ln p4 + β5 ln p5+ β6 ln p6 + (viμi) ...................................................................................................................................(3) according to jondrow, lovell, materov, & schmidt (1982) economic efficiency is determined by the ratio of the minimum observed total cost of production (c*) to the total actual total cost of production (c) as in the following equation. ee= 𝐶 ∗ 𝐶 = e (ci|ui=0,yi,pi) e (yi|ui,yi,pi) = e [exp (ui | ε)]..............................................................................(4) by using the 4.1c frontier computation program, the cost efficiency value is obtained. therefore, the economic efficiency of corporate farming is obtained using the following equation. ee= 1 cost efficiency (ce) ...............................................................................................................(5) economic efficiency is a combination of technical and allocative efficiency so that allocative efficiency (ea) can be obtained by the following equation. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 158 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research ea = efisiensi ekonomi (ee) efisiensi teknis (te) .........................................................................................................(6) result and discussions recently, corporate farming has not been fully implemented. farming activities carried out as a corporate are limited to land production factors, seeding, planting, and harvesting, while maintenance is left to each farmer. therefore, the use of input quantities of fertilizer, selection of seeds, and pesticides is in accordance with what the farmers expect. all activities using mechanization become corporate activities, the rest that does not use mechanization become individual non-corporate activities. thus, the focus of implementing the corporate farming model is on the efficient use of agricultural tools and machinery in reducing the use of the number of workers so that cost efficiency is achieved in addition to the increasingly limited availability of labor. the corporate farming model of rice farming activities begins with the merging of land simultaneously to eliminate land boundaries in order to facilitate mechanization. the land boundaries were previously marked with stakes as the boundaries of land ownership. land processing uses a four-wheeled tractor. seedlings use grain seeders with a tray or dapog. cultivation is carried out twice as often as the growing season in one year. this means that farmers plant rice continuously for two seasons without rotation. planting was carried out simultaneously using a rice transplanter. the spacing is set directly at the time of planting 30 cm x 15 cm. harvest uses a combine harvester. allocation of use of production factors the production factors used in the study were land area, urea fertilizer, sp-36 fertilizer, npk fertilizer, pesticides, and labor. production factors carried out in a corporate manner include land and labor. the average allocation for the use of production factors can be seen in table 1. the average land area for corporate farming farmers in sukoharjo regency is 0.42 ha and is classified as still narrow. in line with the opinion of susilowati & maulana (2016), the average agricultural land ownership ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 ha per farmer household. the majority of farmers in the corporate farming use three types of macro fertilizers, namely urea fertilizer, sp-36 fertilizer, and npk fertilizer. the average use of urea fertilizer is 263.01 (kg/ha), sp-36 fertilizer 233.73 (kg/ha) and npk fertilizer 322.30 (kg/ha). the amount of fertilizer used has exceeded the recommended location-specific dosage. the recommended dosage for fertilizer in sukoharjo regency is urea 250 (kg/ha), sp-36 75 (kg/ha) while npk 50 (kg/ha) (apriyantono, 2007). the habit of using fertilizers in large quantities is generally influenced by farmers' perceptions; the use of more production factors gives the possibility of high production. even though rice plants absorb nutrients as needed, excessive provision results in the soil which becomes acidic, the ability to absorb nutrients is inhibited and the cost of farming is higher (riyadi, hartono, & andri, 2015). the use of pesticides by farmers varies, the average use of pesticides is 2.5 liters/ha. pest attacks that often occur in corporate farming include stem borer, stinkbug, brown plant http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 159 efficiency of rice farming ….. (iskandar et al) hopper, rats, and birds. spraying is carried out 3-5 times per growing season according to the attack and variety of pests and diseases. the more intensity of spraying, of course, harms plants and the environment. even though the use of active ingredients is low, exceeding the threshold can harm farmers because they threaten the existence of natural enemies which leads to the existence of more pest attacks (yuliana, ekowati, & handayani, 2017). the average use of the corporate farming labor force in sukoharjo regency as a whole is 14.81 hok. the labor production factor that becomes the research variable is labor that is not together so that the use of the number of workers is relatively smaller. the allocation of the use of labor in the family of 2.73 hok or 19% is used in semi-corporate farming activities while the remaining 81% of the workforce is outside the family activities together. table 1.allocation of the use of rice production factors for corporate farming in sukoharjo regency 2018-2019 production factors unit average land area ha 0.42 urea fertilizer kg 263.01 sp-36 fertilizer kg 233.73 npk fertilizer kg 322.30 pesticide liter 2.5 labor hok 14.81 source: primary data analysis factors that affected rice production the results of data processing using the 4.1c frontier program provide estimates of regression parameters using the maximum likelihood estimation (mle) method presented in table 2. the sigma-squared value (σ^2) of 0.0020 is significant at the α level of 1%. this means that the error term is normally distributed. the gamma (γ) value of 0.9999 t-ratio value of 20.763 shows that 99.99% of the residual variation in the model is more dominant due to technical inefficiency (μi) the remaining 0.01% is due to noise (vi) such as weather, climate, pests and diseases, natural disasters, etc. if all error terms are caused by noise (vi), the parameter value of the inefficiency coefficient becomes meaningless (kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto, 2011). the value of the log-likelihood function mle (39,123) is greater than the log-likelihood function ols (34,090). therefore, the model used is good enough to describe the actual conditions of corporate farming. measurement of production factors and efficiency uses semi-corporate variables to obtain measurement variations in the model. it is suspected that the production variables including land area, urea fertilizer, sp-36 fertilizer, npk fertilizer, pesticides, and labor have a significant effect on rice production. table 2 shows that the variables of land area, urea, and npk fertilizer have a significant effect on rice production. the elasticity of production of the frontier area of land, urea, and npk fertilizers were 1.1370, -0.1765, and -0.1346, respectively. the variable of the land area is the most elastic among other variables, meaning that the increase in farm area can increase the production which is greater than the variables of urea and npk fertilizers. the average land area of 0.42 ha has a significant effect on rice production. the coefficient of land area production factor is positive according to the expected sign of 0.9486, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 160 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research which means that every 1% increase in a land area increases rice production by 0.9486%. in line with the findings of kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto (2011); akbar, budiraharjo & mukson (2017); and suharyanto, mulyo, darwanto, & widodo (2015), the variable land area is the variable that has the most significant effect on increasing rice production. the positive influence of land on production was also revealed by defidelwina, jamhari, waluyati, & widodo (2019), where the most elastic land area increases rice production. the wider the cultivated land, the greater the average rice production. the area of land for farmers to achieve welfare is at least 0.65 ha (susilowati & maulana, 2016). however, the facts in the field show that the average land ownership for corporate farming farmers is 0.42 ha, meaning that there is still a difference of 0.23 ha from the minimum limit. one of the reasons for the size and structure of farmers' land tenure that is not yet conducive is the implementation that has not been fully implemented in a corporate manner. table 2. results of the stochastic frontier production function of rice farming corporate farming maximum likelihood estimation (mle) method 2018-2019 source: primary data analysis ***: significant at the 1% level, t-table 1% = 2.6799 **: significant at the 5% level, t-table 5% = 2.0095 urea fertilizer has a significant effect on rice production, but it is against the expected signs. the coefficient value of urea fertilizer production factor is -0.1878. this figure means that with the addition of 1% urea fertilizer, rice production decreased 0.1878%. urea fertilizer which reduces production is not in line with the research of yoko, syaukat, & fariyanti (2014); the addition of urea fertilizer can still increase low land rice production even though the increase is low. rice plants need nutrients in dynamic equilibrium conditions, meaning that if these nutrients are still deficient or in excess, they affect the increase in yield levels. this follows the law of diminishing marginal return, increasing the amount of input to a certain limit can reduce low land rice production. on the other hand, the use of insufficient inputs is a constraint on production (riyadi, hartono, & andri, 2015). the npk fertilizer variable has a significant effect on rice production at an α level of 10%. the regression coefficient of the npk fertilizer variable was -0.1254, meaning that with the addition of 1% npk fertilizer, rice production decreased by 0.1254%. this result is variable expectation value coefficient std.error t-ratio constant +/ 0.2992 0.6678 0.4480 ln land area + 1.1370*** 0.1204 9.4404 ln urea fertilizer + -0.1765** 0.0705 -2.5010 ln sp-36 fertilizer + -0.0379 0.0387 -0.9779 ln npk fertilizer + -0.1346** 0.0610 -2.2069 ln pesticide + 0.0135 0.0316 0.4271 ln labor + 0.0140 0.0440 0.3193 sigma-squared 0.0020 0.0031 6.3909 gamma 0.9999 0.0000 41.853 log likelihood function ols 34.090 log likelihood function mle 39.123 lr test of the one-sided error 10.066 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 161 efficiency of rice farming ….. (iskandar et al) contrary to the findings of yuliana, ekowati, & handayani (2017), which states that the use of npk fertilizer (phonska) has a positive effect on production, which means that the addition of npk fertilizer can still increase rice production. the average use of npk fertilizer for corporate farming farmers is 322.30 kg/ha. this amount exceeds the recommended dosage for areas where npk fertilizer according to the principle of balanced fertilization is 50 kg/ha (apriyantono, 2007). the farmers' habit of using macro fertilizers massively per planting season has resulted in high soil residues while the previous fertilization nutrients have not broken down completely. the use of chemical fertilizers without being followed by rehabilitation might create the possible risk such as the degradation of agricultural land, and ultimately this causes a decrease in production (riyadi, hartono, & andri, 2015). technical, economic, and allocative efficiency research on the corporate farming model previously described by lerman & sedik (2007) uses three input models (land and labor), input (land, labor, and number of agricultural machinery) and inputs (land, labor, number of agricultural machines and nurseries), agriculture. the corporate model is more efficient than non-corporate agriculture with the efficiency value of the corporate model agriculture (> 0.70) while the non-corporate agriculture (<0.70). this result is not in line with the findings of kostov, davidova, & bailey (2019), using non-corporate agricultural labor input more efficiently than corporate model agriculture in several countries such as romania, spain, hungary, and the czech republic. furthermore, kostov, davidova, & bailey (2019) stated that traditional agriculture is the foundation of the family economy (subsistence) so that they are more serious in achieving their efficiency. this efficiency can be increased by increasing farm managerial abilities (kostov, davidova, & bailey, 2019). meanwhile, the corporate farming model in sukoharjo regency based on stochastic frontier analysis is not technically, economically, and allocatively efficient. this result is in line with the findings of kostov, davidova, & bailey (2019) where the corporate model of agriculture is not yet fully efficient. table 3. distribution of technical, economic and allocative efficiency values of corporate farming in sukoharjo regency 2018-2019 source: primary data analysis on average, farmers of the corporate farming achieve a technical efficiency of 0.75 from their frontier with the best management system (the best practice). the higher the efficiency technical economic allocative number % number % number % 0,50 ≤ e < 0,60 4 0.00 2 3.92 0 0 0,60 ≤ e < 0,70 4 1.96 3 5.88 0 0 0,70 ≤ e < 0,80 9 17.65 11 21.57 0 0 0,80 ≤ e < 0,90 13 25.49 16 31.37 4 7.84 0,90 ≤ e < 1,00 28 54.90 19 37.25 6 11.76 > 1,00 0 0 0 0 41 80.40 total 51 100.00 51 100.00 51 100.00 minimum 0.56 0.55 0.80 maximum 0.99 0.99 1.65 average 0.75 0.84 1.12 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 162 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research efficiency value, the more increasingly difficult the opportunity to increase production (yoko, syaukat, & fariyanti, 2014). corporate rice farming still has the opportunity to increase production by 15% from the frontier by optimizing the use of production factors, while others still require technological innovation and farm managerial improvements (kostov, davidova, & bailey, 2019). economic efficiency is estimated from the input and output side of the production at the average price at the farmer level. the price of each input and output includes the average price of dry unhulled rice which was 4,017.65 (idr/kg). the average price of urea fertilizer was 1,901 (idr/kg). the average price of sp-36 fertilizer was 2,309 (idr/kg). the average price of npk fertilizer was 2,464 (idr/kg). the average price of pesticides was 274,034 (idr/lt) and the average labor price was 59,226 (idr/hok). the average economic efficiency of corporate rice farming is 0.84. if the average farmer can achieve the highest degree of economic efficiency, it can provide costs of 1(0.84/0.99) or 15%. ineffective farmers can charge 1(0.55/0.99) or 45%. meanwhile, the average allocative efficiency of rice farming in the agricultural companies of the sukoharjo regency is 1.12. if the average farmer can achieve allocative efficiency, it can guarantee costs 32% 1(1.12/1.65), while the least efficient farmers can provide costs 52% 1(0.80/1.65). it is indicated by field conditions that farmers of the corporate farming are not yet cost-oriented. this is indicated by the excessive use of production factors. cost efficiency has not been achieved. when viewed from the structure of the cost of rice farming, the expenditure for mechanization reaches 57% and the remaining 43% is the expenditure on fertilizer production factors (urea, sp-36, and npk), seeds, and pesticides. land processing by using a four-wheeled tractor is carried out after the land boundaries are leveled. the cost of cultivating by using a four-wheeled tractor is 875,585 (idr/ha). the average cost ranges for seeding using a grain seeder of 1,000,000 (idr/ha). sowing seeds using a grain seeder aims to obtain uniform seeds to facilitate planting using a rice transplanter. planting seeds by using a rice transplanter is done after the seedlings are not less than 14 days old, and planting them simultaneously in order to anticipate the attack of plant pests that cannot be predicted. the average land area of 0.42 ha requires at least 100 seed trays. the cost of planting with individual farmers' rice transplanters was 1,497,326 (idr/ha), and harvesting using a combine harvester cost 1,996,435 (idr/ha). one-sample t-test was used to determine whether the corporate rice farming has or has not been efficient technically, economically, and allocatively. if the p-value is greater than α 5%, or if the t-count is smaller than the t-table, the rice farming is efficient. conversely, if the p-value is smaller than α 5%, or the t-count is greater than the t-table, the rice farming is not efficient. the results of the analysis of the average difference test on technical, economic, and allocative efficiency show that the p-value (0.000) is smaller than the α value of 5% (table 4). this means that the average value of technical efficiency is 0.75, the economic efficiency is 0.84, and the allocative efficiency is 1.12, which are significantly different from the value of one. thus, the corporate farming of the sukoharjo regency is not yet efficient. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 163 efficiency of rice farming ….. (iskandar et al) table 4. different test for average technical, economic and allocative efficiency against value 1 in 2018-2019 source: primary data analysis ***: significant at the 1% level technical inefficiency the results of technical efficiency analysis show that, in the model, there is still a technical inefficiency problem in production by 15%. it is suspected that several internal factors are originating from the socio-economic characteristics that are the source of technical inefficiency in the corporate farming model of rice farming. therefore, in order to find out the source of inefficiency in the corporate farming in sukoharjo regency, an analysis of sources of technical inefficiency was conducted. the analysis of sources of technical inefficiency used a frontier stochastic production function model. the results of the analysis of the frontier stochastic production function on the factors that affect the inefficiency of corporate farming show that the variables of education, number of family members, and extension have significantly increased efficiency (table 5). the age variable has a negative but not significant effect on inefficiency with an estimated coefficient of -0.0122 which means that the age of the farmer does not have a statistical effect on efficiency. respondent farmers are heads of farm families who are managers and cultivators of corporate land whose age (73%) is still relatively young. this proves that the corporate farming model is in great demand by young farmers and tends to produce more efficient farming (kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto (2011). this result is contrary to the findings of yoko, syaukat, & fariyanti (2014) and suharyanto, mulyo. darwanto, & widodo (2015) stated that age has a significant effect on inefficiency, the older the farmer, the more increasing the level of farming inefficiency. education has a significant negative effect on inefficiency with an estimated coefficient of -0.1957. this means that farmers with higher level of education are more efficient than farmers who have never received formal education. the condition in the field shows that 60% of farmers' education is low so that it becomes an inefficiency problem, and this is the basis for government policy to improve education and managerial skills of farmers (kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto, 2011). farming management through corporate farming becomes non-formal education to increase knowledge and technical skills in farming. it is hoped that farmers with low education will become members of corporate farming, and information is more available and easier to obtain. they are also expected to be open to new technology. besides, corporate farming can be used as a medium for exchanging experiences so that illiterate farmers can learn from fellow farmers. the negative effect of education on inefficiency is in line with the findings by kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto (2011) and suharyanto, mulyo, darwanto, & widodo (2015), that education has a significant efficiency t df sig.(2-tailed) mean difference lower upper technical -15.894 50 0.000 -0.2422 -0.2728 -0.2116 economic -10.246 50 0.000 -0.1613 -0.1924 -0.1302 allocative 5.145 50 0.000 0.1178 0.0718 0.1638 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 164 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research negative effect at the α level of 5% which means the higher the education of rice farming farmers, the more efficient they are. table 5. results of the stochastic frontier production function against factors affecting the technical inefficiency of rice farming corporate farming in sukoharjo regency 2018-2019 source: primary data analysis ***: significant at the 1% level, t-table 1% = 2.6799 **: significant at the 5 % level, t-table 5% = 2.0095 *: significant at the 10% level, t-table 10% = 1.6765 experience has no significant effect on inefficiency with a coefficient of -0.0136. this means that the length of the farming experience does not count towards inefficiency. this shows that rice farming is a hereditary agricultural model that has become a habit without providing agents of change in terms of farming efficiency. the results are contrary to the research by suharyanto, mulyo, darwanto, & widodo (2015), that experience has a real effect on efficiency where increased farming experience reduces inefficiency because experience becomes a source of good cultivation knowledge through the fellow farmers’ experience. the number of family members has a significant negative effect on inefficiency with a coefficient value of -0.1054. this means that if there are more family members in the productive age, the rice farming is technically more efficient. it is in line with the findings of yoko, syaukat, & fariyanti (2014), where the number of families in the productive age tends to be more efficient than farmers with a few productive family members. based on the field results, the average number of farmer’s family members is 2 to 3 people. productive family members of corporate rice farming are used for activities that are not carried out collectively, such as weeding, fertilizing, and maintaining. the rest are used outside family labor. the extension has a significant effect on inefficiency with a negative coefficient of 0.1251. this figure means that extension is a factor to increase farm efficiency. the higher the frequency of farmers attending counseling, the more information, and knowledge they have in their farm managerial. this is in line with the findings of prayoga, (2010); tsoho, omotesho, salau, & adewumi (2012), and yoko, syaukat, & fariyanti (2014), that extension variables are negatively related to inefficiency. based on field conditions, 88% of farmers actively participate in extension services, while the remaining 12% have never attended extension services. farmers who do not participate in the counseling are elderly farmers and those who make the agricultural sector as a side job. the average frequency of farmers participating in extension is 2 times. most of the counseling was carried out by the agriculture office of sukoharjo regency, field extension officers (ppl), agricultural extension offices, fisheries and maritime offices, bank of indonesia, and the ministry of agriculture. field variable expectation value coefficient std.error t-ratio constant +/1.1332 0.7642 1.4828 ln age + -0.0122 0.1869 -0.0656 ln education -0.1957*** 0.0570 -3.4304 ln experience -0.0136 0.0609 -0.2239 ln members of family farmer’s -0.1054** 0.0508 -2.0714 ln extension -0.1251* 0.0709 -1.7637 (dummy) membership actively -0.0338 0.0708 -0.4780 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 165 efficiency of rice farming ….. (iskandar et al) extension officers are the ones who provide the most counseling to farmers of the corporate farming rice, either directly on stretches of land or through farmers group union and farmer groups. the group activeness dummy has no significant effect with the estimated coefficient of -0.0338 which indicates that whether or not the group members are active does affect inefficiency. the field conditions indicate that corporate farming members are most active in the activities of the invited farmer groups. representatives of members who actively participate in group activities provide information to fellow corporate farmers. however, the corporate farming model has not been fully accepted. they need corporate membership only for the sake of receiving assistance so they feel they need to become members. this is not in line with the findings of kusnadi, tinaprilla, susilowati, & purwoto (2011), that group membership variables have a significant effect on inefficiency, where the participation of farmers in activities will increase inefficiency. conclusions the corporate farming model of rice production is significantly influenced by the variable of production factors for land area, urea, and npk fertilizer, while sp-36 fertilizer, pesticides, and labor do not affect rice production. of all the variables of production factors for land area, pesticides, and labor, it shows a positive coefficient of estimation, meaning that the use of production factors for land area, pesticides, and labor can increase rice production. urea, sp-36, and npk fertilizers show a negative regression coefficient on production, which means that the use of fertilizers can reduce rice production so that the use of fertilizers needs to be reduced. the analysis of the efficiency of corporate farming in the sukoharjo regency is not technically, economically, and allocatively efficient. the average index of technical, economic, and allocative efficiency were 0.75, 0.84, and 1.12, which differed significantly from the value of one. this means that in order to achieve the highest degree of technical, economic, and allocative efficiency, it is necessary for managerial to reduce or to add production factors. thus, intensification through corporate farming is still possible through optimizing the use of basic technology. besides, the need to reduce the operational costs of land processing tools and machines, seeding, planting, and harvesting is still high so that cost-efficiency can be achieved. all variables that are thought to affect inefficiency show a negative regression coefficient which means that all variables together can reduce inefficiency. socio-economic factors that significantly reduce inefficiency are education, number of family members, and counseling, while social factors; age, experience, and activity dummy in groups do not have a significant effect on the technical inefficiency of corporate farming. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 166 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research references akbar, i., budiraharjo, k., & mukson. 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(2012). determinants of technical, allocative and economic efficiencies among dry season vegetable farmers in sokoto state, nigeria. journal of agricultural sciences, 3(2), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766898.2012.11884692 yoko, b., syaukat, y., & fariyanti, a. (2014). analisis efisiensi usahatani padi di kabupaten lampung tengah. jurnal agribisnis indonesia, 2(2), 127–140. yuliana, y., ekowati, t., & handayani, m. (2017). efisiensi alokasi penggunaan faktor produksi pada usahatani padi di kecamatan wirosari, kabupaten grobogan. agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.3143 zakaria, a. k., & rachman, b. (2013). implementasi sosialisasi insentif ekonomi dalam pelaksanaan program perlindungan lahan pertanian pangan berkelanjutan (plp2b). forum penelitian agro ekonomi, 31(2), 137. https://doi.org/10.21082/fae.v31n2.2013.137-149 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 7 no. 1 january – june 2021, pages: 53-63 article history: submitted: september 30th, 2020 accepted: december 25th, 2020 abduselam faris abadega department of agricultural economics and agribusiness management, jimma university, ethiopia correspondence email: abduselamf104@gmail.com potato market participation and its extents evidence from southwest ethiopia: a double hurdle approach doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v7i1.9912 abstract potato is an important commodity for livelihood in many parts of ethiopia. potato producers in ethiopia face sophisticated marketing challenges, including inadequate access to market and low amount of marketed surpluses due to subsistence-oriented production of potato. the study aimed to identify factors that determine the market participation and its extents. about 136 potato producers were selected randomly from peasant association found in dedo districts of ethiopia. quantitative and qualitative data were collected from primary sources. descriptive and econometric methods of data analysis were used to analyze data from the survey. a double hurdle model was applied to investigate factors affecting market participation and its extents. results of descriptive statistics revealed that out of the total sample producer, 87.5 % of sample household has participated in the potato market. age, sex, education, land size allocated for potato, and non-farm income were significantly influencing potato market participation. age, sex, education (years of schooling), non-farm income, active labor and land allocated for potato influenced smallholder farmers level of market participation. keywords: market participation, potato, double hurdle model introduction though agriculture contributes around 42% of the gross domestic product (gdp) and about 85% of ethiopian people's gains their livelihood directly or indirectly from agriculture, the sector has been characterized with low input, low-value and subsistence-oriented, and is vulnerable to frequent climatic shocks (csa, 2015; undp, 2011). globally, potato is considered as an important component of agriculture and the third most important food crop in the world next to rice and wheat in terms of human consumption. in addition, potato is the number one non-grain food commodity and an economically important crop of the world (rykaczewska, 2013). as a potential commodity, potato needs to be developed for regional development (rozaki, 2020). moreover, potato is an important crop for food security in the world (kiloes et al., 2019; maryanto et al., 2018; wijaya et al., 2020), and also in parts of ethiopia by virtue of its ability to mature earlier than most other crops at the time of critical food need (hassen et al., 2015). in ethiopia area under potato cultivation were 67,362 hectares and 921,832 tons were produced. central ethiopia, eastern hararghe, northwest ethiopia, south ethiopia and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 54 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research western ethiopia are the major potato production areas of ethiopia, but the majority of production depends on natural rainfall, and smaller proportions of land are supported by irrigation (ethiopian late blight profile, 2004). although potato is expected to have a great role in smallholders livelihood, the ethiopian potato sub-sector is currently facing low market participation, unfair price for producers due to long market chain dominated by illegal traders who have a relatively strong power (i.e. financial and information), and limited market access difficulty to obtain buyers, furthermore infrastructural problems due to long distance to reach the market place. the participation of farmers in the high-value market is important (rao & qaim, 2013). the key factors contributing to low yield, mostly related to unfair distribution of returns from potato marketing leads farmers to low gain from the product (emana, 2008; gebremedhin, endale, & kiflu, 2001). study area, dedo district stands first in vegetable production in general and potato in particular. hence, this study intended in modelling potato market participation and its extents in dedo districts of ethiopia. research method description of the study area the study was undertaken in dedo district, one of 22 districts of the jimma zone, oromia regional state, ethiopia. dedo district located at a distance of 377 km from the capital city, addis ababa. the agro-ecological conditions consist of highland (47%), midland (35%) and lowland (18%) with altitude that ranges between 800-3,000 meters above sea level. this climatic condition is favorable for potato production. sampling methods and procedures the study applied multi-stage sampling procedures, dedo district was selected purposively out of 22 districts found in jimma zone, since the district is known for the production of potato. the district has 53 rural peasant associations, but only four were randomly selected. one hundred thirty-six sample farmers were selected randomly based on proportional to the population size of the chosen peasant association like in table 1. yamane (1967) sample size determination formula was used to calculate the sample size. (1) where was the sample size, was potato producers, and was he acceptable sampling error. table 1. number of households selected from sample peasant association name of the peasant association number of potato producers sample geshe 220 28 garima gudda 267 34 sito 283 36 ilala 300 38 total 1,070 136 source: own design (2016) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) potato market participation and its extents ….. (abadega) 55 data types, sources and methods of data collection the study collected quantitative and qualitative data types, and sources of primary data were potato farmers. besides the primary data, secondary data were obtained from published and unpublished documents. primary data was collected from farmers through an interview schedule containing closed-ended and open-ended questions. method of data analysis both descriptive and econometric methods were employed in analyzing data from the survey. to model market participation and its extents among smallholders potato farmers double-hurdle was proposed. a lot of studies applied the tobit model (tobin, 1958) for modelling market participation and its extent, however, very restrictive for econometric reasons, which makes this model unsuitable for certain empirical applications. tobit model is also statistically restrictive because it assumes that the same set of variables determine both the probability of a non-zero market participation and the level. the main feature of the double hurdle model is that market participation, and the amount of market supplied decisions are determined by separate variables (jones, 1989). likewise, this study employed double hurdle model for determining market participation decision of potato producers and amount of potato supplied to the market since market participation decision and amount of potato supplied is influenced by respondent's socio-economic and demographic factors. the doublehurdle model used for this particular study was specified as follows: di * = x11+ u1i (2) u1i ~ n (0, σ 2 1) di * = yi * = x22+ v2i (3) v2i~ n (0, σ 2 2) yi = the subscript i refers to the ith household, di is the observable discrete decision of whether or not to sale potato, while di* is the latent (unobservable) variable of di.yi* is an unobserved, latent variable (quantity of potato sold), and yi is the corresponding observed variable, actual quantity of potato sold. x1 and x2 represent vectors of explanatory variables. 1 and β2 are vectors of parameters to be estimated and u1 and v2 are random errors (cragg, 1971). result and discussions farmers’ characteristics by potato market participation an independent-samples t-test was used to compare the mean score, on some continuous variable, for potato market participant and non-participant. the result of the analysis can be seen in table 2. regarding experience, the participant had an average of 21.1 years of experience in producing, and that of non-participants was 11.94, which show statistical significance at 1% probability. the average amount of non-farm income earned by http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 56 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research sample farmers was etb 2.22, and that of potato market participant and non-participant was 0.24, 16.09 in thousands of etb respectively. the t-test results were showed a significant mean difference between potato market participants and non-participants at 1% probability level in terms of non-farm income. this implies that non-participant households had higher non-farm income than the market participant. table 2. characteristics of potato market participants and non-participants continuous variables participant (n=119) non participant (n=17) total(n=136) mean mean t – value age 48.3 48.7 48.38 0.1329 experience 21.1 11.94 19.95 3.6742*** nonfarm income ‘’000’’ 0.243 16.08 2.22 7.7847*** family size 7.93 9.78 8.16 3.9796*** active labor 3.79 3.12 3.707 1.5984 farm size 0.42 0.11 0.39 7.951*** tlu 6.59 8.18 6.79 1.9072 number of oxen 2.07 1.176 1.96 3.8139 *** extension contact (#) 4.98 1.23 4.5 3.4928*** distance 9.01 26.17 11.16 -9.9003*** education 3.45 0.589 3.095 3.1968*** lagged price 285.6 258.5 282.57 2.8387 *** income from crop sale 12,198.5 3,931.17 11,165.09 10.941*** income from livestock sale 10,583.3 12,092.76 10,772.00 -0.672 tg income from farming 33,849.60 16,023.94 31,621.42 6.575 *** represent significance at the 1% probability level, and n is a sample size. source: own computation of survey data (2016) the t-test result specified that the mean of land allocated for potato production in 2016 was 0.42 for potato market participants, and 0.11 for non-participants. there is a significant difference at 1% significance level on land allocated for potato between potato market participants and non-participants (table 2). oxen are the primary source of power for plowing and crop management, the average number of oxen owned by the market participant was 2.07, whereas for non-participant was 1.176. the mean difference in oxen holding was statistically significant at 1% probability level. having access to agricultural extension service initiate farmers to be market-oriented. the t-test indicated that the average number of contacts farmers have with extension workers (development agents) at their farm for the market participant was 4.98 and for nonparticipant was about 1.23 days per production year mean difference of frequency of extension contact was statistically significant at 1% probability level. the average distance that most of the households used to travel to sell their product to the market was about 11.16 kilometers, where is it 9.01 for the market participant, and 26.17 kilometers for nonparticipant households with a statistically significant mean difference between households at 1% probability level. it is obvious educated farmers are exposed to technologies that will help them increase production and supply. the mean educational level (grades) of the market participant was 3.45 years, and that of non -participant was 0.589 years, respectively. this study revealed that http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) potato market participation and its extents ….. (abadega) 57 there is a significant difference between market participant and non-market participant in relation to education at 1% probability level. regarding last year market price or lagged average market price have an influence on market participation and marketed surplus moreover, lagged prices can stimulate production and thus marketed surplus of potato for the next year. the mean lagged market price of the market participant was etb 285.6, and that of non-participant was etb 258.5, respectively. last-year price of agricultural commodity affects the quantity of produce as well as supplied to the market, if the price is high, the producer supplied more. the analysis of t-test statistics revealed that there was a significant difference in mean of lagged potato price at 1% significance level between potato market participant and non-participants. the total gross income from farm income sources of sample respondents was etb 31,621.42, the average farm income of potato market participants were etb 33,849.64 per year, and the average farm income of the nonparticipants of potato market was etb 16,023.94 per year. the major sources of cash income were from the sale of other home cereals and livestock sale. there was a significant difference in mean of total gross income from farming at 1% significance level between potato market participant and non-participants. chi-square test is applied when you have two categorical variables from a single population. it is used to determine whether there is a significant association between the two variables. concerning sex of the sample households, 91.6% of the market participant were male, and 88.24% of non-participant was male however, there is no statistically significant difference in sex between participant and non-participant (table 3). table 3. characteristics of potato market participants and non-participants dummy variables participant (n=119) non-participant (n=17) total χ2 value proportion (%) proportion (%) sex ( male) 91.60 88.24 91.18 0.2089 access to inputs ( yes) 42.02 11.76 38.24 5.7645** access to irrigation( yes) 28.57 5.88 25.74 4.0066** access to credit (yes) 38.66 11.76 35.29 4.71** access to market information (yes) 42.86 5.88 38.24 8.61*** ***, ** represent significance at 1% and 5% probability level respectively source: own computation of survey data (2016) since access to agricultural inputs helps to increase productivity and thereby increase production and supply. amounts of 42.2% and 11.76% of the participant and nonparticipant respectively had access to agricultural inputs such as improved potato variety, inorganic fertilizer and chemicals respectively. there was a statistically significant difference in access to agricultural input between participants and non-participant at 5% probability level (table 3). irrigation enables smallholders to diversify cropping patterns and to switch from lowvalue subsistence production to high-value market-oriented production. the study results revealed that 28.57% of market participants have access to irrigation and 5.88% of nonparticipant had access to it there is a statistically significant difference in access to irrigation between participants and non-participant at 5% probability level. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 58 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the availability of credit service to farmers has its own contribution in enhancing production and productivity of the agricultural product. credit is an imperative source of financing the agricultural activities of smallholder farmers, but due to religion view, the need for credit was limited to 35.29% of the sampled households. the chi-square test result indicated that about 38.66% of potato market participants had access to credit, and 11.76% of non-participant had access to credit. access to credit showed statistically significance proportion difference between them at 5% probability level. it is clear that market information is a necessary tool for farmers. the price obtained by producer depends on the reliability, source and channels at which market information was obtained. moreover, farmers marketing decisions are based on market price information, and poorly integrated markets may convey inaccurate price information, leading to inefficient product movement. the proportion of access to market information for potato market participant was 42.86%, and that of non-participant was 5.88%. the chisquare test indicates a significant difference between potato market participants and nonparticipants at 1% significance level. table 4. results of double hurdle model for the market participation and market surplus of smallholder potato producers. explanatory variables first hurdle (probit ) second-hurdle coefficients standard error marginal effect coefficients standard error age -0.05 0.03 0.00** -0.14** 0.08 sex 2.72 1.58 0.15** 2.24 2.97 education (years) 0.41 0.22 0.02** 0.3 0.26 nonfarm income -0.11 0.05 -0.01** -0.05 0.09 active labor (a.eq) 0.43 0.27 0.02 1.18** 0.52 land allocated for potato 4.13 2.02 0.23** 23.70*** 1.77 number of oxen owned 0.08 0.33 0 0.94 0.89 access to agro input 1.83 1.18 0.1 3.13 1.8 access to irrigation 1.81 1.76 0.1 0.02 2.16 access to credit 2.68 1.66 0.15 4.81** 1.99 lagged price (last year) 0.01 0.01 0 0.04** 0.02 access to market information 2.37 2.36 0.13 2.64 1.99 constant -5.54 3.83 0 -16.08 7.69 number of observation = 136 lr chi2(12) = 75.77 prob > chi2 = 0 pseudo r2 = 0.7394 log-likelihood = -13.354147 a double hurdle results of potato market participation and its extents double hurdle model was employed to identify factors affecting market participation and the actual amount of potato supplied. hence, multicollinearity and heteroscedasticity detection test was performed using appropriate test statistics. im-test in stata 13 was used to check for heteroscedasticity and, vif and cc for multicollinearity. based on vif test results for continuous independent variables there is no multicollinearity problem since the mean vif result is 1.3 for the continuous independent variables, and the cc result shows no strong associations between dummy variables included in the model. the fitness of the model was checked, and the assumption of the null hypothesis that all predictors in the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) potato market participation and its extents ….. (abadega) 59 regression model are jointly equal to zero is rejected at less than 1% level of significance. out of 12 explanatory variables included in the model, about five variables in participation equation (probit) and five variables in second-hurdle were found to be statistically significant. the variables, sex, age, education, land size allocated for potato and non-farm income were significantly influencing potato market participation. age, active labor, land size allocated for potato, access to credit and lagged price (last year price) influenced potato marketed surplus by smallholder farmers (table 4). age of the household head: the expected influence of age assumed was positive but survey result showed that age negatively influenced the market participation of potato at 5% level of significance, keeping other factors constant an increase of one year in age results in 0% decrease the probability of participating in the potato market and decrease the amount of potato supplied by 14 kg. the negative influence of age indicates that as the household head gets older, it is difficult to engage in the production and marketing of potato due to the bulky nature of the commodity. the result is in line with lefebo (2016) finding, which indicates that as the household head gets older, carrying the product to the market becomes more difficult, which in turn decreases the probability of the household decision to enter the kocho (ethiopian food) market. the study results contradict the finding of gebre (2015) and yohannes (2015) that indicated that as the age of a farmer increases the probability of participating in the potato market increases. the result is in line with gessesse (2009) finding, which explained, as the age of the household head increase, the amount of onion sold decreased. sex of the household head: sex of the household head influenced potato market participation positively and significantly at 5% probability level. being a male-headed household increases the probability of participating in the potato market by 15%. this implies that the male-headed household head participated more in the potato market than female. the study's finding in line with sebatta et al. (2014) that suggest sex of household head had a positive and significant impact on potato market participation. likewise, the result in line with sigei (2015) that indicated, male-headed households are more marketoriented than female, hence they participate more in the market for pineapple. the household's education level: education of household head in years of schooling influenced household's market participation of potato significantly and positively at 5% probability level. one year increases in household head's educational level increase the probability of participating in the potato market by 2%, other factors being constant. the study's result in line with ahmed, girma, & aredo (2016) who suggested the education level of household head has a positive impact on the farmers' participation decision in the potato output market. besides that, this is also in line with sigei (2015) who suggests that an individual who better at education level is more empowered with the marketing skill and knowledge that will spur individual to participate in the market. active labor: as hypothesized active labor influenced market supply of potato positively at 1% significant level. a unit increase in active labor in the household family results in an increase in potato marketed surplus by 1.18 quintal. since larger the number of http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 60 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research active labor in the family helps carry out production and marketing activity, it encourages marketed surplus of potato. the result is in line with lefebo (2016) that explained a household with large number of active labor supply huge volume of kocho. non-farm income: as hypothesized the influence of non-farm income was negative. the study results showed that an increase in non-farm income decreases the probability of market participation of potato by 1% level of significance. the study's finding in line with lefebo (2016) who suggested an increase in non-farm income of kocho producer household leads to a decrease in the probability of participation in kocho market. it is also in line with yohannes' (2015) findings that described an increase in household head's income from non/off-farm activities decreases the probability of participating in the potato market. likewise, with finding of ahmed et al. (2016) that suggests participation in non/off-farm activities had a negative and significant impact on the farmers’ potato market participation decision. size of land allocated for potato: as hypothesized the size of land allocated for potato production by household head influenced market participation positively and significantly at 5% significant level. an average increase in one hectare of land allocated for potato production increases the probability of potato market participation of household by 23%. the result in line with the finding of kaso (2015) that suggested the increase in cultivated land for wheat increases its market participation. land allocated for potato production by producer influenced marketed surplus positively and significantly at 1% significant level. an average increase in one hectare of land allocated for potato production increases the marketed surplus by 23.70 quintals. the result is in line with tola & ketema (2014), who suggested that land size allocated for tomato production increases the marketed surplus of tomato increases. besides that, it’s also in line with (hailu, 2016) who explained the larger the land size allocated for potato production, the larger the quantity of produce, thereby increasing the quantity of produce available for sale. access to credit: as hypothesized the influence of credit access on the marketed surplus of potato was positive and significant at 5%. the result revealed that those who have used credit would increase the marketed surplus by 4.81 quintals. the result indicates that credit access strengths marketed surplus of potato. study result in line with asale (2012) who suggested access to credit increases the amount of ginger supplied to the market and alemu (2012) who explained that farmers who have access to credit could diversify their income sources and thus decide to engage in potato marketing. lagged price (last year price): it continues variable measured in etb per quintal a household received last year. as hypothesized the influence of lagged market price was positive. the result shows that as lagged price increases by one etb, the amount of potato sold increases by 0.04 quintal, keeping other variables. myint (2003) explained that if prices in one year are bad, farmers will often respond by planting less in the next year, which will lead to lower production and higher prices. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) potato market participation and its extents ….. (abadega) 61 conclusion and recommendations conclusion potato plays a significant role in supporting smallholder farmers' livelihood in many parts of ethiopia. smallholder farmers are challenged with a limited market and low marketed surplus due to subsistence potato farming system. the study aimed to identify factors that determine market participation and its extents. the study revealed that out of the total sample producer, 87.5 % of the sample household participated in the potato market. age of the household head, sex, education, land size allocated for potato and nonfarm income were significantly influencing potato market participation. age of the household head, sex, education (years of schooling), non-farm income, active labor and land allocated for potato influenced smallholder farmers level of market participation (marketed surplus of potato). recommendations 1. promoting on-farm education will improve smallholder farmers' market participation. therefore, the body should improve adult education and training. 2. initiating land allocation for potato will increase the market participation and the marketed surplus of smallholder potato farmers thus, the concerning government body should create awareness on land allocation. 3. initiate active family labor engagement in potato production and marketing activities to increase the household's market participation and the marketed surplus of potato. therefore, the body should increase active labor participation in potato production and marketing. 4. creating awareness on utilization of non-farm income for production purpose so that farmers can generate income market participation and marketed surplus of potato. therefore agricultural and market sector leaders should work on awareness creation for the household that engaged in non-farm income activity. references ahmed, y. e., girma, a. b., & aredo, m. k. 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(2015). performance of vegetable market: the case of kombolcha district, east hararghe zone of oromia regional state, ethiopia. haramaya university. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2: july-december 2020 article history: submitted: march 31st, 2020 accepted: november12th, 2020 yan eka dharmawan*, endang siti rahayu, minar ferichani sebelas maret university *)correspondence email: yanekadharmawan84@gmail.com the supply chain efficiency of tilapia farming in floating net cage (fnc) in wonogiri regency doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.62101 abstract this study aims to determine the supply chain mechanism and analyze the supply chain efficiency of tilapia farming in floating net cage (fnc) in wonogiri regency. this research utilized the data envelopment analysis (dea) as the method. the research was conducted in wonogiri and wuryantoro districts as the center of tilapia farming and other districts as marketing objectives. the research sample consisted of 50 tilapia farmers, 14 wholesalers, and 6 retailers. the data were collected using the snowball sampling method. the research used questionnaires and in-depth interviews. the results revealed that the structure of tilapia supply chain actors in wonogiri regency consisted of farmers, wholesalers, and retailers. as much as 35.71% of tilapia farmers chose to sell their products to wholesalers, 64.29% to retailers, and none sold directly to consumers. based on performance measurement using the dea method, the most efficient actors in the tilapia supply chain in wonogiri regency were wholesalers, with an average efficiency value of 0.998, followed by retailers with an average efficiency value of 0.982, and the most inefficient actors were farmers, with an average efficiency value of 0.789. keywords: data envelopment analysis, efficiency, supply chain, tilapia introduction the potential fishery land in indonesia is estimated at 17.74 million hectares, consisting of 2.23 million hectares of freshwater aquaculture, 2.96 million hectares of brackish water aquaculture, and 12.55 million hectares of marine aquaculture. however, farmed land utilization has only reached 16.62% for freshwater aquaculture, 50.06% for brackish water aquaculture, and 2.09% for marine aquaculture. during the 2011–2017 period, aquaculture production has increased significantly, from 7.93 million tons in 2011 to 17.22 million tons in 2017. accordingly, the production value has increased by around 22.51% per year in the same period (directorate general of strengthening the competitiveness of marine and fishery products, 2018). the central bureau of statistics noted that the aquaculture sub-sector has a great opportunity to contribute to indonesia’s gross domestic product (gdp). fishery gdp growth has increased from year to year. during the 2016-2019 period, the gdp growth in the fishery sector was higher than the agricultural sector, with an average of 5.56 for fishery and 3.54 for the agricultural sector. one of the achievements of the fishery sector’s http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 mailto:yanekadharmawan84@gmail.com issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 209 the supply chain efficiency of ….. (dharmawan et al) contribution to national gdp comes from aquaculture activities. thus, it must be considered in the national economy (central statistics agency, 2020). central java gdp at current price according to business fields in the fishery sector amounted to 6.22 trillion rupiahs in 2010 and reached 12.24 trillion rupiahs in 2017; these data indicate a significant increase (central java of central statistics agency, 2018). according to kohar and wibowo (2015), the economic growth of the fishery sector continuing to increase in central java province and the increase in demand for fish in the future will encourage efforts to improve the quality of fishery products to compete in the global market through (1) the efficiency of production costs, (2) improving product quality to be accepted by the market, and (3) a wider marketing network. wonogiri regency is a producer of floating net cage (fnc) fish, placing in third place in 2016 in central java province, with a production of 6,343.26 tons (dkp of central java province, 2017). tilapia is farmed in the kja in the gajah mungkur reservoir. however, the production and marketing processes face several obstacles. the inefficient supply chain of tilapia in wonogiri regency, due to the not optimal application of farming technology by farmers, inefficient fish traders in conducting their business, fluctuations in tilapia prices due to product availability and unstable consumer demand, availability of tilapia products at the farmer level will affect the flow of goods, money, and information between farmers, wholesalers, and retailers, which in turn will affect supply chain efficiency. according to indrajit and djokopranoto (2002), supply chain actors cooperate to deliver products on time, in the right quantity, and product quality adjusted to the demand of the end consumers. tilapia products marketed in fresh and live are perishable, thus having a high potential for risk of loss in every stage of the supply chain (setiadi et al., 2018). this study aims to determine the supply chain mechanism of tilapia farming in wonogiri regency and analyze the efficiency of the supply chain. research method this research employed the descriptive analysis as the basic method. this method examines the status of human groups, an object, a condition, a thought, or an event in the present, aiming to create a systematic, factual, and accurate picture of the facts, properties, and relationships between the investigated phenomena (nazir, 2014). surakhmad (1994) stated that descriptive research focuses on solving actual problems in the present. the actual problems observed in this research on the supply chain of tilapia farming in wonogiri regency were regarding the supply chain management mechanism and its performance. the research location was determined purposively in wonogiri regency, specifically in wonogiri and wuryantoro districts as the center of tilapia farming in fnc and related districts as marketing locations. this study used both primary and secondary data. primary data were obtained through interviews and questionnaires to analyze: (1) the tilapia supply chain mechanism, 2) the performance of each supply chain actor (3) efforts that can be applied to produce an efficient tilapia supply chain. on the other hand, secondary data were obtained from the presentation of related agency data functioned as a compliment. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 210 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research respondents comprised 50 tilapia farmers in wonogiri and wuryantoro districts, 6 wholesalers, and 14 retailers in several districts. furthermore, interviews were conducted with farmers, wholesalers, and retailers, using the snowball sampling method. according to suratna et al. (1995), snowball is a sampling method with small groups asked to show their respective friends. then the friends were asked to show their friends, and so on. thus, it is expected that the supply chain flow of tilapia from producers to consumers can be identified. this research utilized the descriptive analysis method. after knowing the description of the tilapia supply chain, supply chain actors were analyzed using the data envelopment analysis (dea) method to determine the performance of each actor to improve the performance efficiency assisted by deap 2.1 software. result and discussions tilapia supply chain mechanism several actors from farmers, wholesalers, and retailers formed the supply chain mechanism for tilapia farming in wonogiri regency. pujawan (2005) suggested three distribution patterns that must be managed in the supply chain, the flow of goods, money (financial), and information. the distribution pattern of goods flows from upstream to downstream, money flows in reverse from downstream to upstream, while information flows from upstream to downstream and vice versa. the supply chain emphasizes more on the series of the flow of materials and information, while supply chain management highlights efforts to integrate supply chain collections. at the agroindustrial level, supply chain management pays attention to supply, stock, and transportation distribution (vorst, 2004). the supply chain channel of tilapia farming in wonogiri regency is displayed in the following figure. information: figure 1. tilapia supply chain channel in wonogiri regency : information flow : goods flow : money flow tilapia farmers retailers consumers wholesalers http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 211 the supply chain efficiency of ….. (dharmawan et al) 1. supply chain channel there are three types of flows managed, namely: a. the flow of goods from producers to consumers through wholesalers and retailers b. money flows from consumers to traders and from traders to producers c. the flow of information moving in two directions along the chain, either from producers to traders to consumers or vice versa data accuracy is essential in the supply chain channel, determining the accuracy of information and materials or products. an adequate supply chain is inseparable from the management regulating it to be proper. supply chain management takes a systems approach to view the supply chain as a single entity (pujawan, 2005). janvier (2012) stated that in principle, the role of the supply chain is to add value to products by moving them from one location to another or by carrying out a process of change to them. adding value to the supply chain can be carried out on quality, delivery costs, or applied to flexibility during delivery and innovation (trienekens, 2011). 2. supply chain actors a. actor 1: tilapia farmers tilapia farmers are the first supply chain actors. they are the producers of tilapia by carrying out the farming process from preparing the farming site, spreading seeds, providing food, maintaining water quality, preventing and controlling fish pests, harvesting to marketing. b. actor 2: wholesalers as the second supply chain actors, wholesalers are directly related to farmers as producers of tilapia. they take tilapia from farmers and distribute it to retailers and consumers directly as the next supply chain actors. c. actor 3: retailers as the third supply chain actor, retailers obtain goods from farmers or wholesalers and distribute them directly to consumers. measurement of supply chain efficiency analysis of the supply chain efficiency of tilapia farming in wonogiri regency used the data envelopment analysis (dea) approach. supply chain efficiency measurement was carried out by comparing one actor to another within the supply chain. each performance attribute had a performance indicator useful for determining the performance efficiency of a supply chain. this method aims to allocate appropriate resources (coelli, 1996). the performance measurement through the dea approach involved attributes consisting of input and output variables. according to zhou et al. (2008), dea makes it possible to identify which units are efficient and which are inefficient to improve them to be efficient. 1. analysis of tilapia supply chain efficiency at the farmer level the performance measurement of tilapia farmers involved 50 samples in two districts. the results of data processing illustrate the results of measuring the efficiency of tilapia farmers based on the deap 2.1 program, presented as follows: http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 212 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 1. distribution of dmu based on the efficiency level of tilapia farming in wonogiri regency efficiency value number of dmu (person) percentage (%) 0 ≤x <0.1 0 0.00 0.1 ≤x < 0.2 0 0.00 0.2 ≤x < 0.3 0 0.00 0.3 ≤x < 0.4 0 0.00 0.4 ≤x < 0.5 0 0.00 0.5 ≤x < 0.6 3 6.00 0.6 ≤x < 0.7 16 32.00 0.7 ≤x < 0.8 8 16.00 0.8 ≤ x <0.9 6 12.00 0.9 ≤x < 1.0 5 10.00 1 12 24.00 total 50 100.00 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 1 indicates that out of 50 decision-making units (dmu) of tilapia farmers, only 12 (24%) have achieved 100% efficiency or a value of 1. the characteristics of dmu by age are presented in table 2. table 2. efficiency distribution based on age of tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency in 2019 age number of dmu (person) number of dmu efficient 1 (person) dmu percentage (%) efficient dmu percentage (%) efficient dmu percentage (%) toward age range <20 0 0 0 0 0 20≤ x <30 5 0 10.00 0 0 30≤ x <40 16 5 32.00 10.00 31.25 40≤ x <50 24 7 48.00 14.00 29.17 50≤ x <60 4 0 8.00 0 0 ≥60 1 0 2.00 0 0 total 50 12 100.00 24.00 60.42 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 2 shows that of the 50 tilapia farmer’s dmus with an efficiency value of 1 (100%), twelve are in the age range of 30≤ x <50 years, indicating that the number of efficient dmus is more than other ages. tilapia farmers who have the highest efficiency value of 1 (100%) are found in the age range of 40≤ x <50 years (14%). at that age, tilapia farmers are in a productive period with more experience levels, higher enthusiasm in farming, a willingness to learn and seek information to achieve optimal results. while the characteristics of dmu based on the education level are displayed in the following table 3. the table 3 shows that tilapia farmer dmus have varying education levels from elementary school to postgraduate. tilapia farmers with the highest efficiency of 1 (100%) comprise 5 dmus (10%) at the elementary school level, 4 dmus (8%) at junior high school, 3 dmus (6%) at senior high school, and other levels of education. in short, there is no pattern that dmus with higher education will have high efficiency due to the lack of lessons in agriculture or fishery in schools; not all schools provide lessons related to these two fields of knowledge. willingness to continue to learn and more experience in farming can produce an optimal level of efficiency. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 213 the supply chain efficiency of ….. (dharmawan et al) table 3.efficiency distribution based on the education level of tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency education level number of dmu (person) number of efficient dmu (person) dmu percentage (%) dmu efficient 1 percentage (%) not completed elementary school 0 0 0 0 elementary school 11 5 22 10 junior high school 10 4 20 8 senior high school 25 3 50 6 undergraduate 3 0 6 0 postgraduate 1 0 2 0 total 50 12 100 24 source: primary data analysis (2019) the characteristics of tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency are based on the use of seeds. all farmers have used the type of red tilapia. based on the size, there are two types of tilapia seeds, the so-called kebul with seeds 5-7 cm in size and glondong sized 9-12 cm. table 4. efficiency distribution based on seed size in tilapia farming inwonogiri regency seed size number of dmu (person) number of efficient dmu (person) dmu percentage (%) efficient dmu percentage (%) 5-7 cm (kebul) 30 12 60 24 9-12 cm (glondong) 20 0 40 0 dmu total 50 12 100 24 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 5.dmu distribution based on the efficiency level of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency efficiency value number of dmu (person) percentage (%) 0 ≤ x < 0.1 0 0 0.1 ≤ x < 0.2 0 0 0.2 ≤ x < 0.3 0 0 0.3 ≤ x < 0.4 0 0 0.4 ≤ x < 0.5 0 0 0.5 ≤ x < 0.6 0 0 0.6 ≤ x < 0.7 0 0 0.7 ≤ x < 0.8 0 0 0.8 ≤ x < 0.9 0 0 0.9 ≤ x <1.0 1 16.67 1 5 83.33 total 6 100.00 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 4 shows 12 dmu (24%) achieving an efficiency value of 1 (100%), with tilapia seeds sized 5-7 cm (white). conversely, none of the dmus using seeds sized 9-12 cm (glondong) obtains an efficiency value of 100%. the use of seeds sized 5-7cm (kebul) is more efficient as it is more adaptable to the floating net cage (kja) environment in the gajah mungkur reservoir, compared to tilapia seeds sized 9-12 cm (glondong). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 214 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 2. analysis of the efficiency of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency the performance measurement of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency involved 6 dmus directly related to tilapia farmers. efficiency data from wholesalers are presented in table 5.the efficiency calculations using the deap 2.1 program reveal that 5 dmus (83.33%) have an efficiency value of 1 (100%), while 1 dmu (16.66%) has an efficiency value of 0.9 ≤ x <1.0. it implies that most of the wholesalers have been efficient. table 6. dmu distribution based on the education level of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency education level number of dmu (person) number of dmu efficient 1 (person) dmu percentage (%) dmu efficient 1 percentage (%) not completed elementary school 0 0 0 0 elementary school 1 1 16.67 16.67 junior high school 0 0 0 0 senior high school 5 4 83.33 66.67 higher education 0 0 0 0 total 6 5 100.00 83.34 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 6 shows that 5 dmus (83.33%) of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency have a senior high school education, with four (66.67%) obtain an efficiency level of 1 (100%), and only one dmu ( 16.67%) having elementary school education level, with an efficiency level of 1 (100%). based on education, there is no dmu pattern where higher education will have high efficiency. it reflects a willingness to continue to learn and work diligently, and experience in farming can produce an optimal efficiency level. 3. analysis of the efficiency of tilapia retailers in wonogiri regency the performance measurement for tilapia retailers in wonogiri regency consists of 14 dmus. table 7 depicts the efficiency of data for retailers. table 7.dmu distribution based on the efficiency level of tilapia retailers in wonogiri regency efficiency value number of dmu (person) percentage (%) 0 ≤ x < 0.1 0 0.1 ≤ x < 0.2 0 0.2 ≤ x < 0.3 0 0.3 ≤ x < 0.4 0 0.4 ≤ x < 0.5 0 0.5 ≤ x < 0.6 0 0.6 ≤ x < 0.7 0 0.7 ≤ x < 0.8 0 0.8 ≤ x < 0.9 0 0.9 ≤ x < 1.0 8 57.14 1 6 42.86 total 14 100.00 source: primary data analysis (2019) the efficiency calculation data using the deap 2.1 program shows 6 dmus (42.86%) having an efficiency value of 1 (100%) and 8 dmus (57.14%) with an efficiency value of 0.9 ≤ x <1.0. the difference in efficiency between tilapia retailers is not too high, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 215 the supply chain efficiency of ….. (dharmawan et al) with an average efficiency value of 0.982, indicating that the level of input and output uniformity between retailers is relatively the same. table 8. dmu characteristics based on the education level of tilapia retailers in wonogiri regency education level number of dmu (person) number of dmu efficient 1 (person) dmu percentage (%) dmu efficient 1 percentage (%) not completed elementary school 0 0 elementary school 1 0 7.14 junior high school 7 4 50.00 28.57 senior high school 6 2 42.86 14.28 higher education 0 0 total 14 6 100.00 42.85 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 8 shows 7 retailer’s dmus (50%) with junior high school education, 6 dmus (42.86%) having senior high school education, and only 1 dmu (7.14%) with elementary school education. of the 14 retailer’s dmus having an efficiency level of 1 (100%), four (28.57%) has an junior high school education, two (14.28%) have a senior high school education, and none has a elementary school education. 4. efficiency analysis of tilapia supply chain actors in wonogiri regency the efficiency calculation of tilapia supply chain actors based on the dea method on 50 farmers shows the same results between 6 wholesalers and 14 retailers in wonogiri regency as presented in table 9. table 9. dea processing data on the efficiency of tilapia supply chain actors description supply chain actors tilapia farmers wholesalers retailers number of dmu 50 6 14 number of efficient dmu 12 5 6 the average value of efficiency 0.789 0.998 0.982 the minimum value of efficiency 0.517 0.989 0.924 the maximum value for efficiency 1 1 1 source: primary data analysis (2019) sari et al. (2014) stated that dea can set targets to produce efficient performance and determine the value of input or output variables that must be increased or decreased to achieve the target value of potential improvement and attributes increased or decreased must be improved. 5. analysis of increasing the efficiency of tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency calculations using the dea method for 50 dmus of tilapia farmers show that 12 (24%) have an efficiency achievement of 1 (100%). the dmu efficiency calculation for tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency varies widely from 0.517 to 1, with an average efficiency level of 0.789, as shown in table 10. it means that many dmus need to evaluate their farming and look for causes of inefficiency. it is also a reference and shows the possibility of increasing output and improving the combination of input used by the dmus to achieve http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 216 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research efficiency. dmus that have not reached efficiency are expected to learn from dmus that have achieved efficiency to help their farming achieve efficiency levels. setiawan et al. (2011) argue that the dea calculation also provides information on potential improvement. hence, each farmer (unit) can improve their performance. in more detail, data on dea processing at the dmu of tilapia farmers are as follows: table 10. dea processing data on the efficiency of tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency in 2019 description total number of dmu 50 number of efficient dmu 12 the average value of efficiency 0.789 the minimum value of efficiency 0.517 the maximum value for efficiency 1 slack input average x1: cost of seeds 1,468,559.383 x2: feed costs 193,437.949 x3: labor costs (outside the family labor) 704,087.735 slack output average y1: total production 67.268 y2: income 2,851,911.946 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 10 indicates that the performance between one tilapia farmer and others is very different. the performance efficiency values of actors range from 0.517 (51.7%) to 1 (100%). moreover, the average efficiency value of tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency is 0.789. the constant return to scale (crs) calculation also looks at the slack of the input and output variables. input slack or input access can be defined as how much input can be proportionally reduced to make the dmu efficient. the output slack is how much output can be increased proportionally to make the dmu at the most efficient point. figure 2. average of input and output slacks of tilapia farmers in wonogiri regency figure 2 explains that output 2 (income) is the highest slack output. it shows the potential for an increase in the average income of idr 2,851,911,946 per farming period. the slack output that can be increased is output 1 (production), with an average increase of 67.268 kg per farming period. meanwhile, the highest input slack or input access is found in input 1, namely the cost of seeds issued with an average cost of idr 1,468,559,383 per period. it has the potential to be reduced without changing the amount of output to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 217 the supply chain efficiency of ….. (dharmawan et al) increase the efficiency value. the second input slack is in input 3, namely labor costs with an average of idr 704,087,735 per period, potentially reduced without changing the resulting output, thereby achieving the efficiency value. the lowest input slack is the feed cost with an average of idr 193,437,949, potentially reduced without changing the resulting output to achieve the efficiency value. 6. analysis of increasing efficiency of tilapia supply chain performance by wholesalers the performance efficiency of the wholesaler’s dmus is 0.989 to 1, with an average efficiency value of 0.998, following the data in table 10. it means that almost all of the wholesaler’s dmus are efficient. of the 6 dmus, only one is inefficient and needs improvements to increase output and enhance the combination of input used to achieve efficiency. the efficiency of the wholesaler’s dmus is as follows: table 11. dea processing data on the efficiency of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency in 2019 description total number of dmu 6 number of efficient dmu 5 the average value of efficiency 0.998 the minimum value of efficiency 0.989 the maximum value for efficiency 1 slack input average x1: cost of purchasing the product idr) 0.00 x2: labor costs (idr) 0.00 x3: transport fee (idr) 276,845.638 slack output average y1: total sales (kg) 10.798 y2: income (idr) 0.000 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 11 reveals that the performance between one wholesaler and another is not too different. the efficiency values of wholesalers range from 0.989 (98.9%) to 1 (100%). meanwhile, the average efficiency value of wholesalers was 0.998 (99.8%). the constant return to scale (crs) calculation also looks at the slack of the input and output variables. input or input excess can be defined as how much input can be reduced proportionally so that the dmu reaches the efficient point where the most efficient dmu is located. the slack output refers to how much output can be increased proportionally to make the dmu at the most efficient point (coelli, 1996). figure 3 explains that input 3 (transportation costs) is the highest slack input or the highest input excess, with a value of idr 276,845,638. it shows that the highest input can be reduced without changing the output amount to increase efficiency. in input 1, the purchase cost of tilapia is 0, meaning that the average purchase of the product has been efficient. whereas in input 2, the labor cost (sorting and loading and unloading) is 0, meaning that the average labor cost is efficient. in output 1, the number of sales can still increase by an average of 10.798 kg/month. whereas in output 2, the income is 0, meaning that the average income of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency is efficient. according to http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 218 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research chopra and meindl (2007), effective supply chain management involves flowing products, information and funds to maximize supply chain profits. figure 3. average of slack inputs and slack outputs of tilapia wholesalers in wonogiri regency 7. analysis of increasing efficiency of tilapia supply chain by retailers the dmu efficiency values of the supply chain performance of tilapia retailers in wonogiri regency range from 0.924 to 1. there are 8 (57.14%) inefficient dmus that should improve output and enhance the combination of input to achieve efficiency. the detailed results are presented in table 12. table 12. dea processing data on the efficiency of tilapia retailers in wonogiri regency in 2019 description total number of dmu 14 number of efficient dmu 6 the average value of efficiency 0.982 the minimum value of efficiency 0.924 the maximum value of efficiency 1 slack input average x1: purchase costs 226,634.383 x2: labor costs 18,886.199 x3: transport costs 149,708.075 slack output average y1: total sales 0.000 y2: income 0.000 source: primary data analysis (2019) table 12 shows that the performance between one retailer and other retailers is slightly different. the fluctuation value in the performance of the actors began with an efficiency value of 0.924 (92.4%) to 1 (100%). input slack or input excess can be defined as how much input can be reduced proportionally so that the dmu reaches an efficient point. figure 4 explains that the input slack input 1, which is the cost of purchasing tilapia products from retailers, has the highest input slack or input excess value, namely idr 226,634,383, per month, potentially to be reduced to increase the efficiency value. it can be performed by reducing prices to buy tilapia. furthermore, the second input slack is found in http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 219 the supply chain efficiency of ….. (dharmawan et al) input 3, namely transportation costs, with an average of idr 149,708,075. it shows that transportation costs can still be reduced to increase the efficiency value of less efficient retailers. reducing transportation costs can be conducted by reducing operational transportation costs through the use of cheaper and more efficient transportation fleets as well as using shorter road access. reducing transportation costs can also be performed by increasing the purchase of tilapia products with an on-site delivery system. while the third input slack is found in input 2, namely labor costs (loading and unloading and sorting), with an average slack input of idr 18,886,199. it indicates that labor costs can be reduced to increase the efficiency value of retailers. figure 4. average slack inputs of tilapia retailers in wonogiri regency in 2019 conclusions the following conclusions were drawn based on the analysis results and research objectives: 1. the supply chain mechanism of tilapia farming in wonogiri regency consisted of several levels of actors, from farmers, wholesalers and retailers. 2. some tilapia farmers chose to sell their products to wholesalers (35.71%) and retailers (64.29%), and none sold their products directly to consumers. 3. based on performance measurement using the dea method on actors in the supply chain of tilapia farming in wonogiri regency, the most efficient actors were wholesalers for having an average efficiency value of 0.998. it means that, on average, it has approached the value of 1 (efficient). meanwhile, the most inefficient actors were tilapia farmers with an average efficiency value of 0.789. of the 50 dmus of tilapia farmers, only 12 (24%) were efficient, while the remaining 38 dmus (76%) should be improved to achieve the expected efficiency. hence, farmers are actors in the supply chain of tilapia in wonogiri regency, requiring special attention. 4. the analysis results using the dea method showed that 83.33% of wholesaler’s dmus were declared efficient and 16.67% inefficient, while 42.86% of retailer’s dmus received an efficient value of 1 (100%), and the remaining 57.14% were inefficient. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 220 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research 5. inefficient dmus should be improved by imitating efficient dmus to increase output or improve input combinations to achieve efficiency. of 50 tilapia farmer’s dmus, 38 (76%) required improvements to achieve efficiency. furthermore, one (16.67%) from 6 wholesaler’s dmus required some improvements. meanwhile, of 14 retailer’s dmu, 8 (57.14%) also required improvements to achieve efficiency. references central statistics agency (badan pusat statistik nasional). (2020). laju pertumbuhan komulatif pdb menurut lapangan usaha (persen) 2016-2019. jakarta: bps. https://www.bps.go.id/dynamictable/2017/05/05/1253/-seri-2010-lajupertumbuhan-kumulatif-produk-domestik-bruto-menurut-lapangan-usaha-persen2017---2019.html central java of central statistics agency (badan pusat statistik provinsi jawa tengah). (2018). produksi perikanan budidaya menurut kabupaten/kota dan subsektor di provinsi jawa tengah. semarang: bps jawa tengah. https://jateng.bps.go.id/statictable/2017/10/27/1551/produksi-perikananbudidaya-menurut-kabupaten-kota-dan-subsektor-di-provinsi-jawa-tengah-ton2016.html coelli t. j., (1996), a guide to deap version 2.1: a data envelopment analysis (dea) (computer) program” cepa working papers, australia:.department of economics university of new england. chopra s, meindehl p. (2007). supply chain management: strategy, planning, and operation. new jersey: pearson prentice hall. dinas kelautan dan perikanan provinsi jawa tengah. (2017). perikanan budidaya jawa tengah dalam angka tahun 2016. semarang: dkp prov. jawa tengah. dirjen penguatan daya saing produk kelautan dan perikanan. (2018). produtifitas perikanan indonesia. jakarta: kkp. https://kkp.go.id/wpcontent/uploads/2018/01/kkp-dirjen-pdspkp-fmb-kominfo-19-januari-2018.pdf indrajit re, dan djokopranoto. r. (2002). konsep manajemen supply chain. cara baru memandang mata rantai penyediaan barang. jakarta: grasindo. janvier-james am. (2012). a new introduction to supply chains and supply chain management: definitions and theories perspective. international bussiness research journal5 (1): pp194-207. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v5n1p194 kohar dan wibowo. (2015). dampak pengembangan perikanan budidaya terhadap penurunan kemiskinan,peningkatan pendapatan dan penyerapan tenaga kerja di jawa tengah. semarang: undip. http://eprints.undip.ac.id/35266/1/makalahkohar-argo-jkt22sept-11.pdf nazir, moh. (2014). metode penelitian cet.9. bogor: ghalia indonesia. pujawan i.n. (2005). supply chain management. surabaya: guna widya. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 221 the supply chain efficiency of ….. (dharmawan et al) sari sw. nurmalina r. setiawan b. (2014). efisiensi kinerja rantai pasok ikan lele di indramayu, jawa barat. jurnal manajemen dan agribisnis. 11(1). https://doi.org/10.17358/jma.11.1.12-23 setiadi, et al.(2018). analisis kinerja rantai pasok ikan nila pada bandar sriandoyo di kecamatan tugumolyo kabupaten musi rawas. jurnal ilmiah manajemen vol.viii. http://dx.doi.org/10.22441/mix.2018.v8i1.010 setiawan, et al.(2011). studi peningkatan kinerja manajemen rantai pasok sayuran dataran tinggi di jawa barat. agritect vol.31. https://doi.org/10.22146/agritech.9727 surakhmad w. (1994). pengantar penelitian ilmiah. bandung: tarsito. suratna, dan lincolin arsyad. (1995). metodologi penelitian untuk ekonomi dan bisnis. yogyakarta: uup ykpn. trienekens jh. 2011. agricultural value chains in developing countries: a framework for analysis. journal of international food and agribusiness management review14 (2):1-82. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.103987 vorst vd, j.g.a.d. (2004). supply chain management: theory and practices. the emerging world of chains & networks, elsevier, hoofd-stuk 2.1. wegeningen https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40122004 zhou p, ang bw, poh kl. (2008). measuring environmental performance under different environmental dea technologies. journal technology economics. 30(1), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2006.05.001 http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2006.05.001 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history : submitted : december 7th, 2019 accepted : may 18th, 2020 nugrahana fitria ruhyana1*, wiedy yang essa2, mardianis3 1badan perencanaan pembangunan penelitian dan pengembangan daerah kabupaten sumedang 2badan perencanaan pembangunan penelitian dan pengembangan kota bandung 3badan penelitian dan pengembangan provinsi jambi *) correspondence email: nugrahana@gmail.com sociodemographic factors affecting household food security in sumedang regency west java province doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6189 abstract sumedang regency is categorized as food security at the regional level based on the 2015 food security and vulnerability atlas (fsva), but at the household level, there are still cases of food insecurity. the problem faced is that the determinants of food security have not been identified based on household characteristics. the objective of this study was to determine the sociodemographic factors that affect household food security in sumedang regency. this study uses a quantitative method with 690 household analysis units obtained from the 2015 susenas data. data were analyzed by the logistic regression method. sociodemographic factors that affect household food security in sumedang regency in 2015 from the aspect of household head characteristics are education, age, and smoking habits. while from the aspect of a household is the number of household members, rural residence, and position in work as a farm laborer. household food security in sumedang regency will be better if there is an increase in household income sources of farm laborers, increased economic activity in rural communities, and expansion of community education accessibility, optimization of family planning programs, and increased knowledge and awareness of healthy living behaviors by reducing smoking habits. keywords: food security, rural, agriculture, household, sociodemographic introduction fulfilment of food sufficiency is the most basic rights for the community and is a prerequisite for the fulfilment of other basic rights, such as the right to obtain an education, health, and decent work (badan ketahanan pangan, 2010). food sufficiency is also an investment in the formation of higher quality human resources in the future. food availability is often an indicator of an area's food security. however, adequate food supply at the regional level does not guarantee food security at the level of smaller administrative areas, even at the household and individual level (kurniadin, 2015). in sumedang regency, based on the food security and vulnerability atlas (fsva) is a food security categorized area. however, the results of a west java development data and analysis center study released in the 2013 west java food security statistics (badan http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 mailto:nugrahana@gmail.com issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 39 sociodemographic factors affecting..... (ruhyana, et.al.) ketahanan pangan daerah provinsi jawa barat, 2013) found that 28 villages in sumedang regency were potentially food insecure based on a review of 13 indicators on the fsva. if it is classified based on the main source of income of the population in the villages with potential food insecurity, it turns out that 27 of the 28 villages are agriculture-based villages dominated by rice and secondary crops. this condition is an irony, where the region which produces food with the main livelihood of its people as farmers but is not directly proportional to the conditions of food security of the people. on the other hand, the number of agricultural households in sumedang regency is still quite dominant when compared to other sectors. based on the results of the 2013 agriculture census, there were 134,394 agricultural households in sumedang (badan pusat statistik provinsi jawa barat, 2013). if it is assumed that each household has 4 members and the population in 2013 was 1,125,125 people, then almost half of the population in sumedang relied on the agricultural sector as a source of income. this was reinforced by 2015 sakernas (survey of national employment work force) data which estimated that 30% of the workforce in sumedang regency had their livelihoods depend on agriculture, forestry and fisheries, and another 70% spread across 16 sectors/categories of employment. food security in sumedang regency also faces threats due to the national project for the construction of the jatigede reservoir and the development of the cisumdawu toll road. the two projects caused the conversion of productive paddy fields around 2,183.30 hectares which consequently decreased rice production to at least 21,833 tons/(badan perencanaan pembangunan kabupaten sumedang, 2011). on the other hand, according to data from the agriculture and fisheries extension service agency for agriculture and forestry in sumedang regency (2016), culturally the sumedang community still has a high dependency on rice. the existence of affected persons (orang terkena dampak) due to the construction of the jatigede reservoir can increase the potential for more serious food insecurity given that their access to food is very limited due to loss of jobs and the resources they have. this needs to be a matter of concern for the sumedang regency government thus community food security is maintained, not only on the aspect of adequate food availability but also on food access and consumption. measuring food security is not enough only at the macro level that reflects food availability, but it needs to be measured up to the micro-level that illustrates how individuals or households can meet food needs. food law no. 7 of 1996 states that the fulfillment of food needs for every household is not only reflected in the availability of adequate quantity and quality of food, safe, equitable, and affordable but must be able to be accessed to the level of households and individuals without exception (suharyanto, 2011). to understand the condition of food security at the household level, information is needed on what factors affect household food security in sumedang regency. this is important so that policymakers can provide appropriate interventions to overcome the problem of food security at the micro-level based on existing conditions in sumedang regency. the problem faced is that the determinants of food security at the household level have not http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 40 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research yet been identified, especially when faced with the situation of agricultural households in rural areas which are thought to have lower levels of food security. this study aims to address problems related to factors which are suspected to affect food security in sumedang regency at the micro-level, namely households, specifically sociodemographic aspects which include household characteristics. the results of this study are expected to provide a picture of food security at the household level that will complement food security studies that have been carried out at the macro level, namely in the aspect of food availability in sumedang regency. several previous studies related to household food security at the micro level were used as an approach to understanding the determinants of food security in sumedang regency. this paper emphasizes differences in sources of income and domicile of households, whether people who depend on agriculture and live in rural areas have better food security or vice versa, in addition to other factors that are allegedly strong in determining household food security. this is expected to be a reference for policymakers, especially in the sumedang regency government to formulate a strategy to improve food security, which is largely dependent on the agricultural sector and in rural areas. food security is defined as a condition of food sufficiency that is experienced by regions, communities, or households, at certain times to meet the physiological needs standards for growth and public health (dewan ketahanan pangan, 2010). at the micro or household level, food security can be measured by various approaches. according to the fao at the 1996 world food summit, formulating food security was achieved when everyone at all times had physical and economic access to meet sufficient and nutritious food needs and support an active and healthy life (kurniadin, 2015). an indicator of the number of calories per capita per day is measured based on the angka kecukupan gizi (akg). widyakarya nasional pangan dan gizi (wnpg) x of 2014 recommends that food availability criteria be set at a minimum of 2,400 kcal/capita/day for energy and a minimum of 63 grams/capita/day for protein. while from the aspect of consumption, it meets a minimum of 2,150 kcal/capita/day for energy and a minimum of 57 grams/capita/day for protein (badan ketahanan pangan, 2017). a household will be categorized as sufficient if its energy consumption exceeds 90% of the rda (recommended dietary allowance) or equal to 1,935 kcal/capita/day, and if it is equal or less than that amount then it is categorized as food insecurity. meanwhile, if it less than 70% of the rda or below 1,505 kcal/capita/day, it is categorized as very food insecure. as for the criteria of food expenditures, household food expenditure can be categorized high if the proportion of household food expenditure exceeds 60%. households with a large proportion of food expenditure are very vulnerable to food insecurity because if there is a decline in income (for example due to loss of work, natural disasters, severe illness that causes unemployment, or policy of rising prices), they only have very large reserves of resources limited to be allocated to meet the household food needs (kurniadin, 2015). in this study, indicators of food insecurity use a combination of the proportion of household food expenditure with calorie consumption (table 1) or what is known as the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 41 sociodemographic factors affecting..... (ruhyana, et.al.) jonsson and toole model adopted by maxwell et.al (2000) as a measure of household food access (blaney et al., 2009). in indonesia, the model has been used in several studies (arida et al., 2015; january, 2014; widada et al., 2017) as an approach to measure household food security. table 1. the level of food security based on jonsson and toole classification with some modification calorie intake proportion of food expenditures low (<60% of total expenditure) high (> 60% of total expenditure) sufficient (> 80% from ake*) food secure (food secure) food vulnerable (food insecure) not sufficient (<80% from ake*) food less secure (food insecure) food insecure (food insecure) source : modified from maxwell et al. (2000) *ake is standard indonesian energy sufficiency from food consumption equal to 2.150 kkal/capita/days to determine the factors which are suspected to influence household food insecurity, it is pursued through a review of several empirical studies previously carried out by experts and researchers. most of the previous studies used indicators of food insecurity as the amount of calorie intake. standard minimum calorie requirements vary at each time and place, for example, research conducted in pakistan is a minimum of 2,450 kcal/capita/day (bashir et al., 2013; khalid et al., 2012). in nigeria, the minimum calorie requirement is 2,260 kcal/capita/day (babatunde et al., 2007), while in bangladesh it is 2,122 kcal/capita/day (alam, 2014), even in south africa the minimum energy consumption requirement for adults reaches 2,650 kcal/capita/day (sekhampu, 2013). in west java province based on 2012 susenas data, the average calorie consumption reached 1,967 kcal/capita/day (kurniadin, 2015). based on the results of previous studies, food security/insecurity at the household level is largely determined by various factors both social, economic and demographic. several previous studies have made sociodemographic factors as determining variables in understanding a problem at the micro or household level. juanita et al. (2011) used sociodemographic factors such as employment, education, income, gender, location of residence, and health insurance as determinant variables in determining health subsidy policies for poor households related to smoking behavior. rita & kusumawati (2011), revealed the behavior of credit card use through sociodemographic variables including gender, age, education level, marital status, employment, position and income. putri & rahyuda (2017) make gender and income as sociodemographic factors that influence individual investment decisions. household income factors, number of household members and household head characteristics in terms of education, age, gender, and employment status are some sociodemographic variables that determine household food security (alam, 2014; babatunde et al., 2007; bashir et al., 2013; kurniadin, 2015; sekhampu, 2013). in this study, the http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 42 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research employment status is clarified into agriculture and non-agriculture to prove whether those who work in the agricultural sector tend to be more vulnerable to food than other sectors. another factor not examined in some previous studies but which has an association with household food security is smoking, especially in low-income households, where smoker households have a higher chance of becoming food insecure (armour et al., 2007; kirkpatrick & tarasuk, 2008). based on the results of previous studies and theories related to household food security, as well as food security conditions extracted from the data that has been presented, the hypothesis in this study is: household food security in sumedang regency is influenced by differences in the sociodemographic characteristics of households, particularly the employment sector and residence. methodology this research uses quantitative methods. the scope of the study is limited to household food security which is influenced by sociodemographic aspects, namely household characteristics which include sources of income, residence, number of members, and several characteristics of household heads such as age, education, gender, and smoking habits. the data source used is the result of the 2015 national socio-economic survey (survey sosial ekonomi nasional/susenas) with 798 households and 2,604 individuals in it (badan pusat statistik, 2016). the unit of analysis of this study is households with a total of 690 units that have complete data based on the variables studied. the type of data is the cross-section. the model in this study uses several variables from previous studies that are relevant to the problem under study. the dependent variable is a dummy variable that has a value of 1 for food secure households, and 0 (zero) for households that are not categorized as food secure. the independent variables used include the characteristics of the household and the head of the household as described in table 2. the model in this study was formulated as follows: 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑠𝑒𝑐_ℎℎ = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑟 + 𝛽2𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 + 𝛽3𝑟𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 + 𝛽4ℎℎ𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 + 𝛽5𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦_ℎℎℎ + 𝛽6𝑎𝑔𝑒_ℎℎℎ + 𝛽7𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑞_ℎℎℎ + 𝛽8𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒_ℎℎℎ + 𝛽9𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔_ℎℎℎ + 𝑈𝑖 foodsec_hh = 1 if household is food secure; 0 = food insecure households farmworker = 1 if the largest income households from the agricultural sector and its status as a labourer; 0 = other sharecropper = 1 if the largest household income is from the agricultural sector and its status as sharecropper; 0 = other rural = 1 if the household domicile in rural areas, 0 = if in urban areas hhmember = number of household members (people) primary_hhh = 1 if the education of the household head only finished primary education; 0 = minimum high school graduation age_hhh = age of household head (years) agesq_hhh = age quadratic head of household (years) http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 43 sociodemographic factors affecting..... (ruhyana, et.al.) male_hhh = 1 if the gender of household head is male; 0 = household head is female smoking_hhh = 1 if the head of household is smoking; 0 = head of household is not smoking data were processed with stata software version 14 using the logit regression method as was done in several previous studies. logit regression is an appropriate method for the dependent variable in this study is binary, which has odds of 1 (food security) or 0 (food insecurity). result and discussions descriptive analysis of respondent characteristics by food security category the number of households in the 2015 susenas data for sumedang regency is 798 units. 690 households have complete data to be processed in logistic regression. based on household food security indicators, most households in sumedang regency are categorized as food insecurity (figure 1). this condition is in line with the findings of kurniadin (2015) who also examined household food security in west java province using susenas 2012 data, that more households are categorized as food vulnerable, although with a more equitable proportion than what happened in sumedang regency. this shows that there are still many households in sumedang regency that have a proportion of food expenditure that is large enough to indicate the level of welfare of the majority of the community is still relatively low. figure 1. the proportion of households respondent according to food security status characteristics of sample households based on food security criteria in more detail are presented in table 2. there are still many households that rely on the agricultural sector to support daily life (29% of the agricultural sector), but only a small proportion are categorized as food security, namely 54 houses households or around 27 percent of the total agricultural households that were respondents (198 households), or when compared to all households including non-agriculture the number is only 8 percent. while the non-agricultural households more resilient food (201 households or 29 percent of the total household). the number of members of sample households, in general, is a core family with the proportion of food security is better than a family that has more members of the household. based on the residence, 61 percent of respondents are households that live in rural areas. this is because most of the sumedang regency is rural. if we compare the proportion of households categorized food security in the rural areas still lower, only 130 households, or food secure 37% food less secure 7% food vulnerabl e 47% food insecure 9% http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 44 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research about 31 percent of total household respondents, while food secure households living in urban areas the proportion is 46 percent. the highest number is in the category of food vulnerability which reaches 227 households in rural areas. this finding is in line with the research of arida et al. (2015) where the proportion of household expenditure on food insecurity in rural areas is relatively higher than the urban population, with an average of above 60 percent, which means that food expenditure still dominates household expenditure in rural areas. table 2. characteristics of respondent households based on food security indicators variable numbers of household secure less vulnerable insecure total percentage sources of revenue from the agriculture sector farm workers 13 1 38 10 62 9% farmers cultivators 41 7 81 7 136 20% non-agriculture 201 42 203 46 492 71% household location rural area 130 28 227 36 421 61% urban area 125 22 95 27 269 39% number of household members 1 4 213 37 268 33 551 80% > 4 42 13 54 30 139 20% educational background of the household head primary 166 38 283 58 545 79% mid-high 89 12 39 5 145 21% age of head of household 15-64 228 46 266 53 593 86% > 64 27 4 56 10 97 14% gender head of household male 234 44 306 60 644 93% female 21 6 16 3 46 7% smoking habit of household heads smoking 172 34 247 50 503 73% non-smoking 83 16 75 13 187 27% source: susenas (2015) characteristics of household heads are seen from the level of education, most are primary school graduates or have a diploma up to junior high school level. compared to head of households with secondary education to tertiary education, the proportion of household food security with the head of the household only to primary education is dominated by food vulnerable groups, while households with heads of secondary and higher education are dominated by the food security group. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 45 sociodemographic factors affecting..... (ruhyana, et.al.) the age of household heads is dominated by those of productive age (86 percent), most of whom are in the food vulnerable category. viewed from the sex of the head of the household, most are male, with the largest portion being in the food vulnerable category. another characteristic that attracts attention is the difference between smoking habit, whereas many as 73 percent of household heads have smoking habits. judging from the status of household food security, even though smoking, the number of food secure households reaches 2 times more than non-smoking households. however, in households that have a smoking habit, the number of vulnerable and food insecure reaches 3 times more than households without smokers. statistical testing and analysis of regression results the results of the statistical testing of each variable in the logit regression model are shown in table 3. the effect of each variable is explained as follows. table 3. logit regression results variabel logit coefficient marginal effect farmworker -0.672* -0.139* sharecropper -0.122 -0.051 rural -0.368** -0.076** hhmember -0.213*** -0.044*** primary_hhh 1.120*** 0.232*** age_hhh 0.130*** 0.027*** agesq_hhh -0.001*** -0.000*** male_hhh -0.080 -0.017 smoking_hhh -0.461* -0.096** constant -1.160 chi2 77.146 77.146 # of obs. 690 690 * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01 the largest source of household income (agriculture vs non-agriculture) following the hypothesis that the variable source of household income from agriculture and non-agriculture is one of the distinguishing factors of household food security in sumedang regency. in this study, the authors distinguish the status in employment in the agricultural sector, namely as farm labourers or sharecroppers who own agricultural land. this is aimed at obtaining more specific information about whether there are differences in household food security for those who work in the same agricultural sector but have different occupational positions. the results of the marginal effect test from logit regression show the opposite direction to food security in both farm labourers and sharecroppers, but the significance is different where the farm labourers are significant at a 90 percent confidence level, while for sharecropping farmers it is not significant. this can be interpreted that not all households with the largest source of income come from the agricultural sector, therefore household food security is lower than households whose source of income is not from the agricultural sector. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 46 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research only households with occupational status in the agricultural sector as agricultural labourers have 13.9 percent lower food security compared to other jobs, assumes ceteris paribus. the results of previous studies prove that ownership of agricultural land assets is one of the determinants of household food security, especially in rural areas (alam, 2014; babatunde et al., 2007). in other studies located in rural areas, ownership of productive assets such as agricultural land, vehicles, livestock and other equipment that can generate income has a positive relationship with food security (bashir et al., 2013; khalid et al., 2012). based on data from the agricultural census of west java province (badan pusat statistik, 2013), 134,394 agricultural land use households in sumedang regency, 103,764 (77%) were smallholder households with less than 0.5 hectares of land. this shows the low mastery of agricultural land by farmers in rural areas of sumedang regency which has an impact on the low business scale, inefficiency of production facilities, which ultimately leads to low income of agricultural households. other data supporting the results of this study are high poverty in the primary sector, especially in the palawija rice subsector which is a poverty enclave with 37.48% of poor households out of the total number of poor households in sumedang regency (tim nasional percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan, 2015). however, smallholder farmers still have a better level of household food security compared to farm labourers. previous research also proves the same thing that the proportion of food-insecure households is still dominated by those who rely on work in the agricultural sector (arida et al., 2015). in addition, the high level of poverty in rural areas also contributes to worsening food security conditions (timmer, 2014). the findings of this study reinforce the previous fact that rural areas that have the potential for food insecurity in sumedang regency are dominated by areas where the main source of income of the people comes from the agricultural sector, especially rice and secondary agriculture which has many farm labourers. it is this farm labour household that needs serious attention from the sumedang regency government to improve its quality of life, considering that the biggest poverty pockets are in the palawija rice sub-sector. household domicile household domicile is also a variable that significantly influences (at 90 percent confidence level) on household food security. many previous studies have examined food insecurity in rural areas, including; babatunde et al. (2007) in rural nigeria, bashir et al. (2013) and khalid et al. (2012) in rural pakistan, and (sari & prishardoyo, 2009) in wiru village, bringin district, semarang regency. marginal effect results show that at a 95 percent confidence level, households that live in rural areas have lower food security of 7.6 percent compared to households living in urban areas, assuming ceteris paribus. this finding is reasonable considering the poverty rate in rural areas is still higher than in urban areas (badan pusat statistik, 2016). according to kurniadin (2015), this is related to the low productivity and quality of farmers and agriculture, the limited access of farmers to capital resources, and the low quality and quantity of agricultural and rural infrastructure. as http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 47 sociodemographic factors affecting..... (ruhyana, et.al.) a result, the welfare of communities in rural areas, especially farmers, is still very low (arida et al., 2015). hopefully, through the current dana desa (village fund), rural infrastructure and other supporting facilities for the agricultural sector can be better. number of household members in previous studies, it was known that more household members or family dependents would reduce household food security (alam, 2014; babatunde et al., 2007; bashir et al., 2013; khalid et al., 2012; sekhampu, 2013). this study shows the same results with a 99 percent confidence level that each additional one household member will reduce food security by 4.4%, assuming ceteris paribus. a logical condition if the household has many household members, moreover still in school-age or not yet productive to help increase household income, then the share of household food expenditure will increase. this condition will have an impact on decreasing household food security, especially if it occurs to those who are low income or even poor. educational background of the household head as in previous studies, education of household heads is one of the factors that have a strong influence on household food security both in rural areas (babatunde et al., 2007; bashir et al., 2013; sari & prishardoyo, 2009) and in more regions broad includes rural and urban areas (alam, 2014; khalid et al., 2012; kurniadin, 2015). from the marginal logit regression effect at a 99 percent confidence level, it can be interpreted that household heads who are only educated up to elementary school level shown by the basic krt variable, have lower food security by 23.2% compared to household heads with secondary or higher education. , assuming ceteris paribus. this condition reflects that the education of parents, especially the head of the household, plays an important role in improving the quality of life of household members. higher education provides a broader opportunity for someone to obtain decent work so that they have sufficient income to meet quality food (alam, 2014). in addition, the level of education also influences knowledge about nutrition and nutritional needs (bashir et al., 2014). the results of this study reinforce that education is a long-term investment to improve the quality of life of the community. age of head of household the age of the head of the household in this research model is used as in previous studies which included age squared as a control that the relationship of age and food security is not linear. based on the calculation of the marginal effect at a 99 percent confidence level, it is known that every additional one year of age of the head of the household in the productive age period, the chances of the household to become food security will increase by 2.7%, assuming ceteris paribus. this result is in line with previous studies that the age of the head of the household is directly proportional to household food security (babatunde et al., 2007; bashir et al., 2013; kurniadin, 2015; sekhampu, 2013). the results of this study also indicate a relationship between the life cycle of a household head and economic stability with age. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 48 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research however, increasing the age of the head of the household after passing through a productive period will reduce household food security due to limited financial capacity. gender of head of household the gender difference in the head of the household in this study turned out not to be a determining factor in household food security in sumedang regency. proved by the variable male_hhh which showed insignificant results (table 3). this shows that the empowerment of women in rural areas is better so that women are more independent and even help to make a living for their families. one of the programs, for example, the empowerment of women through the kelompok wanita tani (peasant womens group) in rural areas of sumedang regency. this could also be due to financial transfers from family members who are already working, or even the breadwinner is due to the wife due to her husband who is old or unable to work anymore. from several previous studies, only the sekhampu (2013) study proved that the gender of the head of the household was a factor influencing household food security, while in alam's study (2014) the results were not significant. smoking habit of household heads the smoking habit of the head of the household in this study is one of the factors that is proven to significantly affect household food security. from the calculation of the marginal effect at a 95 percent confidence level, it can be interpreted that if the head of the household has a smoking habit, the food security of the household is 9.6% lower than that of the household whose head of the household does not have a smoking habit, assuming ceteris paribus. the findings of this study reinforce the results of previous studies. the research results of armour et.al. (2007) proved that poor households who have smoking habits have a 6% higher chance of becoming food insecure when compared to poor households who do not have smoking habits. kirkpatrick & tarasuk (2008) found a significant relationship between household food security status and smoking habits of adults in food-insecure households. the influence of smoking habits on household food security will be very obvious in low-income households because smoking habits will increase household expenditure but in no way add calories and nutrients for smokers and family members. research suryawati et al. (2012) using data from the indonesian family life survey (ifls) in 2007, 35.71 percent of poor households have a smoking habit with an average monthly cigarette expenditure of rp. 86,496 or about 13.13 percent of total household expenditure. the worse impact of smoking habits, especially on poor households not only cause food insecurity but can cause malnutrition in children and toddlers (semba et al., 2007). conclusions several factors affect household food security in sumedang regency, both in terms of household characteristics (the main source of income and position in employment, domicile, and number of household members) and characteristics of household heads (education, age, and smoking habits). household food security in sumedang regency will be better if there is http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 49 sociodemographic factors affecting..... 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(2007). paternal smoking is associated with increased risk of child malnutrition among poor urban families in indonesia. public health nutrition, 10(1), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/s136898000722292x suharyanto, h. (2011). ketahanan pangan. jurnal sosial humaniora, 4(2), 186–194. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 51 sociodemographic factors affecting..... (ruhyana, et.al.) suryawati, c., kartikawulan, l. r., & hariyadi, k. (2012). konsumsi rokok rumah tangga miskin di indonesia dan penyusunan agenda kebijakannya. jurnal kebijakan kesehatan indonesia, 01(02), 69–76. tim nasional percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan. (2015). basis data terpadu untuk program perlindungan sosial. timmer, c. p. (2014). food security, market processes, and the role of government policy. in encyclopedia of agriculture and food systems (pp. 324–337). elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-52512-3.00033-4 widada, a. w., masyhuri, & mulyo, j. h. (2017). faktor faktor yang mempengaruhi ketahanan pangan di indonesia. agro ekonomi, 28(2). http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 2: july-december 2020 article history: submitted: august 2nd, 2020 accepted: september 23rd, 2020 malose m. tjale, marizvikuru mwale* and beata m. kilonzo university of venda, institute for rural development, south africa *) correspondence email: marizvikuru.manjoro@univen.ac.za intervention strategy for enhancing livelihoods of land reform farmers in waterberg district, south africa doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6299 abstract despite south africa implementing various land reform policies post 1994 to address poverty and inequality, poor performance of restitution farms and unimproved livelihoods of farm beneficiaries still exist. hence, the objective of the study was to develop an intervention strategy between july 2016 and june 2017, to improve livelihoods of farm beneficiaries in south africa and beyond. quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect and analyse data. transformative research design was used. focus group discussions, nonparticipatory observation, interviews and feedback sessions were used to collect qualitative data from 26 key informants in waterberg district. a questionnaire was utilized to collect quantitative data from 289 farm beneficiaries drawn from 32 farms in the district. qualitative data, was analysed using thematic content while statistical package for the social sciences (spss) version 25 was used for quantitative data. ranking analysis was performed to determine factors contributing to non-performance of the farms. majority of respondents (84.4%) agreed that farm production decreased and beneficiaries’ livelihoods remained the same since restoration. therefore, an intervention strategy that included support production system, improved market access and incorporation of agricultural economic experts and engineers was developed to unleash agricultural potential in restitution farms. keywords: farm performance, intervention strategy, land restitution, restitution farm, rural livelihoods introduction worldwide, countries have implemented land reform programmes to address the challenges of poverty and inequality (lipton, 2012). the programmes are also meant to provide people with important livelihood opportunities, such as livestock rearing, crop production and game farming in order to increase income, power and status (lipton, 2012). in south asia state-led land reforms are widely regarded as having met the objective and delivered significant benefits by decreasing absolute landlessness and reducing poverty because of predominant market-orientation policy. however, there were several challenges experienced by the farm beneficiaries that ultimately hinder the restitution farms from improving their livelihoods, hence, this study is intended to develop an intervention strategy to enhance productive utilization of the farms that may lead to sustainability and http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 182 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research improvement in the livelihood of the farm beneficiaries. in china “household contract responsibility strategy was implemented to deal with land reform issues in the rural areas since 1978. however, the system was ineffective, and farmers failed to increase income from their farms” (jiming, 2013). since 2000, zimbabwe has implemented the fast track land reform programme (ftlrp) to speed up the distribution of land to indigenous people. unfortunately, the agricultural production declined and the entire economy has shrunk by approximately 40 % (nyawo, 2014). the land reform programme in south africa was not different from that of other nations. it arose from the need to redress the past historical and socio-economic injustice imposed on the people by the former apartheid form of government (mabuza, 2016). the programme addressed three strategic sub-programmes which are: land tenure, land redistribution and land restitution to alleviate poverty and improve livelihoods of the land reform farm beneficiaries. however, most analysts are of the view that south africa`s post-1994 land reform programme has been a dismal failure (hendricks et al., 2013). although land reform policies were developed in south africa post 1994 such as land reform policy discussion document, willing-seller willing-buyer policy and proactive land acquisition strategy (plas), there was no intervention strategy that could be used, in particular for the restituted farms beneficiaries to enhance their livelihoods. however, land reform as a systematic solution to deal with a number of socio-economic factors faced by many people in the world, should be implemented correctly to benefit the poor beneficiaries (maboa, 2014). the ownership and control of land remain highly sensitive in africa, and particularly in countries with a history of settler colonialism (pilossof, 2016). added to this, mabuza (2016) indicated that africa, been the most affected continent due to colonisation by the western countries where land dispossession has resulted in poverty, food insecurity, loss of income, skewed land ownership and poor economy in general, this affected land reform in several countries such as namibia, kenya, rwanda, zimbabwe and south africa to battle over land and agricultural resources (maboa, 2014). this include waterberg district where the study has been conducted. in south africa, in the year 2006/2007, the department of rural development and land reform (drdlr) allocated 32 restitution farms to beneficiaries in waterberg district (drdlr, 2013). the objective was to improve rural livelihoods and alleviate poverty but failure of the programme rather compromised the farm beneficiaries’ livelihoods (pringle, 2013). added to this, the unimpressive results of the land reform programme indicated the failure of the programmes to fight poverty, inequality and social exclusion (walker, 2012). about 90% of the land acquired by the state and allocated to emerging farmers became unproductive, and this notion was supported by the government which also admitted that 90% of these farming projects failed to be productive (kloppers, 2014). the unproductivity of the restitution farms, thus, rather increased the levels of poverty among the beneficiaries instead of breaking the circle of poverty. as an example, aliber & cousins (2013) indicate unsuccessful outcomes of the performance of the 117 land reform farms in capricorn and vhembe districts in limpopo province. out of 117 land reform farms, 81 were redistribution http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 183 intervention strategy for enhancing ….. (tjale et al) and 36 were restitution, however, aliber & cousins (2013) confirm that by 2007, only 46% of the farms were not effective, and 40% activities of beneficiaries on the land were noticeable. farms that had no beneficiary involvement were at 3%, while 10% of the farms had no information which suggest that the land was not being effectively used. most of the restitution farmers failed to produce due to little or no farming activities. furthermore, a study carried out by mutanga (2011) revealed that the previously productive lisbon estate which exported citrus fruit and mangoes in mpumalanga province, had failed to produce after land was given back to its rightful owners who were disadvantaged of their land. timongo subtropical fruits and nuts farm in the levubu valley of the limpopo province is another farm which failed after it was restored to two communities that initiated a co-operation as strategic partners, however, due to an extended restitution process there was an estimated 40% decline in employment of the existing workforce (hall et al., 2013). the existing workers who were distinct interest groups and dwellers were generally ignored in the restitution process. in the south african context, several land reform policies such as land reform policy discussion document of 2012, willing-buyer willing-seller policy 1995 and proactive land acquisition strategy of 2006, have been implemented to address inequality in land ownership. however, poor farms performance and unimproved livelihoods of beneficiaries still exist. the emphasis on land reform which carry additional strategic significance of giving land to the poor people to achieve economic and social equity and create more employment among those who received land was failing, and its objective is largely not been achieved (cousins, 2019). hence, the current study was undertaken to develop a threepronged intervention strategy to help land reform farm beneficiaries in waterberg district and entire south africa, to realise sufficient production that could ultimately enhance their livelihoods. research method description of the study area the study was conducted at waterberg district municipality in limpopo province of south africa. the district shares boundaries with botswana to the north-western and to the east is the greater sekhukhune district municipality north-east, is capricorn district municipality while to the south of the district is gauteng province, and finally, to the southwestern of the district is north west province (waterberg district municipality integrated development plan (wdm idp), 2018). there are six towns and 10 townships within the district (wdm idp, 2018). the district covers an area of 44 913 square kilometres, consisting of 4 951 882 hectares (stats sa, 2011). the estimated number of people living within the district is 679 336, with an estimated 179 866 households (stats sa, 2011). the area falls within the summer rainfall region of limpopo province, with the average annual rainfall of 600 and 650 mm occurring in january and december, and agricultural potential is associated with topographical soils (wdm idp, 2018). the overall employment level, measured simply by the total number of people who are either formally or informally employed, has decreased by an average of 1.07% per annum since 1995 (waterberg local economic development http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 184 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research (led), 2014). the unemployment rate is higher in the district at 28.1%, which is higher than the 20, 3% of the entire limpopo province (stats sa, 2019). the district municipality consists of six local municipalities with 79 wards (wdm idp, 2018). as shown in figure 1, the local municipalities are mogalakwena, mookgophong, modimolle, belabela, thabazimbi and lephalale, and most of the farms are predominantly in mogalakwena and mookgophong. (waterberg district municipality idp, 2013). although the district consists of 79 wards, not all the wards participated in this study, as focus was only on the wards where restitution farms are located. source: waterberg district municipality idp (2018) figure 1. map of the study area, waterberg district research design a transformative research design was applied using quantitative approach. a questionnaire with close-ended questions was used to collect data through a farm survey to study important issues on the livelihoods of farm beneficiaries. the design address issues of the land dispossession as well as influences change on the marginalized farm beneficiaries through the restitution programme. the rationale for using a transformative research design was to upsurge the probability of the marginalized restitution farm beneficiaries being adequately represented and to encourage them to participate in the study. data from the farm beneficiaries included records for the restitution farms in waterberg district thereby conforming to a case study approach, and essential issues on farm production. population and sampling methods the study was based on the emancipatory research paradigm. it was conducted between july 2016 and june 2017 with the aim of gathering inputs from the research participants; that informed the development of the intervention strategy. the strategy is envisaged to bring solutions to problems experienced by farm beneficiaries at restitution farms. the population target of 4 445 with a sample size of 474 was used for this study. out http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 185 intervention strategy for enhancing ….. (tjale et al) of the population, 4 409 were farm beneficiaries from 32 farms and 36 key stakeholders who were 22 ward councillors, seven traditional leaders from the areas or wards where restitution farms are located, six agricultural extension officials and one officer from department of rural development and land reform (drdlr) who was working in the waterberg district. furthermore, 64 are executive members of the farms either as chairpersons or secretaries, hence, a chairperson and a secretary from each of the 32 farms formed part of the sampling size; the remaining 384 participants were ordinary farm beneficiaries who are not in the executive committee, and 12 farm beneficiaries were selected from each of the 32 farms to form part of the sample size. the study used stratified sampling method based on convenient and probability type of sampling to select 474 respondents. the aim to choose stratified sampling method was to conveniently study different types of restitution farms and their impact on improving livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries. the 32 restitution farms are differentiated according to the following seven categories: (a) livestock farming, (b) crop farming, (c) game farming, (d) livestock and crop farming, (e) game and livestock farming, (f) game and crop farming as well as (g) game, crop and livestock farming. the aim for using the stratified sampling method was also to study the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries who come from the seven different categories of restitution farms. however, out of the sample size of 474, only 289 respondents managed to participate in the study. that means out of the 289 respondents, 263 farm beneficiaries and 26 key stakeholders managed to participate actively in the study. however, during the feedback session, 72 participants managed to come, that is, 64 farm beneficiaries, two from each farm represented by the chairperson and one member of the farm. the other respondents who came were five (5) chiefs, three (3) officials from the department of agriculture and one (1) official from drdlr. data collection methods focus-group discussions (fgds), non-participatory observation, interviews, and feedback session were used to collect qualitative data from 26 key informants, while quantitative data was collected using a structured questionnaire to interview 263 farm beneficiaries coming from the 32 farms. observation method was employed during the interviews to observe the status of the farms and behaviours of farm beneficiaries when working on farms. feedback workshop was used for confirmation of findings and gap filling of data that might have been omitted during the first visit of collecting data. in order to finalize the developed intervention strategy, the information drawn from the feedback session method contributed significantly. the feedback session was conducted at modimolle local municipality and about 72 farm beneficiaries and key stakeholders who were interviewed during the study participated. these came through invitation and were from the 32 farms who initially participated in studies on land restitution. during the feedback workshop session, previous research findings were presented and participants confirmed and added new facts emanating from the study area. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 186 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research data analysis method as part of data management, there are certain preliminaries that were done prior the collection and actual analysis of data. the data management plan included identifying software and creating templates for capturing and storing data, organising who accesses the data, having password encryption on the datasets and securing lockable cabinets for storage of data in print. the data storage was pegged at 5 years to allow verification and publication purposes. before analysis, data was recorded and cleaned through correcting errors. out of the four types of data measurements which are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio; mainly the first three were used to depict the relationship between land reform farms and the improvement of livelihoods of the land reform farm beneficiaries. the statistical package for the social science (spss version 25) was used as a tool to analyse the quantitative data from the questionnaires. ranking analysis was used to sort the factors that determined the performance or non-performance of farms by importance. the spss was also used to compute descriptive statistics of the farm beneficiaries within the restitution farms. the aim of using spss was to systematically reorganize raw quantitative data on a specifically developed form to analyse and to interpret descriptive statistics and rankings. transcription of interviews, coding and computer spreadsheet as data analysis techniques were used to compute statistics that determine the relationships of certain variables, such as year in which the farm was restored, income of the farms, income of the individual beneficiaries, education levels, age of beneficiaries, number of dependents within the beneficiaries’` households, number of years working on the farm, producing frequencies and production percentages. for qualitative data from interviews, fgds and observation methods, thematic content analysis was used to compute themes, patterns, coding relationships and tree diagrams, and to get participants’ experience and opinions that informed the development of the intervention strategy. limitations of the methodology used in the study feedback sessions are very important in a research because they provide opportunity for confirmation of findings and fill any gaps that might have been omitted during the time of data collection. however, during the session some farm beneficiaries who came were not those who were selected and interviewed during data collection. this situation caused lack of consistency of some of the data and making it invalid. however, during the plenary session prior feedback session, the researcher identified first those who were present during data collection and obtained the missing information, and later gave opportunity to farm beneficiaries who did not participate during the data collection phase to contribute. the beneficiaries provided valuable inputs that was infused into the intervention strategy. ethical considerations research ethics were adhered to during the collection, analysis and storage of data. the ethics entailed but not limited to respect, avoiding harm to respondents, confidentiality, avoiding deception during research, security of data storage and permission to publish the study. above all, institutional ethical clearance from the university of venda research ethics committee was secured for permission to conduct the study (sardf/16/ird/06). finally, http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 187 intervention strategy for enhancing ….. (tjale et al) permission in writing was secured from the drdlr, wdm, department of agriculture and house of traditional leaders to carry out the study. regarding community entry, prior to data collection, the locally acceptable protocols were adhered to when meeting with the relevant structures in the communities. results and discussions the south african government embarked on land reform programme since 1995 with the main aim to redress the previous injustice on land ownership imposed on the people by the former apartheid regime (zenker, 2014). this land reform programme was implemented in the whole of south africa including waterberg district where the study was conducted. prior 1995, land dispossession produced bad experiences among the poor the land reform farm beneficiaries in south africa like inequitable distribution of land ownership largely in favour of the white minority, unproductive farms and dislocation of the indigenous people in relation to social and economic land use (land reform policy discussion document, 2012). thus, the government of south africa has embarked on land reform to redress the inequalities and injustices of the past caused by the former apartheid regime. generally, the impact of land reform programme in particular land reform farms is not effective in south africa (mutanga, 2011). above all, most of the farms recipients have had their farms back for more than fifteen years, yet the objective of land reform programme to improve rural livelihoods and alleviate poverty among the land reform beneficiaries was not accomplished (pringle, 2013). as such, the current study was undertaken to develop a three-pronged intervention strategy to help land reform farm beneficiaries in waterberg district of limpopo province, south africa to improve their livelihoods. the results of the current study are presented and discussed below. farm performance most of the farm beneficiaries (84.4%) strongly agreed that farm production has decreased since restoration of the farms. during feedback session on the 08 july 2017, most of the farm beneficiaries commented that, “livelihoods were not improved because of lack of production in the farms. respondents emphasised that the same lack of production was caused by department of rural development and land reform (drdlr), which brought mentors who were not capacitated in farming to transfer skills to the beneficiaries”. many times when money to pay the mentors was exhausted, mentors would withdraw their services from the farms. this hindered farm beneficiaries from obtaining continuous training on farming. another main cause of poor production and underutilisation of the farms highlighted by farm beneficiaries was that “the drdlr hired more than fifty percent of the staff who do not know much about land reform issues”. the beneficiaries gave examples, such as officials who do not understand what a business plan is all about. “when drdlr official resigns for greener pastures, the new employee starts the process of compiling a business plan from the beginning which delays the process of funding until the farm bank accounts were closed”, hence, most of the farms could not access the funding promised by the drdlr because of delays caused by the internal disorganisation in the drdlr. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 188 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research although the south african government implemented some land reform strategies to transform the socio-economic status of the land reform farm beneficiaries, however, majority of the farm beneficiaries strongly agreed to the notion that performance of the restitution farms is not satisfactory, and the rural livelihoods of the land reform farm beneficiaries are still the same. in support of the above statement, golele (2016), conducted a study in 2014 to 2015 that revealed farms that were obtained through restitution programmes in sekhukhune district in limpopo province not functioning at all, while others merely operate at a subsistence level. an empirical study was conducted in kwazulu-natal province to compare the output of the sugar farmland prior and after transfer to smallholder farmers in uthungulu and ilembe areas (van rooyen, 2008). the results showed that half of the farms productivity declined ‘during the year of takeover’. consequently, this clearly indicated that the majority of land reform farms did not perform well in terms of productivity to improve the livelihoods of the farms. monitoring of the restitution farms about 50.5 % (146 farm beneficiaries) indicated that they do not get any form of monitoring at the farms, while 25.3 % (73 farm beneficiaries) indicated that they receive it from government officials and 16.6 % (48 farm beneficiaries) received it from other service providers. finally, fourteen farm beneficiaries (4.8 %) received monitoring from traditional authority and 2.8 % (8 farm beneficiaries) were monitored by the municipalities (figure 2). nonetheless, it is unfortunate that most of the farms are not monitored since land was given back to the previously disadvantaged people. figure 2. pie chart presenting the monitoring of the restitution farms by various stakeholders the study further revealed that the majority of farm beneficiaries did not receive monitoring of their farms while few were monitored. although some farms were monitored, this was not done properly and intensively because of the infrequency of the visits by the traditional authority: 4.84 % municipality: 2.77 % government officials: 25.26 % others: 16.61 % none: 50.52 % http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 189 intervention strategy for enhancing ….. (tjale et al) government officials who were coming to monitor the farms. the previous study conducted by anseeuw & mathebula (2008) also confirmed lack of monitoring of land reform farms at molemole local municipality in limpopo province. the authors revealed that several farm activities were implemented without consultation with the farm beneficiaries due to lack of external monitoring. adding to this, the current study revealed further that the officials such as agricultural extension advisors (aea) came occasionally and most of the time, they came when they were called by the farm beneficiaries. however, this type of monitoring was not supposed to be done in that way, instead aea were supposed to have a schedule that would have guided them about how many times to visit a farm and the main purpose of the visit. cain (2013) provided a similar scenario of lack of monitoring and support in angola where farm beneficiaries who owned land in rural areas had many challenges such as lack of support services, in particular from government institutions. this ultimately led to their agricultural infrastructure to collapse. once the infrastructure collapse, it means that even the farm activities will be compromised. frequency of monitoring the majority (60.2 %; 174 farm beneficiaries) confirmed that there are no visits by government officials in particular the department of agriculture and drdlr. most of the beneficiaries think that government officials are reluctant to visit the farms because there is nothing to monitor due to the unproductive land given to the new owners. close to 15 %; 42 farm beneficiaries) indicated that they are monitored on monthly basis. the reason for officials monitoring the farms is because of noticeable production on the farms. about 13.5 % (39 farm beneficiaries) indicated that they received monitoring once per week, while 11.8 % (34 farm beneficiaries) were monitored on quarterly basis by all government institutions (table 1). table 1. frequency of monitoring of the restitution farms monitoring frequency proportion (%) once per week 39 13.5 monthly 42 14.5 quarterly 34 11.8 no monitoring 174 60.2 total 289 100 furthermore, the monitoring that was provided to the land reform farms was very poor and it could not help the farm beneficiaries to improve on farm production. during the feedback session most beneficiaries indicated that “we are always on our own at the farms, and when we need assistance either from the government or private sector, nobody is willing to come and help us. if farms are not monitored regularly, we as the farm beneficiaries would start to operate as we wish, and disobey all the plans we would have drafted with agricultural extension advisors and drdlr officials”. it would be a proper if the aeas and drdlr can draw schedules either weekly or monthly to visit the farms in order to guide emerging farmers on how to use farms effectively. http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 190 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research effectiveness of land reform programme to improve rural livelihoods about (48.1%; 139 farm beneficiaries) indicated that they strongly disagree to the notion that their livelihoods (human, financial, social and physical assets) on the farms has improved since the restoration of the land, (24.9%; 72) disagreed respectively, with (4.8%; 14) respondents undecided (figure 3). the majority who said land reform farms were not effective since its introduction in rural areas cited reasons like lack of human capital development when beneficiaries were introduced into the programme, and lack of financial capital to kick-start the production process. on many farms, income and job creation were not realised and during the feedback session, most beneficiaries stated that “we lose hope in the land reform farms since we are unable to put bread on our tables at the end of the month”. others are no longer committed to work at the farms, and most of the time they come to the farms after a long time. while (18.7%; 54) of the respondents indicated that they agree and (3.5%; 10) strongly agree respectively that the programme brought some positive changes in their lives because they are able to earn income to use for their basic requirements. they further maintained that more jobs were created for both youth and women, income was generated within the farms, poverty was reduced and food security was achieved among the farm beneficiaries (figure 3). figure 3. effectiveness of land reform programme to improve rural livelihoods responding to the effectiveness of land reform programme, the majority of farm beneficiaries strongly agreed that the land reform was not effective in enhancing the livelihoods of beneficiaries, because some jobs that were supposed to be created were not realised, farms did not generate income to deal with challenges of poverty, food insecurity and other socio-economic issues among the farm beneficiaries. reduced farm productivity has ultimately affected food security and livelihoods of farm beneficiaries in the country, rather, agricultural growth should encourage farmers to produce more products in the farms. the same scenario of land reform farms not being effective to improve livelihoods of the beneficiaries was observed in a study on the performance of land reform farms in north west province conducted by lubambo (2011). the author discovered that land reform farms failed 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 agree strongly agree undecided disagree strongly disagree total f re q u e n cy response effectiveness of land reform programme to improve rural livelihoods http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 191 intervention strategy for enhancing ….. (tjale et al) to meet the objectives of the land reform programme. one of the reasons for the failure was based on people who tend to form large groups to access funds to purchase the farm, but in the process bring people who have no farming ambitions. only few beneficiaries have a passion for farming, while the rest just wait for the benefits (kirsten et al., 2016). hence, livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries were not improved. above all, if production can be maximized using hydroponics and value adding of the products within the farms, more jobs may be increased within the land reform farming sector, that will ultimately help farm beneficiaries to receive financial benefits to improve the livelihoods. during the feedback session, beneficiaries suggested that every farm or community property association (cpa) should have advisors who would assist beneficiaries in farm development; those advisors should be accessible to the farm beneficiaries through establishing drdlr site offices in the district and local municipalities to avoid beneficiaries travelling long distance to get assistance. furthermore, if the government opt to appoint mentors or strategic partners as advisors who have more skills or farming experience to guide and coach the emerging farmers with less experience on how to use their farms effectively (mabuza, 2016), the process of appointment from the beginning should involve farm beneficiaries. this means that the community or farm beneficiaries should recommend appointments, then the drdlr can finalise the appointment. determinants and ranking of factors that contributed to non-improvement of livelihoods of farm beneficiaries the study revealed several factors that determined non-improvement of the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries. the factors were ranked in terms of their prevalence when interviews were conducted. these factors should be taken into consideration when interventions on farm activities are implemented to enable farmers to address all of these factors, and failure to consider this factors will create unnecessary hindrances towards farm development. these factors are presented in table 2. table 2. ranking of the determinants that contributed to non-improvement of livelihoods of the land reform farm beneficiaries no determinant factors for nonimprovement of livelihoods frequency 1 under-utilization of the land reform farms 291 2 lack of farm support from government 283 3 lack of mentoring to transfer farming skills to the farm beneficiaries 204 4 declined production of land reform farms 194 main drivers of poor performance of the land reform farms the following aspects in figure 3 were identified during the study as the main contributors of poor performance of the land reform farms. these poor performance was because of the declining production of the land reform farms: non-utilisation of the farms and insufficient farming skills of the farm beneficiaries who are given land back through the land reform programme. lack of farming skills subsequently caused beneficiaries not to be commitment because farmers were not clear on what to do with the farms, and where there was production in some other farms, the production was of a poor quality that could not http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 192 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research match the standard of market demand. hence most of the farms were abundant by the beneficiaries leading to idle farms. furthermore, there was no clear strategy with proper guidelines on how farm beneficiaries can use the land effectively to improve their livelihoods. all the aspects that are the main drivers of poor performance of the farms are mentioned at figure 4. figure 4. main drivers of poor farm performance the above factors identified that contributed to poor performance of the farms, were used to guide farm beneficiaries on how to improve farm performance by mitigating the abovementioned factors that negatively affected their livelihoods since farm restoration in south africa. hence, the study confirmed that livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries have remained the same from the restoration of land until 2015. the farm beneficiaries agreed that land reform is a very good programme if it is implemented correctly. the reasons that were advanced by the farm beneficiaries about ineffectiveness of the land reform programme were that their livelihoods are still the same because of poor production of the farms. another reason mentioned by the beneficiaries was lack of advisors such as agro-economists, who could advise the farms beneficiaries on how to utilise the farm funds and to invest for the farm. added to this, the agro-economists should provide agricultural advisory services from the beginning until the farm is sustainable. the farm beneficiaries further mentioned that their livelihoods such as human, financial, social and physical capitals have not improved. unutilized farms inadequate technical skills on farming lack of clear strategy on what should be done with land reform farms farms are idle; no farming activities taking place no jobs created as a result of land reform farm no improved incomes poverty rates remain high and livelihoods are not improved poor performance of the land reform farms declining production poor quality of available produce no market linkages no guidelines for farm beneficiaries farm beneficiaries became unsatisfied with farms due to lack of farm benefits from farms continuous conflicts between farm beneficiaries lack of interest in farming withdrawal of beneficiaries from farms leading to idle farms main drivers of poor farm performance http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 193 intervention strategy for enhancing ….. (tjale et al) human capital that concentrated more on capacity building of the farm beneficiaries, in particular farm production was also not realized. failure to have adequate farm production would mean that there would not be income that could improve the socio-economic status of the farm beneficiaries. the financial capital from the land reform farms was negatively affected because of farms that were not generating income. thus, beneficiaries were not able to get salaries or wages at the end of the month to sustain their households. the beneficiaries also mentioned that they were behind in paying for monthly contributions for burial clubs and school fees for their children. the physical capital that deals more with infrastructure in the households of the farm beneficiaries was not realized. the same scenario was mentioned during the appraisal of land reform projects in mpumalanga, free state and north-west provinces. the land reform farms yielded results that confirmed the low levels of success (drdlr, 2019). it is for this reason that the farm committees are encouraged to incorporate agricultural economics expert to serve as agricultural financial advisors, and agricultural engineers who would unleash their agricultural skills and potential to operate and repair all machines and infrastructure in the farm. figure 5. intervention strategy to improve livelihoods of land reform farm beneficiaries above all, failure of the land reform programme to improve the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries such as human, financial, social and physical capitals due to the challenges experiences by beneficiaries in the farms such as unproductive farms, lack of farm income and salaries of the beneficiaries, the study recommended aspects that are important to develop the intervention strategy in order to assist farmers to use their allocated farms effectively to improved livelihoods improved and sustained production support production system (production information, training, farming implements, financial etc.) increased income (financial freedom) from farming activities improved market access reduced transaction costs strengthened private public partnership in supporting land reform farm activities financial capital human capital physical capital social capital http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 issn: 2407-814x (p); 2527-9238 (e) 194 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research improve livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries. the same aspects that informed the intervention strategy are clearly shown at figure 5. conclusions the study revealed poor performance of the land reform farms due to unavailability of intervention strategy in south africa, and this contributed negatively towards the improvement of the farm beneficiaries` livelihoods. most of the land reform farms in south africa in particular waterberg district were not utilized, while poor commitment, lack of financial support, lack of resources, continuous conflicts, poor infrastructure, and theft of electric cables and transformers were discovered as the main challenges in the farms. added to this, majority of farm beneficiaries have not benefited from the land reform farms, and their livelihoods have still not improved. therefore, the study developed a three-pronged intervention strategy in figure 4 above that serve as the main product emanated from the study to mitigate poor performance of the farms and improve livelihoods of farm beneficiaries, by strengthening private public partnership (ppp) in supporting farm activities in south africa. the developed strategy is anchored on three key factors: the need for thorough assessment by the government on the farm beneficiary’s level of commitment to the farm prior to farm allocation and funding, need to incorporate new experts in agricultural economics and agricultural engineers into the land reform farms personnel to unleash their agricultural expertise. these agricultural experts should be in the farms to advise farmers on farm management such as financial matters, improved market access, and how to support farm production system that would subsequently improve the livelihoods of the farm beneficiaries in waterberg district of south africa and beyond. acknowledgements the researcher acknowledges the research unit of the university of venda that provided financial support to undertake the study (project no: sardf/16/ird/07/2904). references aliber, m & cousins, b. 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(2013). waterberg district municipality idp 2013. modimolle. retrieved from http://www.waterberg.gov.za/docs/plans/final%20idp%20201314.pdf wdmidp. (2018). waterberg district municipality idp 2018. modimolle. retrieved from http://www.waterberg.gov.za/docs/plans/draft%202017-18%201dppdf wdmled. (2014). waterberg district municipality local economic development 2014. waterberg district municipality, modimolle. retrieved from http://www.waterberg.gov.za/docs/sdbip/waterberg%20led%20strategy%20... http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1420518152&1&& http://u.lipi.go.id/1464343616 http://www.waterberg.gov.za/docs/sdbip/waterberg%20led%20strategy agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research vol. 6 no. 1 january-june 2020 article history: submitted : june 16th, 2020 accepted : august 5th, 2020 minyahil alemu haile1*, sisay tola whakeshum2 jimma university, ethiopia *) correspondence email: minale16@yahoo.com economic intuition to social capital: household evidence from jimma zone, south-west ethiopia doi: https://doi.org/10.18196/agr.6192 abstract the notion of social capital is noble in social science literatures and recently getting noteworthy attention in economics. its economic relevance has also been well documentedin empirical studies. in this paper, we established relationshipsbetween the stock of household social capital and annual net income following approach for binary logit. besides, we examined the relative economic importance of general viz special stocks of social capital. statistical requirements with logistic regression were all tested robust. consequently, the effectof social capital stock on household economy has found substantial. of the two distinct forms, the special facet of social capital was found better and significant contributor to householdeconomy. however,the general aspect was suggested insignificantasit was not meaningfully interpreted in the household economic network.thus, a wise household need to appropriate the general to special social capital establishment, since every additional stock of the later could be meant to considerablyhelp own welfare. keywords: household economy, jimma zone, logistic analysis, social capital stock introduction despite its multifaceted insinuation to nations’ socioeconomic development, the topic of social capital has given trifling attention in economics. without upheld social capital, it’s hard to think of developments in the rest of the economy as institutional quality is a priori.a growingnumber of studiesdivulgean essentiallink between social capital measures and several indicators of economic outcomes. wickramasuriya et al. (2011) well-thought-out social capital a moment they found significant role of civic engagement and enhanced personal networks in their household level analysis from central province of sri lanka. we need to be clear that, the idea of social capital, here, constitute personal, or either, engagements in civic organizations and established inter/and-intra-personal interconnections. obviously, both could serve a promising part of societal networks in a meaningful manner.coleman (1999) has defined ‘social capital’ as a multiplicity of various entities, having two mutual elements; all consisting of some feature of social buildings. according to him, these mutual elements ease certain activities of individuals belonging in the structure through connections of trust, interchange and interactions. bowles and gintis (2002) referred ‘trust, individual’s concern 75 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al) one another, individual’s willingness to be governed by norms and cultures of general community, and one’s commitment to punish otherswho malfeasance the established norm”. today, it is decisively rooted in economics and other social science disciplines. the term ‘social capital’ has lately linked more to human network and relational lives rather than social norms. for example (stiglitz, 1999; paldam, 2000; dasgupta, 2005; sobel, 2002) defined the term ‘social capital’ as a collection of social relations. social networks undoubtedly entail several investment and even sacrifice in the form of money, time, prestige and information in a manner that could group access to better income, social life, knowledge and other benefits (uphoff, 1999; stiglitz, 1999; dasgupta, 2005). some networks impede free of cost; naturally you were born default within certain relations whether you like it or not. these types of networks normally are known as general relations. however, other forms of relationships can be established through a costly process, and they often have meaningful interpretation in life. in literature, the later forms are known as special relations (bowles and gintis, 2002; dasgupta, 2005; putnam, 1995;ferragina, 2010). an economic role of social capital is well documented in social science and economic literatures. in their national-wise survey knack and keefer (1997) has, in turn, shown that a unit measure scale advance in state level trust could result in a more than three-fold improvement of economic growth. theevidenceshows actuality of large response from aggregate economy with respect to changes in national stock of social capital. in this paper we are not going through a more advanced model for social capital since it is limited to microlevel analysis. we rather rely on simple definition of social capital emphasizing norms, institutions and conventions. avoiding complexities, we consider individuals’ civic engagement dummy and personal interrelationships to satisfy the definition of social capitaldue to(miller, 2003; greene and brown, 1997; becker, 1964; mencer, 1974; woolcock, 1998; schuller et al., 2000; coleman, 1988). empiricalevidences on the relations between social capital and economic outcomes have clear theoretical foundation. yasunobu and bhandari (2009) demonstrate the positive role of social capital on economic growth since social ties intensify efficiency across beneficiary group. with enhanced cooperation and civic engagement, it is likely that both production and distribution costs could decrease.sincemarketing information is now expected to be availed easily, transaction costs would also vanish. moreover, effective team work is supposed to enhance innovation as well as exchanges of knowledge across units. all this effects from social capital is acknowledged to enhance productivity and growth at the same time (fudenberg and maskin, 1986; yasunobu and bhandari, 2009). the organization for economic and cultural development (oecd) demonstrate the positive aspect of social capital on economic growth through potential efficiency that can be realized from societal cooperation (oecd, 2013). this part of demonstration bases on the fact that, the networks of norms swift trust and ensure collaboration. theoretically sound is to assume operational efficiency, and hence growth, that could result from enhanced networks and cooperation. this paper also lays its analysis on this theoretical foundation regarding the topic we are dealing with. 76 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research we survey a random draw of households from various formations of jimma zonal state administration. it, in the first place, is initiated to lesson whether or not household stock of social capital has to do with own economic status. thus, our survey should be understood as micro-unit analysis unlike to most literatures discussed herewith so far. we toughlyvalue clear setting form lower segment of the economy as it serves building block in an entire sectorial formation. the study is aimed to examine the effect of households’ stock of social capital on their economic performance. besides we also aim to examine the relative importance of general and special social capital stock in explaining the trend of economic growth using household data from jimma zone. the study covers cross-section of about 383 units for 2018/2019. methodology study area this household survey was confined to jimma zone of oromia regional state, situated at the south-west of ethiopia (figure 1). according to jimma zone finance and economic development office report (2016), jimma zone is composed of 21 sub-administrative units called woreda.according to the same report, the total population of jimma zone was estimated over three million under 512,506 households.the climatic condition of jimma zone is characterizedby15% highland, 67% midlands and about 18% lowlands (undp, 2000). jimma is amongthe major coffee growing regions in the country.the areaconsistently receives good rain, ranging from 1200-2800 mm per annum.therefore, this gives an opportunity to invest in agri-business and grantees the feasibility of these projects in particular. besides, jimma city serves as the largest market center in south-west ethiopia.with easy access to transportation and other necessities, jimma serves adequate marketcenter for potential investments in and around its geographical boundary. it has latitude and longitude of about 7°40′n and 36°50′e, respectively. jimma is characterized to exhibit tropical rainforest climate as ofthe köppen climate classification. temperatureat jimma ranges between 20°c and 25°c year-round range, on daily average (lewis, 2014). below is an official map of jimma zone (undp, 2000). figure 1. an official map of jimma zone (undp, 2000) 77 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al) data type and source this study is based on both quantitative and qualitative data forms. the quantitative element was directly obtained from therespondents. informations related to infrastructure access, distances from nearest market place, total annual production, total annual expenditure and income levels, household sizes and other relevant measures were collected directly from the included respondents. supportive data such as zonal marketing report, statistical reports from central statistical agency, rural development bureau of jimma zone and various woreda level offices were also used as our secondary sources.qualitative information related to the specific channels through which social capitals affect households’ economic outcomes were also obtained from the individual respondents included for the purpose of our survey. since the study was based on information both from primary and secondary sources, family-centric informations such as; social capital endowment and economic position, were collectedthrough structured questionnaires. data on previous commodity price as well as production levels were used from the records of jimma zone trade and industry department to supplement our secondary information needs. study population and the sample the rural households from jimma zone are the target groups with the present survey. we move through various stages to arrive at the final unit included in the analysis. we have started by arbitrarily selecting four out of twenty one woredasmaking up jimma zone. these include; limmu-kossa, sokoru, manna and gommaworedas. again, each selected woreda was sub-divided in various sub-administrative units called kebele, and required number of kebele was randomly selected from each of the four woredas. finally, proportional size across sampleworeda was arbitrarilytaken from respectivekebele administrations. according to official reports of respective woreda administration, household size across each of the four woreda were reported to be, 25,305 for limu kossa; 30,115 for sokoru; 18,201 for manna; and 21,449 for gomma. thetotal sum of households in four districts is equals 95,070. due to(noelet al., 2012), the sample size selected from the four districts was383 (equation 1). 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁 1+(𝑁−1)( 2𝑑 𝑧 )2 ……………………………………………… (1) where n stands for total population; n represents sample size; (d =0.05) is margin of error; and (z=1.96) for a 95 per cent confidence interval. the required sample size was proportionally distributed across each sample woreda as follows;  limu kossa: 383 95,070 x 25,305 = 102 households  sokoru: 383 95,070 x 30,115 = 121 households  manna: 383 95,070 x 18,201 = 74 households  gomma: 383 95,070 x 21,449 = 86 households 78 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research data analysis we rely both on descriptive and inferential statistical tools to analyze the data.descriptive tools indicating themaximum and minimum values as well as mean and standard deviation of various measures were used. besides, binomial logit regression was employed to estimate the impact of a household total stock of social capital on economic performance. hence, the latter replicates the inferential aspect. 1. measurement of social capital: household level in this paper we contend that,social network is a vital element of social capital. social capital may be defined as stock of social relationships that an individual person possesses (ferragina, 2010; putnam, 1995). individuals can form relations with others in different ways. hence, social relations can be grouped as general and special social.general relations are typically congenitalfromgenetic factors. an important feature of such relationships is that they are established and are already there for you whether you like it or not. as far as they are establishedgenetically, you will have no contribution in your share the general aspect of social capital. besides, at their work place individuals could interact with peer as well as their bosses by default. in this case, general relation is already around whether/or not a worker likes. relationsestablished externally without individual effort are features of general social capital (wickramasuriya et al, 2011; akcomak, 2008; knowles, 2005). sometimes any one member of a given family may give special trust to another member, which he cannot share with the rest in the family. a member withsuch special respect and trust from a group is said to have special capital on relative terms. similarly, from a class of say, sixty or more, one or two may have close relation and communication to the school director, not all. obviously, those with better relation to their director will have better access to some key school facilities or, even personal contribution from the director. turning back to our point, special aspect of social capital begins from recognition of such seemingly small but significant interpersonal relations between individuals. a boss my not treat all staff members equally; he may share only functional roles with all, but core issues can be communicated to some with relatively better personal quality. the special aspect of social relation gives better trust and certainty than the already established general relation. to clarify the difference among the two, general social relations are large in size but shallow in depth;while the special aspects are in converse (wickramasuriya et al, 2011; shufang and yan, 2010; thokozani, 2012). to simplify things, the general relation based on blood is limited to family membership; i.e., sharing the same mother or father or either. based on (saidov, 2017; miller, 2003;oecd, 2009; shufang and yan, 2010; ponthieux, 2004)general aspect of social capitalhas been measured by; (a) number of people a household possess relation to; and (b) engagement in civic organization.we used ‘idir’ as a local formation to proxy the civic engagement in the local sense. following (un, 2005; thokozani, 2012; wickramasuriya et al, 2011) we capture the special component of social capital guided by whether one is quite sure that he or she has, at least, one person in life that he or she will not leave him or her during difficulties in all life events; good or bad, long lived or short lived. in the same passion above, 79 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al) sum total of the two components form a household’s total social capital stock (tssc). stated differently, the social capital can be split into two as general and social capital stock; for an ith individual respondent. with this conceptualization, a households’ total stock of social capital (tssc) is, thus, the sum total of general social capital (gsc) and special social capital (ssc). it follows that; tssci = gsci + ssci ………………………………………………… (2) 2. measuring household economic wellbeing with regard to household economic wellness, we used the individual household annual income and expenditure accounting based on (sharma et al., 2012). the wellbeing analysis refers to whether a household is able to cover personal livelihood without being indebted each year. in this conception, if a household has never borrowed for family consumption during the survey period then that household is economically safe. todetermine each household current net income, we have systematically collected information on past year production, sale, consumption, and expenditure (in terms of eth) item by item throughout the year. a difficulty with our approach was that some products were nonmarketable; and some others were notsold in the same year, difficulty to have their money value. a notable difficulty arises from the fact that, considerable proportion of rural production is allotted for family consumption and that; a proportion couldn’t sell in the same year they are produced. efforts were made to come-up with handling mechanisms: productions at hand are monetized at respective current market price. henceforward, an aggregate of annual spending has been withheld from gross income obtained in that year. the difference account for the periodic economic position of each household surveyed. then, total expenditure was deducted total income earned during the year. neti= inci – expi …………………………………………………. (3) where,netstands for net income of ith household; inci and expi, respectively, are the annual income and expenditures of household i.since the household being economically secure is the response variable in logit specification, we need to define it clearly. whether or not a household is economically safe is categorical in two layers. the response variable assumesa 1 value if a household under consideration is economically secure; and 0 otherwise. finally, the responsevariable can be defined as follows; e.seci= 1, if a household is secure 0, otherwise …………. (4) 3. binary logistic regression we model the actual effect of social capital on household economy via the approach for binary logistic analysis. households’ economy is a response variable in the logit specification. if the computed net income for a household is positive, corresponding income dummy takes on a value 1; and zero otherwise. the specification is based on the notion that, with positive net income a household is able to cover currentconsumption expenditure without being indebted. an outcome variable yi follows a bernoulli distributiontaking 1 (occurrence) with probability of success pi or 0 with probability of failure 1–piin the logistic regression 80 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research framework. in this paper logit was specified letting y(nx1) bea dichotomous with classes 1 (economic security) and 0 (no economic security). due to (maddala, 1998; wooldridge, 2013), the vectors of predictors (x) and outcome variable (y) can be developed as shown below: sem is also a stronger hybrid technique in terms of confirmatory aspects of factor analysis, path analysis and regression or considered as having interaction modeling, nonlinearity, correlated independent variables (narimawati & sarwono, 2017).                nkn k k xx xx xx x     1 221 111 1 1 1                n y y y y  2 1                k      1 0 ~ (𝑘 + 1) × 1 where xis vector of regressors; y is a column vector of an outcome variable; βrepresents the vector of parameters. followinggujarati (2004), the probability that a household is economically secure for known values of each regressor considered is given by; pi= 1 1 + e−zi⁄ ……………………………………… (5) where zi = 0 + ixi; pi is a conditional probability that the ith household is economically secure for the known values of each regressor in the model; 0 is a constant; iare slope coefficients; and, e is base of natural logarithm. for mathematical treatmentsfor negative exponents, (equation 5) can be re-expressed as follows; 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑧𝑖 1 + 𝑒𝑧𝑖 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6) on the other hand, a probability that a household is economically insecure equals the value leftover of equation (6) is deducted from unity; 1 − 𝑃𝑖 = 1 1+𝑒 𝑍𝑖 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (7) the odds ratio in favor of a household to be economically secure is given by the ratio of the two probabilities. 𝑃𝑖 1 − 𝑃𝑖 ⁄ ⇒ 𝑒 𝑍𝑖 1+𝑒 𝑍𝑖 1 1+𝑒 𝑍𝑖 ⁄ = 𝑒 𝑍𝑖.......................................... (8) the natural log of equation (8) gives the below final expression;         i i p p l 1 ln = ln(𝑒 𝑍𝑖 ) iiii ux   ..................................... (9) where l = log of odds ratio and ui is the error term. based on equation (9) we model the following final relation between the dependent and independent variables of this study. l = 0 + 1tssci + 2idiri + 3educi + 4agei + ui………… (10) where tssc is total stock of social capital of householdi;educis education level of the respondent i measured in years of schooling; age is the age in years of the ith household head; and idirisa dummy taking a value of 1 if a respondent is member of its community ‘idir’; and 0, if not a member. 81 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al) 4. diagnostic test once the model is fitted, we would be interested to know how effective the model is in explaining the outcome variable. a. pearson chi-square test the pearson 2  statistic is based on observed )(o and expected )(e observations.          n i n i ipipni ipniyi o eo 1 1 ) ˆ1(ˆ )ˆ( 2 )( 2 2 ………………………...………………. (11) where yi is the observed value of y; i p̂ is fitted y for a given value of xi; ni is the number of observations. large pearson chi-square for a given regressor indicates that there is strong association between each of independent and the dependent variables keeping the effect of the other factors constant. here we test the null hypothesis of h0:there is no association between variables against its alternative h1: there is association between the dependent and particular independent variable describing the outcome variable. b. wald test a wald test is used to test the statistical significance of each coefficient (β) in the model. if the wald test is significant for a particular explanatory variable, then we would conclude that the parameter associated with the variable is not zero so that the variable should be included in the model; otherwise it should be omitted from the model (agresti, 1996). we test the null h0: βj=0 against the alternative h1: βj≠ 0 in the wald test. the wald test statistic (z) for this hypothesis is ……..…………………… (12) where j ̂ is the estimated regression coefficient and )ˆvar( j  is the variance of j ̂ . c. the likelihood ratio test the likelihood ratio test statistic (g2) is the test statistic commonly used for assessing the overall fit of the logistic regression model. the ll ratio is computed based on ll2 (-2 times log likelihood). the likelihood ratio statistic is obtained by subtracting the two times log likelihood ( ll2 ) for the full model from the log likelihood for the intercept only model. this log likelihood-ratio test uses the ratio of the maximized value of the likelihood function for the intercept only model 0l over the maximized value of the likelihood function for the full model 1l . the likelihood test statistic is given by:       ][2loglog2log2 1010 1 02 llllll l l g          …………………. (13) where, ll0 represents the log likelihood value of the model which has the intercept term only and 1ll is the log likelihood value of the full model. the likelihood ratio statistic )1( 2~ )ˆvar( ˆ 2 2    j j z  82 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research has a chi-square distribution and it tests the null hypothesis that all logistic regression coefficients except the constant are zero. the degrees of freedom are obtained by differencing the number of parameters in both models. it is compared with chi-square value at the difference between degree of freedom of both models. the p-value less than 5 percent level of significance lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis thereby implying that all the predictor effects are zero. when the likelihood test is significant, at least one of the predictors is significantly related to the response variable (hosmer and lemeshow, 2000). d. hosmer-lemeshow test the hosmer-lemeshow test is used to check the overall model fit. in this approach, data are divided into ten groups. from each group, the observed and expected numbers of events are computed. then, the hosmer-lemeshow test statistic is given by: v j g j e jo j c    2 )( ˆ ……………………………………………………….(14) where j e = j np ; g is the number of groups; j o is observed number of events in the jth group;ejis expected number of events in the jth group andvjis a variance correction factor for the jth group.if the observed number of events differs from what is expected by the model, the statistic ĉ will be large and there will be evidence against the null hypothesis that the model is adequate to fit the data. this statistic has an approximate chi-square distribution with (g-2) degrees of freedom (agresti, 1996). e. other tests in logistic regression, outliers are observations whose values deviate from the expected range and produce extremely large residuals. these outliers can unduly influence the results of the analysis and lead to incorrect inferences. an observation is said to be influential if removing the observation substantially changes the estimate of coefficients. influence can be thought of as the product of leverage and outliers. an observation with an extreme value on a predictor variable is called a point with high leverage. leverage is a measure of how far an independent variable deviates from its mean. in fact, the leverage indicates the geometric extremeness of an observation in the multi-dimensional covariate space. these leverage points can have an unusually large effect on the estimate of logistic regression coefficients (cook, 1998).using the following rules it is possible to identify if an observation is outlier or influential:  residuals: standardized, standard, deviance and pearson residuals are obtained using different software. observations with values larger than three in absolute values are considered as outliers (agresti, 2007).  dfbetas:measure of how much an observation has affected the estimate of a regression coefficient (there is one dfbeta for each regression coefficient, including the intercept). 83 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al)  cook’s d:it measures an averageeffect on the group of regression coefficients, as well as the group of fitted values. in logistic regression, a case is identified as influential if its cook's distance is greater than one (hosmerlemeshow, 2000). result and discussions descriptive information 1. household socio-demographic characteristics a sample of 383 households from jimma zone was arbitrarilytaken to address the objectives of this study. we have collected information on various issues; like, the demographic characteristics, socio-economic and political conditions describing ourtarget group. the family size and age distribution across our sample was presented in table (1). table 1. family size and age distribution of the sample households variable obs. mean std.dev. min max age 383 35.6 6.9196 19 56 family size 383 4 0.8514 1 8 source: (own survey, 2018) evident from table (1) is high age variability with standard deviation of about 6.92. the range of the age variable equals 37 with minimum and maximum 19 and 56 years, respectively. therefore, we can say that the study has considered the sections of the society at various stages; hence, that could further guarantee the reliability of our analysis results thereby simultaneously avoiding biases arising from concentration of the sample on either extreme of the age group. besides, the mean age is about 35 years and 6 months showing that majority of the study population were young. the mean size of family was estimated around four with standard deviation of 0.8514 thereby signifying less variability in size distribution. this result may also imply that, any social, economic and political differences across households resulting from differences in family size cannot be an issue with us. as far as the family size distribution was symmetric, the multidimensional welfare differences among individual households because of differences in size might not be important. the mean family size is four; while the minimum and maximum sizes are 1 and 8, respectively. table (2) reports the religion and gender backgrounds of the households included in the current analysis. thedata on the sex and religion variables belongs to the household heads. it should be noted that, the religion of household head belongs also to every member of the family. the framework of the corn farmers' performance behavior model, especially farmers’ cooperatives, as a liaison between agro-food supply chains of small-scale producers and sustainable institutions for gaining more added values, is determined by the farmers' characteristics. the participants were mostly 40 to 45 years old; their ethnic is java. they had been married for more than 20 until 25 years, they had 4 family members, their education background is 9 years, and most of them had 2-10 year farming experience. 84 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research table 2. religion and sex distribution of the sample respondents frequency percentage cum. pert. sex category male 103 26.89 26.89 female 280 73.11 100 gross 383 100 religion category muslim 127 33.16 33.16 orthodox 80 20.89 54.05 protestant 122 31.85 85.90 wake feta 54 14.10 100 gross 383 100 source: (own survey, 2018) as it can be observed from table (2), out of 383 total respondents, only 26.89 per cent (103) of the total response rate are male; while the remaining 73.11 per cent (280 out of 383) belongs to female counterparts. that means about 73.11 per cent of the household was femaleheaded. hence, most of the household decision in the study areawas made by females. table (2) also reveals that majority of the respondents were followers of islam accounting for about 33.16 percent of the total response rate. the second dominant religion was protestantism representing about 31.85 percent of the total response rate. 122 out of 383 total respondents are protestants. besides, about 80 (20.89%) individuals were reported to follow orthodox christianity; while, the remaining 14.10 percent of the total response rate belong to wake feta. there is no such large group variabilityregarding religion distribution between islam and protestantism as they both account for almost equal proportion of the total response rate. on the one hand, the proportion wake feta fellowship wascomparativelytrifling. therefore; islam, protestantism and orthodox christianity are widely practiced in the study area. we realizereligious heterogeneity and coexistence of diversified views was also acknowledged from jimma zone. the proportion of various religions from jimma zone can also be shown using simple pi-chart as displayed hereunder. source: (own survey, 2018) figure 2. frequency distribution of religion among sample respondents figure (1) is a reflection of table (2), which again indicates the dominancy of islam followed by protestantism, orthodox christianity and wake feta respectively. 127 80 54 122 islam (127) orthodox christianity (80) wake feta (54) protestantism 85 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al) 2. education level and ethnic composition ethnic composition in jimma zone was found to be heterogeneous thereby holding dominantly of amhara, dawro, oromo and yem ethnic groups among others. however, the area is most dominantly inhibited by the oromo people accounting for more than half estimatedat about 56.13 percent of the total response rate. it means that, out of 383 sample respondents 215 individuals belong to oromo ethnic group indicating the dominancyof the indigenous group. amhara was the next dominant group thereby accounting for about 24.02 percent of the total response rate. of the total of 383 sample respondents, 92 belong to the amhara ethnic group. the third largest share goes to the yem people accounting for about 16.71 percent of the total response; while the remaining 3.39 percent of the total response rate goes to dawro people in the general ethnic composition of the study area. more than 80 percent of the total respondents belong to only two ethnic groups of which about more than 70 percent is explained by the oromo people. therefore, we found the dominancy of one ethnic group in the study area revealing large variability in the distribution of ethnic group. table 3. education and ethnic composition source: (own survey, 2018) we can also demonstrate the ethnicity and education level frequency of households using diagrams. figure (2) below indicates the frequency distribution of ethnic composition as discussed above. source: (own survey, 2018) figure 3. frequency distribution of ethnic composition amhara dawro oromo yem frequency distribution indicators frequency percentage cum. pert. ethnic composition amhara 92 24.02 24.02 dawro 13 3.39 27.41 oromo 215 56.13 83.54 yem 64 16.71 100 total 383 100 education level diploma 39 10.18 10.18 secondary education 104 27.15 37.33 primary education 42 10.97 48.30 illiterate 198 51.70 100 total 383 100 86 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research morethan half of the total response rate is illiterate indicating the proportion of individuals who didn’t attend at least basic education. there is evidence that out of 383 total respondents, 198 are illiterate exceeding half of the total sample by more than 6 individuals. a proportion of individual respondents who pursued secondary education totals 104; which is about 27 percent of the total response rate; while 42 out 383 total respondents attended primary education. alternatively, about 11 percent of the total response rate has pursued primary education. furthermore, a proportion of individual respondents out of the total response rate to have graduated in diploma were about 10.18 percent. taking head count of individual respondents, it means only 39 out of 383 total respondents were diploma graduates. considering the large size of cross sectional observation with this study this size is very small. generally, the frequency distribution analysis of education indicates that majority, more than half of the total response rate was illiterate. this indicates, most of household consumption, investment and marketing decisions are inefficient; given the fact that, education would help in intensifying the effectiveness and quality of human activity. besides, it is this higher illiteracy rate that is responsible to explain the prevailing multidimensional poverty in the area. more than half of the total response rate didn’t have access to at least basic education could imply that most household activities are based on non-technical traditional practices. inefficient decisions reduce labor and other resource productivity as well as the overall product level. pooreducation may be one of the basic factors to explain their weak economic, political and other dimensional positions. using figures, we can equivalently analyze the frequency distribution of education among the sample respondents as follows; source: (own survey, 2018) figure 4. education pursued by households we observe from figure (3) that, the highest room for the illiterate group being followed by those who attended secondary education. both groups together form about 78.85 percent of the total response rate of which about 65.56 percent are still illiterate. those who pursued tertiary education account for a very small proportion of the total response rate. overall, this particular analysis on the frequency distribution of education among the sample household reveals that, majority of the individuals in the study area is illiterate. we could hence infer that, this high illiteracy rate may be a factor that could explain multidimensional poverty and inadequate welfare across households from jimma zone. inferential analysis prior to the estimation of binary logistic model, we have addressed the necessary validity, consistency and reliability requirements issues with logistic regression. in none of the diploma secondary primary illiterate 87 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al) specific cases was the necessity test failed. we present the individual test result in sections below. let’s first see the model fitness condition. as discussed under methodology section, the goodness-of-fit of the logistic specification can be verified by the reported log likelihood ratio together with the regression coefficients, the score condition and the wald test. each test of the overall model strength has proved valid; and hence the inference based on logistic estimates. table 4. testing global null hypothesis (h0: β=0) test list chi2 pr > chi2 ll ratio 57.4782 <.0001 score 59.3547 <.0001 wald 52.6925 <.0001 source: own manipulation using stata ver. 14 (2018) we see that (table 4), the likelihood ratio, score and wald test statistics are all significant withp-value less than 0.05.this indicates that the final model with explanatory variables included was more effective than a model without explanatory variables. hence, there is significant relationship between the dependent and set of all independent variables. moreover, we have examined the hosmer-lemeshow condition for the goodness-of-fit of our logistic specification, and confirmed the fulfillment. the hosmer-lemeshow test statistic was estimated at 12.65 (p=0.1244), which is strongly significant at 5 percent. with regard to logistic diagnostic issue, we considered dfbeta for each regressor as well as the average term, standard residuals and influential observation issues, and all were tested robust.the adequacyof fitted model was examined for possible presence and treatment of outliers and influential observation.see table (5) below for the test statistics. table 5. diagnostic test results test type obs. minimum maximum analog of cook's influence statistics 383 3.30e-08 0.0450509 standard residual 383 -2.110746 1.85213 dfbeta for tssc 383 -0.3675358 0.1578752 dfbeta for educ 383 -0.2547097 0.3009825 dfbeta for age 383 -0.2025523 0.2216249 dfbeta for idir 383 -0.1789904 0.1874204 source: own computation using stata ver. 14 (2018) the dfbetas for parameters and cook’s influence statistics are both less than unity. dfbetas of less than unity indicating no specific impact of a given observation on the coefficient of a particular predictor variable; whereas cook’s distance less than one reveals that an observation had no universal effect on vectors of logistic regression coefficients (ˆ̂). the normalized residuals were reported to lie within the interval of (-3 and 3),demonstrating the absence of an outlier in our logistic specification. consequently, relevant statistical requirements have tested robustness with our logistic specification of this study. 1. effect of social capital stock on household economy here we aim to examine theimpact of households’aggregate social capital stock on their economic performance, measured by the method briefed so far. as it is quite clear, a 88 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research principal regressor in our logistic specification is social capital stock.the‘idir’ dummy accountedby the household civic engagement was another aspect of social capital in the model. besides, we also control for household heads’number of years of schooling as well as age in years. our stata 14 display for logistic manipulation looks a copy below; table 6. social capital and householdeconomy source: own survey (2018) for logit estimate reliability issues, the log likelihood ratio indicating overall relevance of the model is robust thereby ensuring reliability of inferences based on our estimates. besides, regressors entered the model jointly account for about a quarter of variations in the response variable, signifying the need for consideration of other variables for futurestudies in related topics. evident from table (6) is the strongly significant and positive coefficient of household’s total stock of social capital on its economic status. its estimated coefficient being 0.311(0.000) signifies that, when an individual households stock of social capital increases by a unit, its odds in favor of economic wellbeing will be intensified by about 0.311 units. besides, an improvement in the households’ total stock of social capital increases the likelihood that an individual household is economically secured. moreover, the estimated weight of social capital is relatively large thereby further revealing its relevance in the wellbeing of the people. the economic aspect of social capital could be realized as a result of production efficiencies (nie etal., 1996; durlauf, 2002; loury, 1977); decreased transaction costs (greif, 1993; dipasquale and glaeser, 1999); better team work and effects of individual networking (ball et al., 1998; putnam, 1995{2000}). this finding is theoretically expected and empirically similarto reimer (2014) in canada; reinsberg et al (2013) in poland; and terrence (2014) in united states.anidirdummy was suggested to have insignificant effect on household economy. the reported differential effect (0.416) was suggested insignificant even at 10 per cent.thus, there are no real economic differences across households whether or not they are members of their community self-help association called idir. it means that the dummy for idir has not been important in explaining the households’ economic position. this result may not be surprising from the economic perspective; given that, such associations, like idir, are mainly targeted for social rather than economic matters. with idir, individualscome together to share social emergencies and occasional burdens in life. education was another relevant consideration. we have estimated a positive (0.150) and statistically significant (p=0.000) impact of household’s education level on its economic position. the coefficient reveals that, a year extra schooling increases odds of household being economically secure by 0.15, which is statistically significant improvement from the computational point of view. hence, household economic status has been found to vary regressors coeff. std. error prob. tsci 0.311 0.050 0.000 idir 0.416 0.307 0.229 agei 0.014 0.012 0.176 educi 0.150 0.041 0.000 log ll ratio: chi 2 (4) = 87.55 [0.000] pseudor2 = 0.2125 89 economic intuition to social capital ….. (haile, et.al) positively with the level of education attended. thepositive coefficient of education is obvious. education affects life adequately; and in respect of economy, education is argued to enhance mechanized production techniques thereby developing knowledge and workers and improving managerial efficiency. all these allow for individual’s raising productivity and hence overall product level. an age variable was also found irrelevant. the estimated coefficient 0.014(0.229) reveals that the effect of householder’s age is not significant. it indicates that, when the age of a household head increases by a year, the odds of that household being economically secured improves by about 0.014; yet insignificant improvement. theconnotation with this particular case may be that, life experience doesn’t matter while economic performanceis considered. in fact, time allows an individual to learn while doing thereby simultaneously providing opportunities to take advantages ofadvancing technology that could enhance easy life. in contrast, if you let your time pass for nothing eventually you will finally end up with added but lost time life. most of the time, experiences help in business and popularly claimed to contribute positive asset arising from economies of scale due to large size. in general, the total stock of social capital that a household possess contributes towards improving its economic endeavor. furthermore, households’ status in education was found important in explaining their economic performance. that means, with higher level of education households’ perform well in economic regards. but, idirdummy and the age considerations were irrelevant with reference to household economy. 2. general versus special social capital: analysis of relative economic importance we took step ahead towards analyzing the relative importance of general and special components of social capital.here, we examine as to which of the two household economic condition was more responsive. according to social science theories, the special aspect matters more compared to the general aspect, in reference to their multidimensional role in human life. the premise follows that, whether an individual likes or not, general relations are there and no effort from the individual to exist. in contrast, special relations are usually created with large effort, hence interpreted meaningfully. as a result, special aspect of social capital would be tough in human relationships (ashford, 2005). the later aspect of social capital is more likely intensifying household economic as well as other relevant events, compared to the earlier. in this study, we expect better role of the special aspect of household social capital with reference to jimma zone. to determine the relative importance, we run logistic regression in two regressors, and the result is displayed below: table 7. relative importance of general and special capital on household economy regressors coef. std. error p>|𝐙| gsci 0.2796505 0.2060365 0.175 ssci 0.3455757 0.0567074 0.000 cons. -1.156174(0.000) lr chi2 (2) = 69.12 [0.000]pseudo r2 = 0.1678 response variable: dummy for economic securityobs.= 383 note: a value in [ ] is the probability of the log likelihood ratio. source: (own survey, 2018) 90 agraris: journal of agribusiness and rural development research the validity of two regressor model can be ensured by its significant probability of chi square (table7). moreover, the reported pseudo-r2value of about 16.78 percent is fairly good for such large cross sectional observation in only two regressors (wooldridge, 2013; poulton and kent, 2008). figures in the table describe everything in advance! the special aspect of household social capital is more likely to significantly contribute towards household economic wellbeing (table 7). there is evidence for significant and positive effect of special social capital on household economic security. our regression result reveals that, when an individual household’s special capital stock improves by a unit measure;the odds of economic security will be intensified by about 0.34; whereby by granting the likelihood of household economic safety. thisimprovement in the household’s economic position is highly meaningful as the estimated coefficient is strong. besides, sign of the estimated coefficient was right; and empirically similar to (ashford, 2005; reimer, 2002; reinsberg et al, 2005). the assertion is that, it is the special component of social capital that contributes more to the prosperity of the people. to the other side, households’ general social capital has been found not important in their economic considerations. its estimated coefficient of 0.27(0.175) clearly reveals that the general aspect of household social capital has nothing to do withsafeguardingtheir wellbeing. general relationships do not guarantee real interpersonal linkages, exchange of relevantideasand meaningfulinterpretations of those relations; and that might explain why they often ceaseto maintain theindividual as well as group welfare (uzawa, 2005; saidov, 2018; dildar, 2010). we see that general social capital has nothing to do, unless appropriated meaningfully. obvious is a positive but insignificant impact from the households’ economic wellbeing; whereby the positive coefficient indicating if wise approaches were there for appropriation, it would have had desirable economic signal. in contrast, the role of special social capital in advancing household economy is strongly significant in the expected direction. the implication is straight forward; relations having no meaningful interpretations could end up non-sense. conclusions this study established relationships between social capital and economic performance,using household survey from jimma zone. a prime goal wasestimating the impact of social capital on household economy. there is evidence that, an economic effect of social capital on household economic performance was positive and strongly significant. separatelogit regression yielded insignificant coefficient for general social capital, demonstrating irrelevant economic value from the general aspect of societal networks in the study area.but, the same regression indicated robust and positive sign for special social capital. results tell us that, the economic relevance of special social capital was found much higher than the general stock.the implication follows that, though social capital plays obvious role for multifaceted social development, it could have nothing to do unless the share of special aspect is intensified. general social capital, which can be established exogenously without ones 91 economic intuition to social capital ….. 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