AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 1 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Valorization of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products – A review Marja Lehto1, Hanna-Riitta Kymäläinen2, Minna M. Kahala1 and Eila P. Järvenpää1 1Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production systems, FI-31600 Jokioinen, Finland 2Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 28 (Koetilantie 5), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland email: hanna-riitta.kymalainen@helsinki.fi Approximately 30% of vegetables end up as by-products during processing. Vegetable by-products have traditionally been used as animal feed, soil improvers, or raw material for biogas. In this literature review, we examine and discuss studies concerning the utilization of cabbage, carrot, and red beet by-products in a wide variety of applica- tions, including technical applications. These vegetables are widely cultivated in northern climates as well as around the world, and there is a need to outline potential uses for their by-products. Numerous product ideas and research results exist concerning the use of by-products in food, feed, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, biosorbents, composites and films, energy products, soil amendments and pesticides, enzymes, dyes and biosurfactants, and electrical products. Food and food additives were the most examined targets of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-product val- orization. These studies could be used, for example, in creating a company’s by-product utilization strategy. High-value biochemicals, tailored nutraceuticals, feed additives, bioplastics, or biofuels may be realistic options in large-scale production. Environmental, safety, and economic aspects must be taken into account when utilizing by-products. Key words: side-stream, Daucus carota L., Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata, Beta vulgaris L. var. conditiva, utilization Introduction Roughly one-third of all food, approximately 1.3 billion tonnes, produced for human consumption is lost globally per year (FAO 2011). Both globally (FAO 2011, Sagar et al. 2018, FAO 2019) and in Europe (Caldeira et al. 2019), fruits and vegetables are the largest groups of food waste. Although the largest share of food is wasted at the consumption stage, the processing stage is considered a close second, and it can result in about 30% of vegetables going to waste (Sagar et al. 2018, EU 2020). At the primary production and processing stages of the vegetable value chain, vegetable loss is due to managerial, financial, and technical issues, including insufficient harvesting facilities, inadequate harvesting techniques, and a lack of information on climatic conditions and marketing systems (FAO 2011). For example, in Sweden, one third of the carrots (Daucus carota L.) produced are used for purposes other than food (Olsson 2023). Data on the exact waste quantities produced through food processing are very limited, and no official data are issued annually by the EU. Waste is defined as any substance or object that the holder discards, or intends to discard, or is required to dis- card. A by-product, on the other hand, is a substance or object resulting from a production process whose primary aim is not the production of that item. The term “side stream” broadly refers to by-products or waste generated during industrial processes (EU Directive 2008/98/EC). Residue refers to a small amount of matter that remains after the main part has been used, removed, or has otherwise gone. By-products of vegetable processing include solid residues of peels, skins, seeds, stems, and pulp. Pomace is the by-product of carrot juicing, and mash or pulp is the by-product of the carrot peeling and cutting process (Duval 2020). For example, up to 40% of the outer leaves and core of cabbages (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) are considered by-products, and up to 30% of the total production is estimated not to be utilized as food (Zhang et al. 2022). Large amounts of waste are also gen- erated during the trimming process (Mago et al. 2022). Vegetable waste thus involves a loss of valuable biomass and nutrients (Plazzotta et al. 2020, Marcillo-Parra et al. 2021). Many original study articles exist concerning the by-products of carrots, cabbage, and red beets (Beta vulgaris L. var. conditiva), but their utilization as a whole has not been widely examined, although reviews concerning other vegetables are available. These three vegetables, particularly important in northern climates, are the focus of this review. By-products of carrot, cabbage, and red beet are currently often used as such as animal feed (Nilnakara et al. 2009, Tumbas Šaponjac et al. 2016, Battistella Lasta et al. 2019, Kaur et al. 2022b), in landfills (Kaur et al. 2022b), as fertilizer (Nilnakara et al. 2009) or composted (Battistella Lasta et al. 2019). Their nutritional and biological Received 9 May 2025 / Accepted 19 October 2025 The Scientific Agricultural Society of Finland ©This is an open access article under the CC BY 4.0 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 2 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 potential could offer benefits for health promotion (Galanakis 2012, Ben-Othman et al. 2020), endorsing busi- ness (Coman et al. 2020, Galanakis 2020), and decreasing negative environmental impacts (Lai et al. 2017, Majer- ska et al. 2019). The compounds in carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products (Table 1) are the basis for several valorization options presented in this review. Utilization of the compounds in different valorization targets is dis- cussed in the sections in question. Most valorization options require the use of processing technologies. These include, e.g., drying, blanching, fermentation, extraction, extrusion, encapsulation, thermochemical technologies, anaerobic digestion, and composting. In some cases, also the fractionation technique for separating the desired component from the bulk by-product, e.g., protein from cabbage leaves (Nynäs et al. 2021), needs development. Although important, technical feasibility, including pre-treatment, extraction and production methods, is outside the scope of this review. The aim of this literature review is to examine potential applications for by-products of carrot, cabbage, and red beet. Valorization of the by-products is discussed in terms of potential product sectors, as well as environmental and economic aspects. Material and methods For a narrative literature review (Green et al. 2006), publications about the valorization of the by-products of the vegetables in question were searched using the database of Helka libraries (UH 2025). For the valorization op- tions, combinations of two search terms such as carrot and by-product were used. Carrot and cabbage were clear search terms, while for red beet, also the terms beetroot and red beetroot were used. As presented in the intro- duction, the by-product terminology used in literature is vague. Thus, for by-product, also alternative search terms byproduct, waste, reject, and residue were used. Experimental studies were selected for further examination. The focus of this study is on by-products, which was a selection criterion. However, the experimental studies focusing on by-products included studies made with by-products from agriculture (e.g., leaves of carrots) or the processing industry (e.g., mash from juice processing), vegetable rejects, and normal vegetables as models for by-products. Since there was plenty of literature, the selection was made first by focusing on peer-reviewed articles and secondly by obtaining a versatile collection of valorization options, products, and utilization ideas. The second author conducted the main literature search and analysis of the articles, but all authors participated in the discussion and further processing of the data. Valorization options for the by-products of carrot, cabbage and red beet Valorization options for the focus vegetables were divided into nine product sectors. Food and nutraceutical applications, as the most examined sector, are presented first, followed by feed, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Technical uses include biosorbents, composites and films, energy products, soil amendments and pesticides, enzymes, dyes and biosurfactants, and electrical applications. Table 1. Compounds of carrot, cabbage and red beet as a basis for valorization of by-products of these vegetables Vegetable Beneficial compounds Reference Carrot (Daucus carota L.) Carotenoids (carotene, lutein), dietary fibers, phytochemicals (polyphenols) Sharma et al. 2012, Anal 2018, Amin et al. 2021, Sepúlveda et al. 2021 Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) Dietary fibers, protein, bioactive compounds, vitamins, minerals, sulphur-containing amino acids, antioxidants (ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds), carotenoids, glucosinolates, phytochemicals, tocopherols Wennberg et al. 2003, Kim et al. 2004, Liang 2016, Singh et al. 2006, Jongaroontaprangsee et al. 2007, Kusznierewicz et al. 2008, Nilnakara et al. 2009, Singh et al. 2010, Samec et al. 2011, Gül et al. 2013, Šedlar et al. 2021 Red beet (Beta vulgaris L. var. conditiva) Protein, fiber, lipids, phenolics, nitrates, flavo- noids, carotenoids, betalains (betacyanin, beta- xanthins), vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, polyphenols Vulić et al. 2013, 2014, Porto Dalla Costa et al. 2017, Chauhan and Rajput 2018, Kohajdová et al. 2018, Kaur et al. 2021, Nutter et al. 2021, Petrovic et al. 2021, Sedlar et al. 2021, Zin and Bánvölgyi 2021, 2022 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 3 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Food ingredients and additives Plenty of research with an interest in utilizing the nutritional components of the vegetables (Table 1) has been conducted in the food sector, including nutraceuticals. More studies on carrots and red beets than on cabbage were available for the food sector (Table 2). Most studies showed that the by-products of these vegetables had potential uses, including a variety of possible applications in food, for example, as a colorant, antioxidant, and dietary fiber. However, unwanted side effects on sensory properties, e.g., taste, are sometimes a challenge (Kohajdová et al. 2018, Petrovic et al. 2021, Abdo et al. 2022). In addition, studies on an industrial production scale are called for. In the case of carrots, the most examined by-product was the pomace, or pulp, resulting from juice pressing (Table 2), both from fresh and fermented raw materials (Janiszewska-Turak et al. 2021). Carrot leaves and tops showed potential for producing food additives (Leite et al. 2011, de Oliveira et al. 2015), while the peels were suitable for extracting carotenoids (de Andrade Lima et al. 2018), and for preparing dietary fiber (Chantaro et al. 2008) and jam (Hussein et al. 2015). Some studies showed potential for cabbage waste as a raw material for functional foods and beverages (Table 2). Rashad and Abdou (2001) found cabbage whey to be a suitable substrate for cultivating edible fungi. Proteins derived from, e.g., red beet and cabbage leaves had good functional properties, as noted in Sedlar et al. (2021). Red beet leaves have been used, e.g., as an emulsifier (Ralla et al. 2019) and as an ingredient for bakery products (Asadi and Khan 2021). Red beet peel could be used as a preservative agent due to its antioxidant properties (El-Beltagi et al. 2022), but these properties of a beetroot peel extract have also been questioned (Šeremet et al. 2020). Red beet pomace has been found to have antibacterial (Vulić et al. 2013, Salamatullah et al. 2021), antiradical and hepatoprotective (Vulić et al. 2014), and anticandidal properties (Salamatullah et al. 2021). Table 2. Studies of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products in food products and nutraceuticals as food additives or functional food ingredients By-products as raw materials Main components or compounds utilized Reference Carrot leaves E.g., antioxidants, chlorophyll, fatty acids Leite et al. 2011 Ingredient of flour: omega-3 fatty acids de Oliveira et al. 2015 Carrot peel Dietary fiber, pectin, β-carotene, phenolics, antioxidants Chantaro et al. 2008 Dietary fiber, β-carotene, anthocyanins Amany et al. 2010 Proteins, dietary fibers, carbohydrates, sensory properties Baljeet et al. 2014 Physical properties of extrudates Alam et al. 2015 β-carotene, phenolics, antioxidants, antioxidant dietary fiber powder Hussein et al. 2015 Carotenoids de Andrade Lima et al. 2018 Inulinase enzyme, high-fructose syrup and fructo-oligosaccharides Singh et al. 2018 Single-cell protein source for noodles or bread Razzaq et al. 2022, Khan et al. 2022 Carotenoids, sensory properties Šeregelj et al. 2022 Carrot pulp and mash Carotenoids, polyphenols, oligosaccharides, Duval 2020 E.g., carotenoids, polyphenols Amin et al. 2021 Phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherols Araújo-Rodrigues et al. 2021 Carrot discards Gelling agent pectin Christiaens et al. 2015 Pigments, fermentation products: carotenoids, sugars, acids Ramos-Andrés et al. 2021 Colour, carotenes Kaur et al. 2022a, b Cabbage outer leaves Substrate for the cultivation of edible fungi for human food and supplements Rashad and Abdou 2001 Dietary fiber powder Jongaroontaprangsee et al. 2007 Antioxidants, vitamin C, colour Nilnakara et al. 2009 Beverages, nutraceuticals: polyphenols, glucosinolates Gonzales et al. 2015 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 4 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Feed ingredients and additives Similar to food uses, many components of vegetable by-products (Table 1) are beneficial in animal feed. For example, dried cabbage waste is an excellent source of protein (Mahgoub et al. 2018). Animal feed is a basic utilization target for carrot (Aimaretti and Yibalo 2012, Bakshi et al. 2016) and cabbage (Nilnakara et al. 2009) discards, but the need for other valorization alternatives has been raised (Aimaretti and Yibalo 2012). As an example of a new type of utilization, Rashad and Abdou (2001) found cabbage whey to be a suitable substrate for cultivating edible fungi, also for feed use. Castrica et al. (2018) estimated pet food to be the most concrete strategy for using food waste as animal feed within the European context, but most of the studies focus on animals other than pets (Table 3). Red cabbage leaves Dietary fiber, minerals Brito et al. 2020 Antioxidants, acid binding, dialysis retardation Liang et al. 2019 Anthocyanins Patras 2019 Polyphenols, antioxidants, food colourant Zanoni et al. 2020 Red beet leaves E.g., proteins, dietary fiber, fats, carbohydrates, phenolics, anti- oxidants, colour Asadi and Khan 2021 Polyphenols, betaxanthin, betacyanin Nutter et al. 2021 Red beet peel Flavourant, colourant, antioxidant: betalains, phenolics Kujala et al. 2001 Cookies: e.g., protein, fiber, sensory parameters Chauhan and Rajput 2018 Emulsifier for food and beverage products Ralla et al. 2019 Phenolic compounds, e.g., betanin, and betacyanins Kujala et al. 2000 Fiber, protein, phenolics, antioxidants, betacyanin, biological effects Šeremet et al. 2020 Betalains, phenolics, antioxidants Zin and Bánvölgyi 2021 Antioxidant, preservatives phenolic compounds: flavonoids, betalains, antiradical scavenging El-Beltagi et al. 2022 Betalain, phenolics, flavonoids Zin and Bánvölgyi 2022 Red beet pomace Phytochemical profile, antiradical, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities Vulić et al. 2013 Antioxidant effects Vulić et al. 2014 Ingredient in biscuits: betacyanins, polyphenols, antioxidant capacity Hidalgo et al. 2018 Source of dietary fiber in bakery products: proteins, dietary fiber Kohajdová et al. 2018 Candy enrichment: phenolics, betacyanin, betaxanthin, anti- oxidant capacity Kumar et al. 2018 Ingredient in yogurt: protein, fiber Jovanović et al. 2021 Fortification for functional dairy dessert: betalains Kaur et al. 2021 Liqueur: phenolics, antioxidants, colour Petrović et al. 2021 Red beet peels, parings, stalks Colour, antioxidants, dietary fiber, phenolics, betalain Porto Dalla Costa et al. 2017 Red beet leaves and stems Betacyanin, polyphenols Aguirre Calvo et al. 2019 Fortification of functional orange juice: flavonoids, betalain, radicals scavenging activity Abdo et al. 2022 Red beet pulp and peel Polyphenols, flavonoids, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity Salamatullah et al. 2021 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 5 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Ruminants have the capacity to utilize fibrous materials because of their rumen microbiota, which enables the use of many by-products in their feeds (Mirzaei-Aghsaghali and Maheri-Sis 2008), either fresh (whole or chopped), as dried and ground meal, or as silage (de Rezende et al. 2015, Bakshi et al. 2016, Du et al. 2021, Ren et al. 2021). Rust and Buskirk (2008) estimated 40% (DB, dry basis) carrot being suitable for beef cattle, and carrot was also mentioned as being suitable for cows (15.9 kg/cow/day), while a carrot addition of 5 kg/cow/day was reported to have beneficial effects on milk quality (Nalecz–Tarwacka et al. 2003). As a disadvantage for ruminant feeds, carrot and red beet pomaces increased the gas formation related to digestible organic matter (Giller et al. 2021). Cabbage waste leaves are potential in goat feeds (Ngu and Ledin 2005, Wadhwa et al. 2006), but sulfur toxicity in cabbage wastes and its effect on the feed flavor should be taken into account (De Evan et al. 2019). Ensiling and fermentation of vegetable by-products may enhance the acceptance, performance, and growth of animals, such as in carrot feed for steers (Laflamme 1992) and outer leaves of cabbage for calves (Mukodiningsih et al. 2019a). Concerning poultry feed, carrot by-products had positive effects on the quality of eggs (Sidker et al. 1998, Hammershøj et al. 2010) and hen welfare (Steenfeldt et al. 2007). Cabbage leaf residues could improve nutrient utilization and egg quality (Mustafa and Baurhoo 2018). Cabbage has also been used in rabbit feed (Tsutsmi et al. 1967), with beneficial effects on vitamin A (Pirie and Wood 1946), but the effect of cabbage on growth rate varied from positive (Nguen et al. 2009) to not beneficial (Hang et al. 2011). Carrot feed as a source of carotenoids improved the colour and sensory properties of catla, a carp fish (Weerakkody and Cumaranatunga 2016), the color of cichlid (Kop et al. 2010), and the colour (Lili et al. 2018) and growth (Wagde et al. 2018) of the swordtail, an ornamental aquarium fish, while gilthead seabream colour was not improved by carrot feed (Wassef et al. 2010). Carrot and carrot tops increased prawn pigmentation, although this was not considered an important feature (Garces and Heinen 1993). Insects can utilize vegetable by-products as feed and convert the organic waste material of, e.g., carrots (Oon- incx et al. 2015, Varelas 2019, Aristi et al. 2020, Rovai et al. 2022) or cabbage (Aristi et al. 2020, Morales-Ramos et al. 2020, Pinotti and Ottoboni 2021) into biomass that can be used as a raw material for human food and/or animal feed or technical applications (van Peer et al. 2021). A diet enriched with, e.g., shredded carrots or cabbages improved the growth of mealworm larvae that were considered as human food ingredients (Liu et al. 2020). The initial interest being in human food (Oonincx and Boer 2012, Van Broekhoven et al. 2015, Rovai et al. 2022) or food and feed (Oonincx et al. 2015), carrot was used as a basic feed substance for mealworms, e.g., to provide moisture. Carrot waste was promising for the fat content of black soldier fly larvae (Aristi et al. 2020). Black soldier Table 3. Studies of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products in feed and pet food ingredients and additives By-products as raw materials Product or application examples Reference Carrot pomace Insect feed, e.g., proteins and carotenoids Rovai et al. 2022 Carrot extract Fermented for feed and food additives Stockhammer et al. 2009 Carrot discards Supplement for prawn feed vinasse Garces and Heinen 1993 Forage for egg-laying hens Hammershøj et al. 2010 Co-fermented carrot and brewer’s yeast, animal feed Aimaretti et al. 2012 Cabbage outer leaves Fermented cabbage for calf feed Mukodininghsih et al. 2019a, b Ruminant (sheep) feed, goat feed Ngu and Ledin 2005, Wadhwa et al. 2006, de Evan et al. 2019 Fermented extract as a starter for rice bran fermentation Setya Utama et al. 2013 Poultry feed Mustafa and Baurhoo 2018 Rabbit feed Nguen et al. 2009 Snail feed, e.g., proteins and fibers Omolara and Olaleye 2010, Babalola 2018 Livestock feed Mahgoub et al. 2018 House cricket feed, e.g., proteins and carbohydrates Morales-Ramos et al. 2020 Substrate for cultivation of fungi for feed Rashad and Abdou 2001 Red beet discards Fermented red beets for lamb feed Nkosi and Ratsaka 2010 Red beet pomace Dog food Jovanović et al. 2021 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 6 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 flies (Oonincx et al. 2015, Aristi et al. 2020) and cockroaches (Oonincx et al. 2015) fed by vegetables were intended to be feed for other animals. Syahrizal et al. (2022) observed that a mixture of palm kernel meal and cabbage waste was among the most favorable feed for black soldier flies that could be used for fish feed. Omolara and Olaleye (2010) and Babalola (2018) observed that snails can utilize cabbage waste as their sole feed. Carrots are also used as feed for insects grown for pest management, such as flies (Mainali et al. 2019). Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics Case studies of carrot, cabbage, or red beet by-products as pharmaceuticals were often marginal, and the poten- tial for food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical uses was often combined (Table 4). Examples of promising results include red beet stalks and leaves by-products in obesity control (Micheletti Lorizola et al. 2021) and red beet pomace having cytotoxic effects against carcinoma cells (Vulic et al. 2013). Vegetable pigments could be used in pharmaceutical products (de Andrade Lima et al. 2018, Ramos-Andrés et al. 2021) and pigments and odorous substances in creams and perfumes (Naviglio et al. 2019). Components of vegetable by-products shown to have potential as health products include β-carotene (Roohinejad et al. 2014, Purohit and Gogate 2015), insoluble fiber (Ma et al. 2016), and phenolic compounds (El-Sawi et al. 2022) in carrot waste, organic acids (Selder et al. 2021), phytochemicals (Šamec et al. 2011), and phenolics (Gonzales et al. 2015) in cabbage waste, and betalains and polyphenolic compounds in red beet waste (Lazăr et al. 2021). Biosorbents Activated carbon was the most common active component from carrot or cabbage by-products in biosorbent studies (Table 5), and it was examined mostly for wastewater purification and, in a few studies, for purifying soil and vapor. Lignocellulose-based biosorbents were also common for wastewater purification. Single studies concerning carrot by-products in biosorbents for wastewater were based on pectin (Hastuti et al. 2018) and peroxidase enzyme (Joel et al. 2020), while one study focused on the bioremediation of polluted soil Table 4. Studies of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products in pharmaceutical products and cosmetics By-products as raw materials Product or application examples: main components or compounds utilized Reference Carrot peel Pharmaceuticals or cosmetics: carotenoids de Andrade Lima et al. 2018 Pharmaceutical applications: carotenoids El-Sawi et al. 2022 Carrot pomace Pharmaceuticals, functional ingredient for intestinal health Roohinejad et al. 2014 Pharmaceutical against cancer and microbial infec- tions: phenolics, flavonoids Purohit and Gogate 2015 Dietary fiber Ma et al. 2016 Carrot discards Pigments for pharmaceutical industry: sugars, acids Ramos-Andrés et al. 2021 Cabbage outer leaves Additives for cosmetics (red cabbage): polyphenols, glucosinolates Gonzales et al. 2015 Pharmaceutics, food, and feed: butyric, valeric, and caproic acids Selder et al. 2021 Antibacterial and antifungal lipophilic mixture for the clinical, veterinary, and agricultural fields Arrais et al. 2022 Red beet peel Pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals: betalains, poly- phenols Lazăr et al. 2021 Red beet pomace Pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry: phytochemical profile, antiradical, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities Vulic et al. 2013 Encapsulated extract for pharmaceuticals, food additives: phenolics, flavonoids, betalain Tumbas Šaponjac et al. 2016 Medicinal and food applications: betacyanin, beta- xanthin, phenolics, antioxidants Kuswaha et al. 2018 Red beet leaves and stems Nutraceuticals, functional food, or pharmaceuticals: phenolics Battistella Lasta et al. 2019 Supplementation, adjuvant in obesity Micheletti Lorizola et al. 2021 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 7 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 (Hamoudi-Belarbi et al. 2018). Regardless of the active component or structure examined, the by-products examined in most of the studies showed potential as biosorbent materials, with cabbage being the only exception in Hossain et al. (2014) and Xue et al. (2019). Composites, films, and packages Using carrot and red beet discards or waste in composites and packages has been examined in some studies (Table 6), all of which showed that carrot or red beet by-products have at least preliminary potential in the production of films and packaging materials. The most typical end products examined or mentioned were food packages (Tran et al. 2017, Otoni et al. 2018, Perotto et al. 2018, Sogut and Cakmak 2020, Amoroso et al. 2022, Rodríguez-Félix et al. 2022), while the end product was not clearly specified in the remaining studies (Table 6). Table 5. Studies of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products in biosorbents By-products as raw materials Product or application examples (potential raw material, active component) Reference Carrot discards Biochar/active carbon for removing phosphorus from wastewater de Carvalho Eufrásio Pinto et al. 2019 Biochar/active carbon for dye removal from wastewater Hira et al. 2020, Moradi et al. 2021 Carrot residue or discards Lignocellulose as biosorbent/absorbent for heavy metal removal Nasernejad et al. 2005, Bhatti et al. 2010 Carrot peel and pulp Composite PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) adsorbent containing tomato and carrot for removing cobalt from wastewater Changmai et al. 2018 Carrot peel Biostimulation medium for bioremediation of crude petroleum Hamoudi-Belarbi et al. 2018 Pectin as biosorbent for heavy metals from wastewater Hastuti et al. 2018 Carrot pulp Biochar for heavy metal fractionation in contaminated soil Gholami and Rahimi 2021 Carrot leaves and stems Lignocellulose as biosorbent for removing dyes from wastewater Kuswaha et al. 2014 Cabbage outer leaves Lignocellulose as biosorbent/adsorbent for removing heavy metals or dyes from wastewater Hossain et al. 2014, Wekoye et al. 2020 Peroxidase enzyme for biodegradation of phenol and synthetic dyes from wastewater Joel et al. 2020 Activated carbon as adsorbent for mercury vapour removal Vakili et al. 2021a, b Biochar for purifying off-gas or removing VOCs Zhang et al. 2022 Red beet fiber Lignocellulose as biofilter/adsorbent for removing dyes and heavy metals from wastewater, hard water softener Rima et al. 2014 Table 6. Valorization studies of carrot and red beet by-products in composites, films, and packages By-products as raw materials Product or application examples Reference Carrot pomace Cellulose nanofibers for, e.g., reinforcement in polymer composites Berglund et al. 2016 Cellulose and nanocellulose film Szymanska-Chargot et al. 2019 Carrot peel Cellulose nanofibers for biocomposites for packaging Otoni et al. 2018 Carrot discards and pulp Cellulose nanofibers for bioplastics Perotto et al. 2018 Carrot discards Cellulose nanofiber film for packaging Amoroso et al. 2022 Dietary fibers, syrup to produce lactic acid for biodegradable plastic Salvañal et al. 2021 Carrot pulp Fibers and microcrystalline cellulose, packaging films Sogut and Cakmak 2020 Red beet discards, peel Biocomposite for packaging for pharmaceutical, medical, and food applications Tran et al. 2017 Red beet pomace Active food packaging Rodríguez-Félix et al. 2022 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 8 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Energy products Energy products made from vegetable by-products include biogas, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cabbage (Solowski et al. 2019, Wei et al. 2021, Czubaszek et al. 2022), red beet (Surendran and Shanmugam 2021), and mixtures of vegetable wastes containing carrot (Yang and Cosolini 2019) and carrot and cabbage (Ravi et al. 2018) showed potential for biogas production. In some studies, co-fermentation of a mixture of cabbage waste and other raw materials produced more biogas than the wastes separately (Bozym et al. 2015, Wu et al. 2016, Mu et al. 2017), but opposite results have also been obtained (Arifan et al. 2021). Ethanol was produced from carrot discards (Aimaretti and Yibalo 2012, Aimaretti et al. 2012) or pomace (Yu et al. 2013, Khoshkho et al. 2022) through fermentation, while the residue could be used as animal feed. Biodiesel was prepared from carrot pomace by transesterification (Karatay et al. 2019, 2020), carrot being the growth medium or carbon source for microbial lipid production. Soil amendments and pesticides Improving soil properties or fertilization are the most common applications of vegetable by-products for agricul- tural purposes, while only a few studies have focused on pesticide use. Processed vegetable residues are used in agriculture mainly in the form of biochar, as residues from anaerobic digestion in energy production, or as compost. Cabbage was the most examined vegetable for this application sector (Table 7). In agriculture, biochar can be used in various ways. As a soil ameliorant, it is used to optimize soil structure and composition, and to increase the availability of nutrients and the water retention capacity of the soil. Biochar buried in the soil, either as such or as a compost additive, serves as a long-term carbon storage, increases soil health by limiting the availability of pesticides and heavy metals, and contributes to the improvement of plant growth and crop production by affecting soil microbiology and enzyme activity (Enaime and Lübken 2021). Biochar as a soil amendment was discussed by Bakshi et al. (2021). Biochar can also be used as animal feed (Enaime and Lübken 2021). Most of the studies on the removal of contaminants from water or more widely from the environment (Table 8) focus on heavy metals. However, phosphorus, in particular, is relevant for agriculture. Carrot or cabbage by-products have shown potential as raw materials of biochar (de Carvalho Eufrásio Pinto et al. 2019, Pradhan et al. 2020a, b). Anaerobic digestion produces biogas and digestate as a co-product, which can be used as fertilizer. Compost- ing as a treatment of cabbage for soil amendment applications showed promising results in most studies (Table 7). Studies focusing on other treatments or active components for soil improvement were few: polymer gel from cabbage waste (Zhang et al. 2021) and lime mud from red beet juice production (Ławińska et al. 2020) showed potential, while carrot acid extracts did not (Suzuki et al. 2001) (Table 7). Results from studies examining the utilization of cabbage waste for biopesticides varied from positive (Zhang et al. 2022) to unpromising (Roshan-Bakhsh et al. 2019, Supyani et al. 2021). Table 7. Studies of by-product use in soil amendments and pesticides By-products as raw materials Product or application examples Reference Cabbage outer leaves Co-composting with phosphate rock Walker et al. 2012 Co-composting with poultry manure Saleem et al. 2017, 2018 Composting: carrier of fungi, control of plant pathogens in soil Wolna-Maruwka et al. 2019 Composting with fungus Ntsobi et al. 2021 Vermicomposting: soil amendment Mago et al. 2022 Red cabbage outer leaves Biochar for use in P recovery and as fertilizer de Carvalho Eufrásio Pinto et al. 2019 Cabbage outer leaves Extracts by various solvents, natural nematicide Roshan-Bakhsh et al. 2019 Biochar for soil amendment, balancing soil properties Pradhan et al. 2020a&b Fermentation extract with cow urine to produce biopesticide Supyani et al. 2021 Applications of superabsorbent polymer gel, e.g. soil amend- ment Zhang et al. 2021 Extract before pyrolysis for use as pesticides or insecticides, biochar, activated carbon, pyrolytic liquid, pyrolytic gas Zhang et al. 2022 Carrot pomace Acid extract of carrot pomace as a plant growth substance Suzuki et al. 2001 Red beet pomace Carbonation lime mud, raw material for producing mineral– organic fertilizers Ławińska et al. 2020 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 9 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Enzymes, dyes, and biosurfactants Some studies showed good potential for using carrot or cabbage waste in enzyme production or for using red color extract from cabbage or red beet as a textile dye (Table 8). Some results were contradictory: the study by George and Jayachandran (2008) did not favor carrot peels in biosurfactant production, while positive results were obtained by Andrade et al. (2014) for red beet waste from juice production for the same purpose. Red beet skin was the most promising for producing biocatalysts to produce pure compounds for several fields of application (Vandenberghe et al. 2013). Electrical uses Electrical products are a marginally examined product sector for the vegetable by-products. However, Ahmed et al. (2018) and Hoang et al. (2019) found carrot waste to be suitable for energy storage products (Table 9). Of the materials examined, Mannarmannan and Biswas (2021) found carrot peel extract to be the best for preparing copper oxide nanoparticles with antibacterial properties. Table 8. Studies of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products in enzyme, dye, and biosurfactant production By-products as raw materials Product or application examples Reference Vegetable by-products, e.g., carrot peel Growing media for extremophile biomass production, enzymes and polymers Di Donato et al. 2011 Carrot peel Biosurfactants George and Jayachandran 2008 Carrot pulp Fatty acids precursor, fibrous booster to maintain in wastewater treatment Hastuti et al. 2018 Cabbage outer leaves Enzymes for dry-cleaning, detergents, meat processing, cheese making, silver recovery, digestive and medical treatments, waste management Madhumithah et al. 2011 Enzymes for textile and paper industries Das et al. 2012 Enzyme production with slaughterhouse effluent and cabbage waste mixture Ramakodi et al. 2020 Carrot, red cabbage, red beet by-products Biocatalyst for pharmaceutically important molecules, agrochemicals, flavours, and asymmetric chiral ligands Vandenberghe et al. 2013 Red cabbage outer leaves Colourant for textile industry Priyadarshini et al. 2021 Red beet peel Betalains for colour industry Fernando et al. 2021, Popescu et al. 2021 Table 9. Studies of carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products in electrical use By-products as raw materials Active component or structure and product or application examples Reference Rotten carrots and other vegetable by-products Porous activated carbon-based electrode for energy storage applications Ahmed et al. 2018 Carrot discards Precursor for Ni/P-doped carbon composite electrocatalyst for e.g. batteries, fuel cells, and electrocatalytic water splitting Hoang et al. 2019 Carrot peel Synthesis of Cu2O nanoparticles with antibacterial properties from carrot peel extract Mannarmannan and Biswas 2021 Red beet discards Single-crystalline gold (Au) nanoplates from extract for use, e.g., in catalysis, photonics, biosensing, electronics, or nanomedicines Deokar and Ingale 2018 Cabbage outer leaves Carbon aerogel for supercapacitors and adsorbent for oil/water separation Cai et al. 2017 AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 10 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Discussion Valorization options This review summarizes the literature on valorization options for by-products of carrot, red beet, and cabbage that are important vegetables in northern climates. The review showed that there is no single answer about the best use for the by-products of the vegetables under focus. The Waste Framework Directive sets the basic concepts and definitions related to waste management. Preventing waste is the preferred option, and preparing by-products for re-use, recycling, recovery, and sending waste to landfill should be the last options (EU 2008). Vegetable wastes are rich sources of vitamins and minerals for producing high-value compounds or metabolites (Yadav et al. 2023). Studies on various valorization options provide valuable insights into the potential uses of vegetable by-products for different-sized production companies. Some potential for using the by-products of carrot, red beet, and cab- bage in food applications was observed. There were only a few studies about these by-products in medicine and cosmetics, and food and pharmaceutical uses were often lumped together. These by-products or discards are used as such in animal feed, but quality upgrading for different animal species appeared positive in several studies. According to Ajila et al. (2012), the production of animal feed from agro-residues could be one of the most suitable technologies for finding an effective way to attain income by the agro-community and for the better management of environmental pollution. On the other hand, Esparza et al. (2020) mentioned bioactive compounds, enzymes, exopolysaccharides, bioplastics, and biofuels as the most promising options for valorization. In addition to food applications, Rapa et al. (2024) mentioned biogas and organic fertilizers, animal feed and innovative food packaging, and construction and water purification materials as potential applications. Particularly, cabbage was promising for biogas production via anaerobic digestion. By-products, particularly of carrot and cabbage, appeared suitable for producing biochar that can be used as a fertilizer or to remove con- taminants, such as heavy metals or phosphorus, from the environment. Carrot or cabbage by-products in the form of activated carbon were common in wastewater purification. Both activated carbon, lignocellulose, and pectin from the by-products were mostly potential as biosorbents. Composting of cabbage for soil amendment was mostly promising, while studies on other treatments for soil improvement and biopesticides were few and contradictory. Carrot and red beet by-products had potential in the production of films and packaging materials. Carrot or cabbage wastes showed potential for the production of the enzymes, and red beet also for textile dyes. However, in this case, contradictory results were found too. Some technical valorization options, e.g., electrical products, were examined only in a few studies, in which the by-products were nevertheless found functionally as potential product sectors. In practice, the most profitable valorization options are those related to centralizing the production and capitalizing on economies of scale (Cristobal et al. 2018). For example, the production of flour from vegetable by-products is affordable only if high value-added ingredients and products are developed (Ratti 2001). Economic profitability was not the focus of many of the studies reviewed. Technical feasibility, including pre-treatment, extraction and production methods, is highly important for both production technical and economic reasons. Sustainable recovery technologies eliminate harmful effects compared to conventional technologies (Czubaszek 2022). Green extraction methods in the separation of various bioactive compounds from vegetable by-products correspond to the aims of the circularity of resources and sustainability (Rapa et al. 2024). Many studies exploit technologies such as ultra- sounds, microwaves, high pressure, and supercritical fluid processing, for by-product processing. However, these incur huge investment and maintenance costs, along with requiring specialized know-how and production plants (Galanakis 2013). The costs are high even when using technologies characterized by a high industrial maturity level, e.g., air-drying (Ferreira et al. 2015). For example, biofuel applications (approximately 186‒372 €/tonne biomass) create more value compared to generating electricity (approximately 56‒139 €/tonne biomass) and cattle feed (65‒186 €/tonne biomass), but the turnover that could be generated by high-value biochemicals is much higher and estimated to be around 930 €/tonne biomass (Tuck et al. 2012). An accurate cost-benefit analysis should be performed to evaluate the environmental and economic sustainability of the proposed vegetable waste valoriza- tion strategies (Coelho et al. 2020). In this review, valorization options were examined, including all by-product sources. However, industrial by-prod- ucts and wastes are typically more homogeneous and constant in composition than those generated during the consumption phase, which makes them a more attractive option for valorization (Fava et al. 2015, Rao et al. 2021). In addition, the type of by-product affects its properties and thus its use potential, although the part of the vege- table examined as a by-product was not specified in all studies, or vegetable waste was examined as a whole. For example, red beet has a high antioxidant capacity (Porto Dalla Costa et al. 2017, Šeremet et al. 2020, Salamatullah AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 11 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 et al. 2021, Zin and Bánvölgyi 2021, El-Beltagi et al. 2022), but the composition is not equal in all parts of the veg- etable (Kujala et al. 2000). In Zin and Bánvölgyi (2022), the contents of betalains, phenolics, and flavonoids were also the highest in red beet peel, followed by the flesh and stalk. Based on this review, industrial-scale studies are needed to confirm the utilization of valuable components of vegetable by-products. Challenges in valorization of by-products According to Socas-Rodriguez et al. (2021), the valorization of food by-products is challenging for several reasons: the different stabilities of the added-value components during processing, the technological difficulty in large- scale production, the low energy efficiency and high costs of conventional extraction processes, and the use of non-food-grade solvents during conventional extraction processes. A central challenge is the perishable nature and heterogeneity of vegetable by-products and logistical arrangements (Esparza et al. 2020). The presence of moisture is connected to the stability and microbiological safety of food products (San Martin et al. 2016). For this reason, many processes applied for the valorization of food waste involve a drying step in which the water content is preferably reduced to less than 12% (Gomes et al. 2020, Iriondo-DeHond et al. 2018, Ribeiro et al. 2020, San Martin et al. 2016). Drying consumes a lot of energy, and in the northern countries, it is expensive when solar energy is limited. Finding reference values that allow determining the suitability of the obtained by-products for certain uses has been difficult, as no legislation has specifically been established in this regard. The transfer of contaminants from the raw material to the valorized product must be evaluated, along with the generation of new hazardous substances or their enrichment during food by-product processing (Socas-Rodriguez et al. 2021). The lack of regulation creates risks for the valorization of many potentially useful by-products from the agro-food industry. This problem brings about the necessity for determining specific regulations for food by-product valorization and safety (Socas-Rodriguez et al. 2021). By-products from organic farming lack residual pesticides or potentially toxic chemicals (Barbulova et al. 2015), which is a benefit for food applications. Environmental sustainability The strategy of the Circular Economy Action Plan is to use waste material and energy as inputs for other industrial processes or as regenerative resources for nature (EU 2020). However, when developing the processing chains of vegetables, waste prevention should also be emphasized. The US Environmental Protection Agency’s waste hier- archy ranks waste prevention as the most preferable option, and energy recovery as a less preferable strategy of waste management compared to others (EPA 2023). Vegetable by-products are of lower consequence to the environment compared to some other waste streams, but their leachates and CH4 emissions still present a risk (Misi and Foster 2002). According to the Food and Agri- culture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), food loss and waste is the second-highest cause of greenhouse gas emissions. Statistically, 1.3 billion tonnes of wasted food caused approximately 4.4 gigatonnes of green- house gas emissions (FAO 2015). Vegetable by-products obtained from the food bioprocessing industry remain a major surplus, leading to environmental pollution (FAO 2013). The global carbon footprint of food loss and waste, excluding emissions from land use change, is estimated at 3.3 gigatonnes of CO2 equivalent, while surface and groundwater resource use is attributable to circa 250 km3 of food lost or wasted, and almost 1.4 billion hectares are used to produce food that is later lost or wasted (FAO 2013). Approximately 40 823 kg of carrot rejects and waste destined for landfills released 6 988 kg of CH4, equivalent to 174 710 kg of CO2 (Kaur et al. 2022a). Improper disposal of vegetable waste and combustion leads to environmental pollution with the release of dioxins. Landfilling with vegetable wastes also causes water and air pollution and leads to CH4 gas emissions (ElMekawy et al. 2015). Implementing non-thermal technologies, adding sustainable solvents and safer materials, and possessing GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status are strongly recommended. Conducting integral investigations that include recovery protocols and preservation assays is necessary to ensure industrial exploitation and sustainability of the final product (Galanakis et al. 2015). Innovative valorization strategies have been shown to maximize the economic performance of the considered system (Plazzotta et al. 2020). A holistic approach is needed for utilizing vegetable by-products, including environmental aspects, technical feasibility, processing techniques, and economic profit- ability. Holistic examination of the sustainability of by-products, including different processing techniques, is also needed, particularly via life cycle assessment. AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SCIENCE Agricultural and Food Science (2025) 34: xxx–xxx 12 https://doi.org/10.23986/afsci.161586 Conclusions This literature review showed that plenty of valorization ideas in a wide variety of applications, including technical applications, have been examined for carrot, cabbage, and red beet by-products. Thus, there is not a single best use for the by-products of the vegetables under focus. Food applications were the most examined product sector. More studies for the food sector were found concerning carrots and red beets when compared to cab- bage. Most studies indicated at least some potential for these by-products in food use. Fewer studies focused on pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Vegetable by-products are often used untreated for animal feed, but valorization studies for several animal groups were also found. Technical applications as valorization targets included biosor- bents (mostly based on activated carbon), composites and films (mostly food packages), energy products (mostly biogas but also bioethanol and biodiesel), soil amendments and pesticides, enzymes, dyes and biosurfactants, and electrical applications. From an economic point of view, balancing between the amount, quality, logistics, and processing technologies of the by-products is a key issue. According to the literature, high-value biochemicals may be among the most profit- able valorization options. To handle the significant amounts of by-product biomass created, tailored nutraceutical or feed additive products, bioplastics, or biofuels might also be realistic options on a large scale. However, since most of the studies reviewed were of laboratory scale, research on an industrial scale is needed. Food loss and waste are a significant cause of greenhouse gas emissions. Concerning environmental sustainability, waste prevention is the primary option. Vegetable waste contains valuable biomass and nutrients, and the valo- rization of vegetable by-products can result in relative environmental benefits. To decrease emissions from the treatment of vegetable by-products, non-thermal technologies and sustainable solvents should be considered. The transformation of vegetable by-products into new products with maximum added value aligns with the precepts of the circular economy and the desire for natural ingredients. Many studies on the use of vegetable residues of interest in northern climates were reviewed from the viewpoints of valorization, but it is important to increase the scope of such studies, interrelating many other aspects that have a direct impact on the amount, type, and management of the generated residues. More studies about the economic and environmental aspects of utilizing vegetable by-products are needed. 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