Journal of the Scientific Agricultural Society of Finland
Vol. 51:79-148, 1979
Maataloustieteellinen Aikakauskirj a

DRIED POULTRY MANURE AS A FEED
INGREDIENT FOR DAIRY COWS

Selostus: Kananlanta lypsylehmien rehuna

MATTI NÄSI

Department of Animal Husbandry
University of Helsinki
SF-00710 Helsinki 71, Finland

To BE PRESENTED, WITH THE PERMISSION OF

the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry

of the University of Helsinki, for public

criticism in Auditorium Viikki B 3 on June
15, 1979 at 12 o’clock.

SUOMEN MAATALOUSTIETEELLINEN SEURA HELSINKI

https://www.c-info.fi/en/info/?token=LWXhPKFKkmH7_ydM.CgH8LJ4FntRMCSZs35QmAw.xxm03gTTmp5Wr46MkKJRiFVJXdzh4YMjiyytfDpK_A07mkLeUAFviz2sGsemcX1mg0FBNyS-VSQsiGuJLNN5uv0sjsS7zqcdAmLWLS_ZqfUIXIvLuIALCUEjUZ0CzGM6ziR4wResRd2XfutHa5xlWPQUdaZDyfKlpsNgVyE




Preface

The present investigation was carried out at the Department of Animal Husbandry, Uni-
versity of Helsinki and at the Department of Animal Hygiene, College of Veterinary Medicine.

I wish to express my gratitude to my teacher, Professor Esko Poutiainen and I am greatly
indebted to him for his continual interest, encouragement and criticism in the progress of this
work. I extend also sincere thanks to Professor Kaarlo Kallela for many stimulating
discussions and constructive suggestions. It is my pleasure to thank Dr. Maija-Liisa Salo,
Dr. Liisa Syrjälä and Dr. Eero Tanhuanpää for checking the manuscript and giving me
valuable constructive criticism.

My colleagues have been interested in this work and have given their help on many oc-
cassions during the investigation. I would like to experss my gratitude for this assistance.
The lingvistic revision has been made by Dr. Kathleen Ahonen and Miss Diane Barnes,
who are gratefully acknowledged.

The study was supported by grants from the August Johannes and Aino Tiura Agri-
cultural Research Foundation and the Finnish Cultural Foundation. I am grateful to the
Scientific Agricultural Society of Finland for including this study in their series of publication.

Finally, I wish to thank my wife Pirjo and daughter Anna for their encouraging support
and never failing patience during my work.

Helsinki, April 1979 Matti Näsi





CONTENTS

Abstract 85

1. INTRODUCTION 85

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 86
2. 1. Production, disposal and utilisation of poultry manure 86

2. 1. 1. Production of poultry manure 86
2. 1. 2. Disposal and utilisation of poultry manure 87

2. 2. Compostition and nutritional value of poultry manure 88
2. 2. 1. Composition and factors affecting the composition of poultry manure 88
2. 2. 2. Chemical composition of poultry manure 88
2. 2. 3. Nitrogen components of poultry manure 89
2. 2. 4. Digestibility of poultry manure 89
2. 2. 5. Energy value of poultry manure 90

2. 3. Utilisation of poultry manure as feed for animals 90
2. 3. 1. Poultry manure and uric acid as a nitrogen source for ruminants 90
2. 3. 2. DPM as protein supplement for lactating cows 91
2. 3. 3. Feeding DPM for beef and sheep production 92
2. 3. 4. Feeding recycled wastes to non-ruminants 93

2. 4. Health aspects of recycling poultry manure 94

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 95
3. 1. Feeding experiments 95

3. 1. 1. Experimental design 95
3. 1. 2. Experimental feeds and feeding 96
3. 1. 3. Sampling and analyses 96

3. 2. Digestibility trial 97
3. 3. Blood metabolic profile 98
3. 4. Metabolism trials 98
3. 5. Statistical analysis of results 99

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 99
4. 1. Feeding experiments 99

4. 1. 1. Feed composition and consumption 99
4. 1. 2. Digestibilities of the rations 106
4. 1. 3. Milk yield and feed utilisation 107

4. 2. Blood metabolic profile 116
4. 3. Rumen fermentation 123

5. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 132
REFERENCES 133

SELOSTUS 142
APPENDICES 144





JOURNAL OF THE SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF FINLAND

Maataloustieteellinen A ikakauskirja

85

Vol. 51:79- 00, 1979

Näsi, M. 1979. Dried poultry manure as a feed ingredient for dairy cows
J. Scient. Agric. Soc. Finl. 51: 79—000.

Abstract. The study investigated the utilisation of dried poultry manure as a protein
source for lactating cows and its influence on the blood metabolic profile and rumen
fermentation.

Two consecutive feeding trials were carried out for the comparison of dried poultry
manure (DPM) 20 %, soybean meal (SBM) 10 % and urea 1.5 % as protein supplement
in a concentrate mixture. Eighteen cows were used in each of the two experiments.
The experimental period was 13 weeks in Expt. 1 and 15 weeks in Expt. 2. The apparent
DM digestibilities of the DPM, SBM and UREA rations were 69.9, 72.0 and 74.0 %

(P < 0.05) and crude protein digestibilities were 72.0, 71.8 and 76.0 % (P < 0.01).
The FU-value of the DPM ration was lower (P < 0.01) than the SBM and UREA rations.
The palatability of the concentrate including DPM was depressed (P < 0.05). The
differences in milk yield and milk constituents between groups were not statistically
significant. Feed utilisation was equal in Expt. 1 0.37 FU/kg FCM but in Expt. 2 value
of 0.39 for the DPM group was lower than 0.45 for the SBM or 0,43 for the UREA
group (P < 0.05).

The values obtained in hematological and blood chemical analyses were within
normal ranges. The blood metabolic parameters indicate that DPM can be used as
feed for dairy cows without any detrimental effect on health.

The rumen fermentation was investigated with rumen fistulated cows in two ex-
periments. With a constant feeding level and the DPM inclusion adjusted to 0, 10, 20
and 40 % of concentrate mixture, the rumen fluid ammonia-N increased with the in-
creasing amount of DPM in the diet (P < 0.05). The NHS -N concentration was still
lower (P < 0.05) in the isonitrogenous SBM diet. Furthermore, with increasing DPM
inclusion the molar percentage of acetic acid of the total volatile fatty acids increased
(P < 0.05), the percentages of propionic acid and butyric acid decreased. The total
volume of microbial mass was 10—2O % higher with the SBM diet than the various
DPM diets.

1. Introduction

The problem of poultry manure disposal has become acute with the in-
tensification of production into efficient and highly mechanized systems.
Traditionally the manure has been recycled as fertilizer, but the large quan-
tities generated by the new systems often exceed the capacity of the nearby
cropland to accept. The increased public consciousness of environmental



86

pollution occuring at the same time has compelled a search for new and effi-
cient disposal methods.

The feeding of dried poultry manure to livestock has recently become
economically feasible as the costs of conventional protein supplements for
livestock diets have increased. Poultry manure contains a relatively high
concentration of crude protein and is rich in minerals. Nutrients from poultry
manure have been shown to be efficiently used for the productive functions
of ruminant animals.

The possibility of disease transmission and health hazards to the animals
fed the wastes or the humans eating products from those animals is a problem
requiring clarification.

The chief objective of the experiments performed was to evaluate the
feeding value and utility of dried poultry manure as a protein supplement
in a concentrate rich diet for high producing dairy cows in the early stages
of lactation. The comparative sources of protein were soybean meal and urea.
Furthermore, the experiments were conducted to study the digestibility of the
poultry manure and the effect on the blood metabolic profile with a view to
clarifying the utilisation of the nutrients in poultry manure and the possible
health hazards due to manure feeding. The utilisation of nitrogen and the
rumen fermentation was investigated with rumen fistulated cows.

The present study is the continuation of investigations conducted and
published earlier on waste utilisation; chemical composition and digestibility
of poultry manure (Näsi 1975, Salo et ai. 1975, Näsi 1976), utilisation of DPM
as a protein source for beef cattle (Näsi 1976), fermentation of poultry manure
for poultry diets (Vuori and Näsi 1977), and dehydrated mink manure as a
protein source for growing pigs and its effect on blood profile of pigs (NÄSI et
ai. 1978 a, b).

2. Review of the literature

2. 1. Production, disposal and utilisation of poultry manure

2. 1. 1. Production of poultry manure
Statistics on the amount of manure produced by poultry under various

conditions have been collected by several workers. According to the literature
a laying hen of Leghorn type excretes 99—136 g of faeces per day (Hashimoto
1974, Jönsson 1976), or 60—7O kg manure per year. Yoshok and Bear (1943)
have reported that 1 000 hens produce 72 tonnes of manure in a year and that
the weight of manure voided is about twice that of the feed consumed. These
figures agree closely with the data of Warden (1963), 80 tonnes, and Ruhland
(1968), 60 tonnes annually. In Finland the total number of poultry in 1978
was 9.4 million omit and the production of poultry manure based on the figures
above is approximately 137 million kg annually.

Laying hens are currently managed in caged, Pennsylvania and deep
litter poultry houses. In broiler production the litter method is most common



87

and the caged method is being further developed. Caged layer manure is
pure excreta, in which litter seldom is mixed. In its dried form this is hence-
forth referred to as dried poultry manure (DPM). Deep litter consiting of
sawdust, straw and peat as well as excreta is designated poultry litter (PL), and
manure from broilers is designated broiler litter (BL).

In Finland the intensification of farming is regulated by law (Anon. 1975)
and generally the units are small compared with those of Great Britain, Central
Europe and America. With increasing public awareness of environmental
pollution and new pressures and restrictions on farming, the manure disposal
problem can expected to worsen.

2. 1.2. Disposal and utilisation of poultry manure
Manure in large quantities is an unavoidable product of intensified poultry

production. Traditionally it has been used as fertilizer, but economic con-
siderations as well as land shortage in some areas inhibit its return to the soil.
Since poultry manure contains many more plant nutrients than other manures
(Steineck 1974, Wilkinson 1979), an area of 7.5 hectares is required to spread
the waste produced by 1 000 laying hens (Jönsson 1976). The use of excessive
amounts of poultry manure as fertilizer can cause nitrate accumulation in soil
(Howes 1968). Handling and scattering the wet manure is costly and tech-
nical problems exist as well. Fly and odour problems arise where there are
large accumulations of poultry manure.

Several types of waste processing systems are currently available. In
digestive systems, bacteria, yeast (Singh and Anthony 1968, Jackson et al.
1970, Vuori and Näsi 1977, Calvert 1979), algae (Kiefer 1971, Calvert
1974) or chemicals are used to treat the manure in oxidation ditches or aerobic
lagoons or to convert it to fuel for methane generators (Essig 1975). Mechanical
drying systems convert the waste to a product suitable for either feed or
fertilizer (Arndt et al. 1979). The standard types are the rotating drum dryer,
the conveyor dryer system, the vibration or shaker dryer and the spray system
for materials high in moisture content. Other waste processing systems involve
the ensiling of the waste product either separatively or in combination with
forage to obtain a forage waste fermented product suitable for cattle (Harmon
et al. 1975 a, b, Caswell et al. 1978). With the increasing cost of fossil fuel
the mechanical drying of wastes is becoming almost prohibitively expensive.
Under certain management conditions, wet poultry excreta can be fed to
ruminants without drying but the product must be stabilized to minimize
nitrogen losses and its odour controlled by chemical treatment, eg. organic
acids or formaldehyde (McNiven et al. 1976, Evans et al. 1978 b, Koenig
et al. 1978, Smith et al. 1978 a).

The idea of refeeding poultry wastes to other animals as one way of meeting
the waste problem is relatively new. Many research reports indicate that
poultry excreta can be effectively utilised by ruminants as a source of nitrogen
and minerals (eg. El-Sabban et al. 1970, Tinnimit et al. 1972, Fontenot and
Webb 1974, Cullison et al. 1976, Smith and Calvert 1976, Smith and
Wheeler 1979).



88

2. 2. Composition and nutritional value of poultry manure

2.2. 1. Composition and factors affecting the composition of poultry manure
Poultry excreta is composed of undigested food residues, mainly structural

carbohydrates and unabsorbed food constituents, together with metabolic
faecal and urinary components. It includes also cells and micro-organisms
from the alimentary tract. Poultry manure is variable in composition, even on
a dry matter (DM) basis. The main causes of variability are probably variation
in the composition of the feed, variable feed spillage into the manure, differences
in the stage of lay of hens, and feather shedding (Perkins and Parker 1971,
Young and Nesheim 1972, Vogt 1973, Blair 1974, Evans et al. 1978 a).

The age of the manure at the time of drying is extremely critical to its
feed value. Manure should be held no longer than three days after voiding
and is best dried on a daily basis, as the crude protein content decreases with
the age of the manure. The crude protein content may vary from as high as
33 % in dry matter (DM) when dried the day voided, to as low as 11 % if
allowed to stand and ferment, so that the nitrogen losses may increase to
up to 60 % of total nitrogen (Surbrook et al. 1971, Flegal et al. 1972, Couch
1972, Kubena et al. 1973).

The efficiency of dehydration influences the composition of DPM. In
particular, the temperature and duration of drying process affect the content
of nitrogen compounds. Manoukas et al. (1964) reported losses of gross energy
and nitrogen ranging from 1.2 to 2.2 % and 7.1 to 15.2 % respectively, when
layer exreta were dried in a convection oven at 65° C for 24 hours. The mean
losses of nitrogen due to drying in a forced-air oven increased from 4 to 10 %

and the energy decreased from 6 to 3 % as the temperature increased from
60 to 120° C (Wittenberg and Chudy 1967, Shannon and Brown 1969).
Sheppard et al. (1971) observed an inverse relationship between the tem-
perature of treatment and resulting crude protein content in DPM. Acidifying
broiler litter to pH 6 prior to drying reduced the nitrogen loss (Fontenot et
al. 1971 b). Certain organic acids and formaldehyde treatments have also
been successful in preventing nitrogen losses (Evans et al. 1978 b, Koenig

et al. 1978, Smith et al. 1978 a).
The digestibility of crude protein is reportedly decreased with heating, too

(Brugman et al. 1967).

2. 2. 2. Chemical composition of poultry manure
The average compositions of dried poultry manure, poultry litter and

broiler litter obtained from different sources are presented in Appendix 1.
Poultry manure in fresh state contains 13—26 % dry matter; after drying the
dry matter percentage increases to 82—96 (Vogt 1973, Loehr 1974, Näsi
1976). Poultry litter contains 52 —75 % dry matter (Yoshok and Bear 1943,
Parker et al. 1959). The carbon content of DPM is 34—35 %in DM. The
available carbohydrates are digested fully by fowl. A great proportion of
the undigested carbohydrates is made up of grain hulls, consisting of pentosanes
cellulose and lignin (Vogt 1973). The ash content of DPM is high, 19—40 %.

Poultry feeds are supplemented with different minerals and any unabsorbed



89

minerals go into the manure. Poultry manure is rich in minerals, especially
calcium and phosphorus (Appendix 1).

2. 2. 3. Nitrogen components of poultry manure
Poultry manure has a high nitrogen content between 3 and 8 % of DM

- and the crude protein content usually makes up over 30 % (20—45 %)

(Bhattacharya and Taylor 1975). The percent of nitrogen in the feed
recovered in the manure of laying hens is 71—86 (Yoshok and Bear 1943,
Dugan et al. 1970, Hashimoto 1974) and the faecal protein content varies
between 10.1 and 14.8 % on a dry matter basis (Shannon et al. 1973). In broiler
litter 45 % or more of the total nitrogen is in the from of true protein (Bhatta-
charya and Fontenot 1966, Fontenot et al. 1966). Of the nitrogoen in caged
layer manure 24—41 % is in the form of amino acids (Liebholz 1969, Böhme
1972, Terpstra and deHart 1974). About 18 % of the faecal nitrogen
is bound in free amino acids and therefore not presipitable (Terpstra and
deHart 1974). The amino acid composition of DPM, PL and BL is presented
in Appendix 1. The composition and quantity of amino acids present in poultry
manure are comparable to cereals (Böhme 1972, Teller 1972). Their avail-
ability is not known.

Uric acid and urates are the most abundant nitrogen compounds in urine
of fowl, while ammonia and urea are present in much smaller amounts. The
uric acid content of DPM varies, usually between 2.3 and 11.4 % on a dry
matter basis (Shannon et al. 1973, McNab et al. 1974, Terpstra and deHart
1974). There is general agreement that uric acid nitrogen constitutes 60 to
82 % of the total urinary nitrogen. Ammonia nitrogen (NH 3-N) has been
reported to comprise 6 to 23 % and urea-N 2 to 10 % of the total urinary nitrogen
(O’dell et al. 1960, Sykes 1971, McNabb and McNabb 1975).

2. 2. 4. Digestibility of poultry manure
Poultry waste has substantial nutritional value, especially for cattle and

sheep wich can digest fibre and utilise nonprotein nitrogen (NPN). The di-
gestibility of the dry matter in DPM has been calculated to be about 60 percent
for ruminants. The amount of DPM and the composition of the rations as well
as the composition of DPM itself varies in different digestibility trials, however,
and the exact comparison of literature results is difficult.

The apparent digestibility of supplemental DPM is usually a little lower
than that of the basic ration. DPM was found to be 25 % units less digestible
in DM and 15 % units less in organic matter than a concentrate carrier mix
used as the feed for DPM. The amount of digestible DM in DPM is about the
same as in low quality alfalfa hay but digestible organic matter is about 1.25
times greater (Tinnimit et al. 1972).

The five diets of Lowmann and Knight (1970) fed to sheep ranged from 0
to 100 % DPM in steps of 25 %, the remainder of the ration being barley.
The dry matter digestibility of the diets gradually fell from that of 100%
barley to that of 100 % DPM in a highly significant straight line. The groups
of sheep fed 100 % DPM digested 57 % of the DM. Thomas (1970) found the



90

digestibility of DPM to be 58 % when 32 % of a basic ration was replaced with
DPM. Parigi-Bini (1969) replaced 32 % of a barley-soy diet with DPM and
found the DM digestibility of the diet to be 80.5 % which is considerably
higher than the previously cited figures. The extrapolation to 100 % gives an
average dry matter digestibility of 65 %. The digestibility of plant cell walls
in DPM as determined by a in vivo method was found to be 60 to 76 % (Smith
1974).

The crude protein of DPM has been reported to be about 53 % digestible
when fed as a main source of protein for sheep (Tinnimit et al. 1972). However,
other reports have assigned a higher protein digestibility of 73 —77 % (Lowman
and Knight 1970, Bull and Reid 1971, Salo et al. 1975). Smith and Calvert
(1972) reported no difference in crude protein digestibility in diets where DPM
was substituted for 0, 50 or 100 % of the soybean meal in sheep ration.

2. 2. 5. Energy value of poultry manure
The energy content of DPM is highly variable due to its variable composi-

tion and digestibility. The overall energy value is low owing to the high ash
and NPN content and low amount of fat and available carbohydrates.

The gross energy of DPM varies from 12.5 to 14.6 MJ/kg DM (Lowman and
Knight 1970, Bull and Reid 1971, Polin et al. 1971, Tuller 1972, Vogt

1973). The digestible energy content is 8.4 MJ/kg DM for sheep and cattle
making it approximately equivalent to low quality hay (Lowman and Knight

1970, Bull and Reid 1971, Salo et al. 1975, Näsi 1976). Metabolizable energy
(ME) values have ranged from 4.6 to 6.7 MJ/kg DM (Pryor and Connor 1964,
Yoshida and Hoshii 1968, Oliphant 1974). The corresponding ME values for
poultry are lower, 3.2 —5.6 MJ/kg DM (Hodgetts et al. 1971, Nesheim 1972,
Polin et al. 1972, Shannon et al. 1973, Harnisch 1974). With ruminants the
net energy value has been reported to be 0.35—0.52 starch units per kg DM
(Parigi-Bini 1969, Böhme 1972, Blair and Knight 1973 a, b) and the feed
unit (FU) value 0.42 (Poppe and Grugel 1971, Kristensen et al. 1976).

The digestible energy value of broiler litter for sheep has been found to be
10.0 MJ/kg DM and the ME value 9.2 MJ/kg DM (Bhattacharya and Fontenot
1966). The digestible energy of wood shawings containing poultry litter was
found to be about 8.4 MJ/kg with cattle (Brugman et al. 1964).

2. 3. Utilisation of poultry manure as feed for animals

2.3. 7. Poultry manure and uric acid as a nitrogen source for ruminants
Poultry manure has a high crude protein content and is a potential source

of nitrogen for ruminants. Over 60 % of the nitrogen in DPM is NPN, mainly
uric acid. Uric acid is utilised by rumen micro-organisms in vitro (Belasco
1954, Jurtshuk et al. 1958, Koenig et al. 1978). Oltjen et al. (1968, 1972)
found in vivo that uric acid is degraded by rumen micro-organisms more
slowly than urea suggesting a more favorable ruminal ammonia pattern for
afficient N utilisation. Slyter et al. (1968) reported higher concentrations of
cellulolytic bacteria in steers receiving supplemental N from uric acid than



91

those receiving urea or urea phosphate. Steers gained weight more rapidly and
efficiently on diets containing 40 % of their dietary nitrogen in the form of
uric acid or sodium urate than on diets containing similar percentages of N as
urea or biuret (Oltjen and Dinius 1976).

Oltjen et al. (1968) found that when uric acid was fed as the sole source
of nitrogen in a purified diet, the apparent digestibility of the uric acid was
68 % and the retention of the ingested nitrogen 23 %. In that study steers
consumed 140 g of uric acid and excreetad only 0.6 gin their urine daily. The
results indicate that uric acid is readily degraded in the digestive tract. Oltjen
and Dinius (1976) noted similar digestibilities when uric acid supplied 50 %

of the dietary nitrogen, 34 % of the ingested nitrogen being retained.
Tinnimit et al. (1972) evaluated DPM nitrogen by replacing 45 % of the

soy protein nitrogen in a sheep ration fed in restricted or ad libitum amounts
and observed a significant 10 % depression in protein digstibility of the DPM
ration. However, nitrogen retention and percent of absorbed nitrogen retained
with the DPM ration were equal to the control in the restricted study, and
10 % higher than the control in the ad libitum study. When DPM provided
88 % of the ration’s nitrogen, both total nitrogen retained and percentage of
absorbed nitrogen reained dropped a significant 30 %.

2. 3. 2. DPM as a protein supplement for lactating cows
Low levels of poultry manure have been used successfully in the diets of

dairy cattle (Thomas and Zindel 1971) and DPM has been substituted as a
protein supplement in the rations of high producing dairy cows totally or in
high proportions with satisfactory results (Bull and Reid 1971, Thomas
et al. 1972, Smith and Fries 1973, Smith and Wheeler 1979). Some reports
indicate that an individual animal will not consume enough of the manure and
an adaptation period is necessary (Bull and Reid 1971, Thomas et al. 1972,
Smith et al. 1976). However, Claesson and Ahlström (1974) reported that
most animals will consume DPM 5—6 kg/day without difficulties.

In Sweden trials have been performed in which the cows were fed DPM
during the whole lactation period. Milk production was over 5 000 kg/year
the concentrate mixture included 40 % of DPM. The substitution value of the
poultry manure was 116 % of cereal and 60 % of the soybean meal (Claesson
and Ahlström 1974). Thomas et al. (1972) showed equal production and feed
utilisation in feeding experiments when DPM was compared with soybean meal
or urea but significantly more when the cows were receiving inadequate protein.
In a 90-day trial Smith and Fries (1973) found that cows fed a poultry excreta
concentrate consumed less maize silage and concentrate dry matter, gained
less weight and produced less milk than cows fed a control concentrate. Lower
milk productions by cows on DPM diets have also been reported by Kneale
and Garstang (1975), Kristensen et al. (1976), Silva et al. (1976) and Smith
et al. (1976). The lower milk production was due primarily to lower consumption
of feed and the lower energy value of rations containing DPM (Appendix 2).

In some trials the ash content of DPM has been very high: 30—40 %on
a dry matter basis (Kristensen et al. 1976, Silva et al. 1976), which lowered



92

the energy value of the ration. Supplementing the DPM concentrate mixture
with animal fat was found to have favourable results (Kristensen et al. 1976).

The limiting factor in the use of dried poultry waste in dairy rations appears
to be the impaired energy value of the feed when this material is included, not
the utilisation of NPN. Even when 20 % of the ration is in the form of dried
waste, half of the total crude protein is supplied by the cereal. Hence, poultry
waste should not be detrimental to the production when supplying the equiv-
alent of 15—2O % of the dietary protein of ruminants unless energy is deficient.
The complete replacement of soybean meal by DPM tended to reduce milk
production of cows but at the same time reduced the cost of the production
(Kneale and Garstang 1975).

In supplementing a concentrate mixture with DPM, most of the mineral
requirements are satisfied at the same time, owing to the rich mineral content
of DPM.

2. 3. 3. Feeding poultry waste in beef and sheep production
Beef cattle and sheep are traditionally not given the same high quality

proteins included in dairy cattle rations. A cheap, low quality protein such as
poultry waste would be expected to have an even greater potential value in
beef cattle and sheep fattening diets. Rations containing cheap cereals and
cheap DPM for cattle are an attractive commercial proposition and are already
manufactured and marketed by animal feed compounders in Britain (Blair
and Knight 1973 b, Blair 1974, Oliphant 1973, 1974).

Many research reports indicate the satisfactory use of dried poultry manure
and poultry litter in beef production. The average daily gain and feed con-
version efficiency has been comparable to that obtained with soybean or sun-
flower meal in fattening rations (Noland et al. 1955, Southwell et al. 1958,
Fontenot et al. 1963, 1966, Brugman et al. 1964, Rusnak et al. 1966, Long

et al. 1969). Different litter materials have not been found to have any effect
on the gains of steers at 25 or 40 % supplemental levels of PL (Drake et al.
1965).

Large proportions of DPM as protein supplement have sometimes had
significant negative effects on daily gains of beef steers. In some cases the
depression of the gain was probably due to the inadequate consumption of
DPM (Bucholtz et ah 1971, Poppe and Grugel 1971). In a two-year trial
Oliphant (1974) found that average daily gain did not change as a result of
incorporating 17.5 % DPM as a complete nitrogen replacement for soybean
meal and fish meal in a barley ration. The dry matter intake, average daily
gain, feed efficiency and nutrient utilisation were not found to be different
between cattle fed corn meal containing 12.8 % cotton sead meal or 20.5 %

DPM (Smith 1974). Moreover Cullison et al. (1976) observed that the per-
formance of steers receiving broiler faeces as 0, 50 and 100 % of their supple-
mental protein in place of soybean, was similar when daily gain, feed intake
and feed efficiency were considered, however. In a Danish study Urimix (90 %

DPM, 5 % animal fat and 5 % molasses) was included in the rations of beef
cattle and because of the low energy content in the manure the daily gain
decreased and the intake of dry matter increased with the increasing amount



93

in the ration. Daily live weight gain and carcass gain decreased 40 g and 30 g
respectively for every 10 % of Urimix included in the ration (Refssgaard-
Andersen et al. 1976). Using a DPM supplement Näsi (1975) found a 40 g
decrease in daily gain compared with a soybean meal supplement and in feed
conversion efficiency of 0.12 FU/kg live weight gain.

Likewise DPM has been fed as a protein supplement to growing sheep,
with mixed results. Thomas et al. (1972) observed that sheep fed 19 % crude
protein rations containing 61 or 90 % total protein from DPM gained signifi-
cantly less than sheep fed a control soybean meal ration: 160 and 210 g/d,
respectively. On the other hand, Smith et al. (1973) reported gains of 180—190
g/d, which were not significantly different, for sheep fed pelleted rations in
which 0 to 40 % of the crude protein was provided by DPM. The acceptability
of DPM has been found to be good when fed to growing sheep as 20 to 80 %

of the mixed ration, DPM furnishing 40 to 90 % of the ration nitrogen (Tinnimit
et al 1972). And broiler faeces were used successfully for lambs in a wheat
ration (Mclnnes et al. 1968). Milking ewes failed to show any changes in
quantity or quality of milk production when the concentrate mixture fed
included 50 % DPM (Zorita et al. 1968). Fontenot et al. (1972) concluded
long-term studies on gestating ewes fed rations containing 0, 25 and 50 %

broiler litter. Their results indicated that all three rations produced equal
body weight in the ewes until the end of lactation.

2. 3. 4. Feeding recycled DPM to non-ruminants
The feed value of DPM for poultry and pigs is lower than that for ruminants

because they are unable to utilise the uric acid and crude fibre fractions. For
this class of livestock DPM is broadly equivalent, in terms of protein and amino
acids, to a cereal such as barley (Blair and Knight 1973 a).

Growth trials with chicks have indicated that the true protein in DPM is
highly available to the bird (Lee and Blair 1972, 1973, McNab et al. 1972,
1974, Harnisch 1974). DPM is low in available carbohydrates and fat so that
the energy value is low, between 3.2 and 5.6 MJ ME/kg DM, about one third
of the value for barley. DPM is a very useful source of readily available calcium
and phosphorus (Parker et al. 1959, McNab et al. 1974).

Dried poultry excreta has been successfully included at levels of up to 20 %

in diets for layers and broilers (Flegal and Zindel 1970, Biely et al. 1972,
Lee and Blair 1973,Sloan and Harms 1973, Vogt 1973, Biely and Stapleton

1976). Where the birds require high density diets, for example broilers, fat
must be used to maintain an adequate dietray energy and thereby maintain
satisfactory growth rates. In practice DPM is normally suited to low density
diets, in which case the daily feed allowance should be increased.

The proportion of manure that can actually be used by birds is quite low
owing to the low digestibility of excreta DM; 10—24.4 % (Nesheim 1972,
Shannon et al. 1973, McNab et al. 1974). Recycling poultry manure through
poultry could be expected to achieve a reduction of about 20—25 %, and
Young and Nesheim (1972) have achieved a reduction of about 16 % with a
continuous recycling system in a battery layer unit.



94

While pigs are able to tolerate large amounts of DPM in the diet, the nutri-
tive value is low. Perez-Aleman et al. (1971) found that DPM acted as a
diluent. Geri (1968) fed pigs 7—lo % DPM and found that generally the
growth rate was similar on the manure diet and on the control diet, although
feed conversion efficiency was poorer with manure in the diet. No digest-
ibility data are presented but in view of the effects of manure inclusion on feed
conversion efficiency it is reasonable to conclude that the pig utilises manure
to the same extent as do poultry. From the data reported it would appear
that no more than 5 % DPM can be included in swine rations without influ-
encing growth rate, feed conversin efficiency and carcass quality.

2. 4. Health aspects of recycling poultry manure
Recycling of animal wastes by feeding opens the way for the transfer patho-

genic bacteria, fungi, and residues of pesticides, feed additives, hormones,
heavy metals and medicinal drugs. For this reason the commercial production
of DPM for feed is prohibited in many European countrieas and in theUnited
States (McCaskey and Anthony 1979, Taylor and Geyer 1979). Detrimental
effects have occasionally been noted in animals, for example, in sheep fed
broiler litter or DPM containing high level of copper (Lowman and Knight

1970, Fontenot et al. 1971 a, Webb et al. 1973, Suttle et al. 1978); and
abortion in cattle has been linked to the feeding of poultry litter (Griel et al.
1969). However, there is no indication yet of harmful effects in humans consu-
ming meat, milk and eggs from animals fed this waste material (Syrett 1977).

Most of the contaminating substances have on some occasions been detected
in poultry manure (Brugman et al. 1964, Fontenot et al. 1971 a, Messer
et al. 1971, Webb and Fontenot 1975). But in general no harmful levels of
those substances tested have been found in edible tissues of animals fed DPM
(Brugman et al. 1968, Griel et al. 1969, Thomas et al. 1972, Varghese and
Flegal 1972).

It would seem that the greatest risk is in the transmission of pathogens
and parasites, both between animals and to man (Shannon et al. 1973). Most
of the microbes present in poultry manure belong to the normal flora of the
alimentary tract of fowl or their environment. The population of microbes
is relatively constant at I09—l010/g excreta (Halbrook et al. 1961, Schefferle
1965). The count is not dependent on environmental factors, pH, age, tem-

perature or the humidity of the manure. Bacterial types and densities have
been studied in poultry manure and litter (Alexander et al. 1968, Kraft et al.
1969, Zindel 1970, Lovett et al. 1971, Messer et al. 1971) and a variety of
different pathogenic bacteria and fungi detected. Kraft et al. (1969) performed
a quantitative test for Salomonella in excreta samples from 91 poultry houses
and found that 29 % were positive. Lovett et al. (1971), however, did not
detect any Salmonella organisms in samples of poultry litter. Pathogenic
bacteria were isolated from 31 out of 44 different field samples of DPM, of
which 26 were being used for feeding livestock (Alexander et al. 1968). The
risk of transmission of bacteria can be diminished if the manure is recycled on
the same farm as it is produced (Alexander et al. 1968,Lovett et al. 1971).



95

Fortunately the majority of the disease organisms present in the unprocessed
manure are destroyed by heat treatment. Accordingly it is essentilal that the
manure be adequately heated throughout the whole mass when being dried,
and that the processed manure does not become recotaminated by contact
with unprocessed manure or with contaminated equipment. The pathogenic
species Salmonella sp. and Arizona sp. are not resistant to heating treatment
Messer et al. (1971) but Escherichia coli cannot be considered as an indicator
of the heating treatment (Platz 1975). The application of dry heat at 150° C
for 4 h or longer apperars to sterilize broiler litter according to Fontenot et al.
(1971 b).

Recent research has indicated that ensiling litter with added water (Greger
et al. 1973), corn forage (Harmon et al. 1975 a, b) or high moisture corn
(Caswell et al. 1978) results in reduction or complete elimination of pathogens.
In some studies satisfactory results have been obtained by adding organic
acids or formaldehyde as preservant and to destroy microbes (Evans et al.
1978 b, Smith et al. 1978 a, b, Koenig et al. 1978).

Clearly potential disease problems do exist. While sterilization of manure,
though feasible, is not a viable propostition, processes used for recycling can at
least reduce the numbers of relevant pathogens to harmless proportions. Tests
need to be developed for microbial and fungal toxins, pathogenic organisms
and parasites in the finished product. Also needed is a detailed description of
the manufacturing process, in which all materials added are specified.

In the light of present knowledge, however, dried poultry manure that
has been properly processed appears to present no serious health dangers
when fed to ruminants. In England, for example, DPM has been used com-
mercially as a feedstuff for several years, and no cases of failure due either to
contamination with microorganisms or feed additives have been reported
(Blair 1975).

B. Materials and methods

3. I. Feeding experiments

3. 1. 1. Experimental desing
Two consecutive feeding experiments were carried out, in which dried

poultry manure (DPM), soybean meal (SBM) and urea were used as protein
supplements in a concentrate-rich diet for high producing dairy cows in the
stage of early lactation. Both experiments involved 18 dairy cows randomly
divided into three groups equivalent in regard to milk yield during the stand-
ardization period, days post partum, number of lactations, live weight and
breed. Sixteen of the cows were Ayrshires and two were Friesians. One cow
with severe mastitis had to be withdrawn from the soybean meal group in Expt.
2. The groups are referred to as DPMI, SBMI and UREAI in Experiment 1
and DPM2, SBM2 and UREA 2 in Experiment 2 according to the protein sup-
plement supplied.



96

Mean weight, number of calvings, day from calving at the beginning of the
experimental period and milk yield in the standardization period for each
group were as follows:

Experiment Group Number of Days from Milk yield 4 % FCM Live weight
calvings calving kg kg kg

1 DPMI 1.33 30.3 18.3 20.6 532
SEMI 2.00 28.0 18.4 19.5 502
UREAI 1.83 26.8 19.9 19.7 483

2 DPM2 2.1733.3 20.522.4 534
SBM2 2.2038.4 20.321.8 547
UREA 2 2.3034.5 20.321.4 516

After a two-week standardization period, in which all the animals received
a feeding regimen consisting of 2 kg hay, grass silage ad libitum and a grain
concentrate mixture according to milk production, the cows were gradually
accustomed to the experimental feeds over a period of one week. The experi-
mental periods lasted 13 and 15 weeks in Expts. 1 and 2 respectively.

3. 1.2. Experimental feeds and feeding
The cows were kept in separate stalls and fed individually according to the

feeding scheme twice daily. Refusals were collected daily after the morning
feeding. Cows were weighed on two consecutive days at the beginning and
end of the experimental period and every second week during the trial after
the morning feeding.

All cows were fed 6.0 kg and 7.0 kg of hay in Expts. 1 and 2 respectively,
and a concentrate mixture according to milk production. The rations were
adjusted every week according to requirements on the basis of the previous
week’s fat corrected milk yield and live weight. The calculations of requirements
for energy (FU = 0.7 kg starch) and digestible crude protein were based on the
current Finnish standard: for maintenance 4 FU and 300 g DCP per 500 kg
live weight plus 0.4 FU and 60 g DCP per 4 % fat corrected milk (FCM).

The groups were fed a grain concentrate mixture supplemented with one of the protein
sources (DPM) 20 % dried poultry manure

(SBM) 10 % soybean meal
(UREA) 1.5 % urea

The composition of the concentrate mixtures and calculated energy and
protein values are shown in Table 1.

The poultry manure was collected from a caged layer house and rotary
drum dried and ground. The cows were fed 20 g sodium chloride a day plus for
DPMI and DPM2 groups 5 g and for SEMI, SBM2, UREAI and UREA2
groups 10 g/kg milk produced of a commercial mineral supplement (g/kg, Ca
83.8, P 50.4, Mg 36.8, Na 100.1, K 0.8, Fe 4.69, Cu 0.33, Zn 1.62).

3. 1.3. Sampling and analyses
The milk yield of each cows was recorded at every milking and samples of

the day’s milk were taken twice a week for analysis. Milk fat, protein and



97

Table 1. Composition of concentrate mixtures and calculated energy and protein values.

Supplements DPM SBM UREA
0/ 0/ 0//o /o /o

Oats 35 40 44
Barley 35 40 44
Molasses-beet pulp 10 10 10
Dried poultry manure . 20
Soybean meal 10
Urea 1.5

Experiment 1_ DPMI SBMI UREAI
kg/FU 1.16 1.01 1.02
DM kg/FU 1.02 0.88 0.89
DCP % in DM 13.5 14.5 14.0
DCP g/kg 121 127 123
DCP g/FU 138 128 126

Experiment 2 DPM2 SBM2 UREA 2
kg/FU 1.21 1.04 1.06
DM kg/FU 1.07 0.93 0.94
DCP % in DM 11.0 13.8 13.6
DCP g/kg 100 123 120
DCP g/FU 121 128 127

lactose contents of the samples were analysed with an infrared analyser (IRMA)
in the laboratory of Valio Company. Total solids were determined by oven
heating at 103° C and ashed at 600° C overnight.

The components of the concentrate mixtures were sampled before mixing
every week and pooled into one sample for two weeks. Samples of hay were
taken every day. The chemical composition of feeds was determined from the
pooled samples. Dry matter contents were determined by oven heating at
103° C and samples for feed analysis were dried in a vacuum oven at 50° C.
The feed analyses were made on the dried samples by standard methods (Pa-
loheimo 1969) and sugar analyses were made according to Somogyi (1945)
as modified by Salo (1965). Uric acid was determined as suggested by Prae-
torius and Poulsen (1953) before and after oxidation by uricase at 293 nm.
Mineral composition of the feeds was determined by atomic absorption spec-
trophotometer (Varian Techtron AA 1 000) and phosphorus by the method
of Taussky and Shorr (1953).

3. 2. Digestibility trial

During Experiment 1 all cows were used to obtain digestibility values for
the experimental rations. Ten grams of chromic oxide paper (37.48 % Cr2 03 )

was fed directly into the oesophagus twice daily for fourteen days. There was
a five-day collection period, during which grab samples of faeces were obtained
from the rectum twice daily.

Faeces were dried under vacuum at 50° C and subsequently analyzed by
standard methods as in the feed analyses. Chromic oxide was determined by
the method described by Kimura and Miller (1957).



98

3. 3. Blood metabolic profile

Blood samples were collected by puncturing of Vena jugularis at the start
of the feeding trials and at two-week intervals thereafter. Samples were taken
two hours post feeding. In Expt. 1 119 samples were taken and in Expt. 2,
128. During the metabolism experiment 2 blood samples were collected from

the same two cows three times a day 0.5, 2.5 and 5.5 hours after feeding on
three days of each period, for a total of 90 samples. The samples for chemical
analyses were transferred to heparinized test tubes and those intended for
hematological determinations to EDTA tubes. The heparainized tubes were
immediately centrifuged and the plasma decanted. Determinations of plasma
glucose, urea and protein in plasma were carried out immediately. Plasma was
stored deep frozen, and determinations of minerals and trace elements were
made at a later date. The following assay methods were used:

Hemoglobin by the cyanomethomoglobin method, hematocrit (PCV) by
centrifuging for 5 min at 1 500 rpm, plasma glucose by the o-toluidine method
(Hultman 1959, modified by Hyvärinen and Nikkilä 1962), plasma urea-N
by the Berthold phenolhypochlorite method (Chaney and Marbach 1962),
total plasma protein by the biuret method (Reinhold 1953) and uric acid by
the method described by Caraway and Hald (1963). Inorganic phosphorus
was determined by reaction with ammonium molybdate and reduction with
ferrous chloride (Henry et al. 1974). Contents of calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer
after dilution of the plasma with lanthanum oxide solution, and iron, copper
and zinc were analysed direct with Varian Techtron AA 1000 equipment.

3. 4. Metabolism trials

Two metabolism experiments were carried out with four cows, two in
each trial. The cows had permanent rumen fistulas inserted. In both experi-
ments the effect of different amounts of dried poultry manure as a protein
source on rumen fermentation was studied. All experimental periods were of
two weeks duration. The cows in Expt. 1 were fed 6kg hay and 6kg of a
concentrate mixture and those in Expt. 2, 7 kg hay and 7 kg concentrate
mixture. All animals received as well 100 grams of mineral mixture and 20 g
of sodium chloride daily. DPM comprised 0, 10, 20 or 40 % of the concentrate
mixture. The rumen fluid samples were taken 3, 5 and 8 hours post feeding
in Expt. 1 and 0.5, 2.5 and 5.5 hours post feeding Expt. 2, on three consecutive
days in each period. Ninety rumen fluid samples were obtained, 18 for each
of the diets, in both experiments. Samples of the rumen content taken through
the fistula were collected into a glass jar. pH-measurements were made
immediately. The samples were centrifuged for 10 min at 2000 rpm and am-
monia nitrogen (NH,-N) and volatile fatty acids (VFA) determinations were
made on the supernatant. NH 3-N analyses were made calorimetrically by
modification of the method of McCullough (1967). The VFA determinations
were made by gas chromatography method (Huida 1973). Samples for the
determination of rumen microbiota, 5 ml of rumen content, were transferred



to a glass bottle containing 45 ml of 10 % formalin. The total numbers and
identification of the ciliates were established as described by Syrjälä et ai.
(1976). The bacterial cells were counted using a counting chamber of dimen-
sion Ixl mm and 0.2 mm depth. Three preparations were made of each
rumen sample for the counts.

3. 5. Statistical analysis of results

The results obtained were processed with a UNIVAC 1108 computer using
the HYLPS statistical systems (Anon. 1976). The weekly data of feed and
nutrient consumption and milk yield were calculated for each cow. Energy
requirements for maintenance and production were calculated using Finnish
standards, live weight change being taken as requiring 2 FU/kg. Average yields
and nutrient consumption data were calculated for cow and tested by one-way
variance analysis. Metabolism data from blood and rumen fluid analyses
were tested by two-way variance analysis. The differences between treatment
means were tested by the Tukey-test (Steel and Torrie 1960). The effect of
time is excluded in the calculation of correlations.

4. Results and discussion

4. 1, Feeding experiments

4. 1. 1. Feed composition and consumption
The average chemical composition, calculated energy and digestible crude

protein values of the feeds are given in Table 2. The amino acid composition

Table 2. Composition of feeds and calculated feed values.

Dry In dry matter, % Uric Fu Dcp
matter Ash Crude Ether Crude NFE Sugars acid /kg g/kg

% protein extract fibre DM DM

Experiment 1
Hay 84.0 7.5 11.5 2.6 31.3 47.1 6.1 0.66 83
Oats 87.4 2.9 14.2 6.6 9.8 66.4 2.0 1.16 117
Barley 87.6 2.6 14.3 1.9 5.2 76.1 3.1 1.15 108
Molasses-beet pulp 87.1 6.9 13.4 0.5 14.2 64.9 24.6 0.97 74
Dried poultry manure 92.7 21.8 33.1 2.0 18.4 24.7 0.7 9.5 0.35 248
Soybean meal 85.2 6.1 53.1 1.1 6.1 33.6 9.1 1.12 483

Experiment 2
Hay 86.9 6.8 9.1 1.8 31.3 51.1 12.4 0.62 60
Oats 89.5 3.0 15.0 5.7 11.1 65.2 2.1 1.02 117
Barley 88.6 2.4 13.1 2.3 5.0 76.8 3.7 1.16 98
Molasses-beet pulp 87.5 7.3 13.1 0.5 15.6 63.9 22.9 1.02 72
Dried poultry manure 90.9 33.5 17.9 2.9 19.2 26.5 0.3 1.2 0.34 136
Soybean meal 87.7 6.0 49.5 1.3 6,1 37.0 10.6 1.12 451

1 FU = 0,7 kg starch

99



of the dried poultry manure is shown in Table 3 and the mineral content of the
experimental feeds in Table 4. The mean feeding values of the different
rations are given in Table 5.

Table 3. Amino acid composition of dehydrated poultry manure used in experiments.

Amino acid Experiment Experiment
g/16 g nitrogen 1 2

Alanine 2.5 4.1
Arginine 1.3 1.8
Aspartic acid 3.6 5.0
Cystine 0.5 0.7
Glutamic acid 4.9 7.4
Glycine 5.9 3.9
Histidine 0.6 0.5
Isoleucine 1.7 2.6
Leucine 2.5 3.9
Lysine 0.7 1.0
Methionine 0.5 0.8
Phenylalanine 1.5 2.4
Proline 2.1 3.1
Serine 1.0 1.6
Threonine 1.5 2.5
Tyrosine 1.8 2.8
Valine 2.1 3,4

Table 4. Mineral composition of the experimental feeds.

Experiment 1 g/kg DM mg/kg DM
Ca P Mg K Na Fe Cu Zn Mn

Hay 2.73 2.62 0.70
Oats 0.75 3.74 1.08
Barley 0.49 3.55 1.10
Molasses-beet pulp 6.51 0.85 4.05
Dried poultry manure 58.73 17.96 5.41
Soybean meal 2.82 6.76 3,00

25.24 1.93 149 9 48 43
4.06 0.10 98 4 55 43
5.21 0.13 88 7 66 21

17.68 1.66 325 7 24 46
13.41 4.84 995 12 305 251
24.70 0.10 117 17 63 56

Experiment 2

Ca P Mg K Na Fe Cu Zn Mn

Hay 2.55 2.47 0.73
Oats 0.83 2.97 0.89
Barley 0.72 3.17 1.12
Molasses-beet pulp 4.44 0.84 3.54
Dried poultry manure 69.11 25,74 6.20
Soybean meal 2.63 6.72 3.00

26.56 4.88 112 21 50 44
4.51 0.09 83 8 64 42
5.80 0.18 100 8 71 24

18.79 0.47 288 10 27 43
18.52 5.62 2 334 145 486 463
22.50 0.19 296 20 64 44

100



Table 5. The average feeding values of the different diets.

Experiment 1

DPMI SDMI UREAI
Group

x S.D. x S.D. x S.D. SEM

FU/100 kg DM 86.22» 1.07
kg DM/FU 1.16d 0.01
DCP, % in DM 11.8» 0.2
DCP, g/FU 137 d 0.6
Crude fibre, % in DM 17.5» 0.7
Sugars, % in DM 5.0ac 0.07
Urea, % in DM
DCP, % of urea
DCP. g of urea

95.71 d 2.40 94.42d 2.00 4.33
1.06» 0.03 1,06» 0.02 0,05

11.9» 0.3 11.8» 0.2 0.24
124» 0,1 125» 0.04 5.6
16.6» 1.2 16.8» 1.0 1.00
5.8 d 0.05 5.2»» 0.06 0.32

1.06 0.08
1.75 0.11

273 53

DPM2Experiment 2
FU/100 kg DM 81.82» 0.49
kg DM/FU 1.22d 0.01
DCP, % in DM 9.1» 0.09
DCP, g/FU Ill» 0.4
Crude fibre, % ib DM 18.5»b 0.3
Sugars, % in DM 7.5» 0.14
Urea, % in DM
DCP, % of urea
DCP, g of urea

UREA2SBM2

90.724 0.57 88.30<» 1.263.73
I.lo' 0.01 1.13® 0.050.05

10.7d 0.110.4d 0.20.69
1180 0,3 1170 0.73.0

17.40® 0.3 18.9bd 0.60.63
8.400.11 8.100.23 0.41

0.99 0.08
1.84 0.11

274 48

Means with different letters were significantly different,
a, b (P < 0.05), c, d, e (P < 0.01)
SEM = standard error of means

In Expt. 1 the DPM had a high uric acid content averaging 9.5 % of DM,
and in Expt. 2 a very low value of 1.2 %. During storage or dehydration there
may have been losses of nitrogen due to fermentation or high temperatures.
Moreover the energy (FU) and digestible crude protein (DCP) value of the DPM
in Expt. 1 were also better than that in Expt. 2 because of the high ash
content, 33.5 % in the latter. In both cases the DPM was of poorer mutritive
value than that analysed earlier (Näsi 1976), but comparable in composition to
DPMs described in the literature (Appendix 1).

The amino acid contents of the poultry manures expressed as g/100 g
crude protein were quite similar in both experiments. These correspond with
values reported by Flegal and Zindel (1970), Biely et al. (1973), Blair
and Knight (1973 a), McNab et al. (1974), Näsi (1976). The ash content was
high and the mineral composition rich: Ca 58.7 69.1, P 18.0 25.7, Mg
5.4 6.2 g/kg DM and Fe 995 2334 mg/kg DM.

The average energy value, FU/100 kg DM of the experimental rations
was significantly lower (P < 0.01) in groups DPMI and DPM2 than in the
other groups, owing to the low energy values of the 20 % DPM included in the
concentrate mixture. The precent of digestible crude protein in the DM was
the same, 11.8—11.9 %, in all groups in Expt. 1 but in Expt. 2 the DPM
group had a significantly (P <0.01) lower value of 9.1 %, as against 10.7

101



and 10.4 for SBM2 and UREA2, respecvitely. The crude fibre content in
DPMI and DPM2 was higher than in the other groups and significantly dif-
ferent (P < 0.01) between DPM2 and SBM2.

The sugar content of the DM was lower in the DPM groups than in the
other groups and in Expt. 2 the difference was significant (P < 0.01).

Urea content was on average 1.06 % in UREAI and 0.99 % in UREA2
groups.

Averages (x) and standard deviations (S.D.) of consumption of different
feedstuffs in kg DM, calculated according to FU and DCP supply, are presented
in Tables 6 and 7, and total intake of DM and this as a percentage of live
weight are presented in Figures 1 and 2. The feed refusals for the concentrate
were quite small during the experiment except with the DPMI and DPM2
groups, which refused the concentrate particularly during the first part of the
experiment. The intake of the concentrate mixture in group DPMI, as a
percentage of the feed offered, was significantly (P < 0.01) lower than SBMI
and UREAI, and DPM2 lower than SBM2 (P < 0.01) and UREA 2 (P < 0.05).
Palatabdity of UREA 2 was lower (P < 0.05) than that of SBM2. The average
percents of concentrate mixture intake were 90.7, 97.5, 98.8 for DPMI, SBMI
ETREAI and 85.5, 97.8, 92.4 for DPM2, SBM2 and UREA2, respectively
(Figures 1 and 2). The quantities of hay offered were the same for all groups.
The palatability of hay was found to be higher (P < 0.01) for UREAI than the
other groups of Expt. 1, the perscentages being 94.2, 95.0, 97.2 % for DPMI,
SBMI and UREAI; in Expt. 2 the palatabilities were alike at 96.0, 96.9 and
96.3 % for DPM2, SBM2 and UREA2. At the beginning of Expt. 1 the
palatability of the DPM concentrate was 84.6 % and at the end 93.0 %, cal-
culated as two weekly averages. During the experimental period one cow
consumed only 63.7—75.8 %. The palatability fluctuated throughout Expt.
2. Two cows in group DPM2 ate, on average, less than 80 % of their ration
during the experimental period. The palatability of the urea concentrate was
good in both experiments for all except one cow in the UREA 2 group which
consumed, on average only 74.3 % of feed offered during the trial.

Table 6. The mean daily intake of different feeds in the experimental period kg DM/cow.
Experiment 1

DPMI SEMI UREAI
Groups

x S.D. %of DM x S.D. %of DM x S.D. %pf DM

Hay 4.75 0.11 34.4 4.78 0.13 36.2 4.90 0.04 37.9
Concentrate mixture 9.27 1.40 65.6 8.50 1.79 63.8 8.22 1.53 62.1

Oats 3.21 0.49 22.7 3.41 0.72 25.6 3.63 0.68 27.4
Barley 3.21 0,49 22.7 3.41 0.72 25.6 3.63 0.68 27.4
Molasses-beet pulp 0.91 0.14 6.4 0.93 0.19 7.0 0.82 0,15 6.2
Dried poultry manure 1.94 0.36 13.8
Soybean meal 0.75 0.17 5.6
Urea -

- 0.14 0.03 1.1
Total dry matter, kg 14.03 1.39 100.0 13.27 1.74 100.0 13.11 1.53 100.0

102



Experiment 2

DPM2 SHM2 UREA2
Groups

x S.D %of DM x S.D. %of DM x S.D. %of DM

Hay 5.90 0.17 37,5 5.94 0.07 39.2 5.90 0.18 41.7
Concentrate mixture 9.90 0.77 62.5 9.24 0.39 60.8 8.34 0.95 58.3

Oats 3.47 0.26 22.0 3.73 0.16 24.5 3.71 0.42 25.9
Barley 3.44 0.26 21.7 3.69 0.16 24.3 3.67 0.13 25.6
Molasses-beet pulp 0.96 0.08 6.1 0.91 0.04 6.0 0.82 0.09 5.8
Dried poultry manure 2.00 0.18 12.7
Soybean meal 0.91 0.04 6.0
Urea - - 0.14 0.02 1.0

Total dry matter, kg 15.77 0.85 100.0 15.19 0.33 100.0 14.25 0.96 100.0

Fig. 1. Palatability of concent-
rate mixture, energy supply and
dry matter intake. Experiment 1.

103



High level voluntary intake is of equal importance to other factors in
achieving satisfactory animal performance. Difficulties have sometimes been
reported in achieving adequate levels of consumption with rations containing
DPM (Bucholtz et al. 1971, Bull and Reid 1971, Tinnimit et al. 1972,
Thomas et al. 1972, Silva et al. 1976, Smith et al. 1976). Here adaptation
periods of I—3 weeks were necessary before maximal levels of intake
were achieved. Bucholtz et al. (1971) observed that steers descriminated
against DPM and sorted out maize silage. Such sorting and adaptation
difficulties can be eliminated by pelleting combinate rations (Silva et al.
1976, Smith et al. 1976).

The average DPM intake in kg DM/day was 1.94 and 2.00 in Experiments
1 and 2. The maximum intake of DPM was 2.85 kg DM/day/cow, and the
average uric acid intake was 186 g and 24 g/day in DPMI and DPM2 respec-

Fig. 2. Palatability of
concentrate mixture,
energy supply and dry
matter intake. Experi-
ment 2.

104



105

tively. By comprison, the average urea intake in Expts. 1 and 2 was 140
g/day/cow. The DPM intakes are comparable with the 2.2 kg .reported by
Thomas et al. (1972) and 2.5 3.08 kg by Silva et al. (1976) but lower than the
values reported by Bull and Reid (1971), Claesson and Ahlström (1974)
and Kristensen et al. (1976).

The percentages of roughage and concentrate were, on average, 36 and 64
in Expt. 1 and 39 and 61 in Expt. 2 calculated on a DM basis.

The average nutrient intakes are presented in Table 7. On average, total
DM intakes were 14.0, 13.3 and 13.1 kg in DPMI, SPMI and UREAI and the
differences were not significant. The corresponding values for Expt. 2 were
15.8, 15.2 and 14.3 in DPM2, SBM2 and UREA2, the difference between DPM2
and SBM2 and between DPM2 and UREA 2 being significant at P < 0.05 and
P < 0.01, respectively. DM intakes expressed as percentages of the liveweight
did not differ (P > 0.05) between groups. Energy supply, FU, and protein
supply, DCP, did not differ (P > 0.05) between groups. The protein proportion
provided by the DCP was 29.0, 22.5 and 17.5 % in DPMI, SBMI and UREAI
and 19.0, 25.2 and 18.4 % in DPM2, SBM2 and UREA2. Differences between
groups were significant (P < 0.05, P < 0.01). Crude fibre intake was higher
in DPMI and DPM2 (P < 0.05, P < 0.01) than in the other groups. The
intake of sugars, g/day was higher (P < 0.01) in SBM2 than in DPM2 and
UREA2.

Calculated intakes of minerals and trace elements are given in Table 8.
The mineral supplement for the DPM groups was 5 g/kg milk and 10 g/kg

milk for the SBM and UREA groups. The calcium provision was about for
times as great and phosphorus almost twice as great with the DPM diet as
with the other diets. Provisions of iron, zinc and manganese were likewise
greater for the DPM diets than the others. The mineral content of DPM
was rich.

Table 7. Nutrient consumption during the experimental period.

DPMI SEMI UREAI
Experiment 1 SEM

x S.D. x S.D. i S.D.

Total dry matter intake, kg 14.03* 1.39 13.27“ 1.74 13.11“ 1.53 1.50
kg DM/100 kg live weight

... 2.68“ 0.18 2.66“ 0.29 2.68“ 0.29 0.24
Energy supply, FU 12.12“ 1.35 12.76“ 1,99 12.41“ 1.71 1.61

forages, % 26.4“ 3.0 25.5“ 4.1 26.6“ 3.6 3.4
concentrates, % 73.6“ 3.0 74.5* 4.1 73.4* 3.6 3.4

Digestible crude protein, g ... 1666* 192 1588* 249 1553“ 249 209
forages, % 23.8“ 2.8 25.4“ 4.1 26.4“ 3.6 3.4
grain, % 47.2““ 1.7 52.2» 2.8 56.2 bd 2.8 4,1
protein supplement, % 29.0® 1.0 22.4d 1.2 17.4° 0.8 4.5

Crude fibre, g 2450b 146 2183“ 132 2189“ 121 170
Sugars, g 694* 60 765* 94 687* 71 79
Uric acid, g 186 31
Urea, g 140 3



DPM2 SBM2 UREA 2Experiment 2 SEM
x S.D. x S.D. x S.D.

Total dry matter intake, kg 15.77bd 0.85 15.19“b 0.33 14.25»' 0.96 0.98
kg DM/100 kg live weight ... 2.98“ 0.12 2.83“ 0.25 2.82“ 0.34 1.14
Energy supply, FU 12.92“ 0.76 13.79“ 0.39 12.61“ 1.01 0.89

forages, % 28.9“ 1.4 27.2“ 1.1 29.8“ 2.4 2.0
concentrates, % 71.1“ 1.4 72.8“ 1.1 70.2“ 2.4 2.0

Digestible crude protein, g ... 1438“ 89 1630b 50 1480“ 128 122
forages, % 24.7 d 1.3 22.0' 1.0 24.3 d 2.1 1.4
grain, % 56.30 d 0.9 52.8' 0.7 57.3 d 1.6 2.1
protein supplement, % 19.0' 0.4 25.2 d 0.3 18.4' 0.5 2.9

Crude fibre, g 2918' 119 2636» d 19 2553“ d 98 179
Sugars, g 1183“' 48 1280d 15 1157“' 51 65
Uric acid, g 24 2
Urea, g - - 141 2

Mean with different letter were significantly different,

a, b (P < 0.05), c, d, e (P < 0.01).

Table 8. Calculated mean daily intake of minerals and trace elements obtained from feeds and mineral
supplements.

Experiment 1 Experiment 2
Groups

DPMI SEMI UREAI DPM2 SBM2 UREA2

x S.D. x S.D. x S.D. x S.D. x S.D. x S.D.

Calcium, g/d 144.6 26,4 42.3 7.9 39.3 6.2 172.0 26,1 43.2 3.3 39.7 4,8

7.5 92.8 10.3 54.4 5.4 47.6 6.9
3.8 30.5 3.4 24.9 2.3 21.5 3.2
9.6 59.6 37.9 59.1 37.2 58.0 38.1
14.8 249.3 31.0 235.2 31.0 211.9 27.5
656 6 835 814 2 769 312 2 438 372

Phosphorus, g/d 76.1 12'3 53.7 9.7 50.0
Magnesium, g/d 27.9 4.7 24.4 5.1 21.9
Sodium, g/d 35.4 9.4 38.2 10.2 37.5
Potassium, g/d 189.7 18.1 186.1 18.2 170.5
Iron, mg/d 3 851 804 2 580 726 2 476
Copper, mg/d 138 22 167 33 155
Zinc, mg/d 1 392 228 1 052 159 1 022

28 525 150 289 122 266 121
168 1 916 251 1 199 166 1 122 200
65 1 450 159 583 77 536 80Manganese, mg/d 939 132 505 72 477

4. 1.2. Digestibilities of the rations
Data on the apparent digestibilities of the experimental rations in Expt. 1

are given in Table 9. The dry matter, organic matter, crude fibre, crude fat

Table 9. Apparent digestibility of the different rations in Experiment 1.

Groups DPMI SEMI UREAI

Dry matter 69.9a 72.0 ab 74.0 b

Organic matter 70.6ad 73.1»bde 75.0 be

Crude protein 72.3»de 71.8 ad 75.9be

Crude fibre 57.4a 56.7a 59.7 a
Ether extract 74.l a 75.5 a 77.6a

Nitrogen free extract 75.9» 77.7al) 80.0 b
Means with different letters were significantly different,

a, b (P < 0.05) d, e (P < 0.01)

106



107

and NFE digestibilities were lower in the diet including 20 % DPM than in the
other diets. The digestibility of the organic matter was 4.4 % lower in the
DPM diet than in the UREA diet, the difference being significant (P < 0.01).
The organic matter digestibility of the DPM diet was only 0.7 % lower than the
dry matter digestibility, indicating a high solubility of the minerals in DPM.
The crude protein digestibility of the UREA diet was higher (P < 0.01) than that
of the SBM and DPM diets (P < 0.05). NPN-components constitute the major
part of the nitrogen in poultry manure, making the general digestibility of
the crude protein high, as set forth in the literature (El-Sabban et al. 1970,
Lowman and Knight 1970, Tinnimit et al. 1972). The digestibility of DPM
decrease as its proportion in the diet increases (Parigi-Bini 1969, Lowman
and Knight 1970, Thomas 1970). DM intakes during collection periods were
on average 14.9, 13.6 and 13.6 kg for DPMI, SBMI and UREAL Generally as
feed intakes are increased, digestibilities are depressed (Ekern 1972, Robert-
son et al. 1974, VanEs 1976).

The DM digestibilities of DPM reported in the literature normally vary
between 57 and 65 %, this range being lower than the DM digestibilities of grain
and good quality hay. DPM supplementation in high proportion is therefore
not feasible because of the low energy value.

4. 1.3. Milk yield and feed utilisation
Averages and standard deviations of the daily yield and chemical com-

position of milk are presented in Table 10 and Figures 36. The differences
in milk yield and milk constituents between groups during the experimental
period were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). The differences between
groups were greater, however, during Expt. 2.

The non-significance of diet effects for these measures have been due to
sample size and variation among cows. The mean daily milk production of
cows fed diets containing DPM was generally slightly lower than production
of cows on SBM. Milk fat content was not clearly influenced by feeding DPM,
as noted also by Smith and Wheeler (1979).

One cow of the SBM group was withdrawn from the experiment because
of mastitis, and the average results for the SBM2 group are based on five
cows. The CMT-value of milk in the SBM2 group, (1.76) was higher (P < 0.05)
than in the DPM2 (1.22) or UREA 2 group (1.34). The production data is thus
difficult to compare directly.

The composition of the milk was clearly related to the lactation stage. The
fat percent decreased (P < 0.05) in all groups, the protein percent increased
(P < 0.05) in Expt. 1 and (P < 0.01) in Expt. 2, and the lactose content
decreased very significantly (P < 0.001) during the experimental period. The
dry matter content of milk decreased only slightly in Expt. 1 but very sig-
nificantly (P < 0.001) in Expt. 2. There was also a strong correlation between
milk yield and many consitutuents of the milk, but few of the correlations
were linear in either experiment when time was eliminated.

The average milk yield declined (%) (P< 0.05) in DPMI (—1.94) compared
with SBMI (—1.03) and UREAI (—0.95). The corresponding values for



S.D. SEM

Table 10. Mean daily milk yield and composition.

DPMI
Groups

S.D.x

Experiment 1
Milk yieldJd

Milk yield, kg 20.4“ 2.5
4 % FCM, kg 22.7“ 3.7
Milk dry matter, g 2782“ 398
Milk ash. g 126“ 16
Milk fat, g 966“ 188
Milk protein, g 706“ 96
Milk sugar, g 998“ 118

Milk composition

Milk dry matter, % 13.60“ 0.48
Milk ash, % 0.63“ 0.02
Milk fat, % 4.69“ 0.51
Milk protein, % 3.46“ 0.15
Milk sugar, % 4.88“ 0.13

Experiment 2 DPM2
Milk yield!d

Milk yield, kg 20.6“ 1.4
4 % FCM, kg 22.2“ 1.1
Milk dry matter, g 2672“ 119
Milk ash, g 134“ 10
Milk fat, g 928“ 52
Milk protein, g 651“ 23
Milk sugar, g 1020“ 69

Milk composition
Milk dry matter, % 12.97“ 0.47
Milk ash, % 0.65“ 0.03
Milk fat, % 4.52“ 0.35
Milk protein, % 3.16“ 0.14
Milk sugar, % 4.93“ 0.06

UREAISBMI

S.D. xx

21.4“ 5.0 20.3“ 4.1 3.7
23.2“ 5.5 21.7“ 4.4 4.3

2889“ 627 2177“ 509 491
28 129“ 27 23139“

906“ 190 195979“ 238
677“ 118 122748“ 161
993“ 189 1751049“ 224

13.57“ 0.51 13.21“ 0.38 0,46
0.65“ 0.03 0.63“ 0.02 0.03
4.58“ 0.37 4.46“ 0.31 0.39
3.53“ 0.21 3.36“ 0.24 0.20
4.92“ 0.12 4.89“ 0.04 0.10

UREA2SBM2

19.1“ 1.4 19.5“ 2.4 3.1
22.0“ 1.9 20.6“ 3.3 2.3

2613“ 210 2566“ 352 245
128“ 7 128“ 18 137 128“ 18 13
956“ 104 854“ 162 120
650» 51 641“ 82 56
930“ 100 969“ 119 101

13.67“ 0.57 13.11“ 0.42 0.55
0.67“ 0.03 0.65“ 0.03 0.03
5.02“ 0.48 4.36“ 0.42 0.48
3.42“ 0.23 3.30“ 0.20 0.21
4.84“ 0.18 4.94» 0.08 0.12

Means with different letters were significantly different.
a, b (P < 0.05).

Expt. 2 were -0.81, -1.64 and -1.80% for DPM2, SBM2 and UREA2,
respectively, but the differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05).

All groups had deficient energy intake during the first part of the experiment
(Table 11). The percentages of the FU requirements available were on average
96.8, 96.8 and 96.1 % for DPM2, SEMI and UREAI and 98.2, 112.3 and 106.5
% for DPM2, SBM2 and UREA2. The difference between DPM2 and SBM2
was significant (P < 0.05). The protein supply of DPM2 was also deficient,
88.0 % of requirement, and the difference between this and the other groups
was significant (P < 0.05).

108



109

The average bodyweight changes were —0.048, 0.119, 0.216 kg/d for
DPMI, SBMI and UREAI and 0.033, -0.017 and -0.056 kg/d for DPM2,
SBM2 and UREA2. The differences were not significant (P > 0.05) (Table 11).

Feed utilisation did not differ in Expt. 1, the average FU consumption/kg
FCM being 0.37, but in Expt. 2 DPM2 had a smaller value, 0.39 (P < 0.05),
compared with the other groups (0.45 and 0.43). Digestible crude protein uti-
lisation varied between groups but the differences were not significant (P > 0.05)
in Expt. 1. In Expt. 2 DPM2 had a significantly smaller (P < 0.05) value,
51.2 DCP/kg 4 % FCM, compared with other groups.

The intake of nutrients cannot match the output in milk during early
lactation regardless of diet composition. Dry matter intake reaches a peak
only about 12—ls weeks after calving (Broster and Alderman 1977). The

Fig. 3. Milk yield and live-weight changes of the cows in different groups.
Experiment 1.



110

intake is affected by the liveweight, liveweight changes, and milk yield of the
individual cow.

Intake is affected by diet composition (Bines 1976). The average energy
value of the DPM-concentrate was 13 % lower than that of SBM or UREA,
with the effect that the cows on DPM diet could not consume enough energy
to meet their reguirement. The same observation was made in studies per-
formed by Bull and Reid (1971). Thomas et al. (1972) Kneale and Garstang

(1975), Silva et al. (1976), and Smith et al. (1976).
The rapid decline in milk yield in early lactation may reflect a shortage of

dietary protein that can not be totally compensated for by mobilizing protein
from body reserves. The lactating cow can draw on body reserves only for a
limited time, after which the shortage of dietary protein reduces milk production.

Fig. 4, Milk yield and live-weight changes of the cows in different groups.
Experiment 2.



Bath et al. (1965) reported that approximately 19 % of the body weight
loss in lactating dairy cattle was body protein, but Satter and Roffler
(1975) suggested only 15 %. The sharp reduction in milk production of the
cows on the DPM diet in Expt. 1 at about 7 weeks indicates that the DPM
diet was not meeting the amino acid requirement of the cows over a long period
and body protein reserves were being depleted. This was also indicated by the
rapid decline of live weights, on average 642 g/cow/d, during weeks 37 and
more efficient DCP utilisation in milk production, 55.1 g/kg FCM, for DPMI.
The corresponding figures for SBMI and UREAI were 57.6 and 58.8 g, re-
spectively.

The peak yields of the UREA groups were 23.5 kg FCM/d in UREAI and
24.0 kg in UREA2. These peaks were lower than in the other groups, especially
in Expt, 1 where the peaks were 27.3 and 26.6 kg FCM in DPMI and SBMI,
respectively. However, the decline in milk production was not very rapid
for the UREA groups.

Fig. 5. Chemical com-
position of milk in
different groups, Expe-
riment 1.

111



112

When the diet contained only soybean meal as the supplementary nitrogen
the source a greater quantity of amino acids presumably reached the lower gut of
cows and more amino acids were available for synthesis of milk. Since supplying
additional amino acids in the form of casein to the lower gut has improved
animal performance (Clark 1975), protecting high quality protein from
microbial fermentation in the rumen and adding NPN to the diet as a source
of ammonia for maximizing microbial protein synthesis may offer an alternative
and more economical method of feeding high yielding dairy cows during early
lactation (Chalupa 1975). However, if the high quality protein is not pro-
tected, non protein nitrogen may have limited value in the diet of high producing
dairy cows during early lactation, as the degradation of dietary plant protein
in typical diets of dairy cows, especially on grass silage based diets, would
supply adequate ammonia for microbial synthesis (Satter and Slyter

1974, Satter and Roffler 1975, Wohlt et al. 1978).

Fig. 6. Chemical composition
of milk in different groups.
Experiment 2.



113

An average 200 g microbial protein per kg organic matter (OM) in syn-
thesised in the rumen (Roffler and Satter 1975, Hagemeister et al. 1976).
Employing the net energy system used in Finland (FU = 0.7 kg starch) this
value corresponds to 70 g digestible bacterial protein per FU if 65 % of digestible
organic matter (DOM) of the ration is fermented, the digestibility of bacterial
protein being set at 70 % and one kg DOM corresponding to 0.63 FU (Hage-
meister and Kaufmann 1974, Roffler and Satter 1975, Kaufmann 1977 b,
Roy et al. 1977). According to Finnish feeding standard, dairy cows require
70 g DCP/FU for maintenance, 109 g for a milk yield of 10 kg and 123 g for a
yield of 20 kg daily. The maintenance requirement of digestible crude protein
can be covered by bacterial protein or by an NPN source totally. When the
yield of milk is 25 kg, the cow requires totally 14.2 FU and 1 800 g DCP.
Because only 1 000 g digestible bacterial protein will be supplied, the remainder,
about 45 % of the requirement, will have to be supplied by undegraded dietary
protein or from body reserves. From these figures it follows that a level of
100 g DCP per FU is the maximum which will supply usable nitrogen from an
NPN supply.

The calculated DCP concentration in the diets without protein supplement
was on average 103 g/FU in Expt. 1 and 96 g/FU in Expt. 2. The protein pro-
vided by DPM was 29.0 and 19.0 % of the DCP supply in diets DPMI and
DPM2, respectively. The average uric acid intake was 186 g and 24 g/d. The
corresponding values for urea were 17.5 % and 18.4 % and the average urea
intake was 140 g/d. The basal ration, consisting only of hay and grain con-
centrate might satisfy the DCP requirement of a milk production of about
s—lo kg. In this study milk production obviously responded well to DPM and
urea supplementation. The energy supply of the total FU-intake from con-
centrate was 74 and 73 % in Expts. 1 and 2, respectively, and in these cases
microbial synthesis from non protein nitrogen seems to be efficient owing the
high amount of available energy from starch. Satter and Roffler (1975)
and Burroughs et al. (1975) have shown a strong dependence of microbial
use of NPN on the energy content of diet. In addition, the microbial protein
production is affected by the solubility of the dietary protein, its degradation
by rumen microbes, the content of protein in the ration, the source of energy
and the level of milk yield.

The literature suggests, that feeding of NPN is efficient only for milk yields
up to 15 kg daily. This is in good agreement with results for cows fed purified
diets where urea was the only of nitrogen (Virtanen 1966) and with results
of feeding trials carried out by Helmer and Bartley (1971), Huber et al.
(1972) and Holler (1973).

Kaufmann and Hagemeister (1975) concluded on the basis of 45 reported
studies that partial use of NPN can be justified where 80 % or less of the
protein requirement is met from natural protein for cows producing 20 kg
milk/d. Drops in the milk yield when NPN was used were reported by Roffler
and Satter (1975) in a literature study. The results of studies by MOLLER and
Neiman-Sorensen (1977), however, showed no decrease in milk yield of 20
kg FCM if urea was substituted for about 20 % of the total in the ration.
These findings are in good agreement with the results obtained in present study.



Table
11
a.
The
averagenutrient

requirements
and
supplies
and
live
weight
change
in
the
experimental
period.

Experiment
1

DPMI

SEMI

UREAI

Groups

SEM

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

Energy Requirement
for
maintenance,

FU/d

4.13

0.17

4.01

0.41

3.93

0.08

Requirement
for
live

weight
change,

FU/d

—O.lO

0.31

0.24

0.35

0.43

0.40

Requirement
for
milk

production,
FU/d

9.07

1.49

9.30

2.20

8.68

1.76

Total
energy

requirement,
FU/d

13.10“

1.67

13.54“

2.45

13.05“

1.50

1.80

Energy
supply-requirement,

FU/d

—0.99“

1.06

—0.78“

0.53

—0.63“

0.30

0.67

Supply
as
%

of

requirement

96.82®

9.72

96.81“

3.34

96.10“

2.57

5.71

FU/kg
4
%

FCM

0.356“

0.040

0.368“

0.019

0.368“

0.017

0.026

kg
4
%

FCM/kDM
intake

1.62

0.21

1.73

0.20

1.64

0.15

0.18

Protein Requirement
for
maintenance

DCP,
g/d

310

13

301

31

295

6

Requirement
for
milk

production
DCP,
g/d

1360

223

1395

331

1302

265

Total
protein

requirement,
DCP,
g/d

1670“

229

1695“

347

1597“

267

269

Protein
supply-requirement,

DCP,
g/d

—4“

166

—107“

111

—44“

55

118

Supply
as
%

of

requirement

101.23“

9.63

94.69“

5.54

97.81“

3.17

6.70

DCP
g/kg
4
%

FCM

61.2“

7.1

56.3“

4.0

58.5“

2.4

49.

Live
weight
change

Mean
live
weight,
kg

522

29

502

68

489

14

Live
weight
change

kg/week

—0.33“

3.44

0.83

1.21

1,51“

1.40

2.22

114



Table
11
b.
The
averagenutrient

requirements
and
supplies
and
live
weight
change
in
the
experimental
period.

Experiment
2.

DPM2

SBM2

UREA

2

Groups

SEM

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

Energy Requirement
for
maintenance,

FU/d

4.18

0.19

4.24

0.25

4.07

0.35

Requirement
for
live
weight
change,

FU/d

0.07

0.31

—0.21

0.35

—O.ll

0.44

Requirement
for
milk

production,
FU/d

8,87

0.43

8.79

0.77

8.25

1,32

Total
energy

requirement,
FU/d

13.12a

0.64

12.82
a

0.29

12.21s

1.18

0.88

Energy
supply-requirement

FU/d

—0.20a

0.70

0.97
b

0.15

0.40ab

0.69

0.73

Supply
as
%

of

requirement

98.18a

9.72

112.
31
b

5.14

106.51ab

6.92

9.25

FU/kg
4
%

FCM

0.394
a

0.033

0.449
b

0.006

0.428ab

0.036

0.035

kg
4
%

FCM/kg
DM
intake

1.42a

0.11

1.45
a

0,11

1.46a

0.21

0.15

Protein Requirement
for
maintenance

DCP,
g/d

313

14

318

18

305

26

Requirement
for

milk
production
DCP,
g/d

1331

65

1319

116

1237

198

Total
protein

requirement,
DCP
g/d

1644s

69

1637s

99

1543s

188

135

Protein
supply-requirement,

DCP,
g/d

—2O6
a

105—6
b

53

—62
b

149

136

Supply
as
%

of

requirement

87.96s

6.09

100.
40
b

3.47

97.62
b

8.77

8.25

DCP
g/kg
4
%

FCM

51.2s

4.4

60.5
b

2.7

58.6
b

6.5

6.2

I.ive
weight
change

Mean
live

weight,
kg

530

31

541

42

513

59

Live
weight

cange,
kg/week

0.23
a

1.09

—0.75s

1.23

—0.39
s

1.56

2.49

Means
with

different
letters

were
significantly

diflerent.

a,
b
(P
<

0.05).

115



116

The maximum level of dietary crude protein at which cows will respond to
NPN supplementation is still somewhat controversial. Roffler and Satter
(1975), Kaufmann (1977 a) and Satter and Roffler (1977 a) showed the
ineffectiveness of NPN in dairy ration containing more than 12 to 13 %

crude protein in dry matter. Yet the data of Jones et al. (1975) showed a
response to NPN when crude protein complete rations were raised from 14.5
to 15.8 % with NPN. In present study the crude protein level was on average
14.2 % in DM.

4. 2. Blood metabolic profile
The effect of different protein supplements on the hematological and blood

chemical data are given in Table 12 and Figures 7 12. In Table 13 are pre-
sented the corresponding data from two cows fed different amounts of poultry
manure and in Table 14 are the values at different sampling times after feeding.

Hemoglobin was higher (P < 0.05) in DPMI than in the other groups,
while PCV % was higher (P < 0.05) in SBM2. The plasma glucose of DPMI
was significantly (P < 0.01) lower than that of SBMI and lower than that of
UREAI (P < 0.05). In Experiment 2 the plasma glucose concentration was
again higher in the SBM2 groups than in the others but the difference was not
statistically significant. Plasma glucose increased (P < 0.05) with an increase
in the DPM supplement, 0 to 40 % in concentrate mixture. Also plasma glucose
increased significantly after feeding (P < 0.05). The energy deficiency of
cows receiving poultry manure reflected the lower plasma glucose concentration.

Plasma urea-N was significantly (P < 0.01) higher in UREAI and UREA2
groups than in other groups and higher (P < 0.01) in DPMI than in SBMI,
but lower (P < 0.01) in DPM2 than in SBM2. Plasma urea-N increased (P <

0.05) with an increase in the DPM supplement in concentrate mixture, but
neither effect was consistently linear. Plasma urea-N increased rapidly after
feeding and then decreased, and the plasma urea-N value 5.5 hours after feed-
ing was statistically lower (P < 0.05) than at 2.5 hours. Also the plasma
urea-N increased significantly (P < 0.01) during the feeding experiments
with respect to days after calving the correlation coefficients being .333 and
.418 in the Expts 1. and 2. respectively. The plasma urea-N was likewise
correlated to the urea intake (.365 and .354; P < 0.01) and to the percentage
of supply minus requirement of digestible crude protein (.239 and .490; P <

0.01). There was no correlation between plasma urea-N and intake of DCP.
Urea nitrogen in blood, produced by conversion of absorbed ammonia to urea
by the liver was shown by Lewis (1957) to be a sensitive indicator of changes
in the rumen ammonia concentration. Plasma urea-N was higher of cows
receiving DPM compared to SBM, and also the rumen ammonia-N was higher
on the DPM diets. This agrees with the results of Caswell et al. (1978), they
found the blood urea levels were within the normal range and followed the same
general trend as ruminal fluid ammonia nitrogen levels, but were not sig-
nificantly different among treatments with different amount of poultry litter.
The blood urea-N of lactating cows has also been directly related to the intake
of dietary protein (Mansion et al. 1975, Treacher et al. 1976). In general,



urea diets result in greater blood urea-N than do isonitrogenous plant protein
diets (Huber 1975, Kwan et al. 1977). Plasma urea-N was not so high with
DPM as with urea feeding because the uric acid, the major NPN fraction in
DPM is less soluble and more slowly available to rumen bacteria than urea and
hence the passage of ammonia direct throught the rumen wall is less. Smith
et al. (1978 b) also observed lower plasma urea-N values in calves fed DPM
diets compared with urea, but higher than with soybean meal feeding. They
found the peak in plasma urea-N concentration to occur 2 hours post feeding,
after which it rapidly decreased, which agrees with the results found in this
study.

Table 12. Hematological and blood chemical data from cows (mean ± S.D.).

Groups DPMI SEMI UREAI
S.D. x S.D. xExperiment 1 S.D.x

n 42

Hemoglobin, g/1 100.2»
PCV, % 33.5»
Plasma glucose, mmol/1 2.50»®
Plasma urea-N, mmol/1 2.93®
Plasma proteins, g/1 72.3»
Plasma uric-acid, /rmol/l 50»
Inorg. phosphorus, mmol/1 1.73»
Calcium, mmol/1 1.86»
Magnesium, mmol/1 0.80»
Sodium, mmol/1 115.5»»
Potassium, mmol/1 4.37» de

Iron, jumol/1 30.8»®
Copper, jumol/l 11.4»
Zinc, jumol/1 10.7d

35 42
10.3 98.1» 8.6 98.8» 8.5
2.5 32.3» 2.6 33.0» 2.8
0.39 2.59»' 0.39 2.57» 0.32
0.55 2.55 d 0.93 3.59' 1.32
9.3 69.0» 9.9 68.8» 8.4
11 45» 6 43» 8
0.33 1.52» 0.37 1.68»» 0.23
0.21 1.78» 0.31 1.88» 0.38
0.10 0.74» 0.16 0.78» 0.10

19.6 112.7»d 20.2 122.5® 22.3
0.52 4.33» d 0.62 4.44®® 0.50

12.7 25.9» d 8.6 28.5» d® 8.9
4.1 11.2» 2.2 11.1» 2.0
6.3 12.0® 11.1 13.4' 10.4

Experiment 2 DPM2 SBM2 UREA2

n 48

Hemoglobin, g/1 103.9»
PCV, % 34.3»
Plasma glucose, mmol/1 3.23»
Plasma urea N, mmol/1 3.10 d

Plasma proteins, g/1 75.3»
Plasma uric acid, /<mol/l 44»
Inorg. phosphorus, mmol/1 1.88»
Calcium, mmol/1 1.92»b

Magnesium, mmol 0.91» d

Sodium, mmol/1 138.8»
Potassium, mraol/1 4.28be

Iron, /rmol/1 19.4be

Copper, yumol/1 10.9bde

Zinc, («mol/l 17.8a

40 40

10.8 109.9» 6.5 103.2» 12.0
3.6 36.4» 2.2 33.7» 3.6
0.36 3.37» 0.56 3.22» 0.49
0.87 3.62® 0.93 5.14' 1.25
6.4 76.3» 5.6 74.2» 8.0
9 43» 9 44» 5
0.41 1.64» 0.31 1.65» 0.27
0.27 2.00 be 0.23 1.84»d 0.24
0.13 0.97»® 0.11 o,94 abde 0.12
6.5 137.9» 6.1 142.2» 10.9
0.55 4.12 ab 0.53 3.99ad 0.44
4.8 16.8abde 4.2 15.3ad 3.9
1.8 11.8»® 1.6 10.6ad 1.7
9.1 21.4ab 14.7 22.6b 20.0

Means with different letters were significantly different.
a, b, c (P < 0.05); d, e, f (P < 0.01)

117



Fig. 7. Plasma glu-
cose concentration
during experimental
period.

Fig. 8. Plasma
urea-N concentra-
tion during experi-
mental period.



Fig. 9. Concentra-
tion of plasma pro-
teins during experi-
mental period.

Fig. 10. Plasma uric
acid concentration
during experimen-
tal period.



Fig. 11. Plasma
inorganic phospho-
rus concentration
during experimental
period.

Fig. 12. Plasma
calcium concent-
ration during expe-
rimental period.



Table
13.

Hematological
and
blood
chemical
data
from

cowsfed
different

amounts
of

dehydrated
poultry

manure.The
values
are
averagesof

different
sampling
times.

Diets

SBM
10
%

SBM
5

%

SBM
0

%

SBM
0

%

SBM
10
%

DPM
0
%

DPM
10
%

DPM
20
%

DPM
40
%

DPM
0

%

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

n

18

18

18

18

18

Hemoglobin,
g/1

120.
1»»

8,6

120.6»
5.4

113.7»"

6.9

115.2»»
8.1

106.0»

6.0

PCV,
%

36.1»»
1.5

35.2»»
1.0

34.4»»
1.0

34.0»»
1.4

33.3»"
1.2

Plasma
glucose,

mmol/1

3.48»»
0.35

3.38»»
0.43

3.22»

0.75

3.60»»
0.30

3.71»

0.32

Plasma
urea-N,
mmol/1

5.43»
b

0.61

5.80»

0.77

5.17»

0.73

5.62»»
0.37

5.27»»
0.76

Plasma
proteins,
g/1

85.3»

3.0

84.3»

2.7

85.4»

1.9

85.3»

1.6

84.9»

1.7

Inorganic
phosphorus,
mmol/1

...

1.86»

0.18

2.15»
0.54

1.99»»
0.26

2.19»
0.33

2.01»»
0.16

Calcium,
mmol/1

2.21»"
0.48

2.41»»
0.28

2.49»

0.20

2.55»»
0.15

2.33»»
0.08

Magnesium,
mmol/1

0.92»

0.20

1.02»»
0.14

1.06»

0.11

1.01»»
0.09

0.94»

0.09

Sodium,
mmol/1

116.4»»«
7.3

116.3»<*
9.1

122.8»»
6.0

124.8»»
16.3

126.9»»
7.9

Potassium,
mmol/1

3.91»

1.00

4.25»»
0.66

4.53»

0.35

4.51»

0.28

4.44»»
0.34

Iron,

19.3»'
3.3

19.5»'
2.2

17.7»»"»
3.0

15.0»*
1.2

14.9»"
1.2

Copper,

10.5»e

1.1

8.9»»

0.7

8.2»»

0.8

8.2»»

0.7

7.7
ad

0.5

Zinc,
jumol/l

11.1»»'
1.5

7,4
a<l

0.6

S.O»"»
1.7

11.9»'

3.5

10.2»»'
1.9

Means
with

different
letters

were
significantly
different,

a,
b,
c

(P
<

0.05);
d,
e,
f

(P
<

0.01).

121



122

Table 14. Hematological and blood chemical data from cows fed different amounts poultry
manure; the average values at different sampling times.

0.5 h after 2.5 h after 5.5 h after
feeding feeding feeding

x S.D. x S.D. x S.D.

n 30 30 30
Hemoglobin, g/1 116.3» 9.3 113.8» 9.0 115.3» 8.7
PCV, % 34.7» 1.9 34.4» 1.3 34.7» 0.03
Plasma glucose, mmol/1 3.44» 0.42 3.38» 0.44 3.61 b 0.56
Plasma urea-N, mmol/1 5.55»b 0.61 5.72b 0,66 5.22» 0.70
Plasma proteins, g/1 85.4» 2.2 84.9» 2.3 84.8» 2.1
Inorganic phosphorus, mmol/1 2.09“ 0.31 2.06» 0.38 1,95» 0.30
Calsium, mmol/1 2.38» 0.31 2.39» 0.22 2.41»- 0.35
Magnesium, mmol/1 0.99» 0.15 0.99» 0.13 0.98» 0.16
Sodium, mmol/1 121,3» 11.5 122.9» 7,7 120.1» 12.8
Potassium, mmol/1 4.10» 0.58 4.39b 0.48 4.47 b 0.75
Iron, 16.8» 4.0 17.6» 3.3 16,9» 3.1
Copper, 8.6» 1.4 8.8» 1.2 8.7» 1.2
Zinc, 9.8» 3.3 9.9» 2.4 9,6» 2.3

Means with different letters were significantly different’
a, b (P < 0.05)

Plasma uric acid was higher in DPM groups but only the difference between
DPM2 and SBM2 was statistically significant (P < 0.05). Uric acid values of
cows receiving poultry manure in the diet were in normal ranges as reported
by Laird (1972); 0.0—2.8 mg/100 ml and Durst et al. (1978); 0.7 mg/100 ml
plasma. Uric acid is decomposed in the rumen by microbes to ammonia and
direct passage of uric acid through the rumen wall to blood is low when cows
are eaten large amounts of uric acid in DPM.

The values of plasma proteins did not differ significantly among the groups
but in the UREA groups the values were lowest. The inclusion rate of DPM
did not have any effect on the concentration of plasma proteins. The values
were quite like on different sampling times. Blood proteins have been related
to nitrogen intake (Unshelm 1969, Payne et al. 1970). Total protein in plasma
is composed of albumin and globulins (Swenson 1970). Albumin serves as the
major amino acid pool (Dimopoullos 1970) and reflects the adequacy of
the amino acid supply relative to demand and to some extent protein in the
diet (Smith and Vandersall 1973). Manston et al. (1975) observed an increase
in serum albumin in cows fed medium protein but a decrease in cows fed low
protein diets. Little (1974) claimed that intake had no effect on serum
albumin, but increases with increasing dietary protein have been observed
by others (Manston et al. 1975, Treacher et al. 1976). Payne et al. (1970)
concluded that albumin level is a far more important indicator of the metabolic
condition than total protein or globulin.

Inorganic phosporus of the plasma was higher (P < 0.05) in DPMI and
DPM2 than in other groups. The differences in other plasma minerals be-
tween groups were not significant. Plasma inorganic phosphorus increased
(P < 0.05), whereas magnesium (P < 0.05) potassium (P < 0.05) and zinc



123

(P < 0.05) decreased with increase in the amount of DPM in concentrate
mixture, 0 to 40 %. Potassium levels increased after feeding (P < 0.05), but
other blood parameters were approximately constant throughout the sampling
times (Table 14). The effect of lactation and diet upon blood electrolytes have
not been established clearly. Some electrolytes vary with age, herd, breed,
stress, diurnal effects and physiological stage (Rowlands and Manston 1976,
Adams et al. 1978, Lee et al. 1978). Poultry manure contains large amounts of
various minerals and trace elements and the supply of those elements in the
DPM diets was greater than in other diets (Table 8) even though the mineral
supplement in the DPM diet was only half that in the others. The solubility
of minerals in DPM has been reported to bee good (Bull and Reid 1971
McNab et al. 1974, Näsi 1976).

The following correlation coefficients were found between milk production
and blood parameters in Expt. 1; hemoglobin —.269 (P < 0.01), PCV— .347
(P < 0.001), plasma glucose —.243 (P < 0.01), plasma urea-N —.214 (P < 0.01),
plasma proteins —.263 (P < 0.01), uric acid —.148 (P > 0.05) and plasma
calcium —.242 (P < 0.01) and in Expt. 2.; hemoglobin —.234 (P < 0.01),
PCV —.347 (P < 0.001), plasma glucose —.256 (P < 0.01), plasma urea-N

.249 (P < 0.01) plasma proteins —.276 (P < 0.01), uric acid —.132 (P >

0.05) and plasma calcium —.242 (P < 0.01).
The values obtained in hematological and chemical analyses of the blood

samples were within the normal range (Payne et al. 1970, Hewett 1974,
Belyea et al. 1975, Rowlands et al. 1975, Treacher et al. 1976) and the
biological significance of statistical differences is therefore difficult to assess.
Blood metabolites respond to various conditions varying with age, diurnal
effects and physiological stage (Adams et al. 1978, Lee et al. 1978).

Feeding different amounts of broiler litter was not found to have a con-
sistent effect on blood ammonia, blood urea, total red cell numbers and total
and differential white cell numbers in sheep or ewes but a slight copper toxity
was observed in some ewes (Fontenot et al. 1970, Fontenot et al. 1971, a
Webb et al. 1973).

From the values of the various metabolic parameters obtained in this study
can be concluded that dried poultry manure in moderate amounts used as
feed for dairy cows has no detrimental effect on the health or the metabolism
of the animals.

4. 3. Rumen fermentation

The average chemical compositions of the feeds used in the metabolism
trials are given in Table 15, together with the calculated energy and digestible
crude protein values.

The consumption of different feedstuffs and supplies of nutrients are
presented in Table 16.

Rumen fluid pH, rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH 3-N) concentrations and
total volatile fatty acid (VFA) production, molar percentages of various
volatile fatty acids, and ratios of acetic, propionic and buturic acids are presented
in Tables 17 and 18 and in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. The rumen samples



124

Table 15. Compostion of feeds and calculated feed values.

r>rv % in dry matter 1.y Sugars Uric FU/ DCP, g /matter, Ash Crude Ether Crude NFE aci(j jjg
% protein extract fibre

Experiment 1 /

Hay 84.7 6.6 11.0 2.5 32.1 47.8 7.0 0.65 79
Oats 86.7 2.9 14.2 6.8 9.7 66.4 2.0 1.16 117
Barley 87.6 2.5 14.3 1.9 5.0 76.4 3.1 1.16 108
Molasses-beet pulp 86.3 6.8 13.2 0.4 14.6 64.9 24.6 0.97 73
Dried poultry manure 92.4 22.8 31.5 2.2 19.5 24.0 0.7 9.4 0.35 236
Soybean meal 85.6 6.1 53.3 1.0 5.9 33.7 9.1 1.12 485

Experiment 2
Hay 93.2 6.4 9.9 1.1 35.9 46.7 7.0 0.53 57
Oats 90.7 3.3 15.4 5.0 9.8 66.5 2.0 1.07 126
Barley 89.9 2.2 14.0 2.0 4.7 77.0 3.7 1.16 105
Molasses-beet pulp 93.7 7.2 13.7 0.5 14.4 64.2 23.0 0.97 76
Dried poultry manure 94.3 24.8 34.2 1.9 17.1 22.1 0.7 7.2 0.33 309
Soybean meal 93.6 6.6 52.0 0.7 6.2 34.6 10.8 1.11 478

were taken 1,3, 5 and 8 hours after feeding in Expt. 1 and 0.5, 2.5 and 5.5
hours after feeding in Expt. 2, so the results of the trials are not directly
comparable.

The supplementation of DPM in the diet increased the pH of the rumen
fluid slightly, the difference being significant (P < 0.01) when the inclusion
of DPM was 40 %. The increase reflected the increased nitrogen intake and
rumen fluid ammonia-N concentration. The uric acid intake in Expt. 1 was
on average 48, 84 and 206 g and in Expt. 2 46, 76 and 152 g daily, from DPM
inclusions of 10, 20 and 40 % in the concentrate mixture. The total DM intake
was kept constant and crude protein percentages of the different rations were
14.3, 14.2, 14.2, 16.5, 14.6 in Expt. j and 14.1, 13.8, 14.4, 15.9 and 14.7 in
Expt. 2 when supplementation was 0, 10, 20, 40 and 0 % of the concentrate,
respectively. Rumen fluid NH„-N increased with increasing DPM inclusion
because of the higher solubility of the nitrogen components in DPM than in
soybean and consequent higher nitrogen intake in the diet with 40 % DPM.
The differences between rations were significant (P < 0.05, P < 0.01).

Oltjen et ai. (1968) noticed that uric acid was degraded to ammonia in
the rumen more slowly than urea, and after a 2-hour latent period the ammonia
concentration increased for the uric acid source. The same finding was made
here. Koenig et al. (1978) found from data on in vitro cellulose and uric acid
disappearence that the rumen microbes were capable of utilising the uric acid
nitrogen in poultry excreta after a two- to three day adaptation period and that
adapted microbes were capable of degrading uric acid within a 6-hour incu-
bation period. Harmon et al. (1974) and Caswell et al. (1978) reported higher
rumen fluid ammonia concentrations when feeding DPM or processed poultry
litter to sheep compared with control protein, the values being on average



125

Table 16. Consumption of feeds.

SBM DPM SBM DPM SBM DPM SBM DPM SPM DPMDiets
10 %0 % 5%10 % 0%20 % 0%40 % 10 %0 %

Experiment 1
Hay, kg 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1
Oats, kg 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.3 2.1
Barley, kg 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.3 2.1
Molasses-beet pulp, kg 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0. 5
Soybean meal, kg 0.51 0.17 0.51
Dried poultry manure, kg 0.55 1.10 2.24

FU/d 8.6 8.0 7.8 6.9 8.7
DCP, g/d 903 900 931 1099 934
DM, kg/d 10.3 10.4 10.4 10.5 10.2
Crude fibre, g/d 2033 2097 2224 2323 2037
Uric acid, g/d - 48 84 206
Nitrogen, g/d 235 236 237 278 239
Sugars, g/d 642 593 642 547 588

Experiment 2
Hay, kg 5.7 6.1 6.1 5.7 5.0
Oats, kg 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.3 2.0
Barley, kg 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.3 2.0
Molasses-beet pulp, kg 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5
Soybean meal, kg 0.66 0.30 0.51
Dried poultry manure, kg 0,59 1.14 2.15

FU/d 10.0 9.2 8.5 7.1 8.1
DCP, g/d 1250 1208 1226 1330 1032
DM, kg/d 12.0 12.0 11.6 10.8 9.9
Crude fibre, g/d 2620 2701 2698 2591 2147
Uric acid, g/d 46 76 152
Nitrogen, g/d 270 264 268 275 234
Sugars, g/d 774 717 741 564 585

16.0—21.0 mg/100 ml. These correspond with values given by Claesson and
Ahlström (1974) who found rumen fluid ammonia concentrations of 20 mg/
100 ml in beef cattle and 25 mg/100 ml in lactating cows receiving 40 % DPM
in concentrate. The values of the present investigation (19.7—35.9 mg NH 3-N/
100 ml rumen fluid) are in close agreement with all the mentioned values.
Consistently more (P < 0.05) rumen fluid ammonia (NH 3-N) has been observed
by Oltjen and Dinius (1976) in steers fed poultry waste than in steers fed
uric acid or sodium urate. With urea in concentrates, rumen fluid ammonia
nitrogen values of 50—60 mg/100 ml are very common during a long interval
between feeds (Fonnesbeck et al. 1975). High values of 51.0 and 42.7 mg
NH3-N/100 ml have also been found when soybean was replaced with 25 or
50 % poultry litter nitrogen (Bhattacharya and Fontenot 1965).

In vitro experiments likewise suggest that there is no advantage in having
a high ammonia concentration in the rumen fluid. orskov (1977) was unable



126

Table
17.

pH.
ammonia
nitrogen
and
volatile
fatty

acids
in
the
rumenfluid

on
different
diets.
The
values
are
averagesof
different

sampling
times.

Experiment
1

Diets

SBM
10
%

DPM
0
%

SBM
5

%

DPM
10
%

SBM
0

%

DPM
20
%

SBM
0
%

DPM
40
%

SBM
10
%

DPM
0

%

n

x

S.D.

x

S.D,

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

n

18

18

18

18

18

pH

6.19“®
0.28

6.11“®
0.28

6.22»»
0.22

6.45»'
0.10

6.21“»
0.18

NHS
-N,
mg/100
ml

12.4“®

3.5

19.7“®

7.0

20.3“»
14.4

29.2»
f

14.7

13.7“»

9,3

Total
VFA,
mmoles/1

126.7“
10.7

113.2“
10.6

123.4“
14.3

116.5“

7.3

113.0“
13.7

Acetic
acid
molar
%

67.0“»

1.4

70.3®'

2.2

68.5“»ef

1.9

69.1»®®'
1.8

69.5»®®'
1.5

Propionic
acid
molar
%

17.8»c

1.1

16.2“»
2.1

17.1“»c

1.6

18.1°

1.2

15.9“

2.0

Butyric
acid
molar
%

12.7»®'
1.0

11.4“®

2.4

12.6“»®'
1.0

11.3“®

1.2

13.0»®»'
0.8

Isovaleric
acid
molar
%

I.3®'

0.4

0.7“®

0.3

o.9»®®'
0.5

0.7“®

0.4

0.8“®

0.2

Valeric
acid

molar
%

I.2»®®'
0.2

I.4®'

0.4

0.9“»®
0.3

0.9“»®
0.5

0.8“®

0.3

Ratio
acetic:
propionic

3.8“®

0.3

4.4»'

0.6

4.l“»®'
0.5

3.8“°

0.3

4.5»'

0.7

Radio
acetic:
butyric

5.3“®

0.5

6.3®'

0.9

5.5“»®
0.5

6.2»®'

0.8

5.3“®

0.3

Ratio
propionic:
butyric

I.4»®'

0.1

1.5»'

0.3

I.4»®'

0.2

1.6'

0.2

1.2“®

0.2

Table
18.

pH,
ammonia

nitrogen
and
volatile
fatty

acids
in
the

rumenfluid
on

different
diets.
The

values
are
averagesof
different

sampling
times.

Experiment
2. Diets

SBM
10
%

DPM
0
%

SPM
5

%

DPM
10
%

SBM_O
%

DPM
20
%

SBM
0
%

DPM
40
%

SBM
10
%

DPM
0

%

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

x

S.D.

n

18

18

18

18

18

pH

6.50“

0.17

6.49“

0.15

6.50“

0.06

6.55“

0.10

6.50“

0.09

NHS
-N,
mg/100
ml

13.5®

6.6

23.2*

10.2

35.9
1

21.6

28.8»

14.8

16.7®'

10.9

Total
VFA,
mmoles/1

107.8“
8.1

104.5“

6.4

103.1“

9.6

103.8“

9.3

102.6“

8.0

Acetic
acid,
molar
%

67.2®

1.6

68.8'

2.5

71.
2»*

1.7

72.0‘

1.3

69.8'*

0.8

Propionic
acid,
molar
%

18.3'

1.0

18.4'

2.0

16.3®

0.7

15.7®

0.9

18.4'

1.1

Butyric
acid,
molar
%

11.9“®
0.9

H.lbcdgh
0.9

10.8»'*
1.2

10.5»®'
0.7

9.8»®

1.0

Isovaleric
acid,
molar
%

I.7®*

0.4

1.2“®

0.4

1.2“®

0.4

1.2“*

0.4

I.4»'*
0.3

Valeric
acid,
molar
%

o.9®'

0.1

o.6»®'

0.1

0.5“®

0.2

o.6»®'
0.2

o.6»®'
0.1

Ratio
acetic:
propionic

3.7“®

0.3

3.8“®

0.5

4.4»'*

0.2

4.6®*

0.3

3.8“®

0.2

Radio
acetic:
butyric

5.7“®

0.5

6.3»®

0.7

6.7»
cdet

1.0

6.9®
dt

0.6

7.2
d
'*

0.9

Ratio
propionic:
butyric

1.6“®

0.1

I.7»®'

0.2

1.5“®

0.2

1.5“«

0.2

I.9®'*
0.3

Means
with

different
letters

were
significantly

different,

a,
b,
c,
d

(P
<

0.05)
e,
f,

g,
h
,i

(P
<

0.01)



to increase the flow of protein from the rumen in sheep when the ammonia rose
above 8.8 mg/100 ml. Satter and Setter (1973) have found an NH 3-N limit
of 6.3 mg/100 ml above which an increase of bacterial protein synthesis could
not be found. Allen and Miller (1972) observed that the greatest flow of
microbial N from the rumens of lambs fed a high energy low protein diet
supplemented with urea occurred when the NH3-N concentration reached
23.8 mg/100 ml. In fairly protein free rations Hume (1970) found an optimum
NH3-N concentration of 20.4 mg/100 ml in sheep with re-entrant fistula.
Recent measurements of Roffler et al. (1976) have shown a requirement
level of about 5 mg/100 ml. Evidently the optimum ammonia level is higher
with an increasing urea percentage (Kaufmann 1977 a).

Rumen ammonia concentration normally fluctuates reaching a peak
concentration one to two hours after feeding, and then decreasing. It was
found that in cattle fed a minimum of twice daily, with both low and high
protein rations, NH S-N usually fluctuates 2 and 8 mg/ 100 ml between feedings

Fig. 13. pH, NHS-N and
VFA in the rumen fluid
of cows fed different
amounts of DPM, Ex-
periment 1.

127



when fed to maintain a mean concentration of 5 mg (Satter and Roffler
1977 b).

It is unclear if the inclusion of DPM causes differences in the total VFA
production of the diets. The refusal of diet 5 in Expt. 2 for the concentrate
mixture was 25 %, which led to some marked anomalies in the results.

Acetic acid as a molar % was statistically significantly (P < 0.05, P < 0.01)
increased With the increasing DPM supplementation, while propionic and
butyric acid were decreased. The ratio of acetic to propionic acid increased
statistically significantly in Expt. 2 and partially in Expt. 1 (P < 0.01). Ratios
of acetic to butyric and propionic to butyric acid were not linear with amount
of DPM supplementation and showed no conclusive trends.

Rumen fluid total VFA concentration has been found to increase with
feeding of DPM steers (Cullison et al. 1976) and sheep (Smith and Calvert
1976), though not in all trials (Caswell et al. 1975, 1978). The higher con-
centrations of VFA may have been the result of an increased buffering capacity

Fig. 14. pH, NH3-N and
VFA in the rumen fluid
of cows fed different
amounts of DPM, Ex-
periment 2.

128



129

provided by the higher asli content of the diet containing DPM (Smith and
Calvert 1976).

The acetic acid molar percentage has been raised in trials of diets containing
DPM made by Caswell et al. (1975) and Smith and Calvert (1976), but not
in trials made by Cullison et al. (1976). Butyric acid has also been lowered
by the inclusion of DPM in the diet of cows (Smith and Calvert 1976). Both
these trends were observed in the present study. Molar percentages of volatile
fatty acids in the rumen fluid of animals fed rations containing DPM were
similar to those normally observed for high roughage rations. The roughage to
concentrate ratio was 50:50 on a dry matter basis in all of the present rations.

The figures for composition and volume of rumen microbes are given in
Tables 19 22. The ciliates found in the rumen fluid of the experimental animals
represented 13 different species but not all species were found in every sample.
Of the 18 samples 1,4, 3 and 1 were found to be defaunated when DPM inclusion
was 0, 10, 20 and 40 % respectively. The genus Entodinium was found in largest
numbers in the rumen fluid from every treatment. The numbers of total cil-
iates were increased with the increasing amount of DPM in the ration, but
the differences between diets were not significant (P > 0.05). By comparison,
the number of bacteria decreased significantly (P < 0.05). The numbers of
Entodinium vorax increased significantly (P < 0.05) and E. dilohum increased
(P < 0.01) when DPM replaced soybean in the diet.

The number of total ciliates was higher (P < 0.05) 0.5 hours after feeding
than at the two subsequent sampling times. The differences in the numbers

Table 19. The mean number of ciliates (n x 103) and bacteria (n x 109 ) cells per ml rumen
content on different diets.

SBM 10 % SBM 5 % SBM 0 % SBM 0 %

DPM 0 % DPM 10 % DPM 20 % DPM 40 %
Diets

Total ciliates 248a 302a 43la 343a

Holotrichs 54a 86a 83a 70a

Isotricha prostoma 12a 33a 30a 31 a

Dasytricha ruminantum 41 a 53a 53a 39a

Entodiniomorphs 194 a 216a 348 a 273 a

Entodinium dubardi 28a 40a 58a 36a

E. caudatum 54a 54a 37a 58a

E. vorax 9a 18 b 12ab 14ab

E. longinucleatum 31 a 37a 91 b 43a

E. dilohum 6 C 16 d 10cd 17d

E. triacum 38 b 26ab 19a 40 b

E. rostratum 6a 0a 100c 19a

E. minimun 7a 5a 15c 6a

Eudiplodinium medium ll b 14be 4ad 9 ab

E. affine la 5a 2a 29d

Ostracosinium granite 2 a 0a 0a 2a

Bacteria 37b 29 ab 30ab 26a

Means with different letters were significantly different,
a, b (P < 0.05), c, d (P < 0.01)



130

of Holotrichs were not significant but the numbers of Entodiniomorphs were
higher (P < 0.05) 0.5 hour after feeding. Numbers of bacteria were higher 0.5
hours after feeding than after 5.5 hours and 2.5 hours (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05,
respectively).

Table 20. The mean number of ciliates (n x 103) and bacteria (n x 109 ) cells per ml rumen
content of different diets at different sampling times after feeding.

Time after feeding
0.5 hours 2.5 hours 5,5 hours

Total ciliates 422 b 313“ 306a

Holotrichs 98a 61 a 59a

Isotricha prostoma 36a 18a 21a

Dasytricha ruminantum 62a 43a 38a

Entodiniomorphs 324 b 252a 247a

Entodinium dubardi 55a 35a 35a

E. caudatum 70 b 47 a 43a

E. vorax 18bd 13ab ll ac

E. longinucleatum 54a 45a 48a

E. dilobum 15a lla 12a

E. triacum 38a 31 a 29a

E. rostratum 41a 44a 38a

E. minimum 10a 7a 8a

Eudiplodinium medium 9a 9a ll a

E. affine 12 a 9 a 10a

Ostracosinium granite .... 2a la 2a

Bacteria 36 bd 30 ab 25ac

Means with different letters were significantly different,
a, b (P < 0.05); c, d (P < 0.01)

The numbers of various species of ciliates varied between samples and
diets and in some samples ciliates were completely lacking. It has been shown
in many experiments that even in animals given the same dietary and environ-
mental treatment the rumen microbial populations may differ greatly both
quantitatively and qualitatively (Hungate 1966) and temporal variation may
be marked (Eadie et al. 1970).

Statistically significant (P > 0.05) differences between the present diets
were not found in either the volume of ciliates or bacteria mass. The vari-
ability in individual samples was quite large, however. The differences in total
volume of the microbial mass between sampling times were not statistically
significant (P > 0.05).

The proportion of the total volume of the microbe mass in the rumen
content (Tables 21 and 22) was found to be on average 4.0 % and 4.4, 4.0, 4.0
and 3.7 % when DPM was 0, 10, 20 and 40 % of the concentrate mixture. The
corresponding values at 0.5, 2.5 and 5.5 hours after feeding were 4.9, 3.8 and
3.5 %, respectively.



131

Table 21. Total volume of microbe mass of rumen content on different diets (/i 3 x 107) per ml
rumen content.

Dietg 1 SBM 10% 2 SBM 5 % 0 3 SBM O % 0/ 4 SBM O %

DPM O %
70 DPM 10 %

° DPM 20 %
70 DPM 40 %

°

Total ciliates 674 15.5 1 179 29.2 1 047 25.9 1 056 28,6
Holotrichs 248 438 403 369
Entodiniomorphs 441 740 643 710

Bacteria 3 684 84.5 2 863 70.8 2 994 74.1 2 642 71.4
Total volume 4 359 4 042 4 041 3 698

Table 22. Total volume of microbe mass of rumen content at different sampling time (/i3 x 107)

per ml rumen content.

Sampling times after feeding
0.5 hours % 2.5 hours % 5.5 hours %

Total ciliates 1 269 26.0 849 22.5 894 25.6
Holotrichs 491 297 333
Entodiniomorphs 808 565 561

Bacteria 3 605 74.0 2 932 77.5 2 601 74.4
Total volume 4 874 3 781 3 495

The bacteria proportion on the different diets averaged 75.3 % and that
of ciliates 24.7 % of the total microbial volume. DPM supplementation lowered
the bacterial volume of the total volume and the volume of ciliates was higher.
These volumes corresponds to the numbers of ciliates and bacteria with the
different diets. The cell numbers and total cell volumes corresponded on the
different diets.

The numbers of total ciliates found in this study were much lower than
those found by Syrjälä et ai. (1978) in a study with cows fed skimmilk powder
as protein supplement. Their values varied from 767 to 1723 x 103 cells/ml
rumen fluid. The numbers of bacteria were comparable. Milk protein is much
more soluble than soybean meal (Kaufmann 1977 a), so protein synthesis is
higher in the rumen.

On a restricted grain ration Coleman (1975) reported that each ml of rumen
liquor contained the following volumes of protozoa: Epidinia 0.03 ml, Entodinia
0.07 ml, Isotrichs 0.05 ml and medium sized protozoa 0.03 ml. The volume
occupied by the bacteria was only 0.03 ml, corresponding to 20 % of the total
volume of the micro-organisms. In this study the volume of bacteria was
comparable, and the volume of protozoa was much lower; the protozoa con-
stituted only about 25 % of the total microbe mass.

On some special diets, such as those with a high urea content, all ciliates
may be lacking (Virtanen 1966, Mäkinen 1972). Oltjen et ai. (1966) have
reported that the ruminal ingesta of cattle fed purified diets are frequently
devoid of protozoa and have increased bacterial populations. When protein
free diets are used the protozoa disappear from the rumen and the number of
bacteria increases (Virtanen 1971). With using uric acid or DPM as nitrogen
source there is no observations of the effect on the microbial population.



132

5. General conclusions

The shortage and cost of conventional protein supplemenst for ruminant
diets is forcing producers to look for alternative raw materials. In this context
there is interest in dried poultry manure, although part of this interest also
stems from the need to find ways of disposing of droppings from intensive
poultry production systems.

The composition of poultry excreta is highly variable, depending upon
the ingredients of the diet of the birds and the environmental conditions under
which the droppings are kept. The nature of the dehydrating process signifi-
cantly affects the composition, moisture content, texture and odour of the
resulting product.

Poultry excreta contains considerable amounts of crude protein, on average
30 % in DM. NPN is the major portion of the total nitrogen in DPM, the
main NPN component being uric acid which constitutes 20 to 60 % of the
total nitrogen. Rumen microorganisms are capable of efficient utilisation of
uric acid as a nitrogen source. In terms of protein and amino acids, DPM is
broadly equivalent to a cereal such as barley.

The primary deficiency of DPM is the low energy value (0.34—0.35 FU/kg
DM): for the large amounts of manure necessary to meet energy needs would
make the ration too bulky. The FU-value of the present isonitrogenous con-
centrate mixture containing 20 % DPM was 13 % lower than the soybean
meal and urea mixtures. The ash content and mineral value of DPM were high.

The feed intake was equal in all groups but due to the lower energy value
of the concentrate mixture including the DPM the energy requirement of cows
in the first part of the experiment could not be met. The intake of the con-
centrate mixture with DPM, as a percentage of the offered ration, was lower
than with soybean or urea. Adaptation periods of I—3 weeks were necessary
before maximal levels of intakes of rations containing DPM were achieved.

| The DM digestibility of rations including DPM was 23 %-units lower
than other rations. There were no significant differences between the protein
sources in the milk production, milk constituents, or the composition of the
milk. On average there were only small differences in the milk production
and milk composition of the two experiments. This may be due to sample
size and variation among the cows. Energy and protein utilisation was better
in the DPM group in the second trial.

Urea had only limited value for high producing cows during early lactation
as the degradation of dietary plant protein of the diets supplied adequate
ammonia for maximal microbial synthesis. The peak yields of cows receiving
urea was lower than of cows fed DPM or SBM. The utilisation of NPN from
DPM is not very efficient in high yielding dairy cows.

The values obtained in hematological and blood chemical analyses of the
blood samples were within the normal range, and the biological significance
of statistical differences is therefore difficult to asses. There was a positive
relationship between blood urea nitrogen and the total amount of dietary
crude protein in excess of requirements, regardless of the protein supplement
used. From the values of the various blood metabolic parameters one can



133

conclude that DPM in moderate amounts has no detrimental effects on the
health of dairy cows.

The different treatments had no marked effects on the rumen fermentation
except for the concentration of ammonia-N of rumen fluid which was increased
with increasing DPM in the ration. The molar percentage of acetic acid of
total VFA amount increased and propionic acid and butyric acid decreased,
when DPM inclusion increased.

The numbers of ciliates increased and bacteria decreased with greater DPM
inclusion. Likewise the proportion of ciliate mass increased and bacteria mass
decreased. The total volume of microbial mass was about 10—2O % higher
with the SBM than the DPM diet. Nitrogen was in excess relative to energy
with the DPM diet and the utilisation of ammonia was not as efficient.

The results obtained serve further to indicate that dried poultry manure
in combination with feed produced on the farm can replace a great part of the
vegetable protein feed supplement for high yielding dairy cows, and urea may
be beneficial as a supplement in high-energy low-protein diets such as grain
concentrate feeds. Higher milk yields may be expected with conventional
protein supplementation.

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Webb, K. E. & Fontenot, J. P. 1975. Medical drug residues in broiler litter and tissues from
cattle fed litter. J. Anim. 41: 1212 1217.
,

Phillips, W. A., Liebke, K. G., Harmon, B. W. & Fontenot, J. P. 1973. Different
levels of broiler litter in ewe eations. J. Anim. Sci. 36: 218.

Wehunt, K. E., Fuller, H. L. & Edwards, H. M., Jr. 1960. The nutritional value of hy-
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Wilkinson, S. R. 1979. Plant nutrient value and economic value of animal waste. J. Anim.
Sci. 48: 121-133.

Virtanen, A. I. 1966. Milk production of cows on a protein free feed. Science 153: 1603 1614.
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142

Wittenburg, H. & Chudy, A. 1967. Zur Analytik von Hiihnerexkrementen. Arch. Geflugelk.
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Vogt, H. 1973. Gefliigeltrockenkot im Legehennenfutter. Arch. Geflugelk. 37:141 147.
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Vuori, A. T. & Näsi, J. M. 1977. Fermentation of poultry manure for poultry diets. Br.
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Young, R. J. & Nesheim, M. C. 1972. Dehydrated poultry waste as a feed ingredient. Proc.
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5; 95.

SELOSTUS

Kananlanta lypsylehmien rehuna

Matti Näsi
Helsingin yliopisto, kotieläintieteen laitos

Suoritetussa tutkimuksessa selvitettiin kuivatun kananlannan käyttöä runsastuottoisten
lypsylehmien valkuaislähteenä vertaamalla sitä soijaan ja ureaan väkirehuvaltaisella ruokin-
nalla. Edelleen tutkittiin kananlantaruokinnan vaikutusta rehuyhdistelmän sulavuuteen,
veriarvoihin ja pötsifermentaatioon.

Kahtena peräkkäisenä vuonna suoritettiin ruokintakoe 18 runsastuottoisella lehmällä,
jotka oli jaettu kolmeen mahdollisimman samanarvoiseen ryhmään. Perusrehuna oli heinä ja
väkirehuseosta annettiin tuotostason mukaisesti. Eri ryhmien väkirehuseoksen valkuaislisäyk-
senä oli 20 °„ kuivattua kananlantaa, 10 % soijarouhetta ja 1.5 % ureaa. Vertailukausi oli
ensimmäisessä kokeessa 13 viikkoa ja toisessa kokeessa 15 viikkoa. Kokeissa määritettiin
rehujen maittavuus, rehunkulutus ja rehun hyväksikäyttö, maitotuotos ja maidon koostumus
sekä seurattiin eläinten terveydentilaa.

Kokeessa käytetyn kananlannan energia-arvo oli alhainen, 0.34 0.35 ry/kg ka, mutta
valkuaisväkevyys oli korkea, 400 709 g srv/kg .Virtsahappoa oli kokeessa 1 käytetyssä kanan-
lannassa keskimäärin 9.5 %, kun taas kokeessa 2 huomattavasti vähemmän, 1.2 % ka. Ka-
nanlannan tuhkapitoisuus oli korkea sekä kivennäiskoostumus monipuolinen; kalsiumia 5.6
6.9 %ja fosforia 1,8 2.6 %. Kananlantaa sisältävän väkirehuseoksen energia-arvo oli 13 %

alempi kuin soijaa tai ureaa sisältävän seoksen. Kananlantaa sisältävän väkirehuseoksen syönti
ilmaistuna prosentteina tarjotusta oli merkitsevästi alhaisempi kuin toisten seosten, ja tästä
johtuen kananlantaryhmän energiavajaus oli suurempi kuin toisten varsinkin kokeen alku-
puolella. Kokeen alussa syönti oli alhaisinta, johtuen suurista väkirehumääristä. Keskimää-
räinen kananlannan syönti oli 1.9 ja 2.0 kg päivässä lehmää kohti kokeessa 1 ja 2. Vastaavasti
virtsahapon syönti oli 186 kg ja 24 g päivässä. Kananlannasta tulevan sulavan raakavalkuai-
sen osuus oli 29.0 % ja 19.0 % kokonaismääräistä kokeessa 1 ja 2. Urean saanti oli keskimäärin
140 g päivässä. Karkearehu-väkirehusuhde oli kokeessa 1 36 % ;64 % ja kokeessa 2 39 % :

61 %. Energian ja valkuaisen saanti ei poikennut merkitsevästi ryhmien välillä. Kuiva-aineen



143

syönti oli kokeessa 2 kananlantaa saaneella ryhmällä suurempi kuin soijaa ja ureaa saaneilla
ryhmillä. Kananlantaryhmän lehmät saivat rehuista enemmän kuitua, mutta vähemmän
sokeria kuin toiset ryhmät. Useimpia kivennäisiä kananlantaryhmän lehmät saivat enemmän
johtuen kananlannan sisältämistä korkeista kivennäismääristä.

Eri rehuyhdistelmien kuiva-aineen sulavuudet olivat 69.9 %, 72.0 % ja 74.0 % kananlantaa,
soijaa ja ureaa sisältävillä seoksilla. Raakavalkuaisen sulavuudet olivat vastaavasti 72.3 %,

71.8 % ja 75.9 %. Erot kananlanta- ja ureaseosten välillä olivat merkitseviä (P < 0.05).
Eri ryhmien maitotuotosten tai maidon koostumuksen välillä ei ollut merkitseviä eroja.

Maitotuotoksen lasku oli kokeessa 1 kananlantaryhmällä nopeampaa (P < 0.05) kuin toisilla
ryhmillä. Elopainon muutosten välillä ei ollut merkitseviä eroja. Rehun hyväksikäytössä eri
ryhmien välillä kokeen 1 osalta ei ollut eroja, mutta kokeessa 2 kananlantaryhmä kulutti vä-
hemmän energiaa ja sulavaa raakavalkuaista tuotettua maitokiloa kohti.

Verianalyysien perusteella selvitettiin lehmien aineenvaihdunnan muutoksia ja ravitsemuk-
sellista tilaa. Lisäksi selvitettiin kananlannan typellisten yhdisteiden ja kivennäisaineiden käyt-
tökelpoisuutta, Saaduista tuloksista voidaan todeta, ettei kananlannan syöttäminen koh-
tuullisella tasolla (10—40 % väkirehuseoksesta) aiheuttanut haitallisia muutoksia lehmien ai-
neenvaihduntaan tai terveydellisen tilaan ja saadut arvot vastasivat normaaliarvoja.

Pötsifistelöidyillä lehmillä tutkittiin kananlannan typellisten yhdisteiden hajoamista pöt-
sissä sekä kananlannanvaikutusta pötsifermentaatioon. Kokeessa käytettiin soijaa vertailuval-
kuaisena ja kananlannan määrä vaihteli 10, 20 ja 40 % väkirehuseoksesta. Pötsinesteen am-
moniakin määrä nousi kananlannan määrän noustessa. Etikkahapon osuus lisääntyi ja pro-
pionihapon ja voihapon osuudet vähentyivät rasvahappojen kokonaismäärästä, kun kananlan-
nan määrä lisääntyi. Pötsin alkueläinten määrä oli suurempi ja bakteerien määrä pienempi
kananlantaruokinnalla verrattuna soijaan.

Suoritetuissa ruokintakokeissa todettiin runsastuottoisten lehmien pystyvän käyttämään
hyväkseen kananlantaa valkuaislähteenä lähes yhtä hyvin kuin soijaa ja paremmin kuin ureaa.
Kananlannan typellisten yhdisteiden tehokkaan hyväksikäytön edellytyksenä on riittävä
energiansaanti, johon päästään runsaalla väkirehuruokinnalla.



144

Appendix 1. Chemical composition of dehydrated poultry manure (DPM), poultry litter and
broiler litter.

Camposition of Poultry manure
dry matter, % mean range

ri i-i. Tii BroilerPoultry litter
littermean range
mean

Crude protein 28.3 15.2-42.1 25.3 19.6-32.3 43.9
True protein 10.8 8.1-12.9 16.6 12,9-21.8 24.8
Crude fibre 13.1 10.0-19.3 18.7 11.2-23.9 16.8
Ether extract 2.0 0.0-3.0 2.3 1.7-3.1 3.3
NFE 31.7 25.1-45.1 29.5
Ash 25.8 18.8-40.8 14.1 13.4-14.9 25.8
Uric acid 7.1 2.8-12.7 8.5
Ammonia 0.7 0.4 —1.2
Lignin 6.6 5.7 —7.4 8.0
Calcium 7.8 4.9-12.5 2.5 1.8-3.2 2.4
Phosporus 2.2 1.7—2.8 1,6 1.2—2.5 1.8
Magnesium 0.63 0.4—l.O 0.42 0.44
Sodium 0.42 0.1-1.0 1.77 0.54
Potassium 1.37 0.8-2.1 0.35 0.33-0,38
Iron 0.2 001-0.4 0.02
Copper 0.006 0.003-0.01 0.009 0.009
Manganese 0.029 0.019 0.041 0.028
Zinc 0.032 0.021-0.045 0.022
Alanine 0.83 0.61 1.06 0.88 0.92
Arginine 0.48 0.38 0.61 0.51 0.66
Aapartic acid 1.03 1.22 0.71 1.22 1.29
Cystine 0.27 0.18-0.53 0.09 0.41
Glutamic acid 1.38 1.66 1.11 2.19 2.03
Glysine 1.18 0.66-1.91 2,14 2.35
Histidine 0.24 0.21-0.30 0.24 0.27
Isoleucine 0.43 0.36 0.46 0.64 0.55
Leucine 0.70 0.55-0.76 1.00 0.98
Lysine 0.49 0.39-0,60 0.57 0.65
Methionine 0.15 0.12-0.21 0.13 0.19
Phenylalanine 0.39 0.35 0.45 0,54 0.59
Proline 0.47 0.93 0.66
Serine 0.50 0.38-0.62 0.57 0.78
Threonine 0.46 0.35-0.53 0.570.70
Tyrosine 0.30 0.27-0.34 0.330.47
Valine 0.67 0.46-0.83 0.820.71

Based on the data of

Wehunt et ai. (1960), Brugman et ai. (1964), Bhattacharya and Fontenot (1965), Quisen-
berry and Bradley (1969), Flegal and Zindel (1970), Fontenot et ai. (1971 b), Kiefer
(1971) Perez-Aleman et ai. (1971), Polin et ai. (1971), Poppe and Grugel (1971), Biely et ai.
(1972) Lee and Blair (1972), Nesheim (1972), Blair and Knight (1972 a), Shannon et ai.
(1973) Vogt (1973), Harnisch (1974), McNab ei ai. (1974), Bhattacharya and Taylor

(1975), Salo et ai. (1975), NÄsi (1976), Vuori and NÄsi (1977), Evans et ai. (1978 a).



145

Appendix. 2. Compilation of results of practical feeding experiments with dehydrated poultry manure to
dairy cows.

No of ex- Period of Percent of Milk yield, kg
perimental experiment DPM in Control DPM NPN Deficient Reference

cows week concentrate ration ration

35 12 30 % 21.1 21.7 22.4 19.5 Thomas and Zindel (1971)
30 12 30,2 % 19.6 20.6 21.5 18.4 Thomas et al. (1972)
22 15 39 % 16.0 16.2 Claesson and Ahlström (1974)
23 15 40 % 15.8 15.6 Ahlström (1974)
14 20 % 11.4 10,7 Kneale and Garstang (1975)
16 20 % 15.3 16.0 15.3 »

48 10;20 % 11.7 12.4;11.6 11.7 »

24 4 10 % 21.2 20.6 Silva et al. (1976)
20;30 % 17; 1 13,9 »

24 13 32 % 17.1 15.4 Smith et al. (1976)
18 8 20;40 % 21.3 21.3;22.6 Kristensen et al. (1976)
45 7 20;40 % 20.2 19.1;19.0 »

63 6 20;40 % 18.5 18.6;18.0 *

24 32 17.2;26.0 % 17.2 18.0;16.7 15.1 Calvert and King (1977)



146

Appendix
3. Hematological

and
blood
chemical
data
from

cows
fed

different
amounts
of

dehydrated
poultry

manureat
different

sampling
times

after
feeding.

Time,
h

SBM
10
%

SBM
5

%

SBM
0
%

SBM
0

%

SBM
10
%

after

1.
DPM
0
%

2.
DPM
10
%

3.
DPM
20
%

4.
DPM
40
%

5.
DPM
0
%

feeding

x

SD.

x

SIX

x

SIX

x

SD.

x

S.D.

Hemoglobin
0.5

12.3“»

0.70
12.1“»

0.52

11.7
ab

0.42

11.7»"

0.78

10.4»»
0.65

g/100
ml

2.5

11.9“

0.54
12.0“

0.60

11.1»

0.80

11.2»

0.71

11.7“»
0.63

5.5

11.9“

1.10

12.1“

0.43

11.3»

0.62

11.6“»

0.79

11.7“»
0.36

PCV,
%

(73

36.7“»

TTÖ

36.7“»

X25

34.7“»

(494

33,7»»»

XBÖ

(750

2.5

35.8“»

0.69

34.8“»»“
0.69

34.3»»
0.74

33.8»»»'
1.21

33.3»'

0.94

5.5

35.8“

2.11

35.0“

0.82

34.2“

1.33

34.5“

0.76

33.8“

1.34

Plasma

~
0.5

3.62“

(731

3.33“

Ö96

3.20“

0.50

3.67“

(423

3.40“

(418

glucose,

2.5

3.32“»»
e

0.15

3.38“»»»
0.41

2.95“»
0.46

3.38“»»“
'

0.17

3.85»

0.28

mmol/1

5.5

3.52“

0.12

3.42“

0.51

3.00“

0.98

3.75“

0.31

3.87“

0.17

Plasma

(45

5.50“

(46Ö

5.72“

(465

5.23»

(474

5.57“

(426

5.75“

(449

urea-N

2.5

5.72“

0.54

6.00“

0.78

5.47“

0.72

5.75“

0.38

5.67“

0.64

mmol/1

5.5

5.08“

0.43

5.68“

0.78

4.80“

0.47

5.53“

0.39

4.98»

0.80

Plasma

(45

86.1“

23

84.4“

23

85.9“

Z285.6“

13

85.1“

<75~

proteins,

2.5

84.3»

3.0

83.9“

3.2

85.4“

1.4

86.0“

1.0

84.9“

1.1

g/1

5.5

85.0“

2.8

84.6“

1.8

84.8»

1.5

84.4“

1.5

84.6»

2.4

Inorganic

(45

'
1.84“

(U32.32“

(443

2.12“

(422

2.10“

(424

2.09“

OTT

phosphorus,
2.5

1.95“

0.24

2.21“

0.71

2.12“

0.18

2.18“

0.25

1.96“

0.11

mmol/1

5.5

1.80“

0.09

1.91“»

0.20

1.77“

0.16

2.29»

0.70

1.99“»
0.16

Calcium,

(45

2.10“

(451

2.50“

(713

2.48“

(417

2.57“

ÖTB

2.33“

(405

mmol/1

2.5

2.38“

0.27

2.22“

0.17

2.48“

0.21

2.55“

0.16

2.32“

0.07

5.5

2.13“

0.54

2.50“

0.35

2.50“

0.19

2.53»

0.09

2.37“

0.11

Magnesium,
(45

0.90“

(421

1.05“

(409

1.03»

(408

1.06“

(411

0.92“

(409

mmol/1

2.5

0.99“

0.17

0.97“

0.14

1.07“

0.11

1.00“

0.08

0.95“

0,08

5.5

0.86“

0.19

1.05“

0.16

1.09“

0.12

0.98“

0.05

0.96“

0.11

Sodium,

(45

118.0»»»
43

111.8“»
123

117.6»»»
(75

131.2»»
IXS

127.3»»
31

mml/1

2.5

114
2“»

4.0

121.0“»»»
5.9

124.8»»»
4.3

127.3»»
5.8

127.5»»
7.4

5.5

117
2“

10.5

116.0“

2.7

125.3“

1.8

116.0»

21.6

126.0“

9.9

Potassium
(73

3.50“

(486

4.03“»

(418

4.32“»
(427

4.55»

(431

4.15“»
Öl5

mmol/1

2.5

4.50“

0.77

4.20“

0.47

4.46“

0.19

4.50“

0.31

4.52“

0.19

5.5

3.92“

1.08

4.52»

0.94

4.77“

0.35

4.47“

0.14

4.67“

0.34

Iron,

(45

20.0“»

X419.4“»«
23

17.3“»»»'
13

14.3»'

(75

15.6»»'
13

amol/1

2.5

19.6“»»

4.0

20.5“»

1.9

17.7“»»»
2.6

15.4»»

1.1

14.9»»
0.9

5.5

18.4“»

3.3

18.7»

1.5

18.8“»
3.8

15.5“»

1
1

14.2»

1.0

Copper

(45

10.7“»

O

8.9»»»

(46

8.U»»»
1

(7?

7.9»»»'

(73

7.7»'

(45

Mmol/1

2.5

10.4“»

0.8

9.1“»»»
0.8

8.1»»»'
1.0

8.5“»»

0.6

7.8»'

0.3

5.5

10.4“»

1.1

8.9»»»'
0.6

8.5»»»'
0.6

8.1»»»'
0.7

7.7»'

0.6

Zinc,

(73

11.6“»»»
23

7.2»»»'
X46.6»'

23

13.1“»

IX7

1(71“»»»
31)

«mol/I

2.5

11.2“

4.8

7.6»

1.9

9.0“»

3.9

11.4“

9.3

10.3“»
6.7

'

X510.5“»

53

73»

2
A

8.4“»

53

11.1“

73

10.3“»
6.2



Appendix 4.

pH, ammonia nitrogen and volatile fatty acids in the rumen fluid on different diets and different sampling times.
Experiment 1.

Molar % Molar ratio
Time, h NHS-N Total

Diets after pH mg/ VFA Acetic Propionic ButyricValeric Iso- Acetic/ Acetic/ Propionic/
feeding 100 ml mmol/1 aclc* acid acid acid valeric propionic butyric butyric

acid

1 3 6.25» 15.6»» 127.9»» 67.2»
SBM 10 % 5 5.95» 8.6 d 133.3» 66.7»
DPM 0 % 8 6.37» 13.1»» 119.2» 67.2»

2 3 6.10» 26.2» 108.7» 69.6»
SBM 5 % 5 5.89» 18.0»d 120.0» 69.8»
DPM 10 % 8 6.33» 15.0»d 111,9» 71,4»

3 3 6.29» 35.9 d 119.0» 67.4»
SBM 0 % 5 6.25» 16.3» 124.3» 70.0»
DPM 20 % 8 6.13» B.B' 126.8» 68.2»

4 3 6.47» 35.7» 115.3» 68.1»
SBM 0 % 5 6,39» 23.1» 115.1» 69.2»
DPM 40 % 8 6.48» 28.9» 119.2» 70.0»

5 3 6.24» 26.1» 109.5“ 68.7»
SBM 10 % 5 6.21» 10.9»d 109.1» 69.3»
DPM 0 % 8 6.20» 8.1» d 119.2» 70.3»

17.5a 12.5“ 1.4a 3.8“ 3.8 a 5.2» 1.4»
17.8» 13.1“ 1.2“» 1.2» 3.8“ 5.1“ 1.4»
18.1» 12.3» 1.0»d 1.4» 3.7“ 5.5» 1.4»
17.3» 10.5» 1.8»* 0.8» 4.1» 6.7“ 1.7“
15.5» 12.7» 1.5»* 0.6» 4.6» 5.9» 1.3»
15.8“ 11.1» 0.9 d 0.8» 4.6» 6.4“ 1.4“
17,2» 13.1» 1.2» 1.2“ 4.0» 5.2» 1.3»
16.6» 11.9» 0.8» 0.7» 4.3“ 5.9» 1.4»
17.5» 12.7» 0.8» 0.9» 3.9» 5.4“» 1.4»
18.8“ 11.5“ 1.0» 0.6“ 3.6» 6.0» 1.7»
17.7» 11.3» 1.0“ 0.8“ 3.9“ 6.2» 1.6»
17.7» 11.0» 0.6» 0.7» 4.0“ 6.4» 1.6»
15.8» 13.6» 1.2» 0.8“ 4.5» 5.1“ 1.2“
16.0» 13.2» 0,8» 0.7» 4.4» 5.2» 1.2»
15.7» 12.5“ 0.6» 0.9» 4.6“ 5.6» 1.3»

Appendix 5.

pH, ammonia and volatile fatty acids in the rumen fluid on different diets and different sampling times.
Experiment 2.

Molar % Molar ratio
Time, h NHS-N Total

Diets after pH mg VFA Acetic Propionic Butyric Valeric Iso- Acetic/ Acetic/ Propionic/
feeding 100 ml mmol/1 ucid acid acid acid valeric propionic buytric butyric

acid

1 0.56.55» 21.7 d 105.9» 65.7 d

SBM 0 % 2.56.38» 10.2»» 109.2» 67.9»c
DBM 0 % 5.56.57» 8.6»» 108.5» 68.4»»

2 0.56.52» 32.3» 104.3» 66.7» d

SBM 5 % 2.56.44» 20.9» 106,5» 68.7»»
DBM 10 % 5.56.51» 16.4» 102.8» 71.0»»

3 0.56.51» 55.6» 105.5» 69.6 d

SBM 0 % 2.56.48» 26.1» 102.3» 71.3»»
DPM 20 % 5.56.51» 26.1» 101.6» 72.8»»

4 0.56.54» 44.8 d 106.2» 70.7»d

SBM 0 % 2.56.52» 29.5» 104.1» 71.7» d

DPM 40 % 5.56.59» 12.2' 101.2» 73.4»
5 0.56.51»» 30.l d 99,0“ 69.2» d

SBM 10 % 2.56.42» 9.1*» 104.1» 69.6»»
PM 0 % 5.56.56 a 10.8ae 104.8a 70.5»»

18.7a 12.6d 0.9a 2.0»d 3.5a 5.2 d 1.5a

18.3a 11.3* I.oa 1.4»* 3.7a 6.0* 1.6a

17,8a 11.4a * 0.8a I.6 ab 3.9a 6.0* 1.6a

19.3a 11.8a 0.6a 1.6 d 3.5a 5.7 ad 1.7a

18.6a 11.0a » 0.6a l.l a* 3.7a» 6.3» d 1.7a

17.2» 10.4» 0.5a 0.9»* 4.1» 6.9** 1.7a

16.5a 11.8a 1.6a 1.6d 4.2a 5.9 ad 1.4a

16.4a 10.6a » 0.7a 1.0a * 4.3a» 6.8» d 1.6a

15.9a 10.0» 0.4» o,9 a * 4.6» 7.4* 1.6a

15.8a 11.la 0.7a 1.7d 4.5 d 6.4ad 1.4a

15.9a 10.5a » 0.7» 1.l a * 4.5a 6.9a»* 1.5a

15.3a 10.0» 0.5a 0.8»* 4.8a 7.4»* 1.5a

17.9a 10.4a 0.7a 1.8d 3.9a 6.7a 1.7a

191 a 9.4a 0.7a I.2ac 3.7a 7.5a 2.1 a

18.2a 9.5a 0.5» 1.3ac 3.9a 7.5a 1.9a

147



Appendix 6.

The mean number of ciliate (n x 103) and bacteria (n x 109) cells per ml rumen content on different diets.

Diets
Time after feeding h

Total ciliates 248 247 245 351
Holotrichs 56 48 59 73
Isotricha prostoma 13 9 15 21
Dasytricha ruminantam ... 42 39 44 52
Entodiniomorphs 192 199 186 278
Entodinum dubardi 26 28 28 71
E. caudalum 61 56 48 87
E. vorax 13 10 7 21
E. longinucleatum 31 32 31 31
E. dilobum 8 6 4 16
E. triacum 30 43 36 22
E. rostratum 4 6 7 1
E. minimum 8 6 7 5
Eudiplodinum medium 7 10 15 9
E. affine 1 1 I 14
Ostracosinum granite 2 12 0
Bacteria 39 37 33 34

SBM DPM SBM DPM SBM DPM SBM DPM
10 % 0 % 5 % 10 % 0 % 20 % 0 % 40 %0 % 40 %

0.5 2.2 5.5 0.5 2.5 5.5 0.5 2.5 5.5 0.5 2.5 5.5

257 316 725 366 349 410 334 344
91 89 171 66 55 72 51 70
26 44 64 18 25 45 22 21
65 46 106 49 30 57 29 39

166 226 555 299 294 338 283 274
23 35 94 46 51 50 32 36
42 45 63 31 31 70 60 58
18 18 20 12 8 20 13 14
24 51 148 75 79 61 40 43
16 16 16 9 9 19 16 17
23 31 37 17 15 55 41 40

0 0 143 84 84 16 34 19
3 5 25 13 13 7 5 6

13 17 6 4 4 12 7 9
4 7 2 1 2 26 34 29
0 1 1 2 0 2 2 2

30 23 39 33 24 33 23 24

148