agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p128 128 published by ideas spread potentials of cow dung ash as protectants of cowpea seeds against callosobruchus maculatus f. (coleoptera: chrysomelidae) mohammed suleiman1 & fatima m. haruna1 1 department of biology, umaru musa yar’adua university, katsina, nigeria correspondence: mohammed suleiman, department of biology, umaru musa yar’adua university, katsina, nigeria. tel: 234-806-7195-818. e-mail: mohammed.suleiman@umyu.edu.ng received: april 1, 2020 accepted: april 20, 2020 online published: april 26, 2020 abstract experiments were conducted to assess the protectant ability of cow dung ash (cda) to cowpea seeds against callosobruchus maculatus f. under laboratory conditions of 50-65% r.h and 28-32oc. the cda at different rates of 0.625, 1.25, 2.50, 5.00, 10.00% (w/w) incorporated with cypermethrin powder at 0.625% were applied to 20 g of cowpea seeds in petri dishes. none of the ashes or cypermethrin was added to the control. ten beetles were introduced into each of the petri dishes and covered with muslin cloth. the experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design (crd) and replicated three times. effects of the treatments on adult mortalities as well as median lethal dose (ld50) of cda against c. maculatus were determined. adult emergence and weight losses in seeds treated with cda at different doses were assessed. findings of the study revealed that the adult mortality of c. maculatus among different cda treatments differed significantly (p < 0.05) and ranged from 13.33 to 100.00% 72 hours after treatment (hat). results of the study also showed that ld50 of cda against c. maculatus at 24 hours after treatment (hat) was 5.51 % (w/w). no adults emerged from the treated seeds and weight losses were observed in those treated with the lowest dose and the control only. therefore, cda could be utilized to protect cowpea seeds from c. maculatus infestations during storage. keywords: adult emergence, callosobruchus maculatus, cow dung ash, cowpea seed, mortality, protectants 1. introduction cowpea is highly palatable, very nutritious and relatively free from anti-metabolites. shiringani and shimelis (2011) reported that dried seeds of cowpea provide cheap source of proteins in many diets in the tropics and subtropics. the report further showed that cowpea seeds contain 22-33% protein, 60-66% carbohydrates, 5-6% fibre, 3.7-4.4% ash and 1.1-3% oil. callosobruchus maculatus (cowpea weevil) has been reported to be the main insect pest of cowpea (vigna unguiculata) (suleiman, 2016). ojebode et al. (2016) reported that c. maculatus is very destructive on account of its short life cycle. their damage causes losses in weight, nutritional, commercial values of cowpea as well as viability of stored seeds (suleiman, 2016). larvae feed and develop inside the seed which become unsuitable for human consumption and when adults emerge they leave a neat circular exit hole. each adult consumes approximately 25% of the seed from which it develops (asawalam and anaeto, 2014). synthetic insecticides may play a significant role in reducing storage losses due to insect pests. however, the extensive use of these chemicals poses so many problems such as insecticide resistance, health risk to consumers and environmental contamination (sani and suleiman, 2017). these problems have necessitated the replacement of synthetic insecticides with natural products which are eco-friendly to protect stored grains from insect infestations (vanmathi et al., 2012). natural products have been used for many years by small scale farmers in many parts of africa to protect stored products (suleiman and rugumamu, 2017; suleiman et al., 2019). previous findings demonstrated the use of these materials as safe and effective protectants of stored cowpea against c. maculatus infestations (suleiman and suleiman, 2014; asawalam and anaeto, 2014). these products act by suffocating adult bruchids, restricting oviposition or even lead to the death of the insect (sani and suleiman, 2017). in order to minimize the use of chemicals there is need for a search of alternative eco-friendly methods such as application of natural products like cow dung ash (cda). therefore, this study was aimed at evaluating the efficacy of cda in controlling c. maculatus infesting stored cowpea. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 129 published by ideas spread 2. method 2.1 rearing of callosobruchus maculatus all experiments were conducted in laboratory 3 of the department of biology, umaru musa yar’adua university, katsina (umyuk), nigeria. adults of c. maculatus were obtained from infested cowpea sold in katsina central market. cowpea seeds used for the rearing were brought from local market in katsina and kept in an oven at 40oc for 4 hours to disinfest the seeds and allowed to cool for 24 hours. fifty pairs of adult c. maculatus were placed in 500 ml volume glass bottle containing 250 g of the disinfested cowpea seeds. the set up was kept on the laboratory shelf at room temperature. the parent weevils were removed by sieving after 7 days of their introduction. seeds were kept under laboratory condition until emergence of f1 progeny. 2.2 preparation of cda cow dung was collected from barhim village of katsina, nigeria. the cow dung was sun-dried and crushed into small particles. the small sized particles were placed in the muffle furnace and heated for 3 hours. the ash collected was allowed to cool and then stored in air-tight container under prevailing laboratory condition of 5065% r.h and 28-32oc. 2.3 assessment of adult mortality healthy disinfested cowpea seed (20 g) were placed in petri dishes and treated with 0.125, 0.25, 0.50, 1.00 and 2.00 g of cow dung ash, separately. this was equivalent to 0.625, 1.25, 2.50, 5.0 and 10.0% (w/w), respectively. cypermethrin (0.625%) was added to another 20 g seeds while no powder was added the control seeds. five pairs of newly emerged adult beetles were introduced to each of the treated and untreated seeds in the petri dishes. they were covered with nylon mesh and held in place with rubber hands. the set up was arranged in a completely randomized design (crd) with three replications. this was inspected daily to remove, count and record dead insects for seven days. at the end of seven days, all beetles (dead and alive) were removed and percentage adult mortality was assessed as the number of dead beetles divided by total number of beetles introduced and multiplied by one hundred as indicated hereunder. adult mortality (% ) = (number of dead insects)/(total number of insects introduced) x 100 2.4 determination of median lethal dose (ld50) of cda to evaluate ld50, methods of ebadollahi and mahboubi (2011) were employed. the number of dead weevils in each bottle containing sorghum grains treated with the botanical powders was counted at the end of 24 hours after treatment hat). the ld50 was calculated by using probit analysis with spss (version 16.0) software package. 2.5 examination of adult emergence of callosobruchus maculatus the remaining insects (dead and alive) were sieved from the treated cowpea seeds immediately after mortality test. the seeds were left undisturbed under laboratory condition for adult emergence. to calculate the adult emergence direct examination was performed daily from the first emergence for seven days. all emerged individuals were removed, counted and recorded for 7 days. 2.6 damage assessment both treated and untreated seeds were sieved to remove the ash and any dust. to determine percentage grain damage, the final weight of the grain was subtracted from the initial weight of the grain, divided by initial weight of the grain and then multiplied by one hundred (100) as shown in the formula below: weight loss (%) = (initial weight (g) − final weight (g))/(initial weight (g) ) x 100 2.7 data analysis all data were tested for normality using ks normality test and found to be non-parametric. for this reason, kruskal-wallis test was employed to test if there was significant difference in the effects of cda on adult mortality and weight losses in the treated grains. significantly different means were separated using dunn’s multiple comparison tests. 3. results 3.1 adult mortality of callosobruchus maculatus exposed to cda adult mortality of c. maculatus in cowpea seeds treated with different concentration of cda varied. the mortalities were directly proportional to the varying concentrations of cda applied and ranged from 13.33 to 53.33% among the treatments while it was 3.33% in the control at 24 hours after treatment (hat) (table 1). kruskal-wallis test showed the existence of significant difference (kw = 18.809; p = 0.0045) in adult mortality of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 130 published by ideas spread c. maculatus among various concentrations of cda, cypermethrin and control. adult mortalities at 48 and 72 hat were observed to follow similar trend to that of 24 hat where they were directly proportional to increase in concentration (table 1). the treatments had significantly different (p < 0.05) effect on adult mortality of the insects at 24 and 72 hat, respectively the mortalities also increased with increase in exposure periods in the order: 24 < 48 < 72 hat. table 1. mean adult mortality of callosobruchus maculatus in cowpea seeds treated with different doses of cda dose (%) mean adult mortality of c. maculatus (% ± s. e.) exposure period (hours) 24 48 72 0.625 13.3 ± 3.33d 46.6 ± 6.67d 83.33 ± 3.33b 1.25 23.33 ± 3.33c 66.67 ± 3.33c 86.67 ± 3.33b 2.5 26.67 ± 3.33c 76.67 ± 3.33b 90.00 ± 0.00b 5.0 36.67 ± 3.33b 90.00 ± 0.00a 93.33 ± 3.33a 10.0 53.33 ± 3.33a 96.67 ± 3.33a 100.00 ± 0.00a cypermethrin (0.625%) 66.67 ± 3.33a 93.33 ± 3.33a 96.67 ± 3.33a control (0.00%) 3.33 ± 3.33e 3.33 ± 3.33e 6.67 ± 3.33c mean values with different superscripts on the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05 3.2 median lethal dose (ld50) of cda against callosobruchus maculatus median lethal dose (ld50) of cda against c. maculatus at 24 hours after treatment was 8.50% (w/w) with confidence limits (cl) of 5.51 – 23.91% (table 2). the chi-square (x2) goodness of fit showed that the difference was not significant (p > 0.05) for ld50 of cda. 3.3 adult emergence of callosobruchus maculatus in treated cowpea seeds no adult emergence of c. maculatus was observed from all the treated samples. however, the mean number of emerged adult beetles from untreated seeds was recorded as 16.67. table 2. ld50 of cda against adult callosobruchus maculatus in cowpea seeds ld50 (%) 95% confidence limits slope ± s. e. x2 p lower limit upper limit 8.50 5.51 23.93 2.59 ± 0.05 1.501 0.826 3.4 weight losses in cowpea seeds treated with cda the only weight loss observed among the treated cowpea seeds was in those treated with the lowest concentration of cda (0.625%) while the untreated seeds lost 11.33% of their weight to c. maculatus (figure 1). kruskal wallis test showed that there was significant difference (kw = 19.857; p = 0.0029) in weight losses of cowpea seeds treated with cow dung ash at different doses as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 131 published by ideas spread figure 1. percentage weight losses in cowpea seeds treated with varying concentrations of cda and infested by c. maculatus 4. discussion 4.1 effect of cda on adult mortality of callosobruchus maculatus findings of this study have revealed that cda was effective in causing high adult mortality of c. maculatus. this is in line with the findings of arya and tiwari (2013) who reported that cow dung ash applied at 2% to wheat grains resulted in 90.80% adult mortality of rhyzopertha dominica fab. similar findings were reported by narayana et al. (2019) that 2% cda applied to maize grains caused 93.89% adult mortality of r. dominica at 24 hat. it was also observed that the higher doses of cda were almost as effective as the chemical insecticide (cypermethrin) in killing adults of c. maculatus. the killing effect of cda could be as a result of their small-sized particles that might have blocked the insect spiracle leading to impaired respiration and eventual death as observed by suleiman and suleiman (2014). 4.2 effect of cda on adult emergence of callosobruchus maculatus results from this study indicated that the cda was effective in reducing adult emergence of c. maculatus this implied that cow dung ash has a great protectant property against adult emergence of the insect. these findings are similar to earlier findings that only 2.75 adults of rhyzopertha dominica emerged in grains treated with cda (arya and tiwari, 2013). similar findings were reported by adebayo and ibikunle (2014) that 1 g of cda applied to cowpea seeds reduce adult emergence of c. maculatus from 2.80 in the control to 2.08 in the treated seeds.. furthermore, results of this study showed that the higher doses of cow dung ash applied were as effective as cypermethrin in reducing adult c. maculatus. 4.3 the role of cda in reducing weight losses of cowpea seeds infested by callosobruchus maculatus finding of this study indicated that the high dose applied did not allow c. maculatus to cause any damage in cowpea seeds. this is line with the findings of narayana (2019) which showed that only 0.19% of weight loss was recorded in maize grains treated with 2% cda and infested by r dominica. similarly, tesema et al. (2015) reported that 2% of cda gave a complete protection to chickpea against c. chinensis. the cda might have inhibited the larval penetration into the and thus showed reduced levels of seed infestation and weight losses. acknowledgments the authors are grateful to dr. babangida adulkarim of the department of biology, umyuk for remarkable guidance during data analyses. references adebayo, r. a., & ibikunle, o. (2014). potentials of rice husk ash, cow dung ash and powdered clay as grain as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 132 published by ideas spread protectants against callosobruchus maculatus (f) and sitophilus zeamais (mots). applied tropical agriculture, 19(2), 48-53. arya, m., & tiwari, r. (2013). efficacy of plant animal origin bioproducts against lesser grain borer, rhyzopertha dominica (fab.) in stored wheat. international journal of recent scientific research, 4(5), 649-653. asawalam, e. f., & anaeto, c. g. 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(coleoptera: bruchidae)on chickpea in jole andegna: southern ethiopia. journal of agricultural studies, 3(2), 129-144. vanmathi, j. s., padmalatha, c., singh, a. j. a. r., & chairman, k. (2012). effect of chosen botanicals on the oviposition deterrence and adult emergence of callosobruchus maculatus (f.) (coleoptera: bruchidae). elixir biological technology, 51a, 11120-11123. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p17 17 published by ideas spread assessing factors affecting moringa production at north-western zone of tigray, ethiopia teklemariam abadi1, zemeda desta2 & hadush hagos2 1 agricultural extension researcher, shire-maitsebri agricultural research center, p. o. box81, shire indaslassie, ethiopia 2 agricultural economics researcher, mekelle agricultural research center, p. o.b ox492 mekelle, ethiopia corresponding: teklemariam abadi, agricultural extension researcher, shire-maitsebri agricultural research center, p. o. box81, shire indaslassie, ethiopia. e-mail: teklish190@mail.com received: january 3, 2020 accepted: january 14, 2020 online published: march 4, 2020 the research is financed by tigray agricultural research institute. abstract moringa is a highly valued plant that is mostly grown in arid and semi-arid areas which used for food, medication and industrial purposes. this study investigates the factors affecting moringa plant cultivation among farmers in northern ethiopia. a multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to collect data from 54 farmers using questionnaire. data were analysed using the descriptive statistics. the study identified the socioeconomic characteristics of the sampled respondents. literate farmers were better in cultivation of moringa plant than the illiterate one. it also reveals that land size were not the limiting factor for moringa cultivation in the study area. this study shows that though farmers utilize moringa, but still there is lack of knowledge on production, utilization, nutritional and economic importance of the plant. of the total sampled 46.3% of the respondents used moringa for human consumption. while compared to the proportion who cultivates moringa it is relatively low. this low utilization of moringa in the area attributed due to limited or no awareness on nutritional importance of moringa and lack of knowledge on preparation of the moringa utilization. the farmers mentioned that the main constraints that hinder moringa cultivation is lack of awareness, lack of seedling availability, easily damageable by animals and attacked by termites. based on the findings; this study recommends that the respective districts, other stakeholders and projects should take responsibilities in creating awareness regarding benefits and utilization process of the plant and offering moringa seedlings to the society. keywords: moringa tree, nutritious food, constraints, factors 1. introduction moringa species belongs to the family moringaceae. this family is represented by a single genus moringa. the genus is represented by 14 species to which moringa olifera and moringa stenoptella belongs (aynalem, 2008; gebregiorgis e al., 2011). m. stenopetala is native to southern ethiopia, north kenya and eastern somalia ( jiru et al., 2006; gebregiorgis et al., 2011), and m.oleifera is native to india (jiru et al., 2006; coppin, 2008). of the two varieties m. stenopetala is widely known and grown in most parties of ethiopia. moringa tree grows best in the hot, semi-arid areas and grows in any soil type though prefers well-drained sandy or loam soil, but not grown in water logged soils. it is drought tolerant and grows best at an altitude below 600m, though it can grow up to 1200m (jahn, 1991). in ethiopia, moringa stenopetala grows in elevations between 1,000 and 1,800 m, and it will grow as high as 2000m (alemu and kelemu, 2013). in general moringa plants grown easily from seeds or vegetatively propagated tree by cuttings, but moringa germination from seedlings is more preferable than its vegetative propagation. the most interesting point in moringa is all part of the trees except the wood are edible and these edible portions are extremely nutritious. therefore moringa can be serves for humans nutrition and animals feed. moringa contains many essential nutrients, for example, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, beta-carotone, antioxidants and omega 3 and 6 fatty acids (hsu et al., 2006; kasolo et al., 2010). bosch in 2004 has reported that m. stenopetala as important multi-purpose tree for semiarid climates. the leaves of the moringa tree are very nutritious. they can be consumed fresh, cooked or dried. since dried moringa leaves as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 18 published by ideas spread hold their nutrient content, it is possible to convert them into leaf powder. when there is an abundance of leaves, this leaf powder can be made and stored. moringa leaf powder is an excellent nutritional supplement and can be added to any dish. moringa leaf powder is consumed as a tea in cafeteria and at home, and at southern part of ethiopia two spoonful of moringa powder is added in to dishes, and in the area it is very popular vegetable and grows as backyard tree to make it accessible for daily use (alemu and kelemu, 2013). moringa tree is locally known as “shiferaw” in many parts of ethiopia and the same is called in tigray northern ethiopia. moringa species currently grows in different parts of ethiopia but mainly growing in southern and western ethiopia and consumption of moringa products has noticeably increased in different parts of the country. though moringa has not received significant research attention in the country, the area coverage by moringa is in the increase due to its multiple uses and ability to thrive under harsh environment (tenaye et al. 2009). therefore, focusing on perennials for food source is the cheapest and simplest alternative for poor ethiopian farmers to escape from hanger. moringa tree is one of the perennials that can be suitable source of food as cabbage, edible oil, water purification, fodder, medicinal value, bee forage and other multiple functions. even if in dispersedly moringa tree is found in many parts of tigray and the culture of using moringa products for human consumption is has shown an increment. however, in the study area there is no any empirical study regarding factors affecting on moringa production. therefore this study was aimed to assess the factors affecting moringa production and utilization at north western zone of tigray. 2. research methodology 2.1 study areas the study was conducted in three districts of north western tigray, ethiopia. the districts are namely tahtay adyabo, laelay adyabo and tselemti. tahtay adyabo woreda is located at the degree of 14.05-14.89 oc northing and 37.34-38.17 oc easting. the woreda has 38-40oc of temperature and annual rainfall of 450-550mm. agro ecologically 94.13% of the district is lowland and the remaining 5.87% is midland. tselemti woreda is located in the altitude ranges from 800-2870 meter above sea level, and latitude and longitude of 13o05 northing and 38o 08easting, respectively. the mean maximum and minimum temperature are 38o c and 16o c respectively and the area receives annual rainfall of 758-1100mm. agro ecologically78.35%, 19% and 2.65% of the woreda is lowland, midland and highland, respectively. likewise laelay adyabo woreda is geographically located at 14.08-14.69 oc northing and 37.89-38.46 oc easting. agro-ecologically 39.43% of woreda is midland and 60.37% is lowland and the area receives an annual rainfall ranged from 605-1370mm (ooard woredas, 2016). figure 1. map of the study areas as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 19 published by ideas spread 2.2 sampling procedures the selected districts were purposively selected based on their potentiality for producing moringa tree in the zone. a total of six study kebelles (villages) were randomly selected from the potential moringa producers kebelles of the districts. aditelom and adiawala kebelles from tahtay adyabo, adiklte and ketema adidaero kebelles from laelay adyabo and sokotamariam and may-ayni kebelles from tselemti woreda were involved in the study. a total of 54 household head were included in the study by randomly selected based on their sample size. 2.3 methods of data collection and analysis for the study both primary and secondary data were employed. primary data were collected using semi-structured questionnaire from sample household from each of the study villages. secondary data were collected from different relevant sources such as from office of agriculture and rural development and from different published and unpublished documents. then the collected quantitative data was analyzed using ddescriptive statistics. 3. results and discussions demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents moringa trees that were grown on marginal lands of nearby homestead areas were selected. the selected sample farmers for the moringa tree study are peri-urban residential respondents. the result shows that there were more male farmers (70.4%) than their female (29.6%) counterparts. 76.3% of the respondents who own moringa tree possess an area below one hectare. this indicates cultivating moringa did not demand large area. 73.7% the moringa tree owner ages ranged from 18-75 (table 1). table 1. demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents (n=54) variables total participants moringa tree owners frequency percentage frequency percentage sex male 38 70.4 24 63.2 female 16 29.6 14 36.8 age (years) 18-30 5 9.3 3 7.9 31-45 18 33.3 15 39.5 46-60 19 35.2 10 26.3 61-75 12 22.2 10 26.3 education status illiterate 18 33.3 9 23.7 read and write 15 27.8 10 26.3 elementary school 13 24.1 13 34.2 secondary school and above 8 14.8 6 15.8 landholding landless 12 22.2 9 23.7 0.1-0.5ha 15 27.8 11 28.9 0.51-1ha 13 24.1 9 23.7 1.1-1.5ha 12 22.2 7 18.4 >1.51ha 2 3.7 2 5.3 marital status single 5 9.3 2 5.3 married 38 70.4 27 71.1 divorced/widowed 11 20.3 9 23.7 occupation farming 35 64.8 22 57.9 trading 5 9.3 3 7.9 civil servant 6 11.1 5 13.1 daily labor 2 3.7 2 5.3 trading and farming 6 11.1 6 15.8 there was no significant difference in household characteristics in sex, age, marital status, occupation and farm size. but education status indicated a significant difference between the moringa tree grower and non-growers. as the farmers became more educated he/she has the probability of growing moringa tree in the area (table 2). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 20 published by ideas spread table 2. chi-square tests of sampled households characteristics in the sampled districts household characteristics chi-square value p-value sex 0.711 0.399 age 5.543 0.136 marital status 3.299 0.348 education status 9.637 0.086* occupation 5.057 0.281 farm size 1.871 0.760 significance level: *= p<0.1significant of the sampled farmers, the moringa consumer used moringa as food (27.8%), for tea (9.2%), for food and tea (9.2%). of the moringa consumer respondents 5 (20%) are not the owners of moringa tree but utilizing moringa leaf by borrowing or by taking from those who own moringa tree (table 3). however from the total moringa tree owners of the sampled farmers 18 (47.4%) were not utilized any apart of the moringa tree except they used it for shed and fire woods (table 3). from the sampled respondents, all of the moringa consumers (25) were used the leaf part of the tree. they used by picking the growing tips and young leaves, by cooking the fresh picked leave in to water for tea purpose or by drying it and used it as powder to add to different sauces or boiled water for tea. studies from other countries also indicate that the many peoples have used moringa leaves for human consumption due to the leaves have immense nutritional value such as vitamins, minerals and amino acids (anwar et al., 2007). table 3. purpose of moringa tree used by the sampled respondents in the area moringa purpose moringa owners non owners total frequency percentage frequency percentage frequency percentage 1 food 13 34.2 2 12.5 15 27.8 2 tea 3 7.9 2 12.5 5 9.2 3 tea and food 4 10.5 1 6.25 5 9.2 4 shed 4 10.5 4 7.4 5 fire wood 2 5.3 2 3.7 6 not used so far 12 31.6 11 68.75 23 42.6 total 38 100 16 100 54 100 as seen the result from table 4, the main constraints to use moringa as human consumption in the area is due to lack of awareness its health and nutritional benefits, cultural drawbacks of the plant and absence of the plant with percentages of 74.07%, 16.6% and 9.29 respectively(table4). the sampled farmers respond that as few farmers believe that consuming moringa leaves can decrease the blood of the body and cause to anaemia. however the finding of kasolo et al., 2010 shows moringa leaves have many benefits to human such as treating malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, gastritis, asthma, heart burn, bone setting, skin disease and anti-hypertensive but not mentioned any drawbacks of the plant. table 4. the challenges not to utilize moringa in the study area sn causes percent (%) 1 lack of awareness 74.07 2 cultural draw backs 16.6 3 absence of moringa tree 9.29 the major constraints for moringa production in the study area are associated to lack of awareness on the tree, lack of planting material (seedling) and damageable by animals and by termites (table 5). these could hinder the moringa production in the study area. inconsistent to this study, opeyemi et al. (2013) has reported that creating the benefits of moringa on the society is one among the driving force for adopting and producing moringa tree. the study shows that peoples in the area were less aware regarding management and utilizing of the moringa tree. animals like donkey are highly interested to eat the bark of the stem and expose it to be dried the moringa tree. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 21 published by ideas spread similar to this study the report of moshibudi et al. (2017) also reveals that farmers are getting challenges like free roaming animals, termites and lack of training for moringa production. table 5. the major constraints in moringa production sn constraints rank 1 lack of awareness on the nutritional and economic benefits of moringa production (56.5%) 1st 2 damaged by animals (15%) 3rd 3 attacked by termite (9.2%) 4th 4 lack of moringa seedling (19.3%) 2nd 4. conclusions and recommendations moringa is gaining prominence in the study area. in the study area farmers utilize moringa its leaf part mostly in powder form. but there is a dearth of information and knowledge on its production, utilization and economic importance. according to this finding only 46.3% of the respondents used moringa for human consumption. but when we compared this to the proportion who cultivates moringa, relatively lower (70.4%) has the plant on their farms but did not use it for their consumption. low utilization of moringa in the study area could attribute due to limited or no awareness nutritional importance of the plant. as the analysis of the result indicates there are constraints such as lack of awareness, lack of seedling availability, easily damageable by animals and attacked by termites in moringa production. based on these findings; this study recommends that the respective districts, other stakeholders and projects should take responsibilities in creation awareness on benefits and utilization process of the plant and in distributing the moringa tree seedlings in a continuous way. guide line manual on moringa production, its importance regarding nutritional and its utilization process which prepared in a local languages should promoted to the farmers by taking the lead the research institutions. acknowledgement the authors would like to acknowledge tigray agricultural research institute, shire-maitsebri agricultural research center for the research grant. special thanks also go to agricultural experts and respondent farmers and experts of the districts for their kind cooperation in conducting the study. references alemu, d., & kelemu, k. (2013). commercialization of moringa production in ethiopia: establishing model value chains for moringa in ethiopia. conference: commercialization of moringa production in ethiopia: experience and success stories, eiar at: ethiopian institute of agricultural research, addis ababa. retrieved from http://publication.eiar.gov.et anwar, f., & rashid, u. (2007). physico-chemical characteristics of moringa oleifera seeds and seed oil from a wild provenance of pakistan. journal. bot., 39(5), 1443-1453. aynalem, a. e. (2008). moringa stenopetala seed oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production in ethiopia. jour. env’t. sc. bosch, c. h. (2004). moringa oleifera lam. in grubben, g. j. h., & denton, o. a. (eds.), prota (plant resources of tropical africa/ressources végétales de l’afrique tropicale), wageningen, netherlands. retrieved from http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp. coppin, j. (2008). a study of the nutritional and medicinal values of moringa oleifera leaves from sub-saharan africa: ghana, rwanda, senegal and zambia (doctoral dissertation, rutgers university-graduate schoolnew brunswick). gebregiorgis, f., negesse, t., & nurfeta, a. (2011). feed intake and utilization in sheep fed graded levels of dried moringa (moringa stenopetala) leaf as a supplement to rhodes grass hay. tropical animal health and production, 44(3), 511-7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-011-9927-9 hsu, r., midcap, s., & arbainsyah, d. w. l. (2006). moringa oleifera: medicinal and socio-economical uses. internationa course on economic botany, national herbarium leiden, the netherlands. retrieved from https://docplayer.net/53749363-moringa-oleifera-medicinal-and-socio-economic-uses.html jahn, s. a. a. (1991). the traditional domestication of a multipurpose tree moringa stenopetala bak.f. cuf. in the ethiopian rift valley. ambio, 20(6), 244-247. retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4313833. jiru, d., sonder, k., alemayehu, l., mekonen, y., & anjulo, a. (2006). leaf yield and nutritive value of moringa as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 22 published by ideas spread stenopetala and moringa oleifera accessions: its potential role in food security in constrained dry farming agroforestry systems. proceedings of the moringa and other highly nutritious plant resources: strategies, standards and markets for a better impact on nutrition in africa. accra, ghana, november 16-18, 2006 kasolo, j. n., bimenya, g. s., ojok, l., ochieng, j., & okeng, o. w. j. (2010). phytochemicals and uses of moringa oleifera leaves in ugandan rural communities. journal of medicinal plants research, 4(9), 753-757. retrieved from http://www. academicjournals.org/jmpr moshibudi, p. m., kingsley, k. a., irvine, k., ramasela, c. m., & richard, s. ch. (2017). production and utilization of moringa by farmers in limpopo province, southe africa. int. j. agric. res., 12, 160-171. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijar.2017.160.171 office of agriculture and rural developments of the hosted woredas. (2016). unpublished annual report. opeyemi, a. e., jubril, a. o., segun, f. b., abdulazeez, m. l., abraham, f., john, i. o., & ayokunle, a. t. (2013). an assessment of the determinants of moringa cultivation among small-scale famers in kwara state, nigeria. 2013. food science and quality management, 11, 2013. retrieved from www.iiste.org tenaye, a., geta, e., & hebana, e. (2009). a multipurpose cabbage tree (moringa stenopetala): production, utilization and marketing in snnpr, ethiopia. acta hortic., 806, 115-120. https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2009.806.12 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v1n1p11 11 published by ideas spread comparative study of underground pit grain storage system through use of different lining materials anbesse girma1 & elias ali1 1 haramaya institute of technology, department of food science and postharvest technology, haramaya university, diredawa ethiopia correspondence: anbesse girma, department of food science and postharvest technology, diredawa 138, ethiopia. e-mail: abutigirma@gmail.com received: november 26, 2019 accepted: december 6, 2019 online published: december 12, 2019 the research is financed by haramaya university through research grant office. abstract sorghum occupies highest area of cultivation in east and west hararghe of ethiopia. farmers in the area are poor and do not afford an advanced storage systems. hence, storage is done mainly in underground pit storage with different lining materials. this study was therefore aimed at evaluating those different lining materials in maintaining the sorghum quality. four different lining materials which are commonly used by the farmers (mud/straw/cow dung mixture (3:3:1 ratio), plastic (thick rubberized canvas), chaff and cement) were used. ten pits (duplicated), flask shaped with 1 m depth and 1 m diameter with a capacity of about two quintals (200 kg) were constructed. the finding in this comparative study is that, among all underlining materials, underground pit with plastic lining material was good barrier compared to all linings. moisture migration to the grain increased in each month in all lining materials and the least was recorded in plastic lining. germination capacity and thousand grain weight were reduced significantly in each material except plastic lining which showed the least change compared to the others. fungi infestation was also increased in all underground pits with different lining materials. however, lower infestation was found in plastic and cement linings. based on the quality measurements, plastic lining showed the least change in grain quality compared to the others. it can be concluded that, since the farmers can’t afford advanced storage system, it can be recommended to use plastic lining material among the existing lining materials. keywords: pit storage, sorghum quality, lining materials, fungi infestation 1. introduction sorghum is the third most important crop in ethiopia, cultivated on one million hectares, and is the most important crop in drier, drought prone areas. sorghum occupies 48% of cultivated land in east harrarghe and 42% in west harrarghe. farmers in ‘kola’ or the lowland dry zone of east harrarghe grow mainly long cycle maize and sorghum intercropped with groundnuts in the first cropping season, followed by short cycle varieties of maize and sorghum in the second season (mcguire 2005). for long-term storage in harrarghe, 70% of the sorghum is stored in pits dug in sandy or gravel soils that are well drained (mcguire 2005; dejene 2004). pit stores are cheaper than above-ground storage and there is less damage due to insects, reduced risk of fire and theft. however, the high humidity and temperature in the unlined pits reduces seed viability (dejene 2004). farmers in the central, northern, southern and western parts of ethiopia commonly store their seeds and grains in the above-ground bin locally known as “gotera”, which is made of bamboo sticks, wood and/or mud. however, the overwhelming majority of peasants (more than 70%) in harrarghe store their sorghum, and sometimes even maize, in the flask-shaped traditional underground storage pits of variable dimensions until it is consumed or sold when the grain market improves (dejene 2004). the storage pits are mostly neither lined nor plastered with any material that would reduce moisture migration into the stored grain. the contact of the grain with wet pit walls often leads to moisture ingress into the inter-granular space elevating both the grain moisture content and the relative humidity inside the pit. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 12 published by ideas spread it should be emphasized that underground pits can allow hermetic storage conditions where the decrease of oxygen and the increase of carbon dioxide concentration due to grain respiration make insects and rodents inactive. there are several methods, with different costs and impact that need to be tested and introduced to improve their efficiency. these include the lining of the pit walls with maize/sorghum sticks, plastic sheets, the digging of drainage systems around the pits and establishment of pits in elevated position. therefore, this paper aims to evaluate those different lining materials on the quality of sorghum grain and recommendation of one with good efficiency. 2. materials and methods 2.1 study area haramaya university is found in east hararghe which lies at 420 30’e longitude and 90 26’n latitude. it is located 18 km away from harar town and about 508 km east of the capital city, addis ababa. the mean annual rainfall is 492 mm, which varies between 118 and 866 mm. the experiment was conducted at haramaya university located 1980 m above sea level. 2.2 construction of underground storage pit ten pits, flask shaped shallower but wider in cross section, with 1 m depth and 1 m diameter with a capacity of about 2 quintal sorghum with different lining materials were constructed. the different lining materials used were mud/straw/cow dung mixture in 3:3:1 ratio, plastic (thick rubberized canvas), chaff, cement lining and as a control room sack and bare pit storage were used. the sorghum required for the experiment was obtained from haramaya research site (rare). 2.3 sorghum quality assessment grain sample, 1000gm, was taken from each pit type with a double sleeve sampler at one month intervals for three months by opening the pits, inserting the spear from grain top to the bottom. the grain moisture content, grain weight loss, molds (aspergillus spp.) infestation, and germination capacity for the each pits of lining materials were analyzed. moisture content the ratio of the difference between the initial weight and final weight to the initial weight was determined as percentage of moisture content (aoac, 1995). 𝑴𝑪𝒘𝒃 = 𝟏 − (𝑾𝒅)(𝑾𝒘) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 where mcwb: moisture content (wet basis), wd: weight of material after oven drying, ww: weight of materials before oven drying grain weight change the grain weight loss, due to different factors, was calculated using the thousand grain mass (tgm) method developed by proctor & rowley (1983): % 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝑀 − 𝑀𝑥)(𝑀 ) × 100 where m1 = thousand grain mass (tgm) at the beginning of the study and mx = the tgm of stored grain for x duration germination test representative 100 sorghum kernels were steeped in 40 ml of 0.75% h2o2 in a clean erlenmeyer flask of about 200 ml. the steeped kernels then placed in a clean place at room temperature (23°c) for 48hrs. after 48 hrs, the chitted kernels were drained counted and values were expressed as a percentage. mold quality test mold change with storage time was evaluated by taking grain samples from the pits. samples of the grain to be examined were transferred to a fungal nutrient medium. after incubation, seed with fungi (aspergillus spp.) showed a growth and counted. then the percentage of seeds containing fungi (aspergillus spp.) were calculated as as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 13 published by ideas spread % infected seeds = (no. of infected seeds)total no. of seeds incubated × 100 experimental setup all the pits lining materials were randomly distributed on the study site which was selected based on a number of factors such as drainage property and water table height. the data were arranged in factorial arrangement under randomized complete block design (rcbd). analysis of quality parameters were done in replications. analysis of variance was performed by using r-software. the sorghum selected for the study was a mixed variety obtained from rare research site of haramaya university. 3. results and discussions 3.1 moisture change cereals go through different process of harvesting, drying, transportation and marketing before being consumed as food. consequently, it involves microbiological contamination and insect infection due to microenvironment change (abdullah et al., 2000). low temperatures, relative humidity, and moisture contents are important for maintaining the quality of the stored produce (anonymous, 2011). moisture content is noted to be one of the most important factors that affect the quality of stored grains (sisman and ergin, 2011) and the most important factor determining seed longevity during storage (qaisrani, 2000). the moisture content was monitored to assess the variation and moisture levels of sorghum grain stored in the underground pit with different lining materials over the storage period. the grains before storage had an initial moisture content of 10.2%. the moisture contents of sorghum under each lining materials during the storage period varies though not significantly different was observed (p>0.05). the increased in moisture contents under plastic lining was low (around 20% increment) compared to others whereas under bare lining material (30.2%) and room storage (33.2%) indicated high increment over the storage period. this study showed that, plastic lined pit form better barrier against diffusion of moisture from the walls and the bottom of the pit. it also controls grain soiling and moisture diffusion through the cracked pit wall (laca et al., 2006). the variation in moisture content under each lining materials could be due to changes in climatic factors such as the rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and sunshine and also due to respiration of grain and associated microorganisms. moisture generation due to respiration of grain itself and insects can also raise moisture. it is generally accepted that climatic condition leads to physical changes in stored grain through the movement of moisture which leads to deterioration (sawant et al., 2012). sorghum stored using plastic lining material over the entire period exhibited high potential for long term storage. this might be due to its air-tight nature and protect water diffusion. studies in many developed countries, comparing commercial and locally manufactured hermetic sealed storage systems with traditional storage systems showed that sealed systems prevent the uptake of moisture by the grain from the outside atmosphere, reduce the number of live insects, prolong the viability of seed, and maintain grain quality (rickman and aquino, 2004). figure 1. change in moisture content of sorghum grain stored in underground pit storage with different lining materials (cement, room storage, chaff, bare, plastic and straw: cow-dung: mud (scm) mix) for over three months of storage (values are mean ± se). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 14 published by ideas spread 3.2 germination test germination is the appearance of the first signs of growth, rise of the radical from the seed. it can be affected by factors such as grain moisture content, temperature, damages, fungi and insect infection. grains retaining a high level of viability are likely to retain the other main qualities since the germination capacity is best measure of grain soundness (fleurat-lessard, 2002). germination test was carried out on the sorghum stored under various pit lining materials to assess how effective they are in maintaining the viability of the sorghum. the outcome showed a decline in germination capacity over the storage period in all lining materials (fig. 2). the germination capacity of plastic lining, cement lining, room storage, chaff lining, bare and cow dung: mud: straw mixture lining at the end of the storage were 67.5%, 33%, 21%, 10%, 9% and 6%, respectively. germination capacity showed a gradual decline under plastic and cement linings as compared to the others. according to many literatures, the decline in germination capacity is due to many interactive factors such as insect infestation, fungal growth and change in storage micro environment mainly temperature, relative humidity and moisture (black, 1970). there have been also reports by sawant et al. (2012) that moisture content, temperature and relative humidity of storage structures had effects on the germination viability of seeds. sorghum stored under plastic lining had the least viability losses followed by cement compared to the other lining materials (p>0.05). weinberg et al. (2008) stated that the germination percentage of grains stored in the sealed containers and noticed that the grain viability decreased over the storage period, and decreased as the moisture content increased. figure 2. germination capacity change of sorghum grain stored in underground storage with different lining materials: cement, room storage, chaff, bare, plastic, straw: cow-dung: mud (scm) mix over three months (values are mean ± se) 3.3 thousand kernel weight the sorghum grain before storage had thousand seed weight of 39.47 g. the thousand seed weight of sorghum stored in underground pit storages with pit linings of cement, plastic, cow dung: mud: straw mixtures, chaff, bare and room storage were dropped to 33.3 g, 34.20 g, 30.95 g, 35.0 g, 30.55 g and 29.00 g, respectively during the third month of the storage period. the rate of weight loss in underground pit storages with pit linings of cement and plastic was low and high for other lining materials. as indicated in the graph below (figure 3), thousand kernels weight was high for plastic and cement linings at the end of storage period. the loss in weight observed in all linings could primarily be due to fungi growth and moisture increment which might leads to higher respiration (see fig. 1). the weight loss is relatively minimal in plastic lining as it had good potential in preventing moisture ingression. aboagye et al. (2017) indicated that grain storages maintain loss of weight through preventing moisture ingression. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 15 published by ideas spread figure 3. thousand kernel weight change of sorghum grain stored in underground storage with different lining materials (cement, room storage, chaff, bare, plastic and straw: cow-dung: mud (scm) mix) for over three months (values are mean ± se) 3.4 fungi infestation microbial growth in stored grain is common especially fungi which infect agricultural crops both in the field and in storage. agnieszka et al. (2013) reviewed that the variety of fungi which is common in stored grain are fusarium, cephalosporium, alternaria, cladosporium, and asperggillusspecies such asa. flavus, a. glaucus, a. niger, and a. ochraceus. proper storage that can reduce moisture ingression and control the temperature helps to keep the grains for longer period. six lining materials were tested for the most common storage fungi, asperggillusspecies, and infected seeds were counted on each month (fig. 4). at the beginning, the sorghum were tested for fungi, 7% infection level, and used for all storage types. rate of infection, as it can be seen from the graph, was gradual in plastic and cement lining material compared to the others. room and bare underground storage techniques were the most worst where percentages of infected seeds reach up to 45% at the end of the third month indicating high rate of infection. according to a review (dorn et al., 2013), among most determinant factors for mould growth, moisture is the principal factor. the grain moisture increment during storage (see fig. 1) could be the cause for high rate of mould (aspergillus spp.) growth in all pit linings except the plastic and cement which showed marginally lower growth (see fig. 4). microbial, such as fungal, infestation furthermore, can cause grain discoloration, change its chemical characteristics and germination loses (agnieszka et al., 2013). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 16 published by ideas spread figure 4. aspergillus spp. change in sorghum grain stored in underground storage with different lining materials (cement, room storage, chaff, bare, plastic and straw: cow dung: mud (scm) mix) for over three months (values are mean ± se) 4. conclusion a comparative study of underground pit storage with different lining materials were performed to evaluate sorghum grain quality such as moisture content, 1000 kernel weight, germination capacity and fungi infestation (aspergillus spp.). results of this comparative study showed that, among all linings, plastic lining pit storage was a good barrier in preventing the ingression of moisture to the grain. the germination capacity of plastic lining, cement lining, room storage, chaff lining, bare and cow dung: mud: straw mixture lining at the end of the storage were 67.5%, 33%, 21%, 10%, 9% and 6%, respectively. germination capacity was high under plastic lining as compared to the others. the rate of weight loss with pit linings of cement and plastic was also low but very high for other lining materials. rate of infection was very high in all linings except for plastic and cement lining material. room and bare underground storage techniques were the most worst where percentages of infected seeds reach up to 45% at the end of the third month. in general, plastic lining showed a good performance in maintaining the quality of stored sorghum grain compared to the others. hence, the farmers are beneficial if they prefer plastic linings as it provides better keeping potential than the others. acknowledgement the authors thank haramaya university for use of facilities and funding this research. the authors also thank editor-in-chief, the editorial board and an anonymous reviewer for their assistance. this study was funded fully by the haramaya university through research grant office. references abdullah, n., nawawi, a., & othman, i. 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(2004). grain storage methods and their effects on sorghum grain quality in hararghe, ethiopia. doctoral thesis, swedish university of agricultural sciences, uppsala, sweden. retrieved from as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 17 published by ideas spread http://pub.epsilon.slu dorn, thomas w., & jackson-ziems, tamra a. (2013). grain storage management to minimize mold and mycotoxins. papers inplant pathology. 538. retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ plantpathpapers/538 fleurat, l. f. (2002). review on thequalitative reasoning and integrated management of the quality of stored grain: a promising new approach. journal of stored products research, 38(3), 191-218. laca, a., mousia, z., diaz, m., webb, c., & pandiella, s. s. (2006). distribution of microbialcontamination within cereal grains. journal of food engineering, 72(4), 332-338. mcguire, s. (2005). getting genes: rethinking seed system analysis and reform for sorghum in ethiopia. doctoral thesis, wageningen university. the netherlands. retrieved from http://edepot.wur.nl/121643 proctor, d. l., & rowley, j. q. (1983). the thousand grain mass (tgm): a basis for better assessment of weight losses in stored grain. tropical stored products information, 45, 1923. qaisrani, r. (2000). safe storage of cereals at higher moisture levels. as in ahmed and alama, (2010) research report, csiro, stored grain research laboratory, kangaroo island, s.a. pp 5. rickman, j. f., & aquino, e. (2004). appropriate technology for maintaining grain quality in small-scale storages. in donahaye, e. j., navarro, s., bell, c., jayas, d., noyes, r., & phillips, t.w. (eds.), proceeding of international conference on controlled atmosphere. sawant, a. a., patil, s. c., kalse, s. b., & thakor, n. j. (2012). effect of temperature, relative humidity and moisture content on germination percentage of wheat stored in different storage. cigr journal, 14(2), 1-13. sisman, c. b., & ergin, a. s. (2011). the effects of different storage building on wheat quality. journal of applied sciences, 11(14), 2613-2619. weinberg, z. g., yan, y., chen, y., finkelman, s., ashbell, g., & navarro, s. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p47 47 published by ideas spread biopesticidal properties of aqueous crude extracts of tobacco (nicotiana tabacum l.) against fall armyworm (spodoptera frugiperda j.e smith) on maize foliage (zea mays l.) diets nyasha sakadzo1, kasirai makaza1 & liberty chikata1 1 department of soil and plant sciences, faculty of agricultural and natural sciences, great zimbabwe university, zimbabwe correspondence: nyasha sakadzo, department of soil and plant sciences. faculty of agricultural and natural sciences, great zimbabwe university, p.o. box 1235 masvingo, zimbabwe. tel: 263-775-985-724. e-mail: nsakadzo87@gmail.com received: january 28, 2020 accepted: february 28, 2020 online published: march 29, 2020 abstract pesticidal plants offer valuable and sustainable options for managing lepidopteran pests with considerable health, environmental and economic benefits in smallholder agro-ecosystem. research was done to determine the efficacy of aqueous extracts of tobacco (nicotiana tabacum) against fall armyworm (spodoptera frugiperda smith) on maize foliage (zea mays l.) diets. bio-efficacy of aqueous crude n. tabacum leaf extracts was evaluated under average room temperature at great zimbabwe university, biology laboratory. the treatments were tobacco leaf extracts at four dosage levels (25 %, 33.33%, 41.67 % and 50% w/v) and a negative control of untreated maize leaf foliage (distilled water) was used. a positive control of carbaryl 85% wp was also used at label rates. the experiment was arranged in a complete randomized design (crd) replicated three times. five larvae were placed into each of the experimental jars with maize foliage diets drenched into 10ml of distilled water in each treatment extract to keep the maize leaf foliage moist. mortality for each treatment was recorded at 2 hourly intervals for 20 hours. results showed that tobacco crude aqueous leaf extracts had antifeedent activities against faw larvae. the highest dose of 50% had significantly higher mean faw larval mortalities (p< 0.05) than lower dosage (25%) and the negative control after 20 hours. however, 50% concentration was not significantly different (p>0.05) from the positive control and that of 33.33% and 41.67% dosages. the bioassay indicated that the 33.33% extract was superior in toxicity to 25% dose and the negative control but similar to higher extract doses though inferior to positive control. however, the mean mortality of 50% extract was not significantly different from that of the positive control. this study recommends that 50% tobacco aqueous crude leaf extract dose to be used when controlling faw in maize in the smallholder sector. keywords: s. frugiperda, efficacy, bio efficacy, n. tabacum, smallholder sector 1. introduction maize (zea mays l.) forms an essential component of the global food security as a major part of the diet of millions of people including zimbabwe (cimmyt, 2017). it is also an important livestock feed both as silage and as crop residue or grain and is also used industrially for starch and oil extraction. in the 2016/2017 season, maize production went down to 35%, which was one third lower than the previous season (fao, 2017). currently, average maize yield is at 0.8t/ha which is far below the expected average of 4t/ha (cimmyt, 2017). the decline is attributed to late planting due to unavailability of seed on the market on time, unaffordable prices of inputs e.g. fertilizers for most small holder farmers, shortage of draft power, erratic rainfall and pest infestations. according to fao stat (2009), zimbabwe needs 1.7 million tonnes of maize for direct human consumption per year and according to who, maize consumption per day per person is 241g. there is therefore great need to guard against losses that may befall the maize crop in the field. between 20-40% maize losses are caused by field pest in the tropics (moris, 2001). this is a cause for concern on guarding against field losses mainly caused by insect pests. major field pests threatening food security include the maize stalk borer, african armyworm and the fall armyworm (spodoptera frugiperda). in zimbabwe, the maize crop has suffered severe attack in the past three consecutive agricultural seasons from the problem pest, s. frugiperda (prasanna et al, 2018). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 48 published by ideas spread according to eric and john (2017: 57), s. frugiperda is a rampant cereal field pest that has resulted in between 4090% losses in yield. zimbabwe small scale and commercial farmers currently rely on synthetic chemicals in controlling this pest. most zimbabwean farmers are also poor resource farmers who cannot afford buying the chemicals which are expensive and not readily available in most rural markets, besides they are a health hazard to applicators, consumers and the environment (prakash and rao, 2007). the destruction of non-target species as well as pesticide resistance is cause for concern in using these synthetic chemicals. therefore it is very imperative to research on locally available botanicals to replace or supplement the chemical control method. the research seeks to investigate the antifeedant properties of n. tabacum in the control of fall army worm. some botanical control methods researched in maize field pests include the use of neem (azadirachta indica), acacia (acacia spp), fish-poison bean (tephrosia vogelli) and tobacco (nicotiana tabacum) leaf extracts (isman, 2010). 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental site the experiment was carried out at the great zimbabwe university, biology laboratory. the university is located 10 kilometres south east of masvingo town and in agro-ecological region iv of zimbabwe. the biology laboratory is located at 20o6.137’s and longitude 30o51.688’e. soil texture is sandy clay loam to sandy loam (alluvial) with clay content of 34% (agritex department, 2017). rainfall is erratic, characterized by frequent dry spells. the area receives an average of 450-650mm rainfall per annum. mean annual temperature ranges from 15oc to 25oc (meteorological service department, 2017). figure 1. location site of great zimbabwe university. source: google maps 2.2 experimental design the experiment was arranged in a complete randomized design (crd) with six treatments replicated three times as illustrated by gomez and gomez (1984). the experimental treatments were arranged as shown below: table 1. treatment description treatment description t1 75g n. tabacum leaf extracts mixed to 300ml distilled water to give a 25% concentration (w/v). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 49 published by ideas spread t2 100g n.tabacum leaf extracts mixed to 300ml distilled water to give a 33.33% concentration (w/v). t3 125g n. tabacum leaf extracts mixed to 300ml distilled water to give a 41.67% concentration (w/v). t4 150g n. tabacum leaf extracts mixed to 300ml distilled water to give a 50% concentration (w/v). t5 carbaryl 85% wp mixed at label instructions (150g/15 liters of water). t6 no n. tabacum leaf extracts (control) the experiment followed a protocol by birhanu et al., (2019:16), who postulated that tobacco leaf powder can be mixed at a rate of 75g crude tobacco leaves to 300ml distilled water to obtain an effective concentration for the control of fall armyworm. 2.3 experimental procedure 2.3.1 collection and preparation of crude tobacco leaf extracts scrap flue cured top virginia tobacco leaves, collected from a farm in gororo area, ward 26 of chivi district, were crushed into a powder using the kasa maria pestle and mortar. the leaf powder was weighed using a digital scale to get the required quantities for the four treatments as shown on figure 3.2(a). the powder of tobacco leaf was socked in 300ml distilled water for 24 hours at the effective rate previously reported by different authors for lepdopteran larvae as described above (table 1) (birhanu, 2018). the different extracts were then filtered through a cheese cloth to remove tobacco leaf sediments into 1000cm3 litre beakers and the solutions were left overnight (birhanu et al., 2019). carbaryl 85% wp was also mixed with water according to the recommended dosage rates (150g/15 litres of water). 2.3.2 collection and preparation of maize leaf foliage untreated maize leaf foliages, collected from the university campus fields, were cut into pieces of 6cm by 3cm to get 5,6g per treatment following faw rearing experience that shows that 60g of maize leaf foliage can feed approximately 15 larvae for 2 to 3 days (birhanu et al., 2019). the leaf foliages were then soaked in various treatment solutions (25 %, 33.33%, 41.67 % and 50% w/v) for thirty minutes before being placed into clean 500cm3 beakers to determine antifeedent activity of fall armyworm larvae. 2.3.3 collection of faw larvae third instar larvae of s. frugiperda were collected from nyamakwe irrigation scheme in chivi district on the day of the experiment and continuously fed with untreated maize foliage before they were introduced to various experimental treatments. 2.3.4 prepared tobacco concentrations a total of 18 beakers were used since each treatment was replicated three times and each beaker with 10 maize leaf portions was placed. more leaf portions were continuously added to make sure that feed was always available for the pest. the beakers were arranged in a complete randomized design (crd) and five 3rd instar larvae were immediately introduced to each beaker with feed. the various treatments were then observed and recorded at two hour intervals for 20 hours. 2.4 data collection 2.4.1 fall army worm mortality number of dead caterpillars from each beaker was recorded cumulatively after every 2 hours. confirmation of death of the caterpillars was done by pricking the insect body with a needle or a larva was considered dead if it could not right itself after being placed on its dorsal surface. faw percentage mortality for each treatment was assessed as: (number of dead faw larvae/total number of pests) x100. 2.5 data analysis collected data was transformed using the square root transformation. the significance level was set at 5%, and the means were separated using the fisher’s protected least significant differences (lsd) (gomez and gomez, 1984). all statistical analyses were performed using the genstat release 14.1 statistical software package. 3. results 3.1 effects of n. tabacum extracts on s. frugiperda mortality in maize mortality results showed that crude aqueous leaf extracts of tobacco were insecticidal against s. frugiperda. there were significant differences (p<0.05) amongst the treatments as shown on table 2. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 50 published by ideas spread table 2. table of spodoptera frugiperda mortality. mortality treatment 2 8 14 20 25 % concentration 0.00a 0.00a 0.67ab 1.67ab 33.3 % concentration 0.00a 0.33ab 1.67ab 2.33abc 41.67 % concentration 0.00a 1.00ab 1.67ab 2.33abc 50 % concentration 0.00a 1.33bc 2.67b 2.33abc carbaryl 85 % wp 0.33a 2.33c 3.00b 4.67bc negative control 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a grand mean 0.06 0.83 1.61 2.55 pvalue 0.5 0.0003 0.016 0.03 lsd 0.84 1.03 1.68 2.14 cv % 25 14 12 9 *means followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% significance level. figure 2. figure showing s. frugiperda mortality on maize foliage 3.2 effects of exposure time on s. frugiperda mortality time taken by different tobacco concentrations to cause faw mortality was significantly different (p<0.05). after 20 hours of the experiment, cumulative deaths were significantly different (p<0.05) from those in the first two hours. however, four hours after the application of the botanical insecticide, the highest tobacco concentration of 50% showed some positive effects as an average total of two caterpillars died. 3.3 cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 8 hours results from the experiment for tobacco leaf extract concentrations eight hours after establishment of the trial indicated that there was a significantly higher mortality difference (p<0.05) between the lowest concentration of 25% and the highest concentration of 50%. however, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) amongst the 50% concentration, 33.33% and 41.67% concentrations. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 51 published by ideas spread figure 3. cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 8 hours 3.4 cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 10 hours. results for tobacco leaf extract concentrations ten hours after the start of the trial showed that there was a significantly higher mortality difference (p<0.05) between the lowest concentration of 25% and highest concentration of 50%. however, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) amongst the 50%, 33.33% and the 41.67% concentrations. figure 4. cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 10 hours 3.5 cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentration at 12 hours. results from the experiment twelve hours after the start of the trial indicated that there was a significantly higher mortality difference (p<0.05) between the lowest concentration of 25% and all the other three treatments. however, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) amongst the 50%, 33.33% and the 41.67% treatments. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 52 published by ideas spread figure 5. cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 12 hours 3.6 cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 14 hours results from the experiment for tobacco leaf extract concentrations fourteen hours after the beginning of the trial showed that there was significantly higher mortality difference (p< 0.05) between the lowest concentration of 25% and the 50% concentration. however, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) amongst the 33.33%, 41.67% and 50% concentrations. figure 6. cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 14 hours 3.7 cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 16 hours results sixteen hours after the beginning of the trial indicated that there was significantly higher mortality difference (p<0.05) between the 25% concentration and the highest concentration of 50%. however, there was a significantly lower mortality difference (p<0.05) between the 33.33% and the 50% concentration. figure 7. cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 16 hours as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 53 published by ideas spread 3.8 cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 18 hours results from the experiment for tobacco leaf extract concentrations eighteen hours after the start of the trial showed that there was significantly higher mortality difference (p<0.05) between the 25%, 33.33%, 41.67% concentrations and the highest concentration of 50%. however, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) between the 25% and the 41.67% concentration. figure 8. cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 18 hours 3.9 cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 20 hours there was a significantly higher mortality difference (p<0.05) between the highest tobacco leaf extract concentration of 50% and all the other three treatments of 25%, 33.33% and 41.67% respectively. figure 9. cumulative mortalities of faw after exposure to n. tabacum concentrations at 20 hours 4. discussion 4.1 effects of n. tabacum concentration on mortality of fall armyworm results from the study indicated that crude aqueous n. tabacum leaf extracts can be used effectively to control s. frugiperda on maize diets. the results showed that mortality was dose dependent as more caterpillar deaths were recorded at higher dosage levels. this agrees with observations by silva et al., (2019), who revealed that n. tabacum leaves contain high nicotine which is toxic to insects. nicotine exhibits a systemic form of pesticidal effects as supported by (jarrod et al., 2019). neonicotinoids, like nicotine, bind to nicotic acetyleholine receptors (nachrs) of a cell and trigger a response by that cell. in insects, (like faw), these receptors are found in the central nervous system. this effect of tobacco on insects was also described by mordue and nisbert (2010) as a deterrent to feeding, interfering mainly in the physiology of the ecdysis and in cellular processes, potentially resulting in the death of the insect. low to moderate activation of cell receptors by nicotine causes nervous stimulation while high levels over-stimulate and block the receptors causing paralysis and death of the insect. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 54 published by ideas spread 4.2 effects of exposure time of aqueous tobacco on faw mortality in the current study, the time taken by different tobacco concentrations to kill the pest was significantly different (p<0.05). results indicated that longer exposure periods of faw to tobacco extracts increases the number of pest mortalities. this was supported by cresswell et al., (2012), who highlighted that the longer the pest is subjected to an aqueous extract from tobacco leaves the higher the number of faw mortalities as the effect is on the time nicotine takes to terminate the signals from cell receptors. similar experiments by birhanu et al., (2019) also showed that tobacco leaf extracts can effectively control s. frugiperda 72 hours after the pest is exposed or introduced to the botanical insecticide on maize diets. the effect of time on the control of faw can be attributed to the stage of controlling the pest. as the pest grows older, a longer time period may be taken to control it due to its resistant characteristics to insecticides as a result of its continued molting or ecdysis. in the experiment, 3rd instar larvae were used. however, silva et al., (2019) highlighted that newly hatched caterpillars, 1st to 2nd instars, can be killed quickly using tobacco. results also showed that tobacco extracts require a pre-determined time period to show its efficacy on faw. however, the longer the time any insecticide takes to completely control the pest, the more damage the pest causes to the maize crop as it feeds continuously (birhanu et al., 2019). 5. conclusion results from the study indicated that tobacco leaf extracts are effective in controlling faw especially at 50% concentration. results also show that faw exposure time to the botanical pesticide is important as cumulative deaths were increasing with more exposure time. after 20 hours, there were more deaths from all tobacco concentrations than at 2 hours after the onset of the experiment. 6. recommendations the study recommends that smallholder farmers should use the most effective tobacco concentration of 50% to control fall armyworm. further studies of using higher tobacco concentrations should also be done and this will not have any cost implication to the smallholder farmer since scrap flue cured tobacco leaves are readily available. experiments based on more exposure time of the pest to tobacco concentrations should also be done so as to attain 100% pest mortalities. whilst this was a laboratory experiment, the study also recommends that it be done as a field experiment so that there will be a validation of the pest leaf damage per given time. the study further recommends the use of bioassays with organic solvents as opposed to water extracts. references agritex department. (2017). agro-ecological zones of zimbabwe, harare: mambo press. birhanu, s., tadele, t., mulatu, w., gashawbeza, a., & mendesil, e. (2019). the efficacy of selected synthetic insecticides and botanicals against fall armyworm (spodoptera frugiperda) in maize, ethiopia: haramaya university. birhanu, s. (2018). evaluation of different management options of fall armyworm (spodoptera frugiperda., j.e smith)(lepidoptera: noctuidae) and assessment of its parasitoids in some parts of ethiopia, haramaya: haramaya university. cimmyt newsletter. (2017). zimbabwe enacts new strategy in faw fight, harare: department of agriculture. cresswell, j. e., merritt, s. z., & martin, m. m. (2012). the effect of dietary nicotine on the allocation of assimilated food to energy metabolism and growth in the fourth instar larvae of faw. journal of oecologia, 89(6), 449-453. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00317425 eric, b., & john, t. (2017). fall armyworm as a pest of corn spodoptera frugiperda. college of agricultural sciences, entomology notes: the pennsylvania state university. fao stat. (2009). food and agriculture organization of the united nations, faostat. fao. (2017). fao launches mobile application to support fight against faw in africa. retrieved april 2, 2018, from http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/1106850/icode/ gomez, k. a., & gomez, a. a. (1984). statistical procedures for agricultural research (2nd ed). chichester, uk: john wiley and sons. isman, m. b. (2010). botanical insecticides, deterrents and repellents in modern agriculture and an increasingly regulated world, usa, cap international. jarrod, t. h., joshua, h., temple, b., rogers, l., & ryan, e. j. (2019). laboratory toxicity and field efficacy of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 55 published by ideas spread selected insecticides against fall armyworm (lepidoptera: noctuidae), usa: florida entomological society. leffingwell. j. c. (2001). chemical constituents of tobacco leaf and differences among tobacco types. journal article number, 8, 14-18. meteorological service department. (2017). annual rainfall in the 2016-17 agricultural season, harare, zimbabwe. mordue, a. j., & nisbet, a. (2010). nicotine from tobacco: its actions against insects. anais da sociedade entomológica do brasil, 29, 615-632. moris, b. (2001). the impacts of field pests on the maize crop, journal of field crops: p 16-18. prakash, a., & rao, j. (2007). botanical pesticides in agriculture, first edition, florida: crc press, baton rouge. prasanna, b. m., huesing, j. e., eddy, r., & peschke, v. m. (2018). fall armyworm in africa: a guide for intergrated pest management (1st ed). mexico: cimmyt. silva, b., tadele, t., & mendesil, e. (2019). the efficacy of selected botanicals against faw (spodoptera frugiperda., j.e. smith) in maize. scientia agricola, 74(1), 18-31. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p230 230 published by ideas spread adaptation of tef {eragrostistef(zucc) trotter} varieties for early maturing types in tigray chekole nigus1, yonas g/mariam1, muez mehari2 & haftamu h/kiross1 1 tigari agricultural research institute, axum agricultural research center, axum, ethiopia 2 tigari agricultural research institute, alamata agricultural research center, ethiopia correspondence: chekole nigus, tigari agricultural research institute, axum agricultural research center, p. o. box. 230, axum, ethiopia. e-mail: chekolenigus@gmail.com received: april 24, 2020 accepted: may 10, 2020 online published: may 22, 2020 abstract tef is the most important and wider adaptable cereal crop in ethiopia. the most limiting tef productions are low yielding cultivars, biotic such as pest and diseases and abiotic such as drought, fertility depletion and inappropriate agronomic practice and difficulty nature of tef for mechanization. the objective of the study was to evaluate the adaptability of early maturing tef varieties. tef varieties were evaluated for their earliness and adaptability at three locations and over two years. the trial included 8 varieties and one local check with the design of rcbd in three replications. the analysis of variance showed that there was significant difference (p<-0.001) between genotypes and locations for the days to heading, days to maturity, plant height, panicle length, grain yield and (p<-0.05) for biomass yield. however, it does not provide evidence for interaction between the varieties and locations on all traits except for days to maturity. simada was early maturing and well performing, following boset. therefore, cultivation of both varieties enhances the production of tef in the study areas and similar agro-ecologies. allocation of varieties to their niche might increase the productivity of tef. in general, evaluation tef varieties in the right place and development of target variety for earliness and yield performance increase production in the region as well as the nation. further work needed breeding to develop drought tolerant and higher yielding. keywords: adaptation, erratic rainfall, early maturing and tef 1. introduction tef is the most important and wider adaptable cereal crop in ethiopia. tef is grown by more than 6.8 million households (cas, 2018) with growing season rainfall of 450-550 mm (ketema, 1993). it grows in various agro climatic condition from sea level to 3000meter above sea level and different types of edaphic factors thus from light sandy to heavy clay soil in variable fertility(kebebew,2003). tef has an advantage over the other cereal by generating and fulfilling nutritional needs (assefa et al., 2015) and it is healthy food due to the grain is free of gluten (spaenijdekking et al., 2005). the major features of the crop are resilience to drought and waterlogging problems, serves as a low-risk crop to replace long-maturing crops such as maize and sorghum, and no serious threats of pest and disease (assefa et al., 2015). as result, the research institutes in ethiopian needed to increase the productivity of tef per unit area. there are different types of tef production constraints in the nation. the most limiting tef productions are low yielding cultivars, biotic stress such as pest and diseases and abiotic stress drought (assefa et al., 20111), fertility depletion and inappropriate agronomic practice (tef needs well prepared land for planting) and difficulty nature of tef for mechanization. the most yield-limiting factor is drought and it causes to reduce the yield 29 %(mizan,2017), 40 %(mulu, 1993) and 77%(abuhay, 2001). even though, the production areas is the higher coverage, but the productivity is very low in nationwide and as well as in the tigray region, 17.50qt/ha and 16qt/ha (cas, 2019), respectively. the constraint being lower yielding cultivars are selection and development of tef variety is not appropriate niche and inadequate enhancement of yield. therefore, identifying the right bottleneck of tef production leads to provide a solution. the wider adaptability of tef under different agro ecology is the reason why tef selective crop in nation and the region. different authors reported that there is a statistically significance difference in phenological and yield and yield related traits of tef varieties/genotypes (seyfu, 1993; molla et al.,2012; aliyi et al., 2016; abebe and wondwosen, 2017; bakala et al., 2018). these authors determined the yield depends on the moisture availability for better yielding tef varieties. the most farmers selection criteria is higher yielding, early maturing and white as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 231 published by ideas spread seed color(molla et al.,2012). these works were evaluated different maturing tef varieties under different rainfall and humidity condition. we evaluated early maturing tef varieties under light and moisture stressed areas of the region. selection of tef varieties with wider adaptable through early maturity and higher yielding in biomass and yield is the criteria in stressed areas. adaptation is the survival value of an organism for it habitat (wilsie, 1962). the adaptable for various factors might be expressed with different mechanism; these might be physiological by earliness and rolling their leaves escaped from deficit of moisture. tef required days to physiological maturity from 60-140 days assefa et al. (2001) this range is categorized in to three sets the first set is early set it ranges less than 80days and the intermediate also 80 to 95 days while the third group is late set more than 95 days(tiruneh et al., 2000). as result, the broader genetic variability in maturity evaluation of early released tef varieties under moisture stressed areas leads to increase the production. then, evaluation of the statistically significance difference for early maturing tef variety is important in advancing the yield. furthermore, providing improved tef variety for tef growing farmer’s needs selection and evaluation of released tef varieties for adaptability. farmers have a limitation in cultivating improved tef varieties, but also it grown under inappropriate niches. even though the current production influenced by different factors and yielding 17.5qt/ha. however, the potential yield of tef is estimated more than 50 qt/ha as recorded per experimental plots (tefera and ketama, 2000). the purpose of the study was to evaluate tef varieties under moisture stress areas facing with early and late drought problems. therefore, an evaluation of early maturing tef varieties for their adaptability can serve as an assessment of a mechanism to escape drought. the main contribution of this paper is to provide a best performing early maturing tef varieties and thereby to increase the production of tef in the region. the objective of the study was to evaluate the adaptability of early maturing tef varieties in the study area. 2. methodology the experiment was conducted at axum and alamata agricultural research center during the 2017/18 and 2018/19 cropping season. experiments venues were such that at the station of ahiferom(dibdbo) with altitude of 2021masl, latitude 14016’57.12’’ and longitude 39004’6.78’’ while the soil texture is loam. whereas, the second substation was adwa (mayteum) having an altitude of 1887masl, latitude of1409’4.64’’ longitude, 38050’57.24’’ and loam soil texture. the third substation was alamata(kara-adisho) altitude of 1550mals, latitude 12040’48’’, longitude 39041’06’’ the soil texture is loam. there was a failure at ahiferom in the first year 2017/18 the data were only from adwa and alamata, while for the second season data were collected from all sites. the materials were including one local check and 8 varieties to evaluate their yield performance and adaptability. the experiment was laid out as rcbd design with three replication and plot size of 2mx2m=4m2 net harvestable plot size 3.2 m2, 0.2m between rows,0.5m between plots and 1m between replication spaced. blended fertilizer was applied per the recommendation of the specific locations with rate of 100 kg/ha and while the urea was applied 100 kg/ha for all locations with split application. the first phase at early two weeks later after germination the second phase also applied near to heading of the crop. whereas, all recommended agronomic management practice was applied. the following data were collected:-day to heading, days to maturity, plant height, panicle length and biomass yield and grain yield. days to heading and days to maturity were measured from date of planting to 50% heading and 90% of physiological maturity respectively. plant height measured from the ground to tip of the plant and panicle length was also from the base of the panicle to the tip of it. whereas, the biomass yield and grain yield also weighed from the net harvestable plot area 3.2m2 by hand threshing and converted to hectare. the data was subjected to analysis of variance by sas software of version 9.1.3 (sas, 2004) for days to maturity and grain yield and while the remained traits were analyzed by r software (pinheiro, and bate, 2000). the normality and homogeneity of the data was tested by shapiro.test(patrick royston, 1982) and levenes.test(wilcox, 1989) respectively by r software. table 1. list of tef pedigree and common name varieties and release of year s.no pedigree varieties year of released 1 (dz-01-186 xdz-01-566)t-4 tseday 1984 2 dz-01-196 x dz-cr-37 boset 2012 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 232 published by ideas spread 3 dz-01-2785 x e. pilosa(305)1998 simada 2009 4 ho-cr-136 amarach 2006 5 dz-01-146 genet 2005 6 acc. 205953 macharie 2007 7 (dz-cr-387 ril273) lakech 2009 8 (dz-cr-387 ril127) gemechus 2007 9 farmers cultivar local early 3. results and discussion the analysis of variance shown that the varieties were statistically significant differed for all traits. this indicates that there is variance in earliness for heading and maturity, difference(p<0.01) and agronomic traits that is plant height and panicle length as well as higher and lower performance for biomass and grain yield of the tested tef varieties(p<0.05) table 3. therefore, the presence of the statistically significance difference leads for the selection tef variety having an advantage of early maturing and higher yielding in the moisture limiting areas of the region. in areas facing with moisture stress, cultivation of early heading and maturing tef varieties are important. in this research the shorter days to heading and days to maturity is simada. tef heading less than 39 days were grouped under the early heading category (truneh et al., 2000). confirming tiruneh et al., reported simada is the best variety for the production of tef in the study area. while, the longest days to heading and maturity is lakech. tef varieties headed and matured more than 44 days to heading and 90 days maturity are grouped in the late set (truneh et al., 2000) which are not well adaptable for the study area. this causes to mature by forcing due to the early or late drought existing. in such condition, the grain filling is becoming influenced to be poor seed size and grain. the presence of variability between tef varieties helps for the choice early maturing and wider adaptable tef variety for the tested locations. determining the correlation of agronomic traits for the grain yield of tef variety is an important ways to select tef varieties. the study shows that there was significance difference between the varieties in agronomic traits. macharie and genet measured a longer plant height and panicle length respectively. the longer plant height did not have a direct correlation to a longer panicle length. even the yield also not associated with longer plant height and panicle length (table. 3). however, the shorter plant height and panicle length was recorded on simada. moreover, the shorter length on plant height and panicle has a direct relationship to be weight the higher grain yield (table 3). in contrast, to the potential tef variety, evaluation, which is the longer panicle length, has the higher yield, but the shorter panicle length recorded the higher yield in this research. the finding noted that the combination of earlier days to maturity and shorter plant height is a good trait for selection of tef variety for moisture stressed areas. the report of mzan et al.,(2016) confirming with present finding in earliness has positively correlated with grain yield however, disagreed with this result longer plant height panicle length has lower yielding. in small scale farming system higher in biomass and grain yield of tef, varieties are required. the evaluated tef varieties were statistically significance difference with local check in biomass and grain yield. boset was the higher biomass whereas; the lower biomass was obtained from simada. farmers, which are practicing the mixing farming system highly needs both biological yield and grain yield of tef variety. thus, tef straw is the favorable feed for livestock’s in this farming system. the higher yielding tef variety from the evaluated for their adaptability was simada following by boset. simada shows statistically significance difference in grain yield with local check and the higher yield of the tested tef varieties. the yield advantage of simada over the local check was 18.80%. this might be due to presence of drought adaptation mechanism which is drought escaping, the variety matured before the drought occurred (zerihun, 2016). therefore, cultivation of simada and boset under the tested areas enhance the yield in both providing the food for human and feed for animals. understanding the influence of varieties, location and their interaction between location and varieties on tef grain yield and adaptability is so vital. tef varieties shows that a statistically significance difference on performance of the yield. this might be due to the phenologically variance in days to heading and maturity. the earlier the variety was the higher yielding in the tested locations. except the days to maturity, not all traits had shown statistically as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 233 published by ideas spread significance difference variety by locations interaction (vli). worku, (2018) proved out that days to maturity had a genotype by location interaction that the other triats. moreover, locations were shown significantly differ for all measured traits. even though there is difference in locations the variety by location, interaction did not demonstration statistically significant different, thus the average mean performance would be selected for the tested areas and similar agro-ecologies. the absence of variety by location interaction in grain yield indicated that varieties did not a differently response at different locations (eberhart and russel, 1966) and it has wider adaptability capacity in yield. so it makes easy to give a general recommendation of cultivars without loss of maximum yield (cruz and castodi, 1991). therefore, varieties were selected by their average mean yield of location and season. as a result, of the present finding early maturing and well performing in biomass and grain yield of tef varieties were simada and boset. moreover, location difference implies that the genotypes were exposed to diversified growth condition to evaluate their performance and stability. kassa et al. (2006) reported that there is a presence of variability between tef genotypes and location tested. the significance interaction of varieties and location on days to maturity revealed that it might be due to the variability of rainfall over the tested locations and seasons. this difference of rainfall forced fluctuation of the maturity of varieties on the different environments (table. 3). then, selection early heading and maturing with combined of higher biomass and grain yield enhance the production of tef in moisture stress areas. in addition to this, the response of tef varieties per different locations varies in phenologically and yield and yield related traits (table.2). the minimum yield of nine varieties over the tested location was record from lakech (1084kg/ha) at ahiferom. the reason why this variety was low yield might be the days to heading of that variety was very late than the others. as result, in moisture limiting and fertility depleted areas late heading varieties are faced a problem of maturing/grain filling in the right time and then become lower yielding. whereas, the maximum yield also obtained at alamata(2242.77kg/ha) from simada. whereas, boset was expressed the performance on biomass and grain yield at adwa while, buni(local check) was earlier in maturity at alamata (table 2). table 1. the combined mean performance of day to maturity and grain yield atthree locations in two growing seasons (ahiferom. alamata and adwa and 2017/18 and 2018 s.no varieties dh dm ph pl biom g y(kg/ha) 1 tseday 44.78f 84.733c 94.73de 35.84de 7083.33bc 1687.5cde 2 boset 50.44cd 84.60c 103.47bc 36.64cde 8333.33a 1945.8ab 3 simada 38.56g 81.66e 89.18e 34.8e 6875c 2074.4a 4 amarach 47.44e 83.80cd 100.33cd 35.89de 7083.33bc 1822.9abcd 5 genet 52.11bc 89.53b 108.49ab 44.067a 7083.33bc 1433.2e 6 macharie 51.33c 88.60b 111.267a 43.64a 6875c 1621.3de 7 lakech 56.87a 91.40a 109.02ab 39.6b 8055.56ab 1880.5abc 8 gemechus 53.89b 88.20b 105.93abc 39.156bc 7638.89abc 1737.2bcd 9 local early 49de 82.60de 104.02bc 38.64bcd 7291.67bc 1746.2bcd grand mean 49.29 86.125 102.9 38.7 7369 1772.092 cv% 4.56832 2.84342 5.805 7.7704 14.4362 19.80623 r –square 0.8725 0.9503 0.497973 0.417 0.6615 0.74806 location * *** *** ** ** *** varieties 2.1 **** 1.7796*** 5.65 *** 2.84 *** 1006.27* 255.05*** location x varieties ns *** ns ns ns ns dh(days)=days to heading, ph(cm)=plant height, pl(cm)=panicle length, biom(kg/ha)=biomass yield, dm(days)=days to maturity and gy(kg/ha)=grain yield, ns=non significance difference, * and*** signfi difference at p,-0.05 and p<-0.001 value as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 234 published by ideas spread table 2. the combined mean performance of days to heading (days), days to maturity (days), plant height (cm), panicle length (cm), biomass (kg/ha) and grain yield (kg/ha) for adwa, ahiferom and alamata in 2017/18 and 2018/19.nb:-for days heading, plant height, panicle length and biomass did not include from alamata for both year and ahiferom also missed from 2017/18 for traits s.no varieties adwa ahiferom adwa ahiferom adwa ahiferom adwa ahiferom adwa ahiferom alamata adwa ahiferom alamata dh dh ph ph pl pl biom biom dm dm dm gy gy gy 1 tseday 44.83 44.67 95.33 93.53 36.67 34.2 6354.17 8541.67 82.83 79 89.5 1744.58 1285.52 1831.38 2 boset 51 49.33 105.1 100.13 36.5 36.93 7916.67 9166.67 86 81 85 2208.59 1224.06 2043.92 3 simada 39.5 36.67 91.97 83.6 35.9 32.6 6250 8125 78.67 79 86 2016.3 1853.65 2242.77 4 amarach 47.83 46.67 102.43 96.13 36.2 35.27 6979.17 7291.67 83.33 80.33 86 2097.45 1300.94 1809.25 5 genet 51.5 53.33 111.37 102.73 44.03 44.13 6979.17 7291.67 90.33 85.33 90.83 1751.25 911.98 1375.67 6 macharie 53.17 47.67 113.4 107 45.5 39.93 6458.33 7708.33 89.83 84.33 89.5 1927.4 1202.08 1524.73 7 lakech 56.75 57 112.2 102.67 41.63 35.53 7395.83 9375 90.67 89.67 93 1848.7 1084.58 2118.52 8 gemechus 53.83 54 109.8 98.2 40.4 36.67 6666.67 9583.33 87.83 84 91 1798.65 1263.44 1668.17 9 local early 49.83 47.33 105.27 101.53 38.27 39.4 6562.5 8750 85 80 81.5 1816.35 1127.81 1877.04 4. summary and conclusions cultivation of early maturing and wider adaptable tef varieties are helpful to minimize a yield gap due to the presence of erratic rainfall in the study area. allocation of variety at their right niche and application of appropriate agronomic practice might increase the productivity of tef. we recommend that from the present research finding simada and boset with appropriate agronomic practice for the tested and other similar agro-ecologies. further work needed breeding to develop drought tolerant and higher yielding. acknowledgement we wish to thank agricultural growth project (agp –ii) and tigray agricultural research institute, axum and alamata centers allocating the budget to accomplish this activity and the staff of both centers. references aliyi, k. o., chimdesa, s. a., & yeared, t. 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(2016). drought adaptation in millets. in arun k. shanker & chitra shanker (eds.), aboitic and biotic stress in plant, recent advance and future perspectives. intech. janeza trdine croatio. << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel 0 /emitdscwarnings false /endpage -1 /imagememory 1048576 /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct 100 /optimize true /opm 1 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v1n1p39 39 published by ideas spread effects of time of earthing up on yield and yield parameters of irish potato (solanum tuberosum l.) in zaka district, zimbabwe nyasha sakadzo1, fortune tafirenyika1 & kasirayi makaza1 1 department of soil and plant sciences, faculty of agricultural and natural sciences, great zimbabwe university, zimbabwe correspondence: nyasha sakadzo, department of soil and plant sciences. faculty of agricultural and natural sciences, great zimbabwe university, p.o. box 1235 masvingo, zimbabwe. tel: 263-775-985-724. e-mail: nsakadzo87@gmail.com received: december 7, 2019 accepted: december 27, 2019 online published: january 1, 2020 abstract potato (solanum tuberosum l) is a strategic national food security crop in that can be used as a supplement for carbohydrates. it is the fastest growing staple food crop and source of income for poor smallholder farmers. there is limited documentation on effects of earthing up irish potatoes on yield and yield components in zimbabwe. a field experiment was conducted in zaka district of masvingo province in zimbabwe during the 2018/19 cropping season. the aim of the study was to investigate the effect of time of earthing up on yield and yield parameters of bp1 potato variety. the treatments consisted of four levels of time of earthing up (no earthing up (control), three, four and five weeks after plant emergence), replicated three times on a randomized complete block design (rcbd). results on earthing-up at three weeks recorded significantly (p<0.013) the highest total tuber yield (21.97 t ha-1) which is 10% higher compared to no earthing up which recorded 14.43 t ha-1. moreover, earthing up at two weeks had the least number of greening tuber yield (3%), 11% pest damaged tuber yield, 6% unmarketable tuber yield and 45% marketable tuber yield. this is in contrast with no earthing up which recorded 91% greening tuber yield, 25.3% on pest damaged tubers, 59% on unmarketable tubers and 10% marketable tuber yield. based on the results, first earthing up should be done at three weeks after complete plant emergence at the study area under rain fed conditions for the production of potatoes with improved yield and better tuber quality. keywords: potato (solanum tuberosum l.), small holder farmers, food security, tuber yield, hilling, time of earthing up 1. introduction potato (solanum tuberosum l.) is an herbaceous annual plant which belongs to the order solanales in the solanaceae family of flowering plants grown for its edible tubers. it was first cultivated 6000 years ago by the inca tribe in peru (quin, 2011). the potato plant has a branched stem and alternately arranged leaves consisting of leaflets which are both of unequal size and shape. it produces white or blue flowers and yellow-green berries. the potato tubers grow underground and are generally located in the top 25 cm of the soil, (burke, 2012). the tubers can range in color from yellow to red or purple depending on the variety. potato may also be referred to as, spud, irish potato, white potato or spanish potato. the plants can reach in excess of 1 m in height (gusha, 2014). irish potato (solunum tuberosum l.) irish potato is the most important horticultural crop in zimbabwe and third as a carbohydrate food source after maize and wheat (masvodza, 2015, the herald, 2011, ackerman, 2013). acknowledging the increased interest in potato production and consumption, the government of zimbabwe declared irish potato a national strategic food security crop on 18 may 2012 (the herald, 2012, svubure et al., 2015). in contemporary zimbabwe irish potatoes were well established by the early twentieth century (faostat, 2012). in the year 1911, variety trials were undertaken with recorded yields up to 11.5 tones/ha. the government then decided to monitor local potato production as a priority to avoid the introduction of pests that may hinder the production of tobacco, one of zimbabwe's most profitable cash crops (masvodza, 2015) therefore, the production of irish potatoes in the country is protected under the plant pests and diseases (seed potato protection) regulations in statutory instrument 679 (1982), although farmers themselves bear the responsibility to safeguarding their crop from diseases. additionally, a national breeding program, which subjects imported potatoes to heavy quarantine, was instituted in 1956 and has been the only such program that is authorized to do so. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 40 published by ideas spread today, potato production and consumption are booming worldwide, with ever greater quantities being processed for food and snack industries, while its importance as a subsistence crop continues to expand, (muhammad et al., 2013). the average composition of the potato is about 80% water, 2% protein, and 18% starch. as a food, it is one of the cheapest and easily available sources of carbohydrates and proteins and contains appreciable amount of vitamins b and c as well as some minerals. according to fao (2008), potato is the world's leading vegetable crop and is grown in 79% of the world’s countries. more than a billion people consume it almost daily. hundreds of millions of people in developing countries depend on potatoes for their survival, (muhammad et al., 2013) several factors have been associated with reduced potato yields, with a lack of knowledge on time of earthing up and cultivation methods as well as the rising costs of production as major factors (masvodza, 2015). according to svubure et al. (2015), a study on yield gap analysis and resource footprints of irish potato production systems in zimbabwe by the field crops research in 2015 found that most farmers lacked the technical know-how, about potato-farming. faostat (2013) postulated that about 3,500 hectare of the crop is planted annually in zimbabwe; the average yield for potatoes is 20 tones per hectare. currently there is little documentation on effects of earthing up of potatoes. therefore, the objective of this research project is to assess the influence of time of earthing up on yield and yield parameters of irish potatoes in zaka district. 2. materials and methods 2.1 study site the study was carried out in zaka district in jerera growth point plot number 353 which is (20o 241 south and 31o 261 east) at an altitude of 731 meters above sea level (figure 1 shaded in orange). the site is located 104 kilometers south east of masvingo town in natural region iv of zimbabwe. the area is characterized by erratic rainfall pattern and the variability of rainfall and shortness of the season. the average annual rainfall ranges from 450-600mm per year. the area is dominated by sand loamy of granite origin soils with a ph ranging from 5.56.5. figure 1. study site map (shaded in orange) 2.2 experimental design the experiment was implemented in a randomized complete block design (rcbd) as postulated by tesfaye et al. (2013). the experimental design had four treatments replicated three times. the treatments of the experiment are shown in table 1 below: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 41 published by ideas spread table 1. treatment structure. treatment t1 t2 t3 t4 no earthing up(control) earthing up a week before flowering earthing up at flowering earthing up a week after flowering weeks 3 weeks after plant emergence 4 weeks after plant emergence 5weeks after plant emergence 2.3 plot management plot layout three plots (blocks) were designed, each block comprised of 4 rows of 3m in length spaced at 0.9m apart. the in-row spacing was 0.3m and 0.9m inter-row. a total of 40 sprouted seed potato tubers of the bp1 variety were sown in each block allowing two shoots to grow per planting station. bp1 is a local early maturing variety which takes about 14-15 weeks to mature with white skin and flesh. the variety is resistant to late blight and has an expected yield of 13.5 to 20tlhathe four treatments were replicated three times randomly to make a total of 12 rows in 3 blocks. fertilizer application compound s basal dressing fertiliser (npk: 7:21:7) was used at planting at a rate of 1300kg/ha. ammonium nitrate (an) will be used as top dressing at a rate of 150kg/ha. the rate of an data collection and statistical analysis some irish potato parameters were recorded which have been documented to influence yield and other yield parameters, for example number of greening tubers (ngt), number of pest damaged potatoes (npdt), number of unmarketable tubers (numt) and number of marketable tubers (nmt) and plant height. analysis of variance was done using genstat statistical package 14th edition. separation of means was done using fisher’s protected least significant difference (lsd) test at 5% significant difference. 3. results table 2. effects of time of earthing up on yield and yield parameters of irish potatoes. treatment number of pest damaged tubers (npdt) number of marketable tubers (nmt) number of unmarketable tubers (numt) number of greening tubers (ngt) weight of fresh tubers (kg) (wft) yield t/ha neu (control) 25.33b 32.7a 128.0a 125.00b 3.47 a 14.43 a eubf (3 weeks) 4.67a 151.7d 13.3d 4.00a 5.27 b 21. 97 c eaf (4 weeks) 6.00a 93.7c 24.7c 3.67a 4.50 b 18.73 bc euaf (5 weeks) 5.33a 59.0b 49.3b 4.00a 4.40 b 18.33 b grand mean 10.33 84.2 53.8 34.17 4.41 18.37 lsd 1.97 14.30 11.64 5.68 0.87 3.6 p value <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.014 0.013 cv% 9.8 3.1 4.7 4.2 6.1 6.0 *mean values followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different at 5% level according to fisher’s protected least significant difference test. effects of time of earthing up on the yield of irish potatoes (t/ha) results on table two indicated that there were significant differences (p<0.05) amongst the treatments. earthing up before emergence (eubf) treatment managed to reach 21.9tons per hectare which was higher than not earthed up (neu) (control) which had 14.4 t/ha (figure 2). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 42 published by ideas spread figure 2. bar graph showing effects of time of earthing up on the yield of irish potatoes effects of time of earthing up on number of pest damaged tubers (npdt). the results showed that there were significant differences amongst the treatments (p<0.001) on number of pest damaged tubers (npdt). although the treatment means of eubf, earthed at flowering (eaf) and earthed up after flowering (euaf) showed no statistical difference as shown in table 2 above, the control neu had 25.3 of its tubers damaged by pests while other treatments three weeks, four weeks and five weeks had 4.6, 6.0 and 5.3 tubers which were pest damaged. figure 3. bar graph showing effects of time of earthing up on number of pest damaged tubers effect of time of earthing up on number of greening tubers (ngt) results indicated that there were highly significant differences (p<0.001) amongst the treatments as shown on table 1. the neu (control) recorded the highest number of greening tubers (125) which is 91% of the total as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 43 published by ideas spread greening tubers of the treatments against 3% on each of the remaining 3 treatments. figure 4. bar graph showing e effects of time of earthing up on number of greening tubers effects of time of earthing up on number of unmarketable tubers (numt). results showed that there were significant differences (p<0.05) amongst the treatments as indicated on table 2. the neu (control) treatment recorded the highest number of unmarketable tubers (128) whilst eubf scored the least (13.3). figure 5. bar graph showing effects of time of earthing up on unmarketable tubers as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 44 published by ideas spread effects of time of earthing up on number of marketable tubers (nmt) results showed that there were significant differences (p<0.05) amongst the treatments as exhibited on table 2. earthing up before flowering (eubf) had the highest number of marketable tubers (152) whilst the control (neu) had the least (33). figure 6. bar graph showing effects of time of earthing up on number of marketable tubers 4. discussion effects of time of earthing up on irish potato yield (t/ha) earthing up before flowering (eubf 3 weeks) yielded 21.97t/ha (30%) while no earthing up (neu control) recorded 14.43t/ha (10%). this result is similar with that of gutema (2016) who obtained that ridging at two weeks after emergence during the growing period of the crop increased tuber yield by 10-20% compared to the control. in addition, fanos et al. (2015) are also in agreement with this result through their study which they obtained that earthing up at 15 days give a difference of 10.13% on total potato tuber yield over the control with no earthing up. this is largely because of the enough time given to the potato plant (earthed at 15 days) to transform the photosynthesates to yield (a conducive environment for better source to sink relationship in the potato plants). in line with the study (tafirt et al., 2010) explains the mutual effect of earthing up at 15 days as significant because it coincides with the active growth stage of the plant hence improved the soil conditions at this stage promotes efficient nutrient absorption resulting in increased plant growth and development that ultimately results in yield. according to don and james (1990) the plant’s severe need of the soil moisture and nutrients at this stage (two weeks), earthing up, thus, creates a suitable environment for growth of rhizomes and promote more tuber initiation. effects of time of earthing up on number of pest damaged tubers the results showed that the difference amongst the treatments with respect to number of pest damaged tubers (npdt) was highly significant. no earthing up (neu) recorded 61% of the total pest damaged tubers among the treatments while other treatments ranged from 11% to 15%. according to svubureet al. (2015), potato tubers covered with soil less than 5cm will be exposed and prone to pest attack. however, singh and joshi (2016) specified that the irish potato plant has the ability to produce its own protective chemicals which can make it lethal to insects, animals and fungi which attack it. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 45 published by ideas spread effects of time of earthing up on the number greening tubers there was a highly significant difference on the number of greening tubers amongst the treatments. a total of 91% of greening potatoes were recorded on (neu) while 6% was recorded under earthing up before flowering (eubf/3 weeks) treatment. the results concurs with the findings of muhammad et al. (2013) who reported that ridging significantly reduced tuber greening, green tubers were found on plants where there was no hilling and was significantly more than any of the hilled treatments. when potato tubers are exposed to light, amyloplasts are converted to chloroplasts in tuber peripheral cell layers, which cause the accumulation of the green photosynthetic pigment (fanos et al., 2015). tuber greening can be impacted by genetic, cultural, physiological and environmental factors but planting depth and tuber physiological age, matters most (singh & joshi, 2016). tuber greening was reduced as seed pieces were planted deeper. multiple studies indicate that green or sunburned tuber yield can be significantly reduced by increasing planting depth or through timely earthing up (fanos et al., 2015). therefore deducing from the above discussion timing of earthing up has a direct bearing to the number of greening tubers. delayed or no earthing up exposes the tubers to light and hence greening of tubers increases this is in agreement with the results of the investigation which shows that 125 potato tubers were recorded from the control where there was no earthing up, the tubers were exposed to light and some ended up sprouting right in the field. effects of time of earthing up on number of unmarketable tubers. results of this experiment revealed that the delaying and no earthing-up resulted in higher percentage of unmarketable tubers. in this experiment unmarketable tuber yield was assessed by identifying under sized, damaged, diseased, deformed and green potato tubers (tesfaye et al., 2012). a higher number (128) of affected tubers by disease, pests, size, malformed, greening tubers and pre harvest sprouting on tubers was observed in no earthing-up trials while 13 were recorded on eubf ( 3 weeks) these results are in agreement with those produced by fanos et al. (2015) who found out that unmarketable tuber yield from plots where earthing-up was done at 15 days was 16.55% lower than unmarketable tuber yield from no earthing up plots. from the investigation, earthing up at three weeks, four weeks five weeks and no earthing up showed reduced unmarketable tuber yield with early earthing up by 6%, 12%, 23% and 59 %, respectively. this is probably because of that which was explained by svubure et al. (2015), denoting that exposing tubers outside of hill or tubers be shallow, less than 5 cm covered by soil make tubers prone to pest attack and greening which compromises tuber quality. effects of time of earthing up on number of marketable tubers the highest number marketable tubers (152) was obtained at earthing up at eubf (3 weeks) whereas 94, 59 and 33 were recorded from earthing up at eaf(4 weeks), euaf (5 weeks) and neu (no earthing up) respectively. results are in line to those found by don and james (1990) who postulated that plants at eubf (3 weeks) will quickly be covered and start tuber initiation on time, this leads to large sized tubers which are of good quality. the investigation showed that plant tubers from this stage of earthing up were always covered from the period of tuber initiation and thereafter which reduces their exposure to light, pest and diseases attack which greatly compromise tuber quality for marketability. the result of the current investigation are in line with the findings of tesfaye et al. (2012) who rephrase earthing up as early as two weeks produces better yield of marketable tubers than that at 4weeks and no earthing up. 5. conclusion the current investigation showed that time of earthing up significantly affected both yield and all the four yield parameters (number of pest damaged tubers, number of greening potatoes, number of unmarketable tubers and number of marketable tubers). it can be concluded from this study that earthing up of potatoes before flowering (3 weeks) after full plant emergence is best preferable for attaining a higher yield and yield parameters. this study verified that yield and yield parameters of potato are influenced by time earthing up. recommendations the researcher recommends that farmers should first earth up irish potatoes before flowering in order to attain high yield and marketable yield. acknowledgements the authors greatly acknowledge the assistance from great zimbabwe university lecturers and the farmer that provided the plot to carry out the experiment. conflict of interest authors do not declare any conflict of interest. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 46 published by ideas spread references ackerman, k. (2012). personal communication. bouis, h. e., & scott, g. (1996). demand for high value secondary crops in developing countries. the case of potatoes in bangladesh and pakistan. international food policy research institute, food and consumption division. discussion paper: washington. burke, j. j. (2012). growing the potato crop, teagasc crop research centre, oak park, carlow: ireland. fanos, t., belew, d., & nebiyu, a. (2015). effect of planting depth and time of earthing-up on potato (solanum tuberosum l.) yield and yield components at jimma university college of agriculture and veterinary medicine, south west ethiopia. in international journal of african and asian studies www.iiste.org issn (vol. 15). retrieved from www.iiste.org fao. (2008). potato and biodiversity factsheet. global crop diversity trust and fao's plant production and protection division. food and agricultural organisation of the united nations statistics division (faostat). (2012). http://faostat3.fao.org (accessed 07-10-2014). faostat statistics division. (2012). fao journal. fedotova l. s., frolosova, a. v., balabushevish, a. g. (2002). potato become more testy due to the new fertilizer. no2:26-28. int. j. agric. crop science, 5(22), 2724-2731. gusha, s. (2014). from potato fields to potato sacks. pastorial response. anglical diocese of harare: zimbabwe. gutema, c. (2016). effect of earthing up frequencies and tuber seed form on yield and profitability of potato (solanum tuberosum) production in bale highlands. agricultural research & technology:open access journal, 2(4). https://doi.org/10.19080/artoaj.2016.02.555592 masvodza, r. (2015). feasibility of sack potato production as a new technique used in some urban parts of zimbabwe. journal of agriculture and ecology research international, 3, 201-208. muhammad, q., salma k., alia n., muhammadzafarullah, k., & sohailahmad, k. (2013). effects of different planting systems on yield of potato crop in kaghan valley: a mountainous region of pakistan. agricultural sciences, 4(4), 175-179. quin n. n. (2011). the potato contribution to population and distribution and urbanisation evidence from a historical experiment. q. j. econ., 126(2), 593-650. singh, b., & joshi, y. c. (2016). icreased potato productivity, its consequences and sustainable production. retrieved from www.iaset.us svubure, o., struik, p. c., haverkort, a. j., & steyn, j. m. (2015). yield gap analysis and resource footprints of irish potato production systems in zimbabwe. field crops research, 178, 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2015.04.002 tafirt, s. a., siyadat, r. r., & mojadama, m. (2010). effects of earthing up on the potato yeild in dezful (khouzestan, iran) weather condition, middle-east journal of scientific research. tamm, l. (2007). the current situation of organic potato production in europe. switzerland research institute of organic agriculture: switzerland. tesfaye, g., derbew, b., & solomon, t. (2013). combined effect of plant spacing and time of earthing up on tuber quality parameters of potato (solanum tuberosum l.) at degem district, north showa zone of oromia regional state. asian journal of crop science, 5, 24-32. the herald. (2011). october. high costs of production frustrate seed potato farmers, the herald, harare, zimbabwe. the herald. (2012). may. potato declared strategic security food crop, the herald, harare, zimbabwe. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p42 42 published by ideas spread a critical review of value chain for irish potato in zimbabwe with specific regards to the economic policy: a review nyasha sakadzo1.2 & jeremiah mavugara2 & ashel musara3 1 department of soil and plant sciences. faculty of agriculture, great zimbabwe university, p.o. box 1235, masvingo, zimbabwe 2 masvingo christian college, p.o. box 436, masvingo, zimbabwe 3 near east university food engineering department, lefkosa, turkish republic of north cyprus (trnc) correspondence: nyasha sakadzo, department of soil and plant sciences. faculty of agriculture, great zimbabwe university, p.o. box 1235, masvingo, zimbabwe. tel: 263-775-985-724. e-mail: nsakadzo87@gmail.com received: june 5, 2020 accepted: july 6, 2020 online published: july 16, 2020 abstract potato production and consumption are booming worldwide, greater quantity of it is being processed into food and snacks. it is the most important horticultural crop which is a good substitute for maize to supplement carbohydrates. it was declared a national strategic food security crop on 18 may 2012 by the government of zimbabwe. this paper critically review the value chain of irish potato in zimbabwe with a focus on its any government policy and support with regards to promoting the crop and key stakeholders involved in the value chain. the irish potato value chain in zimbabwe has great potential to improve and if well supported, it can contribute to the gdp of the country. this can be done if the government improve on its policy implementation through capacity development of its research and extension workers and more resources have to be availed to this area has showed great potential in terms of marketing and production. the key drivers at production level who will help in ensuring that necessary interventions are carried out to improve long term performance of the irish potato value chain operate in an enabling environment. this is done by offering incentives to the potato farmers and all the value chain players. the economy of a country is driven by having well thought out policies and interventions that can even subsidies inputs and other raw material required along the value chain. keywords: irish potato, value chain, security, policy, gdp 1. introduction irish potato (solanum tuberosum l.) is considered to be a very important root and tuber crop in the world. it is considered to be the third important staple crop in the world as a source of carbohydrates after crops like wheat (triticum aestivum) and maize (zea mays) in zimbabwe (sakadzo et al., 2020; masvodza, 2015; the herald, 2011). in 2008, the food and agricultural organisation (fao) declared the international year of the potato (lutaladio et al., 2009). global agriculture policies and resources focus mainly on cash crops leaving irish potato at the periphery. there is need for the world to readdress such bias as policy makers have to ensure that they create an environment that is conducive for support from both public and private investors. this support include among other factors breeding programs that improve the value chain. the world over, people and countries rely on wheat to make bread but if there are other alternatives means to make flour from potatoes it would help a lot. in west africa, guinea and senegal have marginal irish potato distribution networks where the dominant market is still local. the main challenge to exporting is the coming in of potatoes from europe disturbing the local value chain (lutaladio et al., 2009). moreover, marketing of the crop in urban centers is affected by absence of storage facilities. as for the sub saharan region, there has been a notable increase in the size of area under potato production as most farmers in the area have responded to a high demand for fresh and processed potatoes. this increase in irish potatoes and its products is being necessitated by an increase in urbanisation which has resulted in a change in food consumption patterns (fao, 2008). many fast foods outlets, takeaways and restaurants have caused an increase in demand for potatoes as its products are viewed as prestige food as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 43 published by ideas spread therefore, there is limited information as the value chain of zimbabwe potato industry is not yet clear and understood because the government has been focusing on maize as the staple crop (svubure et al., 2017). the write up will critically review the value chain of irish potato in zimbabwe with a focus on its any government policy and support with regards to promoting the crop and key stakeholders involved in the value chain. 2. brief history of irish potato introduction and production in zimbabwe the crop was introduced in zimbabwe in the early 30th century and common varieties grown include bp1, amethyst, mont claire, opal, emerald and jacaranda (mpemba, 2016). in zimbabwe, the crop is now the 3rd most important source of carbohydrates after maize and wheat (the herald, 2011; sakadzo et al., 2020). after realising the importance of irish potato production, the zimbabwean government boasted the industry when it introduced a policy that declared the crop a national strategic food security crop in 2012 (svubure et al., 2017). the zimbabwean climatic conditions allow potatoes to be grown throughout the year. this is mostly three times for short season varieties a factor that has attracted farmers as the crop production has proved to be a lucrative venture. however, fluctuation in demand on the market and crop rotation to control pests and diseases militates against growing the crop three times a year for small holder farmers (fusire, 2001). currently, area under potato cultivation is about 3500 hectares annually which produces an average of 20 tonnes per hectare (faostat, 2013; sakadzo et al., 2020). 3. constraints to potato production the potato value chain face a lot of challenges such as shortage of improved quality seeds, low yield, low irrigation facility, poor disease control, perishability, lack of storage facility, poor post-harvest handling management, lack of processing facility, low skill and technology for processing, lack of facility, lack of capital and limited dishes/recipes. according to fao (2008), the potato industry is being faced by a number of problems that include lack of diversity in potato varieties which reduces the ability to overcome problems of drought, diseases, pests, climate change and deceasing yields in marginal lands. the potato industry in zimbabwe was largely dominated by whites who had commercial farms prior to the land reform programme. this land reform programme restructured the land tenure system of the country and introduced a1 and a2 models (moyo, 2011). a1 model allocated small plots of about 6ha to the poor and landless people in zimbabwe for growing crops and grazing land whilst a2 models comprises of new black commercial farmers who were allocated about 35 ha self-contained plots (svubure et al., 2017; mkodzongi & lawrence, 2019).this programme resulted in many black people who became beneficiaries getting self-contained farm units ranging from 35-300ha depending on the area where one was allocated. it is these farmers who have started growing potatoes adding to the already existing commercial farmers (svubure et al., 2015). so far zimbabwe has an average potato yield of 20 tonnes per hectare but a lot of attention is paid to maize production. masvodza (2015) and sakadzo et al. (2020) pointed out that lack of knowledge on time of earthing up and cultivation methods and cost of production are major factors affecting potato production in zimbabwe. this is because maize is the staple crop but there should be a policy which enables the focusing of other alternative sources of starch like potatoes (mpemba, 2016). the government of zimbabwe has analysed irish potato production systems which provided an insight into the different stakeholders involved which include existing grower categories, natural resource base, input use, average yield, required and available infrastructure, production constraints and any solution (manzira, 2011). there has been few authors who have looked at the value chain for irish potato in zimbabwe with specific regards to the economic policy. therefore, there is limited information as the value chain of zimbabwe potato industry is not yet clear and understood because the government has been focusing on maize as the staple crop (svubure et al., 2017). 4. importance of potato value chain according to kaplinsky and morris (2001), a value chain is defined as a wide range of actions, set activities and actions that are required or performed to bring a product from the start through production until it gets to the final consumer and then disposed after use. in any value chain the most valuable aspect is the economic value addition or any loss incurred by chain actors at different linkages in the chain and the sum value involved in the whole chain (gelli et al., 2015). stakeholders involved include input suppliers, producers, processors and markets. there is need to have technical, financial and business service providers that supports the value chain. moreover, there has to be regulation from the local and national government which provide an environment where the chain is embedded (kula et al., 2006). globalisation and the rise of international trade are part of the value chain environment (figuiredo jr et al., 2014). the world over, value chain development can be used by governments in policy formulation especially on policies that help collaboration among value chain actors (humphrey and memedevic, 2006). gelli et al, (2015) has noted that the demand for value added food and food safety standards has aroused a special interest in food value chain as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 44 published by ideas spread development. the prevalent of malnourishment related diseases has resulted in more funds being channelled towards potato value chain interventions with an emphasis on nutrition. the crop contains effective antioxidants like carotenoids and phenols which according to donnelly and kabow (2011) prevent diseases like diabetes and a serving of potato a day provide 30-48% of the recommended daily intake of macro minerals. this in a way show the importance of irish potatoes in the human diet as its nutritional value are a clear testimony that it can contribute to the country’s food security. the potato industry allows people to earn as it comprises of a long chain of individuals who specialises in selling seed, farmers, farm workers, marketers and the consumer which enable the industry to contribute to the gdp of zimbabwe. this is because the country’s economy is agro based and the agricultural sector has realised that there can be increased income for farmers and other stakeholders along the value chain (hawkes and ruel, 2011). if there are proper support structures in terms of government policies, the irish potato supply chain can provide opportunities that promote nutrition and health as a result of readily available quality and affordable food for everyone. however, zimbabwe seems not to have a properly documented irish potato industry as the government and the majority of black farmers see the crop as capital intensive. 5. stakeholders involved in value chain of irish potatoes in promoting irish potato production and value chain, there is need to be familiar with the stakeholders involved in the potato industry (svubure, 2015). the key stakeholders in a value chain of irish potatoes are involved in production (farmers), distribution, wholesaling, processing, retailing, service provision and household use. to be more specific, these key stakeholders include seed potato growers, the farmers, distributors (traders), transporters, processors and these include hotels, restaurants, fast food outlets, urban fruit and vegetable markets, wholesalers, retail supermarket chains, household consumers and service providers, (svubure et al., 2017). there are also other stakeholders who include the government especially the line ministry of agriculture, lands and rural resettlements, other government agencies which provide technical and extension services, the crop breeding institute and private institutions. the zimbabwean irish potato value chain is complex as the pathway involved from production to end use has multiple stakeholders which operates in a socio economic and political environment. in terms of production according to svubure et al., (2017), 88% of the produce is for consumption with the remaining 12% used for seed and regeneration purposes. the zimbabwe climate allows farmers to grow irish potatoes all year round especially in areas where they have access to irrigation that allows the farmers to supplement rainfall during the dry season (svubure, 2015). this is unlike in other countries like in the kenyan value chain which has only two main cropping season where storage facilities are a necessity. the absence of storage facilities in the zimbabwean value chain imply that there is no added cost to the supply chain and also there is absence of the risk of crop loss due to diseases. the mozambique government has a major problem in terms of having insufficient storage facilities (fao, 2009). the zimbabwean government has also showed its support to the irish potato industry as it banned the importation of cheap imports in 2010. this was a big boost to the local farmers as it protected them against cheap south african produce. more so, the government in 2012 declared irish potato a national strategic food security crop (herald, 2012). this was done through a government policy which enabled all irish potato farmers to get government support through the different agricultural programmes (mpemba, 2016). in a way to avoid rampant production of seeds that lead to pest and disease spread, the zimbabwean government’s seed services institute oversee the seed certification of all seeds in the country. this functional seed certification system get its mandate from the seeds act (chapter 19:13) of 1971 with an enabling regulation of the seeds regulation (1971) and seeds certification scheme notice (2000). this has enabled the potato sector not to recycle seeds from uncertified material as it leads to loss of genetic vigour as in the case of mozambique where the certified seeds production satisfies 4% of national seed requirements. the balance is met by uncertified material with more dependence on imported seed. according to hirpa et al., (2010), countries like ethiopia have a poor seed production system which has affected the value chain where there are low yielding varieties produced which are susceptible to diseases. the potato sector depends on supplementary irrigation more than maize crop. therefore, there is need to invest in functional irrigation infrastructure as the crop is grown all year round in zimbabwe. janssen et al. (2013) posits that the majority of potato farmers in kenya have a limited off season production as they have few farming areas with access to irrigation facilities. this obviously makes the farmers to depend on rain fed production. this is where the law of supply and demand comes in where during the rainy season, the supply of potatoes will be high as most farmers will have grown the crop. the prices of potatoes during the off season is higher than during the rainy season as demand for the crop will be higher than supply (janssen et al., 2013). in zimbabwe since the potato production industry occurs throughout the year, production will be even making high price fluctuations uncommon. it is only recently when the government introduced bond notes where there has been price distortions but as from 2009 when the government of zimbabwe adopted the us$ as the trading currency the commodity prices have been as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 45 published by ideas spread stable. there have been high cost of production recorded in the a2 farmers than a1 farmers per hectare with seed and fertiliser being the most expensive inputs. potato growers in zimbabwe experience low yields although they use high levels of synthetic fertilisers and chemicals to control pests and diseases (svubure et al., 2015). in order to realise better returns, farmers can use organic manure from compost or use high yielding varieties which in a way will help consumers to afford the produce. the zimbabwean supply chain is adversely affected by high production costs coupled with poor road network which increases the transport costs and also it reduces the potato quality during transit. the zimbabwean government after the land reform programme failed to give its newly resettled farmers title deed that could have been used to access lines of credit from banks and other credit providers. they were just given 99 year leases which cannot be used as collateral against a loan. this affects the performance of the potato value chain in zimbabwe so there is need for modern machinery and other farming equipment that might be of use during production. 6. value added activities of potato stakeholders a) research and development produce codified knowledge on new varieties, pests, weeds and disease management strategies. in zimbabwe, we have the department of research and specialist services (drss) so as the plant and crop protection unit (pcpu). they are involve in new product development or culinary uses. b) input suppliers these include private companies and government agencies such as command agriculture. they provide inputs such as seed, fertilisers and pesticides for potato growers there by promoting potato value chain. potato farmers in zimbabwe obtain their seed from different sources which sometimes is noncertified. seed certification ensures provision of disease free seed to growers. some use their own seed. potato growers obtain fertiliser and biocides from private companies such as zimbabwe fertiliser company (zfc). c) potato producers this is one of the major potato value chain actors following input suppliers. they produce potatoes. a1, a2, communal and large scale commercial growers are prevalent in zimbabwe. potato production in zimbabwe is most done under irrigation whilst limited production is based on rain-fed system. potato growers they harvest and do post-harvest technology such as: sorting, grading, packing, transporting, loading and unloading potatoes. they also separate damaged and undamaged tubers. damaged and bruised potatoes are consumed at household level. the farmers select medium and large potatoes for immediate sale and small ones are kept for seed. d) traders/brokers they play a significant role in potato marketing system of zimbabwe. they facilitate potato truncation by linking producers with traders, wholesaler with another wholesalers so as retailers. the brokers may go beyond by controlling and fixing prices in an informal way. e) wholesale distributors these include mbare musika who distribute to chain supermarkets, small supermarkets, food restaurant, hotel, fast foods outlets etc. this is one of the most economically important value chain actors who determine return per capita for most potato growers. f) food processors potatoes are mostly consumed in boiled form and cooked in meals. currently, potato chips, crisps and roasted potatoes are becoming common especially in towns in zimbabwe. in urban areas some people usually consume potatoes mixed with other vegetables. potato processors usually prefer large sized potato for processing. processed potato products such as snacks and chips have become a centre of attraction in many supermarkets selling these products. they play an invaluable role in value addition by being involved in the processing of potato products such as snacks etc. this is facilitated by food engineers. g) potato retailers these are also actors in potato value chain in zimbabwe. they stand as the last link between producers and consumers. sometimes they buy potatoes directly from producers. retailers usually offer according to requirement and purchasing power of the buyers h) potato consumers as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 46 published by ideas spread potato consumers influence economic capita gain or loss in the potato value chain. they are influencing actors in potato value chain in zimbabwe. they include: households, restaurants, cafes and institutions such as higher education institutions, universities, colleges, etc. capita consumption of potato at these institutions may also undergo a slack with respect to supply and demand may increase as students’ cafeteria will be high. i) potato service providers agricultural rural extension officers (arex) provide extension services by transmitting knowledge to farmers on potato production and management requirements. tobacco research board (trb) is involved in assisting farmers on management of common pests and diseases of solanaceous plants as some farmers involved in tobacco farming are into potato production. non-governmental organisations are also involved in value addition by partnering in the value chain so as to ensure food security. j. food quality controllers (fqcs) they play a pivotal role between a farmer and the wholesale. in this era, the fqcs do the grading of potatoes. they also check for the level of biocides, insecticides and general chemicals in the potato plant if they are below the threshold to prevent food poisoning. 7. effects of the socio-economic and political environment on potato value chain in zimbabwe of great importance is to note that for any crop value chain to succeed, the socio-economic and political environment must be conducive enough to promote investments and improvement in the value chain. zimbabwe has also been affected by rampant and want on corruption which is immensely affecting the value chain as cases of smuggling of potatoes from south africa are on the rise. these cheap imports are a threat to the pricing of the local potatoes as they tend to attract consumers who are facing economic challenges. production of seed tubers in zimbabwe is limited by strict production agronomy that prevents spread of viral diseases through vegetative propagative material like tubers. haverkort et al. (2015) argues that, there is need to release new potato varieties in the market that address different needs of farmers and the consumers at large. this will help to out compete the cheap imports from south africa that tend to affect the zimbabwean value chain. zimbabwe potato value chain is affected by socio economic factors and the political environment that have a bearing on the policies related to agriculture. the socioeconomic factors currently being experienced in zimbabwe was triggered by the emergence of the bond note which is being rated at interbank rate with american united states dollar. like the issue of bond notes when they were issued on the market they were 1:1 but today the rate has gone beyond reach. farmers are business people, they also need a well stable economy as a constant motivator. no sane person can go into the fields to produce a non-profiting product. there is absolutely lack of motivation from our government side. policy inconsistency is what gave birth to the smuggling of cheap potatoes hence demotivating our farmers. the potato value chain is significantly being affected as us$ cannot be formally accessed by most growers in banks so as to plough back the profits. informal marketing is currently adding more to the potato value chain. there is higher rate of inflation which in tanzania, the value chain only involve farmers and their inputs who are not categorised as in zimbabwe where there are a1 and a2 model farmers. some of these a1 and a2 farmers who obtained land during the land reform program have deceased from potato production. this has significantly affected the potato value chain in zimbabwe. there is need for the government of zimbabwe to make an audit so that the land where potatoes were grown is revived again. the irish potato value chain in zimbabwe has great potential to improve and if well supported, it can contribute to the gdp of the country. this can be done if the government improve on its policy implementation through capacity development of its research and extension workers and more resources have to be availed to this area has showed great potential in terms of marketing and production. the key drivers at production level who will help in ensuring that necessary interventions are carried out to improve long term performance of the irish potato value chain operate in an enabling environment. this is done by offering incentives to the potato farmers and all the value chain players. the economy of a country is driven by having well thought out policies and interventions that can even subsidise inputs and other raw material required along the value chain. 8. conclusion the value chain of irish potatoes is affected by socio economic factors and the political environment that have a bearing on the policies related to agriculture. zimbabwe has also been affected by rampant and want on corruption which is immensely affecting the value chain as cases of smuggling of potatoes from south africa are on the rise. these cheap imports are a threat to the pricing of the local potatoes as they tend to attract consumers who are facing economic challenges. production of seed tubers in zimbabwe is limited by strict production agronomy that prevents spread of viral diseases through vegetative propagative material like tubers. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 47 published by ideas spread 9. recommendations there is need for more resources to be channeled towards irish potato production as it has shown to help in addressing food security. in order for all the stakeholders to financially benefit, there is need for the government to put policies that promote value addition as selling a complete product is more profitable than selling raw materials. private companies and governments should introduce potato processing facilities. input provision should be adequately scheduled to meet the calendar of irrigated crop such as potato. health agents and extension officers should be capacitated so as to raise awareness campaigns on potato food value and processing techniques to improve consumption in urban centers. there is also need for local seed production so as to reduce transportation. the potato industry should create a value chain forum so as to bring various stakeholders so as to solve challenges being faced in potato value chain. emphasize to policy makers the income equity food security aspects of potato farming and its potential in achieving millennium development goals. there is need to engage policy makers at local, national and regional level in preparing potato development plans and policies that encourage potato consumption and production references brown, c. r. 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(2012). may. potato declared strategic security food crop, the herald, harare, zimbabwe. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p217 217 published by ideas spread effect by contact and ingestion of essential oils of pennyroyal: mentha pulegium l.(lamiaceae) on juvenile of calliptamus barbrus (orthoptera: calliptaminae) moad rouibah1, rabah bouredjoul2 & salaheddine kouahi3 1 department of environment and agronomic sciences, universty of jijel, algeria correspondence: moad rouibah, 11rue arid seddik, jijel 18000, algeria. tel: 213-558-314-082. e-mail: rouibahm@yahoo.com received: may 1, 2020 accepted: may 18, 2020 online published: may 21, 2020 abstract this work is a study on the action of essential oils (eos)of pennyroyal mentha pulegium against two larvael2 and l3 of calliptamus barbarus (orthoptera: acrididae). the eosare extracted by hydrodistillation protocol based on the use of a clevenger. it should be noted that the yield of eos obtained at the flowering stage (2.2%) is almost double that obtained at the foliage stage (1.2%).gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrophometergc-ms analysis revealed the presence of p-menth-4 (8) -en-3-one, as the most frequently constituents of mint, better known as pulegone. we performed two ways of treatments: by contact and by alimentation (the duration of treatment is 3and 6 days respectively). by contact we have acquired a total mortality (100%) using the highest dose (48μl/ml) with a ld50 of 12.58 μl/ ml. in the opposite, by ingestion, the mortality rate obtained for the same dose was 80%while the ld50 was23.98 μl/ ml. using the letal doses, the comparative effect of contact and ingestion between the essential oils show that the action by contact is stronger and faster to enter in the insect via the cuticulethan that byingestion. finally authors concluded that the results were very satisfactory. keywords: calliptamus barbarus, mentapulegium, essential oil, lethal dose, mortality 1. introduction food security is based on the protection of crops from pests, including grasshoppers and locusts. in algeria, calliptamus barbarus (orthoptera: calliptaminae) is a potentially dangerous species especially during outbreaks, causing enormous damage. it is characterized by a chromatic polymorphism of the hind femora (femore red with three spots or orange with only one spot). it was found for two areas: littoral region for the form with three femoral spots, and extremely semiarid and dry inhabitants for the form with only one femoral spot (rouibah et al., 2019). in agriculture, the protection of crops against pests is achieved essentially through chemical way. this is based on the application of various phytosanitary products of synthesis (regnault-rogeret al.,2002). however, natural products are increasingly sought after for agriculture sustainable (regnault-roger et al., 2008), and this because of the negative impact of synthetic products on health and the environment. currently one of the natural forms which aroused the interest of scientists is the use of biobesticide of vegetable origin based on the extraction of aqueous extracts and other natural essences. in order to control the larvae of c.barbarus, the choice was made on the pennyroyal: mentha pulegium(lamiaceae). pennyroyal is a plant of the lamiaceae family, it is sometimes cultivated for these leaves. it is a perennial herb with a strong aromatic odor. the height is 15 to 4 cm, the flowers are pink. according to benayad (2008) and bouziane (2012), this plant is native to europe and asia minor. it is found in almost all regions either in the spontaneous or cultivated state, but exists frequently in humid regions (beloued, 2009). several studies were realized on this plant in differents part of the world: pinoet al. (1996) in cuba, marzouket al. (2008) in tunisia, chalchatand maksimović (2000) in ex yougoslavia, rocha et al. (2015) in portugal, abdelliet al. (20016) in algeria and casigliaet al. (2017) in sicily (italy). m. pulegium is known for its therapeutic virtues (karousouet al., 2007), especially thanks to its essential oils. pennyroyal also contains tannin and cellulose as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 218 published by ideas spread (beloued, 2009). it's an excellent digestive, stimulates gastric secretions, reduces flatulence and can be used as an insecticide (iserin, 2001 and alloum (2007). the mechanisms by which bioactive substances of pennyroyal act are little known, despite the studies devoted to them. according to isman (2000), they are considered to be unique and that biopesticides based essential oils can be tools of choice in health management programs pest resistance to pesticides. currently, essential oils hold an important place in the control systems, their role in the phytopharmaceutical research in certain countries of the world no longer needs to be demonstrated (lahlou,2004). this work is a continuation of that already carried out by rouibahet al. (2019) on the effect of the aqueous extracts of harmal peganumharmal (zygophyllaceae) having given very good results on the larvae of c.barbarus. so we propose to evaluate the bioinsecticide activity of the essential oils of the leaves of pennyroyal: mentha pulegium l (labiae) against the larva of this pest locust by two methods: the direct contact and their effect by alimentation. 2. material and methods 2.1 material used the plant and animal material (figure 1, 2) used for this experiment, came from the jijel region (north east of algeria). this work was carried out at the zoology laboratory of the university of jijel from april to may 2014. to rear the insects, a breeding cage of dimensions (30 x 20 x 20 cm) was used. other materials like a manual sprayer, an analytical balance, a magnetic stirrer, an electric mixer, aluminum foil, cotton wool and wattman paper n° 3were also essential for carrying out this experiment. as reagents, mainly acetone and methanol have been used for the extraction of bioactive substances. as for the glassware, it is made up of a flask, petri boxes, beakers, test tubes, pipette, funnel, etc. figure 1. m. pulegium leaves and flowers figure 2. c. barbarus larvae the bioactive substances tested are the essential oils (eos) extracted leaves of the pennyroyal. the method of hydrodistillation has been adopted for the extraction of these essential oils. once the substances are obtained, the yield is calculated, the chemical composition analyzed. finally, the acridicidal effectis tested. 2.2 extraction of essential oils: hydrodistillation protocol once collected, the leaves were first rinsed with distilled water and then dried in the shade for8 days. the purpose of the drying operation is especially to promote the inhibition of any enzymatic activity (wichtl and anton, 1991). dried plants are ground using a blender until powders are obtained. the essential oils of pennyroyal are obtained by hydrodistillation. it is a method based on the use of a clevenger, using dried leaves with distilled water. this consists of a balloon heater, a glass balloon with distilled water and dried plants, a capacitor and a collector that receives the extracts from distillation (figure3). the experimental hydrodistillation protocol employed here is that proposed by (pavidaet al., 1976), with some modifications: 50 g instead of 100 and 700 ml of distilled water instead of 1400. according to (el haib, 2011) the duration of a hydrodistillation can vary considerably. it can influence not only the yield but also the composition as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 219 published by ideas spread of the extract. this operation was carried out for 3hours by boiling a mixture of 100 g of dried plant in 1400 ml of distilled water. the separation of essential oils is made in the florentine vase by means of the difference in density with distilled water. the oils thus obtained are stored at 4°c in hermetically sealed tubes covered with aluminum foil. 2.3 calculation of yield and analysis of chemical composition the oil yield is expressed as a percentage relative to the dry matter according to the following formula (pavidaet al., 1976): yield = weight of extract (oil) / weight of dry matter x 100 the chemical composition of essential oils is analyzed using gas chromatography and an a polar capillary column coupled to a mass spectrometer. a small amount of essential oil is injected into the gc column. the temperature conditions are different. the injection takes place at 250°c. the oven is carried out successively at 55°c for 3 min, 120°c for 5 min and 180°c for 11 min. finally, the interface is performed at 250°c. the chromatogram is coupled to a mass spectrum to identify the chemical compositions. on the other hand, the quantitative analysis is carried out using the retention index in the stationary phase. the result is represented in the form of graphs having several peaks. each peak makes it possible to distinguish a chemical compound. the area of these peaks helps to quantify the percentages of the different constituents of eos in relation to the total concentration of the constituents. 2.4 efficacy tests firstly, the c. barbarus larvae) were placed incages. the larvae were feed with wheat seedlings supplemented with bran (benzara et al.,2010). these last were then isolated in batches of 10 individuals in insect boxes. the experimental conditions in the laboratory are the same as those in the field. essential oils were powdered directly on insects for treatment by contact in captivity or mixed with food for treatment by ingestion. note that the contact and ingestion method has already been used by abdelliet al. (2016) against sitophilus granarius (coleoptera: curculionidae). the following doses were prepared: 6, 12, 24and 48 μl of active substance per ml of diluent (distilled water and acetone). to confirm the biological tests, two controls are used. one negative (distilled water) and the other positive, an insecticide named (aceplan 20). for it, 16 boxes of insects are used, one box per dose. for contact treatment, the mortality rate were read 1, 2 and 3 days after spraying the product. on the other hand, for treatment by ingestion, the results are read 2, 4 and 6 days after the application of the product, in order to allow the product to act well against insects. to calculate ld 50 (lethal dose to kill 50% of population), doses are converted to log doses and cumulative mortality in probit (table 3). the equation of the linear regression line is calculated from the data in table 1. table 1. logarithms of doses and probit of cumulative mortality for the test of eos by contact dose (µl/ml) log dose cumulative mortality (%) probit 6 0,778 20 4,16 12 1,079 30 4,48 24 1,380 60 5,25 48 1,681 100 8,1 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 220 published by ideas spread figure 3. clevenger hydrodistillation assembly 3. results and discussion 3.1 yield of essential oils looking at figure 4, it should be noted that the yield obtained at the flowering stage (2.2%) is almost double that obtained at the leafing stage (1.2%) this confirms the fact that the essential oils content increased at the flowering state of pennyroyal (marzouket al., 2008). this result is almost similar to that obtained by abdelliet al. (2016) in the region of bouira (algeria): 1.45 % or that of stoyanovaet al. (2005) obtained by steam distillation in bulgaria (1.48%). however our result is higher than that obtained by rochaet al. (2015) in portugal: 0.6 % or chalchat and maksimović (2000) who got only 0.2 %in flowering period in ex yoygoslavia. this can be explained by the climate and the nature of the soil specific to each region and its influence on the growth of the plant and therefore on the composition of essential oils without forgetting the extraction method used by each author. pannier collector glass balloon dried leaves water outlet balloon heater glassware capacitor as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 221 published by ideas spread figure 4. yield of essential oils of pennyroyal 3.2 determination of essential oils composition chromatography analysis of the constituents of eos of m.pulegium revealed a spectrum consisting of 31components, with different concentrations from one component to another (table2). the most dominant of these is p-menth-4 (8) -en-3-one, better known as “pulegone” with a rate of 84.11%. it is defined according to larousse in 2014, as a monoterpene ketone c10h16o, contained in the essence of pennyroyal and used in perfumery. several studied showed that the quality and quantity of the constituents of pennyroyal varies according to the sampling regions. for example, in algeria abdelliet al. (2016) found 39 compounds of which the overwhelming majority were pulegone (71%) and neo-menthol (11%). in ex you go slavia chalchat and maksimović (2000) have revealed the presence of 22 components whose 31 % are menthone while the other important were pulegone and neomenthol with the same rate (14%). according to rocha et al. (2015), in portugal pulegone (61%) and menthone (20%) were the main eo constituents of this plant. for their part, marzouket al. (2008) have identified the presence in tunisia of 34 constituents. the majority of them were menthol (50%), but only 4% for pulegone (marzouket al. 2008). table 2. chemical composition of essential oils of m. pulegium peak n° constituents mean percentage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 alpha-pinene bicyclohexane bicycloheptane octanol cyclobutane octanol-acetate cyclohexanone-menthan cyclohexanone benzofuran cyclohexanone-trans cyclohexanol undectanene 0.31 0.06 0.24 1.55 3.06 0.05 0.78 0.38 0.05 0.94 2.79 0.10 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 222 published by ideas spread 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 pulegone trymethylhept octadienal metoxy-venylphenol bicyclo-trimethyl copaene octadien-acetate cyclobuta cyclohexane caryophyllene alpha-caryophyllene cyclodecadiene methyl benzene cyclodecadienedimethyl naphtalene cycloproptrimethyl cycloproptetramethyl cadinol hetoxyhexamethyl 84.11 0.02 0.24 0.09 0.29 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.94 1.23 1.30 0.36 0.17 0.06 0.027 0.26 0.07 0.06 3.3 efficacy tests the actions by contact and then by ingestion of the essential oil against juveniles of c. barbarusis presented separately. 3.3.1 effect by contact the effct of m.pulegium eos (figure5) onthe larvae of c. barbarusresulted in a total mortality of 100% (more than thechemical insecticide) this mortality is obtained from the first day of treatment butwith a very high dose (48 μl /ml). in the opposite, the death rate was zero at lowest dose (6μl /ml) during the first day and caused low mortality in the following days (less than 20 %). concerning the other doses (12 and 24μl /ml), we obtained an average effect on the larvae of c. barbarus (between 10 and 50%). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 223 published by ideas spread figure 5. contact effect of eos the linear equation of dose-specific mortality rates obtained after 3 days of treatment is: y =1.9275x +9.1304(figure6). the coefficient correlation r² is equal to 0.9924. it means that eos treatment effect by contact of m. pulegium caused 99.24% of mortality in c.barbarus population. figure 6. linear regression line of mortality rates as a function of contact doses on c. barbarus for eos for its part, the anova test (table 3) showed that there was a significant difference between the doses and mortality (p = 0.041 <0.05). as a result, the mortality is higher the higher the dose. the equation (y = 4.1827x + 0.3548) is shown in figure7.this latter permit us to obtained a ld50 dose of 12.58 μl / ml(table 4). table 3. analysis of variance for eos acting by contact source of variations sum of squares degree of freedom mean of squares f probability critical value for f lignes 4450 3 1483,33333 9,67391304 0,04728943 9,27662815 colonnes 1800 1 1800 11,7391304 0,04165231 10,1279645 erreur 460 3 153,333333 total 6710 7 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 224 published by ideas spread figure 7. determination of ld 50 for the test of eos table 4. log dose and ld 50 dose log dose dose(µl/ml) 1,1 12,58 1, 38 23,98 3.3.2 effect by ingestion figure 8 showed that whatever the doses used, the mode of action by ingestion gave no results on the first two days. it produced a rate between 10 and 20% after four day of treatment. then, mortality changed significantly on day 6, from 10% for the lowest dose (6µl/ml) to80% for the highest dose (48µl/ml, figure 8). figure 8. ingestion effect of eos as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 225 published by ideas spread for the alimentation test, the equation of the linear regression line is: y = 1.4928x + 13.913 with a correlation coefficient r²= 0.8622(figure9). therefore 86,22% of the variation in mortality in the larval population of c. barbarus is due to the effect by ingestion of treatment with essential oils of pennyroyal on the other hand, the anova test revealed a probability p = 0.04 <0.05 (table5). there is therefore a significant difference between the two factors. in consequence, the higher the dose, the greater the mortality rate. by the same way, to calculate the ld 50, doses are converted to log doses and cumulative mortality in probit (table 6). from the data of this table, the equation of the linear regression line equal toy=2.2791x+2.0879is calculated (figure10). thanks to table 4 we obtained a ld50of 24μl/ml. figure 9. linear regression line of mortality rates as a function of doses by ingestion on c. barbarus for eos table 5. analysis of variance for eos acting by ingestion source des variations sum of squares degree of freedom mean of squares f probability critical value for f lines 3400 3 1133,33333 10,9677419 0,03996068 9,27662815 columns 1250 1 1250 12,0967742 0,04011205 10,1279645 error 310 3 103,333333 total 4960 7 table 6. logarithms of doses and probit of cumulative mortality for the test by ingestion of eos dose (µl/ml) log dose cumulative mortality (%) probit 6 0,778 10 3,72 12 1,079 40 4,75 24 1,380 60 5,25 48 1,681 80 5,84 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 226 published by ideas spread figure 10. determination of ld 50 for the test by ingestion of eos according to (benayad, 2008), essential oils of m. pulegium proved very effective against two coleoptera species: the rice thistle sitophilus oryzae (curculionidae) and the grain capuchin rhyzopertha dominica (bostrichidae). insect mortality was total, as early as 24 h after treatment, but at low doses (3 and 12 μl / ml, benayad, 2008). the two experiments seem to be similar, except that to reach this 100%, the concentration used for the present work is higher (48 μl / ml). in all cases, these studies show that the eos of this plant have an excellent insecticidal power both on the coleoptera and on the orthoptera. against tribolium castaneum(coleoptera: tenebrionidae), karahacene (2015) obtained a total mortality after 12 h of treatment of the dried leaves but using inhalation way at the dose of 20 µl/ml for a ld50 of 7.05 µl/ml, therefore lower than that obtained by contact in our work (12.58 µl/ml).essential oils of pennyroyal also have a larvicidal action against mosquitoes anophelesaegypti (diptera: culicidae) where rochaet al. (2015), registered 100% mortality 48-h after treatment bycontact. by comparing the results obtained with the positive test we can say that the eos gave more satisfaction by contact (100% of mortality) from the 1st day of treatment for the dose(48µl/ml), whereas by ingestion, the insecticide has shown more satisfaction. in fact, from the start (24h), it caused 80% mortality whereas to obtain this same rate with eos, it was necessary to wait until the 6th day of treatment but having only used the highest dose (48µl / ml) 3.3.3 comparative effect between the action by contact and by feeding figure11showedthe results compared of the two modes of action. it should be noted that the effectiveness effect bycontact is stronger than by ingestion. this can be confirmed by the result obtained only after 3 days after treatment by contact (total mortality) greater than that obtained after 6 days by feeding 80% (figure11).this difference in mortality time is interpreted among others by the difference between the faster mode of penetration by contact than by ingestion, the mode by ingestion being a physiological process requiring the intervention of enzymes thus asking the oils more time to be able to act. however, by looking at figure 11 we notice that the 2 curves cross at the level of the 3rd dose, this means that used at 24μl /ml, the eos cause the same effect on the larvae of c. barbarus by contact or by ingestion (same mortality rate: 60%) in contrast, abdelliet al. (2016) believe that at low dose of eos, the method by ingesting is more effective followed by inhalation method, while the process by contact is active only at higher doses. according to chiasson and beloin (2007), this difference can be explained by the direct action of the oils on the cuticle of insects and other soft-body arthropods. it remains, however, to determine the mechanism by which these eos degrade the external cuticle of certain insects and mites. the lipophilic nature of the essential oil can degrade the waxy layer and cause water losses (ketohet al., 1998). for them, as regards ingestion, most of the time, the action of bioactive substances in eos is generally due to inhibition of growth regulators in the treated insect. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 227 published by ideas spread figure 11. comparison between acridicidal effect by ingestion and by contact 4. conclusion in order to combat c. barbarus a potential pest of crops, essential oils have been extracted from leaves of pennyroyal: m. pulegium. these substances have been applied as bioacridicides by contact and by ingestion against juveniles of this insect. the results recorded after the biological tests were very satisfactory. after treatment of the larvae, the best efficacy was obtained using contact at the dose of 48 μl / ml (total mortality after 3 days of treatment). this has even exceeded that of the chemical insecticide (aceplan), with which the mortality rate is 90%. it should be noted that the highest mortality rates are recorded with the highest doses either by ingestion (6 days) or by contact (3 days). concerning lethal dose to kill 50 % of population it is to register a ld 50 of 12.58 μl / ml by contact and 23.98 μl / ml by ingestion. it should also be noted that these results are obtained with only the active ingredients without any adjuvant. it will be interesting to know what their effect will be by adding substances such as stabilizers, surfactants or other antioxidants and synergists. it would also be very interesting to study during a next work the effect of these same essential oils but this time on the adults of of c. barbarus to see if they will have the same effect as on the larvae of this species finally we can conclude that the results obtained are very convincing given the performances obtained, it is true that at low doses the results are less satisfactory compared to the conventional use of the insecticide (aceplan 20) in particular by oral route but compared to this the last of which the negative impact on health and the environment is no longer to demonstrate the use of essential oils as a biopesticide leaving no trace of residues is now becoming a necessity. references abbassi, k., mergaoui, l., atay-kadiri, z., gaout, s., & stambouli, a., (2005). activités biologiques des feuilles de peganum harmala (zygophyllacea) en floraison sur la mortalité et l’activité génésique chez le criquet pèlerin. faculté des sciences, université de rabat, 16, 31-46. abdelli, m., moghrani, h., aboun, a., & maachi, r., (20016). algerian mentha pulegium l. leaves essential oil: chemical composition, antimicrobial, insecticidal and antioxidant activities. industrial crops and products, 94, 197–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2fj.indcrop.2016.08.042 alloum, k. 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p56 56 published by ideas spread investigation on the natural enemies of jute yellow mite and their performances and seasonal incidence md. nazrul islam1, khandakar shariful islam2, mahbuba jahan2 & md. sohanur rahman3 1 principal scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhakia-1207, bangladesh 2 professor, department of entomology, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh. 3 scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhakia1207, bangladesh correspondence: md. sohanur rahman, scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhakia-1207, bangladesh. e-mail: sohanbau2010@gmail.com received: march 5, 2020 accepted: march 22, 2020 online published: march 29, 2020 abstract the jute yellow mite polyphagotarsonemus latus constitutes one of the major pests of jute crop in bangladesh. the objective of this work was to investigation on the natural enemies of jute yellow mite. the investigation on the natural enemies of jute yellow mite were studied in the laboratory of bangladesh jute research institute during march 2011 to september 2013. as many as six predators of jute yellow mite viz, predatory mite, thrips, minute pirate bug, lady bird beetle, mirid bug and spider were collected and identified. the predation rate of the predatory mite amblyseius sp. showed an average of 8.8 jute yellow mite per hour in laboratory condition. predatory mite reached the peak on the 20th june. the highest population was 25 predatory mite/25 leaves. the population of predatory mite declined sharply in the 1st week of july. the nymph and adult of scolothrips consumed an average of 15.4 and 20.10 yellow mite per hour. scolothrips sp reached its peak population on 30th june and declined occurred in the 1st week of july. both nymph and adult stage of orius sp. predate 24.5 and 21 jute yellow mite respectively. the highest number of minute pirate bug 20 was recorded at 30th june. both the grubs and adults of lady bird beetle predate on all the stage of yellow mite. grub was found as voracious feeder showing a predation efficiency of 35 per hour. the highest and lowest number of ladybird beetle was recorded on 25th june and 5th may respectively. the highest 15 mirid bug was recorded at 30th june. an unidentified species of spider was found to consume yellow mite. keywords: natural enemies, investigation, performance, jute yellow mite 1. introduction the genus corchorus belonging to the family tiliaceae, is commonly known as jute. there are 2 species of jute namely, corchorus capsularis l. and c. olitorius l. jute is most important cash crop and one of the foreign currency earning sources of bangladesh as the culture of higher expression of economy. jute is attacked by various insect and mite pests. more than 40 species of insects and mites are considered to be the pests of jute in bangladesh (kabir, 1975). among the non-insect pests yellow mite, polyphagotarsonemus latus (banks) (acari: tarsonemidae) is one of the most common and destructive pests of both the cultivated species of jute (c.capsularis l. and c. olitorius l.). it was first described by banks in 1904 as tarsonemus latus from the terminal buds of mango in a greenhouse in washington, d.c., usa (denmark, 1980). the yellow mite is commonly known as yellow tea mite which is also called as the broad mite. in india and sri lanka, it is called yellow tea mite. however, some parts of the south america, it is called tropical mite or the broad rust mite (anonymous, 2005a). yellow mite is extremely polyphagous and attack more than 60 plant families worldwide (karuppuchamy and mohanasundaram, 1987; moutia, 1958; nemesthoty et al., 1982; iacob, 1978). yellow mite infestation in jute normally begins on the young apical leaves and causes damage by sucking of the plant sap resulting in wrinkle and curly appearance of tender leaves. gradually, the colour of the leaves change to coppery or purplish, finally dry up and fall down (siddique and kabir, 1978). the vertical growth of the internodes is suppressed thereby side branches are enhanced (kabir, 1975). the infested plant remains stunted and fibre yield as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 57 published by ideas spread is reduced. it has been reported that about 38% of fibre yield is reduced due to attack of yellow mite under field condition (anonymous, 1990). yellow mite also attacks flower buds and young seed pods. the infested flower buds cannot bloom properly. the floral parts become crinkled and the colour changes yellow to a blackish. the seed pod fails to develop which results in reduced seed production (siddique and kabir, 1978). the damage caused by the yellow mite is often termed as “telenga” or “telchita” disease in bangladesh (kabir,1975). different control measures e.g. physical, mechanical, cultural and chemical control are practiced against yellow mite, but none of them provides effective control. so far, a good number of acaricides have been evaluated by bjri and considered as the most effective methods for the control of yellow mite. however, chemical acaricides have some limitations. the non-judicious use of synthetic chemicals for the control of mite pests creates several problems in agro-ecosystem, such as direct toxicity to beneficial insects, fishes and human (goodland et al., 1985, pimentel 1981, munakata 1977) gain resistance to chemicals (schmutterer et al., 1983, waiss and chen 1981, georghiou and taylor 1977, fukuda 1966) out breaks of secondary pests (hagen and franz 1973), health hazarads (bhaduri et al. 1989), environmental pollution (fishwick 1988, kavadia et al.1986), susceptibility of crop plants to insect pests (pimentel ,1977) and increases environmental and social cost (pimentel ,1981). in general, chemical control of pests by different pesticides is a very health hazardous, costly and they kill not only the pests but also their parasite, predators and create imbalance in environment. the indiscriminate and excessive use of pesticides, on the other hand have created new problems like resurgence of minor pests and insects developing resistance to insecticides. therefore, research is being done to find out suitable eco-friendly pest control measures against the mite pest. therefore, to minimize the use of synthetic chemicals in mite control programmes, alternative or biodegradable substitutes are now strongly needed in many developed countries. biological control of pests is one of the most important components of integrated pests management. biological control with use of predators, parasites or pathogens is a viable alternative to chemical control measures. natural enemies can either be native or introduced. the use of natural enemies prevents environmental risks associated with chemical pesticides, while sustainably protecting the crop given that the biological control agent does not cause any harmful non-target effects. biological control is considered as a natural phenomenon of regulation of insect pests numbers by biotic mortality factors such as parasites, predators, disease and extremes of weather that keeps pests in a state of balance. it is quite apparent that naturally occurred biotic agents especially the parasitoid, predators, pathogens and their utilization has utmost effect in pests control and this technique has received more attention as it is relatively safe, permanent, self–renewing and less expensive. entomologists have given attention to identify and use of bio-control agent. till now some predators, parasites have been detected as natural enemies of jute mite. the present investigations were undertaken with the objective to identify the natural enemies of jute yellow mite with their potentiality as bio-control agent. 2. materials and methods 2.1 survey for existing natural enemies of yellow mite data were collected through random sampling from ten selected plots where no chemicals were applied. natural enemies were observed though observation of leaves only and whole plant searching 2.2 leaf searching infested plants were selected randomly from which mite infested leaves were collected and observed under stereo microscope for the presence of any predator(s). 2.3 whole plant observation from each plot 25 yellow mite infested plants were selected randomly and observed with care separately through naked eye to record the presence of larger sized predators. 2.4 preservation of the predators the collected predators were preserved for identification. the natural enemy specimens were preserved using the following preservation methods: i) dry method: paper tips mounting ii) semipermanent methodby using canada balsam whole mount slide iii) in liquidat immature stage in alcoholic solution as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 58 published by ideas spread 2.5 identification of the predators the predators were identified with the taxonomic literature, expert scientists and university teachers. some of the predators are the new record of jute field in bangladesh. some predators could not be identified due to the lack of specific key (literature). 2.6 seasonal incidence infested leaves and twigs were collected from the field and observed under the stereo-microscope at 5 days intervals during the infestation period from april to september. field temperature and relative humidity was also recorded during the study period. population level of specific predator in different months was documented. 2.7 predation rate predation performance of different predators of yellow mite was observed through monitoring hourly consumption of the mite prey by specific predator. the prey consumption was studied using stereomicroscope. 3. results 3.1 predatory mite(amblyseius sp.), family: phytoseiidae the predatory mite, amblyseius sp. is an important predator as it was found throughout the jute growing season. a good number of predatory mite species of the family phytoseiidae attack yellow mite. 3.1.1 systematic position of the predatory mite phylum: arthropoda class: arachnida order: acarina family: phytoseiidae genus: amblysieus 3.1.2 description the predatory mite, amblysieus sp. is straw-coloured to almost white, depending on age and recent food sources. it is more flattened in shape than the relatively dome-shaped spider mites. when viewed from above, amblyseius is oval to somewhat pear-shaped. usually teardrop-shaped, long legged. 3.1.3 searching behaviour the predatory mite, amblysieus sp. was found to move quickly through and around in search of prey. unlike spider mites, it moved backwards as well as forwards. at the noon the activity of adult predatory mite was found mainly restricted to shady area but they were highly active in all the areas of leaf and shoot during the morning and evening time of the day. 3.1.4 prey consumption amblyseius feeds on a variety of mite species, but exhibits a little cannibalistic behaviour. it is capable of consuming all the life stages of the prey. both the immature and mature stages can attack the yellow mite of jute. in the present study the predation performance of only adult stage of the amblyseius sp. was investigated. the predation performance of the mite was studied in the average room temperature of 26.75±0.09 and relative humidity of 72.08±0.33. the predation rate of amblyseius sp. was recorded on an average 8.8±0.84 jute yellow mite (egg, nymph and adult) per hour in laboratory condition. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 59 published by ideas spread 3.1.5 seasonal incidence of the predatory mite amblyseius sp. figure 1. seasonal incidence of amblyseius sp. in experimental field in central station, bjri during 2012 the results of incidence of the predatory mite, amblyseius sp. are presented in the figure 1. this particular predatory mite was present in the jute field during the period from may to july. it was first noticed on the 5th of may when only 3 predatory mite were found/25 leaves of jute plant. then the population of predatory mite increased steadily with the progration of the month. it reached the peak on the 20th june and maintained similar level up to the end of the june. the highest population was 25 predatory mite/25 leaves. the population of the predatory mite then declined sharply in the 1st week of july. there after it was found to reduced population level slowly until the end of july. 3.2 thrips, scolothrips sp. thrips, scolothrips sp. is considered as a good predator of jute yellow mite. it has not been reported earlier as a predator of jute yellow mite in bangladesh. it was found only in the areas of high yellow mite infestation. it disappeared as soon as the population of the yellow mite decreased. 3.2.1 systematic position phylum: arthropoda class: insecta order: thysanoptera family: thripidae genus: scolothrips 3.2.2 description the thrips are yellow and red in colour but at the nymphal stage they are transparent or whitish in colour. they are very small in size and the length is about only ½ mm. they have short live span and complete their whole life within a week. 3.2.3 searching behavior both the nymph and adult are very active but adult were more active. when the leaf was touched then the adults were found to move by inverse jumping. at the period of high sun the thrips were found to be restricted to shady area. they were highly active in all the areas in search of the prey during the morning and evening time of the day. date of observation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 60 published by ideas spread 3.2.4 prey consumption of thrips table 1. predation rate of the predator, scolothrips sp. per hour under laboratory condition of bjri, dhaka stages of predator, scolothrips sp. predation rate/hr (mean±se) nymph 15.4±0.33 adult 20.10±0.38 room temperature (oc) 26.46±0.10 relative humidity(%) 72.43±0.41 both nymph and adult predate on yellow mite irrespective of egg, nymph or adult preferably egg. the predation performance of the adult was higher than that of the nymph of the thrips (table1). the nymph and adult of scolothrips consumed an average of 15.4 and 20.10 yellow mite per hour at the temperature of 26.46±0.10 oc and relative humidity 72.43±0.41%. 3.2.5 seasonal incidence of predatory thrips figure 2. seasonal incidence of scolothrips sp. in experimental field, central station, bjri, dhaka during 2012 the predatory thrips scolothrips sp. was found in the jute field during the period from may to july (figure2). it was first evident after mid may then it started to increase its number steadily up to the end of june. it reached its peak population of 25 on 30th june. there after a sharp decline occurred in the 1st week of july. which then decline further up to the middle of july. no thrips was found available in the later part of july and onward. 3.3 minute pirate bug (orius insidiosus) 3.3.1 systematic position phylum: arthropoda class: insecta order: hemiptera family: anthocoridae genus: orius species: orius insidiosus date of observation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 61 published by ideas spread 3.3.2 description among the identified predators orius insidiosus was found the most numerous in the studied area. it was observed that adult and nymphs of orius insidiosus stay at the lower surface of the tender leaf of the topmost portion of the jute plants. it was also found at tender stipule. it could be considered as a good predator of yellow mite of jute. 3.3.3 searching behaviour in pursuit of the prey orius move from to and fro and when it get any prey it pierce the body at the dorsal side of the prey jute yellow mite or dorsoventral side of it and suck the body sap except the exuviae. a predator individual was found to predate 8-10 yellow mites one after another at a time and then take rest for several times. it was also observed that their feeding tendency varied with the period of the day. it the morning time their feeding tendency is low and with day passing of time it increases to very high at the noon which decreases again as the progresses towards evening. 3.3.4 predation rate of minute pirate bug table2. predation rate of the predator, o. insidiosus in laboratory condition of bjri, dhaka, during 2012 stage of predator predation rate/hr (mean±se) nymph 24.5±1.47 adult 21±1.45 room tempetrature(oc) 26.65±0.12 relative humidity(%) 73.3±0.72 the predation rate of minute pirate bug at noon is shown in the table2. both nymph and adult stage of orius sp. predate yellow mite. this predator predate on all the stages (egg nymph and adult) of the jute yellow mite. a nymph of orius sp. predates 24.5±1.47 egg, nymph and adult of yellow mite per hour. whereas an adult minute pirate bug predates including all stage of yellow mite 21 ± 1.45 per hour. 3.3.5 seasonal incidence of minute pirate bug figure 3. seasonal incidence of orius insidiosus in experimental field in central station, bjri during 2012 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 62 published by ideas spread the incidence of miute pirate bug was observed at the 25th may to 5th august (figure3). minute pirate bug showed and increasing trend of its population on the last week of may to the end of june. after reaching to the peak the population of the minute pirate bug decreased continously and reached to zero on the 2nd week of august. the highest number of minute pirate bug 20 was recorded at 30th june. on the other hand, the lowest number of minute pirate bug 2 was recorded at 5th august. 3.4 lady bird beetle lady bird is usually the most important and frequent predator of red mites. but it is also found to predate on yellow mite to a considerable extent. 3.4.1 systematic position phylum: arthropoda class: insecta order: coleoptera family: coccinellidae genus: coccinella species: coccinella transversalis 3.4.2 description of the lady bird beetle adults are oval, convex, black and orange in colour. eggs are very small in size, pale white and oval. larva is gray to blackish and yellow patches. 3.4.3 searching behaviour they are mainly located under surface of leaves where there are mites of different stages in abundant quantity. they move all around from tender leaves to older leaves of the jute plants. activity was high at the morning and evening time. 3.4.4 predation rate of lady bird beetle table 3. predation rate of the predator, ladybird beetle per hour in the laboratory condition, bjri during 2012 stage of predator predation rate/hr (mean±se) grub 35.70±1.80 adult 3.8±0.73 room temperature 26.98±0.23 % relative humidity 71.23±0.31 both the grubs and adults predate on all the stage of yellow mite. grub was found as voracious feeder. predation efficiency was higher in the grub stage than the adult table 3. grub predates on an average of 35±1.80 individuals per hours where as adult predate only 3.8±0.73 in number per hour. feeding tendency of adult on the yellow mite reduced markedly to a minimum level. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 63 published by ideas spread 3.4.5 seasonal incidence of ladybird beetle figure 4. incidence of lady bird beetle in experimental field in central station, bjri during 2012 the incidence of ladybird beetle is presented in the figure 3. the lady bird beetle was found to occur in the jute field from 5th may to 30th july. the highest number of ladybird beetle was recorded on 25th june. on the other hand, the lowest number of ladybird beetle was recorded on 5th may. after reaching to a peak in the last week of june a sharp and then steady decline in the population of the predator was observed. 3.5 miridbug, nesidiocoris tenuis mirid bug is a widely distributed very important predator of a number of pests. it is a generalist predator that is commonly found on solanaceous plants including tomato. it preys on many small invertebrates, such as whitefly and mites. it also thrives on eggs of lepidoptera. the mirid bug, n. tenuis has not been reported as a predator of jute yellow mite earlier in bangladesh. it was noted that all the stages of n. tenuis are good predators. 3.5.1 systematic position phylum: arthropoda class: insecta order: hemiptera family: miridae genus: nesidiocoris species: nesidiocoris tenuis 3.5.2 predation rate of mirid bug the predation rate of the nymphs of the mirid bug was studied in the laboratory. the nymph of the bug was found as voracious predator and consumed as many as 37±1.17 yellow mite per hour at the room temperature condition of 26.3oc and relative humidity of 75.3%. date of observation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 64 published by ideas spread 3.5.3 seasonal incidence of mirid bug figure 5. seasonal incidence of mirid bug in experimental field in central station, bjri during 2012 the seasonal incidence of mirid bug is shown in figure4. the incidence of mirid bug was observed from mid may to mid july, 2010. the highest of 15 mirid bugs was recorded at 30th june, 2010. activity of the mirid bug started in the middle of may aontinued to increase its population to the end of june which then showed a sharp fall during the first half of july. 3.6 spider 3.6.1 systematic position phylum: arthropoda class: arachnida order: araneae family: thomisidae spider is a good predator of mites. a species of spider was found to consume yellow mite. this particular species of spider could not be identified up to the species level. it was not also reported previously in bangladesh as a predator of mite. preliminary predation performance of the spider on yellow mite of jute has been investigated. it consumed on an average of 18 yellow mites per hour. date of observation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 65 published by ideas spread 3.6.2 seasonal incidence of the spider figure 6. seasonal incidence of spider in experimental field in central station, bjri during 2012 incidence of the spider recorded in the central station of bjri in the year 2010 is presented in the figure 5. the presence of the spider was first evident by the end of may. then it increased its number and reached the peak on 30th june. a maximum of 11 spiders were found to occur per 25 leaves of jute plant. 3.7 red bug red bug, a good predator of both the jute yellow mite and red mites is commonly found to predate in its nymphal stage and the predation performance of it indicates that a considerably higher number of yellow mites (22) could be consumed per hour in laboratory condition. rashed (2006) reported a much higher predation rate of 59 red mite per hour. this might be for the preference of the predator for red mite as prey. seasonal synchrony between the predator and prey was evident as it occurred during may to august. date of observation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 66 published by ideas spread 3.7.1 seasonal incidence of red bug figure 7. seasonal incidence of red bug in experimental field in central station, bjri during 2012 3.8 slender spring tails insect of the order collembola is rarely found. in the jute field of central station of bjri the slender spring tail , a member of collembola was found. this particular collembola could not be identified but found to predate on jute yellow mite. it was not reported in bangladesh as a predator of mites. this spring tail is also called slender spring bug. 4. discussions as many as nine predators of jute yellow mite were recorded from crs, dhaka during 2011 to 2013. the investigation on the potentiality of the predators against the pest yellow mite indicates their importance to be used in bio-control program. 4.1 the predatory mite the predatory mite amblyseius sp. could be considered very important predator for its presence in the whole jute growing season and predating all the stages of yellow mite. importance of amblyseius sp. as predatory mite of jute mites was reported by many other authors (bonde, 1989; hunter, 1997;rashed, 2006). rashed (2006) observed that the similar consumption rate of predatory mite as has been recorded in the present study. cross (1984) showed that introductions of predatory mites in march or early april at a rate of one mite per plant were consistently successful. 4.2 the thrips the thrips (scolothrips) are are very small, yellow and red in colour but transparent or whitish in colour in immature stage. they have short developmental period and shorter live span. both the nymph and adult are very active predators showing predation on yellow mite irrespective of egg, nymph or adult. the predation performance of the adult was higher than that of the nymph of the thrips. the nymph and adult of scolothrips were found to date of observation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 67 published by ideas spread consume an average of 15.4 to 20.10 yellow mites per hour. a good synchrony between the yellow mite and the predatory thrips also exist in the field. 4.3 minute pirate bug minute pirate bug (orious insidiosus) nymph and adult were observed to predate an average of 24.5 and 21±1.45 yellow mites of all stages per hour indicating an efficient predator of the pest although the rate of predation might differ from time to time depending upon the environmental temperature. both the nymph and adult of orius sp. predate yellow and red mite of jute but prefer jute yellow mite. rashed (2006) reported that the predation rate nymph and adult of minute pirate bug ranged from 30 to 32 egg, nymph and adult of yellow mite per hour which is higher than the result of the present study. however, the predation performance of both the stages of the minute pirate bug indicates its high potentiality to reduce the population of the yellow mite in jute field. seasonal abundance of the bug also indicates a good synchrony with its prey. 4.4 lady bird beetle lady bird beetle was found as most frequent predator of red mites but could predate on yellow mite to a considerable extent. they remain mainly located under surface of leaves where there are mites of different stages. frequent movement all around from tender leaves to older leaves of the jute plants in search of prey mainly during the morning and evening was noticed. although both the grubs and adults predate on all the stage of yellow mite but the later was found as voracious feeder showing the predation efficiency of 35 individuals per hours. the lady bird beetle was found to occur in the jute field from 5th may to 30th july showing a good coexistence in the field. 4.5 mirid bug, nesidiocoris tenuis mirid bug, a widely distributed generalist predator commonly found on solanaceous plants including tomato was found preying on many small invertebrates, such as whitefly, mites and others. it should be noted here that this particular bug has been documented for the first time in bangladesh. all the stages of n. tenuis are good predators. the nymph of the bug could be considered as voracious predator as it showed a consumption performance of 37 yellow mite individuals in an hour. the seasonal incidence of mirid bug is showed that it occurs in between may and july. 4.6 spider a spider species which could not be identified was found to consume yellow mite. this is also a first record as a predator of mite in bangladesh. preliminary predation performance of this spider showed that it could consume on an average of 10.56 yellow mites per hour. the presence of the spider was first evident by the end of may and reached its peak on 30th june. 5. conclusion as many as six predators of jute yellow mite viz, predatory mite, thrips, minute pirate bug, lady bird beetle, mirid bug and spider were identified which will be used as bio-control agent to control jute yellow mite. chemical pesticide is the main tools for pest management. every chemical has hazardous effect to environment. considering green world, this study will help to keep environment free from chemical pollution. 6. conflict of interest the authors have no conflict of interest to disclose. 7. authors' contributions md. nazrul islam conducted the experiment and analyzed the data. khandakar shariful islam and mahbuba jahan provided help for the experimental design and supervised in the whole experiment. md. sohanur rahman contributed in data presentation, analysing data, searching journal for publication and finally manuscript processing & writing of this article. this article was read and approved by 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p7 7 published by ideas spread soil testing a panacea to crop yield and agricultural sustainability – a case for farmers of south eastern, nigeria nweke, i. a.1 1 department of soil science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria correspondence: nweke i. a.,department of soil science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria. tel: 234-816-460-7354. e-mail: nweksoniyke@gmail.com/nwekesoniyke@gmail.com received: march 7, 2020 accepted: march 17, 2020 online published: march 25, 2020 abstract increasing human population is closely related with the increasing demand of food and pressure on available land with the rising demand on fertilizer that has not been sustainable at the farmer’s level. this causes soil fertility decline, nutrient imbalance and low residual effect which are constraint affecting agricultural production in south eastern soils of nigeria in particular and to large extent in tropical environment. land available to be used for intensive crop production activities is limited and this demand for adequate soil testing that will x-ray the fertility status of the soil before crop planting. the characteristics and amount of nutrient elements of a soil and soil biodiversity is influenced by climatic conditions, erosion/leaching, drought, cultivation history/land use system, cropping history, kinds of pesticides/herbicides applied, type and methods of inorganic and organic fertilizer applied. soil testing quantifies the total value of plant nutrient elements available in a sampled soil that will directly promote crop growth and yield. due to its biophysical, biochemical, biological and physiochemical results, soil testing when appropriately interpreted and applied may be used effectively to promote sustainable crop production and environmental health in a tropical soil like south eastern, nigeria. keywords: soil analysis, soil sampling, depth, chemical nutrients, extraction of plant nutrient elements 1. introduction green plants can exist and increase independently of any animal life. all that is required is a supply of water, carbon iv oxide (co2) and several mineral elements to make the green plant in the presence of light a completely self-sufficient organism. plants absorb mineral elements indiscriminately from soil medium, but the presence in a plant of any particular element does not of itself constitute proof that the element, is essential to its development. in addition the infertility problem of the soil such as an excessive salt content, acidity or basicity, toxic substance, disease organisms, low soil biodiversity, moisture stress, impenetrable layers and extreme nutrients development and release in soil, climatic conditions, pest infestation or damage and human error, exploitation of vegetation and bush burning, tillage and land use systems, high intensity rainfall coupled with erosive conditions, increase in population and urbanization, intensive agricultural activities on the available land all create different kinds of problems on the biological, biophysical, biochemical and physiochemical properties of the soil (westerman, 1990, edward, 1992, samuel et al, 2003; akirinde et al., 2005, nweke 2018ab, 2019). in view of this, therefore, soil testing becomes paramount important in agricultural production for any farmer interested in getting better result in crop yield and increase in profit. soil testing is merely done to improve growth and yields, evaluate crop quality, minimize disease and for evaluating the soil for reclamation, fertilizer/manure applications, or for other needed purposes or modifications (fitts and hanway, 1976, edward, 1992). hence, soil testing could be explained as any chemical, biological or physical measurement that is made on soil. in a restricted sense, it is a means of assessing the available nutrient status of a soil. while in a broader sense, soil testing includes: evaluation, interpretation, and manure/fertilizer recommendation, based on the result of soil chemical analysis. apart from chemical method of analyzing soil fertility, biological method also exist. soil testing is very accurate when the field is appropriately sampled and can serve as transfer agent of field, green house, and laboratory research into relative productions for soil needs of lime, fertilizer or any other soil amendment before crops are planted. farmers test soil to determine how much each nutrient is available for plant growth. from the result of soil testing, they will decide how much fertilizer or manure that will be applied to reach a sufficient level of each nutrient. in order words, farmers can use three methods to find out nutrient shortages in plants;  soil testing as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 8 published by ideas spread  visual inspection of crops for deficiency signs may uncover clear shortages  tissue testing that measures nutrients levels in plant tissue itself (tisdale and nelson 1963; fitts and hanway, 1976). a soil test is normally performed early in the season to allow the farmer to supply the necessary nutrients before the crop are planted. therefore, the objective of soil testing among others will include: a) to build or gain fertility status of a given field. b) to predict the profitability of obtaining profitable response to lime and fertilizer (or any other soil amendment) c) to evaluate the fertility status of soils d) to provide a basis for recommendations on the amount of lime and fertilizer to apply (fitts and hanway, 1976, edward, 1992). the southeast farmers of nigeria faces a horrendous challenges in their crop production activities following the nature of the soils of the area that are fragile in nature, acidic, prone to erosion menace due to high rainfall and temperature and are highly weathered. hence the essence of good soil testing that will enable the farmer to track down the history of his soil/land and put the soil in proper use with less endangered to environmental degradation. the fact that most of these farmers are poor and uneducated compound the problem as this limit the practice and believe in the principles of soil testing as a means of improving their output and the life of their soils. secondly they believe that the exercise is very costly and waste of resources thus the farmers abhors soil testing. therefore this study tend to articulate research based approach to the management of south eastern soils of nigeria for sustainable food production, income generation to the farmer and delivery of healthier food to the populace. at the same time to encourage the farmers, provide guide lines and procedures of soil analysis for them to achieve better results as soil laboratory and soil researchers is much in the area to assist them. 2. limitations of soil testing soil analyses have several limitations to its use. for instance, we only measure the total amount of nutrients absorbed. hence chemical analyses of the plants are helpful information in the overall evaluation of the soil conditions for plants growth over years of study. weed competition, diseases, or poor management which affect the amounts of nutrients absorbed are not evaluated and plants are the final proof of what nutrients were or are available to the plant. another limitation is by the time a plant can be tested it is usually too late to add fertilizer. therefore, to predict the needed modifications of soils to allow optimum plant growth, soils are tested for ph, soluble salts, available nutrients, element toxicities and various other soil properties. soil test however, is not remedy for all the soil problems. according to miller and donahue (1992) it will not answer the problem of unsatisfactory plant growth when the cause is dry weather, compacted soil, critically low or high temperatures, in adequate soil drainage or low oxygen in the root zone, improper placement of fertilizer, salt accumulation, plant diseases, toxic elements and insect damage, competition from weeds or tree roots or untimely operations. these limiting factors need to be verified before soil test can be interpreted at least for proper fertilizer or organic manure recommendation. for example poor growth in plants may be associated with several interacting and interrelated factors rather than a single one. maize roots for example require high amount of soil oxygen before they can absorb potassium normally. miller and donahue (1992) reported that in wet soil the water displaces a large amount of oxygen and maize roots was unable to absorb sufficient potassium although the soil tests high in available potassium. in this situation, additional potassium inform of fertilizer was needed in order to produce high yields of maize. in like manner the work of gingrich (1965) equally showed that when soil temperatures was 100c even on soils low in phosphorous there was no response to application of phosphorous fertilizer, but yield of wheat were doubled on the same low phosphorous soil with application of 19.7kg/ha of phosphorous when soil temperature were maintained at 180c and 320c. this shows that even with good supply of soil potassium and phosphorous some factors such as excess soil moisture and low temperatures respectively in these examples may limit potassium and phosphorous absorption by the plants. the same kind of effect can as well occur in compacted soils due to restricted oxygen. in all in tempts and purposes chemical soil analysis is a valuable diagnostic technique for helping to control, manage and provide answers to complex soil and plant nutritional problems as well as environmental problems/challenges. this however should be supported with a thorough inventory of soil and cropping information and plant analysis. obtaining soil samples that represent the field area adequately and submitting the samples to a competent and certified laboratory that will ensure accurate test results and fertilizer recommendations were applicable are key steps for valid soil chemical test or analysis. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 9 published by ideas spread soil test is grouped into four stages; 1. soil sampling 2. extracting and quantifying the available nutrients that is chemical analysis of soil 3. interpretation of the results 4. recommendations 3. soil sampling soil laboratories use the most modern testing method and tools and the material to be tested is the sample provided by the farmer. therefore it means that the result will be no better than the sample itself. in view of this the field should be sampled in such a way that the chemical analysis of collected sample will reflect the field true nutrient status. bearing in mind that soils are highly variable both horizontally and vertically and in nutrient content from location to location and from spot to spot. though all the samples are not expected to yield the same result but rather have to reflect on the true variations within the field. furthermore it is very important to provide a sample that will be a representative of the whole land about which information will be needed since it is not possible to test all the soil in the field. according to miller and donahue (1992) if the sample is to represent the top 30 cm take equal portions of soil from all of the that depth. some soils of uneven relief and that have been graded and levelled may have different depths of top soil over much different sub soils such as dense clayey b horizons. the layers of soils with different colour should not be mixed as the lower 5-10 cm of a 30 cm deep core may be in quite different soil than the top part of the core. the sub samples from all parts of a uniform field (e.g. cultivation, history of land use system, cropping history etc) the sample is to represent can be mixed together to form a composite. the abnormal areas (e.g. depression, hill, valley, waterlog etc) in the field should be sampled separately though both should be sent for chemical analysis for comparison. this becomes necessary because samples properly taken to represent the field will lead to a desired result. while poorly taken samples not only will it be an economic waste but will cause disaster for the farmer to take wrong implementation on his farm activities. therefore for the farmer to take wise action he should be guided on the fact that the land to be tested should be divided into sampling areas of uniform texture, topography, cropping, manure/fertilizer (organic or inorganic depending on the one in use by the farmer), cultivation and land use history. for example coarse textured field should be sampled separately from adjacent or a closed by fine textured field. each soil type in this case becomes a sampling area. more so if a field received fertilizer or manure last year and half did not, each section should be sampled and tested separately. in such situation each composite sample can represent up to 1-5 ha (dependent on the hectares under production) to reduce cost for the farmer. the work of shickluna (1981) emphasized that if topography, texture, structure, tillage, drainage, colour of top soil and management history are uniform throughout the field each composite sample can represent up to 5 ha. a soil map or soil survey report if available can be an advantage to the farmer as it can be used to determine boundaries and sampling areas within the field. this is one of the major problems of southeast farmers as they don’t have a soil survey report or soil maps of their soils thus more predicaments in assisting and proffering solution to their soil problems, documentation and tracking down the history of their soils. the frequency and depth of testing depend on the type of crop and cultural practice. for most annual crops sampling every two or three years should be adequate though this might have been when the farmer has understood his/her field needs. intensive crops like vegetables and fruits benefit from annual sampling while greenhouse crops should be tested more often. for crops that occupy the soil longer than one season like permanent crops the soil should be tested before any of the crop is planted. any change in the cropping practice should be preceded by soil testing. though there is no standard depth for sampling soils, field or annual crops grown by conventional tillage used by virtually all the farmers in nigeria, 0-25 cm of soil should be sampled. for the ridge or mound systems commonly practiced in south east, nigeria samples should be removed from the sides of the ridges or mounds depending on the one practiced. while in no-tillage (flat) practiced mostly in southern part of southeast and south-south, nigeria samples should be collected from less than 10cm from the top soil. this is because the no tillage system permits an acid layer to form at the soil surface and this layer according to scott and hanway (1960); fitts and hanway (1976) can harm seed germination. another important aspect in soil sampling is handling, crushing, mixing and sub-sampling of the sample prior to laboratory analyses. the soil sample should be properly dried, sieved, mixed and sub-sampled to obtain a representative of the soils in the field. this can be done by quarterly. however it has being shown that drying the soil samples cause changes in the properties of many soils and the dried sample may no longer be representative of the soil in the field. for instance potassium availability both to plants and to chemical extraction in the laboratory may be greatly increased or decreased by drying of some soils (scott and hanway 1960). the most general practice is to air-dry the soil samples after they have been taken and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 10 published by ideas spread extreme moist samples are sent to the laboratory where they are put in the cabinet where air is forced over them to increase the rate of drying. avoid the use of sun or heat drying as this will falsely influence the result of certain elements/compounds except for soil nitrate test. after the air dry the samples can then be crushed and mixed. in sampling for greenhouse and container plants the soils should be sampled before planted to the crop. they then monitored periodically for any growth problem. in sampling for a crop of potted plants first any material on the soil surface should be removed and a core of soil is then taken. the core of soil should include soil from the top to the bottom of the pot or flat. several containers should be sampled and tested. 4. depth to be sampled most often farmers are advised to collect a composite sample from a given area for sample field soil for chemical test. the purpose being to minimize the influence of micro-non uniformity (reed et al.,1953), thorough examination should be made on the field to be sampled for differences in soil characteristics and past treatment. for example the following should be considered; topography of the field, texture, structure such as surface crusts or tillage pans, drainage, colour of top soil and past management. however where great variations in any of these features exist the field should be divided for taken a composite of sample from each predetermined area. a composite of sampling from two distinctly different areas is not representative of either area. a soil sample should be taken from each area that seems to have different fertility level. most often the best way to achieve this uniformity is to use area soil survey report where it is available which is an excellent source of information about the kinds of soils in each field on a farm and should be sampling purposes. the number of borings recommended to make the composite sample ranges from 5 to 25 (graham 1959; iowa state univ, coop. ext. serv. 1963). in southeast, nigeria 5-20 composite samples are recommended per hectare to address all abnormally of which range depends on the strength of the farmer’s pocket. where each borings contributes equally to the composite sample, the analytical result provides an estimate of the mean fertility level of the area (peck and melsted 1973) the accuracy depends on the range of fertility in the area and the number of borings drawn for the composite. with regard to the depth to be sampled an experience has shown that there is no standard depth for sampling soils. initially, soils are sampled to plough depth which was interpreted to be 15-20 cm deep (miller and donahue 1992). if possible it is advisable to sample different depths for different analysis though this is dependent on the farmer’s pocket (ability to offset the cost of analysis). for instance for salt problems the recommended depths may be 010cm, for no-till field the sampling depths might be shallow, for nitrate measurements, two depths are recommended 0-30cm and 30-60cm, 60-90cm can also be sampled (miller and donahue 1992). for south eastern soils of nigeria it is advisable that the farmer sampled 0-30cm as that will serve all the purpose needed to be addressed. however it is utmost important that the farmer sample the depth which is recommended by the laboratory that will analyze the samples of which most soil laboratory in south east in particular and nigeria in general recommend from 0-25cm or 0-30cm depth for crop production activities. this is because its recommendation will be based on correlation studies using the soil depth they have recommended. in taking soil samples cost other than sampling number and quality usually determines the number to be sampled. hence the idea of using one composite sample where uniformity in field exist avoid taken few sub samples and deeper soil depths as non-representative sample cannot result in accurate soil test assessment of that field. the commonly used sampling tools are augers, corers, shovel, trowels, soil tubers, jack knives etc but the commonly used tools in nigeria are soil augers, corers and shovels. the most important factor in selecting a sampling tool is that it will obtain uniform cores and slices of equal volume to the desired depth at all spots in the composite area (peck and melsted 1973). since good sampling is facilitated by proper equipment. reed et al.(1993) described the characteristics of ideal sampling equipment as follows: 1. ability to take a small enough equal volume of soil from sampling site so that the composite sample will be of an appropriate size to process for analysis. 2. be easy to clean 3. be adaptable to dry sandy soil as well as to fairly moist sticky soil 4. be rust resistant and durably constructed to resist bending or breakage 5. be relatively easy to use and thus provide for fairly rapid sampling of a field. the more comprehensive the information provided the better will be the soil amendment or fertilizer recommendation interpreted from the soil analysis. therefore, according to miller and donahue (1992), it was advised that the following should accompany the soil sample to the testing laboratory;  information on previous crop grown  crop (s) to be grown as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 11 published by ideas spread  when was the field last limed, manured or fertilized (type of lime, and manure) and rates of application  depth of ploughing  soil management practices to be adopted  is the field well drained, intermediate or poor  the kind or type of irrigation, (fertilizer, or soil amendment) to be used  other special problems such as temperature, hardpan, elevation etc, that may affect plant growth 5. chemical analysis of soil (soil testing) many extracting solutions and procedures for removing nutrients from the soil have been proposed. but none remove exactly the same amount that plant roots obtain (fitts and hanway, 1976). one of the oldest methods of testing soil samples is by the use of chemical reaction that provides colour changes. the exact colour depends on the amount of available minerals in the soil. for ph test the colour depends on the soil ph. these simple chemical tests are easy to use but they are not reliable. since the result are based on the technique of the tester and what he/she see. moreover these tests may not provide an accurate measurement of the absorbed elements that affect plant growth like potential acidity and exchangeable potassium. nevertheless such test can be useful in the field where one cannot drag equipment about or find a source of electricity. the above explained tests are however been largely replaced in laboratory testing or analysis by sophisticated modern instruments and tools such as the digital ph meter, atomic absorption spectrophotometer (aas), flame photometer, calorimeter, autoclave etc. these tools rapidly and accurately measure amounts of mineral in soil samples. though the instruments are costly they greatly improve laboratory operations by allowing faster testing and greater reliability. furthermore the introduction of atomic absorption instruments in laboratories creates a favourable condition for much greater research in the area of micronutrients use and extraction of micronutrients from soil (fitts and hanway 1976). soil ph is one of the most enlightening attributes of a soil as it is one of the most effective indices for agricultural sustainability in humid tropical soils of southeast, nigeria. the acidity, neutrality or basicity of a soil has much to do with the solubility of various compounds, the relative bonding of ions to exchange sites and the activity of various micro-organisms (nweke and nsoanya 2013). soil ph can indicate something about percentage base saturation depending on the predominant clay type, the degree of dissociation of h-ions from cation exchange sites or the extent of h-ion formation by hydrolysis of al (mclean 1973). since most of the plant essential elements in soil reach maximal or near maximal available of plant nutrients. the most common solution ratio used for measuring soil ph in soil testing is 1:1 (weight bases), though 1:2.5 and 1:10 ratio is also used quite often in soil test because 1:1 weight bases can lead to the closing of the membrane which can easily be cracked. under normal circumstances the ph measured in water is always higher than the one measured in salt solution. the ph difference range from about 0.5-1.5 ph unit reason being that in measuring of soil ph it determine in most cases already dissociated h+ or al3+ ion contained in the outer solution especially with water but with salt solution it determine not only the h+ ion of external solution but also those of internal solution [soil]h + k+ + cl [soil]k + h+ + cl in highly weathered tropical soils like the alfisol, oxisol and ultisol (soils of south east, nigeria) the reverse cases occur in many occasions especially with the b horizon of such soil. the soils are called ferrallitic or fersiallitic, the ph measured with salt solution is higher than those measured in water. [exchanger]oh + k+ + cl [exchanger]cl + k+ + oh in these highly weathered soils they have very low silicate to sesquioxide (sio2/r2so2) ratios. this phenomenon is caused by the fertility that in such highly weathered soils there is preponderance of positive charges on the soil surfaces for that reason they absorb a lot of anions instead of cations especially if the ratio is below 0.5 which is mostly found in b horizons of these soils. as a result of differences in cation contained in the soil the soil ph can vary from ph3-ph10 depending on soil condition, weather (climate) and cations present in the soil. as h+ ions are replaced by metallic cation in the process of soil development ph value increases but this increase in soil ph vary from cation to another depending on the extent of hydrolysis and dissociation. [exchanger]me+ + h+ + oh [exchanger]h + me+ + oh(me is metallic from base) but in soils that are highly saturated with hydrogen ions (h+) some of the h+ ions can be replaced with equivalent amount of al, ca, or na when this happen there will be a sequence where by hydrolysis increases in that order as a result of reduction in the binding power of the cation in the soil complex that is al < ca < na (hydrolysis sequence) also the extent of dissociation originating from metallic bases (meoh) increases because there is an increase in the oh group. this increase in the oh leads to an increase in the soil ph. the consequence of this as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 12 published by ideas spread relation as a first approximation is that monovalent cations induce usually stronger ph increases than the divalent cations and the latter cause stronger ph increases than trivalent cations. in humid areas however soil ph are always measured both in water and salt solution but in the arid and semi-arid areas soil ph is advised to be measured only in water. the reason is that in the arid and semi-arid areas the soils are already saturated with salts. so there is no need to increase the salt solution. the ph measured in salt solution however, gives a more realistic value and do not fluctuate very much than soil ph measured in water. in other words the ph measured in water fluctuates very much. from the results of the analysis lime, fertilizer or any other soil amendment of choice can be suggested for application. phosphorous is washed from the sample with acid solution; the solution is then put in spectrometer this particular method measure soluble phosphorous only, while insoluble forms are not measured. the resulting value can be in available phosphorous indicates how much phosphorous is free for plant growth. in the case of potassium the sample is washed with the solution that replaces potash on the cation exchange sites. the resulting value indicates the exchangeable potassium the amount that is readily available for plant growth. the test for nitrogen is difficult to test accurately, so some laboratories base nitrogen needs on the amount of nitrogen stored in the soil organic matter, effect of last year’s crop, other cropping practices and the farmer’s production goals. nitrate-nitrogen can however be carried over the year where leaching and denitrification are less. in this case test is valuable; the top 6cm-9cm soil should be sampled for nitrates. other important tests might include testing for soluble salts, cation exchange capacity (cec), calcium, magnesium, sulphur and trace elements known to be problem in the area (barber et al., 1961, scott and hanway, 1960, hanway et al., 1962, edward 1992, etc 2008; zhang et al., 2004; nweke 2017). according to brady and weil (1999) it is advisable to send the sampled soils to laboratory located in the same region or location from which the soils are sampled (collected) they may have access to data correlating analytical results to plants responses on soils similar nature. 6. interpretation of result laboratory results are only reliable if they have been validated on soil similar to the one been sampled. the purpose of interpretation of data revolves on the purpose or objectives for which the information was collected. the result must be based on research about fertilization and nutrient levels on soils like the sampled soil. as differences in climate and crops exist farmer therefore should use local laboratory whose recommendations will be based on the local conditions, such laboratories may be associated with a university or a state agriculture experimentation station such as state agricultural development programmes (adp) that exist in every state in south east, nigeria. after analyzing the soil sample the laboratory issues a computer printed report (for those using computer). the report will include test results, interpretation of the results as well as fertilizer/manure and lime recommendations where necessary. part of interpretation is to translate the raw numbers as low, medium or high. these numbers however vary from laboratory to laboratory. a low category may imply that a yield response to a high category is unlikely. it is through this that soil laboratory testers make their interpretation and recommendation to the farmers. 7. conclusion and recommendation soil test is a cost-effective and eco-friendly to the farmer with regard to soil management technology. the results generated from the field sampled and tested have many profound advantages when properly implemented over the non-sampled and untested field. the soil test result when implemented help to improve the physiochemical and biological properties of agricultural soil; it can act as a panacea for soil reclamation, enhancement of soil fertility and control of pathogens for sustainable agriculture. finally it is advisable that a farmer samples his farm every year prior to planting so that over the years he can track his soil test level using chart to determine whether nutrient levels in his farm are being maintained, increased or depleted. soil test interpretations help in determining the effectiveness and proper use of fertilizers, lime and other soil amendments. soil testing is the best tool farmers will use to determine how much fertilizer is needed to avoid both under and over fertilization. the interpretations, however does not include rates, method, type or time of application of fertilizer, lime or manure. neither does it tell the farmer the form of a nutrient that may be most desirable to apply. nevertheless the information obtained from a soil fertility evaluation and improvement performance to a farmer is more than just whether or not a nutrient is below or above the supposed level in the soil. rather it should as well instruct the farmer on the time, rates and method of application of the fertilizer, manure or lime. therefore soil testing is extremely important to any farmer in making the decision as to which nutrients should be included in the fertilizer and lime inputs of his field. it is only on that basis will he maximize profit in his agricultural ventures. references akinride, e., bello, o. s., ayegboyin, k. o., & roh, i. (2005). added benefits of combine organic and mineral as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 13 published by ideas spread phosphate fertilizers applied to maize and melon j. food agric. envt., 3, 75-80. barber, s. a., bray, r. j., caldwell, a. c., fox, r. l., fried, m., hanway, j. j., hovland, d., ketchson, j. w., laughton, w. m., lawton, k., lipps, r. c., olson, r. a., pesek, j. t., pretty, k., reed, m., smith, f.w. & stickney, e. m. (1961). north central regional potassium studies: ii. greenhouse experiments with millet. north central regional publication no. 123. indiana agric. exp. stn. res. bul. rb 717. brady, n. c., & weil, r. r. (1999). the nature and properties of soils (12th ed). prentice hall inc. n j pp 656-659. edward, p. j. (1992). soil science and management (2nd ed). pp. 275-284, delmer publisher. erosion technology and concentration (etc). group communiqué may/june 2008 issue # 99, ottawa canada. fitts, f. w., & hanway, j. j. (1976). prescribing soil and crop nutrient need. in: fertilizer technology and use, pp 57-78. gingrich, r. j. (1965). effect of soil temperature on the response of winter wheat to phosphorous fertilization. agronomy journal, 57(1), 41-44. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1965.00021962005700010014x graham, e. r. (1959). an explanation of theory and methods of soil testing, missouri. agric expt. sta. bull., 734. hanway, j. j. (1962). north central region potassium studies with corn, north cen. pub. no 135, ottawa agric. exp. sta. bull. 503. iowa state university cooperation extension services. (1963). take a good soil sample pamphlet 287 (rev). mclean, e. o. (1973). testing soils for ph and lime requirement in soil testing and plant analysis. in leo m. walsh, & james d. beaton (eds.), soil sci. soc. am. inc. madison wisconsin usa. miller, r. w., & donahue, r. l. (1992). soils, an introduction to soils and plant growth (6th ed). prentice hall inc. eaglewood cliff nj usa. nweke, i. a., & ilo, g. e. (2019). cultivation and land use changes their implications in soil productivity management and crop yield j. agriculture and agribusiness, 4(1), 35-62. nweke, i. a (2018a). contrasting tillage systems and wood ash effect on soil chemical properties. british j. environ. sci., 7(1), 8-25. nweke, i. a. & nsoanya, l. n. (2013). soil ph an indices for effective management of soils for crop production. journal of scientific and technology research, 2(3), 132-134. nweke, i. a. (2017). influence of wood charcoal from chlorophera excels on soil properties and yield components of maize. journal of soil science environmental management, 8(1), 11-16. https://doi.org/10.5897/jssem2015.0566 nweke, i. a. (2018b). the good, the bad and the ugly of tillage in agricultural sustainabilitya review. greener journal of agricultural sciences, 8(9), 217-250. https://doi.org/10.15580/gjas.2018.9.090618130 peck, t. r. & melsted, s. w. (1973). field sampling for soil testing, in soil testing and plant analysis, leo m. walsh and james d. beaton (eds) soil sci. soc. am. inc. madison wisconsin usa. read, i. f., fitts, j. w., hanway, j. j., kanos, l.t, mcgeorge, w. t., & dean, l. a. (1953). sampling soils for chemical tests better crops plant food, 37(8), 13-18. schickluna, j. c. (1981). sampling soils for fertilization and lime recommendations msu ag. facts ext. bull. e498 coop. ext. serv. mich. state university east lansing mich. 1981. scott, a. d., & hanway, j. j. (1960). factors influencing the changes in exchangeable soil potassium observed on dry org. int. congr. soil sci. trans (7th ed). madison wise, 3, 72-79. tisdale, s. l., nelson, w. l., beaton, j. d., & havlin, j. l. (2003). soil fertility and fertilizers (5th ed). practice hall new delhi india. westerman, r. i. (ed) (1990). soil testing and plant analysis (3rd ed). soil sci. soc. am. madison wisconsin usa. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser3.3ed zhang, j. z., robert, a. c., & jiankang z. (2004). from laboratory to field, using information from arabidopsis to engineer salt, cold and drought tolerance in crops. plant physiology, 135(2), 625621. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.104.040295 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 14 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p243 243 published by ideas spread optimisation of off-soil tomato fertilization and substrate recipes edouard tabet1,2, paul sleiman2, chadi hosri2, souzi rouphael2 & lina farah1 1 crfa: centre de recherche et formation agricole, lebanese university, ghazir, lebanon 2 faculty of agriculture and veterinary medicine, lebanese university, beirut, lebanon correspondence: lina farah, crfa: centre de recherche et formation agricole, lebanese university, ghazir, lebanon. tel: 9613-761-116. e-mail: lina.f.azar@gmail.com received: march 9, 2020 accepted: march 27, 2020 online published: may 25, 2020 abstract substrate and fertilizers recipes and their balances are two factors affecting the growth of hydroponic crops. however, the responses of crop cultivars to different substrate and fertilizer are less clear. this study was aimed at assessing the different responses of tomato (solanum lycopersicum l.) cultivars to the different substrate and fertilizer supply. the study was carried out at the centre de recherche et de formation agricole (crfa) of the lebanese university to test three types of substrates; s1 (100% coconut fiber), s2 (50% coconut fiber and 50% grape marc) and s3 (25% coconut fiber and 75% grape marc). as well as three fertilization recipes; f1 (artc), f2 (university of arizona) and f3 (farmer) were applied in order to be able to recommend the best substrates and fertilizers adapted to the conditions of cultivation off-soil. the production cycle was divided into three phases; phase1 (0-6 weeks), phase2 (6-12 weeks) and phase3 (> 12 weeks). various parameters were measured throughout the cycle; stem length, number and distance between nodes, number and distance between flower buds, and fruit yield. results for stem length and number of nodes showed good interaction in favor of f2-s1 throughout the cycle. as far as the distance between nodes is concerned, f1 is the best despite the fact that f2 is more economical and s1 showed a superiority. the number of flower buds is positively affected by f1 and f2 and s1 and s3. as far as the distance between floral buds is concerned, f1 and f2 are the best, f2 is the most profitable and s2 played a favorable role in the distance between floral buds. the number of fruits is in favor of f1 and f2, s1 is the best. in terms of plant yield, f2 is the most favorable and s2 is the best. after that, f2 is the best recipe and f1 is the most economical. s1 and s2 did well in the development of the tomato plant by their proper physico-chemical properties. s1 is slightly better. keywords: soil-less culture, fertilizer, tomato, coconut fiber, grape marc, grow bag technique, stem length, number of nodes, distance between nodes, number of flower buds, distance between flower buds, number of fruits, yield 1. introduction currently hydroponic cultivation is gaining popularity all over the world because of efficient resources management and quality food production. soil based agriculture is now facing various challenges such as urbanization, natural disaster, climate change, indiscriminate use of chemicals and pesticides which is depleting the land fertility. furthermore, the elevated labor cost of and land availability are leading to encourage hydroponic cultivation. tomato cultivar is considered the second most important vegetable worldwide due to the high market demand, moreover, this crop is the most important greenhouse crop grown in aboveground systems (fao, 2013). furthermore, tomato yields are twice as high in aboveground cultivation as in the field (urban and urban, 2010). in the developing and third world countries like lebanon, small-scale hydroponic crop growers have questions about which is the best cheapest substrate and fertilizer to use. to date, there is limited information concerning the physiological and yield responses of tomato plants and the reciprocal influence of substrate and different fertilizer recipes. as a substrate, the most commonly used granular materials in mediterranean countries for bag culture are perlite, peat, coconut fiber, or a mixture. however, grape marc has not only special properties in ensuring rapid development of nursery plants (ametqal, 1988) but has an economic advantage by replacing imported peat as a horticultural substrate. in this study, the responses of tomato crop exposed to different substrate and fertilizer has been investigated using morphological approaches. the objective of this work is to find a prototype for the hydroponic tomato crop with fertilizer modeling and substrate alternative, like grape marc, aiming to reduce the cost of production to the maximum and subsequently improve the farmer’s income. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 244 published by ideas spread 2. method the experiment took place in 2017 at the “centre de recherche et de formation agricole” (crfa) of the faculty of agriculture at the lebanese university located in ghazir in keserwan caza (mount lebanon), at an altitude of 550 m. 2.1 experimental design the experimental cultivars were planted in a 224 m2 (16 m×14 m) chapel greenhouse containing bags of tomato culture substrate, each containing 4 plants. the edge effect was eliminated. all work on culture was similar for all treatments. the tomato variety used in our experiment is the yelliz variety. the 54 bags used in the experiment were divided into groups of 3 for each f1 fertilizer recipe, f2 and f3 and for each substrate s1, s2 and s3. the experimental setup used in our experiment was split plot design with three repetitions: block 1, block 2 and block 3. each block contains the three fertilization recipes f1, f2 and f3 as major factors and the three substrates used s1, s2 and s3 as sub factors (figure 1). figure 1. experimental design 2.2 substrate and fertilization recipe three different substrate bags (23 liters each) were used; s1 (100% coconut fiber), s2 (50% coconut fiber and 50 % grape marc) and s3 (25%coconut fiber and 75% grape marc). all substrates were analyzed at the iral laboratories in fanar (table 1). table 1. physico-chemical analysis of the substrates according to the iral. physicochemical parameters unit grape marc coconut fiber moisture content % 32.17 11.32 dry matter -dm % 67.83 88.68 ash % 16.69 5.55 ph water (1 :10) 1 :10 7.45 5.19 electrical conductivity (ec) 1 :10 ms.cm-1 5.15 0.61 organic material (combustion) (%dm) %dm 83.31 94.45 carbon (combustion) (%dm) %dm 46.28 52.47 nitrogen kjeldahl (%dm) %dm 0.46 1 c/n 100.61 53 p2o5 total (digestion) (%dm) %dm 0.39 0.29 total k2o (digestion) (%dm) %dm 3.07 4.82 54 bags block 1 6 bags f1 2 bags s3 2 bags s2 2 bags s1 6 bags f2 2 bags s1 2 bags s2 2 bags s3 6 bags f3 2 bags s2 2 bags s3 2 bags s1 block 2 6 bags f2 2 bags s3 2 bags s1 2 bags f2 6 bags f3 2 bags s3 2 bags s2 2 bags s1 6 bags f1 2 bags s2 2 bags s1 2 bags s3 block 3 6 bagsf3 2 bags s3 2 bags s1 2 bags s2 6 bags f1 2 bags s1 2 bags s2 2 bags s3 6 bags f2 2 bags s3 2 bags s2 2 bags s1 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 245 published by ideas spread table 2. components of the f1, f2 and f3 fertilization recipes during the three phases of the production cycle in ppm components of the various fertilization recipes phase i 0 – 6 weeks phase ii 6-12 weeks phase iii 12 weeks and more f1 f2 f3 f1 f2 f3 f1 f2 f3 nitrogen (n) 237.50 224.00 200.00 376.18 189.00 198.00 376.18 189.00 281.00 phosphorus (p) 140.70 47.00 87.30 125.00 47.00 78.75 125.00 39.00 89.60 potassium (k) 216.60 281.00 165.30 434.00 351.00 327.30 434.00 341.00 340.50 calcium (ca) 57.00 212.00 0.00 171.00 190.00 190.00 171.00 170.00 171.00 magnesium (mg) 39.72 65.00 0.84 75.85 60.00 1.40 75.85 48.00 1.68 iron(fe) 12.53 2.00 3.40 13.95 2.00 4.60 13.95 2.00 5.40 manganese (mn) 4.97 0.55 2.30 4.46 0.55 3.30 4.46 0.55 3.90 zinc (zn) 1.02 0.33 2.90 5.84 0.33 4.30 5.84 0.33 5.10 boron (b) 2.44 0.28 1.10 2.20 0.28 1.62 2.20 0.28 1.92 copper (cu) 0.13 0.05 0.40 0.85 0.05 0.62 0.85 0.05 0.75 molybdenum (mo) 0.11 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.08 three fertilization recipes were administered (table 2); f1 (fertilizer recipe adopted by crfa), f2 (fertilizer recipe adopted by arizona university), f3 (traditional fertilizer used by the majority of lebanese farmers-direct communication). the grape marc was pre-sterilized using solarization. the fertilization of the tomatoes was applied via an irrigation venturi system with a dosatron. the flow of the drippers is 4 l/h. 2.3 cost of fertilization the cost of fertilization recipes used during the 3 production phases was calculated, and is presented in table 3. table 3. cost of fertilizer recipes used during the production phases ($). cost in $ phase i (0-6 weeks) phase ii (6-12 weeks) phase iii (12 weeks and more) f1 48.2 50.3 50.3 f2 19.7 21.1 20.1 f3 16.2 24.4 31.5 2.4 studied parameters data were collected regularly throughout crop growth, and yield data were collected at harvest. the length of the stem, number and distance between the nodes and number and distance between flower buds were measured using a measuring tape manually for each plant. during harvesting, the fruits of each flower bud were weighed using a precision scale for each plant and each treatment. 2.4.1 ec and ph measurements during the entire experimental study, a daily measurement of the ec (entrance and exit) and ph (entrance and exit) were executed. electrical conductivity (ec) was maintained between 1.83 and 2.77 ms/cm, and a target ph was maintained between 6.15 and 7.25. the optimal ph of most hydroponic cultures is between 5.8 and 6.3, whereas values between 5.0-5.5 and 6.5 7 do not cause problems for the majority of cultures (adams, 2002). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 246 published by ideas spread 2.5 statistical analysis the tables and figures were made on the excel 2010 program while the statistical analyzes were processed with glm (general linear model) using the sigmastat program. the significant differences between the three types of fertilizer, the three different substrates and their interactions were analyzed with anova two ways repeated measures. duncan test was used to indicate significantly different treatments. 3. results 3.1 effects of fertilization and substrate on different parameters 3.1.1 stem length concerning fertilization, the length of the stem with f2 treatment showed a slight non-significant superiority (p>0.05), during the 1st and 3rd phases. this can be explained according to hopkins (2003) by the amount of phosphorus raised in the f1 and f3 solutions which has the opposite effect as the nitrogen and therefore encourages a development of the root system. however during the 2nd phase, the length of the stem with f1 was slightly greater than the other two recipes. this can be explained by the increase in the amount of nitrogen in the fertilizer solution, in agreement with hopkins (2003) who has proved that an excess of nitrogen stimulates exuberant growth of the aerial part, thus favoring an increase in the shoot/leaf ratio. this findings are similar to saimbhi and satpal (2003); nawaz et al., 2012; hozhbryan (2013). concerning the substrate, the stem length during the production cycle are in favor of s1. this is due to the problems of water retention by the substrate that contains the grape marc. according to the analyzes conducted at iral (2017), grape marc shows a high water content compared to the coconut substrate and therefore its water retention is minimal (birle et al., 2008). those results agree with sibomana et al. (2013) who confirmed that water deficit leads to a reduction in the length of the stem. 3.1.2 number of nodes during the 1st phase, the number of nodes showed a slight non-significant superiority (p> 0.05) for the f2 treatment. during the 2nd and 3rd phase, the number of nodes reported a significant difference (p<0.05) with a superiority for f1 and f2 treatments. this can be explained by the fact that excess nitrogen increases the length of the stem, between nodes and decreases the number of nodes (han, 2014). dhiman and raturi (2018) similarly reported that the number of nodes increases with a high rate of nitrogen and phosphate. the results of the number of nodes are in favor of f2, half the cost of fertilizer is sufficient for a good development of the tomato plant. substrates s1 and s3 exhibited a high number of nodes relative to substrate s2 with a priority for s1. this is due to the problems of water retention by the substrate that contains grape marc. according to iral (2017), water affects the growth of plants by acting on their physiological processes and their states. 3.1.3 node distance during the different production phases, the distance between the nodes showed a slight non-significant superiority (p> 0.05) for the f1 treatment. this can be explained by the amount of nitrogen and potass in the f1 recipe that causes an increase in the stem of the plant. similarly, a high amount of potass causes a high distance between nodes, this is in agreement with upendra et al., (2003) who showed that a decrease in potassium will lead to a small distance between nodes. however the use of f2 is more economical. moreover the distance between nodes showed a roughly similar non-significant value (p>0.05) for the three substrate with a priority for the treatment s1. this can be explained by the high water requirement of the tomato plant. water stress has an effect on plant growth (lemay, 2006). 3.1.4 number of flower buds during the experiment, the number of flower buds showed a significant difference (p<0.05) in favor of treatments f1 and f2 which present maximum values with a superiority for f1. according to kumar et al. (2013) and balemi (2008), phosphorus helps flower initiation and formation. the f1 treatment was the best given its high npk content, as proved by shukla et al. (2009) and haque et al.(2011), which reported that a high amount of fertilizer resulted in a superior number of flower buds. from the economic point of view, the results obtained deduce that the use of half the fertilization cost in f2 compared to f1 gave acceptable values. during the first two phases, the number of flower buds of the three substrates did not show a significant difference and subsequently they have no effect. however, the s1 substrate is slightly higher, this can be explained by its availability in water during production (iral, 2017). during the 3rd phase, the number of flower buds showed a significant difference (p<0.05) in favor of s1 and s3. according to roumani et al. (2012), the amount of water affects early flowering. on the other hand, the s3 substrate which contains a high percentage of grape marc has a higher total amount of p2o5 than the coconut substrate (iral, 2017). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 247 published by ideas spread 3.1.5 distance between flower buds during the different phases of production, the distance between the flower buds showed a slight non-significant inferiority (p>0.05) for the f3 treatment. this can be explained by the amount of high fertilizer that affects the distance between the flower buds. according to chandra et al. (2003) excess fertilizer increases the vegetative development of the plant. the results of the fertilizer effect on the distance between flower buds are in favor of f1 and f2. economically f2 is the most profitable. during the different phases of production, the distance between the flower buds showed a significant difference (p<0.05) of the different treatments with a priority for s1. this can be explained by the high and continuous irrigation frequency that has been applied to minimize the effect of the water retention problem. moreover, it has affected the aeration of root development in s1 which has a high water retention. according to roumani et al. (2012) the amount of average water plays a positive role on the early flowering time and the flower bud. however the high amount of water can lead to a disorder of the root system. 3.1.6 yield of the plant the f1 and f2 treatments showed similarity. this can be explained by the amount of fertilizer in the f1 and f2 recipes. according to bhattarai et al. (2015) and aminifard et al. (2010), maximum plant yield is found in the fertilizer recipe that has a high npk level. at the end of the production cycle, no significant difference has been reported in the yield of the plant. the results of the effects of the variation in different fertilization recipes on the yield of the plant are economically in favor of f2. during the different phases of production, the yield of the plant showed a significant difference (p<0.05) with a maximum value for treatments s1 and s2. while it reported a significant inferiority for the s3 treatment. in conclusion, a high temperature during the summer and a good water retention by the substrate play a favorable role in the yield of the plant. furthermore, high temperature causes a significant reduction in tomato production (cornillon, 1987). according to larbi (2006), the quality and the doses of applied composts directly affect yields. decreases in yield can be observed with immature and high c/n composts or with too high application rates. a c/n>20 ratio favors flowering however, a ration lower than 20, inhibit flowering. there is a competition between vegetative growth and the development of reproductive organs. this is consistent with our analysis at iral (table 4) which confirms that the c/n ratio of grape marc is twice that of cocopeat. in addition, badiane et al. (2012) showed that a water deficit leads to a decrease in yield. according to iral (2017), grape marc ec is high, and according to xu et al. (1995) fruit production is also affected by substrate ec. the results of the yield of the plant are in favor of s2. table 4. effects of fertilization and substrate on different parameters treatment f1 f2 f3 s1 s2 s3 length of the stem (cm) 1rst phase 132.5±3.8a 134.3±7.0a 132.4±3.6a 134.2±6.1a 132.8±4.7a 132.1±4.1a 2nd phase 265.9±5.7a 263.1±16.3a 262.7±7.9a 268.9±9.4a 262.9±11.4a 260.0±10.2a 3rd phase 532.5±29.8a 533.9±19.3a 517.4±25.9a 539.5+26.8a 509.0+22.2b 535.4+17.2ab number of nodes 1rst phase 18.6±0.9a 19.0±1.1a 18.8±0.8a 18.7±1.3a 18.9±0.9a 18.8±0.7a 2nd phase 39.2±0.9a 38.3±1.5ab 37.4±0.9b 38.8±1.4a 37.8±1.4a 38.2±1.2a 3rd phase 83.0±5.4a 82.1±3.1a `80.1±3.2a 82.9±4.4a 78.4±2.7b 83.9±2.8a nodes distance (cm) production cycle 7.4±0.3a 7.1±0.4a 7.2±0.4a 7.2±0.4a 7.2±0.3a 7.1±0.3a number of floral buds 1rst phase 5.1±0.2a 5.0±0.3ab 4.9±0.1b 5.1±0.3a 4.9±0.2a 4.9±0.2a 2nd phase 11.9±0.4a 11.6±0.5ab 11.3±0.4b 11.8±0.5a 11.4±0.5a 11.6±0.4a 3rd phase 26.0±1.8a 25.7±1.0a 25.0±1.0a 26.0±1.5a 24.5±0.9b 26.3±0.9a distance floral buds(cm) production cycle 17.7±1.0a 17.7±0.7a 17.2±0.8a 17.9±0.9a 16.9±0.7b 17.7±0.6ab number of fruits 1rst phase 20.7±1.6a 20.7±1.2a 20.5±1.4a 20.2±1.3a 21.1±1.9a 20.6±0.9a 2nd phase 71.8±3.1a 70.2±6.5a 68.8±3.3a 72.5±5.0a 70.1±5.0a 68.1±3.0a 3rd phase 166.0±10.6a 168.7±14.4a 163.8±10.0a 171.6±13.7a 159.4±8.8a 167.5±9.1a yield(kg/plt) production cycle 5.13±0.65a 5.18±0.53a 4.9±0.66a 5.0±0.64ab 5.4±0.45a 4.76±0.55b a, b, within the same row, indicate significant differences at p> 0.05. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 248 published by ideas spread table 5. interaction between different fertilization recipes and substrates on all parameters treatment f1s1 f1s2 f1s3 f2s1 f2s2 f2s3 f3s1 f3s2 f3s3 length of the stem (cm) 1rst phase 133.2±1.9a 131.8±2.2a 132.7±1.9a 139.3±2.0a 135.1±2.0a 132.1±2.0a 130.5±2.0a 134.6±1.9a 131.8±1.9a 2nd phase 266.9±3.4a 266.8±3.8a 264.8±3.4a 272.8±3.6a 266.6±3.6a 257.0±3.6a 267.9±3.6a 262.4±3.4a 257.4±3.4a 3rd phase 550.4±14.1a 499.5±15.6a 548.2±14.1a 539.7±14.9a 543.7±14.7a 538.8±14.7a 529.1±15.1a 504.9±14.0a 519.6±14.0a number of nodes 1rst phase 18.4±1.3a 18.1±0.5a 19.1±0.7a 19.2±1.6a 19.2±1.0a 18.6±0.6a 18.3±1.1a 19.2±0.5a 18.7±0.7a 2nd phase 39.3±1.6a 39.1±0.8a 39.1±0.7a 39.1±1.9a 37.7±1.4a 38.1±1.5a 38.2±0.8a 36.6±0.4a 37.4±0.7a 3rd phase 85.4±5.3a 77.7±4.1a 85.8±2.9a 81.8±3.7a 80.1±1.4a 84.4±3.0a 81.4±4.6a 77.4±1.8a 81.5±0.4a nodes distance (cm) production cycle 7.4±0.2a 7.4±0.4a 7.3±0.4a 7.0±0.4a 7.2±0.4a 7.1±0.3a 7.0±0.5a 7.3±0.4a 7.3±0.5a number of floral buds 1rst phase 5.2±0.2a 5.1±0.1a 5.0±0.2a 5.0±0.3a 4.9±0.3a 4.9±0.2a 4.9±0.2a 4.8±0.1a 4.9±0.1a 2nd phase 11.9±0.6a 11.8±0.5a 11.9±0.3a 11.9±0.6a 11.5±0.5a 11.5±0.3a 11.5±0.4a 11.1±0.3a 11.3±0.4a 3rd phase 26.8±1.7a 24.2±1.4a 26.8±0.9a 25.6±1.2a 25.1±0.4a 26.5±1.0a 25.5±1.5a 24.2±0.6a 25.4±0.1a distance floral buds(cm) production cycle 18.3±0.7a 16.6±0.8a 18.2±0.4a 17.9±1.0a 17.4± 0.8a 17.8± 0.4a 17.5± 1.2a 16.8± 0.6a 17.2± 0.7a number of fruits 1rst phase 20.2±1.3a 21.8±2.3a 20.2±0.8a 19.9±2.0a 21.0±0.7a 21.1±0.8a 20.4±0.7a 20.4±2.6a 20.6±1.0a 2nd phase 72.2±5.2a 73.3±0.8a 70.0±0.8a 72.9±8.1a 69.0±8.4a 68.7±4.4a 72.5±2.2a 68.0±2.1a 69.0±4.1a 3rd phase 174.1±9.6a 156.3±6.3a 167.4±8.7a 172.3±23.4a 162.9±13.7a 171.0±4.3a 168.3±9.3a 159.0±6.8a 164.2±14.3a yield(kg/plt) production cycle 5.5±0.48a 5.2±0.58a 4.6±0.69a 4.6±0.22a 5.6±0.48a 5.2±0.31a 4.8±0.85a 5.4±0.36a 4.4±0.31a a, b, within the same row, indicate significant differences at p> 0.05. 3.2 interaction between different fertilization recipes and substrates on all parameters 3.2.1 the stem length during the 1st phase, the length of the stem in the f2s1 treatment presented the maximum value of the length with a value of 139.3 ± 2.0. while it showed a slight non-significant inferiority (p> 0.05) for the other treatments. during the 2nd phase, the maximum stem length is presented in the f2s1 treatment with a value of 272.8 ± 3.6. while it showed a slight non-significant superiority (p>0.05) for the other treatments. during the 3rd phase, the length of the stem in the f1s1 treatment was superior to other treatments which showed a slight insignificant inferiority (p> 0.05). this can be explained by the amount of fertilizer and the importance of water retention for the development of the plant. the results of stem length during the three phases of production are in favor of f2s1. 3.2.2 the number of nodes during the 1st phase, the number of nodes in the f2s1 processing presented the maximum value of the number of nodes with a value of 19.2 ± 1.6. while it showed a slight non-significant inferiority (p> 0.05) for the other treatments. during the 2nd phase, the maximum number of nodes is presented in the f1s1 processing with a value of 39.3 ± 1.6. while it showed a slight non-significant superiority (p> 0.05) for the other treatments. during the 3rd phase, the number of nodes in the f1s1 treatment showed a superiority compared to the other treatments which presented a slight insignificant inferiority (p> 0.05). ewulo et al. 2015 proved our results and showed that a high nitrogen content stimulates exuberant growth of the vegetative part. according to kramer (1983) water affects the growth of plants by acting on the physiological process and the state of the plants. similarly, lemay (2006) stated that plant growth is affected by its water status. the results of the number of nodes during the three phases of production are in favor of f2s1. 3.2.3 the distance between nodes during the different production phases, the distance between nodes did not show a significant difference between the different treatments. there is no interaction between fertilizers and substrates on the distance between nodes. 3.2.4 the number of floral buds throughout the entire production cycle, the number of floral buds was not affected by all the interactions between the different fertilization treatments and the different substrates used. during the first phase, the two interactions as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 249 published by ideas spread f1s1 and f2s1 presented maximum values with a value of 5.2±0.2 and 5.0±0.3 respectively. during the 2nd phase, the maximum number of buds is presented in both f1s1 and f2s1 interactions with values of 11.9 ± 0.6. during the 3rd phase, the number of flower buds in the f1s1 interaction showed a superiority with 26.8 ± 1.7 compared with other interactions that showed a slight inferiority that was not significant (p>0.05).it can be concluded that fertilizers f1 and f2 play a major role in the number of floral buds and substrates s1 and s3 have a positive effect by their physicochemical properties, the 1st by its high water retention and the 2nd by its high percentage in p2o5. 3.2.5 the distance between flower buds during the different phases of production, the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates did not show a significant difference in the distance between the floral buds. 3.2.6 the number of fruits during the different phases of production, the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates did not show a significant difference in the number of fruits. a non-significant trend for f1s1 and f2s1 treatments can be explained by a high npk level and a high water retention capacity that plays a major role in fruit formation (chandra et al., 2003). 3.2.7 the yield of the plant during the different phases of production, the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates did not show a significant difference in the yield of the plant. but there is a trend for f2s2 treatment that shows the maximum value. this can be explained from previous analyzes by the high amount of fertilizer in f2 and a low c/n ratio with high water retention capacity (larbi, 2006). 4. conclusion according to our study, the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates used play a major role in the development of the tomato plant. the results of stem length and number of nodes during the three phases of production are in favor of f2 and s1 and good interaction is reported at f2s1. however, concerning the distance between nodes, the fertilization recipe f1 is the best, whereas the use of f2 is more economical. substrate s1 showed superiority over f2. the different substrates and their interaction with the fertilization recipes did not show an effect on the distance between nodes. moreover, the number of flower buds is positively affected by f1 and f2 fertilization recipes and s1 and s3 substrates. on the other hand, no interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates has been reported. regarding the distance between flower buds, fertilization recipes f1 and f2 are the best. economically f2 is the most profitable. the substrate s2 played a favorable role and the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates is negligible. furthermore, the number of fruits during the three phases of production is in favor of f1 and f2, the substrate s1 is the best. the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates has no effect on the number of fruits. finally, the fertilization recipe f2 is the most favorable and the substrate s2 is the best for the yield results. on the other hand, the interaction between the various fertilization recipes and the different substrates has no effect on the yield of the plant. in sum, it can be concluded that the fertilization recipe f2 is the best while f1 is the most economical. the f2 fertilization recipe represents half the cost of the f1 fertilization recipe and allows a good development of the tomato plant. substrates s1 and s2 have succeeded in developing the tomato plant by their suitable physicochemical properties. the substrate s1 is slightly better. the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates is almost negligible, a trend is in favor of f2s1. thus, one can recommend to lebanese farmers an f2 fertilization recipe suitable for growing above-ground tomato and an alternative of s2 substrate (50% coconut fiber and 50% grape marc) less expensive. in perspective, we recommend and plan to continue further work on the effect of grape marc after composting and study the variation of fertilization and irrigation rates during the production cycle. references adams, p. 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(1995). effects of fertigation management on growth and photosynthesis of tomato plant grown in peat, rockwool and nft. scientia hort, 63, 11-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/03044238(95)00791-q copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p115 115 published by ideas spread evaluation of cane genotypes under sprinkler irrigation at early selection stage for tolerance to sugarcane streak mosaic virus (scsmv) at ferké sugar estates in ivory coast crépin b. péné1 & yavo y.m. béhou2 1 sucaf-ci/somdiaa group, research & development department, ivory coast 2 edp/inp-hb, department of agronomy, agricultural engineering and forestry, yamoussoukro, ivory coast correspondence: crépin b. péné, sucaf-ci/somdiaa group, research & development department, 22 rue des carrossiers, treichville zone 3, p.o. box 1967 abidjan 01, ivory coast. tel: 225-4783-1916. email: bpene@sucafci.somdiaa.com/cbpene20@yahoo.com received: april 3, 2020 accepted: april 10, 2020 online published: april 16, 2020 abstract sugarcane streak mosaic virus (scsmv) became the major endemic disease of economic importance in ivorian sugar estates almost two years ago, which spreads very fast across plantations and varieties. the study aimed to determine resistant sugarcane genotypes against scsmv in ferké sugar estates. it involved five experiments conducted at first selection stage under sprinkler irrigation, following a randomized complete block design (rcbd) with 20 to 30 different genotypes, two check varieties included, all in 4 replicates. experiments were planted in october or december 2018, and expected to be harvested in november/december 2019 and 2020 as plant cane and first ratoon, respectively. disease incidence and severity across all experiments were determined at 3 to 4 months, i.e. at early formative growth stage where symptoms due to scsmv could be easily observed and recognized in the field. in each of the five selection trials conducted on both ferké 1 & 2 sugar estates, highly significant differences in disease incidence and severity were observed between genotypes as well as crop cycles (plant cane and first ratoon). except for one trial (b3-24 in ferké 1), genotype x crop cycle interactions were significant or highly significant, which showed that the majority of genotypes tested behaved differently from plant cane to first ratoon towards the disease. particularly, the percentage of resistant genotypes decreased from 50 to 3.4% whereas that of highly susceptible ones increased from 4.2 to 92.4%. this shows the level of challenge to be tackled in the control of scsm disease through sugarcane breeding and selection. at the end of the current selection stage under way, i.e. after harvest of first ratoon, only the best yielding genotypes among the resistant ones will undergo the advanced selection stage. keywords: natural infection, disease susceptibility, varietal resistance, growth stage, insect vector, yield loss, disease epidemiology. 1. introduction sugarcane is one of the important cash crops grown in ivory coast, covering approximately 35,500 ha of land surface with an average yield of 70-75 t of cane/ha irrigated and rainfed crops combined. sugarcane is mostly cultivated under irrigated conditions contributing to around 90% of ivorian sugar production, i.e. about 200,000 t/year provided from four different factories. sugarcane streak mosaic (scsm) is a newly emerging disease in the country, which has been infecting that crop since 2017. the virus was known about fifteen years ago in asian and latino american sugarcane producing countries where it was first reported in 2004 and 2005 respectively in brazil (gonçalves et al, 2004; gonçalves et al, 2007a; gonçalves et al, 2007b; gonçalves et al, 2011; gonçalves et al, 2012) and java, indonesia (chatenet et al, 2005; kristini et al, 2006). it was reported that at least two strains of scsmv were infecting sugarcane in asia (putra et al, 2015a). scsmv is a poacevirus from the potyviridae family, which is easily transmitted through plant extracts and vertically through sugarcane cuttings. it infects a limited species of poaceae family such as sugarcane, sorghum, maize, dacttyloctenium aegyptium, pennisetum glaucum, digitaria delilis as reported by several investigators (hema et al, 2001; xu et al, 2010; putra & damayanti, 2012; putra et al, 2014). however, no insect vector of the pathogen was reported so far (putra et al, 2015a, addy et al, 2017). several species of aphids have been tested including aphis cracivora, rhopalosiphum maidis and ceratovacuna lanigera and it was reported that as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 116 published by ideas spread they could not transmit the virus (hema et al, 2001; putra & damayanti, 2012; putra et al, 2014). it was reported that scsmv could be detected using rt-pcr on sugarcane aphid colony (melanaphis indosacchari), and still the mechanism of virus transmission needs to be studied so as to develop an integrated pest management strategy (brown, 1997). across ivorian sugar estates, except for a limited number of varieties like m2593/92, m1400/86, sp70-1143, r584 and r91-2021, all main cultivars were found moderately or highly susceptible to the disease. it is the case of varieties like fr80-69, r579, sp70-1006, sp71-1406, sp71-8210, sp81-3250, r573, r570, co997 and r575. cane and sugar yield losses due to scsmv occurred in zuénoula sugar estate in central ivory coast where the disease broke out in 2017 on variety r575, were estimated to 20 to 30% over the last two cropping seasons (201718 and 2018-19). the disease expansion was so fast in zuénoula plantations that 20% of land under cultivation with moderately or highly susceptible varieties were replanted every year instead of 10% as usual (béhou & péné, 2019). the disease broke out in ferké sugar estates of northern ivory coast in june 2018 on variety fr80-69, a highly susceptible one, and within 12 months, it has spread to all major varieties cultivated like r579, sp71-1406, sp70-1006 and sp71-8210, with a severity score of 2 or 3, 4 being the highest symptom level. total cropped land concerned was estimated to 2000 ha, i.e. about 25%. the threat on sugar production was so crucial that a replantation strategy was planned to be implemented over the next three or four years. the study aimed to determine under irrigation resistant sugarcane genotypes of reunion and ivorian origin against scsmv. 2. materials and methods 2.1 site characteristics the study was carried out on four sugarcane plantations (b3-13, b3-24, v4-43, v8-01) and an experimental station (p3-61), at ferké 1 and ferké 2 sugar estates, in northern ivory coast (9°20’ – 9°60’ n, 5°22’ – 5°40’ o, 325 m a.s.l.). the prevailing climate is tropical dry with two seasons: one, from november to april, is dry and the other, from may to october, is wet. the dry season is marked by the northern trade wind, which blows over midnovember to late january. the rainfall pattern is unimodal with a focus on august and september which total amount of rainfall reaches almost half of the average annual rainfall (1200 mm) with an average daily temperature of 27 °c. average maximum and minimum daily air temperatures are 32.5 and 21 °c, respectively. to meet sugarcane crop water requirements, the total amount of irrigation water required reaches 700 mm/year (konan et al, 2017a,b). both ferké sugar mill plantations cover around 15 500 ha with 10 000 ha under irrigation and 3 500 ha of rainfed village plantations, lie mainly on shallow or moderately deep soils built up on granites. main soil units encountered are ferralsols and temporally waterlogged soils in valley bottoms of bandama and lokpoho river basins with a sandy-clay texture. 2.2 experimental design all experiments were carried out over 12 months as plant cane following a randomized complete block design (rcbd) with 20 to 30 cane genotypes and two commercial varieties as control (m2593/92 and r579), in 3 replicates. each sugar estate was equipped with a weather station where parameters required to determine crop et0 like solar radiation, average daily air temperature, relative air moisture, and wind speed were measured. rainfall data were recorded from different rain gauges l1-105, but also p3-61, v4-15 and v8-32 located close to ferké 1 and ferké 2 experiments, respectively. ferké 1 experiments were planted on october 25 and december 11, 2018 were expected to be harvested 11 or 12 months later, i.e. in november or december 2019 and 2020, respectively, as plant cane and first ratoon. those of ferké 2 were planted on october 12, december 20 and 29, 2018 and expected to be harvested in november or december 2019 and 2020, respectively. each plot was composed of 5 dual rows of 5 m long with 0.50 m and 1.90 m of row spacings. field management in terms of fertilizer and herbicide applications were done according to usual practices in commercial plantations. nkp fertilizer (16-8.5-23%) was applied mechanically at the routine rates of 500 kg/ha in rainfed plant cane. preemergence chemical weeding based on pendimethalin combined with clorimuron-ethyl (3.5 l/ha) was achieved mechanically two days after planting. 2.3 genotype infections investigated three to four months after planting, all genotypes being tested were observed for symptom detection of scmv (sugarcane streak mosaic virus) under natural conditions. ratings recorded were based on symptoms observed on sugarcane leaves. four different levels of scsm disease symptoms were as follows: (1) mild streak, (2) moderately streak, (3) high streak and (4) very high streak. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 117 published by ideas spread figure 1. severity scale of scsmv infection in sugarcane. leaf 0 is asymptomatic and leaf 4 very highly infected. variety r579 leaves collected in ferké. scale adapted from putra et al (2014). disease incidence (inc) is defined as the percentage of infected tillers, no matter the severity, over the total number of tillers observed within two central micro-plots made of one dual row of 5 m long with respect to each genotype and replication. inc (%) = (nb of infected tillers / total nb of tillers) x 100 (1) disease incidence was classified as highly resistant or asymptomatic (0%), moderately resistant (<10%), susceptible ([10-40%[) and highly susceptible (≥40%). disease severity (sev) is defined as the average score or rating of infected tillers with respect to their severity over the total number of tillers observed within two central micro-plots made of one dual row of 5 m long (9.5 m²) with respect to each genotype and replication. sev (-) = (n0x0 + n1x1 + n2x2 + n3x3 + n4x4)/(n0+n1+n2+n3+n4) = (n1x1 + n2x2 + n3x3 + n4x4)/(n0+n1+n2+n3+n4) (2) where n0: nb of asymptomatic tillers; n1: nb of mild streak tillers, n2: nb of moderately streak tillers, n3: nb of higly streak tillers, n4: nb of very highly streak tillers. 2.4 statistical analyses the quantitative data recorded in this study were subjected to the analysis of variance, using statistical procedures described by gomez and gomez (1984) and reported by shitahum et al (2018) with the assistance of r software package version 3.5.2. differences between means of treatments were determined from hsd’s test. 3. results and discussion 3.1 climatic conditions over plant cane and first ratoon crop as expected, both experimental sites presented a similar rainfall patterns with a per-humid season taking place from june to october (fig 1). the dry season which took place from november 2018 to may 2019, and from october 2019 to february 2020, was marked by irrigation applications. in ferké 1 experiments, total rainfall and reference evapotranspiration (eto) recorded across crop cycle gave 1538.5 mm on average regarding two locations and 2188 mm, respectively. total rainfall deficit over crop growing season from october 2018 to february 2020 gave 895-961 mm and the average daily temperature across crop cycle varied from 24.4 to 34.5 °c. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 118 published by ideas spread in ferké 2 experiments, total precipitation and reference evapotranspiration (eto) recorded across crop cycle gave 1656 mm on average regarding three locations and 2075 mm, respectively. total rainfall deficit obtained over crop growing season from october 2018 to february 2020 gave 904-958 mm whereas the average daily temperature across crop cycle varied from 24.7 to 30.5 °c. figure 1a. climate on ferké 1 experimental sites (b313/24). figure 1b. climate on ferké 2 experimental site of p3-61. figure 1c. climate on ferké 2 experimental site of v4-43. figure 1d. climate on ferké 2 experimental site of v8-01 figure 1. prevailing climate on ferké 1 and ferké 2 experimental sites in plant cane and first ratoon crop, ivory coast as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 119 published by ideas spread 3.2 cane genotypes as affected by scsm disease in ferké 1 experiments in both ferké 1 trails (b3-13 and b3-24 field plots), highly significant differences (p<0.1) in disease incidence and severity were observed between genotypes as well as crop cycles (table 1). genotype x crop cycle interactions were significant or highly significant in b3-13 trial, while not significant in b3-24 trial. this shows that in b3-13 trial, cane genotypes behaved differently from plant cane to first ratoon towards the disease. particularly, many asymptomatic genotypes assumed to be tolerant or resistant in plant cane became susceptible in first ratoon. in contrast, for the b3-24 trial, genotypes tested behaved similarly over both crop cycles in terms of their ranking, although the disease symptoms worsened sometimes in first ratoon. high values of coefficient of variation determined in both experiments (70-87%) could be explained by natural infection of disease, although that one became endemic over the last two years in ferké sugar estates. similar values were reported in survey on major endemic diseases conducted in the same agro-ecology (béhou & péné, 2018; 2019). table 1. scsm disease incidence and severity on cane genotypes at 3 months in plant cane and first ratoon regarding ferké 1 experiments, ivory coast ferké 1 trial b3-13 ferké 1 trail b3-24 genotypes % incidence severity genotypes % incidence severity m2593-92 36.3bc 0.5bc m2593/92 31.9cd 0.3cd rci10/164 26.3de 0.3ef rci11/1110 35.1bc 0.4bc rci11/163 47.8bc 0.5bc rci11/1111 43.7ab 0.5ab rci11/167 41.5bc 0.4cd rci11/1112 44.8ab 0.4ab rci11/168 41.4bc 0.4bc rci11/1113 49.6ab 0.5ab rci11/169 40.8bc 0.4bc rci11/1114 47.8ab 0.5ab rci11/170 24.4ed 0.2fg rci12/1115 25.0de 0.3ef rci13/172 55.7ab 0.6bc rci12/1116 27.5de 0.3de rci13/175 54.3ab 0.6bc rci13/1117 31.6cd 0.3cd rci13/176 40.3 0.4cd rci13/1118 55.9ab 0.6ab rci13/178 75.4a 0.9a rci13/1119 39.4bc 0.4ab rci13/181 30.9 0.3de rci13/1120 40.5ab 0.4ab rci13/182 42.5ab 0.7ab rci13/1121 22.0f 0.2f rci13/183 19.3 0.2g rci13/1122 36.4bc 0.4bc rci13/184 32.8 0.3de rci13/1123 41.5ab 0.4ab rci13/185 44.9 0.5bc rci13/1124 30.3cd 0.3cd rci13/186 58.3ab 0.6bc rci13/197 22.6ef 0.2f rci14/158 38.4 0.4bc rci13/198 52.4ab 0.6ab rci14/160 56.1ab 0.6bc rci14/1100 52.2ab 0.5ab rci14/161 38.8 0.4cd rci14/1101 44.5ab 0.5ab rci14/1102 52.1ab 0.6ab rci14/1103 61.0ab 0.6ab rci14/1104 52.4ab 0.6ab rci14/1105 49.0ab 0.5ab rci14/1106 57.7ab 0.6ab rci14/1107 47.4ab 0.5ab rci14/1108 45.5ab 0.5ab rci14/1109 43.5ab 0.4ab rci14/1125 67.2a 0.7a rci14/199 39.0bc 0.4ab replications ** ** replications ns ns genotypes (g) *** *** genotypes (g) ** ** crop cycle (y) *** *** crop cycle (y) *** *** g x y * ** g x y ns ns mean 43.3 0.5 mean 43.0 0.4 cv (%) 74.8 70.1 cv (%) 86.8 86.4 sd 32.4 0.3 sd 37.3 0.3 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 120 published by ideas spread 3.3 cane genotypes as affected by scsm disease at three months in ferké 2 experiments in the three trails of ferké 2 location (p3-61, v4-43 and v8-01 field plots), highly significant differences (p<0.1) in disease incidence and severity were observed between genotypes as well as crop cycles (table 2). genotype x crop cycle interactions were significant in the p3-61 trial and highly significant in v4-43 and v8-01 trails. this corroborates the fact the majority of genotypes tested behaved differently from plant cane to first ratoon towards the disease. particularly, many asymptomatic or moderately resistant genotypes in plant cane became susceptible or highly susceptible in first ratoon. similarly to both ferké 1 trails, high values of coefficient of variation determined in both experiments (78.5 101%) could be explained by natural infection of disease. table 2. scsm disease incidence and severity on cane genotypes in plant cane and first ratoon at 3 months regarding ferké 2 experiments, ivory coast ferké 2 trial p3-61 ferké 2 trial v4-43 ferké 2 trial v8-01 genotypes incid.(%) severity genotypes incid.(%) severity genotypes incid.(%) severity m2593/92 20.4cd 0.2 m2593/92 50.3 0.8 r579 53.5 0.7 rci12/149 42.2 0.4 rci11/112 32.5 0.3 rci11/1128 59.4 0.7 rci13/138 38.3 0.5 rci11/134 38.1 0.5 rci11/1129 55.4 0.6 rci13/140 46.4 0.5 rci11/135 26.1 0.3 rci11/1146 58.9 0.6 rci13/141 50.3 0.6 rci11/162 45.0 0.5 rci12/1130 60.8 1.0 rci13/142 31.9 0.3 rci11/165 58.5 0.7 rci13/1131 61.6 0.7 rci13/143 49.5 0.6 rci11/166 54.6 0.7 rci13/1132 2.3 0.0 rci13/144 38.1 0.5 rci11/190 57.2 0.8 rci13/1133 72.9 0.8 rci13/145 1.4 0.0 rci12/191 47.1 0.6 rci13/1134 54.5 0.6 rci13/150 33.7 0.3 rci12/192 12.6 0.1 rci13/1135 70.6 0.8 rci13/151 39.3 0.4 rci13/110 33.6 0.4 rci13/1136 40.2 0.4 rci13/152 45.0 0.5 rci13/13 37.4 0.4 rci13/1148 58.7 0.8 rci13/153 26.3 0.3 rci13/139 32.0 0.3 rci14/1126 66.5 0.9 rci14/146 50.1 0.6 rci13/16 3.5 0.0 rci14/1127 55.2 0.7 rci14/147 42.0 0.5 rci13/173 51.0 0.8 rci14/1137 53.3 0.7 rci14/148 54.2 0.6 rci13/174 54.6 0.9 rci14/1138 53.5 0.9 rci14/154 39.0 0.4 rci13/177 64.6 1.1 rci14/1139 48.1 0.7 rci14/155 48.2 0.8 rci13/179 66.6 0.8 rci14/1140 49.2 0.5 rci14/156 44.3 0.5 rci13/180 59.8 1.0 rci14/1141 48.6 0.5 rci14/157 29.2 0.3 rci13/187 2.2 0.0 rci14/1142 52.1 0.7 rci13/193 35.4 0.4 rci14/1143 57.3 0.8 rci13/194 17.3 0.2 rci14/1144 57.2 0.9 rci13/195 48.2 0.6 rci14/1145 36.6 0.4 rci13/196 43.5 0.5 rci14/1147 52.5 0.7 rci14/111 36.3 0.4 rci14/128 35.4 0.3 rci14/159 24.5 0.3 rci14/171 55.8 0.6 rci14/188 47.7 0.5 rci14/189 51.2 0.8 replications *** *** replications ns ns replications ns ns genotyp (g) *** *** genotyp (g) *** *** genotyp (g) *** *** crop cycle (y) *** *** crop cycle (y) *** *** crop cycle (y) *** *** g x y * * g x y *** *** g x y *** *** mean 38.5 0.4 mean 40.7 0.5 mean 53.3 0.7 cv (%) 90.0 84.0 cv (%) 94.3 101.1 cv (%) 78.5 86.0 sd 34.6 0.3 sd 38.4 0.5 sd 41.8 0.6 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 121 published by ideas spread 3.4 cane genotypes resistance or susceptibility to scsm disease at three months 3.4.1 plant cane higher percentage of disease resistant genotypes were observed in v4-43 and p3-61 experiments conducted in ferké 2 with 72 and 52%, respectively (fig. 2). the lowest percentage of resistant genotypes was observed in b313 experiment conducted in ferké 1, with 37%. highly susceptible genotypes were observed in b3-13 and v8-01 experiments carried out in ferké 1 and ferké 2, respectively, with 16 and 9% of genotypes tested. among all genotypes tested (n=119), 50.4% were resistant, 22.7% moderately resistant, 22.7% susceptible and 4.2% highly susceptible (fig. 3). about 5% of genotypes were asymptomatic and therefore supposed to be highly resistant, namely rci12/1116, rci13/145, rci14/157, rci12/192, rci13/187 and rci14/159 (table 3). their agronomic performances will be carefully checked across the selection process, as resistance to scsmv became recently a top ranking criterion followed by sugar yield in ferké sugar estates agro-ecology. five genotypes, namely rci13/172, rci13/182, rci13/178 rci13/1135 and rci13/1133, found highly susceptible alongside with susceptible and moderately resistant ones will therefore be eliminated in first ratoon after harvest for the advanced selection stage irrespective of their sugar yield performances and other agro-morphological traits like erect and self-defoliating stalks for easy mechanized green harvesting. symptom observations in this study were made at three or four months, therefore at early grand growth stage of sugarcane where infection could be recognized visually without any virus detection equipment like elisa chain (enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay) or rt-pcr (reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction). however, observations made later at that growth stage (5-9 months) and the formative growth stage (10-12 months) showed much higher values of disease severity ranging from 2 to 3 (-) on susceptible genotypes compared with 0.1 to 0.5 (-) determined at early grand growth stage. that is why our suggestion would be to observe at 5-7 months, where sugarcane fields are still easily accessible for growth measurements and disease control. figure 2. sugarcane genotype resistance or susceptibility to scsm disease in plant cane, at 3-4 months across field experiments carried out in plant crop at ferké sugar estates, ivory coast as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 122 published by ideas spread figure 3. percentage of genotype resistant or susceptible to scsm disease in plant cane at early selection stage at ferké sugar estates, ivory coast table 3. resistant and highly susceptible cane genotypes to natural infection of scsm disease in plant cane at ferké sugar estates, ivory coast cane genotypes field experiments resistant highly susceptible b3-13/ferké 1 rci11/170 ; rci14/158 rci13/183 ; rci13/184 rci11/163 ; rci14/161 ; rci10/164 rci13/172 ; rci13/182 ; rci13/178 b3-24/ferké 1 rci12/1116* ; rci13/1121 rci14/1109 ; rci14/1105 ; rci14/1101 ; rci13/1123 ; rci13/1124 ; rci13/1119 ; rci13/197 ; rci14/1108 ; rci13/1117 ; rci14/1107 p3-61/ferké 2 rci13/145* ; rci14/157* ; rci14/147 ; rci13/153 ; rci13/151 ; rci14/154 ; rci13/144 ; rci14/156 ; rci13/138 ; rci13/142 v4-43/ferké 2 rci12/192* ; rci13/187* ; rci14/159*; rci14/128 ; rci13/13 ; rci13/194 ; rci13/139 ; rci13/173 ; rci11/135 rci13/16 ; rci14/188 ; rci13/110 ; rci13/193 ; rci11/162 ; rci11/112 ; rci12/191 ; rci13/195 ; rci14/189 ; rci14/111 ; rci11/134 ; rci13/196 rci13/1136 ; rci13/1132 ; as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 123 published by ideas spread v8-01/ferké 2 rci14/1140 ; rci14/1141 ; rci14/1139 ; rci14/1142 ; rci14/1138 ; rci14/1137 ; rci14/1145 ; rci14/1147 rci13/1135 ; rci13/1133 *: asymptomatic genotypes (n=6) 3.4.2 first ratoon crop in the first ratoon crop, higher percentage of highly susceptible genotypes to scsm disease (86-95.7%) were observed in all experiments conducted in both sugar estates (fig. 3). percentage of resistant genotypes observed in ferké 2 ranged from 4.3 to 6.9% while none of them was observed in both ferké 1 trials. that of susceptible genotypes ranged from 5.3 to 6.9% observed in both ferké 1 trials as well as v4-43 trail of ferké 2. in total, about 92% of genotypes tested were highly susceptible whereas 4.2 and 3.4% were susceptible and resistant, respectively (fig 4, table 4). figure 3. sugarcane genotype resistance or susceptibility to scsm disease in first ratoon crop at 3-4 months, across experiments carried out in plant crop at ferké sugar estates, ivory coast as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 124 published by ideas spread figure 4. percentage of genotype resistant or susceptible to scsm disease in first ratonn crop at early selection stage at ferké sugar estates, ivory coast table 4. resistant and highly susceptible cane genotypes to natural infection of scsm disease in first ratoon crop at ferké sugar estates, ivory coast cane genotypes field experiments resistant highly susceptible b3-13/ferké 1 rci10/164 rci11/163 rci11/167 rci11/168 rci11/169 rci11/170 rci13/172 rci13/175 rci13/176 rci13/178 rci13/181 rci13/182 rci13/184 rci13/185 rci13/186 rci14/158 rci14/160 rci14/161 b3-24/ferké 1 rci13/1121 rci13/1122 rci13/1117 rci13/1124 rci12/1116 rci11/1110 rci11/1112 rci13/1120 rci14/199 rci13/1119 rci11/1111 rci13/1123 rci14/1108 rci14/1109 rci11/1113 rci14/1101 rci14/1107 rci11/1114 rci13/198 rci14/1102 rci14/1100 rci14/1104 rci13/1118 rci14/1103 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 125 published by ideas spread rci14/1105 rci14/1106 rci14/1125 p3-61/ferké 2 rci13/145 rci13/150 rci13/153 rci13/142 rci14/157 rci12/149 rci14/146 rci13/138 rci13/144 rci14/154 rci13/151 rci13/143 rci13/152 rci14/155 rci14/148 rci13/140 rci14/156 rci14/147 rci13/141 v4-43/ferké 2 rci13/16; rci13/187 rci11/135 rci14/159 rci11/112 rci13/110 rci13/139 rci14/111 rci13/193 rci11/134 rci14/128 rci13/13 rci13/196 rci11/162 rci12/191 rci11/190 rci13/195 rci11/165 rci13/180 rci14/188 rci14/189 rci13/177 rci13/174 rci11/166 rci14/171 rci13/173 rci13/179 v8-01/ferké 2 rci13/1132 rci14/1145 rci13/1136 rci13/1134 rci14/1139 rci14/1141 rci14/1144 rci13/1133 rci14/1140 rci11/1128 rci14/1147 rci11/1129 rci14/1142 rci14/1143 rci14/1137 rci14/1126 rci11/1146 rci12/1130 rci13/1131 rci13/1135 rci13/1148 rci14/1127 rci14/1138 3.5 disease epidemiology some weed species like rottboellia exaltata l, dactyloctenium aegyptium, imperata cilyndrica, pennisetum pupureum, paspalum spp., bracharia moliniformis and panucum repens, as well as cereal crops like maize (zea mays l) and sorghum (sorghum bicolor) are respectively highly endemic and commonly cultivated across ivorian sugar estates. several investigators reported that they were host plants for scsmv (putra et al, 2014; prabowo et al, 2014). although investigations were made on suspected insect vectors of the disease like ceratovacum lanigera zeh., rhopalosiphum maydis, saccharicocus sacchari cock., and melanaphis sacchari zeh. (a sugarcane aphid) (damayanti & putra, 2011; putra & damayanti, 2012; béhou & péné, 2018), no evidence of disease transmission from a vector was made to our knowledge. under ivorian field conditions, two insect species (locris rubra and l. maculate) were suspected as possible scsmv vectors. they were frequently observed on susceptible varieties namely r579, sp81-3250, and r570. beside them, numerous possible vectors used to be observed on leaves of susceptible varieties such as zonecerus variegatus, paracinema tricolor, stenohippus aequus, oxya hyla and conocephalus longipennis. in addition to the fact that scsm disease is spread very fast, similarly to the case of rice yellow mottle virus, it could be hypothesized that a complex biocenosis of pests could be possible vectors of the disease (koudamiloro et al, 2015). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 126 published by ideas spread scsmv constitutes a great challenge for geneticists, breeders, pathologists, agronomists as well as cane growers. in the sense that it is not eliminated by hot water treatment (hwt), in contrast to most economically important diseases in sugarcane frequent in sub-saharan africa and elsewhere like leaf scald (xanthomonas albinineans), smut (sporisorium scitamineum), yellow leaf disease (scyld), orange rust (puccinia kuehnii), rsd (leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli), and brown rust (puccinia melanocephala). other challenges lie in the fact that no insect vector of scsmv is formally identified yet, its transmission mechanism from vector to crop being still unknown and it spreads very fast across sugarcane fields and varieties, with significant yield reduction as reported in brazil, indonesia and ivory coast (gonçalves et al, 2007b; magarey et al, 2018; béhou & péné, 2019. prophylactic measures based on agricultural practices regarding sanitation of planting and harvesting tools or machinery as well as search for resistant cane varieties must be given a top priority. in this regard, sugarcane selection starting from true seed constitutes a great opportunity to broaden the genetic diversity of plant material being tested in line of scsmv thread. this program is being under way since 2014-15 in ivory coast, and much earlier in senegal and some central african countries (cameroon, tchad and congo), in collaboration with r&d institutes like ercane (reunion island) and msiri (mauritius). 4. conclusions in each of the five selection trails conducted on both ferké 1 & 2 sugar estates, highly significant differences in disease incidence and severity were observed between genotypes as well as crop cycles (plant cane and first ratoon). except for one trial (b3-24 in ferké 1), genotype x crop cycle interactions were significant or highly significant, which showed that the majority of genotypes tested behaved differently from plant cane to first ratoon towards the disease. particularly, the percentage of resistant genotypes decreased from 50 to 3.4% whereas that of highly susceptible ones increased from 4.2 to 92.4%. this shows the level of challenge to be tackled in the control of scsm disease through sugarcane breeding and selection. at the end of the current selection stage under way, i.e. after harvest of first ratoon, only the best yielding genotypes among the resistant ones will undergo the advanced selection stage. references addy, h. s., nurmalasari, wahyudi, a. h. s., sholey, a., anugrah, c., iriyanto, f. e. s., darmanto w., & sugiharto, b. 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(2007b). mixed infection by scmv and msv causing breaking yields in maize in sao paulo state. summa phytopathol, 33, 22-6. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0100-54052007000400005 gonçalves, m. c., moreira, y. j. c. b., maia, i. g., santos, a. s., faustin, g. m., & chaves, a. (2004). identification and characterization of solates from scmv sub-group in san paulo state, brazil. phytopathol. brasileira, 32, 32-9. gonçalves, m. c., pinto, l. r., souza, s. c., & landell, m. g. a. (2012). virus diseases of sugarcane. a constant as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 127 published by ideas spread challenge to sugarcane breeding in brazil. func. plant sci. biotech, 6(special issue 2), 108-16. gonçalves, m. c., santos, a. s., maia, i. g., chagas, c. m., & harakava, r. (2007a). characterization of an isolate of sugarcane mosaic virus breaking down resistance of commercial sugarcane varieties. phytopathol. brasileira 29: 129-39. hema, m., savithri, h. s., & sreenivasulu, p. 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(2010). complete nucleotide sequence and taxonomy of sugarcane streak mosaic virus, member of a novel genus in the family potiviridae. virus gene, 40, 432-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-010-0457-8 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p196 196 published by ideas spread assessment of training needs among dairy cattle farmers in oyo state, nigeria popoola moshood abiola1, ajani adedayo olumuyiwa1, olaniyi taiwo anne1, lamidi lukuman olalekan1, hamzat olatunji alabi1, taiwo oludare dominic1, adesanlu ayorinde afolabi1 & amao adepeju alaba1 1 federal college of animal health and production technology, moor plantation, ibadan, nigeria correspondence: popoola moshood abiola, federal college of animal health and production technology, moor plantation, ibadan, nigeria. e-mail: herbyolar@gmail.com received: april 21, 2020 accepted: may 10, 2020 online published: may 15, 2020 abstract the training needs of dairy cattle farmers in oyo state, nigeria were assessed. a well-structured interview schedule was used to obtain information from 123 respondents. data were collected on socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, their dairy cattle production enterprises and their training needs which were ascertained in six major areas of cattle production: feeding, breeding, healthcare, housing and management, marketing and finance, product preparation and processing. data were subjected to descriptive statistics and regression analysis using spps (v.21). results revealed that most (30.1%) of the respondents were 24 – 29 years old, married, were male, had no formal education. results also revealed that more than 90% of dairy cattle farmers perceived the training needs in feeding as most important. the training index in dairy farming indicated that majority (91.8%) of the farmers needed to be trained more on dairy cattle production and management. based on the result of this study, it was concluded that breeding, feeding and health care were perceived as the “most needed” training by the respondents. although, training need in marketing and finance, milk preparation and processing, as well as housing and management were also perceived as important. furthermore age, sex, marital status, religion, education level, source of flock, purpose of production and breeds of cattle had a direct effect on training needs of the respondent while occupation, household, herd size, had an indirect effect on training need of the respondents. keywords: cattle, dairy farmers, production, training index, training needs 1. introduction livestock industry accounts for 3.8 percent of the gross domestic product (gdp); with the dairy sub-sector contributing 30 percent of this output (njombe et al., 2010). dairy sub-sector contribution is not only limited to its share to total gdp but also play other important roles such as improving food security and welfare, creating employment, generates reliable income to meet household livelihoods (somda et al., 2005). fao (2010) reported that dairy industry in nigeria produces an estimate of 450, 000 tons of milk per annum. this production has been found to be inadequate to satisfy the dairy demands of nigerians, fao (2010), this is because the genotype of the african breeds of cattle can only produce an average milk of 1.27 litres per cow per day during the wet season and less than 0.36 during dry season (yuan et al., 2010), whereas their counterparts in the european and american countries produce an average of 25 litres per day (mallau-aduli, et al., 2009). nigeria is one of the leading countries in cattle production in sub-saharan africa. tibi and aphunu (2010) reported that the country had over 14.73 million cattle consisting of 1.47 million milking cows and 13.26 million beef cattle. less than 1% of this population is managed commercially, while about 99% is managed traditionally. under the traditional system, there is the use of indigenous methods in all aspects of cattle production including health management (mafimisebi et al. 2012). this tilt towards traditional management continues to have grave implications for commercialization of the production of cattle and cattle products as well as their prices in nigeria (abubakar and garba, 2004). a farmer being a rational decision maker normally strives for a better standard of living and seeks ways of adopting new technologies to accomplish the set goals (murai and singh, 2011). training in agricultural related practice improves farmers’ ability to acquire accurate information, evaluate new production processes, use improved husbandry practices and these benefits translate into adoption if a set of enabling factors and conditions exists to train the farmers (adesina and zinnah, 1993). effective dissemination of improved dairy husbandry practices as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 197 published by ideas spread through training is an important strategy for increasing adoption; it creates awareness and competence in the target audience about innovations (thapa, 2003). farmers’ training is a process of imparting specific skills to farmers that let them better perform their farm production activities and become more competent and proficient in doing their farm work (imaita, 2013). many studies have demonstrated high economic returns to investment in improved husbandry practices through extension and training despite the difficulty of isolating its impact on agricultural productivity and growth from other factors (khan et al., 2009). according to fao (2011) farmers’ training aims at communicating information, knowledge and skills, replacing old attitudes by new ones, exchanging opinions and experiences and reducing the amount of perceived complexity in a technology thereby creating a desired change. effective dissemination of improved dairy husbandry practices through training is an important strategy for increasing adoption; it creates awareness and competence in the target audience about innovations (thapa, 2003). according to rivara et al (2004), good management practices in terms of adequate nutrition, disease prevention, control and breeding are essential for improved dairy production. although the productivity of dairy in nigeria is low there is ample opportunity for improvement which can be achieved through extension education and training of dairy farmers. however, such extension education and training can only be effective if the training needs of the dairy farmers are properly identified. thus, this study sought to assess training needs among dairy cattle farmers in oyo state, nigeria. 2. method the study was conducted in oyo state; it is located in the south-west geopolitical zone of nigeria. it consists of 33 local government areas (lgas). the state covers a land area of 28,454 square kilometers with a population of 5.6 million people npc (2006) with climatic conditions that favour agriculture. the wet season is from april to october, with the mean temperature of 27°c. the dry season is between november and march. the mean annual rainfall is 1,194mm in the north and 1,264mm in the south. within oyo state, the zebu cattle (white fulani and other zebu breeds) are herded in the lowlands, amidst land progressively used for crop production. the major crops grown in the state include cassava, maize, yam, sorghum, cocoa, cocoyam, melon, peppers, soybean and okro; major livestock reared in the state include; cattle, sheep, goat and poultry. a two-stage sampling procedure was adopted for this study. the first stage involved purposive selection of nine local government areas (lgas) where dairy farmers were predominant in the state. the areas are ido, iseyin, lagelu, saki, east, saki west, ibarapa east, oyo west itesiwaju, and ogbomosho north. list of these farmers was generated in each of these lga from their associations (miyyeti allah cattle breeders association macban). the second stage involved random selection of at least 10 members from the list in each of the lga to give 123 respondents. a well-structured interview schedule was used to obtain information from these respondents. data were collected on socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, their dairy cattle production enterprises and training needs of farmers which were ascertained in six major areas viz., feeding, breeding, healthcare, housing and management, marketing and finance, product preparation and processing,. the areas were assessed on three point’s continuum which were: most important, important, and least important, with the scores of 3, 2 and 1, respectively as reported by balaraju et al., (2004). the major areas were further classified into sub-areas and the training needs of dairy farmers were ascertained at three point continuum viz., most needed, needed and least needed, with the score of 3, 2 and 1, respectively (balaraju et al., 2004). frequency and percentage for each major area were calculated and ranking was done for each category based on the total weighted mean score. the summation of scores achieved by the respondents constituted the level of perceived training needs. the extent of training needs was calculated based on the “training need index (tni)” formula which was individually calculated on each sub-area. the summation of scores was further categorized as low, medium and high level training needs as perceived by the farmers. the total weighted mean score and tni were calculated using the following formula: total weighed mean score (twms) = total score obtained by each major area total number of respondent training needs index (tni) = total obtained score x 100 maximum obtainable score (balaraju et al., 2004) data were subjected to descriptive statistics (mean, frequency and percentage) and regression analysis using spss (v.21). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 198 published by ideas spread 3. results table 1 shows the socio economic characteristics of dairy cattle farmers. results revealed that most of the respondents were within the age range of 24-29 years (30.1%), followed by those within range of 30 – 34 years (19.5%) and the least were those who were within age of 20 – 24 years (18.7%) and those who were older than 35 years (8.9%). mean age of the respondents was 34.7 years. majority of the respondents were male (51.2%) while 48.8% were females. most of them were married (56.7%). all of the respondents were muslims with most (74%) having no formal education, 18.7% of them had primary education, few (6.5%) of the respondents had secondary education. the result of household size of respondents showed that majority of the respondents had household size between 6 – 9 members (47.2%), 26.0% had household size of between 2-5 members, while 18.7% had household size of between 10-13 members, the least was obtained in those with household size greater than 13 members (8.1%). the mean household size was 17. the result further revealed that majority (52.0%) of the respondents earned more than n18,000 – n 23, 000 (52.0%) as income followed by those who earned between n24, 000 – 29, 000 (21.1%), n 30, 00035, 000 (15.4%), and those that earn n35,000 – n40,000 (8.1%), the least were those who earned more than n40,000. table 1. socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents variables frequency percentage mean age (years) <20 17 13.8 20 – 24 11 8.9 25 – 29 37 30.1 34.7 30 – 34 24 19.5 35 – 39 23 18.7 >39 11 8.9 sex male 63 51.2 female 60 48.8 marital status single 25 20.3 married 91 74.0 divorced 1 0.8 widowed 6 4.9 educational level no formal education 91 74.0 primary education 23 18.7 secondary education 8 6.5 tertiary education 1 0.8 house hold size 2 – 5 32 26.0 6 – 9 58 47.2 10 – 13 23 18.7 17 >13 10 8.1 income (#) 18 – 23,000 64 52.0 24 – 29,000 26 21.1 30 – 35,000 19 15.4 17,700.89 35 – 40,00 10 8.1 40,000 6 3.2 dairy cattle production characteristics of the respondents are presented in table 2. results revealed the sources by which respondents got their cattle. these sources ranged from farm, research institutes and inheritance. the result revealed that more than half of the respondents got their cattle through inheritance (98.4%); few respondents also got their cattle from research institutes (0.8%) and farm (0.8%). the result showed that main purpose of cattle production among the respondent was for income generation (91.1%), while the least purpose of production of the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 199 published by ideas spread respondent was for consumption (8.9%). it was further shown that most of the respondents had between 16 – 20 cattle (26.8%), 22.8% had greater than 49 cattle, 22.0% had 10-15 cattle, 12.2% had 28-33 cattle, 11.4% had 2227 cattle, while 4.9% had less than 10 cattle. majority (81.7%) of the respondents possess white fulani cattle, 5.0% of the respondent reared red bororo and white fulani, 4.2% of the respondent owned white fulani and sokoto gudhali. table 2. dairy cattle production characteristics of the respondents variables frequency percentage mean sources of flock farm 1 0.8 research institute 1 0.8 inherited 121 98.4 purpose of production income generation 112 91.1 consumption 11 8.9 herd size less than 10 6 4.9 10 – 15 27 22.0 16 – 20 33 26.8 22 – 27 14 11.4 52 28 – 33 15 12.2 more than 49 28 22.8 breeds red bororo 2 1.7 white fulani 98 81.7 muturu 2 1.7 red bororo and white fulani 6 5.0 white fulani and muturu 1 0.8 white fulani and sokoto gudali 5 4.2 white fulani and ndama 1 0.8 red bororo, white fulani and ndama 5 4.2 the training needs of farmers in major areas of dairy cattle production is presented in table 3. results revealed that almost all (90%) of dairy cattle farmers perceived the training needs in feeding as most important followed by breeding and health care with ranks vii, vi and v respectively. majority of farmers perception was between “most important” to “important” for the areas of housing and management, marketing and finance as well as milk preparation and processing. however, housing and management, marketing and finance as well as milk preparation and processing were ranked iii, iv and ii respectively. majority of the farmers perceived training needs in biosecurity as least important which was ranked i. table 3. training needs of farmers in major areas in dairy cattle production variables mi (%) i (%) li (%) ts twms rank breeding 117(95.1) 5(4.1) 1(0.8) 130 2.71 vi feeding 121(98.4) 2(1.6) 125 2.60 vii healthcare 113(91.9) 10(8.1) 131 2.73 v housing and management 50(40.7) 54(43.9) 19(15.4) 215 4.53 iii marketing and finance 49(39.8) 71(57.7) 3(2.4) 200 4.30 iv milking and milk processing 44(35.8) 67(54.5) 12(9.7) 211 4.53 ii biosecurity 8(6.5) 7(5.7) 108(87.8) 346 6.61 i mimost important, iimportant, lileast important, tstotal score, twmstotal weighted mean score. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 200 published by ideas spread presented in table 4 are the training needs of farmers in different sub-areas of dairy cattle farming. within the sub area of breeding, artificial insemination was ranked first, followed by estrous detection, heat detection and estrous cycle and time mating. with respect to feeding of dairy cattle; more than 40% of respondents perceived training as “needed” in all the five sub-areas of feeding. majority (3.58%) of the respondents recognized mineral mixture supplementation as “most needed” followed by balance ration and its composition (3.16%) and feeding of different age group of the cattle (2.40%) with rank i, ii, and iii respectively. result on dairy cattle health care indicated that more than half of the respondents recognized training needs in common disease and preventive measures (1.92%), vaccination (1.77%), improved health management (1.51%), ecto-parasites control (1.48%), deworming (1.27%) as “most needed” and were ranked as i, ii, iii, iv, and v. in dairy development programme; artificial insemination service ranked first, followed by use of reproductive technologies, ration formulation, modern branding, improvement of grazing management, improved milk yield, creep feed calves when pasture quality is poor, improved dairy production, modern means of animal identification, pregnancy diagnosis, and cross breeding. in housing and management; construction of low cost scientific housing ranked first, followed by manure management (rank ii) and record keeping (rank iii). furthermore, care and management of productive animals, identification and isolation of sick animals were ranked iv and v respectively. for marketing and finance, majority of respondent (7.53%) determined training in banking and insurance as “most needed” followed by training needs in processing, sales of animal nutrition product, milking technology, storage of milk product, storage of milk, processing of milk for product with rank i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi and vii respectively. table 4. training needs of farmers in different sub – areas of dairy cattle farming. variables mn n ln ts twms rank training needs in breeding (%) selection of breeds 121(98.4) 2(1.6) 125 2.66 viii selection of breeding stock 75(61.0) 45(36.6) 3(2.4) 174 4.00 vi artificial insemination 1(0.8) 5(4.1) 117(95.1) 362 7.82 i identification of infertility in cattle 72(58.5) 51(41.5) 174 4.03 v estrous detection 27(22.0) 86(69.9) 10(8.1) 229 5.48 ii estrous cycle and time mating 74(60.2) 45(36.6) 4(3.3) 176 4.07 iv heat detection 60(48.8) 1(0.8) 185 4.33 iii pregnancy diagnosis 87(70.7) 3(28.35) 1(0.8) 160 3.62 vii training needs in feeding (%) balance ration and its composition 14(114) 25(20.3) 84(68.3) 316 3.83 ii feeding of different age group 29(236) 71(57.7) 23(18.7) 240 2.78 iii nutritional management of breed problem 29(236) 79(64.2) 15(12.2) 232 2.63 iv importance of clean feed and water 115(93.5) 8(6.5) 131 1.34 v mineral mixture supplementation 2(1.6) 7(5.7) 114(92.7) 358 4.41 i training need in health care % deworming 120(97.6) 2(1.6) 1(0.8) 127 2.00 v vaccination 80(65.0) 32(26.0) 11(8.9) 177 2.69 ii ectoparasite control 99(80.5) 23(18.7) 1(0.8) 148 2.31 iv common disease and preventive measures 55(44.7) 64(52.0) 4(3.2) 192 3.00 i improved health management 96(78.0) 26(21.1) 1(0.8) 151 4.63 iii dairy development programme modern means of animal identification 85(69.1) 31(25.2) 7(5.7) 168 5.22 ix cross breeding to improve quality cattle 99(80.5) 23(18.7) 1(0.8) 148 4.44 xi artificial insemination service 2(1.6) 6(4.9) 115(93.5) 359 11.13 i improved milk hygiene 63(51.2) 60(48.8) 183 5.82 vi ration formulation 48(39.0) 54(43.9) 21(17.1) 282 8.99 iii creep feed calves 76(61.8) 46(37.4) 1(0.8) 171 5.35 vii improved diary production 72(58.5) 45(36.6) 6(4.9) 168 5.27 viii as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 201 published by ideas spread uses of reproductive technologies 8(6.5) 32(26.0) 83(67.5) 321 10.17 ii pregnancy diagnosis 63(51.2) 57(46.3) 17(13.8) 178 4.97 x improvement of grazing management 67(54.5) 52(42.3) 4(3.3) 183 5.83 v modern branding 64(52.0) 47(38.2) 12(9.8) 194 6.20 iv training needs in housing and management construction of low cost scientific housing 8(6.5) 35(28.5) 80(65.0) 318 4.01 i identification and isolation of sick animal 73(59.3) 43(35.0) 7(5.7) 180 1.99 v record keeping 38(30.9) 34(29.3) 49(9.8) 255 3.10 iii manure management 7(5.7) 50(40.7) 64(52.0) 299 3.85 ii care and management of productive animal. 63(51.2) 57(46.3) 17(13.8) 186 2.05 iv training needs in marketing and finance (%) sales of animal nutritionist product. 57(46.3) 49(39.8) 17(13.8) 197 3.44 iii banking and insurance 63(51.2) 49(39.8) 11(8.9) 246 7.53 i training needs in processing 11(8.9) 111(90.2) 1(0.8) 238 4.35 ii milking technology 54(43.9) 62(50.4) 7(5.7) 199 3.43 iv processing of milk for product 69(56.1) 45(36.6) 9(7.3) 186 3.13 vii storage of milk 63(51.2) 49(39.8) 11(8.9) 194 3.29 vi storage of milk product. 67(54.5) 35(28.5) 21(17.1) 200 3.36 v mnmost needed, n-needed, lnleast needed, tstotal score, twms-total weighed mean score. table 5 shows the training needs index of dairy cattle farmers. the training index in dairy farming indicated that almost all (91.8%) of the farmers needed to be trained more on dairy cattle production and management while few (8.4%) of the respondents had low level of training needs. table 5. training needs index of dairy cattle farmers training need index (%) frequency percentage low (<33.34 – 66.66) 10 8.4 high (>66.67) 133 91.8 table 6 shows factors influencing training needs of dairy cattle production. results revealed that age, source of flock inflow, purpose of production, flock size and breeds of cattle were significant (p > 0.05)factors influencing training needs of dairy cattle production of the respondent, while sex, marital status, religion, household size and income were not significant(p < 0.05) factors influencing training needs of dairy cattle production of the respondents. also age, sex, marital status, religion, education level, source of flock inflow, purpose of production and breeds of cattle had positive direct effect on training needs of dairy cattle production of the respondents while occupation, household size, income had negative effect indirect effect on training needs of dairy cattle production of the respondents. the r2 was 0.511 table 6. factors influencing training needs of dairy cattle production of the respondent. variables b std. error t-value p-value age 1.576 1.020 1.545 0.125 sex 0.909 1.450 0.371 0.711 marital status 1.377 2.195 0.627 0.532 occupation -1.343 1.739 -0.772 0.442 religion 5.776 10.444 0.553 0.581 educational level 2.976 1.534 1.942 0.055 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 202 published by ideas spread household size -2.291 1.510 -1.517 0.132 income -0.5947 1.347 -0.435 0.664 source of flock in flow 5.947 3.547 1.676 0.097 purpose of production 0.036 1.209 0.030 0.976 flock size -0.416 1.112 -0.374 0.709 breeds of cattle 6.023 7.325 0.822 0.413 r2 = 0.511 4. discussion training needs among dairy farmers in oyo state, nigeria were assessed in this study. result of age of respondents implies that majority of the respondent were still in their economically active ages. this agrees with the report of popoola et al (2017) and it is an indication that agricultural production, particularly livestock production is a profession that is practiced by people of different age groups. majority of the respondents were male, this is due to the fact that there is gender dimension to cattle production in nigeria such that nigerian pastoralists who are majorly fulani tribe believe that large animals like cattle are can only be handled by men while small animals like sheep, goat, chicken are meant to be managed by women. most of them were married; this is expected with result obtained for their age. the level of education of the respondents implies that majority of them cannot read and write; this may hinder better communication as well as adoption of innovations as reported by asanwana, (2001); popoola et al., (2017). household size is an important variable that determines the total household food requirement and thus, affect per capita food consumption and household food security. the result of household size of respondents showed that majority of the respondents had household size between 6 – 9 members and the mean household size was 17. this result agrees with result of adebisi et al. (2020) who also reported higher high members as the modal family size among households. the result further revealed that majority (52.0%) of the respondents earned more than n18,000 – n 23, 000 (52.0%) as income followed by those who earned between n24, 000 – 29, 000 (21.1%), n 30, 00035, 000 (15.4%), and those that earn n35,000 – n40,000 (8.1%), the least were those who earned more than n40,000. differences in the income generated could be related to number of animals (herd size) possess by individuals. respondents obtained their cattle from different sources, these sources ranged from farm, research institute and inheritance. more than half of the respondents got their cattle through inheritance which implies that that cattle production is a means of lineage and succession business among the respondents who are largely fulani pastoralists. the respondents raise their cattle for various purposes which range from income generation, meat production, milk production, consumption and as socio-cultural status; result of this study revealed that majority of respondents raised their cattle primarily for income generation. it was further shown that most of the respondents had between 16 – 20 cattle, followed by those who have more than 49 cattle; this implies that the difference in the number of cattle possess by individuals could be responsible for the differences in the income generated by the respondents. white fulani is the breed of cattle mostly possessed by the respondents; this may because white fulani is a cattle breed raised for dual purpose (milk and beef). the training needs of farmers in major areas of dairy cattle production indicated their areas of priority in terms of training. result revealed that majority of the farmers’ perception was “most important” for areas of breeding, feeding and healthcare, while their perception for areas like housing and management, marketing and finance, milking and milk processing were between “most important” and “important”. however, the perception of most of the dairy farmers on biosecurity was “least important”. the result obtained for training needs of farmers in areas of feeding, breeding and healthcare disagreed with the report of tekale et al. (2013) who ranked healthcare, feeding and marketing as i, ii, and iii respectively. in a study conducted on goat farmers, mohan et al. (2006) reported similar findings. the training needs of farmers in different sub-areas of dairy cattle farming was assessed which were determined in major areas of production such a s breeding, feeding, healthcare, dairy development programme, housing and management, marketing and finance. within the sub area of breeding, artificial insemination was ranked first, followed by estrous detection, heat detection and estrous cycle and time mating. artificial insemination was ranked first among the sub-areas where the training was needed because of inadequate technical know-how among the farmers. result obtained from the respondents on sub-areas of dairy cattle healthcare indicated that respondent really needed training in all aspects of healthcare of their animals. in a similar study on small ruminants, chah et as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 203 published by ideas spread al., (2013) reported that majority of the farmers perceived training needs on common disease and preventive measures were the most needed. respondents indicated high training needs in improved and assisted reproductive technologies of cattle production so as to improve the qualities of their cattle. the overall involvement index of respondents was used as an indication of extent training needs of dairy cattle farmers. the index scores of balaraju et al, (2014) was adopted which was ranged and scored as follows: index scores of range 0 – 33.33% which implies low training needs by the farmers; 34.33 – 66.66% implies medium training needs by the farmers and greater than 66.66% implies high training needs by the respondents. the overall training index in dairy farming indicated that majority of the farmers needed to be trained more on dairy cattle production and management. similar findings were reported by tekale et al., (2013); chauhan and kshirsagar (2012). result of factors influencing training needs of dairy cattle production revealed positive regression coefficient for age, sex, marital status, religion, educational level, sources of cattle, and purpose of cattle production and breeds of cattle raised by respondents. this implies that as the values of any of these variables increase, the extent of training needs of the dairy farmers will also increase. however there were negative regression coefficient for household size, income and flock size. this implies that increase in any of these variables will lead to decrease in extent of training needs by the respondents. the r2 was 0.511 indicating that about 51.1% of the extent of training needs of respondents in dairy cattle production was explained by influence of their cattle production characteristics. 5. conclusion based on the result of this study, it was concluded that breeding, feeding and health care were perceived as the “most needed” training by the respondents. although, training need in marketing and finance, milk preparation and processing, as well as housing and management were also perceived as important. furthermore age, sex, marital status, religion, education level, source of flock flow, purpose of production and breeds of cattle had a direct effect on training needs of the respondent while occupation, household, flock size, had an indirect effect on training need of the respondents. it is therefore recommended that there is need for establishment of famers’ training institute specifically for dairy production to assess the training needs of dairy farmers’ holistically. references abubakar, i. a., & garba, h. s. 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(2010). present and future of internet banking in china. journal of internet banking and commerce, 15(1), 678-683. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p28 28 published by ideas spread small-scale turkey farming in bangladesh: farming practices, profitability and supply chain mapping m a rashid1, m rasheduzzaman2, msk sarker1, s faruque1, md salauddin palash2 & nr sarker1 1 poultry production research division, bangladesh livestock research institute (blri), savar, dhaka-1341, bangladesh 2 department of agribusiness and marketing, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensing-2202, bangladesh correspondence: m. a. rashid, sso, poultry production research division, bangladesh livestock research institute (blri), savar, dhaka-1341, bangladesh. e-mail: marashid31@yahoo.com received: may 17, 2020 accepted: june 9, 2020 online published: july 16, 2020 abstract the study was conducted to know the existing turkey production system, supply chain mapping, and identifying the prospects and problems of turkey rearing in some selected areas of bangladesh during october 2019 to december 2019. a total of 100 turkey raisers were surveyed following convenience method of sampling technique. the primary data were collected, analyzed accordingly and tabular presentation method was applied with the help of simple descriptive statistical measures e.g. frequency distributions, percentage, sum and means to illustrating the results. profitability analysis was done on the basis of variable cost, fixed cost, return by using arithmetic means and percentages. the study revealed that 87 male and 13 female respondents were surveyed, of them cent percent found educated. about 56% turkey keeper’s main occupation was business, 27% service and 12% in farming while 88.57% involved with farming as secondary sources of income. average landholding for homestead, cultivable and non-cultivable was 24.40, 129.71 and 29.47 decimal, respectively. about 59% farms started for commercial purpose, 32% for non-commercial purpose and 9% for both. about 60% respondents kept less than 50 turkeys and only 2% kept 501-1000 turkeys. among the surveyed farms55% stopped their operation and 45% farms found running their business. among the running farms cent percent were small-scale group. the average feed intake was 192.13 grams per day per bird at 20 weeks of age. turkey laid on an average 139 eggs a year irrespective of variety and for hatching poults, the fertility and hatchability rate found between 65 to 100% and 50 to 90%, respectively. about 28% farmers experienced the deaths of turkey because of cold, pox, ranikhet, bird flu and unknown cases and 69.47% farmers took veterinary advice from upazila livestock hospital and rest from other sources. farmers to consumers were the most common and widely used marketing channel for egg, chick and adult turkey. the market intermediaries of turkey farm carried out different marketing functions e.g. buying and selling, pricing, transportation, sorting, distribution and market information. the average net return and benefit-cost ratio was bdt 127838.04 and 1.38, respectively for 50 turkeys per year. in the study, turkey rearing found some comparative benefit over chicken and ducks e.g. higher weight gain, forage eater, lower diseases rate and suitability for the country. the main problem of turkey rearing identified as market instability, lack of quality turkey feed, higher feed price, lack of proper marketing facility and training on turkey farming. in conclusion, the small-scale turkey farming could be a viable source of income for the rural people of bangladesh after taking some remedial steps by the government of bangladesh for the aforesaid hindrances faced by the turkey farmers. keywords: small-scale, turkey farming, profitability, supply chain, problems and prospects 1. introduction the livestock sector has been playing a vital role in the socio-economic development and contributing significantly to the overall agriculture sector in gross domestic product (gdp). livestock sub-sector contributes 35 to 40% alone to overall agriculture sector and 1.53% of the total gdp (mofl, 2019). it is labor intensive and fast income generating sector contributes significantly to poverty reduction as well as employment generation for the poor and marginal people. already bangladesh achieved self-sufficiency in meat production and very close to selfsufficiency in egg production (dls, 2019). the poultry population in bangladesh is estimated at 258.22 million comprising 189.26 million chickens, 67.52 million ducks, and 1.44 million of turkeys (bbs, 2019). the poultry constitutes a major portion of animal protein source of the country. as an employment and income provider, poultry sector makes a significant effect to the livelihood assets of farm households. thousands of smallholders as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 29 published by ideas spread along with large-scale commercial poultry producers supply the poultry meat and eggs for domestic consumption. it was reverse before 1990s, backyard poultry were the sources of 98% supply of poultry meat and eggs in the country and the rest 2% would come from commercial poultry (undp/fao, 1983). in those days, per capita egg and meat consumption was very poor compare to the current situation. turkeys are classed in the family of phasianidae in the taxonomic order of galliformes. the genus meleagris is the only extant genus in the subfamily meleagridinae. the species meleagris gallopavo is used by humans for their meat (crowe, 2006). they were first domesticated by the indigenous people of mexico from at least 800 bc onwards. the birds were first taken to spain about 1519ad, and reaching england in 1541ad. english colonists then introduced european-bred strains of the turkey to eastern north america in the 17th century. until about 1935, turkeys were bred mainly for their beautiful feathers not for meat, after which the breeding emphasis changed to their meat qualities (hulet et al., 2004). there was no concrete data on turkey rearing history in bangladesh, but a farmer stated that he started his farm in 2014 with only 22 turkey birds brought from india (siddiky, 2017). farmers are rearing turkey with a limited prior experience and it is increasing gradually because of a gamey flavor of meat with lower fat content (asaduzzaman, 2017). turkey farming is similar to other poultry birds farming like chickens, ducks, quails, etc. and very enjoyable (chowdhury et al., 2004). despite being priced steeply compared to other poultry products, the demand for turkey meat is increasing which has prompted various players to set up turkey rearing farms. turkey production is an important and highly profitable agricultural industry with a rising global demand (yakubu et al., 2013), and it is adaptable to a wide range of climatic conditions. besbes (2009) reported that the worldwide poultry sector consists of chickens (63%), ducks (11%), geese (9%), turkeys (5%), pigeons (3%) and guinea fowls (3%). turkey grows faster like broiler chickens and become suitable for slaughter purpose within a very short time. turkey farming for meat production is very popular than egg production in bangladesh (siddiky, 2017). turkey is more resistant to disease compared to other poultry species like chicken, duck, and quail. it has also been reported that mortality rate of turkey is very low compared to other poultry bird (sampath, 2012). turkey has some benefits compared to other poultries like chicken, duck, pigeon etc. but, facing problems of market demand instability, price volatility, lack of quality feed as well as higher feed price, and lack of proper marketing facility which reduce the pace of this sector significantly. cost effective farming practices, efficient market information system and marketing channel can help turkey farmers to run the business with a reasonable margin of profits. the study was conducted aiming to know the existing turkey farming practices, status of the profitability and supply chain mapping that means how the turkey farmers transferred their produce to the end user. 2. materials and methods 2.1 study area turkey farming is a new entrepreneurship in bangladesh and the young entrepreneurs from different parts of bangladesh are trying to adopt turkey farming. the density of turkey farms is not same in all regions. therefore, areas were chosen based on the availability of turkey farming. thus, appropriate farm households from five were selected. the selected areas were the mymensingh, gazipur, narsingdi, narayanganj and dhaka districts of bangladesh (figure 1). 2.2 data convenience method of sampling technique was followed where a total number of 100 turkey raisers were surveyed. the number of farms surveyed in the mymensingh, gazipur, narsingdi, narayanganj and dhaka districts was 23, 20, 20, 24 and 13, respectively. data were collected in the month of october to december 2019. a set of survey schedule was developed with necessary corrections and modifications. after the initial development of the interview schedule, pre-testing was done to make sure that the questions were neither difficult nor unanswerable for the respondents. the primary data were collected through face to face interview with the finalized questionnaire through personal visit to the houses of the farmers. before beginning of the interview a brief introduction about the purpose of the study was given to the respondents. then the questions were asked in easy and understandable language and the information was recorded on the survey schedule. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 30 published by ideas spread figure 1. selected areas for the study source: author’s preparation using arc gis 10, 2020 2.3 data analysis data were subjected to both descriptive statistics (such as mean, frequency and percentage) and inferential statistics which is the pearson product-moment correlation (ppmc) coefficient ppmc to show the relationship between profit in turkey production and socioeconomic variables. microsoft excel 365 program was used to analyze the cross section data. descriptive analysis was used to describe the existing turkey farming practices followed by the farmers and it provides valuable information about the nature of the particular group of individuals (best and kahn, 2003). profitability analysis was done on the basis of gross return, gross margins, net return and benefit-cost ratio. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 31 published by ideas spread gross return is the monetary value of total gross output; the total value of sold out turkey was taken into account as benefits of the farms at the existing market price of turkey. therefore, the formula is: gr = σqtpt where, gr = gross return;qt= totalturkeysold (kg/farm/year) and pt= price of turkey (bdt/kg). gross margin was calculated by subtracting the total variable costs from the gross return, showed in thefollowing equation. gm = gr − σtvc where, gm = gross margin; gr = gross return; and tvc = total variable cost. here, the following net return/profit equation was developed to assess the net return of the turkey farms. nr = ptqt– σtvc– σtfc where, nr= net return from turkey farming (bdt/year), pt= price of turkey (bdt/kg), qt = total turkey sold (kg/farm/year), tvc = total variable cost, tfc = total fixed cost. the benefit-cost ratio (bcr) is a relative measure which is used to compare benefit per unit of cost. bcr was estimated as a ratio of gross returns to total costs. the formula of calculating bcr (undiscounted) is shown as below: 𝐵𝐶𝑅 = 𝐵𝑝𝑣𝐶𝑝𝑣 where, bcr=benefit cost ratio, bpv = gross benefits/returns at present value, and cpv = total cost at present value. 3. results and discussion 3.1 socioeconomic profile of turkey farmers majority (87%) of the respondents were male, which indicates agricultural farming in bangladesh is dominant by the male farmers. the national literacy rate was 73.9% (bbs, 2018) that reflects in this study also; all turkey farmers were highly educated having graduation and above (40%), and secondary and higher secondary level of education (44%). it indicates educated farmers are taking the risk of new technology such as turkey farming (wheeler, 2013). table 1 also shows that turkey farming is doing by the business group of people (about 56 and 88.57% respondents had the main and secondary occupation as business, respectively) rather traditional farm households. according to the farm household classification of department of agricultural extension (dae), most of the turkey farmers (total land holding 183.82 decimals) were belong to the group of small-scale farmers (100 decimals to 249 decimals, bbs, 2018). having business is the main occupation of the turkey farmers squeezed the farming area of the respondents. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 32 published by ideas spread table 1. socioeconomic profile of the turkey farmers variables unit category value gender of the respondents % male 87 female 13 level of education % illiterate 0 can read and write 1 up to secondary level 15 ssc* 19 hsc** 25 honors 30 masters 10 main occupation % business 56 service 27 farming 12 housewife 2 others 3 secondary occupation % business 88 service 9 farming 2 others 1 average family members no/family adult male 2.33 adult female 2.16 male children 1.23 female children 1.24 total 5.75 average quantity of land holding decimal home purpose land 24.40 cultivable land 129.71 non-cultivable land 29.71 note: *scholl secondary certificate (after 10 years of education), **higher secondary certificate (after 12 years of education) 3.2 farming practices of turkey 3.2.1 reasons behind the initiatives at the beginning of turkey enterprises, price of adult turkey and poults were higher in bangladesh in comparison to international market. the main reasons were: beginning stage of the turkey subsector, turkeys were sold for ornamental purposes while some buyer bought for farming as well as consumption purposes (assaduzzaman, 2017). therefore, figure 1 shows that majority of the farmers (71%) started their business for higher profit, followed by farming for loving to rear turkey (29%) because of beautiful looking and gamey flavor. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 33 published by ideas spread gradual decreasing of higher profit shaped the size of turkey farming. figure 2 shows that small scale turkey farming (60%) is favorable to the farmers. in case of sudan, osama et al. (2013) also showed that 66.7% farmers raised less than 30 birds. due policies are necessary to improve the situation where farmers can produce turkey with minimum production cost and sell them to the market with reasonable price. 3.2.2 turkey varieties the most commonly raised commercial varieties, also know as breed, are the american black and white holland in bangladesh. these two breeds occupies the major share (67.98%) of rearing turkey by the farmers. american black along with white holland was dominant because of higher production rate (i.e. higher egg laid and faster weight than other varieties) in bangladesh (figure 3). about 55% respondents respond to american black as best turkey variety in sudan (osama et al., 2013). some other breeds such as broad-breasted bronze, similar in size and conformation, is less popular because of a preference forblack and white feathering. however, a wide variety of hobby breeds e.g. red bourbon, royal palm, beltsville small white, silver, mixed and quiled colored were also found in defferent parts of the study areas for personal recreation. while nice to look at, most of these hobby strains do not grow as fast and as efficiently as the commercial turkey strains (hulet et al., 2004). figure 3. percentage of rearing turkey variety 3.2.3 ratio of male and female turkey at farm level to ensure the better reproductive rates, appropriate ratio of male and female bird is a perquisite condition of successful farming, if not using the day old chick (doc) for farming. table 2 shows that the most used ratio of 71 8 1 29 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 profitability looking beautiful tasty meat love to rear others pe rc en ta ge o f r es po nd en ts 33.09 0 34.89 14.03 3.6 4.68 6.83 1.08 white holland beltsville small white american black royal palm red bourbon silver colored mixed colored quail colored figure 2. category of rearing turkey farm 60 18 20 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 <= 50 51-100 101-500 501-1000 pe rc en ta ge o f r es po nd en ts number of rearing turkey figure 1. reasons to start rearing turkey farm as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 34 published by ideas spread male and female was 1:03 which is about 48.98%because of very much useful for better reproductive rates. it might be of 1.04 like sudan where male and female ratio maintained at 1:046 (osama et al., 2013). it depends on the farmers’ experience which combination is suitable for successful reproductive. even though a good ratio of male and female has less productivity because of absence of frequent mating, heavyweight of male and disturbance during mating (osama et al., 2013). table 2. ratio of male and female turkey at farm level ratio of male and female number percentage 1:01 4 4.08 1:02 9 9.18 1:03 48 48.98 1:04 19 19.39 1:05 15 15.31 1:06 1 1.02 1:07 1 1.02 1:08 1 1.02 3.2.4 turkey feed, vaccine and medicine management like broiler chicken, turkey requires high protein and other nutrients in their diets. thus, feed cost represents halve to two-thirds of the total costs in a poultry production system (mbanasor and sampson, 2004), therefore it is necessary to identify the animals who eat less but perform at the same level as their contemporaries. turkeys are good foragers and it could reduce feeding cost through obtain added nutrients from forage because they are better able to digest fiber due to larger microbial population in their digestive tracts (brad et al., 2010). figure 4 reveals that highest feed was required for a 20+ weeks aged chick who takes on an average 192.13 grams feed per day, followed by 10-20 weeks aged turkey who takes on an average 132.54 grams feed per day.there is no specific feeding standard for turkey. farmers used to feed their turkey according to broiler and layer feeding manual (rahabul, 2018). figure 4. average feed taken compared to age of turkey health management is a key to maintaining the health of turkey flock. good sanitation, clean stock, clean premises, and elimination of other birds and animals that may carry disease organisms are important for maintaining a healthy flock (hulet et al., 2004). genetically, turkey is more resistant to diseases (such as marek's and infectious bronchitis) than other poultries. farmers mostly do vaccination only for new castle disease, fowl pox and fowl cholera. jahan (2018) showed that 36.96% farmers had encountered diseases like new castle, fowl cholera, fowl pox, mycoplasmosisetc. result shows that farmers encountered some deaths (28%) of turkey because of cold, pox, ranikhet, bird flu and unknown diseases in some cases. in that consideration, farmers took advice from various sources such as upazila livestock hospital (69.47%), private clinic (4.21%), veterinary surgeon (2.11%) 42.51 82.05 132.54 192.13 0-5 week 5-10.0 week 10-20.0 week 20+ week as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 35 published by ideas spread and remaining from other sources. to avoid the unanticipated deaths of turkey, farmers used different vaccine in the study areas with the consultation of veterinary doctors. figure 5-9 shows the use of different vaccines by a different portion of farmers at different times. 3.2.5 turkey egg hatching no farmers used artificial insemination (ai) technique and even never heard about the technology used for turkey breeding. white turkey was developed for rapid growth which makes it different from their wild ancestors that they are unable to mate naturally because of their heavyweight and ai has become necessary (anthony 2001). table 3 shows that a turkey takes on an average 6.61 months for laying egg and produces 139 egg per year 22.62% 77.38% 2-7 days 5-7 days and 15-25 days (twice) 52.54% 11.86% 5.08% 30.51% 2 months > 2 months < 2 months adult aged 93.67% 5.06% 1.27% 1 month < 1 month > 2 months 44.44% 22.22% 33.33% 15 days 20 days 30 days figure 6. application time of rdv vaccine figure 5. application time of bcrdv vaccine figure 7. application time of pox vaccine figure 8. application time of gumboro vaccine 41.18% 35.29% 23.53% 45 days 2 months > 2 months figure 9. application time of cholera vaccine as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 36 published by ideas spread irrespective of variety. majority of respondents (81.44%) incubated their egg through hen where average fertility rate is 81.12% and average hatchability rate is 73.95%. the hatchability rate is higher than average egg hatchability rate (52.85%) in tamil nadu, india (anandh et al., 2012). table 3. information on hatching of eggs items average value minimum value maximum value time required for egg laid (months) 6.61 5 12 how many times a year (times) 6.36 3 8 number of egg per year 139 100 250 artificial insemination (%) 0 average value of fertility rate (%) 81.12 65 100 average value of hatchability rate (%) 73.95 50 90 incubation of egg through hen (%) 81.44 incubation of egg through turkey (%) 2.06 incubation of egg through both (%) 0.00 don’t incubate the egg (%) 16.50 having own incubator (%) 35 average capacity in incubator (no.) 612.86 100 2000 3.3 profitability of turkey farming the costs and returns and farm net return associated with turkey production in the study area are presented in table 4. all costs and returns were calculated in bdt per 50 turkeys per year. cost of feeds (50.69%) constituted the highest share of the total cost. like bangladesh, cost of feed is the most important variable cost item in turkey production in nigeria (emmah, 2006; mbanasor and sampson, 2004). feed cost is higher not only for turkey production, but for other poultry production also because of its higher price in the market as well as the quality of the feed is questionable to some extent also. the cost structure revealed that variable cost constituted almost all costs of the total cost of production of turkey enterprise. in case of calculating interest on operating capital, 5%interest rate was considered. generally, the depositor interest rate is around 5-7%depends on the duration of deposit scheme in bangladesh. fixed cost became very low because cheap materials were used for building houses for the birds and reused for many years. fixed cost was calculated considering the depreciation cost (using the method of straight line) of the housing materials; considered salvage value as 10%of its starting value for calculating housing cost as depreciation. turkey producers generated revenue through the sales of chicks, eggs and adult turkeys. results revealed that a typical farmer realized a net farm income of bdt 127,838 per 50 turkeys per year indicating that turkey production in the study area is profitable and most of the return (55.67%) comes from selling chick in this business (table 4). it was confirmed by the measurement of bcr (1.38) which indicates that farmers get bdt 1.38 in benefits for investing bdt 1.00. farmers preferred of rearing small flock size (7.26 no./batch) and the average age of turkey of being sold out from the farm when it weighs on an average 5.90 kilograms and the age of 6.30 weeks. similar study was conducted in nigeria and found that turkey is profitable provided the farming is efficiently managed (oluyemi and roberts, 2000; emmah, 2006; ironkwe and akinola, 2010). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 37 published by ideas spread table 4. profitability analysis for 50 turkeys in a year cost amount (bdt/50 turkey/year) percentage of total cost variable cost chick cost 51682.43 15.34 feed cost 170770.37 50.69 vaccine and medicine 16909. 98 5.02 others cost (current bills, watering cost, labor cost, marketing cost) 79048.60 23.47 interest on operating capital 15920.57 4.73 fixed cost housing cost (depreciation) 2541.86 0.75 total cost (variable cost + fixed cost) 336873.31 return amount (bdt/50 turkey/year) percentage of total return chick/poults 258712.87 55.67 egg 92716.80 19.95 adult turkey 113281.68 24.38 profitability analysis amount (bdt/50 turkey/year) gross return 464711.35 gross margin 130379.90 net return 127838.04 bcr 1.38 3.3.1 correlation analysis seven socioeconomic variables (gender, education, occupation, location of farm, farm size, family members and years of experience) were considered to see the relationship with the profitability of turkey farming. result revealed that only the variable farmer’s experiences of turkey farming has positive significant relationship with the profit in turkey farming (table 5). this indicates that more experiences in turkey farming provide more profit from turkey production (maikasuwa et al., 2014). table 5. pearson product moment correlation of the relationship between profit in turkey production and socioeconomic variables variables rvalue decision gender (x1) -0.141 insignificant educational level (x2) 0.156 insignificant occupation (x3) -0.027 insignificant location of farm (x4) 0.112 insignificant farm size (x5) 0.170 insignificant family members (x6) -0.127 insignificant year of experience (x7) 0.385 significant as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 38 published by ideas spread 3.4 supply chain mapping 3.4.1 selling of turkey products figure 10 shows that about 96.89, 98.53 and 97.92%adult turkey, chick/poults and eggs were sold out from farm respectively, since the marketing channel of turkey is not organized yet. it requires further demand development which will help reshape the marketing channel that will bring more value added products of turkey in near future. emmah (2006) also found that sales were mainly done at the farm gates using a scale to weigh the adult and poults/chicks of turkey. the average selling price of matured and poults/chicks depend on the size, color, seasons and availability of turkey in study areas. figure 10. selling turkey products by different way 3.4.2 supply chain of turkey products live bird transaction is very common using direct channel(farmers to consumer) or indirect channel(farmers to middlemen to consumer) where minimal food safety standards of veterinary inspection are implemented (siddiky, 2018). the available supply chains of turkey are: i) farmer → wholesaler → retailer → consumer, ii) farmer → wholesaler → hotels and restaurant → consumer, iii) farmer → wholesaler → consumer, iv) farmer → retailer→ consumer, v) farmer → consumer (figure 11). though all channels are not important to the farmers, considering the profit earning, the channel v that means selling from farm gate was the most important and used channel in the study areas. figure 11. marketing channel of turkey products 96.89 3 0.11 98.53 1.47 0 97.92 1.08 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 from farm (%) from market (%) other way (%) adult turkey chick egg farmer consumer wholesaler hotel and restaurant retailer as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 39 published by ideas spread in addition, channel i, ii and iv were also used for adult turkey selling. in case of chick/poults selling, channel i and iv were also used in some areas and channel iii and iv were used egg selling. the market intermediaries of turkey supply chain carried out different marketing functions such as buying and selling, pricing, transportation, sorting, distribution, providing market information, etc. 3.5 problems and prospects of turkey rearing table 6 shows a wide range of problem were identified by the selected turkey farmers from the different parts of the country. although the list of problems is long, but it is skewed to three problems such as market instability/price falls (29.13%), low feed quality and higher price (15.22%) and lack of proper marketing facility (10.87%). farmers buy and sell turkey mainly through personal communication. feed quality and market instability problems were the major problems opined by the turkey farmers in nigeria and sudan also (peters et al.,1997; osama et al., 2013). table 6. problem faced by farmers in rearing turkey statements response rate (%) problems market isn’t stable/price falls 29.13 feed problem/lack of quality feed/feed cost is higher 15.22 lack of proper marketing facility 10.87 lack of medical facility/skilled personnel/veterinary service 7.83 lack of diseases controlling ability / huge death faced 5.65 inbreeding, fertility and incubation problem 5.22 lack of availability of customer for turkey 4.35 lack of advertisement or awareness program 3.48 lack of availability of training facility 3.48 faced huge loss 2.17 lack of pure breed in our country 3.04 financial inability to buy a turkey weight 3-8 kilograms 1.74 no problem faced 4.35 others 3.48 prospects production (weight) rate is comparatively higher 32.74 profitable business 10.71 superior meat and egg quality 10.12 diseases rate is lower comparatively 16.67 suitable for our country (natural feed, easy to rear, keep calm and looking beautiful) 16.07 egg rate and price is comparatively higher 1.79 no prospects at all 11.90 the farmers found some criteria of turkey farming that have comparative benefits over other types of poultry farming like chicken, duck, quail, etc. among the influencing criteria, higher weight rate, lower diseases rate, suitability for our country, profitable business, and superior egg and meat quality showed the greater extent of response rate. some turkey farms stopped their activities because of market price instability during the recent time; and they were asked whether they are interested to re-open the farm again. majority farmers (28%) of the shutdown farm opined that they yet wanted to expand and restart their business upon conditioning the stable market price and 7% wanted to restart in future upon the condition of getting loan. but the alarming fact is that about 39% respondents haven’t any future plan to re-open their farming activities. 4. conclusion there is a considerable scope of turkey rearing in bangladesh, as turkey can be reared in free range farming system. it has a good prospects and new dimension in poultry sector. suitability of climatic condition, availability of natural feed and manpower can make this sector profitable, especially for the poor and marginal farmers. turkey farmers are facing some production and marketing related problems. taking proper remedial steps, turkey rearing could as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 40 published by ideas spread be a viable commercial enterprise which could play a significant role in poultry sector by supplying nutritious food, generating income, creating employment opportunities and thus improving the living standard of the rural people. acknowledgements the authors gratefully acknowledged the cooperation of the district livestock officer, upazila livestock officer and staffs under the department of livestock services of respective areas and also the farmers for collecting data. references anandh, m. a., richard, p. n., jagatheesan, p., kumar, s., paramasivam, a., & rajarajan, g. (2012). effect of rearing systems on reproductive performance of turkey. vet. world, 5, 226-229. https://doi.org/10.5455/vetworld.2012.226-229 anthony, j. s. (2001). poultry, the tropical agriculturalist series, revised edition, center for tropical veterinary medicine, univ. edinb., u.k. asaduzzaman, m., salma, u., ali, h.s., hamid, m. a., & miah, a. g. (2017). problems and prospects of turkey (meleagrisgallopavo) production in bangladesh. res. agric. livest. fish., 4(2), 77-90. https://doi.org/10.3329/ralf.v4i2.33719 bbs. (2019). preliminary report on agricultural census 2019, bangladesh bureau of statistics, ministry of planning, bangladesh. besbes, b. (2009). genotype evaluation and breeding of poultry for performance under sub-optimal village conditions. world’s poultry science journal, 65, 260-271. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0043933909000221 best, j. w., & kahn, j. v. 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(2006). economic analysis of turkey production in kaduna and zaria towns of kaduna state, nigeria, unpublished m.sc. dissertation, department of agricultural economics and rural sociology, faculty of agriculture, ahmadu bello university zaria, nigeria. pp.85. hulet, r. m., phillip j. c., george, l. g., jayson, k. h., & lynn, f. k. (2004). small-flock turkey production, agriculture alternatives. retrieved from https://extension.psu.edu/small-flock-turkey-production ironkwe, m. o., &akinola, l. f. (2010). profitability of turkey production in ahoada east ocal government area of rivers state, nigeria. continental journal of agricultural science, 4, 38-41. jahan, b., ashraf, a., rahman, m. a., molla, m. h. r., chowdhury, s. h., & megwalu, f. o. (2018). rearing of high yielding turkey poults: problems and future prospects in bangladesh: a review. sf j biotechnol biomed eng., 1(2), 1008. maikasuwa, m. a., ala, a. l., &baba, m. d. (2014). economic analysis of turkey production inzuru emirate, kebbi state, nigeria. int. j. modn. res. revs., 2(7), 229-234. mbanasor, j. a., sampson, a. (2004). socio-economic determinants of turkey production among nigerian soldiers. international journal of poultry science, 3(8), 497-502.https://doi.org/10.4314/dai.v16i3.15671 mofl. (2019). annual report 2018-19, ministry of fisheries and livestock, peoples republic of bangladesh. oluyemi, j. a., &roberts, f. a. (2000). poultry production in warm wet climates (2nd ed). spectrum books ltd., ibadan, nigeria. osama, e. y., salim, g., hassan, a. h. a., & bushara, a. b. (2013). a study on turkey (meleagrisgallopavo) raising in the sudan. journal of applied and industrial sciences, 1, 11-15 peters, s. o., ikeobi, c. o. n., & bamkole, o. o. (1997). smallholder local turkey production in ogun state, nigeria, proceedings of international network for family poultry development (infpd), m-bour, senegal, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 41 published by ideas spread december 9-13, 1997, pp: 197-208. rahabul, i. m. (2018). rearing system, management practice, problems and prospects of turkey farming in different turkey farms of rangpursadarupazila, internship program for doctors of veterinary medicine (dvm) degree in chittagong veterinary and animal sciences university (cvasu), bangladesh. sampath, k. t. (2012). turkey farming: a profitable enterprise, national institute of animal nutrition and physiology, adugodi bangalore, india, 21, 2. siddiky, n. a., ed. (2017). backyard poultry production systems in saarc member states. saarc agriculture centre, dhaka-1215, bangladesh. undp/fao. (1983). rural poultry improvement project of the government of the people’s republic of bangladesh. no. bgd/82/003, project document, dhaka, bangladesh. wheeler, s., zuo, a., & bjornlund, h. (2013). farmers’ climate change beliefs and adaptation strategies for a water scarce future in australia. glob environ chang, 23(2), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.11.008 yakubu, a. k. abimiku, musa, i. s. a., idahor, k. o., & akinsola, o. m. (2013). assessment of flock structure, preference in selection and traits of economic importance of domestic turkey (meleagrisgallopavo) genetic resources in nasarawa state, nigeria. livestock research for rural development, 25, 18. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p144 144 published by ideas spread effects of polypropylene bag on storage properties of litchi (litchi chinensis sonn.) fakhar uddin talukder1, md. sohanur rahman2 & md. kamrul hassan3 1, 2 scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhaka1207, bangladesh 3 professor, department of horticulture, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh -2202, bangladesh correspondance: md. sohanur rahman, scientific officer, entomology department, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhaka-1207, bangladesh. e-mail: sohanbau2010@gmail.com received: march 28, 2020 accepted: april 28, 2020 online published: may 3, 2020 abstract the present study was run in the laboratory of the department of horticulture, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh during the period of 15 may to september, 2016. the objectives of the study were to determine the effects of different postharvest treatments on the storage behaviour of litchi. eight postharvest treatments viz., control, fruits stored in 50µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature, fruits stored in 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature, fruits stored in 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature, fruits stored at 4ºc temperature, fruits stored in 50µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature, fruits stored in 75µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature, fruits stored in 100µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature were assigned to the litchi fruits. the single factor experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design with three replications. 75µ polypropylene bag at low temperature (4ºc) caused minimal weight loss, whereas, the untreated fruits exhibited maximal weight loss. the pericarp turned brown within 4 days of storage in the untreated fruits, while polypropylene bags helped keep its bright red colour, but microbial decay was evident at the end of the storage period. different postharvest treatments showed highly significant variation in the shelf life of litchi. among the treated and untreated fruits, 75µ polypropylene bag at low temperature (4ºc) treatment exhibited better storage performance. the fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c showed the highest shelf life (20.67 days) followed by 50µ polypropylene bag at 4°c (20.33 days), and it was the lowest in the untreated fruits (3 days). keywords: litchi, polypropylene bag, temperature, postharvest, shelf life 1. introduction litchi (litchi chinensis sonn.) is called as one of the kings of sub-tropical fruits and famous for its excellent quality such as juiciness, slightly sour-sweet taste, characteristics pleasant flavor and for attractive colour. it is under the family sapindaceae and subfamily nepheleae. a white to cream coloured translucent pulp surrounding a glossy brown seed is its edible portion. the pulp is grape-like in texture, very succulent, aromatic and is characterized by sweet and acid tastes (cavaletto, 1980). this fruit is originated in china, cultivated for 300 years and was introduced to burma and india by the end of the 17th century (goto, 1960; liang, 1981). it was introduced into australia, south africa and hawaii by the end of the 19th century (menzel and simpson, 1986). other litchi growing countries of the world are bangladesh, pakistan, the philippines, thailand, madagascar and hong kong. litchi fruit is so popular and major table fruit in bangladesh. it is demanded by all classes of people. litchi cultivating districts are dinajpur, rajshahi, rangpur, jessore, pabna, chittagong, dhaka, sylhet and mymensingh. according to bbs (2006) bangladesh produces 73000 mt of litchi per annum from 1619.43 hectares of land. litchi is known as a non-climacteric fruit (wills et al., 2004) and it spoils its quality very quick after harvesting. the first and important visual sign of fruit quality deterioration is pericarp browning. it is considered the most important postharvest problem of litchi. browning is normally caused by dehydration of the pericarp. when fruits loss a few percent of the harvested pericarp fresh weight it starts to brown. (jiang and fu 1999). the study mainly highlights on pericarp browning reduction of litchi and therefore, the biochemistry of browning needs to be clearly realized. the prominent colours of mature litchi fruits are largely due to a range of anthocyanins located in the mid to upper mesocarp (underhill and critchley, 1993). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 145 published by ideas spread ivi and banik (2003) conducted an experiment on the effect of sulfur treatment followed by hcl dipping on the retention of litchi pericarp colour and fruit qualityby storing in polyethylene bag and polypropylene packaging. they reported that physiological loss in weight was lower in fruits in polyethylene bag than in polypropylene packaging. chaiprasart (2005) ran an experiment with litchi fruit packed in tray and wrapped in polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride films and fruits were stored at 5°c. he found that fruits wrapped in polyethylene showed slight changes in weight loss and the peal was brighter than polyvinyl chloride during 12 days of storage. roy (2002) studied the postharvest behaviors of litchi cv. ‘bombai’ and ‘bedana’. he noticed that fruits preserved in unperforated polyethylene bag without litchi leaves at low temperature (7-8 °c) showed minimal weight loss and gave the longest shelf life (21.50days) than the fruits kept in unperforated polyethylene bag with or without litchi leaves, oil coated fruits kept in unperforated polyethylene bag without litchi leaves. kamleshwar (2001) reported that litchi fruits covered with shisam (dalbergia sisso)leaves, litchi leaves, polyethylene bag, paper cuttings and perforated polyethylene bags and kept in a basket for storage, the treatments shisam leaves, litchi leaves, polyethylene bags deteriorated and become inedible on the 5th day. the fruits of the treatment last perforated plastic bags were fairly to maintain acceptable quality until the 7th days of storage where the rest of the treatments did not perform well. fontes et al. (1999) investigated the influence of low density polyethylene, pvc and temperature (27 or 50c) on litchi cv. ‘brewster’ during storage. regardless of temperature low density polyethylene (ldp) film (non perforated) had the lowest water loss throughout the storage period and at 27°c ldp were able to reduce the rate of browning until 8th day after harvest. liang et al. (1948) conducted an experiment to study the effect of 3 types of packaging materials on litchi fruit. they found that at room temperature weight loss was reduced by 10.4% and proportion of good fruits were 96.2% and 71.4% after 3 and 5 days of storage when fruits were packed in litchi chinensis leaves inside plastic boxes. mitra et al. (1996) studied the effect of polyethylene at low temperature on litchi cv. ‘bombai’ during storage. ripe litchi fruits were harvested and placed in perforated polyethylene bags and stored at 0°c, 4°c and at ambient temperature. the control fruits were dipped in water and stored at ambient temperature. results showed that wrapping fruits in polyethylene bags gave the longest life with better quality at 4°c than at 0°c (up to 18 and 16 days, respectively). bluller et al. (1983) stated that it was possible to store fully ripe litchi fruits in perforated polyethylene bags for up to 35 days at 3.3°c. sing et al. (2004) reported that polythene wrappers having 20% vent+ca (no3)2 at 1.0, 1.5 and 2% recorded minimum spoilage percentage (20.50, 20.50 and 20.00) in purbi and 19.17, 20.50 and 20.33 in ‘manaraji’ cultivars, respectively on the thirteenth day of storage. a maximum economic life of 11 days was also observed using the same treatments in both cultivars. according to techavuthiporn et al. (2006) fruit shelf life increased from 20 days in 21% o2 (air) to 32 days in 3-8% o2. rajak et al. (2004) conducted an experiment with litchi cv. ‘shahi’ fruit by sulphur fumigation and packed in different packaging materials. they observed 21 days (longest) shelf life in sulfur fumigated fruit in polythene bags at 14ºc and 2 days (shortest) in untreated fruits at 31ºc. ramma (2004) observed that litchi fruit treated with sulfur fume and dipped in 3% hcl extended the storage life to 5 weeks under storage at 2°c and 90-95% rh. compared to 2 weeks for sulfur treated fruits that were not acid treated. semeerbabu et al. (2007) found that the shelf life of litchi fruits were 21 days which were treated with so2 fume followed by 4% hcl dip and packed in ldpe film pouches at 2±1°c. mitra and kar (2001) obtained the best results under the treatments on fruits using litchi perforated polyethylene at 0 and 4ºc, where minimum physiological loss in weight up to 8 days of storage was observed and storage life was extended up to 14 and 18 days, respectively. according to lin et al. (2003) the postharvest life of fruit at ambient temperature is less than 3days. lin (1999) conducted an experiment with litchi fruits cv. ‘huoli’ and ‘heiyell’. he noticed that fruit treated with polysaccharide solution in combination with various disinfectants and stored in plastic bag at room temperature give the best results with 84.2-89.2% sound fruits after 12 days for storage, whereas the controls had only 4% sound fruit after 4 days of storage. the need to increase the shelf life and reduce postharvest browning of litchi is of paramount importance. so, the present study has been undertaken to find out suitable postharvest treatment to reduce pericarp browning & extend shelf life of litchi. 2. materials and methods the experiments were carried out at the laboratory of the departments of horticulture, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh during the period from 15 may to 15 september, 2016. the litchi variety, namely ‘bombai’ was chosen as experimental materials for the current investigation of the experiment. the experimental litchies were collected from the local growers of ishwardi, pabna. the maturity of the fruits was determined by the flatness of tubercles and comparative smoothness of epicarp. the commercially important litchi variety namely as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 146 published by ideas spread ‘bombai’ was used for the present experiment. the single factor experiment consists of eight (8) treatments as t0= control (fruits under ordinary conditions without wrapping), t1= fruits wrapped in 50µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature, t2= fruits wrapped in 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature, t3= fruits wrapped in 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature, t4= fruits stored at 4°c temperature, t5= fruits wrapped in 50µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature, t6= fruits wrapped in 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature and t7= fruits wrapped in 100µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature. the single factor experiment was laid out in completely randomized design with three replications of 8 fruits. a total of 192 fruits of more or less similar shape and size and free of visible disease symptoms were randomly selected from the harvested fruits. among 8 fruits in each replication of each treatment 4 fruits were marked to investigate colour, pericarp browning, total weight loss, disease incidence, disease severity, isolation and identification of causal pathogens, shelf life and the remaining 4 fruits were kept unmarked conditions for destructive sampling to examine moisture content, dry matter content, tss, pulp to peel ratio, vitamin c and pulp ph. all the marked and unmarked fruits were then subjected to the following treatments as per the experimental design: thirty-six fruits were randomly selected from the lot and kept on brown paper placed on the laboratory floor at ambient conditions without imposing any treatment. polypropylene bag with the thickness of 50µ, 75µ and 100µ (35x24 cm) were used for this treatment. twelve fruits were kept the polypropylene bag for each replication. the top of the bag was tied by using thread and then placed on brown paper for observation at ambient condition. fruits were kept in low temperature (4ºc). twelve fruits were taken in a petridish and then placed on brown paper for observation at low temperature condition. the fruits into polypropylene bag were kept into refrigerator at temperature of 4°c. polypropylene bag with the thickness of 50µ,75µ and 100µ (35x24 cm) were used for this treatment. twelve fruits were kept the polypropylene bag for each replication. the top of the bag was tied by using thread and then placed on brown paper for observation at low temperature (4°c) condition. the parameters studied include: colour, browning, pulp to peel ratio, total weight loss, moisture content, dry matter content and shelf life. the above parameters were studied as per the following methods. among 12 fruits in each replication 6 fruits were used for destructive sampling at 2 days interval to investigate several parameters including moisture content, dry matter content, pulp to peel ratio. the remaining 6 fruits were used to investigate colour, browning, total weight loss and shelf life. 2.1 colour days required to reach different stages of colour during storage and ripening were determined objectively using numerical rating scale of 1-6, where 1 = ‘green’, 2= ‘breaker’ or 10-<30% coloured, 3 = 30-<50% coloured, 4 = 50-<70% coloured, 5 =70-<90% coloured and 6 = fully coloured. similar rating scale was used by hassan, (2006) for mango. 2.2 pericarp browning days required to reach different stages of browning during storage and ripening were determined using numerical rating scale of 1-5, where, 1 = 10-<30% brown, 2 = 30-<50% brown, 3 = 50-<75% brown, 4 =75-<90% brown and 5 = 90-<100% brown. 2.3 pulp to peel ratio the fruits were peeled at the 3rd, 6th and the 9th day's storage. after separating, the peel and pulp weights were taken separately by using an electric balance and then the pulp to peel ratio was calculated. the pulp was then used for other chemical analyses. 2.4 total weight loss 6 fruits of each replication of each treatment were weighed by using an electric balance at the first day of storage and at every 2-day intervals. weight loss of fruit was estimated during storage by using the following formula: weight loss (%) = iw fw -iw ×100 where, iw = initial weight of fruits (g) fw = final weight of fruits (g) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 147 published by ideas spread 2.5 moisture content ten grams of fruit pulp was taken in a petridish from each treatment and replication. the petridish was placed in an electric oven preset at 80°c for 72 hours until constant weight attained. it was then cooled in desiccators and weighed again. percent moisture content was calculated according to the following formula: moisture content (%) = iw fw -iw ×100 where, iw = initial weight of pulp (g) fw= final weight of oven dried pulp (g) 2.6 dry matter content percent dry matter content of the pulp was calculated from the data obtained during moisture estimation using the following formula; dry matter (%) = (100%-% moisture content) 2.7 shelf life shelf life of litchi fruits as influenced by different varieties was calculated by counting the days required to ripe fully as to retaining optimum marketing and eating qualities. 2.8 observation fruits used in the experiment were observed everyday. data were collected on weight loss, physical and chemical changes and rottening of the fruits during storage as influence by different postharvest treatments. 2.9 statistical analysis for the experiment, the collected data were statistically analyzed by analysis of variance (anova) test. the means of different parameters were compared by least significant difference (lsd) as described by gomez and gomez (1984). for percentage data arcsine transformations were carried out to satisfy the assumption of anova. 3. results and discussion 3.1 colour figure 1. effect of different postharvest treatments in colour change of litchi during storage. a = colour scale (1 = ‘green’, 2 = 10-<30% colour, 3 = 30-<50% colour, 4 = 50-<70% colour, s = 70-<90% colour, 6 = 90-100% colour).the vertical bar represents lsd at 5% level of probability. t0= control, t1= 50µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t2= 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t3= 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t4= low temperature (4°c) treatment, t5= 50µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp, t6= 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp, t7= 100µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 148 published by ideas spread the influence of different postharvest treatments in respect of reduction of postharvest browning and extension of shelf life of litchi was studied. the experiment was carried out to achieve the objective of the study. the results obtained from the present investigation are presented and interpreted in the following: different storage treatments used in the present investigation had pronounced effects on colour changes of litchi fruits. the variations among the treatments were significant in respect of colour change. a sharped changed was observed in colour change among all the treatments. however, the fruits kept in 75µpolypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature (t6) were good until the 10th days of storage, whereas the fruits kept in 50µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature (t1), 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature (t2), 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature (t3) attained full colour at the 10th day of storage (fig. 6). it was also observed that control fruits(t0) lost its colour very fastly followed by fruits kept in 4ºc temperature (t4). 3.2 pericarp browning figure 2. effect of different postharvest treatments on pericarp browning of litchi during storage. browning scale, b=(1= 10-<30%brown, 2= 30-<so% brown, 3= 50-<70% brown, 4= 70<90% brown and 5= 90-100% brown). the vertical bar represents lsd at 5% level of probability.t0= control, t1= 50µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t2= 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t3= 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t4= low temperature (4°c) treatment, t5= 50µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp, t6= 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp, t7= 100µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp various postharvest treatments used in the present study showed highly significant variation in respect of pericarp browning during storage. browning score showed an increasing trend with the storage period. however, the change was very sharp in the untreated fruits (t0). the browning scores in that fruits were 2.0, 4.33 and 5.00 at the 2nd, 4th and 6th day of storage, respectively (fig. 7). on the other hand, at ambient temperature the scores were very lower in the fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag (t2). at the 5th day of storage when control fruits reached at the highest score (5.00) then the fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag (t2) treated fruits score were 1.67. besides t2 fruits, t1 (fruits kept in 50µ polypropylene bag) treated fruits also showed slower rate of browning changes than that of t3 (fruits kept in 100µ polypropylene bag) and t0 (control) treated fruits respectively. this was one of the striking results of the present experiment where fruits kept in polypropylene bag at low temperature e.g. 4°c (t5, t6, t7) greatly maintained pericarp browning lower as compared with those of other treatments. among all the treatments t6 (fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c) performs best and it had no browning upto 7th days. 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature (t2) was effective at the early part of storage. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 149 published by ideas spread 3.3 pulp to peel ratio table 1. effects of different postharvest treatments on pulp to peel ratio of litchi postharvest treatments pulp to peel ratio at different das 3 6 9 t0 7.31 8.80 7.08 t1 4.55 4.58 4.43 t2 4.54 4.56 4.41 t3 4.58 4.60 4.39 t4 4.45 4.72 4.38 t5 4.49 4.85 4.54 t6 4.52 4.96 4.69 t7 4.46 4.78 4.52 lsd0.05 0.232 0.173 1.29 lsd0.01 0.320 0.238 1.77 level of significance 2.940** 6.297** 2.603** ** = significant at 1% level of probability the postharvest treatments used in the present study showed significant variation in respect of pulp to peel ratio during the entire storage period the pulp to peel ratio showed an increasing rate up to the 6th day of storage and decreased thereafter (tab1e.1). at the 3rd day of storage, the highest (7.31) pulp to peel ratio was obtained in control (t0) treatments whereas the lowest (4.45) was observed in t4 (litchi fruits kept at 4°c temperature) treatment. at the 6th day of storage, higher pulp to peel ratio was found in control (t0) fruits (8.80) and the lower pulp to peel ratio (4.56) was observed in t2 (fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature) treatments. similarly at 9th day of storage the higher pulp to peel ratio was found in t0 (7.08) and the lower in t2 (4.38) treatments. 3.4 total weight loss table 2. effects of different postharvest treatments on total weight loss of litchi during storage postharvest treatments total weight loss (%) at different days after storage (das) 2 4 6 8 10 t0 6.77 16.25 21.70 27.50 33.15 t1 1.74 2.63 4.72 7.02 9.16 t2 0.98 1.60 2.81 3.76 5.38 t3 2.51 3.51 5.67 9.74 12.10 t4 1.92 3.87 7.92 10.56 14.20 t5 0.57 1.58 2.46 3.40 5.08 t6 0.51 1.48 2.23 3.75 4.89 t7 0.63 1.62 2.59 3.66 5.73 lsd0.05 0.69 0.85 1.44 1.88 1.94 lsd0.01 0.95 1.17 1.98 2.59 2.68 level of significance 12.965** 75.339** 128.538** 198.512** 272.930** ** = significant at 1% level of probability different storage treatments used in the present investigation had pronounced effects on total weight loss. the variations among the treatments were highly significant in respect of total weight loss. the highest (33.15%) weight loss was found in t0 (control) fruits at the 10 day of storage, whereas the lowest (0.51%) was recorded in t6 (75µ polypropylene bag containing fruits at 4°c temperature) at the 2nd days of storage. similar results were also reported by liang (1998). from the 2nd day to 10th day of storage, sharp increase of total weight loss was observed in control fruits (6.77% to 33.15%) whereas it was slower in low temperature (4°c) treated fruits (1.92% to 14.20), 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature (2.51% to 12.10%), 50µ polypropylene bag at ambient as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 150 published by ideas spread temperature (1.74% to 9.16%),100µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature (0.63% to 5.73%), 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature (0.98% to 5.38%),50µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature (0.57% to 5.08%), 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature (0.51% to 4.89%), respectively (table. 2). higher percentage of weight loss in controlled fruits can be explained by the fact that, transpiration, respiration dehydration and evaporation rate was higher in those fruit but due to the presence of polypropylene bag and low temperature the rate was slower in t6 and t5fruits. 3.5 moisture content table 3. effects of different postharvest treatments on moisture content of litchi postharvest treatments moisture content (%) at different days after storage 3 6 9 t0 81.01 78.65 76.43 t1 81.79 79.97 78.75 t2 82.42 80.17 79.80 t3 81.46 79.53 78.28 t4 82.23 80.93 79.00 t5 83.62 82.03 80.18 t6 83.85 82.20 80.76 t7 83.48 82.17 80.10 lsd0.05 1.47 1.92 0.91 lsd0.01 2.02 2.65 1.25 level of significance 4.402** 5.408** 5.706** ** = significant at 1% level of probability statistically significant variation was observed among the postharvest treatments used in the present study. he maximum (83.85%) moisture content was recorded in the fruits kept in polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature (t6) at 3rd day of storage and the minimum (76.43%) moisture content at the 9th day of storage was observed in control (t0) fruits. moisture content decreases with the increase of storage period. at the 3rd day of storage the moisture content was 81.01%, 81.46%, 81.79%, 82.23%, 82.42%, 83.48%, 83.62% and 83.85% in t0 (control), t3 (100µ polypropylene bag), t1 (50µ polypropylene bag), t4 (low temperature treatment), t2 (75µ polypropylene bag), t7 (100µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature), t5 (50µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature), t7 (75µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature) treatments, respectively. but at the 9th day they decrease sharply and it were 76.43%, 78.28%, 78.75%, 79.00%, 79.80%, 80.10%, 80.18% and 80.76% in t0, t3, t1, t4, t2, t7, t5 and t6 treatments respectively (table. 3). these decreasing trends were also supported by gaur and singh (1987) and by joshi and roy (1988). 3.6 dry matter content table 4. effects of different postharvest treatments dry matter content of litchi postharvest treatments dry matter content (%) at different days after storage 3 6 9 t0 18.99 21.35 23.57 t1 18.21 20.03 21.25 t2 17.58 19.83 20.20 t3 18.54 20.47 21.72 t4 17.77 19.07 21.00 t5 16.38 17.97 19.82 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 151 published by ideas spread t6 16.15 17.80 19.24 t7 16.52 17.83 19.90 lsd0.05 1.42 2.00 1.38 lsd0.01 1.96 2.76 1.91 level of significance 3.394** 5.408** 5.706** ** = significant at 1% level of probability different storage treatments used in the present investigation had pronounced effects on dry matter content. the variations among the treatments were significant in respect of dry matter content. at the 3rd day of storage, the highest (18.99%) dry matter content was in control (t0) fruits, where as it was lowest (16.15%) in t6 (75µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature) treated fruits (table 4). similar trend was always observed during the entire storage period. dry matter content increased proportionally with the storage period. however, during the entire storage period the highest dry matter content (23.57%) was recorded in t0 (control) fruits at the 9th day of storage. at the 9th day of storage, the lowest dry matter content (19.24%) was recorded in t6 (75µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature) fruits. this phenomenon could be due to the presence of physical barrier (polypropylene bag) in case of water loss in t5, t6, t7 treated fruits. 3.7 shelf life figure 3. effect of different postharvest treatments on shelf life of litchi during storage. the vertical bar represents lsd at 5% level of probability.t0= control, t1= 50µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t2= 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t3= 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temp, t4= low temperature (4°c) treatment, t5= 50µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp, t6= 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp, t7= 100µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temp. ** = significant at 1 % level of probability the effect of different postharvest treatments used in the present investigation was highly significant in extending the shelf life of litchi fruits. the longest shelf life (20.67 days) was observed in fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature (t6) followed by 20.33 days both in 50 and 100µ polypropylene bag at 4°c temperature (t5& t7). the shortest shelf life (3 days) was recorded in control (t0) fruits. fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature treatments (t2) significantly better than control (t0) but was not as much effective as those of fruits kept in 75µ polyethylene bag at 4º c. 0 5 10 15 20 25 t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 postharvest treatments sh el f l if e (d ay s) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 152 published by ideas spread 4. summary and conclusion the postharvest treatments showed significant influence in respect of changes in peel colour and pericarp browning of ‘bombai’ variety. among the treatments fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc were found best to retain peel colour and to reduce pericarp browning. peel colour and pericarp browning increased with the increase of storage period. significant variation was observed among the treatments in relation to weight loss. weight loss showed an increasing trend with storage period. similar trend was also observed in dry matter content. except the control fruit maximum (23.57%) dry matter was recorded in the fruits kept in 100µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature (21.72%) at the 9th day of storage, while it was minimum (16.15%) in fruits kept in 75µ polypropylene bag at 4ºc temperature. there was significant variation in moisture content among the treatments during storage. moisture content was found to be decreased with increase in storage period. the findings of the present investigation indicated that peel colour, browning, weight loss, dry mater content increased throughout the storage period. from the above discussion it may be concluded that keeping litchi in 75µ polypropylene bag and stored in low temperature (4ºc) is the best to extend its shelf life without affecting the quality. for short-term storage of litchi fruits 75µ polypropylene bag at ambient temperature would be recommended. acknowledgement authors are grateful to the ministry of science and technology, bangladesh for providing financial support to conduct the research work. conflict of interest the authors have no conflict of interest to report. authors' contributions fakhar uddin talukder conducted the experiment and analyzed the data. md. sohanur rahman contributed in data presentation, analysing data, searching journal for publication and finally manuscript processing & writing of this article. md. kamrul hassan provided help for the experimental design and supervised in the whole experiment. this article was read and approved by all authors for final publication. references bbs. 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(2002). studies on the postharvest behaviour of litchi, m. s. thesis, deptt.ofhorticulture, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, p. 80. semeerbabu, m. t., kudachikar, v. b., revathy, b., ushadevi, a., matche, r. s., & ramana, k.v. r. (2007). effect of postharvest treatments on shelf life and quality of litchi fruit stored under modified atmosphere at low temperature. j. food sci. technol., mysore, 44(1), 106-109. singh, j. p., vinod, k., & singh, r. r. (2004). spoilage and economic life of litchi during storage. j. of appl. biol., 14(2), 19-21. techavuthiporn, c., niyomalo, w., & kanlayanaral, s. (2006). low oxygen storage of litchi cv. ‘hong huay’. acta hort., 712(2), 623-627. https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2006.712.76 underhill, s. j. r., & critchley, c. (1993). physiological biochemical and anatomical changes in lychee (litchi chinensis sonn.) pericarp during storage. j. hort. sci., 68, 327-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221589.1993.11516358 wills, r. h. h., lee, t. h., graham, d., mcglasson, w. b., & hall, e. g. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p83 83 published by ideas spread genetic variability and heritability among sugarcane genotypes at early stage of the advanced selection for some agronomic traits in ferké, northern ivory coast ym béhou1,2 & cb péné2 1 agronomic sciences and agricultural engineering, edp/inphb, yamoussoukro, ivory coast 2 research and development department, sucaf-ci/somdiaa, ivory coast correspondence: crépin b. péné, sucaf-ci/somdiaa group, research & development department, 22 rue des carrossiers, treichville zone 3, p.o. box 1967 abidjan 01, ivory coast. tel: 225-4783-1916. email: bpene@sucafci.somdiaa.com/cbpene20@yahoo.com received: march 15, 2020 accepted: april 12, 2020 online published: april 16, 2020 abstract selection in sugarcane from true seed was recently implemented in ivory coast with the aim to increase the genetic variability of crop material used and, therefore, improve significantly sugar yields with a positive impact on the competitiveness of the ivorian sugar industry. the objective of study was to determine the best performing cane genotypes among 29 clones tested under sprinkler irrigation, in comparison with a check variety (r579). it was carried out on r3-002 commercial sugarcane plantation of ferké 2 sugar estate, in northern ivory coast. the experimental design used was a randomized complete block with 30 cane genotypes in three replications. each plot comprised two dual rows of five meters with 0.5 and 1.90 m of inter-row spacing, i.e. 19 m² per plot and about 600 m² for the whole experiment. based on sugar yields, four promising genotypes namely rci12/15, rci12/19, rci13/121 and rci13/136 were equivalent to the check variety which performed 15.6 t/ha. they are due to undergo the advanced selection stage during the 2020-21 cropping season for three more years for determining the first new sugarcane varieties of rci origin to be tested commercially in ferké sugar estates. their yield performances ranged from 12.8 to 13.8 t sugar/ha, i.e. from 134.0 to 144.8 t cane/ha compared to 161.3 t/ha for the control variety. although a relatively high level of stem-borer infestation rate recorded, with 15.6% on average (almost three times the tolerable threshold value of 5%), reasonable values of sucrose percent obtained with the promising genotypes, ranged from 12.7 to 13.9% over both crop cycles, compared with 13.6% for the check. higher heritability values ranging from 61 to 80.5% were observed in traits like sugar yield, sucrose content (62.6%), recoverable sucrose (60.6%), fiber content (72%), stem-borer infestation rate (80.5%), number of internodes/stalk (67.7%), and flowering rate (79.6%). in contrast, lower and moderate values of heritability were observed for pol juice (59.8%), juice purity (50.5%), cane yield (53%), millable stalk number/ha (29.5%), single stalk weight (36.7%), single stalk height (45%), and single stalk diameter (38.7%). keywords: phenotypic correlation, genotypic correlation, coefficient of variation, genetic advance, yield trait, juice quality 1. introduction sugarcane is a c4 plant grown in tropical and subtropical regions of the world as an important cash crop which contributes to approximatively 80% of the world sugar production, greatly exceeding sugar beet as a another source of sugar (dahlquist, 2013). in addition to being a source of sugar, sugarcane is an important bioenergy crop, with an energy ratio of ethanol production five times higher than that of maize (goldemberg, 2008; waclawovsky et al, 2010). it is considered by the us environmental protection agency as a feedstock for production of advanced biofuel due to its superior contribution to reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas production in the fight against global warming and climate change (altpeter and karan, 2018). in 2003, the fao estimated that sugarcane had a worldwide gross production value of $81.5 billion (fao, 2013). it was grown on about 27.1 million ha with a world harvest of 1.9 billion metric tons, higher than maize (1.0 billion t), rice (741.0 million t) and wheat (729 million t) (fao, 2014). sugarcane is ranked third in quantity of plant calories in the human diet (moore and botha, 2013). as a result of its very high biomass production, well-established farming, harvesting and processing technologies, sugarcane is a leading candidate for bioenergy production and a feedstock for bio-refineries. however, productivity improvements in sugarcane have been negligible in the past three decades, and production as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 84 published by ideas spread statistics are reflecting decreased yields globally (fao, 2014). in all cases, increased sugarcane production is linked to expansion of land surface rather than to increases in yield (jackson, 2005). breeding superior commercial cultivars is crucial for maintaining sugarcane production, which will benefit from research in sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping. these research areas focused on understanding sugarcane’s genome structure, organization and inheritance patterns. they also help in understanding genetic variations within sugarcane populations or germplasms that control important agronomic traits (yang et al, 2018). usually, the ultimate objective of sugarcane breeding programs is to release varieties which improve the profitability of the sugar industry being targeted. that is why breeders need to determine the optimal weightings that should be applied to each trait being selected for. a first step towards this involves identifying all traits influencing industry stakeholders and determining the relative economic value of variation in each trait, preferably in quantitative terms (wei et al, 2006). as industries change, the economic value of traits may change. in recent decades, weightings of some traits have changed in response to developments such as the introduction of mechanical harvesting, increased use of sugarcane for energy production and change in agronomic practices. in all sugarcane breeding programs worldwide, the key targeted traits are resistance to important local diseases and pests, commercially extractable sucrose content, cane yield, acceptable fiber content and ratooning performance. in some programs, other traits affecting costs of harvesting or crop management are of importance. sugarcane varieties tend to run out or decline after some years of cultivation in a specific area (khan et al, 2009). to obtain high yield on a sustainable basis, it has been essential to substitute varieties regularly grown with new clones. sugarcane varieties are clonally propagated and therefore are not expected to undergo genetic changes as it may occur in a seed propagated crop except for the variety decline over several ratoons due to disease incidence and other environmental constraints with therefore a need for replacement (ali et al, 2017). genetic improvement in cane and sugar yields may be achieved by targeting traits closely associated to them. a number of attributes have been proposed as indirect selection criteria for genetic improvement of yields in plant breeding programs (rebettzke et al, 2002). heritability represents the relative importance of genetic and environment factors in the expression of phenotypic and genotypic differences among genotypes within a population (kang et al, 1983; dagar et al, 2002 cited by ehib et al, 2015). consequently, the knowledge of heritability related to important traits and the correlations among them are key issues to determine the best selection strategy (hallauer and miranda, 1988; falconer, 1989). genotypic coefficient of variation (gcv) is another measure of relative genetic variation of a trait within a population (ram & hemaprabha, 1992). traits exhibiting relatively high gcv estimates may respond favorably to selection. chaudhary (2001) reported high gcv for single stalk weight and millable cane number per unit area. genotype x environment interactions (gxe) are a serious concern in breeding programs as they affect selection decisions. when a rank of a genotype changes across environments, it requires evaluation of genotypes across environments to determine their real value (kimbeng et al, 2002). studies in various sugarcane breeding programs have reported significant gxe interactions for cane and sugar yields (parfitt, 200; kimbeng et al, 2002; glaz & kang, 2008). the objective of study was to evaluate the variability of thirty sugarcane genotypes through heritability, genetic gain and genetic variations of some yield and juice quality traits. 2. material and methods 2.1 site characteristics the study was carried out on a ferké 2 sugarcane field (r3-002) sprinkler irrigated with center pivot (9°16’ n, 5°22’ w, 325 m a.s.l), in northern ivory coast. the prevailing climate is tropical dry with two seasons: one, starting from november to april, is dry and the other, from may to october, is wet. the dry season is marked by the saharan trade wind, which blows over mid-november to late january. the rainfall pattern is unimodal and focussed on august and september which total amount of rainfall reaches almost half of the average annual rainfall (1200 mm) with an average daily temperature of 27 °c. average maximum and minimum daily air temperatures reach 32.5 and 21 °c, respectively. to meet crop water requirements, the total amount of irrigation water required reaches 700 mm/year (konan et al a-b, 2017; péné et al, 2012). both ferké sugar mill plantations cover around 15 500 ha with 10 000 ha under irrigation and 3 500 ha of rainfed village plantations, lie mainly on shallow or moderately deep soils built up on granites. main soil units encountered are oxisols and temporally waterlogged soils in valley bottoms of bandama and lokpoho river basins with a sandy-clay texture. 2.2 cane genotypes used all 29 cane genotypes tested, of reunion and ivory coast origin (rci), derived from about 8,000 true seeds of 60 different families (or crosses) provided by ercane sugarcane development centre of reunion island in november as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 85 published by ideas spread 2014 and sowed late december 2014. they were pre-selected within families over a period of three years involving three consecutive steps starting from one seedling to one stool of tillers and one line of 3 m long per genotype without replication. during this process, the genotypes used were pre-selected following ratings based on hybrid vigor, tillering ability, ratooning performance and tolerance to endemic diseases like smut, leaf scald, pokkah boeng and sugarcane streak mosaic (scsm). parents of genotypes investigated, as complex polyploids, were commercial varieties of different origins. the heterozygous and polyploidy nature of sugarcane has resulted in generations of greater genetic variability. knowledge on the nature and magnitude of variability present in the genetic material is therefore of prime importance for breeders to conduct effective selection programs. coefficients of variation along with heritability as well as genetic advance are very essential to improve any trait of sugarcane because this would help in knowing whether or not the desired objective could be achieved from the material to be investigated (tadesse et al, 2014). 2.3 experimental design the experiment was carried out from late march 2018 to mid-february 2020 in plant cane and first ratoon, following a randomized complete block design (rcbd) with 30 different genotypes, including the check variety r579, in 3 replicates. a plot comprised 2 dual rows of 5 m long with narrow and wide spacings of 0.50 m and 1.90 m. field managements in terms of sprinkler irrigation, fertilizer and herbicide applications were done according to usual practices in commercial plantations. 2.4 agronomic traits investigated data was collected at harvest from both dual rows for millable stalk number/ha, cane yield, juice quality traits (sucrose, purity, and recoverable sucrose), fiber content, and damaged internodes by stem borer (eldana saccharina w). at harvest, burned cane fresh production of both dual rows of each plot was weighed separately to determine crop yield. moreover, 50 millable stalks were randomly chosen within every plot and split longitudinally with a machete in order to determine the percentage of bored or attacked internodes and cane (%bin, %bc) by stem borer. thirty millable cane stalks were sampled per plot for sucrose analyses in the laboratory. prior to sample grinding operations in the laboratory for sucrose analyses, each stalk was cut into 3 pieces of almost equal length, while separating them in basal, median and top parts. this allowed to randomly reconstitute 3 batches of 10 stalks for a better homogenization of the initial field sample by permutation of the pieces so that each reconstituted stalk was composed of parts from 3 different cane stalks. eventually, only one batch of 10 reconstituted stalks over 30 (1/3 of initial sample) were ground for a series of sucrose analyses to determine the sucrose content (pol%c), fiber content (fiber %c), juice purity (purity %c) and recoverable sucrose (se%c). equipment used comprised a jefco cutter grinder, a hydraulic press (pinette emideceau), a digital refractometer bs-rfm742 and a digital polarimeter sh-m100. hoarau (1970) reported on methods used in the determination of required technological parameters. the recoverable sucrose was calculated as follows (hugot, 1999; péné et al, 2016): se %c = [(0.84 x pol%c) (1.6 -60/purity) (0.05 x fib %c)] with: purity %c = (pol juice/brix) x 100 and pol juice = pol factor x pol read. pol%c = factor n x pol juice factor pol, depending on brix value (amount of soluble dry matter in juice measured with a refractometer), was provided by schmidt table relative to a polarimeter for 26 g of glucose. the fiber content and factor n were provided by a table, depending on the weight of fiber cake obtained after pressing 500 g of cane pulp resulting from the grinding operation of each sample of cane stalks. 2.5 phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation, heritability and genetic advance the phenotypic and genotypic variances for each trait were estimated from the rcbd analysis of variance (table 1). the expected mean squares under the assumption of random effects model was computed from linear combinations of mean squares were determined as follows (burton & davane, 1953 cited by shitahum et al, 2018): genotypic variance (σ²g) = (ms g – mse)/r environmental variance (σ²e) = mse phenotypic variance (σ²p) = σ²g + σ²e where msg and mse are mean sum of squares for genotypes and error in the analysis of variance, respectively, and r the number of replicates. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 86 published by ideas spread genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation (gcv, pcv) were computed as follows (singh & chaundary, 1977): gcv = σg x100/grand mean pcv = σp x100/grand mean broad sense heritability h² = 100 x σ²g / σ²p genetic advance (ga) and genetic advance as percent mean (gam): ga = k x h² x σp and gam = 100 x ga/x with k: standard selection differential at 5 % selection intensity (k = 2.063) and x: grand mean of trait x. phenotypic and genotypic correlation coefficients rp and rg between a and b traits are defined as: rp = covp (a,b)/(σpa x σpb) rg = covg (a,b)/(σga x σgb) where similarly to the phenotypic variance equation, the phenotypic covariance covp is expressed as: covp = covg + cove 2.6 statistical analyses the quantitative data recorded in this study was subjected to the analysis of variance using statistical procedures described by gomez & gomez (1984), with the assistance of r software package version 3.5.1 (table 1). table 1. analysis of variance calculations in a rcbd involving gxy interactions source of variation degree of freedom (df) mean square (ms) expected mean square (ems) replication (r) y(r-1) msr years (y) y-1 genotypes (g) g-1 m1=msg σ²e + rσ²gy + ryσ²g g x y (g-1) (y-1) m2=msgy σ²e + rσ²gy + ryσ²g error (g x r) (r-1) (gy-1) m3=mse σ²e total gyr-1 r: number of replicates; g= number of genotypes; msr mean square due to replicates; msg= mean square due to genotypes; mse mean square of error; σ²g, σ²r, σ²y and σ²e stand for variances due to genotypes, replicates, years and error, respectively. 3. results and discussion 3.1 climatic conditions over plant cane and first ratoon crop the total amount of rainfall recorded in plant cane was similar to that in first ratoon, with 1311 and 1303 mm, respectively. however, total rainfall during in the hottest period (from april to july) decreased by 51.4% in the first ratoon compared to that of plant cane, with 352.7 and 726.2 mm respectively. in contrast, the amount of rainfall recorded over the cloudy and per-humid period (from august to october) increased by 59%, with 554.6 and 880.7 mm respectively in plant cane and first ratoon (fig 1). total crop water deficit over the dry season to be met with irrigation water reached 571 and 565 mm, respectively, in plant cane and first ratoon. the average daily temperature over the entire crop cycle yields 27.8 and 26.8 °c, respectively. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 87 published by ideas spread fig 1a. climate over plant cane. fig 1b. climate over first ratoon crop. figure 1. prevailing climate on experimental site over both crop cycles in ferké 2 sugar estate, ivory coast 3.2 multivariate analyses it came out from the principal component analysis (figure 2) that most relevant traits in genotype clustering were related to juice quality (recoverable sucrose, sucrose content, purity, fiber content), and some yield components like stalk diameter and average stalk diameter. the dendrogram deduced from the hierarchical ascendant classification analysis (figure 3) exhibits six different cluster genotypes, which average agronomic characteristics are displayed in table 2. figure 2a. correlation circle of agronomic traits investigated in 1-2 factor plane. figure 2b. projection of sugarcane genotypes in 1-2 factor plane. figure 2. results of principal component analysis regarding aggregate data of both plant and first ratoon crops 0.05.010.015.020.025.030.035.0 0.050.0100.0150.0200.0250.0300.0350.0400.0450.0 april2018 jun aug oct dec feb mean t empera ture (°c ) rainfal l (mm) months rainfall eto temp 0.05.010.015.020.025.030.035.0 0.050.0100.0150.0200.0250.0300.0350.0400.0 mean t empera ture (°c ) rainfal l (mm) months rainfall eto temp as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 88 published by ideas spread figure 3. dendrogram deduced from cluster analysis of all 30 cane genotypes tested in ferké 2 sugar estate, ivory coast table 2. mean values of clusters genotypes determined following different agronomic traits investigated in ferké 2 sugar estate, ivory coast (aggregate of plant cane and first ratoon) agronomic traits cluster 1 (n=3) cluster 2 (n=5) cluster 3 (n=6) cluster 4 (n=9) cluster 5 (n=2) cluster 6 (n=5) pol juice (%) 11.8 16.1 14.0 14.9 16.1 15.5 purity (%) 77.1 83.8 80.1 82.2 81.9 83.4 sucrose (pol%c) 9.3 12.9 11.4 12.0 12.8 12.7 fiber content (%) 15.6 14.3 13.4 14.1 14.8 13.3 cane yield (t/ha) 95.8 108.5 130.7 128.5 133.5 146.8 recov sucrose (%) 5.7 8.9 7.5 8.1 8.6 8.7 sugar yield (t/ha) 5.5 9.7 9.8 10.4 11.6 12.8 stalknbx1000 143.9 145.1 132.2 157.6 182.8 148.2 %bin 27.7 11.9 16.7 15.4 8.5 13.9 avg weight (kg) 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.2 avg diam (mm) 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 avg height (cm) 21.6 21.8 23.4 21.6 19.6 22.7 nb internode 20.0 24.0 20.9 21.2 24.4 21.9 flowering rate (%) 25.3 3.6 12.4 8.3 2.2 6.2 c1: rci13/119, rci14/14, rci14/18; c2: r579, rci13/121, rci0/133, rci13/136, rci14/130 ; c3 : rci14/127, rci13/117, rci13/122, rci13/126, rci13/125, rci13/116 ; c4 : rci/14/129, rci13/123, rci11/115, rci13/137, rci11/113, rci14/132, rci14/131, rci12/15, rci14/11; c5: rci13/124, rci12/19; c6: rci11/14, rci13/17, rci13/12, rci13/120, rci13/118 3.3 phenotypic correlations within agronomic traits all yield and juice quality traits were negatively correlated with stem borer infestations, except for fiber content (table 2), in line of findings reported by different authors (gravois et al, 1992, tena et al, 2016, dumont et al, 2019). fiber content was negatively correlated with yields and juice quality traits like juice sucrose, purity, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 89 published by ideas spread sucrose percent and recoverable sucrose with coefficients ranging from -0.29 to -0.42. higher and positive correlation coefficients were obtained between sugar yield and juice quality traits, with values ranging from 0.78 to 0.86. a strong and positive correlation was also observed between yield traits (r=0.80) as well as juice quality traits, with coefficients ranging from 0.80 to 0.99. except for fiber content, juice quality and yield traits were negatively correlated to stem borer infestation rate (r= -0.40 to -0.73). the stalk fiber content and single stalk weight were, respectively, positively and negatively correlated to stem borer infestation rate (r=0.34, -0.68). moreover, sugarcane flowering rate affected negatively all juice quality and yield traits (r= -0.33 to -0.53). 3.4 genotypic correlations within agronomic traits similarly with phenotypic correlations, all yield and juice quality traits were genotypically correlated negatively with stem borer infestations, except for fiber content (table 2), with values ranging from -0.42 to -0.81. as expected, strong and positive correlations were observed not only between juice quality traits but also between yield traits, with coefficients ranging from 0.83 to 0.99. strong and positive correlations were also obtained between sugar yield and juice quality attributes like pol juice, purity, sucrose content and recoverable sucrose (r= 0.79 to 0.89). similarly to phenotypic correlations previously discussed, juice quality and yield traits were negatively correlated to stem borer infestation rate (r= -0.42 to -0.81). the stalk fiber content and single stalk weight were, respectively, positively and negatively influenced by stem borer infestation rate (r=0.36, -0.40). moreover, sugarcane flowering rate affected negatively all juice quality and yield traits (r= -0.44 to -0.62). 3.5 performance of cane genotypes tested except for stalk number/ha, highly significant differences within genotypes were observed for all agronomic traits investigated (table 3). significant or highly significant differences within crop cycles were observed for all traits except for pol juice, recoverable sucrose, single stalk weight and the average number of internodes per stalk. in contrast, genotype by crop cycle interactions were non-significant except for stem-borer infestation rate, average number of internodes per stalk and flowering rate. based on sugar yields, four genotypes, namely rci12/15, rci12/19, rci13/121 and rci13/136 were equivalent to the check variety r579 which performed 15.6 t/ha. their sugar yields ranged from 12.8 to 13.8 t/ha, while their cane yields from 134.0 to 144.8 t/ha compared with 161.3 t/ha for the control variety. although a relatively high level of stem-borer infestation rate recorded, with 15.6% on average (almost three times the tolerable threshold value of 5%), reasonable values of sucrose percent obtained with the promising genotypes ranged from 12.7 to 13.9% over both crop cycles, compared with 13.6% for the check. 3.6 phenotypic, genotypic and environmental variance regardless the trait considered, phenotypic variances obtained were higher than the genotypic ones. this shows a greater influence of the environment on genetic variations in line of observations made by different authors (tadesse et al, 2014; ehib et al, 2015). moreover, except for traits like stalk number/ha, average stalk weight, height and diameter, genotypic variances calculated were higher than environmental ones, suggesting significant variations among genotypes (table 4). greater environmental variance in millable stalk number/ha compared to the genotypic variance could be explained by no significant difference observed due to a very lower values of genotypic coefficient of variation and heritability obtained, with 7.3 and 29.5% respectively. 3.7 genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation (gcv, pcv) gcv is another measure of relative genetic variation of a trait in a population (ram and hemaprabha, 1992). traits exhibiting relatively high gcv estimates may respond favorably to selection (ebid et al, 2015). regardless the trait considered, the phenotypic coefficient of variation was higher than the genotypic one, suggesting that apparent variations were not only due to genetics but also due to environmental influences (table 4). however, differences between pcv and gcv for most traits were small in line of observations made by ram (2005), indicating high prospects for genetic progress through selection under conditions of this study. as stated by shivasubramanian & menon (1973) cited by tadesse et al (2014), pcv and gcv values are ranked as low, medium and high, with 0 to 10 %, 11 to 20% and > 20% respectively. based on that statement, all pcv and gcv values determined which ranged from 5 to 94%, on the one hand, and from 3.5 to 83.9%, on the other hand, ranged from low to high. as reported by different authors (tadesse et al, 2014; singh et al, 1994, péné & béhou, 2019a,b), high gcv and pcv indicated that selection might be effective on traits investigated and their expression be relevant to the genotypic potential. 3.8 heritability and genetic advance higher heritability values (table 4) ranging from 61 to 80.5% were observed in traits like sugar yield, sucrose content (62.6%), recoverable sucrose (60.6%), fiber content (72%), stem-borer infestation rate (80.5%), number as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 90 published by ideas spread of internodes/stalk (67.7%), and flowering rate (79.6%). in contrast, lower and moderate values of heritability were observed for pol juice (59.8%), juice purity (50.5%), cane yield (53%), millable stalk number/ha (29.5%), single stalk weight (36.7%), single stalk height (45%), and single stalk diameter (38.7%). this distinction was made following heritability scale as stated by robinson et al (1949) and cited by tadesse et al, 2014. in line of the scale used by teklu et al (2014), higher values of genetic advance (gam) were observed for sugar yield (36.2%), recoverable sucrose (24.3%), and flowering rate (154%), suggesting that a significant proportion of the total variance was heritable and selection of these traits would be effective. similar values were reported by different authors in sugarcane on single stalk weight (nair et al, 1980; singh et al, 1994; ebid et al, 2015). as indicated by vidya et al (2002), knowledge of variability and heritability of characters is essential for identifying those relevant to genetic improvement through selection. moreover, the effectiveness of selection depends not only on heritability but also on genetic advance (butterfield and nuss, 2002; shba et al, 2009). higher levels of genetic advance (gam) observed for cane yield and stem borer infestations were the result of broad sense heritability and high gcv for these traits, in line of findings reported by bakshi (2005). the results suggest the existence of considerable scope for sugarcane improvement based on some cane yield components like number of millable stalks/ha, single stalk diameter and single stalk weight. heritability estimates, together with expected genetic gain, are more useful than heritability values alone in predicting the effects of selecting best genotypes. chaudhary (2001) reported high heritability and genetic gain for single cane weight followed by number of millable cane in a study of 36 clones, indicating substantial scope for cane yield improvement. on the other hand, sucrose content recorded low heritability and genetic gain suggesting little scope for improvement in this character (pandey, 1989). patel et al (2008) also reported high heritability estimates for single cane weight, number of internodes, number of tillers, hand refractrometer brix, cane diameter and millable cane height, which were associated with moderate to high genetic advance (23-190%). findings indicated that these characters could be improved through selection. table 2. phenotypic and genotypic correlation matrix of agronomic traits investigated regarding aggregate data of both plant and first ratoon crops (respectively below and above diagonal) genotypes polj%. pty% pol% fiber% cane yield rsucr. sug. yield 10 3 xnb tillers %bin avweight avheight avgdiam nbintern. flow.% pol juice 1.00 0.92 0.99 -0.37 0.45 0.99 0.85 0.46 -0.81 0.11 0.21 -0.35 0.40 -0.60 purity 0.91 1.00 0.92 -0.36 0.37 0.95 0.79 0.40 -0.67 0.09 0.00 -0.24 0.29 -0.44 pol%c 0.99 0.91 1.00 -0.47 0.51 0.99 0.89 0.36 -0.80 0.21 0.19 -0.24 0.36 -0.62 fiber% -0.31 -0.29 -0.41 1.00 -0.72 -0.48 -0.67 0.58 0.36 -0.82 0.02 -0.75 0.13 0.46 cyield 0.36 0.32 0.42 -0.61 1.00 0.50 0.83 -0.02 -0.42 0.74 0.32 0.37 -0.01 -0.44 rsucrose 0.99 0.94 0.99 -0.42 0.41 1.00 0.89 0.34 -0.78 0.20 0.14 -0.21 0.34 -0.59 syield 0.83 0.78 0.86 -0.59 0.80 0.86 1.00 0.20 -0.71 0.50 0.29 0.04 0.20 -0.59 snbx103 0.30 0.26 0.25 0.35 0.08 0.23 0.19 1.00 -0.30 -0.97 -0.37 -0.99 0.17 -0.23 %bin -0.72 -0.58 -0.73 0.34 -0.40 -0.70 -0.66 -0.18 1.00 -0.40 -0.61 0.09 -0.58 0.68 avweight 0.09 0.07 0.17 -0.68 0.53 0.16 0.38 -0.52 -0.30 1.00 0.35 0.80 0.04 -0.40 avheight 0.18 0.04 0.18 -0.01 0.32 0.14 0.29 -0.16 -0.48 0.39 1.00 -0.06 0.56 -0.18 avdiam -0.27 -0.22 -0.18 -0.61 0.20 -0.17 -0.01 -0.74 0.09 0.78 -0.04 1.00 -0.53 0.02 nbinternode 0.35 0.23 0.32 0.11 0.01 0.29 0.19 0.17 -0.50 0.14 0.54 -0.33 1.00 -0.49 flowering -0.50 -0.33 -0.53 0.42 -0.36 -0.49 -0.49 -0.17 0.62 -0.35 -0.14 -0.44 -0.46 1.00 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 91 published by ideas spread table 3. mean values of agronomic traits in plant cane and first ratoon (on aggregate) for different genotypes tested in ferké, ivory coast (1rst stage of advanced screening) genotypes polj% pty% pol% fiber% cane yield rsucr% sug. yield 10 3 xnb tillers bin% avweight (kg) avheight (m) avgdiam (mm) nbintern. flow.% r579 16.5ab 85.7ab 13.6ab 12.7hi 161.3a 9.7ab 15.6a 136.7 13.7de 1.3ab 2.5ab 23.5ab 21.2cd 2.0hi rci10/133 15.0ab 83.2ab 12.1ab 14.3cd 140.8ab 8.2ab 11.5bc 150.7 21.0bc 1.1ab 2.5ab 23.1ab 22.0cd 9.7fg rci11/113 12.4ef 77.6de 10.0fg 14.2cd 132.1ab 6.2ef 8.2fg 154.5 19.9bc 1.0ab 2.4ab 21.8ab 21.4cd 15.2cd rci11/114 12.8de 77.2ef 10.5ef 12.9gh 137.6ab 6.6de 9.0ef 122.3 20.3bc 1.2ab 2.5ab 23.6ab 21.7cd 10.7ef rci11/115 14.0ab 79.9ab 11.2cd 14.5bc 122.4bc 7.3bc 9.0ef 158.8 22.1bc 0.9bc 2.2de 20.8bc 21.7cd 0.0i rci12/15 17.3a 86.8a 13.9ab 14.1cd 134.0ab 9.9a 13.1ab 154.8 9.5hi 0.9bc 2.3bc 21.0bc 20.6de 12.ef0 rci12/19 17.0ab 84.6ab 13.6ab 14.5bc 144.8ab 9.5ab 13.8ab 180.2 4.7k 0.9ab 2.6ab 19.2e 26.0ab 3.3hg rci13/116 12.3fg 77.6de 10.0fg 13.8de 116.2bc 6.3ef 7.3gh 130.5 18.8bc 1.2ab 2.3ab 24.2ab 21.3cd 9.7ef rci13/117 16.2ab 83.4ab 13.1ab 14.2cd 107.4cd 9.0ab 9.7bc 148.7 13.4ef 0.9bc 2.2cd 21.4cd 22.6cd 3.8gh rci13/118 14.1ab 81.1ab 11.4bc 13.4fg 136.3ab 7.6ab 10.4bc 135.7 17.5bc 1.1ab 2.1ef 24.1ab 18.7h 6.5ef rci13/119 11.8gh 78.0cd 9.2hi 15.7ab 97.1fg 5.7fg 5.5ij 160.8 37.3a 0.7c 2.1f 20.3cd 20.6de 32.0a rci13/12 15.5abc 82.9ab 12.2ab 15.3ab 131.5ab 8.2ab 10.7bc 141.7 12.8fg 1.0ab 2.8a 20.9bc 21.9cd 27.4ab rci13/120 15.0abc 82.7ab 12.3ab 12.9gh 125.9bc 8.4ab 10.6bc 139.5 13.7de 0.9ab 2.3bc 22.7ab 19.2fg 13.8de rci13/121 16.1abc 84.8ab 13.1ab 13.6ef 144.6ab 9.2ab 13.3ab 149.7 10.5hi 1.0ab 2.8a 20.6bc 24.7bc 0.0i rci13/122 16.9ab 84.4ab 13.4ab 14.9ab 115.5bc 9.3ab 10.8bc 142.3 16.2cd 1.1ab 2.5ab 21.5ab 23.4cd 4.3gh rci13/123 14.5abc 83.8ab 11.7ab 14.1cd 118.9bc 8.0ab 9.6cd 163.3 15.3cd 1ab 2.2cd 22.1ab 21.1cd 8.2ef rci13/124 15.1abc 79.2bc 12.0ab 15.1ab 122.1bc 7.7ab 9.4de 185.3 12.4fg 0.9bc 2.4ab 20.0de 22.9cd 1.0hi rci13/125 14.0bc 79.2bc 11.1cd 14.7bc 102.9de 7.1cd 7.4fg 135.0 8.9ij 1.2ab 2.7ab 22.5ab 27.2a 1.5hi rci13/126 16.3ab 85.1ab 13.3ab 13.8de 114.4bc 9.3ab 10.7bc 145.0 5.8jk 1.1ab 2.4ab 22.8ab 24.2bc 0.8i rci13/136 15.4abc 83.6ab 12.7ab 12.7hi 146.9ab 8.8ab 12.8ab 152.7 12.3fg 1.3a 2.4ab 23.9ab 21.0cd 7.7ef rci13/137 14.5abc 82.6ab 11.6ab 14.3cd 128.7ab 7.8ab 10.1bc 157.7 16.0cd 1.1ab 2.4ab 22.1ab 22.2cd 15.9cd rci13/17 14.3abc 79.3bc 11.9ab 12.4i 136.9ab 7.8b 10.5bc 123.5 17.1bc 1.3a 2.5ab 25.0a 22.7cd 6.3ef rci14/11 17.1ab 85.4ab 14.1a 12.9gh 137.7ab 10.0a 13.7ab 146.7 11.5gh 1.2ab 2.6ab 22.9ab 21.6cd 10.8ef rci14/127 17.1ab 86.8a 13.9ab 13.8de 102.4de 9.9a 10.2bc 154.7 15.1cd 0.9bc 2.3cd 20.6bc 22.5cd 7.7ef rci14/129 15.2abc 80.1ab 12.2ab 14.4cd 133.0ab 8.0ab 10.6bc 165.2 14.1de 1.0ab 2.5ab 22.0ab 20.2ef 3.0gh rci14/130 13.1cd 77.6de 10.6de 13.9cd 149.5ab 6.6de 10.0bc 152.7 14.6cd 1.1ab 2.5ab 22.1ab 21.1cd 7.1ef rci14/131 15.6abc 82.2ab 12.5ab 14.0cd 131.2ab 8.5ab 11.1bc 152.5 12.7fg 1.1ab 2.6ab 20.8bc 22.4cd 4.8fg rci14/132 15.6abc 84.7ab 12.8ab 13.5ef 128.0ab 8.9ab 11.4bc 154.2 14.1de 1.1ab 2.4ab 22.1ab 20.0ef 7.6ef rci14/14 11.3h 73.5f 9.0i 15.0ab 90.8g 5.2g 4.8j 130.8 24.2b 0.9ab 2.5ab 22.9ab 18.9gh 22.8bc rci14/18 12.5ef 78.9ab 9.7gh 16.0a 99.5ef 6.1ef 6.2hi 140.0 21.6bc 0.9bc 2.5ab 21.7ab 20.6de 21.0bc mean 14.8 81.8 12.0 14.0 126.3 8.0 10.2 148.9 15.6 1.0 2.4 22.1 21.8 9.2 sd 2.2 4.9 1.9 1.7 23.7 1.7 3.1 38.5 7.6 0.2 0.3 2.4 2.7 11.5 cv(%) 15.1 6.0 15.7 11.9 18.8 21.6 30.6 26.0 48.6 23.6 11.2 11.0 12.0 125.0 replications ns ns ns ns ** ns ns *** ** * ns ns ** ns genotypes *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ns *** *** *** *** *** *** crop cycles ns *** *** *** * ns ** *** *** ns *** *** ns *** genotypes x cycles ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns *** ns ns ns *** *** snb: millable stalk number/ha; bin: bored internode; avweight: average stalk weight; avheight: average stalk height; ns: non-significant. *, **,***: significant at 5, 1 and 0.1% levels of probability. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 92 published by ideas spread table 4. variability and heritability among sugarcane genotypes tested as plant crop and first ratoon (aggregate data) in ferké, ivory coast variability mean variance coef. of variation (%) h² (%) ga gam (%) σ²p σ²e σ²g pcv gcv juice sucrose% 14.8 4.0 1.6 2.4 13.5 10.4 59.8 2.5 16.7 purity% 81.8 16.7 8.2 8.4 5.0 3.5 50.5 4.2 5.2 sucrose% 12.0 2.8 1.0 1.7 13.9 11.0 62.6 2.1 18.0 fiber content% 14.0 1.0 0.3 0.7 7.1 6.0 72.1 1.5 10.6 cane yield (t/ha) 123.3 426.6 200.6 226.0 16.7 12.2 53.0 22.6 18.3 recov. sucrose% 8.0 2.4 1.0 1.5 19.4 15.1 60.6 1.9 24.3 sugar yield (t/ha) 10.2 8.1 3.0 5.1 27.8 22.1 63.0 3.7 36.2 stalk number/ha 148.9 396.0 279.0 117.0 13.4 7.3 29.5 12.1 8.1 bored internode 15.6 43.8 8.5 35.3 42.6 38.2 80.5 11.0 10.7 avg weight (kg) 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.3 11.7 36.7 0.1 14.6 avg height (m) 2.4 0.05 0.0 0.0 9.0 6.0 45.1 0.2 8.4 avg diameter (mm) 22.1 3.3 2.0 1.3 8.2 5.1 38.7 1.4 6.5 nb internodes 21.8 4.6 1.5 3.1 9.8 8.0 67.7 3.0 13.7 flowering rate% 9.2 75.1 15.3 59.8 94.0 83.9 79.6 14.2 154.4 pcv: phenotypic cv (%); gcv: genotypic cv (%); h²: broad sense heritability; ga: genetic advance; gam: genetic advance as percent of mean (%) 4. conclusions based on sugar yields, four promising genotypes namely rci12/15, rci12/19, rci13/121 and rci13/136 were equivalent to the check variety r579 which performed 15.6 t/ha. they are due to undergo the advanced selection stage during the 2020-21 cropping season for three more years for determining the first new sugarcane varieties of rci origin to be tested commercially in ferké sugar estates. their yield performances ranged from 12.8 to 13.8 t sugar /ha, i.e. from 134.0 to 144.8 t cane/ha compared with 161.3 t/ha for the control variety. although a relatively high level of stem-borer infestation rate recorded with 15.6% on average (almost three times the tolerable threshold value of 5%), reasonable values of sucrose percent obtained with the promising genotypes, ranged from 12.7 to 13.9% over both crop cycles, compared with 13.6% for the check. higher heritability values ranging from 61 to 80.5% were observed in traits like sugar yield, sucrose content (62.6%), recoverable sucrose (60.6%), fiber content (72%), stem-borer infestation rate (80.5%), number of internodes/stalk (67.7%), and flowering rate (79.6%). in contrast, lower and moderate values of heritability were observed for pol juice (59.8%), juice purity (50.5%), cane yield (53%), millable stalk number/ha (29.5%), single stalk weight (36.7%), single stalk height (45%), and single stalk diameter (38.7%). references ali, a., khan, s. a., farid, a., khan, a., khan, s m., & ali, n. 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(2018). sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping. in: achieving sustainable cultivation of sugarcane. vol. 2: breeding, pests and diseases. ph rot teds, univ. florida, usa. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p170 170 published by ideas spread trends of water requirements of major crops and cropping patterns in bogura and rajshahi districts of bangladesh mohammad a. mojid1, farhana y. shibly1 & tapos k. acharjee1 1 department of irrigation and water management, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, 2202, bangladesh correspondence: mohammad a. mojid, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, 2202, bangladesh. email: ma_mojid@yahoo.com received: april 21, 2020 accepted: may 3, 2020 online published: may 11, 2020 abstract reliable past trends of water requirements of individual crops and cropping patterns at local level, although crucially important for irrigation forecast and agricultural planning, are yet inadequate for the water-scarce barind region of bangladesh. this study, therefore, determined water requirements and their trends of eight major crops (aus, aman, boro, vegetables, mustard, sugarcane, wheat and potato) and six cropping patterns (aus–aman–boro, aus–aman–potato, aman–potato–fallow, vegetables–aman, aman–mustard–fallow and aus–fallow–wheat) of bogura and rajshahi districts of the barind region. water requirements were determined from crop, soil and weather data for the period 1985–2013 by using soil-water balance via cropwat (swbcropwat) model. trends of rainfall, crop evapotranspiration (etc) and irrigation requirement (ir) were determined with makesens statistical tool. monthly total rainfall revealed increasing trend in january, august and october but decreasing trend in the other months, with significant (p≤0.05) trend in july in bogura. monthly total etc decreased except in july and september, with significant trend in october–april/may. seasonal etc for the crops decreased significantly except for aman rice and sugarcane in bogura and for aman rice in rajshahi. etc also decreased for the cropping patterns except for aman–mustard–fallow in rajshahi. while effective rainfall (er) for the crops and cropping patterns decreased only minimally, ir decreased significantly for boro, potato and vegetables in bogura and for mustard and vegetables in rajshahi. ir decreased for all cropping patterns, with significant trend for aus– aman–potato, aman–potato–fallow and vegetables–aman patterns. in response to changing cropping area, total volume of etc increased gradually from 1985 to 2005 in bogura and from 1985 to 2010 in rajshahi for boro rice, but it decreased until 2005 before increasing for aus rice in both districts. after the year 2000, total volume of etc decreased for wheat but increased for potato, indicating a shift from wheat to potato cultivation. due to contrasting trends of er and etc and self-motivated shift in crop-choice, continuous adjustment of irrigation-based crop planning is necessary. the results of this study can guide future investigation for all other crops and cropping patterns to help planning agriculture of the study areas by choosing appropriate crops and cropping patterns based on available water resources. keywords: irrigation forecast, water scarcity, agricultural planning, swbcropwat 1. introduction application of water and its managed usage has been an essential factor worldwide in raising productivity of crop agriculture and ensuring predictability in outputs. crop-water requirement varies substantially across the globe, reflecting differences in cropping intensity, crop choice, soil characteristics, irrigation water availability, agricultural management and climatic condition. information on crop-water requirement is important for selection of crops and cropping patterns and their irrigation scheduling in any particular area. when water is scarce, knowledge on the magnitude of water demand is crucial for decision-making about agricultural planning based on limited water resources. irrigated agriculture has become central to the current rapid agricultural development and food security in bangladesh. rice being the staple food is currently grown on 73.7% of the total cultivated land, constituting 93.4% of the total cereal production (bbs, 2017). the projected population in the country, 185 million in 2030 and 202 million in 2050 (united nations, 2017), indicates an additional requirement of 12.4 and 21.0 million tons of rice respectively by 2030 and 2050 (mainuddin & kirby, 2015). so, irrigation will remain critical in supplying foods (peacock, 1996), and the consumption of agricultural water will continue to increase during the coming decades as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 171 published by ideas spread (cawma, 2007). moreover, domestic and industrial usages of water are on the rise (bindraban, 2001); these are likely to grow by 100% and 440%, respectively by 2050 (bdp2100, 2017). so, there will be growing competitions for getting water among the various users. furthermore, while climate change is likely to cause shortage of drinking and irrigation water (world bank, 2015) in one hand, will increase demand of irrigation from less than 1% for 2030 in average condition to maximum 3% for 2050 in dry condition (kirby et al., 2016) on the other hand. rainfall variability, although uncertain, featuring extreme high and low rainfall, is critical for agricultural productivity and water availability. thus, water availability for future food security is challenging and will become more challenging if further increase in irrigated area takes place, especially in vulnerable areas like the barind region of the north-west bangladesh. the barind tract being one of the most intensive agricultural and irrigated regions in bangladesh supplies about 35% of irrigated boro rice and 60% of wheat of the whole country. about 78% irrigated land in this region is covered by groundwater (hasanuzzaman et al., 2017). particularly, over 97% of the total area in rajshahi district and over 99% of the total area in bogura district of the barind region are currently irrigated by groundwater (bbs, 2017); usage of surface water for irrigation is very limited in these districts because of its limited availability. the barind region is facing a number of challenges, such as rapid population growth, declining cultivable land, inadequate water availability during dry season (october–april), declining groundwater table (ahmad et al., 2014; mojid et al., 2019) and extreme events like floods and droughts. some parts of the barind region are now of greatest concern over falling groundwater tables (csiro, warpo, bwdb, iwm, bids, cegis, 2014) since groundwater usage has become unsustainable in those areas (kirby et al., 2013). impacts of climate change are now visible in the barind tract in the form of temperature variations, erratic rainfall patterns with low monsoon rains, decreased duration of rainy season, intense short-duration rainfall, increased number of droughts, and prevalence of rough weather. thus, availability of adequate water during farming seasons has become uncertain. consequently, it has now become essential to understand the future possible changes in agricultural water requirements to improve water resources management in the region. demand management is regarded as an important part of the overall solution of water scarcity. the importance of accurately estimating crop-water demand for irrigation forecast and agricultural water management has been widely recognized (hossain et al., 2017) since proper plan for the application of desired amount of water at right time can conserve the water resources. trends of water requirement, estimated from the observed recent past long-term daily climate data, and their comparison with the trends of local climatic parameters may provide a better insight into the changes in water demand (acharjee et al., 2017a). water requirement and cropping patterns are very closely related and very important for efficacious crop production. if water requirements of each crop and cropping pattern of a region are known, agriculture of the region can be planned based on its available water resources. with this view, this study was planned to find out water requirements and contribution of effective rainfall to the total irrigation requirement, and their trends for the major crops and cropping patterns in bogura and rajshahi districts of the north-west bangladesh over the recent past three decades (1985–2013). 2. methodology 2.1 study area the barind tract of bangladesh comprises most parts of the greater dinajpur, rangpur, pabna, rajshahi, bogura, joypurhat and naogaon districts of rajshahi and rangpur divisions in the north-west bangladesh (fig. 1). about 73% of its land area is used for agriculture and the percentage of lands used for single cropping, double cropping and triple cropping is 15%, 56% and 29%, respectively in rajshahi division and 8%, 64% and 27%, respectively in rangpur division (bbs, 2017). a large variety of different crops are grown in these divisions. these include rice (aus, aman, boro), vegetables, mustard, sugarcane, wheat, potato, tobacco, fibres (jute, mesta, cotton), fruits (mango, pineapple, jackfruit, papaya, melon & water melon, litchi, guava, lemon, palm, date), other cereals (barley, joar, bajra, cheena, kaon), oil seeds (sesame, mustard, groundnut, linseed, coconut, castor), pulses (gram, arhar, lentil, chick pea, mung bean, kheshari), and spices & condiments (chillies, onion, garlic, turmeric, ginger, coriander). of these, the major crops are rice (aus, aman and boro), wheat, potato, jute, sugarcane, mustard, maize and vegetables, most of which (except aman rice, jute and sugarcane) are cultivated during dry season (november– april). boro rice is the dominant dry period crop, which is cultivated on more than 70% of the cultivable area during december to may (acharjee et al., 2017b). the barind tract lies in the monsoon region of the summer-dominant hemisphere. its average temperature ranges from 25°c to 35°c in the hottest season and 9°c to 15°c in the coolest season (banglapedia, 2014). the region is regarded as a drought-prone water-scarce area, often causing devastating effect on agricultural production and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 172 published by ideas spread livelihood of the people (hussain, 2017). bogura and rajshahi districts from the barind tract (fig. 1) were selected for this study. bogura district has a humid sub-tropical climate, with average annual rainfall being 1610 mm. the annual average temperature of the district varies from 11.9°c to 34.6°c (bbs, 2014). rajshahi has a tropical wet and dry climate. rainfall is relatively low; the average annual rainfall being 1,448 mm. the maximum mean temperature varies from 32 to 36°c during april to july, and the minimum temperature is 7 to 16°c in january (wikipedia, 2018). there were total 177 cropping patterns in the greater bogura regions (bogura and surrounding districts), with the highest number of cropping patterns (36) was in nandigram upazila and the lowest number (6) was in dupchachia and kahalu upazila of bogura district (islam et al., 2017). in the greater rajshahi region (rajshahi and surrounding districts), there were total 172 cropping patterns, with the highest number (36) in paba upazila and the lowest number (11) in charghat (11) upazila of rajshahi district (rashid et al., 2017). figure 1. locations bogura and rajshahi districts in bangladesh 2.2 data collection data on daily reference crop evapotranspiration (eto) and rainfall for the period 1985–2013 were collected from an on-going project (sdip ii: sustaining groundwater irrigation for food security in the north-west region of bangladesh) of csiro, australia. the average, maximum and minimum eto and rainfall for bogura and rajshahi districts are provided in table a1 in appendix. data on crops such as length of growth stage, crop co-efficient, root depths, depletion factors, yield reduction factors, maximum ponding depth, minimum ponding depth, refill ponding depth, planting date and planting duration were collected from sub-district (called upazila) and district agricultural offices through sdip ii project. planting date, length of growth stage and harvesting date of the crops for bogura and rajshahi districts are provided in table a2 in appendix. out of a large number of cropping patterns (172~177) only six commonly practiced cropping patterns: aus−aman−boro, aus−aman−potato, aman−potato, vegetables−aman, mustard−aman and aus–fallow–wheat were investigated in this study, specifically to generate the basic information. it is noted that the cropping patterns in bogura and rajshahi districts have been changing over the years depending on many factors, such as irrigation facility, market price of the produce, profitability of the crop, food habit of the people, etc. we evaluated trend of water requirements of the crops and cropping patterns as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 173 published by ideas spread over the period from 1985 to 2013. therefore, in selecting the crops and cropping patterns, we emphasized on cropping practices over this period. however, for complete scenario development for water use, all the crops and cropping patterns need to be investigated, which was not within the scope of this study. data on soil-types, initial soil-moisture content, soil-moisture content at saturation and field capacity, residual soil-moisture content, saturated hydraulic conductivity and percolation rate for rice fields used in estimating water requirements are given in table a3 in appendix. the rooting depths, depletion factors, yield reduction factors and ponding depths of different crops used in the estimation are given in table a4 in appendix. 2.3 water requirement estimation irrigation-water requirement was estimated by using soil-water balance via cropwat (swbcropwat) model of mainuddin et al. (2014), which is a macro in ms excel sheets. this model calculates irrigation water requirement of crops and soil-water balance following the principle in allen et al. (1998). for calculation of effective rainfall, the model utilized the method of usda soil conservation service (1993) that was developed based on long-term climatic and soil moisture data. it can perform calculation for one or more weather/climate sequences, crops and soils. the model can therefore calculate irrigation requirements and soil-water balance of many places within large areas and places with different climates, soils and crops. it was designed to do the calculations necessary for spatial assessments of irrigation requirements and soil-water balance. however, there is no any available sophisticated method to calculate infiltration and drainage for determining soil-water balance. but there is a simple and sophisticated option, called water content-dependent leaking buckets, in swbcropwat. in this option, soil-water content is calculated daily by adding irrigation and rainfall, and subtracting evapotranspiration/soil evaporation, runoff and drainage. whenever soil-water content exceeds saturation, the excess water is subtracted and added to runoff. drainage is calculated from the water content-dependent hydraulic conductivity. rice crop is treated differently with a fixed leakage rate, presumed to be lower than upland crop, because of puddling during the rice transplanting period. for water balance calculation, a working worksheet keeps link with input worksheets for rain, reference evapotranspiration, soil and crop data, multi-cropping sequence and irrigation-rules. the calculations are done in a macro, and the number of irrigations, total irrigation, total rain, crop-available rain, reference evapotranspiration, crop evapotranspiration, total drainage, total runoff, yield potential, etc. are generated as outputs to other worksheets. the water-balance outputs can be either annual or daily as desired by the user. for details on swb model, the readers are referred to mainuddin et al. (2014). crop evapotranspiration (etc) was calculated by crop co-efficient approach in which etc (mm/day) was calculated by multiplying reference evapotranspiration, eto (mm/day), with crop co-efficient (kc, dimensionless) as 𝐸𝑇c = 𝐾c × 𝐸𝑇o (1) eto being a climatic parameter expresses evaporative power of the atmosphere and is defined as the evapotranspiration from excellently managed, large, well-watered fields that achieve full production under the given climatic conditions. differences in leaf anatomy, stomatal characteristics, aerodynamic properties and albedo cause etc to differ from eto under the same climatic conditions. due to variations in the crop characteristics throughout the growing season, kc for a given crop changes from sowing till harvest. its value for rice is generally greater than 1, especially during the vigorous growth period, but for other crops, it is less than 1. we calculated effective rainfall by using the method of usda soil conservation service (1993) that was developed based on long-term climatic and soil moisture data. 2.4 trend analysis the trend of monthly total rainfall and crop evapotranspiration (etc); seasonal total etc, effective rainfall (er) and irrigation requirement (ir) of eight major crops; and etc, er and ir of six major cropping patterns were determined by using mann-kendall-sens (makesens) trend statistics (salmi, 2002). an ms excel template for implementation of the makesens model, developed for detecting and estimating trend in time series of annual values of atmospheric chemistry, are freely available as open source. the used statistical methods are the nonparametric mann-kendall test for analyzing the presence of monotonic increasing or decreasing trend and the nonparametric sen's method for estimating the slope of a linear trend (salmi, 2002). makesens utilizes two statistics, called s-statistics and z-statistics (gilbert, 1987), to estimate trend. for time series with less than 10 data points, s-statistics is used, and for time series with ≥10 data points, z-statistics is used. if x1, x2, x3, …., xj represent n data points, where xj is the data point at time j, mann-kendall statistics “s” is expressed by as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 174 published by ideas spread ( )  − = += −= 1 1 1 sgn n k n kj kj xxs (2) in equation (1), sgn(xj − xk) = 1 for xj − xk > 0, or sgn(xj − xk) = 0 for xj − xk = 0, or sgn(xj − xk) = −1 for xj − xk < 0. the normalized z-statistics is given by ( )[ ] 2/1 1 svar sz −= if s>0 ( )[ ] 2/1 1 svar sz += if s<0 z = 0 if s = 0 (3) the makesens model provides trends of the monthly total rainfall and etc; seasonal total etc, er and ir of eight major crops; and etc, er and ir of six major cropping patterns in terms of z-statistics (equation (3)), slope, and intercept of the trend line. it also provides statistical significance of the observed trends in the values of the parameters. the z-statistics is a deterministic index of the trend. the intercept and slope together provide the trend lines. the slope of the trend lines determines magnitude and direction of the trend. based on data type, especially sensitivity of change, the makesens model determines statistical significance of the trend at p ≤ 0.10, ≤0.05, ≤0.01 and ≤0.001. the mann-kendall test requires at least four values, and calculation of the confidence intervals for the sen's slope estimate requires at least ten values in a time series. 3. results 3.1 monthly total rainfall and crop evapotranspiration negative values of mann-kendall trend statistics, z (table 1), revealed declining trend of monthly total rainfall in eight of the twelve months over the period 1985–2013 both in bogura and rajshahi districts, with the significant (p≤0.05) declining trend (–8.67 mm/month/year) in july. monthly total rainfall increased slightly over the years in april, august and october in bogura, and august and october in rajshahi. rainfall effectively remained invariant during january, march and december in both districts. the rate of variation (decreasing/increasing) of the monthly total rainfall was higher in bogura than in rajshahi district in most of the months. monthly total crop evapotranspiration, etc (equation 1), declined significantly from october to april in bogura and october to may in rajshahi (table 1). etc showed slightly increasing trend in july and september in both districts but remained effectively unchanged in august and september in rajshahi. sen's slope revealed the higher declining rates of etc in bogura than in rajshahi. table 1. mann-kendall trend values (z; equation 3) and sen's slopes (s, mm/month/year; equation 2) of monthly total rainfall and crop evapotranspiration (etc) in bogura and rajshahi districts months rainfall crop evapotranspiration, etc bogura rajshahi bogura rajshahi z s z s z s z s january 0.30 0.000 0.10 0.00 –5.08*** –0.846 –4.26*** –0.021 february –1.77+ –0.229 –1.78+ –0.33 –2.68** –0.466 –2.53* –0.018 march –0.06 0.000 0.06 0.00 –3.47*** –0.951 –2.91** –0.026 april 0.32 0.433 –0.49 –0.54 –3.32*** –0.892 –4.26*** –0.047 may –1.76+ –3.211 –0.08 –0.09 –0.88 –0.356 –2.61** –0.020 june –1.54 –4.604 –0.09 –0.53 –1.78+ –0.342 –1.48 –0.010 july –2.34* –8.667 –1.18 –4.21 1.29 0.367 1.67+ 0.010 august 1.16 3.087 0.28 0.35 –0.43 –0.113 –0.96 –0.007 september –1.69+ –5.639 –0.96 –3.15 0.39 0.148 1.11 0.007 october 0.17 1.022 0.41 0.58 –2.08* –0.346 –2.23* –0.011 november –0.90 0.000 –1.48 –0.12 –3.43*** –0.512 –2.61** –0.010 december –1.69+ 0.000 –1.56 0.00 –3.81*** –0.799 –3.25** –0.016 +, *, ** and *** signs indicate significant at p≤0.10, ≤0.05, ≤0.01 and ≤0.001 level of significance, respectively. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 175 published by ideas spread 3.2 effective rainfall and crop-water requirements effective rainfall, er, was always much less than crop evapotranspiration, etc, for boro rice both in bogura and rajshahi districts (fig. 2). etc showed a gradual decreasing trend over the years of study. large quantity of irrigation was needed for boro rice; the highest irrigation requirement was 588 mm in 1988–1989 and the lowest was 223 mm in 2001–2002 in bogura. the corresponding quantity of irrigation requirement was 596 mm in 1988– 1989 and 300 mm in 1999–2000 in rajshahi. in contrast, er was higher than etc in most of the years for aus rice and always higher than etc for aman rice. therefore, only occasional supplemental irrigation was needed for aus rice but no irrigation was needed for aman rice in both districts. as demonstrated in fig. 2, er fluctuated over a wide range from year to year; for example, it was 1185 mm in the aus season of 1988 but only 315 mm in the aus season of 2012 in bogura. because of higher etc than er, irrigation was a necessity for vegetables and mustard both in bogura and rajshahi districts (fig. 3). etc for sugarcane remained unchanged over the years. sugarcane being a perennial year-round crop received enough rainfall during its main growth period and, therefore, it did not require irrigation. etc of wheat and potato was higher than er in both districts and large quantity of irrigation was needed for these crops (fig. 3). etc of these crops decreased gradually over the study period. mann-kendall trends (z-statistics) of etc of the crops were significant (p≤0.05) except for aman rice and sugarcane in bogura and for aman rice in rajshahi (table 2). negative values of z revealed declining trend of etc except for aman rice and sugarcane for bogura and aman for rajshahi. the most declining trend was for boro rice (4.37 mm/season/year) in bogura and sugarcane (5.31 mm/season/year) in rajshahi. although effective rainfall was declining, none of the mann-kendall value was significant for the crops under investigation. sen's slopes showed declining rate of irrigation requirement, ir, except for aus, aman and sugarcane in both districts (table 2). the declining trend of ir was significant for boro rice, potato and vegetables in bogura and for mustard and vegetables in rajshahi. figure 2. variation of crop evapotranspiration (etc), effective rainfall (er) and irrigation requirement (ir) of boro, aus and aman rice during 1985–2013 in bogura (left) and rajshahi (right) districts as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 176 published by ideas spread figure 3. variation of crop evapotranspiration (etc), effective rainfall (er) and irrigation requirement (ir) of vegetables, mustard, sugarcane, wheat and potato during 1985–2013 in bogura (left) and rajshahi (right) districts table 2. mann-kendall trend (z; equation 3) and sen's slope (s, mm/season/year; equation 2) of estimated crop evapotranspiration (etc, mm/season), effective rainfall (er, mm/season) and irrigation requirement (ir, mm/season) of eight major crops under study in bogura and rajshahi districts crops bogura rajshahi etc er ir etc er ir z s z s z s z s z s z s boro –4.96*** –4.37 –0.30 –0.65 –2.03* –3.13 –3.50*** –3.71 –0.75 –1.02 –1.36 –2.56 aus –2.76** –1.85 –1.74+ –5.48 0.43 0.00 –4.03*** –2.59 –0.17 –0.69 –0.54 0.00 aman 0.73 0.16 –1.74 –9.96 0.00 0.00 0.73 0.16 –1.74+ –9.95 0.00 0.00 mustard –4.76*** –1.88 –1.70+ –0.39 –1.68+ –1.23 –3.93*** –1.35 –1.21 –0.26 –2.07* –0.95 potato –4.48*** –2.79 –0.97 –0.71 –2.23* –1.80 –3.54*** –1.89 –0.79 –0.77 –1.09 –1.17 vegetables –4.72*** –2.21 –1.25 –0.46 –2.19* –1.52 –3.81*** –1.50 –1.03 –0.25 –2.35* –1.25 sugarcane –2.68 –2.00 –1.80 –10.71 0.00 0.00 –3.28** –5.31 –1.29 –8.68 0.68 0.00 wheat –4.52*** –2.15 –0.59 –0.28 –1.96+ –1.85 –4.29*** –1.39 –0.24 –0.14 –1.80+ –1.19 +, *, ** and *** signs indicate significant at p≤0.10, ≤0.05, ≤0.01 and ≤0.001 level of significance, respectively. 3.3 water requirements of major cropping patterns the effective rainfall was less than etc for the cropping patterns over the study period (1985–2013), and hence irrigation was needed for aus–aman–boro, aus–aman–potato, aman–potato–fallow, vegetables–aman, aman– mustard–fallow and aus–fallow–wheat patterns both in bogura and rajshahi districts (figs. 4 and 5). in spite of some inter-annual fluctuations, etc for the cropping patterns decreased gradually over the years. but, because of larger inter-annual fluctuation in the effective rainfall, irrigation requirement for the cropping patterns also fluctuated in parallel to the effective rainfall. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 177 published by ideas spread figure 4. variation of crop evapotranspiration (etc), effective rainfall (er) and irrigation requirement (ir) of aus–aman–boro, aus–aman–potato and aman–potato cropping patterns during 1985–2013 in bogura (left) and rajshahi (right) districts figure 5. variation of crop evapotranspiration (etc), effective rainfall (er) and irrigation requirement (ir) of vegetables–aman, mustard–aman and wheat–aus cropping patterns during 1985–2013 in bogura (left) and rajshahi (right) districts the mann-kendall z-value for etc showed significant decreasing trend for the cropping patterns except for aman– mustard–fallow pattern in rajshahi (table 3). the most declining rate of etc was for aus–aman–boro pattern in both districts, with sen's slope of –6.30 (mm/year) for bogura and –5.75 (mm/year) for rajshahi that represented declining rates of etc. the effective rainfall for the cropping patterns remained effectively unchanged. irrigation requirement for the cropping patterns declined over the years, with significant declining trend for aus–aman–potato, aman–potato–fallow and vegetables–aman patterns in bogura. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 178 published by ideas spread table 3. mann-kendall trend (z-statistics; equation 3) and sen’s slope (s, mm/season/year; equation 2) of crop evapotranspiration (etc, mm/season), effective rainfall (er, mm/season) and irrigation requirement (ir, mm/season) of six major cropping patterns in bogura and rajshahi districts bogura rajshahi cropping patterns etc er ir etc er ir z s z s z s z s z s z s aus–aman–boro –4.01*** –6.30 –1.17 –2.46 –1.52 –2.88 –3.34*** –5.75 –0.81 –2.05 –1.28 –5.22 aus–aman–potato –3.89*** –4.96 –1.96+ –2.68 –2.11* –1.77 –3.30*** –4.00 –0.30 –0.66 –1.01 –3.47 aman–potato–fallow –2.86** –2.59 –0.73 –0.87 –2.23* –1.80 –2.39* –1.50 –0.38 –0.41 –0.69 –1.06 vegetables–aman –2.83** –2.13 –0.45 –0.39 –2.19* –1.52 –2.27* –1.50 –0.49 –0.22 –1.80+ –1.12 aman–mustard–fallow –2.55* –1.81 –0.73 –0.50 –1.68+ –1.23 –1.96+ –1.18 –0.18 –0.14 –1.48 –0.86 aus–fallow–wheat –4.37*** –4.67 –1.56 –2.01 –1.68+ –1.95 –4.37*** –4.27 –0.30 –0.28 –0.93 –2.03 +, *, ** and *** signs indicate significant at p≤0.10, ≤0.05, ≤0.01 and ≤0.001 level of significance, respectively. 3.4 crop evapotranspiration as influenced by changing cropping area the seasonal total volume of crop evapotranspiration, etc, of boro rice increased gradually from 1985 to 2005 in bogura and from 1985 to 2010 in rajshahi district and then decreased in both districts (fig. 6) in response to a similar change in cropping area of boro rice. it is noted that data on cropping area for boro, aus and aman were not available for the period 2001–2007 and also similar data for potato were not available for the period 2005–2010 for rajshahi. etc of aus rice decreased up to the year 2005, after which it increased to some extent. etc of the aman rice remained unchanged except slight inter-annual variations in both the districts. in bogura, etc of wheat decreased but that of potato increased, with rapid change in etc from the year 2000. in rajshahi, etc for wheat and potato remained unchanged from 1985 to 1998 and then increased. there was a direct positive correlation with etc and cropping area in both districts that clearly indicated an adjustment in the cropping patterns by choosing crops, plausibly mainly based on availability of irrigation water among other factors. 4. discussion 4.1 under-utilized effective rainfall the effective rainfall, er, was substantially larger than crop evapotranspiration, etc, of aus rice in bogura district (fig. 2). therefore, no irrigation was needed and a part of er remained unutilized. in rajshahi district, on the other hand, er was considerably larger than etc of aus rice in some years and considerably smaller than etc in other years (fig. 2), revealing the necessity of supplemental irrigation when er was effectively smaller than etc of the crop in rajshahi. for aman rice, er being about double the amount of etc indicated no requirement of irrigation (fig. 2) and unutilized er. by estimating water requirement for aman rice for 2005–2012 seasons in tanore upazila of rajshahi district, hasan et al. (2019) also showed no irrigation requirement for this crop during june to september due to high rainfall. for sugarcane cultivation, er was significantly greater than etc in bogura but mostly equal to etc in rajshahi (fig. 3). although ers during some crop-growing periods were larger than the crops’ seasonal total etc, they were always significantly smaller than etc for the six cropping patterns under investigation (figs. 4 and 5). the reason for this was that the excess er for a crop period could not be transferred to the next season for another crop in the pattern; the excess er was always wasted. the effective rainfall, er, was estimated from the daily total rainfall based on soil-water retention capacity for the upland crops and allowable standing water depths for irrigated rice crops. the two districts under study are drought-prone (hussain, 2017); often there were long rainless dry periods (32–48 days) depending on duration of the droughts (bandudeltas, 2015; mojid, 2020). this means that the rainfall events were not uniformly distributed over the crop periods, and hence potential er from the rainfalls could not be utilized fully. the large rainfall events might exceed soil’s retention capacity and standing water depths in the rice fields and the excess amounts were lost through surface runoff and deep percolation. therefore, there remain ample scopes for rainwater harvesting in both districts (masum et al., 2013) that can be utilized for irrigation in the following dry season crop cultivation. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 179 published by ideas spread figure 6. changes in total volume of crop evapotranspiration (etc) of boro rice, aus rice, aman rice, wheat and potato due to changes in cropping area during 1984/1985 to 2012/2013 in bogura (left) and rajshahi (right) districts 4.2 cropping pattern selection selection of a cropping pattern is governed by several factors such as crop suitability to local conditions, local food habits, economic profitability of the produce and availability of inputs for production of the crops, among which irrigation water availability is the most crucial one for the study areas. both in bogura and rajshahi districts, irrigation areas expanded significantly (bbs, 2017) over the study period (1985–2013) due to increasing food production, especially boro rice production, to meet increasing food demand. however, due to scanty and uncertain rainfall in the dry season (october–april), boro rice cultivation is fully dependent on irrigation (masum et al., 2013). this has already caused scarcity of irrigation water for dry season crop production. the amount of rainfall in the north-west region of bangladesh, within which the study areas are located, is progressively declining. the average annual rainfall (1985–2015) of six major rain gauge stations in this region shows a declining trend of 9.2 mm/year (mojid et al., 2019). the water-scarcity situations in the study areas are expected to be much worse in future since irrigation water requirement can increase by 1% to 5% in 2050 depending on crop selection (mainuddin et al., 2015). although rice crop itself will not require extra amount of water for its conjunctive use (kader et al., 2014; mojid et al., 2015) the increasing irrigation command area and warmer climate will require more water to be pumped (shahid, 2011). this will ultimately aggravate the already stressed groundwater resources of the study areas. due to scarcity of irrigation water during the dry season crop production, many farmers in the study areas have been already compelled to shift from high-water demanding boro rice to low-water demanding crops like potato, wheat, vegetables, fruit, etc. such dynamism in crop selection is guided by significant differences in the quantities of irrigation requirement for different cropping patterns (figs. 4 and 5). consequently, appropriate planning of agriculture by selecting the proper cropping pattern(s) based on available water for irrigation shall remain a major policy option for the future to continue agricultural production in the study areas. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 180 published by ideas spread however, shifting the cropping patterns will also have some limitations because of food habits and custom of the local people. along with crop selection, serious efforts to increase water availability for irrigation may be needed. in this regard, the excess rainwater, currently returned as surface runoff, will be an important water source to be harvested in ponds and reservoirs for using in dry season irrigation in the future. another option will be adoption of techniques for induced natural recharge and artificial recharge to groundwater aquifers during the wet season. 5. conclusions monthly total rainfall and seasonal effective rainfall for the major crops and cropping patterns decreased gradually in bogura and rajshahi districts over the years 1985–2013 except in january, august and october. whatever effective rainfalls occurred might not be utilized fully because of their non-uniform temporal distributions. so, the dry season crop period (november–april) became drier over this period. to the wonder, irrigation requirement of the widely practiced cropping patterns also revealed declining trend due to decrease in crop evapotranspiration, etc, of the crops. in response to increasing boro rice area, its seasonal total etc increased gradually up to 2005 in bogura and 2010 in rajshahi. this caused scarcity of irrigation water and forced the farmers to shift from the high water-demanding boro rice to low water-demanding wheat and potato cultivation. irrigation requirement of the cropping patterns was in the order: aus–aman–boro>aus–aman–potato>aman–potato>wheat–aus>vegetables– aman> mustard–aman for bogura, and aus–aman–boro>aus–aman–potato>wheat–aus>aman–potato>vegetables– aman>mustard–aman for rajshahi. due to the decreasing trends of effective rainfall and dynamic shift in cropchoice by the farmers in response to increasing irrigation area, continuous adjustment of irrigation-based crop planning is necessary for optimum production by resource optimization. the methodology and findings of this study can be used for periodic evaluation of crop suitability and cropping patterns based on available water resources in the study areas. this study estimated water requirements of some selected crops and cropping patterns only by swbcropwat model. we suggest using other methods for these estimations in order to verify our results. future research can focus on climate variability and change of the study areas and estimating water requirements of all crops and cropping patterns under changing climatic condition. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. references acharjee, t. k., halsema, g. v., ludwig, f., & hellegers, p. 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(2015). bangladesh climate change and sustainable development. washington, dc: world bank. appendix table a1. monthly average, maximum and minimum reference crop evapotranspiration (eto) and rainfall in bogura and rajshashi districts districts parameters month jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec bogura eto (mm) avg. 69 91 134 144 145 122 118 119 107 106 84 68 max. 83 104 164 176 170 139 139 137 121 119 95 79 min. 50 73 110 123 105 102 94 102 89 88 69 44 rainfall (mm) avg. 7 12 18 77 195 322 356 296 300 156 12 7 max. 65 53 76 284 416 756 749 623 733 523 92 112 min. 0 0 0 0 92 128 92 111 99 0 0 0 rajshahi eto (mm) avg. 69 89 134 156 155 129 119 120 109 105 83 68 max. 81 105 174 197 176 154 135 138 124 118 90 78 min. 55 75 116 131 117 115 101 106 94 89 68 49 rainfall (mm) avg. 5 13 22 53 141 246 307 243 271 114 14 7 max. 26 47 104 136 301 507 763 468 644 292 101 92 min. 0 0 0 0 17 85 94 96 89 4 0 0 table a2. crop data on planting date, length of growth stage and harvesting date of the crops of bogura and rajshahi districts under investigation crops planting/ transplanting date length of growth stage (day) harvesting date initial development mid-season late-season aman 1 august 20 30 30 25 14 november as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 183 published by ideas spread aus 1 may 20 30 20 20 30 july boro 17 january 20 30 40 15 29 april potato 20 november 20 25 40 15 18 february wheat 26 october 10 20 45 25 4 february pulses 16 september 20 30 40 20 5 january sugarcane 1 january 30 60 180 95 1 january vegetables 15 november 20 30 30 15 19 february mustard 20 november 15 30 20 15 9 february table a3. soil-types, initial soil-moisture content (mcini), soil-moisture content at saturation (mcsat) and field capacity (mcfc), residual soil-moisture content (mcres), saturated hydraulic conductivity (ksat) and percolation rate for rice fields (perrice) used in estimating water requirements for bogura and rajshahi districts parameters loam clay clay loam heavy clay mcini 0.2 0.25 0.27 0.298 mcsat 0.35 0.52 0.52 0.55 mcfc 0.22 0.39 0.36 0.49 mcres 0.04 0.24 0.21 0.35 ksat (mm/d) 136.8 57.6 62.4 50.4 perrice (mm/d) 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 table a4. rooting depths, depletion factors, yield reduction factors and ponding depths of different crops used in in estimating water requirements for bogura and rajshahi districts parameters stage rice_br29 rice_aman rice_ aus wheat potato other robi root depth (mm) ini 500 1000 700 800 700 600 md 1000 1000 700 1000 1000 600 depletion factors ini 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.55 0.4 0.45 mid 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.55 0.4 0.45 end 0.2 0.9 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.8 yield reduction factors ini 0.9 0.2 1.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 dev 1.1 0.65 1.1 0.55 1.1 1.1 mid 0.5 0.55 2.2 0.65 0.8 0.75 end 0.33 0.25 0.33 0.35 0.4 0.2 tot 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.15 1.05 1.15 ponding depth (mm) max 100 100 100 min 10 10 10 refill 50 50 50 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p13 13 published by ideas spread response of bambara groundnut and soil physicochemical properties to different lime materials nweke, i. a.1 1 department of soil science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria correspondence: nweke i. a. department of soil science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria. tel: 234-816-460-7354. e-mail: nweksoniyke@gmail.com received: january 30, 2020 accepted: february 19, 2020 online published: february 29, 2020 abstract the study was conducted at the teaching and research farm of the department of soil science chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam campus. the treatments studied were paper ash (pa) and wood ash (wa) of rates 4.8 kgha-1 respectively and calcium carbonate (ca) of rate 120g (equivalent of 300kgha-1) and control (co). the experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (rcbd) and was replicated four times. data collected were subjected to analysis of variance and treatment means were separated using lsd at 5% alpha level. the result recorded for the study showed that root and pod weight of bambara groundnut were not significant among the treatments but values obtained from treated plots were better than the untreated plots. soil properties tested were greatly improved by the lime materials when compared their values on the control soil. hence the results indicated that the lime materials especially the wood ash and paper ash could be ideal for famers as they are cheap affordable and available since it has proved through this study that these lime materials could improve crop yield and soil nutrient status and characteristics. keyword: ash, charcoal, lime, paper ash, soil properties, wood ash 1. introduction soil fertility is considered to be a measure of the soils compatibility to sustain crop growth and yield both in short and long term periods, as soil is centre for sustainable farming system. the fertility status of soil can be a product of a set of interactions between the biological activities, biophysical activities biochemical activities and physicochemical environments of the system. the traditional agricultural system widely practiced in tropical african soil especially in the eastern soils of nigeria, has changed. the change brought the shortening of the fallowing periods which are usually used in the zone to restore and maintain soil productivity. this was as a result of rapid increase in both human population and the rate of urbanization. in addition south eastern soils of nigeria which are mainly ultisols are characterized by very low inherent fertility, multiple nutrient deficiency and nutrient imbalances. consequently, the effect is decline in crop yield despite the introduction of the improved cultivars in virtually all crops produced in the area. the disappointing results observed in strongly acid ultisols in south eastern nigeria according to faulkner (1994) was mainly due to poor establishment of cover crops. continuous cultivation on the available land further compounds the problems. cultivation destroy the regeneration of the soil by hastening the decomposition of the protective layer of organic colloids associated with virgin aggregates without supplying fresh difference in productive level of soils (woodruff 2009; nweke, 2015). organic colloid is linked intrinsically to soil fertility because of its importance in maintaining good soil physicochemical condition and equally important nutrient reserve. soil fertility is greatly affected by not only quantity but also quality of the organic matter as it influences the electrical charge systems in a soil. plant nutrient movement in soils are markedly affected by permanent and variable charges as soils can have both permanent and variable surfaces though more likely to be occupied by a single one. variable charged soils are mainly found in tropical soil like south eastern soils of nigeria, because the climate conditions of the area such as high temperature and rainfall accelerate the development of variable charged minerals. the addition of organic matter in particular wood ash according to nweke et al. (2017) increased the soil ph and thus the variable charge of the soil. the buffering capacity of a soil is very important in determining the rise in ph from lime application. wood ash induces a strong lime effect when used as soil ameliorant and has the ability to correct nutrient deficiency induced by leaching and soil acidity (mbah et al., 2010; nweke et al., 2017; nweke 2017). this is as a result of its high acid neutralizing ability. on the other hand, the addition of calcitic lime will improve soil nutrient level as it supplies the soil with ca and mg in the form of carbonate, hydroxide or oxide. with the presence of the two elements acidity will be neutralized and neutralization as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 14 published by ideas spread continues until all carbonate, hydroxide and oxide in the soil are exhausted. thus when a lime is applied (organic or inorganic) to highly weathered soils like the tropical soils, the ph increases and subsequently the cat ion exchange capacity of the soils though the efficiency of these attributes is dependent on the type of lime applied. thus this study was design to evaluate the efficiency of three different lime materials on the soil properties and bambara groundnut yield. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental site the field experiment was conducted at the faculty of agriculture teaching and research farm, igbariam campus in anambra east lga of anambra state. the area is located within latitude 06 014’n and longitude 06 045’e south east of nigeria agro ecological zone. the annual rainfall of the area ranges between 1800mm-2000mm and the temperature range is between 21-280c. the soil of the study area which fall under the class of sandy clay loam, was acidic and has low content of organic carbon (0.7%) and organic matter (1.23%) as well as low values in major plant nutrients hence the soil of the experimental site was found to be deficient in the major plant nutrients (nweke et al., 2014). 2.2 field preparations/ experimental design/ treatment allocation/laboratory method the experimental area of 13.5m x19m (256.5m2) was measured out using tape, rope and pegs. the site was manually cleared using machete, debris removed and raised bed made using hoe. the land area was mapped out into plots each rectangular plot measured 3m x 4m (12m2). plots were separated by 0.5m path and each block was separated by 1m alley to allow free movement for data collection within the experimental field. the treatment comprises of 4.8kg of paper ash (pa), 4.8kg of wood ash (wa) and 120g of calcium carbonate (caco3) (ca) equivalent of 300kgha-1 and control (co). the experiment was then laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replicate to give a total of 16plots. the treatment were randomly applied evenly and incorporated into their respective plots and left for 1 week before planting of the test crop bambara groundnut. this is to allow mineralization of nutrients in the treatment applied. weeding was carried out manually by hand using hoe. the operation started from 3 weeks after planting of the bambara groundnut and continued every 2 weeks interval till the period of maturity and harvest. a total of 15 plants were selected randomly from each plots and were tagged for data collection on yield components. the agronomical data collected are; root weight and pod weight. paper ash and wood ash used for the study were analyzed for the determination of their nutrient values. at the end of the experiment, soil sample were collected from three observational points from each plots at depth of 0 25cm using soil auger. the soil sample were air dried, sieved and used for the determination of chemical properties while core samples were used for the analysis of selected physical properties. the soil ph was measured using glass electrode ph meter. the organic content of the soil was determined by the method of walkley and black (1934) wet oxidation method. total nitrogen was determined by kjeldahl digestion method of black et al. (1965), available phosphorous was by bray and kurtz (1945) bray ii method. exchangeable bases were extracted using 1n nh4oac, potassium and sodium was determined by edta titration, while cation exchange capacity was determined by ammonium acetate techniques. 2.3 statistical analysis all data collected were analyzed following the analysis of variance (anova) for randomized complete block design (rcbd). treatment means were separated with least significant difference (lsd) at 5% level of significance. 3. results the nutrient content of wood ash and paper ash recorded in table 1 indicates that the treatment materials are rich in nutrients, low in na (0.38 cmolkg-1 wa, 0.28 cmolkg-1 pa) and k (0.29 cmolkg-1wa, 0.34 cmolkg-1 pa) and have moderate level of om (1.13% wa, 2.01% pa). the high level of ph supports that treatments have efficient lime effect and it is expected that the studied soil will benefit from their application. table 1. nutrient content of wood ash and paper ash test parameter wood ash paper ash ph(h2o) 11.60 10.98 available p 261.10mgkg-1 239.01mgkg-1 total n 0.04% 0.06% oc 0.06% 0.71% om 1.13% 2.01% as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 15 published by ideas spread ca 48.80 cmolkg-1 39.87cmolkg-1 mg 9.60 cmolkg-1 10.32 cmolkg-1 k 0.29 cmolkg-1 0.34 cmolkg-1 na 0.38 cmolkg-1 0.28 cmolkg-1 3.1 effect of three different lime materials on the root and pod weight of bambara groundnut and soil chemical properties the root and pod weight result presented in table 2 indicated non-significant (p > 0.05) difference among the treatments. though the result show that lime materials has no effect on the two parameters, higher values were recorded for root and pod weight in pa and ca respectively. the result scenario for pod weight indicated ca (184.59gkg-1) > pa (157.25gkg-1) > wa (129.75gkg-1) > co (113gkg-1), while ca (22gkg-1) and wa (22gkg-1) recorded the same value for root weight. the result of soil chemical parameters showed statistical significant different among the treatments in all the parameters assessed. the studied soil was very much enriched with the nutrients when the values of parameters obtained from the control plots are compared with the values of parameters obtained from the amended plots (table 2). the lime materials influenced the ph of the soil greatly, as it changed the ph of the soil from moderate acidic to alkaline especially with ca and near natural with pa (table 2). among all the treatments higher result for organic carbon and total nitrogen was recorded in pa and wa respectively. the result variation of cec and available phosphorus (p) showed ca > wa > pa > co respectively. the effect of lime materials on ca, mg, na and k content of the studied soil varied among the treatments with higher values for ca (5.0 cmolkg-1) and k (0.27cmolkg-1) in wood ash, mg (3.0 cmolkg-1) and na (0.63cmolkg-1) in paper ash. table 2. effect of three different lime materials on the root and pod weight of bambara groundnutand soil chemical properties co = control soil; ca = calcium carbonate; wa = wood ash; pa = paper ash the physical parameters of the studied soil were presented in table 3. aggregate stability (as) showed that the effects of lime materials were statistically similar but significantly better than the control plots. the mean weight diameter (mwd) indicates higher values in pa > wa > ca > co. dispersion ratio (dr) indicated that ca and pa values as well as wa and pa values were statistically similar but significantly better than the control result. table 3. effect of three different lime materials on the physical properties of the studied soil treatment aggregate stability % mean weight diameter mm dispersion ratio % co 25 02 2.31 0.76 ca 27.11 2.49 0.88 wa 28.11 2.71 0.84 pa 27.96 3.37 0.86 lsd0.05 2.90 0.14 0.03 co = control soil; ca = calcium carbonate; wa = wood ash; pa = paper ash 4. discussion the non-significant difference among the treatments observed in pod and root weight may be due to short period of study or the rate of lime applied. this is because well developed root system of bambara groundnut exploits the rhizosphere for moisture and mineral nutrients. also organic material is known to be capable of activating as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 16 published by ideas spread many species of micro organism which release phyto hormones that stimulate nutrient absorption and plant growth and yield. the higher value recorded from the amended plots indicated that limes material increases the yield value of bambara groundnut. the soil chemical parameters presented in table 2 indicated that the lime materials induced strong alkaline reactions (liming effect) when used as soil ameliorant. the influence of the lime materials on the ph of the studied soil was beneficial as they increased the ph to near neutral and alkaline. this necessitated the enrichment of the soil with plant nutrients that foster good growth and yield of bambara groundnut recorded in this study. nweke and nsoanya (2013) observed that organic lime material improved soil productivity and crop yield. the increase in soil nutrients especially with wa and pa indicated that the organic materials have affected the electrical charge systems in the soil leading to increased plant nutrients. variable charge systems are produced as a result of the protonation and deprotonation of surface hydroxyl groups. though soil contain both variable and permanent charge surface they are likely to be occupied by a single one. variable charged soils are more pronounced in tropical countries like nigeria due to its climate conditions. variable charged soils are poorly buffered at low ph and will buffer at high ph values. hence lime application becomes an ideal amendment for farmers in the locality. also when lime is applied to a highly weathered soil like the south eastern soils of nigeria, cec increased with increase in the ph level as was observed in this study and reduction in p availability can occur due to increased ca concentrations. these explanations might have contributed to the nature of soil chemical and physical parameters obtained in this study. 5. conclusion this study has shown that wood ash and paper ash are efficient liming materials as their applications improve soil nutrients content and increase the yield of bambara groundnut. thus the fertility of soil and crop yield can be sustained by addition of ash which is available and cheap. reference black, c. a. (1965) method of soil analysis in chemical and microbiological properties am. soc. agron. madison wisconsin, 157, 2. bray, r. h., & kurtz, l. t. (1945). determination of total organic and available form of phosphorous in soil. soil sci., 59, 39-45. faulkner, o. t. (1994). some experiment with leguminous crops at ibadan southern nigeria. empire j. exp. agric., 2, 93-102. mbah, c. n., nwite, j. n., njoku, c., & nweke, i. a. (2010). response of maize (zea mays l.) to different rates of wood ash application in acid ultisol in south east nigeria. afri. j. agric. res., 5(7), 580-583. nweke, i. a. (2017). influence of wood charcoal from chlorophera excels on soil properties and yield components of maize. j. soil sci. environ., 8(1), 11-16. https://doi.org/10.5897/jssem2016.0566 nweke, i. a., & nsoanya, l. n. (2013). effect of different rate of rice mill waste on soil chemical properties and grain yield of maize (zea may). j. agric. rur. dev., 16(1), 1431-1436. nweke, i. a., mba, c. n., oweremadu, e. u., dambaba, n., orji, e. c., ekesiobi, a. i., & nnabuife, e. l. c. (2017). soil ph, available p of an ultisol and castor performance as influenced by contrasting tillage methods and wood ash. afr. j. agric. res., 12(8), 606-616. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajar2016.12082 nweke, i. a., okoli, p. s. o., & enyioko, c. o. (2014). effect of different rate of poultry dropping and plant spacing on soil chemical properties and yield of cucumber. elixir agric, 70(2014), 23934-23940. walkley, a., & black, i. a. (1934). an examination of degtjareff method for determining organic matter and proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. soil sci., 37, 29-38. woodruff, c. m. (2009). variation in the state and stability of aggregation as a result of different method of cropping. soil sci. soc. am, 4, 13-18. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p95 95 published by ideas spread coupled irrigation–drainage management practice for hyv rice cultivation with saline-irrigation water: evidence from lysimeter experiment mohammad a. rahman1, tanvir ahmed2 & mohammad a. mojid2 1 agricultural engineering division, bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture (bina), mymensingh-2202, bangladesh 2 department of irrigation and water management, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, 2202, bangladesh correspondence: mohammad a. mojid, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, 2202, bangladesh. email: ma_mojid@yahoo.com received: march 21, 2020 accepted: april 8, 2020 online published: april 16, 2020 abstract irrigation with saline water adversely affects rice production and degrades land productivity in the coastal zones of many countries in the world. this study aimed at developing a suitable irrigation management practice to reduce the harmful effects of salinity on rice production under saline water irrigation. an experiment in raise-bed lysimeters was set in a split-split-plot design with irrigation–drainage practice as the main factor, irrigation water salinity as the sub-factor and rice variety as sub-sub factor; the main factor and sub-factor comprised four treatments and the sub-sub factor comprised three treatments, each with three replications. the treatments of the main factor were – t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth. the sub-factor comprised – sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: saline water of 6 ds m−1, sl3: saline water of 9 ds m−1, and sl4: saline water of 12 ds m−1. the sub-sub factor comprised three salt-tolerant rice varieties v1: binadhan-8, v2: binadhan-10, and v3: brri dhan-47. the irrigation–drainage practices t2 and t3 provided significantly (p≤0.05) improved growth and yield attributes of the rice varieties under salinity water level sl3 and sl4 compared to t1 and t4 treatments. the treatment t3 maintained least exposure of the crop to high degree of salinity and produced satisfactory plant attributes by inhibiting the detrimental effects of salinity. therefore, t3 is suggested for adoption in practical fields when provision for removing high saline water from the rice fields can be arranged. keywords: rice irrigation, ponding depth, salinity exposure 1. introduction salinity is one of the important physical factors that reduce soil fertility and crop productivity by inhibiting plant growth and development (mojid & hossain, 2013). an estimated 955 mha land was reported to suffer from salinity and sodicity globally (pandey et al., 2011; wong et al., 2010). in bangladesh, 3.56 mha of arable lands are currently affected by soil salinity (srdi, 2016). due to reduction in dry-season river flows, mainly due to increased upstream withdrawal, and rise in sea level, the severity and extent of salinity may even aggravate (bates et al., 2008; mojid, 2020). consequently, the current saline area has been predicted to increase by 39% across the south-west coastal belt by 2050 (dasgupta et al., 2015). the productivity of the saline area is further hindered since there is severe scarcity of fresh water. sodium (na) is the dominant cation both in saline soils and irrigation water that affects soil physicochemical characteristics and plant growth (ribeiro et al., 2014) and causes toxicity on plant species (abrol et al., 1988) when it is excess in amount. continuous increase in salinity is affecting traditional cropping systems and livelihoods in salinity-affected southern coastal belt of bangladesh (rahman, 2011; mainuddin et al., 2013); specifically, the production levels of rice are becoming much lower compared to the other regions of the country. scarcity of good quality irrigation water is a major hindrance for crop cultivation, especially high yielding variety (hyv) rice cultivation in the saline area. groundwater in that region being contaminated with high degree of salinity has also restricted the development of irrigation sector (rahman et al., 2017). the available surface water, which is also limited in the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 96 published by ideas spread coastal zone, is suitable for irrigation only during october–december, which is generally a wet period and requires only minimal irrigation. but the surface water becomes saline and unsuitable for irrigation during dry period (february–april), which is the main crop season and peak irrigation period (mahtab & zahid, 2018). in the absence or with limited availability of fresh water, the salt-affected areas need to be brought under cultivation by irrigation using saline water for increasing rice production to ensure food security in the rice-producing countries like bangladesh. however, use of saline water for irrigation requires careful planning and scheduling since the response of rice crop to salinity is controlled by the level of salinity and its duration and timing of exposure (lee et al., 2004). growing salt-tolerant rice variety with appropriate water management practices may be one of the approaches for economic utilization of moderately salt-affected land under saline-water irrigation (mokoi & verplancke, 2010). both quality and ponding depth of irrigation water significantly affects growth and yield of rice (el hasan et al., 2006; zeng et al., 2003). consequently, depth of standing water in rice field is regarded as an important agronomic parameter in the management of irrigation-related salinity problems. to increase crop productivity during dry season (january–april) in the coastal saline area of bangladesh, it would be imperative to introduce salt-tolerant hyv rice cultivars and develop suitable crop and water management practices for reducing the detrimental effects of salinity on crops. occasional flush irrigation with fresh water during rice-growing period can remove part of the accumulated salts from the fields (qadir et al., 1998; nayak et al., 2008). but, scarcity of fresh water is a limiting factor to implement this management practice. where available, irrigation with good quality water prior to sowing helps leaching the salts from the top soil. mixing fresh water and saline water, and intermittent irrigation can also mitigate the detrimental effects of salinity on rice (rezaei et al., 2013). but, in the absence of fresh water, removing the saline water from the rice field at certain interval to keep water salinity at non-harmful level may be an important practice to develop an effective on-farm water management for rice cultivation on saline soils (chen et al., 2013). after applying irrigation with saline water, salinity of standing water in the rice field would gradually increase over time due to increased salt concentration with continuous evaporation loss of water. consequently, maintaining the salinity level of irrigation water at croptolerance limit by replacing high saline water from the rice field with relatively low saline water may be a potential option for rice cultivation under saline-water irrigation. the information on reduction of salinity effects by irrigation and associated drainage system, such as removing the applied saline water before reaching the stage of crop tolerance limit, is still inadequate. so, this study was planned to identify a suitable irrigation–drainage management practice for hyv salt-tolerant rice cultivation under saline-water irrigation. this was achieved by evaluating several possible irrigation–drainage practices in lysimeter experiments under controlled conditions. the main purpose was to characterize the expected suitable irrigation–drainage practice for future verification in the practical fields. in this paper, removal of the high-saline water from the rice field has been referred as drainage. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental site and climate the experiment was done during december 2016 to may 2017 at field lysimeter yard of bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture (bina) at mymensingh in bangladesh. the site is within agro-ecological zone (aez) 9 that lays at 24°75' n latitude and 90°50' e longitude; the elevation of the site is 18 m above mean sea level. aez 9 has broad ridges and basins, and soils of the region are predominantly silt loams to silty clay loams on the ridges and clay in the basins. organic matter content is low on the ridges and moderate in the basins. the top soils are moderately acidic, but sub-soils are neutral in reaction. for this study, loamy soil of 0−15 cm profile from the bina farm was used to fill 16 lysimeters (details of the lysimeters are provided in section 2.2); each lysimeter contained 750 kg air dry soil. three samples were collected from the soil-lot before filling the lysimeters. the organic carbon, bulk soil electrical conductivity (ec) and soil reaction (ph) were determined by analyzing these samples following standard procedures. the soil contained 0.94% organic carbon. the ec and ph of saturation extract (soil : water = 1:2.5) was 0.45 ds m−1 and 6.06, respectively. sub-tropical climate of the site is characterized by high temperature and humidity, and heavy rainfall with occasional gusty wind from april to september and scanty rainfall associated with moderately low temperature during october to march. the monthly maximum temperature during december to june varied from 26.7 to 33.5oc and minimum temperature varied from 12.9 to 25.5oc in 2016–2017. the maximum and minimum relative humidity during that period varied from 97.8 to 100% and 45.2 to 77.6%, respectively. monthly total rainfall varied from 0 (nil) to 357 mm during the rice-growing season (december 2016 to may 2017) in this experiment. 2.2 treatments and experimental set-up a three-factor factorial experiment was set in a split-split-plot design in 16 lysimeters arranged in four blocks. each lysimeter (120 cm × 100 cm × 62 cm) with inner surface area (soil surface area) of 1.2 m2 (1.2 m × 1.0 m) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 97 published by ideas spread had an effective soil depth of 0.5 m. there was a 12-cm empty depth in the lysimeters on the soil surface to accommodate applied irrigation water. each lysimeter box was equipped with two taps: one at the soil surface and the other near the bottom; only the upper tap was used for draining out water from the soil surface through surface runoff when needed in this study. the main factor was the irrigation-drainage practice, the sub factor was salinity of irrigation water and the sub-sub factor was three salt-tolerant hyv rice varieties. both the main and sub factors had four treatments and the sub-sub factor had three treatments; all factors were replicated thrice. the factors and their treatments/levels are summarized in table 1. table 1. factors and treatments of the experiment factors treatments description main factor t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding (with no drainage/no removal of applied water) t2: continuous saturation (with no drainage/no removal of applied water) t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining a 2−5-cm ponding t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining a 2−5-cm ponding sub factor sl1: fresh water (control) sl2: 6 ds m−1 sl3: 9 ds m−1 sl4: 12 ds m−1 sub-sub factor v1: binadhan-8 v2: binadhan-10 v3: brri dhan-47 based on our design there were three hills of rice for each treatment and each variety. it is noted that because of space limitation in the lysimeters the rice varieties could not be randomized. v1 can tolerate 10−12 ds m−1 salinity at early stage and 8−10 ds m−1 at maturity stage, while the salt-tolerant limit of v2 for the corresponding growth stage is 12−14 ds m−1 and 10−12 ds m−1 (bina, 2012). v3 can tolerate 12−14, 8 and 6 ds m−1 at early, pollination and maturity stage, respectively (brri, 2015). the three rice varieties were allocated in each lysimeter plot. the layout of the experiment is illustrated schematically in fig. 1. basal dose fertilizer of triple super phosphate (tsp), muriate of potash (mp), gypsum, zinc sulphate and cowdung at the rate of 12, 16, 13, 0.5 and 720 g per lysimeter plot (1.2 m2) were applied and mixed with the soil, corresponding to their recommended dose of 100, 130, 105.88, 3.61 and 6000 kg ha−1. seeds of the three rice varieties (v1, v2 and v3) were sown in three separate seed beds in bina farm on 26 december 2016. the seedlings of 32 days age were transplanted on 26 january 2017. twentyfive (25) hills (each of one plant) were established in each lysimeter with a row to row spacing of 25 cm and plant to plant spacing of 20 cm; the buffer distance surrounding the outer hills was 10 cm (fig. 1). each inner hill occupied an area of 500 cm2. the outer most hills acted as buffer plants to reduce the heterogeneity in the effects of solar radiation and wind in the inner hills. after transplanting seedlings, 40 g urea per plot corresponding to its recommended dose of 326 kg ha−1 was top dressed in three splits: 14 g at 11 days after transplanting (dat), 13 g at 32 dat and 13 g at 60 dat. gypsum @ 18 g per plot corresponding to its recommended dose of 150 kg ha−1 was applied in two equal splits at 15 dat and 60 dat. weeds were uprooted manually when required. sunfuran insecticides were applied to protect green leaves of the rice plants before flowering stage. 2.3 irrigation and drainage practices groundwater of a deep tubewell (dtw) inside the bina farm was used as fresh water (sl1) for irrigation. raw wet salt (salt with small quantity water) was collected from a salt field in coastal saline area of chittagong district. this salt was used to prepare irrigation water with salinity levels sl2, sl3 and sl4 having ingredients similar to that of sea water. a total of 4.8, 7.2 and 9.6 g salt, when mixed separately in one-liter fresh water, provided 6, 9 and 12 ds m–1 salinity level, respectively at 25°c. adequate quantity of irrigation water for each salinity level was prepared during each irrigation event by mixing salt with fresh water. fresh water was applied to the lysimeter plots that were selected for non-saline/control (sl1) treatment (fig. 1). the other plots were irrigated by water with the required salinity levels (sl2, sl3 and sl4). to ensure sufficient soil moisture for normal growth of rice, 2−5 cm water depth was maintained in treatments t1, t3 and t4. t2 was kept approximately at saturation without any standing water depth. this was done by applying 1-cm irrigation almost daily. measured quantity of irrigation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 98 published by ideas spread water was applied in all treatments during the growing period of rice. conjunctive irrigation water with fresh water and saline water was applied at two critical growth stages of rice: fresh water at 0−15 dat to ensure establishment (live-saving) of the crop and 61−80 dat to ensure adequate flowering of the crop since these two growth stages are very sensitive to salinity stress. irrigation at 16−60 dat and 81−100 dat was done by saline water. the applied saline water was drained out through the taps set with the lysimeter boxes at the soil surface and new saline water was applied after 3 days of application in treatment t3 and 5 days of application in treatment t4. in t1, irrigation was applied at 3 to 5 days interval as required to maintain 2 to 5 cm standing water depth. the lysimeter plots were protected from rainfall during the entire growing season with a shade of transparent plastic sheet set over a pre-constructed cast iron frame in the lysimeter yard. the transparent shade did not prevent sunlight significantly from reaching the rice plants. the shade helped maintaining proper control on water budget and salinity levels of the applied irrigation water by preventing rainfall. figure 1. layout of the experiment in lysimeter plots. t1–t4 are the four irrigation–drainage treatments, sl1–sl4 are the four irrigation water salinity levels, v1–v3 are the three salt-tolerant rice varieties, and the number 1 to16 are the lysimeter plots (note: without the surrounding buffer plants, there are equal number of plants of each rice variety in each lysimeter) 2.3.1 data collection and analysis the total number of irrigations and quantity of water applied to each plot in each irrigation event were recorded. initial soil-moisture content was measured just before transplanting the seedlings in the lysimeters. the final soilmoisture content was measured in each lysimeter plot just after harvesting of rice. soil-moisture content was determined gravimetrically from the weights of the wet and oven-dry soil samples. bulk soil electrical conductivity, ec (composite ec of mineral fraction, water and air in a soil volume), of top 0–5 cm soil layer of the lysimeter sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 v1 v1 v2 v3 v3 v2 v2 v3 v1 v1 v3 v3 v1 v2 v2 v3 v3 v2 v1 v1 t1 r1 r2 r3 1 2 3 4 t2 r1 r2 r3 5 6 7 8 t3 r1 r2 r3 9 10 11 12 t4 r1 r2 r3 13 14 15 16 n 20 cm 25 cm 10 cm as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 99 published by ideas spread plots was measured on 13 occasions during the rice-growing season. ec was measured by inserting an ec5061 meter (germany) into the top soil. the ecs were measured prior to draining out high saline standing water from the treatments t3 and t4; ecs of t1 and t2 were also measured on the same days. after harvesting of rice, soil samples were collected from 0–15 cm soil layer of each lysimeter plot. these were air-dried in laboratory, grinded and sieved with a 2-mm mesh sieve. twenty grams of each sample was mixed with 50 g distilled water (soil : water = 1:2.5) and the mixture was shaken vigorously and equilibrated at 25oc for 6 hours. the supernatant was separated, and its ec and ph were measured with a ph110 meter (cvberscan, germany) and ec5061 meter (germany), respectively. at full maturity, nine (9) inner hills of the three rice cultivars – three for each variety (fig. 1) – were harvested plot-wise at a time on 22 may 2017. the crop of each plot was bundled separately and tagged properly by maintaining treatments, salinity levels, varieties and replications. plant heights were measured with a 100-cm measuring tape. the numbers of total tillers and effective tillers (that bear fertile panicles) were counted from each hill at harvest. for recording data on roots, one inner hill for variety v2 from each plot was uprooted with a soil column of 30 cm depth and 10 cm diameter since most of the root system remained within this soil volume. note that roots were sampled from only one hill in order to keep the lysimeters’ soils mostly intact for the next season’s experiment. the roots with the soil were kept on plastic nets and washed manually with water to remove the soil and separate the roots. the depth of roots was measured from the base of the root-node to end of the longest root. after oven-drying the roots at 60°c for 72 hours, weight of the roots was measured with an electronic balance. panicle length was recorded from the basal node of the rachis to the apex of each panicle. each observation was made by averaging the lengths of the panicles of each hill. the rice grains of each hill were separated and weighed after sun drying at 12% moisture content. one thousand clean sun-dried grains were taken from the grain stock of each plot and weighed. we expressed the grain and straw yields as ‘per hill basis’ since the results will be compared with a future pot experiment. this did not hamper comparing relative performance of the factors and treatments of the experiment in this study. after sun drying, the straw of each plot was weighed, and the straw yield was calculated. harvest index (hi) of the rice crop was calculated from the ratio of grain yield to the total above-ground biomass yield (grain plus straw yield). water productivity was determined by dividing grain yield by the total water used in each plot (table 2) that comprised applied irrigation and soil-moisture contribution. since the crop was protected from rainfall by shading, rainfall did not contribute to the water budget in the plots. soil-moisture contribution was determined by subtracting the quantity of soil moisture at harvest from the soil moisture at transplanting of seedlings (36% by weight). the components of water usage and total water used by the rice plants of the treatments are given in table 2. analysis of variance (anova) was done by using statistix 10 software package of analytical software (2019). comparison of means of the plant attributes among the irrigation–drainage treatments and salinity levels was done at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05) by implementing tuky’s honest significant difference (hsd) test. table 2. components of water use and total water used in different irrigation-drainage treatments irrigation -drainage treatments salinity levels no. of freshwater irrigation quantity of freshwater irrigation (mm) no. of saline water irrigation quantity of saline water irrigation (mm) total quantity of irrigation (mm) soil-moisture contribution (mm) total water used (mm) t1 sl1 23 785 00 00 785 25 760 sl2 7 274 16 478 752 25 727 sl3 7 271 16 455 725 25 700 sl4 7 260 16 423 687 25 662 t2 sl1 30 394 00 00 394 25 369 sl2 9 190 21 166 356 25 331 sl3 9 187 21 145 332 25 307 sl4 9 177 21 127 304 25 279 t3 sl1 33 799 00 00 799 25 774 sl2 9 239 24 505 744 25 719 sl3 9 237 24 490 726 25 701 sl4 9 229 24 465 694 25 669 t4 sl1 21 710 00 00 710 25 685 sl2 7 250 14 437 687 25 662 sl3 7 244 14 421 665 25 640 sl4 7 237 14 398 634 25 760 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 100 published by ideas spread 3. results 3.1 growth attributes of rice the tallest plant (97.4 cm) of the rice crop, recorded in treatment t3 (changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under salinity level sl2 (6 ds m−1), was statistically similar to the plant height in other treatments under this salinity level (table 3). the shortest plant (88.4 cm) was obtained in t4 (changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under salinity level sl4 (12 ds m−1). treatment t2 produced taller plants under the two higher salinity levels (sl3 and sl4) of irrigation water. table 3 reveals that the salinity level and duration of exposure of the rice crop to salinity did not exert consistent effect on the plant height of the crop. as for the varietal effect (under the combined impacts of irrigation–drainage treatments and salinity levels), the mean plant height exhibited significant (p≤0.05) variations among the three rice varieties (table 4). variety v2 (binadhan-10) produced significantly higher plant height (102.2 cm) than the other two varieties. continuous ponding (t1) produced the highest number of total tillers (average = 27) under fresh-water (sl1) irrigation and lowest number of total tillers (17) under the highest salinity level (sl4) of irrigation water, confirming the findings of haq et al. (2009) who observed significantly reduced number of total tillers under saline condition compared to non-saline condition. because of the special irrigation and drainage management practices, treatments t2, t3 and t4 minimized exposure of the crop to the degree of salinity and, consequently, improved the number of total tillers under saline-water irrigation (table 3). among the four irrigation–drainage treatments, t3 produced the highest number of total tillers under saline-water irrigation, with significantly (p≤0.05) higher number of tillers under sl4 than other treatments. this observation reveals that t3 is the best irrigation–drainage management practice with saline-water irrigation. table 3. comparison of the mean plant height and number of total tillers and effective tillers per hill of three rice varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) among four irrigation–drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) of irrigation water treatments plant height (cm) total tillers per hill (-) effective tillers per hill (-) sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 t1 92.1b 94.9a 88.4b 93.0a 27a 22a 19a 17b 22a 17a 15a 12b t2 97.1a 94.2a 96.2a 93.6a 27a 21a 21a 19ab 21a 17a 16a 15a t3 94.3ab 97.4a 93.8a 88.9b 25ab 23a 21a 21a 20a 18a 17a 16a t4 92.8b 93.8a 90.4b 88.4b 25b 22a 21a 19ab 20a 17a 15a 13b hsd0.05 3.45 3.87 3.12 3.26 2.2 2.3 2.2 1.9 2.5 2.7 2.4 1.1 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). compared to fresh-water (sl1) irrigation, saline-water irrigation suppressed effective tiller numbers; the suppressing effect increased with increasing salinity level of irrigation water. table 3 reveals that changing/replacing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding water depth (t3) produced the highest number of effective tillers per hill in saline condition (sl2−sl4); with significantly higher number of effective tillers under sl4 than the other treatments. irrigation with saline water throughout the crop period (t1) imposed strong salinity stress and reduced the effective tillers. similar to the findings of akter et al. (2015), the panicle number in our experiment was the maximum in the control and decreased gradually as salinity of irrigation water increased from 4 to 12 ds m−1. the numbers of total tillers and effective tillers per hill were statistically similar for both v1 (binadhan-8) and v3 (brri dhan-47) but significantly (p≤0.05) lower than that in v2 (binadhan-10) (table 4). so, bina dhan-10 gave the most promising results in terms of plant height and tiller number under saline water irrigation. 3.2 yield attributes of rice the panicle length of rice decreased in the four irrigation-drainage treatments with increasing salinity levels of irrigation water. treatments t2 and t3 provided significantly longer panicle length under high salinity levels (sl3 and sl4) than t1 and t4, both of which provided statistically similar panicle lengths (table 5). continuous saturation (t2) with fresh-water irrigation (sl1) provided the longest panicle length (26.2 cm), while 2−5 cm continuous ponding (t1) with high saline-water (sl4: 12 ds m−1) irrigation provided the shortest panicle length as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 101 published by ideas spread (21.4 cm). under saline-water irrigation, t3 provided the longest panicle length of rice. of the practically feasible saline-water irrigation–drainage treatments (t1, t3 and t4), t3 produced significantly (p≤0.05) longer panicles than t1 and t4. the number of grains per panicle in the irrigation–drainage treatments also decreased with the increase in salinity of irrigation water (table 5). t1 provided the lowest number of grains per panicle under high salinewater irrigation (sl4). t2 and t3 minimized salinity stress of rice to irrigation-water salinity by reducing cropexposure to salinity and significantly (p≤0.05) improved the number of grains per panicle under the imposition of the two high salinity levels (sl3 and sl4), with the higher number of grains in t3. the irrigation–drainage treatments t2 and t3 performed exactly similarly in providing 1000-grain weight as they did in providing the number of grains per panicle. the weight of 1000-grain increased in t2, t3 and t4 compared to t1, and decreased with the increase in salinity levels. the mean panicle length and 1000-grain weight under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments and four salinity levels differed significantly among the three rice varieties (table 6). bina dhan-10 (v2) provided the most improved panicle length (25.8 cm) and 1000-grain weight (28.9 g). table 4. comparison of the mean growth attributes of rice for three varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) rice variety plant height (cm) total tillers per hill (-) effective tillers per hill (-) v1 87.7c 22b 17b v2 102.2a 23a 18a v3 89.4b 21b 16b hsd0.05 1.04 0.7 0.7 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). table 5. comparison of the yield attributes of rice due to the effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under the application of four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) irrespective of the rice varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) treatments panicle length (cm) grains per panicle (-) 1000-grain weight (g) sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 t1 25.9a 24.4a 22.6b 21.4b 133a 127ab 113c 110c 30a 28b 27b 26c t2 26.2a 24.6a 24.7a 23.9a 136a 134ab 126ab 123ab 30a 29a 28a 27ab t3 25.4a 25.8a 24.9a 23.9a 137a 138a 133a 128a 30a 29a 28a 27a t4 25.0a 24.7a 22.8b 22.2b 140a 125b 119bc 114bc 30a 28ab 27b 27bc hsd0.05 1.74 2.36 1.16 1.12 18.7 11.7 11.0 12.0 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.5 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). table 6. comparison of the mean yield attributes of rice for three varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) rice variety panicle length (cm) grains per panicle (-) 1000-grain weight (g) v1 23.2c 127a 28.1b v2 25.8a 128a 28.9a v3 23.8b 128a 27.5c hsd0.05 0.49 5.1 0.23 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 102 published by ideas spread 3.3 yields, harvest index and water productivity of rice treatments t2 and t3 minimized harmful effects of salinity and improved grain yield under high saline-water (sl3 and sl4) irrigation compared to t1 and t4 (table 7). t3 produced significantly (p≤0.05) higher grain yield per hill under these salinity levels compared to the other treatments. t2 and t3 minimized the detrimental effects of salinity on vegetative growth of the rice plants and produced similar straw yield under sl4 (12 ds m−1) that was significantly higher than the straw yield in t1 and t4. exactly similar effects of the irrigation–drainage treatments under the four salinity levels of irrigation water were observed in producing above-ground biomass (straw plus grain) yield of rice (table 7). bina dhan-10 (v2) produced significantly higher grain yield, straw yield and aboveground biomass yield per hill under the interaction effects of irrigation−drainage treatments and salinity levels of irrigation water than the other two rice varieties, which produced statistically similar yields (table 8). table 7. comparison of the yield of rice due to the effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under the application of four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) irrespective of the rice varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) treatments grain yield per hill (g) straw yield per hill (g) above-ground biomass yield per hill (g) sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 t1 65.6a 45.3a 34.7b 26.5c 17.7ab 16.5a 12.0a 11.0b 83.3a 61.8a 46.6b 37.5c t2 63.9a 45.0a 37.4b 34.3b 19.7a 14.9a 12.1a 13.6a 83.6a 59.8a 49.5b 47.9b t3 59.9a 52.8a 43.7a 39.5a 18.1ab 15.4a 13.3a 13.2a 78.0a 68.2a 57.0a 52.7a t4 59.9a 44.2a 34.2b 27.3c 16.9b 14.5a 12.0a 11.2b 76.8a 58.7a 46.3b 38.5c hsd0.05 14.9 9.7 6.2 3.7 1.9 2.8 1.7 1.7 17.1 10.9 6.4 3.9 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). table 8. comparison of the mean yield of rice for three varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) rice variety grain yield per hill (g) straw yield per hill (g) above-ground biomass yield per hill (g) v1 42.5b 14.0b 56.5b v2 50.9a 15.4a 66.3a v3 40.5b 14.1b 55.7b hsd0.05 3.2 0.8 3.7 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). root-biomass decreased with increasing salinity level of irrigation water (table 9). treatments t1 and t4 produced lower root-biomass under saline-water irrigation, but t3 produced significantly higher quantity of root-biomass under high saline-water (sl3 and sl4) irrigation than the other treatments. the harvest index of rice decreased with the increase in salinity level and also with the increase in the duration of exposure of the crop to salinity of irrigation water. the observed harvest indices (table 9) appeared to be generally large as compared to that found for rice at field level, usually around 50%. the higher harvest indices might possibly be due to the rice-growth management under controlled condition in the lysimeters where most of the growth-influencing factors were properly maintained. however, in the relative terms, the four irrigation–drainage treatments did not exert any significant impact on the harvest index under the four salinity levels of irrigation water (table 9). these results revealed that longer exposure of rice plants to high salinity stress reduced its grain yield more compared to its straw yield. in general, reduction of duration of salinity exposure of rice plants improved water productivity of rice. continuous saturation (t2) of rice plot provided significantly (p≤0.05) higher water productivity since it drastically reduced crop-water usage (table 2) compared to the other treatments (table 9). in contrast, continuous as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 103 published by ideas spread standing water provided the lowest water productivity under all four salinity levels of irrigation water. treatment t3, most practically applicable treatment compared to t2, resulted in significantly higher water productivity under high salinity (sl4) of irrigation water. among the three rice varieties, bina dhan-10 (v2) provided significantly higher root-biomass yield, harvest index and water productivity than the other two rice varieties, which resulted in statistically similar harvest index and water productivity but different root biomass yields (table 10). table 9. comparison of the harvest index of rice due to the effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under the application of four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) irrespective of the rice varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) treatments root-biomass yield per hill (g) harvest index (%) water productivity (kg ha−1 cm−1) sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 sl1 sl2 sl3 sl4 t1 17.6b 14.8a 11.4b 9.1bc 78.7a 73.1a 74.2a 70.5a 172.5b 124.6b 99.0b 80.0c t2 19.0a 15.2a 12.0b 10.2ab 76.2a 75.0a 75.4a 71.4a 345.9a 271.5a 243.6a 246.3a t3 17.7a 15.4a 13.7a 10.9a 76.5a 77.3a 76.6a 74.8a 154.8b 146.9b 124.7b 118.2b t4 18.0a 14.8a 11.9b 8.6c 77.9a 74.9a 73.8a 70.5a 174.9b 133.5b 106.9a 89.7c hsd0.05 1.9 2.0 0.9 1.3 2.7 4.6 3.3 4.9 42.4 47.7 29.2 20.8 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). table 10. comparison of the mean root biomass yield, harvest index and water productivity of rice for three varieties (v1: binadhan-8, v2 : binadhan-10 and v3: brri dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (t1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, t2: continuous saturation, t3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and t4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and four salinity levels (sl1: fresh water as control, sl2: 6 ds m−1, sl3: 9 ds m−1, and sl4: 12 ds m−1) rice variety root-biomass yield per hill (g) harvest index (%) water productivity (kg ha−1 cm−1) v1 13.6b 74.6b 155.7b v2 14.8a 76.3a 188.1a v3 12.9c 73.5b 150.0b hsd0.05 0.6 1.3 12.5 common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 3.4 soil salinity dynamics in rice plots bulk soil ec in all lysimeter plots increased after rice cultivation from an average initial (before rice plantation) value of 0.45 ds m−1 to 0.39–2.85 ds m−1, with a mean value of 1.49 ds m−1. ec varied with irrigation water salinity and length of exposure of irrigation–drainage cycles to the salinity levels. at 1 (one) day after transplanting (dat), ec was the lowest, ranging from 0.23 to 0.26 ds m−1 among the treatments (table 11) since irrigation was applied during the first 15 dat with fresh water. application of the first split of urea on 11 dat contributed increasing ec of the standing water and/or soil in the plots; consequently, ec increased noticeably on 12 dat in all treatments. due to imposition of salinity through irrigation water during 16–59 dat, ec increased drastically on 18 dat in all treatments and continued increasing until saline-water in the plots was replaced with fresh-water irrigation during 60–80 dat. as a result, ec decreased on 66 and 78 dat, and continued increasing thereafter with the imposition of saline-water irrigation again. the second and third splits of urea application on 32 and 60 dat, and gypsum application on 12 and 60 dat also contributed to the bulk soil ec. but, their effects were not visible (table 11) due to the predominant effect of irrigation water salinity. soil reaction, ph, also increased from an average initial value of 6.06 ± 0.07 (n = 3) to 7.84 ± 0.22 (n = 16). 3.5 suitable irrigation–drainage management practice in terms of growth and yield attributes, yields, harvest index and water productivity, changing/replacing saline irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth (t3) provided the best results. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 104 published by ideas spread however, continuous saturation with saline water (t2) and changing saline irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding (t4) provided better results compared to 2−5 cm continuous ponding depth of saline water (t1). from practical applicability point of view, treatment t2 is difficult to implement in the field. so, t3 appeared to be the optimum irrigation–drainage management practice for hyv salt-tolerant rice cultivation by saline-water irrigation. among the three rice varieties, bina dhan-10 (v2) provided significantly (p≤0.05) higher growth and yield attributes, yields, harvest index and water productivity than binadhan-8 (v1) and brri dhan-47 (v3) and appeared to be the most suitable rice variety for cultivation under saline-water irrigation for the employed irrigation–drainage management practice (t3). table 11. bulk soil electrical conductivity (ec, ds m−1) of 0–5 cm soil layer in the lysimeter plots on different days after transplanting (dat) during the rice-growing period and ec and ph after harvesting the crop treatment and salinity level ec at dat ec and ph after harvest 1 12 18 20 21 28 40 48 58 66 78 87 98 ec ph t1 sl1 0.25 0.70 0.67 0.85 0.70 0.70 0.68 0.40 0.46 0.42 0.49 0.49 0.54 0.41 7.43 sl2 0.23 0.80 4.70 5.20 6.70 7.20 7.52 6.90 7.10 4.34 2.13 3.25 4.18 1.49 7.87 sl3 0.25 0.90 5.60 7.20 9.20 9.50 8.87 8.70 9.30 6.43 4.39 5.19 5.89 2.06 7.84 sl4 0.25 1.10 7.50 8.10 10.2 11.2 11.36 11.89 12.39 8.14 5.24 6.34 8.33 2.85 8.25 t2 sl1 0.24 1.00 1.00 1.30 1.20 0.80 0.42 0.59 0.56 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.52 0.42 7.77 sl2 0.23 0.70 2.10 2.60 3.00 3.20 2.05 2.29 2.84 2.74 1.87 2.58 3.28 1.13 8.03 sl3 0.24 0.90 3.65 4.10 4.30 4.40 4.22 4.35 4.55 4.15 2.62 3.68 4.88 1.83 7.91 sl4 0.24 0.80 4.60 5.70 6.20 6.12 5.67 6.53 6.95 5.16 3.55 4.85 5.85 2.69 7.86 t3 sl1 0.23 0.90 0.63 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.52 0.58 0.55 0.54 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.39 7.47 sl2 0.25 0.90 2.10 3.17 4.30 4.50 3.75 4.30 4.61 1.94 1.58 2.16 2.77 0.91 7.63 sl3 0.24 0.90 3.80 3.91 4.50 4.90 5.08 5.44 5.73 2.91 2.16 3.22 4.12 1.65 7.90 sl4 0.24 0.80 4.60 5.50 6.15 6.20 6.19 6.38 6.57 3.52 3.17 4.33 5.18 2.15 7.87 t4 sl1 0.25 0.80 0.50 0.62 0.50 0.80 0.51 0.52 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.41 7.77 sl2 0.24 0.80 3.90 4.01 4.80 5.30 4.83 5.34 5.63 2.13 1.69 2.99 3.44 1.07 7.85 sl3 0.25 0.70 4.42 5.30 6.10 6.50 6.62 6.72 6.87 3.49 2.87 3.87 4.79 2.00 7.83 sl4 0.26 0.90 6.59 7.30 7.85 8.40 8.68 8.66 8.95 4.92 3.50 5.39 6.68 2.35 8.20 4. discussion 4.1 crop exposure to salinity the root zone of the rice crop always remained water saturated in the four irrigation−drainage treatments (t1–t4). consequently, the crop was always exposed to salinity under saline-water irrigation. the soil in treatment t2 maintained always saturation condition almost without standing water except for a short period after application of 1 cm irrigation water daily. so, only the roots of the rice crop remained exposed to salinity in this treatment. in the other treatments (t1, t3 and t4), in addition to root zone, 2−5 cm of the rice stems also remained into standing water in the lysimeter plots. however, the duration of exposure of the rice plants to salinity differed among these treatments for the four salinity levels (sl1, sl2, sl3 and sl4) of irrigation water. immediate after an irrigation event with saline water in t1, water salinity in the rice plots became higher than salinity of the applied irrigation water due to mixing of the applied water with the already remaining standing water in the plots with elevated salinity. after the irrigation event, water salinity continued increasing until the next irrigation was applied since salt concentration in the standing water increased due to evaporation loss of water from the plot. in this process, salinity of standing water in the rice plots under t1 increased continuously during the entire rice-growing period. consequently, soil salinity in the rice plots also increased in parallel to the standing water salinity (table 11). in treatment t3, on the other hand, salinity of the applied water in the rice plots continuously increased for 3 days (irrigation interval) until water depth decreased to ≈ 2 cm from 5 cm. the standing water in the plots was then changed/replaced with irrigation water of the prescribed salinity level, which was lower than the remaining water in the plots. therefore, both the rice crop and soil in treatment t3 remained exposed to water salinity, which was low compared to that in treatment t1. treatment t4 was mostly similar to t3, except that because of larger irrigation interval (5 days) in t4 compared to t3 (3 days), salinity of the applied water in the plots increased for a longer as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 105 published by ideas spread period. consequently, both the rice crop and soil in t4 remained exposed to water salinity, which was high compared to that in t3 but still low compared to t1. so, the crop exposure to high degree of salinity was the least in treatment t2, slight in t3, moderate in t4 and maximum in t1; this classification is just a relative grading of salinity level. 4.2 salinity effects on growth attributes treatment t2 that maintained continuous saturation and the least exposure of the rice crop to high salinity produced the tallest plants under most of the salinity levels. however, this treatment is not practically feasible to implement at field level since it is difficult to maintain large rice fields continuously saturated without standing water. but, t3 maintained specific limiting high degrees of salinity exposure to the crop produced significantly (p≤0.05) taller plants than in t1 and t4 treatments under high salinity levels (sl3 and sl4). the observed trend in the plant height thus implies that the longer the exposure of the crop to high degree of salinity, the less was the plant height. similar trend of salinity effects was also observed in producing total number of tillers and effective tillers of the three rice varieties. so, the least exposure of the crop (crop stem) to high degree of salinity (t2), although practically not feasible, was the best, and the longest exposure of the crop stem to high degree of salinity (t1) was the poorest irrigation–drainage practices. our observations agree with the findings of el hasan et al. (2006), haq et al. (2009) and razzaque et al. (2009), who reported significant suppressing effect of salinity on the number of total tillers and effective tillers. in our study, t3 produced the largest number of effective tillers under saline-water irrigation (sl2–sl4). continuous standing saline water without replacement (t1) drastically reduced the number of effective tillers under high salinity level (sl4, table 3). aguilar et al. (2017) also reported similar result by obtaining reduced panicle number under salt-stress due to saline-water irrigation throughout the entire crop season. the three rice varieties in our experiment differed in producing the number of effective tillers and plant height; bina dhan-10 (v2) produced significantly (p≤0.05) higher number of effective tillers than the other two varieties. this variety thus revealed its more salt-tolerant ability than the other two varieties. less reduction in effective tiller number by a salt-tolerant variety was also reported by akter et al. (2015). 4.3 salinity effects on yield attributes and water productivity generally, salinity caused noticeable reduction in yield attributes (e.g., panicle length, grains per panicle, 1000grain weight) and yield of rice in our experiment similar to that reported by other investigators (e.g., weonyoung et al., 2003; hassan et al., 2012; hasanuzzaman et al., 2009). but, the crop exposure to large degree of salinity (t1) significantly reduced grain yield. saline water during both the vegetative and reproductive phases was reported to adversely affect yield attributes and grain yield due to toxic ion accumulation in the plant cells (aguilar et al., 2017). standing water in the rice field adversely affects fertile tiller number (zeng et al., 2003). in treatment t2, there was no standing water and hence it provided more grain yield than t1 and t2 treatments for different salinity levels of irrigation water. but, t3 provided significantly higher yield than the other treatments under all salinity levels (table 7). for the same reason, t3 also provided significantly higher straw yield and above-ground biomass yield (straw plus grain yield) than the other treatments under sl3 and sl4. irrespective of the irrigation–drainage practices and salinity levels, bina dhan-10 (v2) exhibited more salt-tolerant ability by providing significantly higher grain, straw and biomass yields than the other two rice varieties. the reduced rice yield due to na+ accumulation in the plant cells of rice grown under saline condition eventually reduced water productivity. but, when the duration of salinity exposure of the crop was reduced by irrigationdrainage practices, water productivity increased due to increase in rice yield. the three tested rice varieties were salt tolerant, and they accumulated less na+ and more k+ than susceptible cultivars (khan et al., 1997). but, increasing salinity level with longer exposure of the crop to salinity enhanced na+ accumulation with associated depletion in k+ content of the rice plants. consequently, water productivity in our experiment decreased with increasing level of salinity and also with increasing duration of crop exposure to salinity. therefore, considering growth and yield attributes and yield of rice, treatment t3 in which applied saline water was replaced after 3 days of application and a 2 to 5-cm ponding depth was maintained appeared as the optimum irrigation management practice to reduce detrimental effects of salinity on rice production. 4.4 practical context of the results the main purpose of this study was to identify a suitable irrigation–drainage practice for hyv salt-tolerant rice cultivation under saline-water irrigation by characterizing the possible irrigation–drainage practices for further verification in field conditions with a view to future adoption of the practice in practical fields. for the identified suitable irrigation–drainage practice (t3), there remain some important queries, which are: how to flush (2–5 cm) saline water from the rice fields, where the flushed water can be disposed of, and what will happen to the accumulated salt in the soil of the rice field? these issues need to be worked out before adopting the proposed as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 106 published by ideas spread irrigation–drainage practice for practical application. due to soil salinity, the land usage and cropping intensity in the coastal zone of bangladesh are low (rahman & ahsan, 2001). consequently, there remain large swaths of fallow land in the dry season. to cultivate rice in these fallow lands under saline water irrigation, both irrigation and drainage canal networks would be needed, preferably for gravity supply (for irrigation) or removal (for drainage) of water. the two different canal network-types can be of side-by-side surface system or one or both of them can be of buried pipe systems. although some additional cost will be involved for constructing the drainage canal system, it will bring the fallow land under rice cultivation. the saline water expected to be used for irrigating rice crops mostly remains in rivers and channels in the coastal zone. the drainage water from the rice fields could be disposed of to these same rivers and channels; the drainage water, although of higher salinity than the river/channel water, would not perceptively increase the salinity of the water in the rivers and channels because of their large volumes. in our lysimeter experiments, the vertical and horizontal movement of salt in the rice plots was not considered, and salt from irrigation water continuously accumulated throughout the rice-growing period. under this situation, the amount of salt in the soil was controlled only by the concentration of salt in irrigation water and total irrigation amount, thus the soil-salt could not be effectively controlled by the irrigation–drainage management practice. however, the practical field conditions would be completely different than the conditions in lysimeter plots in regard to salt dynamics in the soil. due to standing water (and also saturated condition) there will be continuous leaching of salt from the rice plots through the percolating water. so, salt accumulation in the soil would be lower compared to that in the lysimeter experiments. furthermore, during the monsoon period (may–september), the accumulated salt would leach down with the infiltrating rain water. salt accumulation in the soil during dry season due to capillary rise or saline water irrigation and salt leaching during monsoon is a usual natural salt dynamics in the coastal saline zone of bangladesh. so, the proposed irrigation–drainage practice (t3) in the practical field is not expected to require any additional management of soil-salt except occasional monitoring. 5. conclusions coupled irrigation–drainage management practices can provide an opportunity to obtain desired yield of hyv salt-tolerant rice in areas with scarcity of fresh water and availability of saline water. apart from selecting salttolerant hyv rice cultivars, an intelligent irrigation and drainage management practice with limited exposure of the crop to high salinity can reduce detrimental effects of salinity. rice fields often lack drainage facility, although this is an important component of rice-irrigation management. we evaluated four irrigation–drainage practices in reducing salinity effects on rice in lysimeter experiments under controlled conditions. our observations revealed that replacing irrigation water of 9–12 ds m−1 (sl4) salinities after 3 days of application by maintaining a 2−5 cm ponding depth for salt-tolerant boro rice significantly (p≤0.05) reduced detrimental effects of salinity in the growth and yield of hyv rice cultivars. although in our lysimeter experiments irrigation-induced soil salinization remained in place during the crop period, downward movement of salt through leaching will also be in place in practical field conditions. also there is a long monsoon period (may–september) in bangladesh during which accumulated salt in the soil would leach down with infiltrating rain water. so, practical field experiments in coastal areas under fresh-water scarcity and saline water availability are necessary to validate our results and evaluate practicability of the practice before adopting it for practical application. one limitation of this study was that it was done only in one year because of time constraint since the study was done under a degree program. however, the results were obtained under controlled conditions with minimum possible errors and the expected field verification of the results would eliminate any discrepancy arising from the single-year observation. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. acknowledgments this research was supported by the bangladesh agricultural research council (barc) under its revenue funded in-country phd scholarship program. the first author held this scholarship and was on deputation from the bangladesh institute of nuclear institute (bina). the authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of both barc and bina. references abrol, i. p., yadav, j. s. p., & massoud, f. i. 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(2003). rice growth and yield respond to changes in water depth and salinity stress. agricultural water management, 59, 67−75. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-3774(02)00088-4 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p1 1 published by ideas spread interaction between two types of earthworm and ageratum on soil physicochemical properties nweke i. a.1 & nnabuife p. i.1 1 department of soil science chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, nigeria correspondence: nweke i. a., department of soil science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria. tel: 234-816-460-7354. e-mail: nweksoniryke@gmail.com/ikechukwunweke48@yahoo.com received: march 7, 2020 accepted: march 18, 2020 online published: march 25, 2020 abstract earthworms are one of the most important soil organisms in tropical ecosystem as they influence mineralogical, structural and microbial composition of soil. the study investigated the effect of interaction between two nigerian earthworms eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp and ageratum species (ag) on soil physicochemical properties in potted experiment. the treatment consisted of 1000g subsoil treated with ageratum (ag); ageratum + soil inoculated with eudrilus eugeniae (ae), ageratum + soil inoculated with irridodrilus sp (ai) and control soil not treated (co). the results of the study showed remarkable differences between the treatments in soil physicochemical properties. the pots inoculated with eudrilus eugeniae (ae) relative to other treatments produced high quality ion exchange as evidence from the high (cec) recorded, enhanced soil aggregation 73% compared to 52% recorded in ai, stabilization of soil aggregates and enhanced availability of nutrient elements by 150% compared to 120% observed in ai. high level of soil ph (9.15) was recorded in ae. ag induced 62% increase in soil erodibility and only 9% increase in availability of soil nutrients. ag was found to be toxic particularly to irridodrilus whose percentage survival was 0% relative to 67% of eudrilus eugeniae whose weight loss was 27%. ageratum is a bio-pesticide and bio-fertilizer of which its production is simple and cost effective and the efficacy for soil management will require the presence of active soil organisms like earthworms to process ageratum adequately as was found in this study. the primary materials used in this study are abundantly available and within the reach of farmers. the production and application is eco-friendly, promotes sustainable soil productivity, soil conservation and environmental health. this technology will discourage the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers in the study area if well integrated in crop production activities. keywords: ageratum, chemical elements, earthworm, soil properties 1. introduction in nigeria soil organisms particularly the earthworms abound. this organism can be harnessed and use to develop cost effective, high quality bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticides. earthworms play a leading role in soil organic matter cum nutrient dynamic as they feed on decomposed organic materials at different stages of decomposition, through this activity as well as their burrows and cast production they help in dispersal of micro-organisms in soil. earthworm have been noted to influence soil structure, nutrient cycling, crop yield, modification of soil porosity, stimulate and increase microbial activities and accelerate litter decay with greater c/n ratio than original resources by altering the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil (hale and host 2005, gonzalez 2002, ammer et al., 2005, sheehan et al., 2006, jimens et al., 2006, kooch and jalivand 2008, samaranayake and wijekoon 2010, nweke, 2017). ageratum is a plant that belongs to the tribe and family of eupatorium and asteraceae respectively. it is an erect annual, branched slender, hairy and aromatic plant approximately 1m in height. it is a native of west africa, asia, and central america etc. ageratum commodity grows in the proximity of habitation, thrives in any garden and agricultural soils. among the weed members ageratum seem to be the most commonly spreading in most agricultural areas throughout the world. the specie is believed to posses various biological activities starting from its various phytochemical contents. studies carried out using this plant has proved to be a positive weed controlling agent. the studies of nagavellema et al. (2004) showed that the plant contains growth promoting hormones, antioxidant properties, and a good bio-fertilizer and offer the possibility of biocontrol of plant pathogenic fungi. thus the plant possesses insecticidal and nematocidal bioactivities. the leaf, stem and flower are also used in analytical as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 2 published by ideas spread profile. one of the major areas ageratum is used as biopesticides is in the seed treatment and soil amendment as compost were it helps to solve such problems as increased salinity and chemical run-off from the agricultural soils, it promotes soil fauna and flora improving soil formation, soil aggregation and stability, minimize erosion often caused by water runoff and wind. bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides are properly acclaimed ecofriendly; renewable and health promoting commodity capable of promoting sustainable soil productivity and conservation. among the benefits of these commodities are food security, mitigation of climatic crisis, job creation and environmental health. hence ageratum can be sourced for the productivity of effective biopesticides in order to address problems particularly of nematodes, leaf eating beetle and maize grain weevil. this strategy will help to frustrate the ongoing use of hazardous pesticides by farmers. development of high quality biofertilizer and biopesticides will promote and sustain food security, soil productivity, biodiversity and environmental health. the extract of which can be prepared by using natural materials such as plants and bacterial. thus the essence of this study is to evaluate the effect of interaction between two types of earthworm and ageratum on soil physicochemical properties. 2. materials and methods 2.1 site description the potted experiment was carried out in the faculty of agriculture chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam campus, anambra state. the area is located within latitude 050 40 n and 060 45 n and longitude 060 40 to 070 20 e. the rainfall duration of the area is bimodal and temperature ranges from 250c – 350c with the relative humidity of 65%. 2.3 earthworm used for the experiment the two types of earthworm used are irridodrilus sp and eudrilus eugeniae. irridodrilus are worms highly rich in organic mineral complex. the cast are typical spherical and ash brown in colour. their activities in soil favours highly plant water availability and aeration porosity. eudrilus eugeniae belongs to epigenic specie and family of eudrilidae, native of tropical africa, but now widely spread in temperate region. they are very effective and efficient in plant litter degradation and decomposition, well noted natural machineries capable of transforming organic waste materials into vermicompost for agricultural application to boost soil fertility and crop yield (nweke 2013) 2.4 collection of experimental materials (soil, plant residue, earthworms and pig manure) the soil samples were collected by scrapping away 0 -5cm of the soil surface from faculty of agriculture farm land and 15 – 20cm deep was collected in a plastic container. after the collection, stones and hard clods were removed in order to ensure fine tilt before measuring out the soil. the soil was replicated into four different pots containing 1000g of soil. the earthworms used for the experiment were collected from open refuse dumpsite near one of the hostels in chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university igbariam campus, vegetation growing at the site were tridax procumbent, giant grass, sidarhombi folia etc. ageratum specie was gotten from the faculty of agriculture farm land, while dried pig droppings was gotten from animal science department of the institution. the result of the physicochemical analysis of soil used in the experiment are recorded in table 1 2.5 treatment preparation, allocation and design 1000g of air dried soil samples were weighed into four (4) different plastic containers. ageratum sp was chopped into pieces and 300g of it was thoroughly mixed with 300g of pig droppings and incubated in an air tight container for two (2) weeks. after the incubation, the treatment was aired and thoroughly mixed with the soil sample in the plastic containers. three (3) containers were used to inoculate eudrilus eugeniae and another three containers were used to inoculate irridodrilus sp five earthworms respectively were inoculated per container and the experiment lasted for three months before harvest. the treatment details are: ageratum + soil (ag) ageratum + soil + eudrilus eugeniae (ae) ageratum + soil + irridodrilus sp (a1) control soil (co) after three (3) months inoculation, the worms were harvested by hand sorting and were weighed collectively per container. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 3 published by ideas spread 2.6 laboratory analysis at the end of the study, soil samples were collected at two different spots in the container, bulked and used for physicochemical analysis. also all analysis was carried out in three (3) replicates and averages with standard deviation adequately computed, recorded and tabulated in tables. 2.7 soil acidity (h+ al3+) soil exchange acidity was analyzed electrically by a modified in kcl displacement method of mc lean (1965). 2.8 total dissolved (soluble) cation the parameter was analyzed electronically using a digital conductivity meter on the soil: water ratio of 1: 2.5, while digital electrical meter was used to measure the net electrical charge. 2.9 cation exchange capacity (cec) the cation exchange capacity (cec) was determined by the method of nikol (1959) 2.10 base saturation base saturation (bs) was calculated using: % bs =teb x 100 cec 2.11 dispersion ratio dispersion ratio was analyzed by determining the soil silt and clay percentage in soil treated with calgon and also with water according to modified method of nkidi-kizza et al. (1984). pipette method was used for silt and clay percentage determination. dispersion ratio was expressed in percentage as; high dispersion ratio implies greater soil erodibility. 2.12 date analysis all analytical data were subjected to statistical studies; average and standard deviation were calculated according to steel and torrie (1980). 3. result 3.1 initial soil properties before the commencement of the study the result of the igbariam soil showed that the soil is of sandy clay loam textural class and acidic with a ph of 5.1 and the electrical conductivity relatively high. table 1. some properties of igbariam soil parameter value clay% 28.9±0.2 silt% 4.2± 0.6 sand% 66.9 ± 0.4 textural class sandy clay loam ph (h2o) 5.1 ± 0.1 electrical conductivity µscm-1 105 ± 5 3.2 effect of ageratum sp on the biomass survival of eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp the result presented in table 2 indicated that the rate of survival of earthworm in the composted ageratum was more on the eudrilus eugeniae compared to irridodrilus sp. though the initial biomass of irridodrilus sp indicated higher value but through the processes of incubation and culturing many of the irridodrilus sp died leading to the loss of biomass value which resulted to zero survival. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 4 published by ideas spread table 2. effect of ageratum sp on the biomass survival of eudriluseugeniae and irridodrilussp 3.3 effect of eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp on soil properties the clay + silt content result varied among the treatment (table 3). higher value (31.1%) was recorded in ageratum treated soil compared to the other treatments, the result variation indicated ag > co > ae > ai. apart from ageratum that showed alkaline ph with a value of 9.15, other treatments showed acid reaction. electrical conductivity, cec osmotic pressure, exchange acidity was recorded highest in ae, followed by ai of which the result variation of the four parameters showed ae > ai > ag > co. the net electrical charge indicated negative for all the treatments. the result presented in table 4 indicated base saturation (bs) value to be higher in ag relative to other treatments. ae recorded the highest value in soluble cation (table 4) of which the percentage increase in value relative to ag and co was 135.19% and 157.63% respectively. the recorded values for cec and exchange acidity (ea) indicated ae and co respectively to be higher relative to other treatments (table 4). table 3. effect of eudriluseugeniae and irridodrilussp on soil physicochemical properties table 4. effect of eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp on soil physicochemical properties earthworms specie/soil treatment cation exchange capacity(cec) meq/100g exchange acidity meq(0h)/100g base saturation % dissolved (soluble) cation meq/100g ae 28.0± 7.0 5.63±0.67 79.89±2.39 0.675±0.054 ai 22.7±1.7 4.39±1.95 80.66±8.6 0.592±0.062 ag 19.3±1.7 2.15±0.35 88.84±1.81 0.287±0.012 co 14.0±0.0 13.75±0.46 1.79±0.65 0.262±0.012 4. discussion from the result of the study, it was evidence that the two earthworms responded differently to the ageratum (pesticide) treated soil. at the course of the study it was observed that the two earthworms penetrated promptly within the treated soil litter after inoculation and produced typical surface casts that are always used to assess adaptability and proliferation. the activity and cast production of the worms continued for the following 5 weeks during the 12 weeks of incubation period, however, after the 5 weeks, period the activity of the worms declined that led to 67% survival recorded by eudriluus eugeniae and 0% by irridodrilus sp. thus indicating that eudriluseugeniae has greater resistance to the ageratum. the surviving eudrilus eugeniae, however lost weight to as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol.2, no. 2; 2020 5 published by ideas spread an average of 27% indicating that ag is seemly toxic to both earthworms. ageratum has antioxidant property and various phytochemical contents (nageivellema et al., 2004). this problem results in the death of irridodrilus sp and loss of weight on the survived eudrilus eugeniae and that was because eudrilus eugeniae noted to be tolerant to disturbances and harsh culture situations than most other earthworms may not possibly adapt (nweke 2017). more so, they are superficial soil layer leaf litter decomposer they do not move deep into the soil where these toxic substance may have accumulated the more. although the survival percentage of the two different earthworms in ageratum treated soil was poor, both earthworms ploughed the soil transforming it into a network of channels and burrows with water stable soil aggregates. particularly is the bioremediation efficacy of both earthworms on soil physical properties as indicated by the clay + silt dispersion ratio, pig manure enhanced this property particularly with the worms. clay + silt dispersion ratio is a good measure of erodibility and soil aggregate stability. the greater the index, the more dispersed the soil is that is the more erodible the soil will be. ag without earthworm inoculation exerted higher dispersion to the tune of 62% relative to the original soil, while both eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp inoculated ageratum treated soil addressed the ag dispersion effect thereby reduced soil dispersion ratio by 52% and 73% respectively of which irridodrilus sp was efficient than eudrilus eugeniae. in this regard ag produced alkalinisation effect by having a ph value of 9.15, this simple suggest that humus cementing agent in the treated soil must have been dissolved thereby releasing clay and silt primary particles as dispersed particles. it is noteworthy that both eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp reduced ag alkalinisation effect by bring the soil ph to 5.1 – 5.5 conducive for good aggregate stability as well as enhanced nutrient availability. increased soil electrical conductivity and soluble cations recorded in the study with both earthworms is an evidence of greater mineralization and enhancement of biological activities induced by the earthworms. these observations are highly the enormous resourcefulness of eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp to promote soil conservation and soil productivity and erosion resistance, in this regard the role of both earthworms are crucial and indispensable. earthworms enhance water intake and transmission through improvement of soil physical properties (rombke et al., 2005; sautter et al., 2006); their activities create favourable micro-environment for soil microbial activities composition and biomass (hale et al., 2005, jimens et al., 2006). the enhancement of cec, soluble cation and base saturation by the worms in ag treated soil showed the indispensable role of the two earthworms in mobilizing ag organic matter and nutrient elements of which pig manure played a vital role. eudrilus eugeniae and irridodrilus sp enhanced soluble cation (nutrient availability) for over two fold increase while 100% and 67% increase in cec respectively was observed. the contribution of ag treated soil in this regard was however, far less with 9% and 38% increase in soluble cation level and in cec respectively. the super achievement of eudrilus eugeniae with regard to cec and release of soluble cation indicated eudrilus eugeniae greater efficacy relative to irridodrilus sp. this is in line with the inherent capability of eudrilus eugeniae as efficient bio-degraders and nutrient releasers to produce high quality vermicompost rich in colloidal humus and can thrive in organic residue within or outside the soil (nweke 2013). higher cec and available cation in eudrilus eugeniae worked soil suggested greater level of high quality organic colloid ion exchanger produced by eudrilus eugeniae from ag biofertilizer, together with increased base saturation registered in ag and the two earthworms relative to the original soil confirm the tremendous boost to soil productivity by the earthworms and ag biofertilizer. despite the contributions of ag it still proved toxic to the earthworms this constraint further need to be addressed in order to optimize ag bio-fertilizer / pesticide potential. 5. conclusion the findings of this study have shown that the contributions of the earthworms are indispensable to the successes of ageratum (natural biopesticide) to promote sustainable high soil productivity and soil conservation. earthworm’s activity addresses ag dispersion effect and rendered the soil ph 5.1-5.5 about optimum for most nutrient availability, though ag being a natural biopesticide was toxic to the worms by the virtue of their lost weight and survival rates proved good organic source for the management of soil cec and soil erosion control. ag alone without earthworms may render the soil more erodible and too alkaline, but with earthworm inoculation it boosted the soil nutrient availability optimally. thus ag needs to be modified in order to be optimized profitably and farmers are encouraged to under study this technology to discourage the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. references ammer, s., weber, k., aba, c., ammer, c., & prietzel, j. 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(2006). the effect of earthworm functional group diversity on nitrogen dynamics in soils. soil bio. biochem., 41(2), 2629-2636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.04.015 steel, g. d., & torrie, j. h. (1980). procedures of statistics. a biometrical approach (2nd ed). mcgraw hill book. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p154 154 published by ideas spread influence of shade and bed types on attaining optimum temperature for the germination of peach (prunus persica l. batsch) seeds at holetta, central ethiopia habtam setu1, tajebe mosie1, kidist firdie1, tenagne eshete1 & getaneh sileshi1 1 ethiopian institute of agricultural research, holetta agricultural research center, ethiopia correspondence: habtam setu, ethiopian institute of agricultural research, holetta agricultural research center, p.o.box. 31 holetta, or 2003 addis ababa, ethiopia. e-mail: habtamsetu@gmail.com received: february 20, 2020 accepted: march 5, 2020 online published: may 5, 2020 abstract poor germination of peach seeds is the major limiting factor for rootstock production under the holetta condition because of the seed dormancy problem. stratification plays an important role in shortening the dormancy and increasing the germination of peach seeds. the study aimed to find easy stratification techniques for the germination of peach seeds using shade and different bed types. the experiment was carried out at the holetta agricultural research center in two successive years of 2017 and 2018. we got seeds used for this study from peach trees, which were well adapted for the holetta area. it was arranged in a completely randomized design with five treatments of under tree shade on a flatbed, under tree shade in sunken bed, out of tree shade on a flatbed, out of tree shade in sunken bed and refrigerator as a standard check. they put all treatments except the refrigerator under the grass shade constructed 1 m3 wide. the treatments replicated four times, and each replication contained 200 seeds. the results showed that temperature is the most important factor affecting the germination percentage of the peach seeds. seeds sown under the temperature close to 8 0c which is in the refrigerator found to have better germination percentage (47.1%) followed by the seeds sown in the grass shade under the tree shade both on sunken (35.8%) and flatbeds (34.9%). peach seeds stratified in the refrigerator had good germination percentage whereas survival of the seedling was better at out of tree shade in sunken bed and out of tree shade on the flatbed. even though the germination percentage was lower and the germination speed index was higher than the refrigerator. seeds stratified at a temperature of above 17 oc experienced a poor germination percentage. keywords: germination, peach seed, stratification, temperature, tree shade 1. introduction peach (prunus persica l. batsch) requires low temperature to break the dormancy of seeds and buds resulting in seed germination and flowering (americo et al., 2013). the low temperature triggers internal mechanisms that change the nature and level of growth regulators involved in the dormancy's control processes (kester et al., 1977). seed dormancy and germination are complex features relating to higher plants like peach, which are influenced by factors related to environmental conditions (bentsink & koornneef, 2008). a high germination percentage coupled with a desirable growth habit is the basic requirement of a good seedling rootstock (thakur, 2015). seeds of temperate fruits like peach trees enter dormancy at the time of fruit harvest and required exposure to cool temperature and moist environment that provides the stimulus required for overcoming dormancy, increase germination and produce normal seedlings (perez–gonzalez, 1997; wagner junior et al., 2013). seeley et al. (1998) and martinez-gomes and dicenta (2001) characterized the phenomenon in peach’s seed germination as influenced by seed coat dormancy (external), inhibition of germination manifested with a hormonal nature, and embryo dormancy (internal) which inhibited with a genetic nature expressed mainly in later plant growth. according to webb et al. (1962), the low temperatures associated with moisture change the equilibrium among growth inhibitors and promoters, resulting in germination. seeds not exposed to the adequate conditions for overcoming dormancy may not germinate or may produce abnormal seedlings, with physiological symptoms of dwarfism (hartmann et al., 1997). it associates such abnormalities of physiological nature with a delay of seedling growth, reducing the plant stand in the nursery (martins et al., 2014). stratification is the method used to overcome external dormancy of seed in prunus species (mehanna et al., 1985; frisby & seeley, 1993; bewley et al., 2013; seeley et al., 1998), which involved storing seeds with an equal volume of moist medium for a period at a cold temperature. peach’s seeds germination as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 155 published by ideas spread becomes more complicated in tropical countries. despite the difficulty in the germination of its seeds, farmers propagate local peach trees in some highlands of ethiopia. we also observe peach seedlings in the farmer’s back yards that emerged under the shade of trees and near the fence. however, farmers do not raise seedlings deliberately because they need low temperatures under the refrigerator unaffordable to them. therefore, the study aimed to find easy stratification techniques for the germination of peach seeds using shade and different bed types. 2. materials and methods 2.1 description of the experimental site we carried out the study at the holetta agricultural research center, which is located at an altitude of 2400 m above sea level, 9°00'n latitude and 38°30'e longitude. the annual rainfall of 1041.4 mm and the average annual minimum and maximum temperatures are 6.7 oc and 21.7 oc, respectively (eiar, 2017). 2.2 treatments and experimental design the experiment arranged in a completely randomized design (crd) with five treatments of under tree shade on a flatbed (s1b1), under tree shade in sunken bed (s1b2), out of tree shade on a flatbed (s2b1), and out of tree shade in the sunken bed (s2b2), and refrigerator (standard check). the treatments were replicated four times, and each replication contained 200 seeds. 2.3 experimental procedure the experiment was carried out for two successive years of 2017 and 2018 production seasons. we collected the matured and ripened peach fruits from adapted local peach trees around medagudina area, holetta district, ethiopia. then, the pulp was removed from the exocarp like and washed it with pure water and dried it under shade. then after we broke the exocarp carefully and removed the immature and damaged seeds since they are not viable. we disinfected the pure seeds with 0.05% (5 ml lit-1 of water) sodium hypochlorite solution for one hour and washed with distilled water repeatedly to remove the chemical from the seed. we then sowed the seeds in the plastic box (crate) which filled with sterilized (boiled) sand and arranged according to the treatment setup. the plastic box in which we sowed the seeds put in the sunken bed had 10 cm depth. all treatments except refrigerators were put under the grass shades constructed from grass (guizotia abyssinica in amharic called ‘senbelet’) and stake with 1 m3 size and based on the treatment arrangement some grass shades are put under avocado tree shade and others are out of the tree shade. we recorded the temperature of the shades daily in the morning, mid-day and evening while we adjusted the temperature of the refrigerator at 8 oc. we sprayed water as required for each treatment to keep the sand moistened. the germinated seeds were collected carefully and transplanted to a plastic bag filled with the proportion of 2:1:1 topsoil, sand and farmyard manure, respectively. 2.4 data collection and analysis data were taken for each treatment from the commencement of germination and at every four days interval until the completion of germination. germination speed (rate) index (gsi): reflects the percentage of seed germination on each day of the germination period (esechie, 1994) and calculated as the formula presented by maguire (1962), expressing the summation of the ratio between the numbers of germinated seeds and the evaluation days. 𝐺𝑆𝐼 = + − − − + ……..(1) the mean germination time: represents the average time a seed lot requires to initiate and end germination (orchard, 1977) and calculated using the formula stated by labouriau (1983): 𝑀𝐺𝑇 =  ∗  …………..…..(2) where t is the time in days starting from sowing date (day 0) to the end of the germination test, and n is the number of seeds completing germination on day t. germination percentage: was calculated by dividing the number of germinated seeds to the total number of sample seeds sown (al-mudaris, 1998). 𝐺𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑥 100 ……………...(3) percent survival: was calculated by dividing the number of survived seedlings after transplanted to polyethylene bags to the total number of germinated seeds (seedlings). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 156 published by ideas spread 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 𝑥 100 ………...(4) mean temperature: was obtained from the recordings of daily minimum and maximum temperatures. the data analysis was made by using a statistical analysis system (sas 9.3). the comparison of treatment means was done by lsd test at 5% probability level. 3. result ad discussion 3.1 mean temperature we present the result for the influence of shade and bed type for a mean temperature of 2017 and 2018 growing seasons in table 1. there was no significant difference in mean temperature between treatments under tree shade on a flatbed (s1b1) (16.56 oc), out of tree shade on a flatbed (s2b1) (16.63 oc) and out of tree shade in the sunken bed (s2b2) (16.63 oc) in the 2017 production season in which significantly lower mean temperature was recorded for under tree shade in sunken bed (s1b2) (16.47 oc). in the 2018 production season, we recorded the lowest temperature for s1b1 (17.60 oc) treatment, which does not significantly differ from s1b2 (17.65 oc). the highest temperature was experienced for treatments, s2b2 (17.86 oc) and s2b1 (17.76 oc) which is significantly different. there was no significant difference between treatments s1b1 (17.07 oc) and s1b2 (17.05 oc) on over year combined result of mean temperature and the same is true for treatments, s2b1 and s2b2 which is 17.19 oc and 17.24 oc respectively. although investigations have been done on the low-temperature stratification of peach seeds to overcome dormancy (sharma & singh, 1978; bewley et al., 2013; americo et al., 2013). overall treatments located out of shade both on the flat and sunken bed recorded significantly higher temperatures followed by those treatments in the shade and the control as stated in figure 1. here remember we expect the temperatures recorded for each respective treatment to control the germination speed index, mean germination time, percentage germination, and percentage survival of seedlings. seeds can germinate in a range of temperatures from approximately 10 oc to 35 oc (biggs & langan, 1962). abbot (1955) also reported that –5 oc is the least effective temperature for seed germination and temperatures higher than 17 oc could re-impose the seed dormancy. the growth capacity of the seedlings was markedly decreased by a temperature greater than 25.5 oc during the germination period (biggs & langan, 1962; afroze & o’reilly, 2016). the high germination percentages observed at 5/15 oc and 10/20 oc coincided with the temperatures of april and may in natural habitat. the low germination percentage observed at 15/25 oc and 20/30 oc was possibly caused by secondary dormancy (tang et al., 2019). 3.2 percentage germination we express the result for percentage germination for the influence of shade and bed type below in table 1. there was a significant difference between treatments in the 2017 growing season in which we recorded the highest percentage germination for the refrigerator (47.38) followed by s1b1 (45.38) and s1b2 (40.63). stratification for 30 days at 5 oc shows the highest germination percentage and highest survival of pomegranate seedlings (rawat et al., 2010). treatments put out of tree shade both on sunken and flatbed recorded the lowest germination percentage in which s2b2 (8.13) followed by s2b1 (19.00) but, still, there was a highly significant difference. in 2018, there was a relatively lower germination percentage of the refrigerator as compared to the 2017 growing season, even if the rest of the treatments remain similar to the previous year. this is might be because of factors other than the higher temperature recorded in 2018 inhibited the germination potential of the seeds. the refrigerator (46.75) still maintains a higher germination percentage compared to other treatments and followed by s1b1 (45.38) and s1b2 (40.63). the inhibitive influence of cool temperatures on seed germination and subsequent seedling development is temporary, whereas the inhibitive influence of warm temperatures is a more lasting nature (biggs and langan, 1962). overall, the combined analysis showed that a significant difference was observed between all the treatments except between the refrigerator (47.06) and s1b1 (45.38). selim et al. (1998) also found stratification of peach seeds at lower temperatures increased the content of growth promoters such as gibberellins and indole acetic acid and reduced the content of growth inhibitors such as abscisic acid. apart from temperature, the breaking of dormancy is governed by other environmental cues like water potential light (holmes & mccartney, 1975), nitrate, hormones, and some smoke components (bewley et al., 2013) that should be studied further in the future. the microclimate that created under the tree contributed to the control of seed dormancy status and germination primarily through moisture content and temperature (finch-savage, 2004). besides, the physical attributes of the seed, such as seed coat permeability, can mitigate these microclimate effects. the physiological state of the seed, including its genetic background and maternal and environmental effects during development and maturation, influences the initial dormancy level (allen et al., 2007; bewley et al., 2013). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 157 published by ideas spread 3.3 percentage of survival mean comparison of percentage survival of the peach seedlings were done for the two growing seasons as affected by the shade and different bed types (table 1). there was no significant difference in the percentage of seedling survival between s1b1 (72.02%), s1b2 (82.61) and control (76.55%) treatments in 2017 which is the same is true between s2b1 and s2b2. the highest survival percentage was recorded for treatments laid out of shade that is s2b2 (100%) and s2b1 (99.07%), respectively, in descending order. in the 2018 production season, the nonsignificant difference was recorded between treatments except for s2b2 and the control. still, the highest survival rate is recorded for s2b2 (95.42%) followed by s1b1 (87.34%) and s2b1 (84.11%). over year combined result showed that 97.71% survival rate was recorded for seeds sown on out of tree shade in sunken bed (s2b2) followed by out of tree shade on a flatbed (s2b1) which is 91.59% and under tree shade in sunken bed (s1b2) 82.74% as stated in figure 1. the reason for this might be because of the lower temperature fluctuation between while the seed germination chamber (crate) and the greenhouse after transplanting. since after germination, seedlings may fail to emerge or survive due to the interacting effect of environmental signal and biological responses (bewley et al., 2013). this finding is in agreement with previous reports (chauhan et al., 1961; pollock, 1962) that rather warm temperatures during peach seed germination have an antagonistic effect on seedling growth and development. stratification length strongly influenced the later growth and performance of the seedlings (vahdati et al., 2012). martinez-gomes and dicenta (2001) also observed that reduced plant growth in seedlings was treated for low temperatures for a short period as compared to a longer period. table 1. influence of shade and bed type for mean temperature, germination percentage, percent survival, germination speed index, and mean germination time of peach seed stratification for the two growing seasons. treatments germination speed index mean germination time average temperature germination percentage survival percent 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 s1b1 2.84a 0.97b 33.79c 47.72b 16.56a 17.60b 45.38ab 45.38ab 72.02b 87.34ab s1b2 2.58a 1.06b 33.54c 46.33b 16.47b 17.65b 40.63b 40.63b 82.61b 82.86b s2b1 1.39b 1.49a 40.70bc 44.06b 16.63a 17.76ab 19.00c 19.00c 99.07a 84.11ab s2b2 0.45c 1.04b 42.36b 47.03b 16.63a 17.86a 8.13d 8.13d 100a 95.42a refrigerator 0.29c 0.29c 72.42a 78.12a 8.00c 8.00c 47.38a 46.75a 76.55b 77.57b lsd (5%) 0.62 0.40 7.93 15.00 0.09 0.2 5.62 5.81 11.47 11.88 sig. level ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ns cv (%) 26.7 27.04 11.55 18.49 0.38 0.81 11.36 11.79 8.65 9.03 means of the same main effect followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance. where s1b1-under tree shade on a flatbed; s1b2-under tree shade in sunken bed; s2b1out of tree shade on a flatbed; and s2b2-out of tree shade in the sunken bed; ** = significant at p < 0.01 probability level; * = significant at p < 0.05 probability level; ns = non-significant at p < 0.05 probability level; lsd = least significant difference; and cv = coefficient of variation. 3.4 germination speed index (gsi) the result for gsi due to the influence of shade and bed type is presented above in table 1. in 2016 there is no significant difference in gsi between treatments s1b1 and s1b2 which is the same is true for treatments s2b2 and the control. the highest gsi is recorded for s1b1 (2.84) followed by s1b2 (2.58) and s2b1 (1.38). the lowest germination speed index is experienced in the control treatment which is 0.28. in 2017 growing season relatively lower germination speed index was recorded for all treatments except for s2b2 and control. here the significant difference is observed except for treatments s1b1 and s1b2. the highest germination speed index is recorded for s2b1 (1.49) followed by s1b2 (1.05) and s2b2 (1.03). still, the lowest gsi is recorded for the control (0.29) followed by s1b1 (0.97). under the combined result, there was a significant difference is observed between treatments except for s1b1 and s1b2. here the highest gsi is recorded for s1b1 (1.90) followed by s1b2 (1.82) even if there is no statistical difference between them. this variation might be because of the length of periods that the seeds we exposed to stratification (finch-savage, 2004; rawat et al., 2010), and also be cues the genetic as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 158 published by ideas spread component that can influence entire population of seed or individual seeds within a seed lot (geneve, 2003; americo et al., 2013). 3.5 mean germination time (mgt) the influence of shade and bed type on mgt was presented in table 1. there is no significant difference in mgt between treatments s1b1 (33.79), s1b2 (33.54) and s2b1 (40.70) in 2017 growing season in which it records the highest mgt for the control which is 72.42 followed by s2b2 (42.36). the lowest mgt was recorded for s1b2 (33.54) followed by s1b1 (33.79) which was not significantly different. in 2018 significant difference was not observed between treatments except for the control (78.12) which was significantly higher. overall, the combined analysis showed that it recorded the highest mean germination time for the refrigerator (75.27) followed by s2b2 (44.70) and s2b1 (42.38) even if no significant difference was observed between treatments except for the control. the lower the mgt, the faster a population of seeds has germinated (al-mudaris, 1998) but this variation might be because of the difference in dormancy type that needs various lengths of periods of exposure to low temperature (rawat et al., 2010). in addition to this, such germination time variation may encountered due to the water content of the seeds after ripening since at higher water contents dormancy is maintained or secondary dormancy may be induced and if seeds become too dry after-ripening is delayed or prevented (vahdati et al., 2012; bewley et al., 2013). figure 1. combined analysis on the influence of shade and bed type for mean germination time, mean daily temperature, germination percentage, percent survival, and germination speed index peach seed stratification note: where s1b1-under tree shade on a flatbed; s1b2-under tree shade in sunken bed; s2b1-out of tree shade on a flatbed; and s2b2-out of tree shade in the sunken bed; lsd = least significant difference; and cv = coefficient of variation. means of the same main effect followed by the same letter within a similar bar graph are not significantly different at a 5% level of significance. 3.6 association of parameters as the result stated in table 2 mean temperature has a significantly strong negative correlation with germination percentage and mean germination time (mgt) which is -0.49 and -0.80 respectively. this showed that when the average temperature increases, the germination percentage decreases and when the average temperature decreases, the mean germination time increase; whereas temperature had significantly strong positive correlation with germination speed index and percentage survival which is 0.48 and 0.38 respectively which showed that with increasing of temperature there is also increasing in percentage survival and germination speed index. percentage survival has a non-significant negative correlation with gsi (-0.21) and mgt (-0.25) even if it has a significantly negative correlation with percentage germination (-0.66). the complexity of the genetic component becomes as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 159 published by ideas spread apparent when considering the correlation of seed-chilled requirements of the plant (powell, 1987); however, there was a low correlation between the time required to release dormancy in each seed (kester et al., 1977). table 2. pearson correlation coefficients (r) among the parameters for the influence of shade and bed type on peach seed stratification germination speed index mean germination time average daily temperature germination percentage survival percent germination speed index 1.00 mean germination time -0.71** 1.00 average daily temperature 0.48** -0.80** 1.00 germination percentage 0.15 0.30 -0.49** 1.00 survival percent. -0.21 -0.25 0.38* -0.66** 1.00 **,* = correlation is significant at the 1% and 5% level, respectively 4. summary and conclusion stratification plays an important role as a stimulator that helps to break dormancy. the temperature is the most important factor affecting the germination percentage of the peach seeds. seeds stratified under the temperature close to 8 oc found to have better germination percentage (47.06) followed by the seeds sown in the grass shade under the tree shade both sunken and flatbeds (45.38%, and 40.63%, respectively). moreover, seeds stratified at the temperature above 17 oc showed poor germination percentage. peach seeds stratified in the refrigerator had good germination percentage whereas survival of the seedling was better at s2b2 and s2b1, even though the germination percentage was lower and the germination speed index was higher than the refrigerator. therefore, peach seedlings grown for large-scale commercial purposes shall be stratified in the refrigerator or the place where the mean temperature below 8 oc. peach seedlings grown for small-scale commercial purposes can be stratified in the grass shade under the tree shade on both flat and sunken beds. although the percentage germination is a bit lower than seeds stratified in a refrigerator as shown in the result the grass shade under tree attains temperature to germinate peach seeds this will help smallholder farmers to grow peaches from seeds. as a result peach seedling grew for smallholder farmers especially where electric power is inaccessible and refrigerator is unaffordable could be stratified in a grass shade that is constructed by locally available materials under a tree shade in both flat and sunken beds as an alternative method to germinate peach seeds for the farmers. references abbot, d. l. 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(1973). seed dormancy in acer: changes in endogenous cytokinins, gibberellins and germination inhibitors during the breaking of dormancy in acer saccharum 'marsh'. j. exp. botany, 24(78), 105-116. https://doi. org/10. 1093/jxb/24. 1. 105 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p275 275 published by ideas spread development of integrated fertilizer management strategies in lentil for higher productivity in the south-western region of bangladesh md. shahriar kobir1, md. harun-or-rashid2 & sharif ahmed3 1 bangladesh agricultural research institute, bangladesh 2 international maize and wheat improvement center, bangladesh office, bangladesh 3 international rice research institute, bangladesh office, bangladesh correspondence: md. shahriar kobir, bangladesh agricultural research institute, bangladesh. e-mail: shahriar1302027@gmail.com received: may 17, 2020 accepted: june 4, 2020 online published: june 12, 2020 abstract due to the lack of optimum fertilizer management in low organic matter content soil is one of the limiting factors to the lower yield and productivity of lentil in bangladesh.to increase the yield and maintain the sustainability of lentil production in the highly intensive cropping areas of bangladesh the development of integrated fertilizer management is urgent. an experiment was conducted at regional agricultural research station, jashore, bangladesh during the rabi season of 2018-2019 to develop an integrated fertilizer management strategies for lentil in low organic matter content soil. the experiment was laid out in a split plot design where different fertilizer management techniques were allocated in the main-plots and different varieties were allocated in the sub-plots. there were five fertilizer management (fm) techniques such as fm1vermicompost 1t ha-1+ (inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1) + 2% dap foliar spray, fm2vermicompost 1t ha-1+(inorganic p:k:s @ 24:6:10 kg ha-1)+ 1% dap foliar spray, fm3(inorganic n:p:k:s @ 20:40:20:10 kg ha-1) and no dap foliar spray, fm4vermicompost 1t ha-1+ (inorganic p: k: s @ 25:6:10 kg ha-1) and no dap foliar spray, fm5control and there were three varieties such as v1-bari masur-6, v2-bari masur-7 and v3-bari masur-8. the highest plant height (cm), plant density at harvest, leaf chlorophyll index, grain yield and the lowest days to 50% flowering and stemphyliumblight disease score was observed from the treatment combination fm1v3 (vermicompost 1t ha-1+ (inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1) + 2% dap foliar spray with lentil variety bari masur-8). the next best treatment combinations were fm1v2 (vermicompost 1t ha-1 + (inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1) + 2% dap foliar spray with lentil variety bari masur-7) and fm1v1 (vermicompost 1t ha-1 + (inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1) + 2% dap foliar spray with lentil variety bari masur-6), respectively. integrated fertilizer management technique such as vermicompost 1t ha-1+ inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray with variety bari masur-8 may be recommended to farmers for sustainable lentil production. keyword: vermicompost, organic fertilizer, foliar spray, lentil 1. introduction people consume pulses as an important source of protein throughout the world. all over the world pulses are known as the poor man’s meat (hussain, 2016). bangladesh produces several pulses such as lentil (lens culinaris), grasspea (lathyrussativus), blackgram (vignamungo), mungbean (vignaradiata), chickpea (cicerarietinum), pea (peasumsativum), pigeon pea (cajanascajan), cowpea (vignaunguiculata) (hussain, 2016). lentil is one of the most ancient legume pulse and seems that it has been domesticated in the crescent about 8000 years ago (zohary and hopf, 2000). among the pulses grown in bangladesh about 41% area is covered by lentil (bbs, 2019). lentil in bangladesh is mainly growing in rabi season and major growing areas are pabna, jashore, kushtia, faridpur, rajshahi, magura, jhenaidah and madaripur districts (azad et al., 2019). in the year 2018/19, bangladesh produced about 0.17 million tons of lentil from its 0.35 million acres land (bbs, 2019). to fulfill the domestic demand country imported about 0.43 million tons of lentil from the foreign countries (the financial express, 2020). low yield potential of local cultivars and susceptibility to major diseases, poor fertilizer and irrigation management, and delayed sowing are the major production constraints for lentil production in bangladesh (sarkar, 2004). for this reason, time to time several agronomic approaches has been taken to increase the lentil’s productivity. among them agronomic soil management using plant residue, application of fym or vermi products are well known approaches (rudrappa et al., 2006). soil organic matter maintaining is very important to gain the long-term as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 276 published by ideas spread productivity of crops including lentil (janmohammadi et al., 2014). vermicompost an organic fertilizer can enhance the soil organic matter and in addition, it improves the soil structure, water holding capacity, bulk density and enhances the microbial activity in soil (adolph et al., 2002). chemical fertilizers recommended for lentil are not always works effectively due to the soil situations. sometimes soil are not in favor to absorb of plant nutrient or sometime quick supply of essential nutrients are not conducive to soil, therefore foliar application of nutrient is a solution to that problem in that stage (salisbury and ross, 1985). foliar spray of fertilizer helps the nutrient to go through directly in the site of food synthesis thus less wastage and quick supplement of nutrient which hasten sudden growth of lentil and it reduce the requirement of large quantity of fertilizer (das and jana, 2015). foliar application of urea at 50% flowering stage enhanced the yield found by (palta et al. 2005) and (zeidan, 2003). leaf senescence begins earlier in lentil before completing maturity and it hamper in the process of source to sink deployment resulted in yield reduction where nitrogen spray can delay the leaf senescence that hasten the productivity (das and jana, 2015). chemical fertilizers are essential for lentil but combination of chemical fertilizer, organic fertilizer or manure, foliar spray of nitrogenous and phosphorus fertilizer provides higher productivity over individual source of nutrient (math et al., 2018). so it is obvious that there is a scope to increase lentil productivity by applying judicious fertilizer management including inorganic fertilizer, organic fertilizer and foliar spray of fertilizer. but the research work related to combined application of organic, inorganic and foliar spray of fertilizer in lentil is limited.therefore, this experiment was initiated to investigate and to develop appropriate integrated fertilizer management strategies in lentil for its higher productivity and sustainability. 2. materials and methods the experiment was conducted at regional agricultural research station (23°18' latitude and 89°18' longitude with the altitude of 19 m), bangladesh agricultural research institute, jashore, bangladesh during the rabi 20182019 season. the trial site falls under the agro-ecological zone number eleven (aez-11) called the high ganges river floodplain (frg, 2012). the climate at the experimental site is subtropical monsoon nature with high rainfall during may to october and scanty rainfall during november to april. annual average rainfall is ~1600 mm. about 90% of the total rainfall occurs from may to october and the distribution of the rainfall is uneven and unpredictable. monthly average temperature ranges from 20 °c in january to 35°c in april. the soil of the experimental field is sandy loam in texture and slightly alkaline in reaction (ph 7.5) having organic carbon of 1.6%. the experiment was conducted in split plot design in where different fertilizer management options were placed in main plots and different varieties were placed in subplots. table 1. the treatments details are explained mainplot treatment:fertilizer management (fm) options treatment details fm1vermicompost 1t ha-1+ inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray total vermicompost and other inorganic fertilizers were mixed with soil during the final land preparation and foliar spray of dap was applied at 50% flowering stage. fm2vermicompost 1t ha-1+ inorganic p:k:s @ 24:6:10 kg ha-1+ 1% dap foliar spray total vermicompost and other inorganic fertilizers were mixed with soil during the final land preparation and foliar spray of dap was applied at 50% flowering stage. fm3inorganic n:p:k:s @ 20:40:20:10 kg ha-1 and no dap foliar spray total inorganic fertilizers were mixed with soil duringthe final land preparation. fm4vermicompost 1t ha-1+ inorganic p: k: s @ 25:6:10 kg ha-1and no dap foliar spray total vermicompost and other inorganic fertilizers were mixed with soil during the final land preparation. fm5control no fertilizers were used. sub-plot treatment: varieties (v) features v1: bari masur-6 average plant height 35-40 cm, life cycle 110-115 days, yield1800-2000kg ha-1, resistance to rust and stemphyllium blight disease. v2: bari masur-7 average plant height 32-38 cm, yield 1800-2100 kg ha-1, suitable for growing all over the country. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 277 published by ideas spread v3: bari masur-8 fe and zn enriched, life cycle 110-115 days, yield 2100-2200 kg ha-1, resistance to rust and stemphyllium blight disease. the unit plot size was 12.8 m2 (3.28 m× 4 m) in where row to row distance was 40 cm and plant to plant distance was 5 cm. the land was ploughed three times using a cultivator drown by a four wheels tractor. seeds of the selected cultivars were sown on november 8, 2018 at the rate of 30 kg ha-1. the seeds were treated using a fungicide namely provax @ 2.5g/kg seed. weeds were managed by two times hand weeding at 30 das and 65 das. fertilizers were applied as per the treatments. irrigation was avoided. crop was harvested on 22th february 2019. the harvested crop was sun dried for two days and threshed manually as plot wise. the data on days to flowering, days to mature, plants height (cm) at harvest, plant density, pods plant-1, nodules plant-1 at 50% flowering, chlorophyll index at 50% flowering, yield (kgha-1), and stemphyllium blight disease score (0-5) were recorded.the analysis of variances for the measuring parameters was performed using a statistical software statistix-10 and means were compared using tukey’s hsd at alpha = 0.05. 3. results and discussion days to 50% flowering: different fertilizer management options, varieties and their interaction significantly affect the days to 50% flowering of lentil. the highest (61) and lowest (57) days to flowering was observed in interaction fm5v1 (control with bari masur-6) and fm1v3 (vermicompost 1t ha-1 + inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray with bari masur-8), respectively. it may be due to quick availability of nutrient as organic source of fertilizer and direct foliar spray of nutrient was applied in fm1v3 interaction treatment. similar result was also found by (janmohammadi et al., 2014). he observed organic source of fertilizer and foliar application of growth regulators improves both root and total above ground plant growth. days to maturity:in case of fertilizer management options and varieties, days to maturity was significant but their interaction was not significant. fertilizer management options fm5 and fm1, respectively required the highest and lowest days to maturity. considering by the varieties, the highest days required to maturity for variety v1 and v2 and the lowest days for variety v3. plant height: plant height of lentil differed significantly due to different fertilizer management options, different varieties and their interaction. the highest plant height (42 cm) was observed due to the interaction effect of fm1v3 (vermicompost 1t ha-1 + inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray with bari masur-8) and the lowest plant height (31 cm) was found due to the interaction effect of fm5v3 (control with bari masur6). this result is at par with the finding of (hossain et al., 2018). they showed that foliar application of dap increases the plant height of lentil. enlargement of plant height in lentil as influenced by additional nitrogen adjustment was also earlier reported by (janloo et al., 2009) and (niri et al., 2010). plant density at harvest: plant density at harvest was significantly varied due to the different fertilizer management options, varieties and their interaction. the highest (201) and lowest (69) plants m-2 was found from the interaction effect of fm1v3(vermicompost 1t ha-1 + inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray with bari masur-8) and fm5v1 (control with bari masur-6), respectively. pods plant-1: fertilizer management options and varieties have significant effect on pods plant-1 but there was no significant interaction effect. (fatema et al., 2018) states that pods plant-1 were maximum incase of 50:70:30n:p:k+ 4t ha-1 fym application which is more or less similar to the present study. nodules plant-1: nodules plant-1 differed significantly due to fertilizer management options and varieties but did not differ significantly due to their interaction effect. interaction between different fym quantity and different growth regulator were also found non-significant by (janmohammadi et al., 2014) in increasing of nodules plant1. (hossain et al., 2018) revealed that foliar application of tsp in lentil increases the no. of nodules plant-1 which is similar to present findings. chlorophyll index: chlorophyll index of lentil leaf was statistically significant in case of fertilizer treatments, varieties and for their interaction. the highest (23) chlorophyll index was observed in fm1v3 (vermicompost 1t ha-1 + inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray with bari masur-8) and the lowest (4) was found from the fm3v3 (inorganic n:p:k:s@ 20:40:20:10 kg ha-1 and no dap foliar spray with bari masur-8) and fm5v3 (control with bari masur-8) interaction. phosphorus increases the n-fixing capacity of lentil as well as other legumes and in addition it also increases the chlorophyll content stated by (singh et al., 2003). foliar application of dap supplied the nutrient phosphorus in the present study and probably this may help to increase the chlorophyll index in treatment combination fm1v3. similar result was also found by (janmohammadi et al., 2014). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 278 published by ideas spread lentil grain yield: grain yield of lentil was affected significantly by the fertilizer management options, different varieties and their interaction. the highest grain yield (2535 kg ha-1) was observed from the treatment combination fm1v3 (vermicompost 1t ha-1 + inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray with bari masur-8) and the lowest grain yield (1118 kg ha-1) was found from the treatment combination fm5v1(control with bari masur-6) interaction effect. the higher grain yield in fm1v3 treatment may be for the positive effect of organic, inorganic and foliar sprayed fertilizer on growth and development of lentil. similar results also reported by (das and jana, 2015). they concluded that significantly higher seed yield was found by 2% urea spray at pre flowering stage. (math et al., 2018) revealed that vermicompost 2t ha-1+37.5:75 n: p2o5 kg ha-1 with 2% dap spray gives the highest grain yield which is similar to this present research work. these findings are also in agreement with the findings of (mandal and majumdar 2001), (gan et al., 2005), (rabbi et al., 2011) and (sharma, 1999). stemphylium blight (sb) disease score: the sb disease score differed significantly for fertilizer management options, varieties and their interaction. the highest (2.3) disease score was observed from the interaction effect of fm5v1 (control with bari masur-6) and the lowest score (0.0) was observed from the interaction effect of fm1v2 (vermicompost 1t ha-1+ inorganic p:k:s-23:6:10 @ kg ha-1+ 2% dap foliar spray with bari masur-7). the fertilizer management options which contain organic matter and foliar spray had lower sb score than the control and it may be due to organic fertilizer make the nutrient available for the plants thus the plants become more vigorous and less susceptible to disease. table 2. phenology, yield contributing characters and yield of lentil as affected by fertilizer management options fertilizer management options days to 50% flowering days to maturity plant height (cm) plants m-2 (no.) pods plant1 (no.) nodules plant-1 (no.) chlorophyll index yield (kg ha1) *sb disease (0-5 scale) fm1 58c 106b 39a 192a 108a 76a 20a 2338.7a 0.1b fm2 59b 107b 37b 185b 99b 69b 14b 2103.4b 0.3b fm3 59b 107b 34c 138c 82c 62c 12b 1863.2c 0.2b fm4 59b 109a 33d 108d 73d 59c 12b 1591.6d 0.3b fm5 60a 109a 32e 89e 64e 49d 8c 1288.2e 1.3a se 0.3 0.41 0.26 1.52 2.07 1.86 0.83 41.97 0.23 lsd (.05) 0.69 0.97 0.61 3.51 4.79 4.29 1.93 85.9 0.54 table 3. phenology, yield contributing characters and yield of lentil as affected by varieties varieties days to 50% flowering days to maturity plant height (cm) plants m-2 (no.) pods plant1 (no.) nodules plant-1 (no.) chlorophyll index yield (kg ha-1) *sb disease (0-5 scale) v1 59a 108a 34c 135c 81c 59c 14a 1749.2a 0.66a v2 59a 108a 35b 143b 84b 63b 13ab 1858.3b 0.4ab v3 58b 107b 37a 150a 90a 66a 12b 1903.5a 0.3b se 0.17 0.3 0.29 1.02 1.27 1.50 0.83 32.5 0.15 lsd (.05) 0.35 0.62 0.61 2.15 2.65 3.14 1.74 66.6 0.32 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 279 published by ideas spread table 4. phenology, yield contributing characters and yield of lentil as affected by the interaction of fertilizer management options and varieties interaction days to 50% flowering days to maturity plant height (cm) plants m-2 (no.) pods plant-1 (no.) nodules plant-1 (no.) chlorophyll index yield (kg ha-1) *sb disease (0-5 scale) fm1v1 59b 106 37c 183c 100 69 17bcd 2221b 0.3c fm1v2 58bc 107 39b 192b 106 75 20ab 2260b 0.0c fm1v3 57bc 105 42a 201a 118 83 23a 2535a 0.0c fm2v1 59b 108 36cd 181c 96 65 10ef 2031d 0.0c fm2v2 60a 107 36c 182c 96 68 10ef 2134bc 0.3c fm2v3 58bc 106 39b 194b 104 73 15cd 2144bc 0.6bc fm3v1 59b 108 33fg 135e 79 57 19bc 1835e 0.6bc fm3v2 59b 107 35de 138de 83 63 18bc 1907de 0.0c fm3v3 59b 106 36c 142d 85 65 4g 1847.7e 0.0c fm4v1 59b 109 33fg 105gh 70 59 16bcd 1541fg 0.0c fm4v2 59b 109 33fg 107fg 74 58 7fg 1571.7f 0.3c fm4v3 59b 109 34ef 112f 76 59 13de 1662f 0.6bc fm5v1 61a 110 31h 69j 62 45 10ef 1118i 2.3a fm5v2 59b 109 32gh 98i 63 51 11ef 1418.3gh 1.3b fm5v3 59b 109 32gh 101hi 66 52 4g 1328.3h 0.3c se 0.43 0.67 3.12 2.42 3.12 3.32 1.33 71.36 0.37 lsd (.05) 0.95 ns 6.81 5.26 ns ns 3.71 151.3 0.81 4. conclusion the research revealed that yield and yield attributing characters of lentil were influenced by different fertilizer management options, varieties and their interaction effect. on the basis of this research findings it seems that vermicompost 1t ha-1+ inorganic p:k:s @ 23:6:10 kg ha-1 + 2% dap foliar spray with variety bari masur-8 is the best combination for maximizing the productivity of lentil. in general, it could be concluded that soil amendment with vermicompost, adequate inorganic fertilizer, foliar spray of nitrogenous and phosphorus fertilizer at pod initiation stage and with combined cultivation of high yielding variety such as bari masur-8 maximized the productivity of lentil. 5. acknowledgement during the study period the colleague scientist and staffs of regional agricultural research station, jashore and international maize and wheat improvwement center, bangladesh office have enriched this experiment by providing technical support. the experiment was conducted by the regional agricultural research station’s regular fund. references adolph, b., butterworth, j. a., satheesh, p. v., reddy, s., reddy, g. n. s., karoshi, v., & indira, m. 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(2003). effect of sowing dates and urea foliar application on growth and seed yield of determinate faba bean (viciafabal.) under egyptian conditions. egypt j. agron., 24, 93-102. zohary d., & hopf m., (2000). domestication of plants in the old world. new york. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbo.2001.1505 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p236 236 published by ideas spread influence of frost protection windmachine with continuous oscillation on microclimate in tea fields keda sun1, yongguang hu1, zhiyuan hu1, yongkang chen1 & wuzhe wei1 1 school of agricultural equipment engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china correspondence: yongguang hu, school of agricultural equipment engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china. e-mail: deerhu@163.com received: may 1, 2020 accepted: may 17, 2020 online published: may 22, 2020 abstract to verify the influence of frost protection windmachine with continuous oscillation on microclimate, the experimental study was conducted in a tea field in zhenjiang, china on a typical radiation frost night. disturbed airflow variation and protection effect were investigated. airflow velocity of 8 points at different distance from the machine was measured during an oscillation period with an anemometer, and temperature variation of 48 points at different distance from the machine and different height above the ground was measured with temperature recorders. the changes of airflow velocity and temperature were analyzed. where the velocity was high, the airflow-disturbed duration was as well as large. airflow velocity at each point presented a trend of rise, fluctuation, and decline under the action of windmachine with continuous oscillation. the temperature rise with the same distance from the machine was close, among which the 10 m and 20 m away from the machine increased greatly. disturbed airflow enlarged the temperature difference between the top and the bottom of the canopy. the windmachine with continuous oscillation is proved to be effective for tea frost protection and provides more coverage than traditional anti-frost fan with flabellate oscillation. keywords: tea trees, windmachine, frost protection, disturbed airflow, temperature rise 1. introduction frost is a common agro-meteorological disaster, which brings great harm to the growth of tea trees and other crops (cittadini, et al., 2006; gu, et al., 2008; lu, et al., 2015). as mechanized equipment, frost protection windmachines have the advantages of larger coverage, better protective effect, and less pollution to environment than traditional methods such as smudging, flooding irrigation, and straw covering (vahid, et al., 2015). the working principle of frost protection wind machine is to transport the airflow of the thermal inversion layer to the canopy of crops, and to drive off the cooler air at the same time (battany, 2012; doesken, et al., 1989). the frost protection wind machine can also improve the heat exchange between the crop and the surrounding air by regulating the conductivity of leaf boundary layer (kensuke, et al., 2017; monteith, et al., 2013; snyder, et al., 2005). many studies have confirmed that frost protection windmachine could effectively raise the temperature of the canopy (bey-marshall, et al., 2019; heusinkveld, et al., 2019; wu, et al., 2015), and could as well as increase the yield and quality of crops in the covered area (blank, et al., 1995; hu, et al., 2013). these studies mostly confirm the reliability of frost protection by comparing the conditions inside and outside the covered area. large frost protection windmachines, such as model 3000 series windmachines (orchard-rite, washington, usa) and chinook windmachines (h.f.hauff, washington, usa), have achieved continuous oscillation, which improves the working efficiency (gambino, et al., 2007; lee, et al., 2013). the anti-frost fan is a kind of miniature windmachine which is suitable for some small and medium tea gardens in japan (kensuke, et al., 2017). anti-frost fan oscillates with the angle of 60°, 90°, or 120°, which has coverage less than 2000 m2. we applied mechanism of continuous oscillation to this kind of machine, to expand the covered area. however, in this case, the windmachine cannot continue to disturb airflow in the same direction, and the airflow with higher temperature in the thermal inversion layer is transmitted dispersedly. therefore, the influence of frost protection windmachine with continuous oscillation on microclimate should be further confirmed. in addition, the discrepancy of the influence at different positions and heights in covered area should also be explained in detail. airflow velocity and temperature rise are important indicators to measure the function of frost protection windmachine. in this study, the windmachine with continuous oscillation was started on a typical radiation frost night in a tea field. it is of much importance to know the airflow distribution and temperature rise when the windmachine with continuous as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 237 published by ideas spread oscillation is in operation in order to obtain better frost protection effect. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental site experimental tea field is located at sanquan modern agricultural park in zhenjiang, china (32°05'33" n, 119°22'12" e). it is a typical hilly tea field in the middle and lower of yangtze river region. it has a temperate climate, and radiation frost happens frequently in the winter and spring seasons. sampled tea variety is anji white tea, which was five years old and the height was about 85 cm. frost protection experiment was conducted on a typical radiation frost night from december 4, 2019 to december 5, 2019. 2.2 experimental materials in the center of the field, a windmachine with continuous oscillation (fengke, jiangsu, china) was installed for tea frost protection. circular-arc blade was used on the windmachine. its specifications are shown in table 1. in addition, the materials also include: temperature and humidity automatic recorder zdr-3w1s (hangzhou zeda, china), which has ± 0.1℃ accuracy and measurement range of -50 ~ 100℃; anemometer avm-07 (taishi, china), which has ± 0.3 m s-1 accuracy and measurement range of 0 ~ 45 m s-1; poles, steel tape and stopwatch. table 1. specifications of frost protection windmachine power (kw) installed angle (°) installed height (m) oscillation angle (°) oscillation period (s) 4.0 30° 9.0 360 190 2.3 experimental design three experiments were conducted as following: frost protection group: the measurement points of airflow were set every 5 m within the distance of 40 m from the machine in certain direction, and the height of measurement points from the ground was 85 cm. when the natural wind speed was low, the variation of airflow velocity was recorded by the anemometer during an oscillation period, and 8 groups of airflow velocity were measured. vertical poles with a height of 1.0m were erected in the direction of the east (group 1), west (group 2), north (group 3), and south (group 4) of the machine and at distances of 10 m, 20 m, 30 m, and 40m from the machine. the measurement points of temperature were set at 5 cm (bottom of canopy), 45 cm (middle of canopy), and 85 cm (top of canopy) high above the ground. a temperature sensor probe was placed at each point. totally 48 groups of temperature were tested. control group: a vertical pole with a height of 1.0 m was erected at a distance of 100 m from the machine, and measurement points of temperature were set at the heights of 5 cm, 45 cm, and 85 cm from the ground respectively. measurement of thermal inversion: a vertical pole with a height of 9.0 m was erected near the pole of control group. based on the ground, a probe was placed every 1.5 m to measure the temperature of thermal inversions from the night to the early morning of the next day. the measurement was used to describe the strength of thermal inversions. the collecting time of temperature was set to 10 s all above the three groups. the machine should be turned on at least 1 h before the frost, and turned off 1 h after sunrise, so as to achieve a better protective effect (hu, et al., 2013; ribeiro, et al., 2006). therefore, the machine was set to turn on at 19:00, and then turn off at 7:00 the next day. during the experiment, the change of temperature inside and outside the covered area were recorded in real time. temperature rise at each measurement point was the average value between 20:00 and 7:00 the next day. 3. results and discussion 3.1 influence on airflow the average wind speed of background was 0.4 m s-1 during the experiment. maximum airflow velocity, airflowdisturbed duration, and average airflow velocity of each measurement point are given in table 2. the airflowdisturbed duration is the span of the disturbed airflow that can be detected at measurement points. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 238 published by ideas spread table 2. analysis on disturbed airflow parameters distance of measurement points from machine (m) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 maximum airflow velocity (m s-1) 2.1 6.3 5.4 4.5 3.7 2.4 2.1 airflow-disturbed duration (s) 15.0 32.0 28.0 26.0 22.0 18.0 13.0 average airflow velocity (m s-1) 1.1 3.4 3.0 2.5 1.6 1.4 1.0 the disturbed airflow cannot be detected at 5 m, because it was located in the blind area of frost protection under the machine. airflow velocity was the largest and airflow-disturbed duration was the longest at 15 m, which has the closest distance from the core position of jet-flow. with the distance in the range of 15 ~ 40 m, maximum airflow velocity, airflow-disturbed duration, and average airflow velocity all decreased gradually. where airflow velocity was high, airflow-disturbed duration was also large. just considering the influence of airflow on canopy, the effective area of frost protection windmachine with continuous oscillation was an annulus formed by circle with radius of 10 m and 40 m. airflow-disturbed duration of measurement points only accounts for about 6.84 ~ 16.84% of the oscillation period of 190 s. the maximum velocity of airflow at 15 m reached 6.3 m s-1, but it was only a transient velocity. if the wind machine does not oscillate, airflow velocity would be larger, causing a certain damage to the tea leaves, so wind machine with continuous oscillation could effectively reduce frost damage to the crops. taking 15m, 25m and 35m as the instances, the variation of air velocity with time is shown in figure 2. it can be seen that airflow velocity rose continuously and reached a high value in 4 ~ 6 s. after that, airflow velocity fluctuated in a certain range, reaching the maximum at 15m. in the end, the airflow velocity decreased to background level gradually, accompanied by a small range of fluctuations. therefore, under the action of windmachine with continuous oscillation, airflow velocity at each measurement point presented a trend of rise, fluctuation, and decline. figure 1. variation of air velocity 3.2 influence on temperature table 3 shows the average temperature at each height from 19:00 on december 4 to 7:00 on december 5 of thermal inversions. the average reversal intensity between the head of the machine (9 m) and the top of the tea canopy (0.85 m) during this period was 3.0℃. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 239 published by ideas spread only when the intensity of inversions reaches above 2.0℃ and the wind speed of background is lower than 2.0 m s-1 can the frost protection wind machine be turned on to achieve a better effect (renquist, et al., 1985; snyder, et al., 2005). the intensity of inversion and the background conditions met these requirements, so frost protection of the experiment was effective. table 3. average temperature at all heights height (m) 0.85 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 temperature (℃) -3.3 -2.4 -1.6 -1.3 -0.7 -0.4 -0.3 the curves showing the variation of temperature of control group are presented in figure 2. it can be seen that the temperature has the approximate trend with time at the three heights. however, the average temperature at 85 cm was 0.5℃ lower than that at 45 cm, meanwhile the average temperature at 45 cm was 0.1℃ lower than that at 5 cm. therefore, temperature decreased gradually with height, which was the opposite of thermal inversion. however, the inversion disappeared in the daytime. it was because the leaves of the upper canopy were completely exposed to the atmosphere with large influence by the micro meteorological factors such as wind speed, humidity, solar radiation in addition to the atmospheric conditions, while the leaves of the inner canopy were blocked by the upper canopy with less influence by the micro meteorological factors. figure 2. canopy temperature variation of control group the temperature rise of frost protection group corresponded to the temperature of different heights of control group. as presented in table 4, the statistical results show that temperature rise of different measurement points was different, but the measurement points with same distance from the machine and same height from the ground had similar temperature rise in value. affected by topography, crops and other environmental factors, there were slight differences. temperature rise decreased with the distance in the range of 20 ~ 40 m from the machine. however, temperature rise at 10 m and 20 m was not consistent with this correlation, because airflow velocity at 15 m was the largest, which had a greater impact on the range of 10 ~ 20 m. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 240 published by ideas spread table 4. average temperature rise of measurement points distance from machine (m) temperature rise (℃) group 1 height (cm) group 2 height (cm) group 3 height (cm) group 4 height (cm) 5 45 85 5 45 85 5 45 85 5 45 85 10 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.6 2.3 2.1 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.6 20 1.9 1.7 1.7 2.2 2.0 1.8 2.0 1.8 1.8 2.2 1.8 1.8 30 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.3 1.0 0.9 1.3 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.0 0.9 40 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.5 table 5 presents the average temperature rise at different heights from the ground. it can be seen that temperature rise at 5 cm was the highest and that at 85 cm was the lowest for each distance from the machine. the average temperature rise at 45 cm was 15.9% lower than that at 5 cm, and the average temperature rise at 85 cm was 5.7% lower than that at 45 cm. the results show that temperature rise gradually decreased with height above the ground, which might result from the thermal insulation of canopy. table 5. average temperature rise at different heights distance from machine (m) average temperature rise (℃) 5 cm 45 cm 85 cm 10 2.1 1.9 1.8 20 2.1 1.8 1.8 30 1.3 1.0 0.9 40 0.8 0.6 0.5 it was found that frost mainly accumulated on the leaves at the top of the canopy, as shown in figure 3. the phenomenon was caused by the different temperature rise and its own diversity of temperature with height of the canopy. it can be concluded that disturbed airflow enlarged the temperature difference between the top and the bottom of the canopy. therefore, in the application of frost protective methods and techniques, the tea leaves at the top of the canopy should be paid attention to especially. figure 3. frost accumulated on leaf surface as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 241 published by ideas spread 4. conclusion a frost protection windmachine with continuous oscillation was used in an experiment to understand its influence on microclimate modification in a tea field. within the distance of 10 ~ 15 m from the machine, airflow velocity and airflow-disturbed duration rose with the distance and then decreased within the distance of 15 ~ 40 m. for each measurement point, the airflow rose for 4 ~ 6 s, then fluctuated, and finally decreased to the background level. the temperature at the same distance from the machine was close, among which the 10 m and 20 m away from the machine increased greatly. temperature rise decreased with the distance from the machine between 20 and 40m. disturbed airflow enlarged the temperature difference between the top and the bottom of the canopy. the wind machine with continuous oscillation had coverage of 48000 m2 and was proved to be effective for tea frost protection. acknowledgments the authors are grateful for financial support from the jiangsu agriculture science and technology innovation fund (cx(16)1045) and key r&d program of jiangsu province (be2016354). references battany, m. c. 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(2015). optimal design of wind machine impeller for frost protection based on cfd and its field test on airflow disturbance. int. j. agr. biol. eng., 8(5), 43–49. https://doi.org/10.25165/ijabe.20150805.1415 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p109 109 published by ideas spread enzyme activity variability and comparison in soils under medicinal versus crop plants of anguo city, china wenke liu1 1 institute of environment and sustainable development in agriculture, chinese academy of agricultural sciences, key lab of energy conservation and waste management of agricultural structures, ministry of agriculture, beijing, china correspondence: wenke liu, institute of environment and sustainable development in agriculture, chinese academy of agricultural sciences, key lab of energy conservation and waste management of agricultural structures, ministry of agriculture, beijing, china. e-mail: liuwke@163.com received: march 25, 2020 accepted: april 6, 2020 online published: april 16, 2020 abstract long-term continuous cultivation of different plant species in a similar agroecosystem intensively may result in divergent variability in soil fertility, particularly soil biochemical properties. in this study, an investigation was conducted to clarify the variability of five soil enzyme activities (urease, protease, catalase, polyphenol oxidase and alkaline phosphatase) of croplands under medicinal plants (herbal fields) and food crops (crop fields) in anguo city, a traditional cultivation base for chinese medicinal plants in china. the results showed that five soil enzyme activities were similar between herbal and crop fields. however, soil urease and alkaline phosphatase activities of herbal and crop fields decreased significantly with soil depth (0-60 cm), while protease, catalase, polyphenol oxidase activities were similar in all soil layers for two kinds of fields. there were largely variation scenes at linear correlation analysis between soil physicochemical traits and enzymatic activities under medicinal plant versus crop fileds although extensively significant correlations were presented. in conclusion, soil enzyme activities were similar in two type of farmlands, and soil urease and alkaline phosphatase activities decreased with soil depth for both fields. inconsistent linear correlations between soil physicochemical traits and enzymatic activities under medicinal plant versus crop fields were presented, so soil enzymatic activity variation was subjected to soil physicochemical traits dominated by agronomic managements designed for specific plant species. keywords: enzyme activity, herbal field, crop field, soil fertility, soil depth 1. introduction soil enzymes are potential indicators of soil fertility because they did show us the status of soil biology and soil nutrient cycling in agroecosystems (dick 1994; dick et al.1996). they also indicate soil biochemical characteristics to understand the status and evolution of soil fertility and monitor the effects of soil management on long-term productivity (doran and parkin 1994; zeng et al.2008). nitrogen (n) and phosphorus (p) are essential macronutrients, in form of inorganic compounds and organic matter in soil. in soil, transformation and cycle of soil organic n and p are mainly catalyzed and driven by urease, protease and phosphatase. soil urease and protease promote soil hydrolytic processes of urea and protein materials into inorganic n, respectively (guan 1986). phosphatase controls the mineralization of soil esters of p to produce inorganic phosphate (speir and ross 1978). in addition, there still some important soil enzymes involved in soil redox processes. plant roots and microflora are sources of soil enzymes, dominating soil enzyme activities and the soil biology and biochemistry. soil enzyme activity responds rapidly to changes in soil management, and is affected by long-term agronomical management practices (dick et al. 1996, dick 1994), soil type, cropping system and so on. anna (1999) had showed that soil enzyme activities were generally higher in continuous grass fields than cultivated fields, and added organic amendments increased soil enzyme activities in cultivated systems. masciandaro (2004) showed that compost application increased agronomic yield due to release of nutrients for plant nutrition and soil metabolism. also, long-term application of organic fertilizer was more conducive to conserve the soil biochemical characters and environment quality (wang et al. 2007). under long-term fertilization conditions, organic manure plus chemical fertilizers increased soil enzyme activities significantly, and the effect of fertilization on black soil was higher than dark brown soil (jiao et al. 2011). compared with soybean and maize rotation or intercropping, continuous cropping soybeans and maize reduced soil urease activity (dai et al. 2013). up to date, many factors as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 110 published by ideas spread that affect soil enzyme activity in different agroecosystems had been revealed, however, the difference of soil enzyme activity in the same area under different crop species has not been reported. anguo city locates in taihang piedmont plain, belonging to hebei province, china. anguo city is famous for chinese medicinal plant cultivation lasting more than 400 years. nowadays, cropland and herbal land coexists together, and the percent of medicinal plant cultivation area exceeds 35% of the total arable land. in anguo city, the distribution of herbal fields and crop fields is concentrated, cross and adjacent over many years. currently, about 300 herbal plant species were cultivated on ten thousand hectares (chu et al. 2010). so, it is meaningful to investigate soil fertility evolution for guiding agronomy management to realize the sustainable development of medicinal plants cultivation in anguo city. however, previous reports were focused on status quo of soil nutrients (li et al. 2011; du et al. 2013), heavy metals (chu et al. 2010) and mycorrhizal fungi (zhao et al. 2010) issues of herb soil. no study has been carried out to investigate soil enzymatic activity of herb fields, meanwhile making a comparison with cropland field. our earlier work found that soil nitrate and available p of medicinal crop fields were higher than neighboring crop fields, while soil ph of cropland were higher than medicinal crop fields in anguo city (du et al. 2013). whereas, there is no information about soil enzyme activities and their differences of the fields growing medicinal crops and food crops in anguo city. within this context, the objectives of the study are a) to evaluate the spatial distribution characteristics of the five enzyme activities along three vertical soil layers in herbal fields and crop fields, and b) to compare the differences of five soil enzyme activities between herbal fields and crop fields. 2. materials and methods 2.1 field selection and soil sampling the investigation was carried out during 19-21 may, 2012 in anguo city. in order to evaluate enzyme (urease, protease, catalase(cat), polyphenol oxidase(ppo) and alkaline phosphatase(alp)) activity variability along 060 cm soil depth of herbal fields and their neighboring crop fields in anguo city, forty herbal fields and twenty neighboring crop fields was selected in ten villages of four townships for soil sampling. each sampling area is lesser and each field is about 0.01 ha, so the sampling number was chosen three. the three representative locations were selected in each field where soil sampling was conducted at three soil layers, i.e., 0-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm soil depths. soil samples from each location at same soil layer in one field were thoroughly mixed to obtain the representative samples. the sampling fields were growing twenty-one species of medicinal plants and two food crops including wheat and peanuts. detail information about sampling fields and the crop species planted in the sampling fields are listed in du et al. (2013). 2.2 determination methods soil samples were air-dried and passed through 2 mm sieve to test five enzyme activities including urease, protease, cat, ppo and alp. the enzyme activities were determined according to the methods described by tabatabai and bremner (1969) and guan (1986). soil urease activity was determined by phenol-sodium hypochlorite colorimetric method and was expressed as mg ammonia generated by per gram dry soil. soil protease activity was measured using ninhydrin-colorimetric and was expressed as mg glycine equivalents per gram soil. alp activity was determined using ammonium chloride-ammonium hydroxide (ph 9.8) as the buffer solution and disodium phenyl phosphate (0.5%, w·v-1) as the substrate and was expressed as mg of phenol equivalents per gram dry soil. soil cat activity was measured by titration method and was expressed as the amount of potassium permanganate solution (0.1 mol·l-1) that was consumed per gram dry soil. soil ppo activity was measured by iodometric titration and was expressed by the amount of standard iodine (0.005 mol·l-1）that was used to titrate equivalent 1g soil for filtrate. 2.3 data analysis data processing and analysis were made with excel 2007 and sas 8.2; t-test was used to examine the difference between soil enzyme activities of various depths, and herbal fields and crop fields. 3. results 3.1 soil enzyme activities in herbal and crop fields as shown in table 1, there were significant differences between soil urease and alp activities in herbal fields between three soil layers, and their activities decreased with increment in soil depth remarkably. urease and alp activities in 0-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm soil layers were 0.78-6.60, 0.48-5.22, and 0.26-2.66 mg·g-1, and 0.10-0.26, 0.06-0.18, and 0.05-0.13 mg·g-1, respectively. urease and alp activities of upper soil layers (0-20 cm or 40-60cm) were significantly higher than those of lower soil layers. soil protease activities along with the increase of soil as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 111 published by ideas spread depth gradually reduce and the cat and ppo activities increased with increasing soil depth, but there was no statistically significant difference of soil protease, cat, ppo activities between three soil layers of herbal fields. the same as herbal fields, there were significant differences between soil urease and alp activities in crop fields between three soil layers, and they decreased with increment in soil depth remarkably (table 1). urease and alp activities in 0-20, 20-40 and 40-60cm soil layers were 1.36-4.93, 0.77-3.50, and 0.39-2.68 mg·g-1, and 0.11-0.24, 0.07-0.13, and 0.05-0.12 mg·g-1, respectively. urease and alp activities of upper soil layers (0-20 cm or 40-60cm) were significantly higher than those of lower soil layers except alp activities between soil layers of 20-40cm versus 40-60cm. protease, cat and ppo activities had the similar change trend, namely the enzyme activities of the surface layer (0-20cm) were highest, the bottom layer(20-40cm) were center ,and the middle layer (2040cm)were slightly low, but there was no statistically significant difference of soil protease, cat, ppo activities between three soil layers of crop fields. table 1. soil urease, protease, cat, ppo, and alp activities at the three soil layers of herbal fields and crop fields soil enzymatic indices soil layers (cm) herbal fields mean ±sd crop fields mean±sd urease（mg·g-1） 0-20 2.94±1.37** 3.01±3.01** 20-40 1.82±0.90** 1.65±0.86** 40-60 1.07±0.59** 1.00±0.62** protease（mg·g-1） 0-20 14.29±9.21 15.96±8.74 20-40 11.35±6.79 11.33±6.36 40-60 10.76±5.90 11.45±9.31 cat （ml·g-1） 0-20 1.85±0.50 1.85±0.51 20-40 1.89±0.60 1.74±0.47 40-60 1.92±0.67 1.78±0.52 ppo（ml·g-1） 0-20 2.23±0.54 2.39±0.56 20-40 2.29±0.48 2.37±0.63 40-60 2.38±0.62 2.42±0.85 alp（mg·g-1） 0-20 0.15±0.03** 0.15±0.03** 20-40 0.10±0.02** 0.10±0.02** 40-60 0.09±0.02** 0.09±0.02 notes: * and ** indicate significant difference for the enzymatic activity among three soil layers at p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively. 3.2 comparison of soils enzyme activities of herbal and crop fields as shown in table 2, soil urease activities of 0-20cm soil layers in herbal fields were slightly below the crop fields, and the enzyme activities of 20-40cm and 40-60cm were opposite. protease activities in 020cm and 40-60cm soil layers of herbal fields were slightly below the crop fields in the same layers, and on the contrary of 20-40cm soil layers. cat activities in 0-20cm soil layers of herbal and crop fields were same, and the activities of 20-40cm and 40-60cm soil layers in herbal fields showed larger values than crop fields. ppo activities of three soil layers in herbal fields were slightly lower than crop fields of corresponding soil layers. soil alp activities of three soil layers in herbal and crop fields were similar. but the difference between herbal and crop fields at the three soil layers was not significant due to large variability. table 2. comparison of soil enzyme activities between herbal fields and crop fields soil enzymatic indices field types soil depth (cm) 0-20 20-40 40-60 urease（mg·g-1） herbal field 2.94 1.82 1.07 crop field 3.01 1.65 1.00 protease（mg·g-1） herbal field 14.29 11.35 10.76 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 112 published by ideas spread crop field 15.96 11.33 11.45 cat（ml·g-1） herbal field 1.85 1.89 1.92 crop field 1.85 1.74 1.78 ppo（ml·g-1） herbal field 2.23 2.29 2.38 crop field 2.39 2.37 2.42 alp（mg·g-1） herbal field 0.15 0.10 0.09 crop field 0.15 0.10 0.09 3.3 correlation of soil enzyme activities with soil physicochemical properties in herbal and crop fields according to the preliminary analysis of soil physical and chemical properties, carried out on soil enzyme activities and soil physical & chemical properties in herbal and crop fields. the correlation coefficients were listed in table 3. the table3 showed that soil urease activities of herbal fields were positively correlated with soil organic matter (som) and ph value, and the correlation of soil urease activities and alkali-hydrolysable nitrogen (a-h-n), available phosphorus (avail.-p), nitrate, water content were negative. protease activities were positively correlated with a-h-n, avail.-p and water content, and negatively correlated with ph and ec. alp activity and avail.-p, nitrate, water content were positively correlated, negatively related to ph.cat activities were positively correlated with a-h-n, nitrate, water content, and the correlation between cat activities and som was power exponent, the formula was y1=0.3653x10.2153.the correlation of cat activities and avail.-p was quadratic polynomial, the formula was y2=-4.763x22+14.34x2+12.065.there were no correlation between ppo activities and all soil physical properties. soil urease activities in crop fields were negatively correlated with a-h-n and water content. soil protease activities were positively related to avail.-p and nitrate, and were negatively related to a-h-n. alp activities and avail.-p were positively related, and the correlation of alp activities and water content was quadratic polynomial, the formula was y3 = 4.2382 x320.9677x3 + 0.1921.cat activities were positively correlated with a-h-n and water content. ppo activities were positively correlated with avail.-p and nitrate content, and the correlation of soil ph, ec , water content and som were quadratic polynomial, the formulas were y4=0.3334x421.5323x4+8.543, y5=33.987x52-148.76x5+278.72, and y6=0.0242x62-0.1148x6+0.2676, y7=0.099x72+0.5571x7-0.1974, respectively. in the above seven formulas, y1,y2,y3,y4,y5,y6 and y7 represented som and avail.-p in herbal fields, avail.-p, ph, ec, water content and som, respectively. the x1and x2 represented cat activities in herbal fields, x3 represented alp activities in crop fields, x4,x5,x6,x7 represented cat activities in crop fields. table 3. correlative coefficients between soil enzyme activities and soil physicochemical properties of herbal fields and crop fields soil physicochemical properties soil enzyme activities of herbal fields (n=120) soil enzyme activities of crop fields (n=60) urease protease alp cat ppo urease protease alp cat ppo o.m. content 0.29** 0.04 0.07 0.18* 0.03 0.02 0.18 0.20 0.01 0.32** ahn content 0.32** 0.43** 0.14 0.27** 0.12 0.33** 0.30* 0.18 0.32** 0.07 avail.-p content 0.33** 0.27** 0.57** 0.18* 0.09 0.001 0.43** 0.43** 0.10 0.28* nitrate content 0.24** 0.03 0.19** 0.19* 0.02 0.07 0.45** 0.09 0.14 0.27* ph 0.18** 0.41** 0.18** 0.11 0.22 0.04 0.15 0.11 0.002 0.37** ec 0.07 0.17* 0.02 0.0007 0.03 0.08 0.10 0.004 0.10 0.51** water content 0.34** 0.12 0.23** 0.31** 0.02 0.41** 0.08 0.25** 0.56** 0.44** note: * and ** indicate significant difference of the correlation between soil enzyme activities and soil physicochemical properties of herbal fields and crop fields at p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 113 published by ideas spread 4. discussion the current results showed that soil urease and alp activities decreased with soil depth both in herbal and crop fields. taylor (2002) found that in sandy soils enzymatic activities decreased with depth, and positive correlations were found between enzyme activities and som content. franken and dick (1983) showed that alp activities were significantly related to microbial respiration, while urease activities were not significantly correlated to microbial respiration, alp activities were highly correlated with microbial biomass. lan (2011) found that urease activities were positively related to soil organic carbon, nitrogen and avail-p. this is consistent with previous studies. in the preliminary study, du et al. (2013) showed that soil nutrients and electrical conductivity (ec) of fields under medicinal plants decreased with soil depth. agricultural activities are concentrated in the surface layer(0-20cm), and the oxygen content and fertilizers were concentrated in 0-20cm soil layers, so the number of rhizosphere microbial was large and more frequent activity, and increased with soil enzyme activities accordingly. with increasing soil depth, soil microbial quantity and som content decreased gradually, ultimately led to soil enzyme activities decreasing. there was no significant difference in five soil enzyme activities between herbal fields and crop fields in various soil layers. the previous results showed that soil nutrients (nitrate, avail.-p contents), and soil chemical properties (ec and ph) differed largely between herbal fields and crop fields. however, no difference was found with respect to som and soil water content (du et al. 2013). we suggest that the similar of som and microbial species due to long-time distribution caused no difference between enzyme activities under two kinds of utilization ways. both in herbal and crop fields, alp activities were increased with the content of avail.-p. soil ureas activities of herbal fields were increased with som content, however, in crop fields soil urease activities were not significant relative with som content. fan (2002) showed that soil urease activities increased with soil organic carbon, and alp activities closely related to the content of avail.-p. their findings can be supported by our results. annual organic additions generally stimulated the size of microbial biomass carbon and enzyme activity and may be more efficient in maintaining long-term soil productivity with repeated applications or in combination with inorganic fertilizers (lalande 1998). 5. conclusions this study presents some novel findings on soil enzyme activity differences between herbal fields and crop fields under the long-term cultivation practices in anguo city, china. first, soil enzyme activities were similar in the two type lands cultivated herbal plants and food crops, respectively. secondly, the urease and alp activities were sensitive to soil depth both for herbal and crop fields, though the variability of other three enzyme activities in soil depth was not significant. moreover, soil enzymatic activity variation may subject to many soil physicochemical traits developed during cultivation of medicinal plants and crops during the long-term production. acknowledgements i want to thank jiaojiao zhao, a master student, for her soil sampling and soil pretreatment. references bandick, a. k., & dick, r. p. 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(2008). effect of longterm fertilization and tillage system on soil enzyme activities. china soil and fertilizer, (2), 27-30. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p104 104 published by ideas spread effects of dicalcium phosphate (dcp) and vitamin e on growth performance and hemato-biochemical parameters in broilers tairan ikbal1 & sumitra saha2 1 veterinary surgeon, upazila livestock office, tarail, kishoreganj, bangladesh 2assistant professor, department of biotechnology, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh correspondence: tairan ikbal, veterinary surgeon, upazila livestock office, tarail, kishoreganj, bangladesh. tel: 88-017-2368-9360. e-mail: tairanikbal@gmail.com received: june 9, 2020 accepted: july 10, 2020 published: august 4, 2020 abstract this study was conducted to assess the effect of dcp and vitamin e supplementation on body weight, hematological(tec, hb content, pcv and esr) and biochemical (ast and alt) parameters of “cobb 500” broiler. a total of 20 chicks (14 days old) were reared and randomly divided into four equal groups (n=5). body weight was measured at each 7 days interval up to the end of the 35 days of experimental period. group a was considered as control, fed with commercial ration. group b, c and d were treated with 1 gm dcp per kg feed, 1 ml vitamin e per litre of drinking water, and 1 gm dcp per kg feed plus 1 ml vitamin e per litre of drinking water with commercial ration, respectively from day 14 to day 35. it was observed that dcp and vitamin e supplementation significantly (p<0.01) increased body weight. moreover, tec and hb content increased significantly (p<0.01) in the treated groups as compared to control. besides, esr, ast and alt values decreased significantly (p<0.01) in the treated groups. therefore, it may be concluded that dcp and vitamin e could be used to improve body weight gain and blood profiles without any detrimental effect to liver and muscle on broilers. keywords: broiler, body weight, dicalcium phosphate, vitamin e, hematological parameters, biochemical parameters 1. introduction as a part of commercial poultry enterprise, broiler production is growing rapidly in bangladesh. broiler production reveals the fact of maximum return from minimum cost. about 6 million people directly or indirectly engaged with poultry production and its other support services (ansarey, 2012). poultry can significantly contribute to food security because this is one of the vital sources of high-quality protein, minerals, vitamins and micronutrients. poultry meat alone contributes approximately 37% of the total meat production and 22-27% animal protein supplied in bangladesh (hamid et al., 2017). therefore, it provides a large part of increasing demand for protein, cash income and employment opportunities through the production and marketing of broiler in bangladesh (hamid et al., 2017). despite these advantages, broiler sector continuously faces the challenge of nutritional deficiencies, which causes mortality and reduction of body growth and body resistance level etc. (rashid et al., 2015). nutritional deficiencies are concerned with vitamin and mineral which occur in ordinary ration. the optimum vitamin-mineral premix supplementations are required for poultry and formulating premixes are to be necessary (mcdowell, 2000). vitamin and mineral play an essential role in efficient broiler production. among the vitamins, vitamin e is essential for the integrity and optimum function of the reproductive, muscular, circulatory, nervous and immune system (sheffy and williams, 1981 and mac dwell et al.,1996). it is well established that some functions of vitamin e, however, can be fulfilled in part or entirely by traces of selenium or by certain synthetic antioxidants. it also plays a vital role in improving health, by enhancing both cell-mediated and humoral immune functions (rizvi et al., 2014). moreover, the antioxidant properties of vitamin e have been investigated regarding its vital role in the prevention of diseases, which occur as a result of protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation via a free radical mechanism (colombo, 2010; rizvi et al., 2014). vitamin e is broadly recognized for its positive effects on the meat quality and immune response of broiler chickens (gao et al., 2010). furthermore, in recent years the importance of certain trace minerals in immune function has become increasingly evident. selenium, copper, zinc, cobalt and iron have been shown to alter various components of the immune system (suttle and jones, 1989). it has been observed that mineralization and body growth were reduced in the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 105 published by ideas spread absence of ca. p, mg and vitamin d (hart et al., 1930). calcium and phosphorus are the principal components of skeleton of broiler. calcium is concerned in blood clotting and in the control of metabolic rate at which the vital processes are carried out and in nervous control. phosphorus is needed for the muscular energy, digestion of oils and fats, and making new body cells for growth and reproduction. calcium and phosphorus are closely concerned with metabolic diseases. the low level of calcium and phosphorus in the body may be associated with either deficiency or impaired ability to mobilize reserved within the body. besides, their roles as an electrolyte are essential in tissue metabolism clinically as a reference to a pathological condition. these may be involved in osteodystrophy, rickets, pseudo-rickets, osteoporosis, infertility, and other conditions (driver et al., 2006). these components of the mineral should be checked carefully in the broiler ration. the concentration of calcium and phosphorus might be influenced by many factors like age, sex, status, seasons, and breed. many studies have done on the effect of vitamin e on broiler ration (al-gamal et al., 2013; gao et al., 2010; khan et al., 2011). watson et al., (2006) determined the effects of phytase on growth performance and intestinal transit time in chicks fed nutritionally adequate diets and diets deficient in ca and nonphytase. they reported that reduction in dietary ca and p reduced (p<0.01) average daily gain, average daily feed intake in diets deficient in ca and p and in the nutritionally adequate diets. they also suggested that chicks fed the nutritionally adequate diet may be due to a faster transit time of feed through the digestive tract, resulting in a higher feed intake and body weight gain. toss et al., (2003) showed that addition of vitamin e, vitamin c alone or the combination of vitamin e and vitamin c corrected the adverse effects of ochratoxicosis on body weight gain and hematological parameters and during values to about that of the control. ochratoxin increased serum levels of alkaline phosphatase (ap), alanine aminotransferase (alt) and aspartate aminotransferase (ast) activities and uric acid, creatinine, triglyceride, very-low-density lipoproteins (vldl) and free fatty acid concentration in the exposed chickens. they found ration with vitamin e alone or combination with vitamin c improved the case except for serum ap and alt. however, due to the controversial results regarding vitamin e effects on broiler growth performance (pompeu et al., 2018; lu et al., 2014), there is few reliable experimental evidence about the performance of the selected vitamin and mineral on the broiler chickens. considering all of these issues the present study was carried out to investigate the effect of dicalcium phosphate (dcp) and vitamin e supplementation on growth, hematological parameters (rbc, hb, pcv and esr), and on serum biochemical values (calcium, phosphorus, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase) of broiler. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental design the experiment was conducted to study the effect of dcp and vitamin e on “cobb 500” broilers from 14 to 35 days of age. a total of twenty broiler chicks ageing 14 days were used. these broilers were randomly divided into four equal groups (n=5). the initial body weight of each bird was recorded and caged group wise. one out of four experimental groups was considered as a control group (group a) and was fed commercial ration. group b was fed with supplementation of dcp (dcp plus) at 1 gm/kg feed; group c was fed with vitamin e supplementation at 1 ml/litre drinking water and group d was supplemented with both dcp at 1 gm/kg feed plus vitamin e at 1 ml/litre drinking water for next 21 days. 2.2 parameter measured the growth performance data (body weight of individual bird) was recorded at 7 days interval at the age of 14, 21, 28 and 35 days old. the physical appearances were observed during the experimental period and at the end of the experimental period the broilers were sacrificed to collect blood samples for hematological (tec, hb, esr and pcv) and biochemical (calcium, phosphorus, ast and alt) studies. for this purpose, about 3 ml of blood was collected from the wing vein of chicken into sterile glass test tubes and then were centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 15 minutes to have a more clear serum from the blood. the serum was then collected in the screw cap serum vial and stored at -20ºc until time of chemical analysis. 2.2.1 determination of total erythrocyte count (tec) the counting and calculation of erythrocytes were performed. for erythrocyte count, dry clean red pipette was dipped into the blood and exactly 0.5 mark blood was drawn into the pipette. then the tip of the pipette was cleaned by cotton and immediately placed into hayem’s solution and was filled up to 101 marks. the pipette was mixed thoroughly by using an electric shaker for 5minutes. the cells were counted from the recognized 80 small squares under high power objective (45x) in microscope and was calculated accordingly. the unit was expressed in millions per mm3 of blood. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 106 published by ideas spread 2.2.2 estimation of haemoglobin (hb) 0.1n hydrochloric acid (hcl) was taken in the graduated diluting tube up to 2 gm mark with the help of a dropper. exactly 0.02 ml of sample blood was added directly into the diluting fluid by sahli pipette. distilled water was added drop-by-drop and stirred continuously until the color of the content matches to the standard color of the comparator. the haemoglobin (hb) was recorded within 10 minutes. 2.2.3 determination of packed cell volume (pcv) for calculating packed cell volume, wintrobe’s tubes were placed in the centrifuge machine and centrifuged @ 3000 rpm for 30 minutes. then the hematocrit of pcv was recorded. the percent volume occupied by the hematocrit was calculated by using the following formula: pcv (%) =height of the red cell column in cmheight of total blood in cm × 100 2.2.4 determination of erythrocyte sedimentation rate (esr) the citrated blood was placed into the wintrobe’s hematocrit tube by using wintrobe’s pippete exactly up to the 0 (zero) mark. then the filled tubes were placed vertically in the wooden rack. after elapsing one hour the erythrocytes sedimentation rate was recorded from the top of the pipette. the result was expressed in mm in first hour. 2.2.5 determination of biochemical parameters the biochemical characteristics of blood were determined by using spectrophotometer. a rapid colorimetric method as described by tsao (1952) was used for the determination of serum calcium, which is based on a colour reaction of the calcium ion. serum phosphate was determined based on the molybdivanadate method for orthophosphate as described by kitson and mellon (1944). the method is based upon the yellow colour formed when an excess of molybdate is added to an acidified solution of orthophosphate and vanadate. this method is less sensitive than the molybdenum blue methods, but is adequate for most biological applications, and has a great advantage of providing a stable solution for colorimetry (simonsen et al., 1946). spectrophotometric detection of ast and alt was used in this study as it is the widely adopted clinical standard method in the serum concentration of ast and alt determination (hsueh et al., 2011). 2.3 statistical analysis all data were compiled and tabulated for statistical analysis which was done with the help of mstat, statistical analysis software. the comparisons of means among the treatments were made by using duncan’s multiple range test (steel and torrie, 1984). the result was presented by mean±sd and p-value of <0.01 considered as significant. 3. result and discussions 3.1 effect of dcp and vitamin e on body weight the body weight of each bird was measured with the help of balance on the age of 14 day (0 day experiment) and sequentially 7 days interval up to the end of the experiment. body weight of different groups of birds is presented in figure 1. body weight on 14 days of age was more or less similar and ranged from 528 gm to 554 gm in four different groups. data catalogued on days 21, 28 and 35 shows that the body weight increased significantly (p<0.01) in all groups with advancement of age. on the day of 21, the highest body weight recorded in group d (993.6±7.16 gm) and lowest body weight recorded in controlled group a (878±10.72 gm). similarly, the highest body weights were recorded in treated group d on both 28 days (14th day of the experiment) and 35 days (21th day of experiment). the body weight increased slowly in the control group a (65.28%) in respective day of experiment but increased at a higher rate in the treated groups b (68.65%), c (67.64%), and d (70.40%) than control group a. the significant body weight gain in the treated groups might be due to increased digestibility of dry matter, crude protein nitrogen. gao et al., (2010) and selim et al., (2013) identified that biological antioxidant, vitamin e, could contribute to improve growth, physiological, and immunological performance in broiler chickens as it has the ability to neutralize free radicals and reduce lipid peroxidation in both the plasma and skeletal muscle. rashid et al., (2015) shown that vitamin and mineral supplementation increased body weight gain in broiler. lauzon et al., (2008) determined the effect of vitamin e on growth performance and liver vitamin e concentrations of broilers. they found that increased concentration of vitamin e increases the liver alpha-tocopherol concentrations. the present experiment result concluded that the highest body weight found in group d indicates the synergistic effect of dcp and vitamin e. this finding contradicts with the reported of preston et al., (2000) who found that dcp inclusion did not improve performance. this work also differs from the earlier report that weight gain and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 107 published by ideas spread feed efficacy were not affected by the excess supplementation of vitamin e or lysine for broiler that fed a cornsoybean diet. figure 1. body weight on different days of treatment with commercial feed (group a), fed with dcp (group b), fed with vitamin e (group c) and fed with both dcp and vitamin e (group d) in broilers (n= 5 in each group). feed with dcp supplementation at 1 gm/kg, vitamin e at 1 ml/litre of drinking water, dcp and vitamin e at 1 gm/kg feed and 1 ml/litre of drinking water, respectively. data are expressed as mean ± sd. 3.2 effects of dcp and vitamin e on hematological parameters the effects of dcp and vitamin e on hematological parameters are presented in the table 1. the tec in control group a was 2.93±0.04 million/mm3, and in the treated group b was 3.54±0.05 million/mm3, group c was 3.44±0.03 million/mm3 and group d was 3.64±0.03 million/mm3. the highest tec was found in the broiler group of d (3.64±0.03 million/mm3) and lowest in the control group a (2.93±0.04 million/mm3). all the values of treated groups were significantly (p<0.01) higher than the control group a. similar to tec, maximum values of hb content and packed cell volume (pcv) value found in group d. in contrast lowest values found in control group a. all the values of treated groups were significantly (p<0.01) higher than the control group a. at final day of experiment esr value of groups a, b, c, and d were 6.17±0.04 mm, 5.87±0.07 mm, 5.7±0.12 mm and 3.59±0.18 mm in 1st hour, respectively. all the values of treated groups were significantly (p<0.01) decreased than the control group a. the hematological parameters remained within normal range but differ significantly with the control group. the hematological parameters are unchanged by treatment groups of dietary protein level. the increased level of total erythrocyte count, haemoglobin content and packed cell volume might be due to effects on hematopoietic organs. the hematological parameters in present findings reported that the number of erythrocyte and other components of blood varied due to sex, environment, exercise, nutritional status and climate. similar results were reported by abida et al., (2017). however, the present finding differs from the earlier study of (trans et al., 2000), who observed no significant effect of vitamin e supplementation on any of the hematological parameters (tec, hb, pcv and esr). besides, decreased esr value might be due to improved colloidal state by increased level of amino acid supplementation. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 14 days (pretreatment) 21 days 28 days 35 days bo dy w ei gh t ( gm ) days a b c d as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 108 published by ideas spread table 1. hematological parameters in broilers (n=5 in each group) after treating with dcp and vitamin e groups rbc (million/mm3) (mean±sd) haemoglobin content (gm/dl) (mean±sd) packed cell volume (%) (mean±sd) esr mm in 1st hour (mean±sd) a (fed commercial ration) 2.93±0.04d 7.29±0.17d 2.15±0.65c 6.17±0.04d b (fed dcp @ 1gm/kg feed) 3.54±0.05c 8.81±0.25c 25.49±0.20c 5.87±0.07b c (fed vitamin e @ 1 ml/l drinking water) 3.44±0.03b 8.6±0.20b 25.3±0.52b 5.7±0.12c d (fed dcp @ 1gm/kg feed) plus vitamin e @ 1 ml/l drinking water) 3.64±0.03a 8.87±0.31a 26.27±0.57a 3.59±0.18a note: a-d means with different letters in the same column differ significantly (p<0.01) 3.3 effect of dcp and vitamin e on biochemical parameters the effects of dcp and vitamin e on biochemical parameters are presented in table 2, figure 2 and figure 3 which indicate that at final day of experiment (day 35) the serum calcium level was 8.05±0.05 mg/dl in group a (control group). however, in the treated groups the values were 9.70±0.06 mg/dl, 9.82±0.05 mg/dl, 10.43±0.13 mg/dl in group b, group c, and group d, respectively. the highest serum calcium level was found in group d and lowest serum calcium level found in group a. data available in the treated group were more or less similar but higher than group a. moreover, at the final day of the experiment (day 35), the serum phosphorus level was found 4.93±0.06 mg/dl in control group a whereas in treated groups the values were 5.75±0.05 mg/dl, 7.05±0.05 mg/dl, 7.34±0.07 mg/dl. the highest serum phosphorus level was found in group d and lowest serum calcium level was found in group a. table 2. biochemical parameters in broilers (n=5 in each group) after treating with dcp & vitamin e groups calcium(mg/dl) (mean±se) phosphorus(mg/dl) (mean±se) ast(u/l) (mean±se) alt(u/l) (mean±se) a (fed commercial ration) 8.05±0.05d 4.93±0.06d 334.494±0.2c 6.28±0.36a b (fed dcp @ 1gm/kg feed) 9.70±0.06c 5.75±0.05c 311.69±0.3c 4.25±0.20b c (fed vitamin e @ 1 ml/l drinking water) 9.82±0.05b 7.05±0.05b 305.388±0.5b 4.588±0.09c d (fed dcp @ 1gm/kg feed) plus vitamin e @ 1 ml/l drinking water) 10.43±0.13a 7.34±0.07a 283.388±0.7c 4.28±0.12d note: a-d means with different letters in the same column differ significantly (p<0.01) the present work resembled hemme et al., (2005) worked on inorganic phosphorus sources monocalcium phosphate (dcp) and defluorinated phosphate diets contained up to 9 gm calcium, 6 gm phosphorus per kg, vitamin e, comparable energy and nutrient contents. in both trials, body weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion were proved as well as the calcium and phosphorus levels in serum in the balance trial the retention of calcium and phosphorus were determined by calculation as well as by analysis of body composition. on a highperformance level, the addition of dcp and vitamin e resulted in significantly reduced phosphorus availability. the significantly reduced phosphorus level in serum indicates the lower phosphorus retention in broilers. it was interesting that the phosphorus level in the serum markedly reflected the different concentrations of available phosphorus in the diet. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 109 published by ideas spread figure 2. effects of dcp and vitamin e on serum calcium and phosphorus levels. note: group a was fed commercial ration. group b was fed with supplementation of dcp (dcp plus) at 1 gm/kg feed; group c was fed with vitamin e supplementation at 1 ml/litre drinking water and group d was supplemented with both dcp at 1 gm/kg feed plus vitamin e at 1 ml/litre drinking water. data are expressed as mean ± sd. figure 3. effects of dcp and vitamin e on ast and alt concentration levels. note: group a was fed commercial ration. group b was fed with supplementation of dcp (dcp plus) at 1 gm/kg feed; group c was fed with vitamin e supplementation at 1 ml/litre drinking water and group d was supplemented with both dcp at 1 gm/kg feed plus vitamin e at 1 ml/litre drinking water. data are expressed as mean ± sd. aspartate aminotransferase (ast) concentration the ast concentration in different groups of birds was presented in table 2 and figure 3. at final day of experiment (35 days of age), the ast concentration level was 334.494±0.2 u/l in control group a and in treatment groups the values were 311.69±0.3 u/l in group b, 305.388±0.5 u/l in group c, and 283.388±0.7 u/l in group d respectively. the highest values was found in group a and lowest found in treated group d. it has concluded from the experiment that sgot/ast concentration was decreased in all treatment groups in comparison to the control group (group a). however, the value of treated group b was not significantly decreased than the control group a. all the values of ast in group c and d were decreased significantly (p<0.01) than the control group a. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 calcium phosphorus m g/ dl a b c d 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 ast alt u /l a b c d as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 110 published by ideas spread alanine aminotransferase (alt) concentration the alt concentration in different groups of birds is presented in table 2 and figure 2. at the final day of the experiment (35 days of age), the concentration level of alt in control group a was 6.28±0.36 u/l, and in the treatment group b was 4.25±0.20 u/l, group c was 4.588±0.09 u/l and group d was 4.28±0.12 u/l (table 2 and figure 3). the highest alt was in group a, and lowest in group d. all the values of treated groups were significantly (p<0.01) decreased than the control group, a. among the treated groups b, c and d the alt values were more or less similar and comparisons among them were found insignificant. the significantly reduced ast, alt concentration level, as observed in the present study, implies good health conditions with less muscle damage by increase supplementation of protein. 4. conclusion the results of this study demonstrated the effect of dcp and vitamin e supplementation on growth performance, hematological parameters, and serum biochemical values of broilers. it was observed that supplementation enhanced the growth of broilers and the highest growth (body weight) was observed in group d (where feed was supplemented with 1g dcp/kg feed plus 1g vitamin e/l drinking water). blood parameters like tec, hb concentration and pcv values increased significantly (p<0.01) in the treated groups (b, c, and d) as compared to the control group a. however, esr values and biochemical parameters like ast and alt values were decreased significantly (p<0.01) in the treated groups in comparison to that of the control group. therefore, it can be concluded that dcp and vitamin e supplementation are essential for rapid muscle development, synthesis of amino acids, proper digestion of feedstuffs, more use of low-quality feed, expected body growth. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. references abida, p., khan, s. h., khawaja, t., iftikhar, n., & khan, s. 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(2006). the effects of phytase on growth performance and intestinal transit time of broiler fed nutritionally adequate diets and diets deficient in calcium and phosphorus, poultry science, 85(3), 493-497. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p162 162 published by ideas spread extent of involvement of women in dairy farming activities in oyo state, nigeria adebisi gbadebo luqman1, popoola moshood abiola1, olaniyi taiwo anne1, aladegbaye mercy ifeoluwa1, aigbe festus odunayo1, owoade solomon adebayo1, soyewo imoleayo enitan1 & ayodele victor adewale1 1 federal college of animal health and production technology, moor plantation, ibadan, nigeria correspondence: popoola moshood abiola, federal college of animal health and production technology, moor plantation, ibadan, nigeria. e-mail: popoola_abiola@yahoo.com received: april 21, 2020 accepted: april 28, 2020 online published: may 5, 2020 abstract the study was conducted to evaluate extent of involvement of women in dairy production in oyo state. two stage sampling procedure was used for the study with 112 questionnaires administered through a scheduled interview to obtain information from the respondents. data were collected on socio-economic characteristics, dairy production enterprise of the respondents and their extent of involvement in dairy production activities. data collected were subjected to descriptive statistics and regression analysis. the result of the study showed that most of the respondents were older than 25 years; they were muslims, married, had no formal education and had 5-7 members as household size. the study further revealed that women were more involved in marketing activities (93.2%) and processing activities (92.4%) while they had low involvement in daily management activities and health activities of dairy cattle. the overall involvement index of the respondents show that most (91.1%) of the respondents had high involvement in dairy production activities. based on the result of the study, it was concluded that most of the respondents were highly involved in processing and marketing of dairy products; they were not involved in daily management and health activities of dairy cattle. it was further concluded that the overall involvement index of the respondents was high in dairy production enterprise. income and secondary occupation were significant factors influencing extent of involvement in dairy production enterprise. keywords: activities, cattle, dairy, enterprises, involvement, women 1. introduction nigeria is one of the leading countries in cattle production in sub-saharan africa, the country had over 14.73 million cattle consisting of 1.47 million milking cows and 13.26 million beef cattle (tibi and aphunu, 2010). cattle production sector is performing a vital role in the economies of many developing countries where it is a source of animal protein (food), income, employment and foreign exchange. for small income producers, it provides draught power and organic fertilizer for crop production; serves as store of wealth and means of transportation as well (garcia et al., 2003). cattle accounted for about 77% of the milk produced and so dairying is considered to have the potential to bring steady income. the importance of milk and milk products for the physical and nutritional benefit is universally recognized (sethi, 2013). dairy sector is performing a vital role in the economies of many developing countries where it is a source of animal protein, income, employment and foreign exchange. dairy have been described as an asset that women can own more easily and that have the potential to contribute to a reduction in the gender asset gap within households (kristjanson et al., 2010). it is often easier for many women in developing countries to acquire animals, whether through inheritance, markets or collective action processes, than it is for them to purchase land or other physical assets or to control other financial assets (rubin and missokia, 2006). various micro level studies highlight women's significant role in dairy production (khin, 2005; savitha, 2004). it is a proven fact that the role of farm women is worthy enough in comparison with their male counterparts. women are the prime decision makers in dairy production activities such as utilization of milk, care of pregnant animal and calves, bringing of fodder and feeding concentrates (veeranna and singh, 2004). gender issue shape the totality of production, distribution and consumption within an economy but have often been overlooked in a value chain development, from production, processing and marketing (gour, 2002). according to wadear et al., (2003), lots of factors hold women back and needs to be reversed such as lack of education, unequal property rights, exclusion in decision making and limited control over resources. in nigeria, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 163 published by ideas spread the pastoralists who are majorly fulani do not reckon with decision of women in cattle production, this gender gap has limited roles and contribution of women in dairy value chain. an understanding of role of women dairy farmers, and importance is a prerequisite to devising policies to improve productivity and socio-economic development. thus, this study was designed to evaluate the involvement of women in dairy farming activities in oyo state, nigeria. 2. methods the study was conducted in oyo state; it is located in the south-west geopolitical zone of nigeria. it consists of 33 local government areas (lgas). the state covers a land area of 28,454 square kilometers with a population of 5.6 million people npc, (2006) with climatic conditions that favour agriculture. the wet season is from april to october, with the mean temperature of 27°c. the dry season is between november and march. the mean annual rainfall is 1,194mm in the north and 1,264mm in the south. within oyo state, the zebu cattle (white fulani and other zebu breeds) are herded in the lowlands, amidst land progressively used for crop production. the major crops grown in the state include cassava, maize, yam, sorghum, cocoa, cocoyam, melon, peppers, soybean and okro; major livestock reared in the state include; cattle, sheep, goat and poultry. a two-stage sampling procedure was adopted for this study. the first stage involved purposive selection of nine local government areas (lgas) where dairy farmers were predominant in the state. the areas are ido, iseyin, lagelu, saki, east, saki west, ibarapa east, oyo west itesiwaju, and ogbomosho north. list of these farmers was generated in each of these lga from their associations. the second stage involved random selection of at least 10 members who are women from the list in each of the lga to give 112 women as respondents. a wellstructured interview schedule was used to obtain information from these respondents. data were collected on socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, their dairy cattle production enterprises and their extent of involvement in dairy production. the extent of involvement of respondents was obtained by measuring their involvement in dairy activities which are divided into four aspect viz; management, health, processing and marketing activities. this extent of involvement was grouped on 3 points scale as regularly, occasionally and never and scores were given as 3, 2 and 1 respectively. the aggregate involvement score of each respondent was obtained by adding the respective score for each item. based on the total score obtained by the respondents, involvement index was estimated by using the following formula according to sowjanya, (2014): involvement index = x 100 based on the responses of the respondents, frequencies and percentages was calculated. maximum score obtained by respondents from the index was indicated as higher or lower participation in different activities of dairy which was used to categorize respondents’ involvement in the dairy production activities as high or low (sowjanya, 2014). data were subjected to descriptive statistics (mean, frequency and percentage) and regression analysis using spss (v.21). 3. results table 1 shows the socio economic characteristics of the respondents. result revealed that most (40.2%) of the respondents were older than 25 years, followed by those within age range of 16 – 20 years (10.7%) and the least (2.7%) were those who were less than 5 years old. the mean age of the respondents was 25.7 years. majority of the respondents were married (72.3 %%); this is expected with result obtained for their age. married respondents are likely to be under pressure to produce more, not only for family consumption but also for sale. all the respondents were muslims with most (73.2%) having no formal education, 25% of them had primary education, few (1.8%) of the respondents had secondary education. the result of household size of respondents showed that majority of the respondents had household size between 5-7 members (38.4%), 27.7% had household size of between 8-10 members, while 9.8% had household size of between 11-13 members as the least. the mean household size was 9. the result further revealed that half (50%) of the respondents earned more than n18,000 – n 22, 000 as income followed by those who earned (34.8%) earned less than n18000,(7.1%) earned above n32000, (5.4%) and (2.7%)earned between n23000-n27000 and n28000-n32000. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 164 published by ideas spread table 1. socio economic characteristics of respondents result for dairy cattle production characteristics of the respondents is presented in table 2. the result revealed that majority (23.2%) of the respondents had 9-12 years of dairy production experience, 21.4% had less than 5 years’ experience, 16.1% had 5-8 years and 17-29 years of experience respectively, 14.3% had >21 years’ experience and 8.9% had 13-16 years’ experience. the result also revealed that 25.0% of the respondent had more than 50 herds of cattle, 21.4% had 31-40 herds of cattle, 20.5% had herds of 41-50 cattle, 17.9% had 21-30herd of cattle, 11.6% had 10-20herd of cattle, while the least was 3.6% of the respondents with less than 10 herds of cattle. more than half of the respondents got their cattle through inheritance (75.0%), some (23.3%) got their cattle through gift and few (0.9%) of the respondents got through contracts. most of the respondents (99.1%) possess white fulani cattle while few (0.9%) possess red bororo breed. result further revealed that respondents possessed other livestock species like sheep (26.8%); 25.0% possessed chicken and sheep, (15.2%) possessed chicken, 8.9% possessed chicken with goat, 7.1% possessed chicken and guinea fowl, 6.2% possessed chicken and guinea fowl 6.2%, and 1.8% possessed sheep and goat. furthermore, major purpose of cattle production of most of the respondents (64.3%) was for milk production. table 2. cattle production enterprise for daily respondents variables frequency percentage mean years of experience <5 24 21.4 5-8 18 16.1 9-12 26 23.2 13-16 10 8.9 17-20 18 16.1 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 165 published by ideas spread >20 16 14.3 herd size <10 4 3.6 10-20 13 11.6 21-30 20 17.9 50 31-40 24 21.4 41-50 23 20.5 >50 28 25.0 breeds of cattle red bororo 1 0.9 white fulani 111 99.1 sources of cattle purchased 1 0.9 gift 26 23.2 inheritance 84 75.0 contract 1 0.9 other livestock species raised chicken 17 15 goat 8 7.1 sheep 32 28.6 chicken and goat 10 8.9 chicken and guinea fowl 8 7.1 chicken and sheep 28 25.0 goat and guinea fowl 7 6.2 goat and sheep 2 1.8 purposes of cattle production status quo 6 5.4 status quo and cultural purposes 2 1.8 ceremonies 1 0.9 milk and meat production 19 17.0 milk production 72 64.3 milk production and cultural purposes 6 5.4 milk production, status quo and cultural purposes 6 5.4 the result in table 3 shows the extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production. for daily management activities, the result revealed that the respondents were not regularly involved in daily management activities and were occasionally involved in cleaning of cattle (51.8%), cleaning the animal shed (58.%),washing of pen (54.5%). however respondents never involved in taking animals for grazing (95.5%), feeding and giving of water to animals (53.6%), fodder and feed storage (100%), preparation of feed and feed concentrates (100%), construction of animal shed (62.5%), disposal of animal wastes (79.5%) and maintaining farm and dairy records (95.5%) with the involvement index of 8.24% which implies that there was low involvement of respondents in daily management activities of the dairy cattle. it was also revealed in the result that majority of the respondents regularly involved in processing of milk (99.1%) and milking (100%) with the involvement index measured to be 92.41%, this is an indication that respondents were highly involved in milk processing activities. furthermore, most of the respondents never involved in vaccination/medication (64.3%), care of new born (52.7%), care of sick animals (50.9%), taking calves for dehorning (96.4%), care of pregnant animal (60.7%). according to the result, involvement index of respondents for health care activities was 10.41% which implies they have low involvement in health care activities. the result further revealed that all the respondents regularly involved in selling of milk (100%) while majority never involved in selling (97.3%) and purchasing of animals (99.1%). the involvement index of the respondents for marketing activities was 93.24%, which implies that there was high level involvement of respondents in marketing activities in dairy production. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 166 published by ideas spread table 3. extent involvement of women in dairy production activities variables regularly (%) occasionally (%) never (%) daily management activities cleaning of animal 58 (51.8) 54 (48.25) cleaning of animal shed 65 (58.0) 47(42.0) taking animal for grazing 5(4.5) 107(96.5) feeding and provision of water for cattle 52 (46.4) 60 (53.6) fodder and feed storage 112 (100) preparation of feed concentrates 112 (100) washing of pen 61 (54.5) 51 (45.5) construction of animal shed 42 (37.5) 70 (62.4) disposal of cattle wastes 23 (20.5) 89 (79.5) maintenance of farm and dairy records 5 (4.5) 107 (95.5) involvement index = 8.24% dairy processing activities processing of milk 111 (99.1) 1(0.9) milking of animals 112 (100) involvement index = 92.4% health care activities vaccination /medication 40 (35.7) 72 (64.3) care of new-burns 53 (47.3) 59 (52.7) care of sick animals 55(49.1) 57 (50.9) taking calves for dehorning 4(3.6) 108 (96.4) involvement index = 10.41% marketing activities selling of milk and milk products 112 (100) purchasing cattle 1 (0.9) 111 (99.1) selling of cattle 3 (2.7) 109 (97.3) involvement index = 93.24% the result in table 4 shows the overall involvement index of respondents. the result therefore revealed that majority (91.1%) of the respondents were highly involved in dairy production activities, while few of the respondents (8.9%) had low involvement in dairy production activities. table 4. overall involvement index of respondents categories index score (%) frequency percentage low 0-33 10 8.9 high 34-100 102 91.1 table 5 shows factors influencing extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production activities. the result showed that income and secondary occupation were significant (p<0.05) factors affecting extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production activities. the result further revealed that there were positive regression between marital status, income, household size, herd size, other livestock species raised by the respondents and their extent of involvement in dairy production. however, there was no significant effects (p>0.05) of educational level, purpose of production, year of experience, breeds of cattle on extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production. the r2 was 0.317 indicating that about 31.7% of the extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production was explained by influence of their cattle production characteristics. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 167 published by ideas spread table 5. factors influencing the extent of involvement of respondents to dairy production activities variables b se t-value p-value marital status 0.164 0.501 0.327 0.744 income 0.717 0.313 2.289 0.024* household size 0.043 0.436 -0.100 0.921 educational level -0.527 0.389 -1.355 0.179 secondary occupation -0.981 0.379 -2.419 0.017* herd-size 0.310 0.317 0.977 0.331 breeds of cattle -1.255 0.811 -1.548 -0.125 source of animal -0.981 3.495 -0.281 0.780 year of experience -0.949 0.551 -1.722 0.088 other livestock species 0.079 0.161 0.489 0.626 purpose of production -0.22 0.032 -0.066 0.484 r2=0.317 b regression coefficient; se standard error 4. discussion result on age of respondents agrees with the report of popoola et al., (2017) that agriculture production is a profession that is practiced by people of different age groups both young, middle age, old people, and also an indication that most of the respondents were youth, who are capable of carrying out rigorous activities associated with dairy milk production. majority of the respondents were married; this is expected with result obtained for their age. married respondents are likely to be under pressure to produce more, not only for family consumption but also for sale. with the level of education of the respondents, this implies that majority of the respondents cannot read and write. thus, this may hinder better communication as well as adoption of innovations popoola et al., (2017) that educated farmers can easily understand and adopt new innovations and improved practice. the mean household size was 9. this result disagrees with result of previous studies popoola et al., (2017); odebode and popoola, (2016); these authors reported 2-6 members as the modal family size among households. differences in income of respondents could be related to number of cows possessed by them or their husbands (table 1). result obtained for years of experience of women in dairy enterprise (table 2) implies that respondents had enough experience in dairy production which helps efficiency and have a better understanding of the environment and marketing channels. respondents in the study area possessed large number of cattle which may increase the milk yield of cattle and increased production. the fact that majority of the respondents inherited most of their cattle is an indication that cattle production is a means of lineage and succession business among the respondents who are largely pastoralists; that is, children take over cattle production enterprise from their parents. white fulani breed of cattle is mostly raised among the respondents because of the fact that it is an indigenous cattle breed raised for dual purpose (milk and beef). the result in table 3 shows the extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production. the dairy production activities were classified into four sections which are the daily management activities, processing activities, healthcare activities, and marketing activities. the result revealed that there was low involvement of women in daily cattle management activities, this is due to the fact that the fulani pastoralists in nigeria perceive cattle production activities such as grazing, cleaning of shed and the animals, feeding of the animals among others as duties of men folks while women were only restricted to milking and other activities related to milk processing. the result of this study disagrees with result of veeranna and singh (2004) who reported that women were highly involved in bringing of fodder and feeding concentrates for dairy cattle. the respondents were highly involved in milk processing activities. involvement index of respondents for health care activities was 10.41% which implies they have low involvement in health care activities. this may be due to the fact that most health activities requires skills of trained personnel and external contacts and few of these activities are done by their male counterparts in the households. the result of this study disagrees with result of sowjanya (2014) who reported high level of involvement of women in health activities of dairy cattle. veeranna and singh (2004) also reported that women play prominent roles in care of pregnant animal and calves. the result further, revealed that the level involvement of respondents in marketing activities of dairy production was high; an indication that bulk of marketing activities lie with women. the overall involvement index of respondents (table 4) was used as an indication of level of involvement of the women in dairy production activities. the index scores of sowjanya (2014) was adopted which ranged and was as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 168 published by ideas spread scored as follows: index scores of range 0 – 33% (low involvement) and 34 -100% (respondents were highly involved in activities). the overall involvement index showed that most respondents were highly involved in dairy production activities. although women are restricted to some aspects of dairy cattle production activities such as grazing, housing and health care of these animals. this was due to beliefs, norms and tradition of the respondents who are fulanis; their believe is that large animals like cattle can only be handled by men, thus such large animals are meant for men while small ruminant animals like sheep and goat as well as other livestock species like chicken, guinea fowl should be handled and are meant for women and children. the overall involvement index of the respondents was as a result of their involvement in major activities of dairy production which include milking of cattle, processing of milk, sales and marketing of milk and milk products the result revealed positive regression coefficients for marital status, income, household size, herd size, other livestock species raised by the respondents. this implies that as the values of these variables (marital status, income, household size, herd size, other livestock species raised by the respondents) increase, the extent of involvement of women in dairy production increases. however, there was no significant effects (p>0.05) of educational level, purpose of production, year of experience, breeds of cattle on extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production. this implies that as these independent variables increases, the extent of involvement (dependent variable) tends to decrease. the r2 was 0.317 indicating that about 31.7% of the extent of involvement of respondents in dairy production was explained by influence of their cattle production characteristics. 5. conclusion based on the result of the study, it was concluded that most of the respondents were highly involved in processing and marketing of dairy product; they were not involved in daily management and health activities. it was further concluded that the overall involvement index of the respondents was high in dairy production enterprise. income and secondary occupation were significant factors influencing extent of involvement in dairy production enterprise. considering the result obtained in this study, an effective marketing channel should be developed to ensure fair price of milk and other dairy products for the women, this will increase share in self-employment and income generation. also, there is need for enhancing value addition on milk and milk products particularly for women who are involved in the enterprise 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(2003). human labour absorption in dairy farming in karnataka. an economic analysis, rural india, 66(12), 243-247. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p1 1 published by ideas spread a review on embryonic development of inland fishes of bangladesh md. borhan uddin ahmed1, jobayda sifat1, md. fazla rabbi1, md. ashraful islam1, h.m. al kabid rafin1 & md. kamal uddin1 1 department of fisheries biology and genetics, bangladesh agricultural university, memensingh-2202, bangladesh correspondence: md. borhan uddin ahmed, department of fisheries biology & genetics, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh-2202, bangladesh. e-mail: mbuasiam@gmail.com, borhan.fbg15@bau.edu.bd received: january 5, 2020 accepted: february 14, 2020 online published: february 18, 2020 abstract the early developmental pattern of inland fishes of bangladesh are not well studied though it has a great importance in fisheries and aquaculture sector. the embryonic study provides interesting information on further growth and health of the fish and considered as an essential component for optimization of fish seed production by natural and induced breeding. therefore, the current review work has been undertaken to provide a detail information on embryonic development of important inland fishes of bangladesh. information was collected from published scientific papers, un-published masters and phd dissertations from universities, popular articles and other published and grey literature. diameters of unfertilized egg of the reviewed fish species were found to be 0.5 to 1.3 mm and fertilized egg were 0.49 to 1.6 mm. shapes of the egg were also variable from species to species. there is little information available on egg activation and egg micropyle of fish species of bangladesh. the fertilization rate of different fishes ranged from 40.1% to 93.9%. there are different stages of early development in different species and time needs to complete the stages also vary. the timing of post hatching development by metamorphosis was found to vary based on the fish species from several days to weeks. different factors like temperature, photoperiod, do, seasonality and presence of chemicals in water were found to affect the early development of fish. the review included eighteen inland fishes and unearthed useful insights of their embryonic development and influence of different factors. as we expect, the outcome of the study would provide a baseline and would be very useful in conducting further research on the embryology of indigenous fishes of bangladesh. keyword: fish embryo, ontogenic development, early life stage, hatching, larvae 1. introduction bangladesh is a land with massive potential water bodies with a wide diversity of fishes. during several decades’ fishes of bangladesh has declining due to various natural causes. different man-made activities are also influencing the process. iucn (2015) reported that 64 fish species are threatened which comprises 9 critically endangered, 30 endangered and 25 vulnerable fish species. therefore, the conservation of this fishes is considerably important. the knowledge on early developmental pattern is essential for establishment of proper conservation measure. however, there is a very little knowledge available about the early embryonic and larval development of fishes of bangladesh. embryonic development is a complex process in which cellular differentiation and proliferation occur simultaneously at different rate (hall, 2003). changes in the pattern of the entire structure of an organ or of specific organ in relation to the environment are decisive for evaluating the developmental pattern of a species. information on early life history is an essential requirement for optimization of mass seed production, culture and management of fishes. embryonic development and larval development providing remarkable information in itself are imperative and consequential to the successful rearing of larvae for large scale seed production. therefore, it is indispensable to conduct study to characterize different embryonic and larval stages of fish. in addition, embryonic developmental stages of fish life are also used in various investigational studies; especially in aquaculture as well as toxicological studies (rahman et al., 2009). 1.1 fish embryo embryo is the earliest developing stages of fish from the time when the fertilized egg starts to divide, while it is continued within the egg until hatching. the embryo goes through several complex stages before hatching. embryo is the result of fusion of male and female gamete and the first stage of life in fish as well as other animals (langeland & kimmel, 1997). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 2 published by ideas spread 1.2 gametogenesis the process of gamete formation in the sexually reproducing animals is gametogenesis. the male gamete is known as spermatozoon or sperm, and the female gamete is known as ovum or egg. fish produce gametes directly through meiosis in organs called gonads (testis in males and ovaries in females). gametogenesis are of two types; spermatogenesis and oogenesis (andrade et al., 2001). 1.2.1 spermatogenesis spermatogenesis involves two distinct process known as formation of the spermatids and spermiogenesis (sharma et al., 2018). the primordial germinal cells called spermatogonia undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to maintain a supply of cells for the production of sperm. after meiosis primary spermatocytes form secondary spermatocytes; after the second meiotic division, they are spermatids (avidor-reiss et al., 2015). the metamorphosis or differentiation of the spermatids into the sperm is called spermiogenesis. spermiogenesis is characterized by changes in the nucleus, acrosome formation and centrioles (avidor-reiss et al., 2015). 1.2.2 oogenesis the primordial germinal cells divide repeatedly to form the oogonia which multiply by the mitotic divisions and form the primary oocytes and pass through the growth phase. in the primary oocyte, large amount of fats and proteins become accumulated in the form of yolk and due to its heavy weight, it is concentrated towards the lower portion of the egg (forming vegetal pole). after this process cytoplasm of egg divides unequally forming three polar body and one egg (lubzens et al., 2010). 1.3 different embryonic developmental stages of fishes 1.3.1 fertilized eggs prior to fertilization, the egg is in a quiescent state, arrested in metaphase of the second meiotic division. upon binding of a sperm, the egg rapidly undergoes a number of metabolic and physical changes. the yolk is usually translucent and yellowish in color; the oil droplets are unchanged (kinsey et al., 2007). aerobic respiration increases in the egg (nakano, 1953). enzyme systems become activated. in most animals, a burst of protein synthesis begins and the nucleus undergoes the second division of meiosis after fertilization. 1.3.2 cleavage the zygote experiences a quick cell cycles with no significant growth, producing a cluster of cells within few minutes of fertilization is called cleavage (sperber, 1995). cleavage is basically occurring in the blastodisc region of the animal pole of the eggs which further converts into embryo (fukazawa et al., 2010). after several successive cell division, the egg forms a thick layer of cell known as germ ring and is made up of superficial layer, ectoderm, endoderm mesoderm (lee et al., 2004). a dorsal-ventral axis forms at that time that may be referred as prenotochord from which a neural plate is formed. cells of the neural plate fold to form the neural groove and the surrounding neural folds which fuse, forming a hollow neural tube (forgacs & newman, 2005). 1.3.3 morula, blastula and gastrula a series of cleavage of zygote forms a solid ball of cell is called morula which occurs within few hours of fertilization. soon after development of the 8-cell or 16-cell embryo (depending on the species), the blastomeres begin to form mulberry-shaped mass of cells called a morula. this change in shape of the embryo is called compaction (forgacs & newman, 2005). this compaction leads to form a hollow sphere called blastula, surrounding by a hollow blastocoel (forgacs & newman, 2005). the blastula enhances gastrula formation in which embryo form germ layers (gilbert, 2010). gastrula is a dramatic rearrangement of the cells of the blastula. initially blastoderm cells move outwardly to intercalate with the more superficial cells which leads to the formation of gastrula (warga & kimmel, 1990). at this stage the yolk syncytial layer starts expansion around the yolk cell (trinkaus, 1984). by the end of gastrulation, embryonic cells have rearranged into three layers’ ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. 1.4 importance of embryonic developmental study of fishes of bangladesh different organs of fish develop in different embryonic stage. knowledge about the timing of different organ development of fish can be extended by embryonic study. knowledge on cleavage pattern of bangladeshi fish can be achieved by embryonic study. embryonic study can be helpful to optimize survival and growth rate of fish larvae in our country. embryonic development besides, providing interesting information are imperative and substantial to the successful rearing of larvae for large scale seed production of any species and thus important for hatchery operators. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 3 published by ideas spread 1.5 factors affecting embryonic development a wide-ranging literature is present on the problem of the effect employed by some environmental factors upon the embryonic stage in fishes. these factors are like temperature, salinity, light, and some mechanical factors. among this factors temperature is the most prominent factor as it is well known, the rate of the embryonic development of a given species is directly related to the temperature. salinity is another important factor that affect the embryonic development of fishes. every fish species has a tolerance limit of salinity beyond which in cannot survive. light is not always controls the development of fish embryo. however, it has been shown in case of some species e.g. some salmonids, light usually has a negative impact on the early development of embryo (eisler, 1957). rather than these factors, some mechanical factors like pressure, shock etc. can sometime influence the embryonic development of fishes (ciechomski, 1964). 1.6 justification and objectives of the study the embryonic and larval stages are considered very sensitive indicators of environmental disturbances (marimuthu and haniffa 2007). they are also indispensable in the study on ontogeny and phylogeny of their families (legendre and teugels 1991; verreth et al., 1992). in addition, such studies on the embryonic development of any cultivable species can be useful in directing the husbandry efforts of fish farmer. in bangladesh the embryonic study of fish has been not yet gained so much attention though it has a huge potential in the sector of fish and fisheries. the current review work is therefore has been undertaken to provide a details knowledge about the embryonic development of fishes of bangladesh, its current status and future research importance on embryonic development of fishes of bangladesh. 2. materials and methods 2.1 literature collection and review literature were collected from different journals, published paper, magazines related to fish and fisheries. unpublished research from masters and phd research were also considered. personal communication with the experts on the field of fish embryology were done for collection of some information. the fish species under this review are given in table 1. table 1. fish species under review. local name scientific name family author rui labeo rohita cyprinidae das et al., 2006 catla gibelion catla cyprinidae tumbahangfe et al., 2014 mrigel cirrhinus cirrhosus cyprinidae chakraborty and murty, 1972 desi sarputi puntius sarana cyprinidae chakraborty et al., 2007 bata labeo bata cyprinidae hossain et al, 2007; miah et al., 2009 silver berb barbodes gonionotus cyprinidae basak et al., 2014 tara baim macrognathus aculeatus mastacembelidae farid et al., 2008 guchi baim mastacembelus pancalus mastacembelidae hasan, m.r. et al., 2016; rahman et al., 2009 shol channa striatus channidae roy et al, 2016; marimuthu & haniffa, 2007 taki channa punctatus channidae banerji, 1975 tengra mystus cavasius bagridae rahman et al., 2004 rita rita rita bagridae molla et al., 2008; mollah et al., 2011 pabda ompok pabo siluridae purkayastha et al., 2012; sarma et al., 2012 kani pabda ompok bimaculatus siluridae raizada et al., 2013 pangas pangasius pangasius pangasiidae khan & mollah, 2004; ferosekhan et al., 2015 local koi anabas testudineus anabantidae karim et al., (2012) gutum lepidocephalicthys guntea cobitidae sayeed et al, 2009 meni, bheda nandus nandus nandidae pal, et al., 2003; das et al., 2002 shing heteropneustes fossilis heteropneustidae puvaneswari et al., 2009; nesa et al., 2017 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 4 published by ideas spread 2.2 data analyses, tabular and graphical representation all collected data were subjected in computer software ms excel v2016 for analysis and graphical representation. 3. results and discussion 3.1 fertilization the egg and spermatozoa are the main component for fertilization. the eggs and spermatozoa of many fish have an extremely short functional life after spawning. marimuthu & haniffa, (2007) showed in case of channa striatus fertilized egg were free floating, spherical, non-adhesive translucent and yellow in color. in case of rita rita, mollah et al., (2011) reported the same result but it was demersal and brownish in color. they reported a redish spot in the fertilized egg which indicates the blastodisc. same blastodisc has been reported in case of macrognathus aculeatus, labeo bata, anabas testudineus, nandus nandus, heteropneustes fossilis, mystus cavasius, by farid et al., (2008); miah et al., (2009); karim et al., (2012); das et al., (2002); nesa et al., (2017); rahman et al., (2004). the diameter of fertilized and unfertilized eggs is varying in species to species. fertilization rate, hatching rate, diameter of fertilized and unfertilized egg of different fish species are given in the table 2. the fertilization rate of different fish species is different. fertilization rate are also season dependent in case of many species. fertilization rate also differs depending on the natural or striping. table 2. fertilization rate, hatching rate and egg diameter of different inland fishes of bangladesh species name highest fertilization rate (%) highest hatching rate (%) egg diameter author unfertiliz ed (mm) fertilized (mm) catla catla 93.9 90.98 4.5 tumbahangfe et al., 2014 labeo bata 92.33 88.33 0.7±0.01 0.8±0.01 hossain et al, 2007; miah et al., 2009 mystus cavasius 0. 490.51 rahman et al., 2004 rita rita 71.66±7.64 48.33±7.6 4 1.0 to 1.3 1.3 1.6 molla et al., 2008; mollah et al., 2011 mastacembelus pancalus 75.23± 1.13 55.12± 1.07 0.50±0.00 0.70±0.0 2 hasan, et al., 2016; rahman et al., 2009 macrognathus aculeatus 0.7±0.11 0.8±0.11 farid et al., 2008 ompok pabo 75.5 60.5 0.99-1.1 1.0-1.3 purkayastha et al., 2012; sarma et al., 2012 ompok bimaculatus 75–90 80–90 raizada et al., 2013 heteropneustes fossilis 62.33±4.51 41.33±5.6 9 1-1.1 1.3 -1.4 nesa et al., 2017 anabas testudineus 0.6±0.01 0.7±0.0 karim et al., (2012) lepidocephalicthys guntea 78.60±3.21 65.49±5.2 3 sayeed et al, 2009 nandus nandus 92±5% 90±2 0.6 0.8 pal, et al., 2003; das et al., 2002 pangasius pangasius 40.1±3.1 65.0±2.3 1.09-1.28 1.2-1.45 khan & mollah, 2004; ferosekhan et al., 2015 channa striatus 59.5±2.50 67.5±2.50 1.20 1.40 roy et al, 2016; marimuthu & haniffa, 2007 3.1.1 egg activation the event of egg activation is thought to be the result from the introduction of protein or other component from the sperm plasma to the egg. the existence of some factors which are capable of triggering egg for activation has been reported by coward et al., (2003). the majority of the evidence to date indicates that the critical sperm component is a phospholipase isoform (phospholipase zeta) (cox et al., 2002; saunders et al., 2002). one of the exceptions of this was found in the study by lee et al. (1999), which described the apparently normal activation as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 5 published by ideas spread of zebrafish egg in the absence of sperm. this may be defined as parthenogenic activation egg. in general, some morphological changes occur during fertilization while the egg is being activated. according to kinsey et al. (2007), some morphological changes occur in the fish egg at fertilization like progressive disintegration of cortical alveoli, reduction in volume, transformation of the chorion, expulsion of second polar body, bipolar differentiation. kusa (1953) says that the first observable change after fertilization involves the outline of the alveolus becoming indistinct. the alveolus then disappears. till date no researches were recorded on egg activation of fishes of bangladesh. details study is needed for the proper knowledge about the activation of fish egg of bangladesh. 3.1.2 micropyle there is no significant record of micropyle study of bangladeshi fish. at the internal aperture of the micropylar canal a site of sperm attachment was found on the egg membrane (kudo, 1982), recognized as a gentle cytoplasmic swelling, bearing 19-27 cytoplasmic finger-like projections (kudo, 1982). 3.2 embryonic developmental stages and timing of development in different fish species the timing of development is species specific and also stage specific, that means different developmental stage needs different time for each species. in bangladesh, the developmental timing for all species is not well known. however, in case of some species, research shows some good findings. a complete chart on the timing of development is shown in the table 3. table 3. timing of early developmental stages of inland fishes of bangladesh stages/species labeo bata (miah et al., 2009) ompok pabo (sarma et al., 2012) heteropneustes fossilis (nesa et al., 2017) channa striatus (marimuthu and haniffa 2007) macrognathus aculeatus (farid et al. 2008). anabas testudineus (karim et al., 2012) barbodes gonionotus (basak et al., 2014) fertilized egg 00 min 00 min 00 min 00 min 00 hrs 00 hrs 00 hrs two cells 45 min 36 min 20.60 min 15-20 min 1.20 hrs 0.35hrs four cells 55 min 46 min 39.8 min 1.50 hrs 0.50 hrs eight cells 80 min 60 min 71.67 min 2.20 hrs 1.00 hrs sixteen cells 1.08 hrs 30-50 min 1.20-1.40 hrs thirty-two cells 1.00-1.20 min 2.00 hrs morula 45-55 min 2.06 hrs 2.20 hrs 1.3-2.0 hrs 5.00hrs 5.10hrs 3.00hrs blastula 4.30 hrs 3.30 hrs 4.15 hrs 5.00-6.00 hrs 9.00 hrs 5.00 hrs gastrulation 8.3012hrs 6.35 hrs 8.00-9.00 hrs 15.10hrs 6.15-6.25 hrs germinal ring formed 5.1 hrs 8.20 hrs 14 somites 32.30 hrs 16-18 somites -37.30 hrs yolk plug stage 16 hrs 5.0 0hrs 8.25 hrs - organogenesis 1618hrs 14.00hrs just before hatching 18-20 hrs 22.5 hrs 36-40 hrs 75.20 hrs as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 6 published by ideas spread fully active embryo 17.0-18.0 hrs hatchling competed 20-21 hrs 20 hrs 39.5 hrs 23.30-24.0 hrs 40 hrs 80.30 hrs 13.40-14.00 hrs 3.3 organogenesis and hatching temperature in organogenesis stage different organs of the fish are formed. in case of bangladeshi fish, organogenesis is not well studied except only a limited number of species. in an experiment conducted by farid et al. (2008) reported that organogenesis in case of tara baim starts almost 11 hours after fertilization. both tail and head ends were clearly differentiated and the beating heart was visible in this stage. gills and pectoral fins start to appear. auditory and optic vesicle develops. these aspects of organogenesis were similar to l. rohita ((khan, 1943) and c. mrigala (chakraborty and murty, 1972). in another study in case of labeo bata conducted by miah et al. (2009) concluded that, at the organogenesis stage, appearance of heart rudiment pectoral fin buds and gill rudiment occurs. notochord becomes visible, auditory and optic vessels developed in 16-18 hours after fertilization. das et al. (2002) on the other hand, reported that organogenesis occurs 13 hours after fertilization. at this stage both tail and headend were clearly visible and heart beat starts in case of nandus nandus. out of this species discussed, there are many commercially important fish species which organogenesis are not well defined in the previous research. however, the pattern of organogenesis is found more or less similar in the species of the country. it may be due to similarity in environmental condition, food supply and geographical location. optimum incubation temperature for different fish species is different found. a list of optimum incubation temperature reported for different fish species of bangladesh is presented in table 4. table 4. optimum incubation temperature of different fish species of bangladesh name of the species scientific name temperature author bata labeo bata 27-31°c miah et al., 2009 sharputi barbonymus gonionotus 26.6-27.5 °c chakraborty et al., 2007 mrigal cirrhinus cirrhosus 25-30 °c chakrabatry & murty., 1972 taki channa punctatus 26-30 ºc ramanathan et al., 1985 local koi anabas testudineus 27-29 ºc karim et al., 2012 shing heteropneustes fossilis 29 ºc puvaneswari et al., 2009 pabda ompok pabo 29.3 ºc sarma et al., 2012 rita rita rira 27-29 °c mollah et al., 2011 3.4 post hatching development of the hatched larvae post hatching development means the development of the larvae from the hatching till metamorphosis. the pattern of post hatching development of different species is different. timing of development is also dependent on some environmental factors, like temperature of the water, available do of the water, salinity etc. a typical chart on the development timing of different fish species reported for bangladesh is given in the table 5. table 5. timing of post hatching development of different fishes of bangladesh species name time after hatching author twelve hours twenty-four hour thirty-six hour forty-eight hour seventy-two hour labeo bata larvae size 3.0±0.05 mm. chromatophores seen in the eye. ventral embryonic fin fold more prominent. larvae length 4.4±0.01 mm. operculum & myomeres visible. prominent pectoral and pelvic fins fold. eye size increased with pigmentation. pectoral fin more prominent. brain lobe visible mouth cleft formed. larvae reached to larvae length 5.9±0.02 mm. yolk sac convex interiorly, air bladder distinct elliptical. large black chromatophores on head, prominent gills. larvae silver-blackish and transparent, 6.5±0.02 mm in size. myomere visible. larvae swim and feed actively. harun et al., 2009 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 7 published by ideas spread pectoral fin bud appeared. 5.5±0.05 mm in size. puntius sarana larvae increased 3.2±0.05 mm in size. pectoral fin bud appeared. melanophore bands prominent at the posterior end of the body, also appeared above the eye and around the yolk sac. larva length 5.0 ± 0.01 mm. colour changed to silvery-yellow. myomeres visible and mouth cleft formed. larve color whitish-black. pectoral and pelvic fin buds found. length of the larva 5.2 ± 0.04 mm. air bladder distinct. a few black chromatophores found in the area posterior to the auditory and large black chromatophores observed on head. larvae size 5.7 ± 0.02 mm. larval length 5.8 ± 0.01 mm. eyes fully pigmented and pectoral fin bud more pronounced. chakraborty et al., 2007 channa striatus length 4.2 mm, caudal fin begins to separate and pectoral fin buds. swim bladder formed and heart positioned in front of the yolk. average length 5.1 mm. pectoral fin round shaped, mouth formed, the lower jaw less developed, vent formed. rudimentary gill opening and pits differentiate. thick band of melanophore observed. average length 5.4 mm. pectoral fins paddle shaped, mouth formed with welldeveloped jaw. vent and gill rudiments clearly visible. larvae move at water surface and feeding exogenously. marimuthu and haniffa, 2007 rita rita. larvae length 2.2 mm. yolk sac partially reduced. alimentary canal tube like. eye spot with a dark pigmented area, barbels found. larvae length 2.5 mm. pectoral fin buds seen. pigmentation gradually extended all over the body, blood circulation system fully developed length 2.8 mm. distinct heart visible, functioned actively and reddish blood seen around the heart. dark pigmented eyes and upper and lower jaws visible. gills covered by the operculum. mouth and anal pore found with small opening. larvae length 3.0 mm. pectoral fin folds became distinct and the rudimentary rays developed in the caudal fin. mouth well-formed and barbels became elongated. alimentary tract straight and distinct and a small pouch like stomach formed. larvae swimming smoothly and feeding exogenously at end of this stage. mollah et al., 2011 macrognathus aculeatus larvae length 2.8±0.05 mm. pectoral fin bud appeared. large number of melanophores appeared above the eye and around the yolk sac. pectoral and pelvic fin bud appeared. air bladder visible. anus became distinct. larvae increased to 4.2±0.01 mm. length of the larva 5.2±0.04 mm. colour whitishblack. eyes became whitish black. distinct air bladder seen. few black chromatophores found on the caudal fin. large black chromatophores observed on head. larvae increased to 5.7±0.02 mm in size larvae length 6.0±0.09 mm and the silver-blackish and transparent in colour. eyes fully pigmented. dorsal and ventral fin folds persistent. larva swims actively. farid et al., 2008 anabas testudineus pectoral fins paddle shaped and the movements of fins were larva 2.7 mm in length. yolk sac reduced to half. brain larvae length 3.5mm and mouth gap quite large. head broadened karim et al., 2012 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 8 published by ideas spread marked. mouth elliptical in shape and inferior in position. gill appeared in the form of comb and the supply of yolk diminished gradually. formed completely and continuous heart beat visible. mouth turned in terminal position. than body and became round in shape. larva started feeding at the end of this period. heteropneustes fossilis larvae length 4.0±0.2 mm, reduced yolk sac seen. eyes dark pigmented and prominent. pectoral fin buds seen, jaws formed and the alimentary tract distinct. heart visible and the blood circulatory system fully functional. barbells appeared in the form of tiny knobs. length of larvae 4.3±0.3 mm. pectoral fin oval shaped with a membranous flap. mouth formed. rudimentary gill openings and olfactory pits differentiated. the yolk reserve further diminished. larvae length 4.6±0.2 mm. barbells became elongated and prominent around the mouth. anal aperture and opercula wellformed and distinct. blood circulation observed in the heart, tail and opercula region. larvae length 5.0±0.2 mm, brownish in color. mouth and anus became fully functional. head prominent and four pairs of barbells noticed. pectoral fins vascularized and the caudal fin had 5 rudimentary rays. the yolk material completely absorbed and the larvae exhibited vigorous movements nesa et al., 2017 3.5 factors that influence embryonic development there are many factors that influences embryonic development of fish has been identified by different scientist. these factors may be categories into some category. these are internal factors like endocrine regulation of the fish or may be other external physico-chemical factors. 3.5.1. endocrine regulation study on endocrine regulation of the developing embryo is not well studied in bangladeshi fishes except shing and koi. in case of shing, nesa et al., (2007) reported that a dorso-ventral unpaired fin, and some melanophores appeared on the head region, ventral side of the notochord and dorsal side of the body, probably by influence of some endocrine glands. karim (2012) also reported some endocrine regulatory development of the koi embryo, but didn’t mentioned any special type of name of the gland. this two research clearly indicates that the development of early stages of the fishes are somehow regulated by the endocrine gland. but there is a lack of clear information that which gland is responsible for development of which organ. more research on this aspect is necessary in case of fish species of bangladesh. 3.5.2 physico-chemical factors embryonic stage is very crucial stage of a fish life. in this stage certain factors plays important role in the development of the embryo. there are many external factors that are responsible for regulation of the embryonic development of fish. these factors may be physical or may be chemical also. temperature is the most vital factor that determines the proper development of the embryo. it has been proved as one of the major factors that regulate the development of the early embryonic stages of fish. legendre & teugels, (1991) indicated that temperature have an influence on the development of the embryo. in a study in case of labeo bata embryonic and larval development were reported optimum from 27 °c-31°c (miah et al., 2009). similar influence of temperature was observed in case of shol, koi, indigenous magur, shing, taki, pabda, pangas in discrete study conducted by ramanathan et al., 1985; karim et al., 2012; singh & vidyarthi, 1990; benerji, 1975; sarma et al., 2012; ferosekhan et al., 2015, respectively. in a study conducted by chattopadhyay and chattoraj (2017), reported that gonadal development and spawning stops with the fall of temperature that happen with the approach of winter. this provides a straight indication that temperature along with photoperiod is the key controlling factor for maturation and spawning in fish. in case of spawning of fish such as carp and many other cyprinids, gonadal maturation begins in late winter or early spring. therefore, it can easily be said that increasing temperature influence the maturation of gonad as well as influence the early developmental stages of fish which is also agreed by the result showed by chakraborty et al., (2007) in case of puntius sarana where the author found significant as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 9 published by ideas spread variation in the larval development in different temperature treatments. in case of australian strain of lates calcarifer the rate of embryonic development was positively correlated to the increase in incubation temperature and the thermal tolerance range for the australian strain of l. calcarifer eggs was found to be 28–34 °c in a study conducted by thepot and jerry (2015). in case of bangladeshi strain of l. calcarifer it may be more or less similar however it needs further research on bangladeshi strain. in a study conducted by das et al., (2006) reported highest hatching rate and least time for attaining each ontogenic stage at 31 > 33 > 26 > 36 °c and were significantly different (p < 0.05) in case of labeo rohita. the lowest hatching percentage and maximum time duration for attaining a given ontogenic stage for l. rohita were observed at 36 °c and also resulted in malformed embryos. another important factor that affect the embryonic development of fishes is salinity. in case of l. rohita, pillai et al., (2003) reported that survivability limit of l. rohita embryo in waters up to 8 ppt salinity but best embryonic development was obtained at 0 to 2 ppt. deprived of temperature and salinity, there are some other factors that may have influence on embryonic development of the fishes in bangladesh. this are sound, light, chemical compounds of water such as do, ph, alkalinity etc. (rahman et al., 2011). but those factors are not well studied yet. study on this factors that may influence the embryonic development is very important for bangladeshi fish. 4. conclusion one of the major goals of fisheries biology is to inspect a fish stock and in terms of fisheries biology it is vital to know the embryonic and larval development. as these type of studies are essential to define the spawning periods and areas, to determine the chronological variations of the spawning period, to predict the mature stock of fish, to predict the rate of death of fish at the end of spawning period and to inspect the relation of the growth with its environment. in bangladesh we need more research on the developmental biology of fishes, especially native or indigenous fish needs more concentration on this aspect. references andrade, r. f., bazzoli, n., rizzo, e., & sato, y. 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(2015). the effect of temperature on the embryonic development of barramundi, the australian strain of lates calcarifer (bloch) using current hatchery practices. aquaculture reports, 2, 132138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2015.09.002 trinkaus, j. p. (1984). cells into organs: the forces that shape the embryo. http://hdl.handle.net/10822/801406 tumbahangfe, j., subba, b. r., & jha, s. k. (2014). embryonic development of bhakur, catla catla hamilton 1822 (cyprinidae). our nature, 12(1), 49-53. https://doi.org/10.3126/on.v12i1.12257 verreth, j. a., torreele, e., spazier., e, van der sluiszen, a., rombout, j. h., booms, r., & segner, h. (1992). the development of a functional digestive system in the african catfish clarias gariepinus (burchell). journal of the world aquaculture society, 23(4), 286-298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1992.tb00792.x warga, r. m., & kimmel, c. b. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p39 39 published by ideas spread on-farm evaluation and system productivity of wheat-jute-t. aman rice cropping pattern in char area of bangladesh uttam kumer sarker1, sirajam monira1 & md. romij uddin1 1 department of agronomy, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh correspondence: md. romij uddin, department of agronomy, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh. tel: 880-178-037-0135. e-mail: romijagron@bau.edu.bd received: january 10, 2020 accepted: february 17, 2020 online published: march 11, 2020 abstract a study was conducted for two consecutive years to determine the yield and system productivity of two cropping patterns viz. ip: (wheat jute t. aman) improved pattern with improved management practices and fp: (fallow fallow t. aman) farmers’ pattern with farmers’ management practices in char (adjacent to the river) area of netrakona region of bangladesh. the experimentswere laid out in a randomized complete block design with 10 dispersed replications at a farmer’s field. the two years mean data showed that the total component crops of ip (wheat-jute-t. aman rice) gave higher yield as well as a by-product in both years. the higherrice equivalent yield (10.52 and 10.63 tha-1), production efficiency (30.13 and 30.43 kg ha-1 day-1) land-use efficiency (87.13 and 87.84%)and benefit cost ratio (2.15 and 2.11) pointed out the dominance of the improvedpattern over the farmer’s existing pattern. higher rice equivalentyield signified that improved cropping pattern (wheat jute -t. aman) could be appropriate in netrakona region for rising crop productivity andcropping intensity.the higher production efficiency, land use efficiency and benefit cost ratio indicated the superiority of the improved pattern over the farmers’ practices.it can be concluded that farmers of the char area of the netrakona region might follow wheat (var. bari gom-26) jute (var. o-9897) t. aman (var. brri dhan49) cropping system in char land for higher productivity and profitability. keywords: char land, agronomic performance, land use efficiency, production potential, economic return 1. introduction changes in climate, population expansion, food scarcity, poverty, starvation, accelerated land cover change and environmental degradation are the foremost challenges of the 21st century (neamatollahi et al., 2017).in the world about 1 billion people keep on hungry every day due to the inadequate food supply and thisnumber will riseup to 2 billion by 2050 (faostat, 2014). for the developing countries of asia and africa, this situation insists on the increasing momentum in agricultural production with more than 70 percent increase in the coming decades (neamatollahiet al., 2017). to enhance agriculture productivity improved cropping patterns and better management practices are essential. land and water resources are becoming very limited due to the rapid change in population and urbanization. subsequently, to determine the optimal use of the available resources improved cropping pattern has been developed for exploiting the net profit subjected to some limitations (osama et al., 2017). bangladesh is aheavily populated countryand itspopulation is about 200 million. besides, the cultivable land is in a decreasing trend and it is about 1% per year. bangladesh covers about 14.84 m ha (million hectares) of total land and among this 3.74 m ha (25% of the total) is not appropriate for cultivation due to deployment for urban areas, commercial buildings, countryside homesteads, roads etc (quasem, 2011). bangladesh also suffersfrequently from differentnormaldisasters (haq et al., 2012; khatun et al., 2016; islam et al., 2017a), that may get worse in the long runas a result of climate change (hossain et al., 2016; rokonuzzaman et al., 2018). therefore, to declare food security for increasing people in the future we need to produce huge food on a reduced amount of land (islam et al., 2015a&b). two techniques need to be adopted to achieve this issue. firstlyit may be by increasing cropping intensity by producing more crops on the similar land during whole year and secondlyby augmenting productivity of each crops (faostat, 2013; dobermann et al., 2013; datta et al., 2015; ladha et al., 2016; datta et al., 2017; islam et al., 2017b). bangladesh agriculture mostly consists of rice basedcropping patterns (haque, 1998). different cropping pattern are available in bangladesh and abroad and these are well reported. (soniand kaur, 1984; malavia et al., 1986; khan et al., 2005; ferdous et al., 2011;anowaret al., 2012;nazrul et al., 2013; anowar et al., 2015; khatun et al.,2016 and anwar et al., 2017) where a supplementary crops may be incorporated without as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 40 published by ideas spread substituting the accessible ones for significantenhancement of in general productivity andincome of the farmers (islam, 2012a &b). the char areas of the netrakona region occupy 8547 acre of land out of 78915 acres and it is dominated by fallowfallowt. aman rice (rainfed rice) cropping pattern. a hugepart remains uncultivated for an extensive time after the harvest of t. aman rice such as br11 (100-110 days main field duration ). this is mainly due to water shortage after t. aman harvest and waterlogging condition during monsoon.only rice production is not sufficient and profitable for the farmers of this area. so an adaptation of alternative cropping patterns to support the most efficient use of the limited natural resources is a prime need for recent days. wheat is such a promising crop, which can be easily grown after t. aman harvest with residual soil moisture and requires less water in some cases.jute is a fiber crop that can be grown after harvesting of wheat during monsoon.so the proposed cropping pattern of this area may be wheat-jutet. aman. considering these observations, the present study was designed to introduce to utilize uncultivated land properly during rabi (winter season) and kharif i (monsoon) season minimizing water stress and waterlogging condition with improved cropping pattern wheat-jute-t. aman as well as increase the production and meet the demand of that area. 2. material and methods 2.1 site description the experiments were done in farmer’s field under the char areas of netrakonawhich is located in between 24º34' and 25º12' north latitudes and between 90º 00'and 91º 07' east longitudes of bangladesh during two consecutive years 2017 and 2018. the experimental site (netrakona) is under a moist subtropical monsoon type of climate. the mean minimum and maximum temperature and rainfall for the experimental period are shown in fig. 1. the physicochemical properties of the soil before the beginning of the experiment are shown in table 1. 2.2 experimental design and treatments treatments consisting of two cropping patterns viz. fp: farmers’ pattern (fallow fallow t.aman) and ip: improved pattern (wheat jute t. aman) by incorporation of recent high yielding varieties of jute, t. amanrice andwheat. modern management practices were used for crop production. the experiments were set up using a randomized complete block design with 10 dispersed replications. the individual plot size was 100 m 2 .the improved pattern was used in one plot andfarmer’s pattern was practiced in other plots. wheat var. bari gom26 and jute var. o-9897 were introduced in the improved pattern against the fallow period. the variety brri dhan49 of t. aman rice was introduced instead of br11. 2.3 crop management the agronomic practices and cultural operation for crop production under improved and farmers’ practices are presented in table 2. all field operation and management practices of both farmers’ and improved patterns were closely monitored and the data were recorded for agro-economic performance. 2.4 data collection ten plants were chosen from every plot randomly at maturityfor data collection and yield of wheat, t. aman rice and jute were calculated. plot-wise yield for each crop was determined on an area basis (kg ha–1). agronomic performance viz. rice equivalent yield, production efficiency, and land use efficiency were calculated. 2.5 estimation of rice equivalent yield (rey) based on the existing market price of the individual crops, the yield of every single crop was converted into rice equivalent yield for making the relationship between crop sequences (verma and modgal, 1983). the gross return, net return and benefit cost ratio were also evaluated based on the market price of each produces. rice equivalent yield (tha-1) = × 2.6 estimation of production efficiency production efficiencywas determinedas kg ha-1day-1by the whole production in a cropping series divided by the entiretime of crops in that sequence (tomer and tiwari, 1990). production efficiency= y1+y2+y3d1+d2+d3 where, y 1 = yield of 1 st crop and d 1 = duration of 1 st crop of the pattern as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 41 published by ideas spread y 2 = yield of 2 nd crop and d 2 = duration of 2 nd crop of the pattern y 3 = yield of 3 rd crop and d 3 = duration of 3 rd crop of the pattern 2.7 determination of land use efficiency for determination of land use efficiencytotal length of individual crop in a sequence is divided by 365 days (tomer and tiwari, 1990). it is calculated by following formula. land use efficiency = 𝑑1+𝑑2+𝑑3365 × 100 where d1, d2 and d3 the duration of 1st, 2nd and 3rd crop of the pattern 2.8 benefit cost ratio (bcr)analysis average data of two crop cycles were calculated for the economic assessment of two dissimilar cropping cycles. the production expenses of these crops were determined by calculating the material and non-materialcost of production. using the prevailing average market prices for the yield of these crops in bangladesh the gross return was calculated. gross margin was designed by deducting total expenses from the gross income which was worked out by dividing the gross income with total expenditure. benefit cost ratio (bcr)was calculated with the following formula. benefit cost ratio (bcr) = gross returntotal variable cost of production × 100 3. results and discussion 3.1 grain/fibreyield of the cropping patterns grain/fibreyield of different cropping pattern have been presented in table 3. it was revealed that the cropping pattern wheat-jute-t. aman rice under improved practices (ip) gave higher yield and by-product during both years. the reason behind improvement of yield inip was theuse of variety with modern cultivation technique for the component crops. higher wheat yield was documented during 2017 (3.02 tha-1) and 2018 (3.05tha-1) with an average yield of 3.04tha-1. in improved pattern higher jute yield was recorded during 2017 (2.89tha-1) and 2018 (2.93tha-1). t. aman rice yield was different in both patterns and higher yield (3.23 and 3.25 tha-1 in 2017 and 2018) was recorded in farmers’ practice over improved (3.13 and 3.15 tha-1) due to single crop cultivation in farmers’ practice. khatun et al. (2016) and khan et al. (2006) conducted experiments and found more yield in single crop cultivation than improved cropping pattern for a specific crop. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 42 published by ideas spread figure 1. average maximum temperature, minimum temperature and annual rainfall during the cropping seasons 2017and 2018 3.2 by-product yield of the cropping patterns by-product yield of the component crops was measured from biomass yield (table 3). higher amount of total byproduct yield of the component crops (14.1 and 14.2 t ha-1 in 2017 and 2018) produced in the improved cropping pattern than that of the farmers’ pattern (4.26 and 4.30t ha-1). nazrul (2016) stated the reason behind the higher by-product yield of improved pattern than that of farmers’ pattern and reason behind it is the incorporation of new variety with improved technologies for the component crops. beside this the component crops wheat and jute of improved pattern produced high demandable as well as more profitable by-product whereas it was difficult for the farmers to sell the rice by-product (rice straw) in the local market with proper price. 3.3 rice equivalent yield rice equivalent yield was higher in ipcompared to farmers’ practice. the mean rice equivalent yield of ip was10.58tha-1and that of fpwas 3.24tha-1 (table 4). this happened due to inclusion of high yielding variety brri dhan49 instead of br11 and extra two new cropsalong with modern cultivation techniques in the improved pattern increased the t.aman rice equivalent yield. besides rice equivalent yield was higher in improved pattern due to superiormarket price of components crops in the ip. rice equivalent yield was lower in the fp due to use of conventionalvariety and management practices. 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 ra in fa ll( m m ) te m pe ra tu re (°c ) months max. temp.(°c) min. temp.(°c) rainfall(mm) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 43 published by ideas spread table 1. average of soil nutrient status of the experimental areas of netrakona region during 2017 and 2018 soil property values soil texture sandy loam ph–h2o 5.65 ec (µs/cm) 143 organic matter (%) 1.51 total n (%) 0.084 available p (ppm) 33.66 available k (meq/100g) 0.144 available s (ppm) 59.64 3.4 production efficiency highest production efficiency (30.13 and 30.43 kg ha-1day-1) wasrecorded from ip inthe year of 2017 and 2018, (table 4). mean production efficiency (30.28 kg ha-1day-1)was higher in ip and lower (29.45kg ha-1day-1) in fp. reddy (1997), khan et al. (2006) and nazrul et al. (2013) found that mean production efficiency wasalways superior in ip compared to fp. the higher production efficiency of improved cropping pattern indicated that the component crops remain in the field for long duration with higher yield under modern cultivation practices. on the other hand, the lowest production efficiency observed in fp wheretraditional management are used and indicated that cropsremained in the field for shorter time with lower yield under traditional system. table 2. management practices of improved vs farmers’ existing cropping pattern during 2017 and 2018 parameter farmers’ pattern improved pattern variety t. aman (br11) wheat (bari gom 26)jute (o-9897)t. aman (brri dhan49) date of sowing 12-15 august wheat 21-24 november (2017), jute 4-8 april (2017) and 2-4 april (2018), aman 5-10 august (2017) and 58 august (2018) seed rate (kg ha-1) 20-25 wheat 120, jute 7, aman 25 planting method line line for all crops spacing (cm) 20×15 wheat30×5, jute 20×5, aman 25× 15 fertilizer dose (n p k s zn kg ha-1) 92-24-60-8-0.5 120-30-60-15-1 (wheat), 110-15-40-8-0.5 (jute), 11535-40-4-0.5 (t.aman) weeding 1 wheat 1,jute 2, t.aman 2 irrigation rainfed rainfed harvesting time (date) 15-20 nov 10-14 march, 2018 , 3-25 july (2017), 20-22 july (2018) 10-15 november (2017), 15-18 nov. (2018) field duration (days) 100-110 110-115 (wheat) , 100-108(jute), 90-95 (t.aman) 3.5 land use efficiency land use efficiency is the efficient utilization of land in a cropping year and it mainly depends on crop duration. the average land-use efficiency of ip was 87.49% whereas it was 30.30% for fp (table 4). this superior land use efficiency in ip was due to cultivation of wheat and jute in bare period that’s why field was occupied by the crops for a longer period (300-318 days), whereas the farmers practice occupied the field for 100-110 days of the year. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 44 published by ideas spread table 3. productivity of improved and farmers’ existing patterns during 2017 and 2018 year cropping pattern grain/fibre yield ( t ha-1) by product yield ( t ha-1) fallow/wheat fallow/jute t.aman fallow/wheat fallow/jute t.aman 2017 2018 ip fp ip fp 3.02 3.05 2.89 2.93 3.13 3.23 3.15 3.25 3.54 3.59 6.37 6.42 4.12 4.26 4.15 4.30 se± 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 mean ip fp 3.04 2.91 3.14 3.24 3.57 6.39 4.14 4.28 ip= improved practice, fp=framers’ practice 3.6 cost benefit analysis based on the existing market price during the crop season, cost and return analysis were done. from the economic point of view, ip showed its superiority over fp during both years.the average gross return of the ip was 277057.5tk. ha-1which was84.25% higher than that of fp (table 5).thecost of cultivation of ip (131707tk. ha1) was superior tofp (85511 tk. ha-1) due to higher labor and input cost. the net return was considerablysuperior in the ip (145600.5 tk. ha-1) than fp (64184 tk. ha-1). inclusion of wheat and jute in these cropping systems during fallow season andincrement of system productivity results in increased gross margin. in the fp 126.85 % supplementary net return was attained by adding 54.02% extra cost. the marginal benefit cost ratio was determined for both ip and fp. the results revealed that a higher benefit cost ratio (2.13) was found in ip over the fp (1.76). farmers showed a highly positive response to cultivate jute and t. aman in this season and they opined that due to lack of knowledge they were not interested to grow jute before as they experienced water logging conditions during monsoon.the farmers also added that the yield performances of the bari gom26, jute (o-9897) and brri dhan49 were acceptable. after harvest of t. amanrice, modern wheat variety (bari gom26) could easily be grown which doesn’t hamper or delay jutecultivation. jute can be easily be grown between wheatand t. aman rice. table 4. rice equivalent yield, production efficiency and land use efficiency of improved and farmers’ existing patterns during 2017 and 2018 year cropping pattern rice equivalent yield (t ha-1) production efficiency (kg ha-1 day-1) land use efficiency (%) 2017 2018 ip 10.52b 30.13b 87.13b fp 3.23c 29.36d 30.14d ip 10.63a 30.43a 87.84a fp 3.25c 29.54c 30.45c se± 0.04 0.05 0.06 mean ip fp 10.58 3.24 30.28 29.45 87.49 30.30 ip= improved practice, fp=framers’ practice table 5. cost benefit analysis of improved and farmers’ existing patterns during 2017 and 2018 year cropping pattern gross return (tk ha-1) cost of cultivation (tk ha-1) gross margin (tk ha-1) bcr 2017 2018 ip fp ip fp 283515 151290 270600 149445 131957 85761 131457 85261 151558 65529 139643 62839 2.15 1.76 2.11 1.75 mean ip fp 277057.5 150367.5 131707 85511 145600.5 64184 2.13 1.76 ip= improved practice, fp=framers’ practice 4. conclusion and recommendations considering most of the parameters discussed above, improved cropping pattern wheat (var. bari gom26) -jute (var. o-9897)-t. aman(var. brri dhan49) with modern technologiescould be suggested for char areas of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 45 published by ideas spread netrakona regionof bangladesh, especially for themarginal farmers. the findings may be used for researcher, extension workers and also for national policy maker for large scale production but further observation is required before dissemination of the technology. acknowledgments the authors wish to acknowledge the bangladesh agricultural university research system (baures) for funding this research project and technical support. references anowar, m. m., ferdous, m. z., & mozidul, i. 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(1983). production potential and economics of fertilizer application as resources constraints in maize, wheat crop sequence. himachal journal of agricultural research, (9), 89-92. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p31 31 published by ideas spread potentials of intercropping systems to soil water plantatmosphere nweke, i. a.1 1 department of soil science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria correspondence: nweke i. a., department of soil science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria. tel: 234-816-460-7354. e-mail: nweksoniyke@gmail.com received: january 30, 2020 accepted: february 28, 2020 online published: march 10, 2020 abstract a well planned intercropping system can efficiently serve as alternative to input such as fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides and pathogenicides. the interaction between the intercrop species, soil and environmental factors have positive effects on crop nutrition and photosynthesis and these have improved the nutrient content of the soil and different intercrop components. the high percentage ability of the intercrop species to suppress weeds especially when legume crops are involved in the plan, improves the physicochemical properties of the soil, contributes to the health of the intercrop species as the intercrop promotes the synthesis of allelopathic compounds and phenolic compounds such as anthocyanins and flavonoids which may serve as a deterrent to diseases and pests and improve the quality of the intercrop plants. due to its inherent biological, biochemical and physiochemical properties intercropping system may be used to promote sustainable crop production and for safe management and costeffective agricultural activities. keywords: allelopathic, disease, intercrop, pests, pathogens, nutrient recycle, socioeconomic 1. introduction intercropping system is a traditional cropping system more pronounced in africa, asia and latin america were poverty is on the higher percentage. the intention of the farmers being the quantitative advantage of the intercrop over the sole crop most often time the system involve growing the main crop together with the sub-crop or secondary crop (less desired crop). some of the objectives of the sub-crop in the intercrop are to provide nutrients, suppress weeds, pests and disease check through their allelopathic effect, adequate utilization of environmental factors and their interactions with the crop species. in such a situation the yield advantage of the intercropping is the yield accruing from the additional crop (the sub-crops). in most cases especially where it is the main objective of the farmer to grow both crops, the joined intercrop result is greater than the joined sole crop output. though in some cases combined intercrop yield does not necessary exceed the yield of the higher yielding sole crop. cereallegume intercrop in countries like south america, africa, and asia has being found by vandermeer (1989) to be common practice and their advantages relative to sole cropping are affected by soil water content and nutrients, species and varieties of the crop plant. intercropping ensures yield stability efficient utilization of sunshine and land and in maintaining the fertility of the soil (onwueme and sinha, 1991, nweke et al., 2013, nweke, 2015). in brinjalgroundnut intercropping prashaanth et al. (2009) observed that pod weight of brinjal in mono cropping was low due to absence of intercrop which leads to high water evaporation from soil surface. yield successes were recorded byjiao et al. (2008) in maize-groundnut intercropping they observed that the intercrop system increased the effective utilization of light by maize and groundnut that led to the yield enhancement. ogindo and walker (2008) have identified that due to higher leaf area and leaf area index inter crop has being able to minimize soil water loss. on low nitrogen soils the amount of nitrogen fixed was closely correlated with legumes dried-matter production (vallis et al., 2012). bhegat et al. (2006) reported yield increases under intercrop conditions of groundnut/sweet corn of which they attributed it to none availability of symbolically fixed n by the groundnut crop of which they observed to increase with increasing proportion of groundnut. intercropping studies with calapogonum mucunoides, groundnut, pigeon pea and cowpea, agboola and fayemi (2001) indicated that the cover crops fixed 370kgn/ha when intercropped with maize. viljoen and allamaon (1996) found out that income generation, adaptability, and weed control, reduction in crop failure, adequate nutrient, soil conservation and maintenance are major factors for famers to intercrop their crops. potentials for increase gains due to the growth of another crop on the same land are some other advantages of intercropping system. time as well as farm instruments and labour are easily managed (mccoy et al., 2001, vandermeer 1989). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 32 published by ideas spread crop parasitic nematodes are one of the main soil-borne plant pests that can be effectively reduced when food crops and legumes are intercrop. legume crops are susceptible to nematodes of various ranges of species. some of these legumes when used in intercrop system whether as live mulch or in situ creates an unsuitable environment for the nematodes of which drastically reduced their population in soil. the number of nematode specie, meloidogyne incognita which is not thought as a maize pest can rise under pigeon pea, bambara groundnut psophocapuspalustris. when any of these legumes is intercropped with maize the population of helicotylenchus psendorobustus the spiral specie of nematode which is injurious to maize plant is likely to decrease. poor resource farmers due to none availability of farm land and efficient utilization of inputs by intercrop species engage in the practice of intercropping. single crops require more chemicals to control diseases, pest and insects and these chemicals may not be available. such beneficial interactions between food crops and legumes justify the intercropping systems effect on certain plant parasites and pest. thus the review tends to report on the potentials of intercropping on efficient utilization of soil resources and environmental factors, yield and economic returns, pests, diseases and weed control. 2. effect of intercropping on the soil pathogens, pests, diseases, weeds and allelopathic compound on soil-water-crop environment intercropping system has been indicated to be more ideal to use instead of herbicide in controlling growth of weeds in farm land (liebman and davis 2000). the total quantity of weed on maize plant can decrease by means of intercropping of which are influenced byclimate condition and maize culture. the study of gomez (2007) showed that for most variables evaluated in brazil intercropping system decreased the quantity of herbicides used in weed control and there was no interaction recorded among the maize culture and weed control method. crops from hand weeding recorded higher values relative to crops obtained from intercropped plots that are not weeded. hence cowpea was inefficient in controlling weed in the intercropped plots. according to liebman and dyck (1993) intercropping system is competitively advantageous to mono cropping with regard to utilization of soil nutrients, allelopathic impact on weeds and the ability to exploit those nutrients not used by weeds for the good of the crop plant than would have done by mono cropping. maize intercropping, with different kinds of leguminous and other crops is an extensively used practice across the world and the assessment of weed control in maize production using intercropping system is of great concern. the ability of the different crop varieties such as maize, soybean, cotton and potatoes, to reduce weed biomass have been reported by callaway (1992). the yield losses observed in the old one were indicated to be due to less lai (leaf area index), less photosynthetic densityand its less nitrogen use efficiency. sinoquet and cardwell (1995) have argued that plants involved in competition for light possess some major attributes of which are the rate of leaf area expansion, height of plant and distribution short leaf areas. these are some of the features that can make intercrop plants to have competitive advantage over weeds. these characteristics however may be increased by changes in plant management systems like plant spacing, crop population or through crop breeding (linguist and motesium 1998). the plan can cause maize plant to compete more favourable than the weed thereby reduce quantity of chemicals required for the control of weed. forage legumes especially the prostrate type like bambara groundnut, mucuna pruineus, melon, cowpea, groundnut, centrosema pubescens pueraria phaseoloides etc, when use in an intercropping system compete with and smother weeds successfully when well established. jurium and henerary (2009) in zaire used cover crops like pueraria javanica, stylosenthes guianensis and calapogonum mucunoides to get rid of imperata cylindica completely in the savannah region. in southwest nigerian, at international institute of tropical agriculture (iita) main station ibadan, akobundu and okigbo (2005) investigated maize yield with several ground-cover weed competition. maize seed was sown in already established legumes. weed population was observed to be greatest in dsemondium triflorumindigofera spicata and in non-tillage control plots, was moderate in groundnut and maize – stover plots and very small in centrosema, pubescens, cow pea, pigeon pea, and psophocarpuspalustris plots. higher maize yield was obtained from were weed competition was minimized by the legume cover crop. akobundu (2010) noted that after five years of intensive cropping maize yield obtained from plots with live mulch (intercrop) under minimum or conventional tillage were found to be greater than maize yield obtained from sole crop (bare). maize in non-tillage system responded to application of 60kg nitrogen/ha but no nitrogen response were observed by maize in the live mulch plots. this meant that intercrop contributed to the need of the maize crop. although good results were obtained from alfisol, disappointing results were recorded on strongly acid ultisol in south-east nigerian by faulkner (2004) of which he attributed mainly to poor establishment of cover crop. the system of intercropping of cereals with legumes are been enjoyed by farmers in the tropical environment and rain fed areas of the world due to its advantage for weed control and yield increment (tsubo et al., 2005, gosh et al., 2004, poggio 2005). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 33 published by ideas spread srikrishanh et al. (2008) found weed population was reduced in brinjalgroundnut intercropping. intercropping maize and legumes soybean considerably reduces weed density compared with mono-cropping soybeans. growing crops in a mixture reduce weed occurrence (zuofia et al., 1992). intercropping with cover crop reduced the structure of weed community, an alternative weed growth reduction and reproductive potential mainly to maintain productivity. using cover cropping as a tool for weed control, especially for farming activities with small inputs weeds were drastically reduced and yield increased (itulya and aguyoh, 1998, liebman and davis 2000, schoofs and ebtz, 2000). the suppression of weed occurrence was observed in maize/groundnut intercrops, sweet potato/mung beans intercrop and in all weed biomass were drastically reduced.this could be due to the shading effect as was reported by oswald et al. (1998) it was equally observed that single weeding is merely required to achieve the same yield value obtained from several weeding required of sole maize. soybean intercropping was noted to decrease weed population to the tune of 39% as relative to sole maize (ayemi et al., 1984). however in another study by ayemi et al. (1984) weed biomass was not reduced by maize/cowpea intercrop, it was concluded that weed population must be controlled initially to enable the leaves to develop sufficiently enough for weed reduction in inter cropping of maize and cowpea. obilana and ramaiah (1998) explained that striga control practices can be achieved through intercropping systems which requires small manipulation in the farming methods without any conditional inputs though he opined that this should be accompanied by additional land weeding of which could be made easier by striga plants. the term allelopathy referred to the release of chemical substances directly or indirectly into the soil medium by one plant to harmfully affect another plant. ferguson and rathinasabapathi (2003) found out that in both natural and agricultural systems dangerous chemical which is allelopathy is released from one part of plant by leaching, root exudates, volatilization, residue decomposition and other process. allelopathy been root exudates has potential effect on many parts of the plant communities, dominance, diversity and productivity. according to the work of florentine and fox (2003), the degree of allelopathic effect is determined by the magnitude or extent of disease and insect infestation during the plant growing period. allelopathy as well play major role in reducing weed growth. thus intercropping legumes with cereals can take advantage of allelopathic potential to reduce the growth of weeds. the reduction of weed population through allelopathy is weed sensitive. hence weed control in larger form will involve the growing of different species of crop together and each releasing harmful chemical (allelopathy) to a particular weed type. the popularly known allelopathic impacts according to ferguson and rathinasabapathi (2003) will include decrease in the germination of seed and growth. there is no physiological target site orcommon mode of actionfor all allele chemicals. however, enzyme functions, photosynthesis, cell division, pollen germination etc are some known sites of action for allele chemicals. allelopathic suppression becomes complex with mixture of different compounds when its activities interact with chemicals such as alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, carbohydrates and terponoids. many of these chemical substances noted to be inhibiting are produced from living plants that release phytotoxic chemicals into the soil medium through plant residue decomposition, leaching, root exudation and volatilization. swain (1977) found most of the phototoxic chemicals as secondary metabolites which are not important in primary metabolism necessary for plant establishment. some notable allelochemicals usually cause suppression of seed germination and growth. weed species often possess much higher levels of allelochemicals than the crop plants (gupta 2007). in organism communities the work of adie and chase, (2007) showed that many plants tend to regulate one another through the production and release of chemical stimulators, inhibitors or attractants. akinsanmi, (1998) however, reported that certain weeds produce chemical substances which are detrimental to crop plants, some are poisonous to animals while yet others may harbour insects and pathogenic organisms harmful to crop planted. weeds can cause greater reduction in yield of vegetables. awogbade et al. (2003) investigated the effects of aqueous extracts of phyllanthusamorus on germination rate of some vegetables. they found out that allelopathic effect of phyllanthusamorus on celosia, solanum and amaranthus germination were inhibited at 50% extract concentration while corchorus and okra had lowest germination rate 75% and 100% extract concentration respectively. manonmani (2012) reported similar inhibition of root and shoot elongation with increased extract concentration of tridax procumbens on some leguminous plants. the plumule of solanum experienced stimulatory effect of extract at 100% concentration of which they found to be significantly higher than other treatments, both plumule and radicule of okra were mostly inhibited at 100% extra concentration. allelopathic weed inhibition can be influenced by such factors as or parameters like; pest and disease infestation, amount of nutrients, herbicides, solar radiation, water content, temperature as well as environmental and physiological stress. plant parts such as roots, stems/bark, leaves and flower, soils and their chemical compound can produce allelopathic effect of which changes over a growing period. ferguson and rathinasabapathi, (2003) noted that these chemicals can persist long in the soil affecting member plants and those planted in succession. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 34 published by ideas spread crop yields and residues as noted by stanford and haris, (1984) are equally affected by allelopathic and phytotoxic chemicals. el –ehawas and shehata (2005) reported that kidney pea and maize seedling emergence decreased with treatment of acacis nilotic and eucalyptis rostrate on biological and morphological criteria. the authors found out that yield reduction in cropping system was due to allelopathic effect. these allelopathic problems however can be observed in both intercropping systems and mono cropping systems. for instance, continuous monoculture system can cause the accumulation of photo-toxins and injurious soil organisms that can give rise to phototoxicity and reduction in fertility of soil. a good number of species of weed also have some growth inhibiting effects on crops. many physiological processes and activities of crop plant are influenced by allele compound that stop growth of plant. in the root rhizophere the concentration of ion uptake and hydraulic conductivity determine the level of growth suppression by the allelochemical. nonetheless some plant may be able to escape allelopathic chemicals due to their hypersensitivity of which the implication is that some crop root become strongly affected by allele chemicals which can inhibit their growth. intercropping help in pest and disease control maize for example is susceptible to many insects and diseases. therefore intercropping will be promising cultural practice for this purpose based on the fact that one member crop of an intercropping method may be check against pest or disease spread. in maize/chilli intercrop gutierrez, (1999) found the activities of anthonomus eugenii to be less and yield obtained higher relative to sole chilli. the leaf hopper and white fly infestation were observed by srikrishanh et al. (2008) to be less in the intercrop of groundnut and brinjal relative to mono cropping. trenbath, (1993) noted that diseases and pests that cause destructive effect in sole crop show very less harmful effect in intercrop unlike in mono culture. for instance, maize is susceptible to many insect species as pest such as weevils, boll warms, beetles, stalk borers, leafhoppers, aphids etc and diseases like stalk rot and leaf streak (which are bacterial diseases), cob and tassel (fungal diseases) dwarf mosaic and streak diseases (viral diseases) and root knot disease cause by nematodes (flett et al., 1996). also for example cowpea are usually influenced by insect like aphids, foliage beetle, thrips and pod borers, diseases such as rust virus (e.g. anthracnose) and scab and bacterial diseases such as blight (adipola et al., 1999, edema 1995). so growing these crops in intercropping system have the capacity of bringing down the incidence of these diseases and pest to the barest minimum where it will have no remarkable effect on the yield of crops and the return on investment to the farmer. vandermeer (1973) opined that intercropping effect on these pest and diseases may be associated to micro environment effects of related crops in intercropping compared to sole cropping. intercropping methods have been observed to cause low survival of pests due to the consequences of landing on none host plant as well as their visual disturbance and distributive effect. even the existence of weed as reported by altien (1990) can affect pest search for their hosts. power, (1990) used intercrop method to decrease the level of dalbusmoundi (maize leafhopper) in different maize cultivars. anyisi and mposi (2001) intercropping cowpea cultivar pan 311 found that the incidence of stalk borer chiloparellus (swine hoe) infestation was significantly reduced in sorghum intercrop relative to mono culture. the yield of bean and aphid attack was observed by oganga-latigo et al. (1992) to decrease following intercropping system. anyisi and mposi, (2001) where of the opinion that factors such as crop species, variety of cultivars, crop density, soil water content and fertility as well as row management have made yield increases in intercrop relative to mono crop and pest control inconsistent in research results. individual crops as reported by nwanze and mueller (1989) may not have the same effect or response. with maize/lablab purcpureus l. (lablab) intercrop maluleke et al. (2005) observed significant reduction in maize stem borer of which was severe in mono culture. increased crop densities were equally noted by oganga-latigo et al. (1992) to have decreased the impact of aphid following intercropping method. there was reason or chance that less visual diseases under this situationswere merely due to unfavourable micro climate for the aphid intercrops. 3. influence of intercropping on soil nutrient, crop yield and economic returns to the farmer and ills of intercropping system cash advantage due to intercropping (cai) investigated in cassava and water melon intercrop in south-west nigerian, kintomo, (2001) observed that cai increased with increase in water melon proportion indicating higher contribution of water melon to mixture productivity. the cai value showed that the alternative cropping system could generate additional income for farmers of which such income could be used to maintain cassava plots the following year when farmer may be cash trapped. gosh et al. (2006) in intercropping test found out that intercropping was beneficiary for the soil microbial community of sorghum but not for soybeans an indication that the two crops competed with each other. according to ecoport (2004) and ikeh et al. (2013) growing conditions affect yield of intercrop even with proper management. in as much as agricultural systems are been affected by the growing conditions of crops intercrop systems can as well make the conditions vulnerable to the environmental factors coupled with management systems in operation thereby creating inconsistency in yield of which cause a as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 35 published by ideas spread drawback in the adoption of the intercrop method. intercropping of cereal with legumes have been found to be a protection against yield failure, less cost of production and increase monetary return to poor resource farmers, improving yield stability and socioeconomic enhancement (ofor and stern 1987, nweke and anene 2019). intercropping economic benefit according to the work of seran and brintha (2009) is that it occupied greater land uses thereby provide higher net returns. vegetable cowpea intercropped with capsicum gave more money than mono culture. therefore intercropping gives high income per unit area than sole cropping. john et al. (1943) reported 43% profit in intercrop over sole culture in a 3year study of ground/pigeon pea intercrop prepared in 8:1 proportion. veeraswormy et al. (1974) showed that the arrangement of 6 groundnuts:1 pigeon pea was more economical than 8:1 their result showed that groundnut gave 99% of the sole crop yield and pigeon pea 37% of its sole crop yield, totaling an advantage of 36%. bhagat et al. (2005) in two –year study involving different maize varieties under intercropping system with groundnut recorded lowest net returns under sole groundnut compared to intercrop in a study of groundnut/sweet corn intercropping at different fertility levels and row proportions. alom et al. (2009) summed up the findings of their studies that farmers of the maize growing areas should grow intercropped hybrid maize with groundnut as the intercrop was found to be more profitable than either sole hybrid maize or sole groundnut. the main factor responsible for yield gains in intercropping is the ability to use early resources by the legume that complements the use of late resources by the longer season crops of which were made possible by the general growth arrangement of crops in intercropping. in rubber based cropping system, intercropping cassava during the immature phase of rubber was found to be profitable. the profitability index 0.75 was recorded by esekhade et al. (2013) for rubber + cassava intercropping system, indicating that 75% of the total amount invested in the farm was recovered in four years compared with zero returns recorded for sole rubber cropping. also esekhade and ojiekpon (1997) reported high economic benefit of intercropping rubber with arable crop during the immaturity period of rubber. intercropping may pose a certain problem like increased labour requirement and difficulty in mechanization. problems like competition for water, light and nutrients that may result in low yield of component crops but this depend on the crop intercropped. water needs competition can be reduced if the crops are planted at a larger distance. the major disadvantage of intercropping system according to ghaffarzadeh, (1997) is that intercropping is not adapted to very dry, poorly drained and heavy clay soils and this implies difficult in seed planting, harvesting and fertilizer application and weeding in mechanization are made for uniform fields. hence the use of implements in intercropping system in large scale could be herculean task, though presently some modern implements have been found useful in some intercropping methods. 4. conclusion intercropping system have shown to have significant effect on the yield and yield components of intercrop species due to its better use of environmental resources and soil moisture compared to mono crop. an alternative to the use of herbicides as it suppressed weed growth, decrease the preponderance of pests and diseases and increase the fertility of soil through nitrogen increase to the system. therefore it is of interest that if farmers explore the use of intercropping effectively in their limited land resources cum non-availability of farm inputs in most cases, agricultural sustainability can be achieved with ease in south eastern soils of nigerian. references adie, m. j., & chase c. a. 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v1n1p1 1 published by ideas spread gamma radiated wheat for combating devastating blast disease (magnaporthe oryzae triticum) in bangladesh md. harun-or-rashid1, m. bahadur meah1, md. imtiaz uddin2, sharif ahmed3 & md. abul kashem2 1 bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh 2 bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture, mymensingh, bangladesh 3 international rice research institute, bangladesh office, bangladesh correspondence: md. harun-or-rashid, department of plant pathology, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh-2202, bangladesh tel: 880-177-435-5442. e-mail: harun.hmml@gmail.com received: october 24, 2019 accepted: november 25, 2019 online published: december 3, 2019 abstract wheat is a global food security crop, providing 20 percent of protein and calories consumed worldwide and up to 50 percent in developing countries. it is the second most important cereal next to rice in bangladesh and playing an important role in attaining food security. but wheat is very susceptible to diseases that often place major biological constraints on production. in 2016, a new wheat disease called “blast” was identified by wheat scientists for the first time in bangladesh. wheat blast disease caused by magnaporthe oryzae triticum is causing enormous yield loss worldwide. at present, control of blast disease is a great challenge due to frequently introduction of new races of the pathogen. the present investigation focused on screening m2 population of gamma radiated wheat where four doses of radiations viz. 150 gy, 200 gy, 250 gy, and 300 gy were applied to the seeds of three wheat varieties viz. bari gom-25, bari gom-29 and bari gom-30 from a cobalt 60 source (gamma chamber 5000). the irradiated seeds were sown in farmers’ fields of a wheat blast disease-prone area chandbil, meherpur sadar. all the doses of irradiation showed a significant effect on incidence and severity of wheat blast disease in all three varieties. among the treatments 200 gy and 250 gy reduced the disease effectively. molecular detection of magnaporthe oryzae triticum was also done using specific primer. the size of the band (350 bp) confirms the infection of m2 families by magnaporthe oryzae triticum. development of wheat blast resistant variety through irradiation could be a potential substitute to replace the available chemical control methods and it is described as eco-friendly, sustainable and nonhazardous strategy to reduce wheat yield loss due to blast disease. keywords: gamma radiation, wheat blast, resistant cultivar, disease incidence, disease severity 1. introduction wheat (triticum aestivum l.), belongs to the family poaceae, is one of the most important cereals in the world. wheat forms the base of global food security, providing 20% of protein and calories of the majority of the population in developing countries (singh et al., 2016). almost 50% of the total world production of grain crops is occupied by wheat (banglapedia, 2014). wheat is cultivated in the world over a large area and under varied climatic conditions ranging from sub-tropical to temperate (singh et al., 2016). wheat is the second most important cereal next to rice in bangladesh and playing an important role in attaining food security. wheat in bangladesh usually faces some abiotic (heat, salinity, drought, etc.) and biotic (disease, insect, weeds, etc.) stresses (ahmed et al., 2019). among the diseases, leaf rust, leaf blight, head blight, etc. are usually prevalent in this environment. however, in 2016, a new devastating wheat disease named wheat blast caused by magnaporthe oryzae triticum was identified by wheat scientists for the first time in bangladesh (fao report, 2016). wheat blast suddenly appeared in bangladesh in kustia, meherpur, chuadanga, jhenaidah, jashore, barishal, bhola and some other districts in the south. the affected areas were approximate ~20% of bangladesh’s total wheat producing area in 2015-16, presenting a significant threat to the country’s aggregate wheat production (meah et al., 2016). the wheat blast was first reported in 1985 in paraná, brazil (igarashi et al., 1986) and has since spread throughout many wheat-producing areas of brazil and to the neighboring countries such as bolivia and paraguay (goulart et al., 2007; kohli et al., 2011). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 2 published by ideas spread the pathogen of wheat blast disease has the potential to infect all the above-ground parts of wheat plant (igarashi, 1991). the most significant symptom of wheat blast in the field is the premature bleaching of spikelets (igarashi, 1991; urashima, 2010). in severe cases, the entire head is damaged. if head infection occurs early grain production can be critically lost. blackening of the rachis, lower nodes, shriveling of grains, low test weight has also been observed (malaker et al., 2016). blast fungus is disseminated by air and seeds (monsur et al., 2016). seed transmission is considered to be a feature that is significant for its dispersal by humans (kato, 1994). besides, there are several strains of m. oryzae which tend to display a degree of host specificity and they have been divided into pathotypes based on their host preference (cruz et al., 2016). based on the molecular characteristics, the pathogen strain of wheat blast found in bangladesh was similar to the strain of brazil (malaker et al., 2016). the south american countries brazil and bolivia tried to develop resistant variety through conventional breeding. but the result is not mentionable. the alternative method of developing resistant variety is irradiation (özge çelik and çimen atak., 2017). radiation usually causes large chromosomal aberration and chemical mutagens cause point mutations (raina et al., 2016; raina et al., 2017 and khursheed et al., 2017). mutation breeding is hugely successful. the wide use of mutation induction for crop improvement is documented in the iaea (2017) mutant variety database. over 3275 mutant varieties in more than 220 plant species have been officially released worldwide to date (fao/iaea, 2018). the main mutagenic crops improved for disease resistance are rice, barley, maize, wheat, bean, green pea. recently in 2017, niab kinnow mutant variety of citrus reticulata has been developed from bud woods of local kinnow irradiated at 20 gy of gamma rays (iaea mutant variety database, 2017). this variety has shown moderate to high resistance to citrus canker, scab, and wither-tip diseases as well as a low incidence to major insect pests (iaea mutant variety database, 2017). bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture (bina) developed some resistant varieties of rice and other cereals (bina, 2018). the rice varieties developed by bina using irradiation are binadhan-4, binadhan-5, binadhan-6, binadhan-7, binadhan-9, binadhan-13, binadhan-14, binadhan-18 and binadhan-19 ( bina, 2018 and iaea mutant variety database 2017). binadhan-19 was developed from nerica-10 through irradiation at 40 gy of gamma rays (bina, 2018). it is reported that bangladeshi wheat blast pathogen magnaporthe oryzae triticum strains are more aggressive than those reported earlier (cimmyt, 2017). the conventional methods of gene isolation and transfer have been tried for this strain. the approach irradiation of seeds to bring a small change in the genetic makeup has not been tried. in the proposed research program, the possibility of creating a mutant resistant to magnaporthe oryzae triticum was found through seed radiation. radiation in wheat seeds has never before been given to obtain a mutant resistant against wheat blast pathogen magnaporthe oryzae triticum. this could be an alternative approach to develop wheat variety resistant to magnaporthe oryzae triticum. 2. materials and methods field experiments were carried out in bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture (bina) farm, mymensingh and farmers’ fields of chandbil village at meherpur sadar during the 2017-2018 season. laboratory works were accomplished in the integrated pest management (ipm) lab of bangladesh agricultural university (bau) and biotechnology lab of bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture (bina). the field experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design with four doses of gamma ray application, i.e., 150, 200, 250 and 300 gy on three latest developed wheat varieties such as bari gom-25, bari gom-29 and bari gom-30 with replicated thrice. the soil of the experimental plot was sandy loam with moderate fertility. seeds of wheat varieties were irradiated using a cobalt source ray @ 150 gy, 200 gy, 250 gy, and 300 gy. irradiated seeds were sown in line of 2.5 m long with a seed rate of 120 kg ha-1. the non-irradiated seeds of each variety were sown as control. the land was prepared following standard procedure of wheat cultivation. fertilizers and manures were applied as per recommendation of bari (anonymous, 2012). after sowing the seeds in the plot, the upper portion of the plot soil was leveled manually. continuous supervisions were done to protect the experimental plot from external hazards such as birds, fox, animals, etc. m1 (1st year population of irradiated seeds) plants were grown in the field of bina and m2 (2nd year population of irradiated seeds) plants were grown at chandbil, meherpur. both fields were irrigated two times and manual hand weeding once for weed control. no pesticides were applied. in both fields none of the m1 or m2 plants were inoculated. the plants were kept under continuous observation for the expression of wheat blast symptoms. data on the parameters were recorded: days to symptom expression, disease as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 3 published by ideas spread incidence, and disease severity. the infected plant samples (spikes) were collected for the determination of magnaporthe oryzae triticum through clinical and molecular assay using specific primer. 2.1 sample collection samples of spikes were collected from both m1 and m2 plants. blast infected spikes were collected in brown paper bags, dried in room temperature and afterward the samples were stored at 4 °c. spikes from plants were used for dna extraction. initially, spikes were cut apart with sterilized scissors and washed in distilled water and ethanol (70%) and dried on fresh tissue paper to remove spore of microorganisms and any other source of foreign dna. the collected spike samples were then kept in polythene bags and for avoiding any damage of the tissues, the bags were placed in an icebox and brought out to the laboratory where the samples were stored in -80 °c freezer. 2.2 sample analysis the collected samples were analyzed for the presence of mot following both conventional pathological techniques and molecular techniques. in conventional techniques, moist chamber and agar plate methods were employed. a) inocula preparation collected samples of wheat spikes were cut into small parts of 2-3 cm long. for the moist chamber, inocula were directly placed on moist blotter. for pda plates, inocula were surface sterilized with 10% clorox for 1 min, rewashed the inocula three times in sterile water. b) moist chamber incubation moist chambers were prepared in plastic petri dishes (9 cm). 1-2 filter papers/blotter soaked in sterile water were placed in the petri dishes. 3-4 inocula were placed on the moist blotter in equal distance and incubated at room temperature (25±1 °c). observations were made for the growth of mot out of the inocula. c) preparation of water agar medium in the experimental studies, the standard water agar medium was used. tape water was boiled for 15-20 minutes. then agar (20 g) was dissolved in the water and the volume was made up to 1000 ml by adding distilled water and 2 ml lactic acid was added to it to avoid bacterial contamination. a known quantity of medium was poured into number of conical flasks. the flasks were plugged with nonabsorbent cotton and finally wrapped with brown paper. the flasks containing dispensed medium was sterilized at 121 °c with 15 psi pressure for about 30 minutes (samson et al., 2015). d) preparation of oat meal agar (oma) medium fifty grams oat were boiled in 600 ml distilled water for 1 hour and the extract was collected by filtering through a muslin cloth. agar (15 g) was dissolved in the oat extract in a conical flask and the volume was made up to 1000 ml by adding distilled water. the flask containing the medium was sterilized at 121 °c with 15 psi pressure for about 30 minutes (siddique, 2014). then 4-5 tea spoon of streptophen was added in the flask. finally, the prepared medium was stored in refrigerator with proper labeling. later the medium was melted and poured in sterile glass petri-dishes. e) purification and multiplication of the pathogens mycelia of the fungi were transferred from spikelet surface and infected parts of the sample to oma medium with the help of sterile pointed needle. then, tip of the fungal colony was transferred to pda plates and incubated at 25 °c temperature with more than 80% relative humidity for luxuriant growth. thus, the pure cultures of the pathogen were obtained. then necessary multiplication of the pathogen was done. f) maintenance of magnaporthe oryzae triticum pathogen the pure culture was obtained by transferring young immature whitish mycelia from culture plate to a fresh pda slant and incubated for 10-15 days. from this culture, a young whitish mycelium was again transferred to sterilized pda slant. thus a pure culture was obtained and maintained by sub culturing (figure 1). in molecular techniques conventional pcr methods were employed. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 4 published by ideas spread figure 1. pure culture of magnaporthe oryzae triticum a) dna extraction of wheat spikes a modified mini-prep dna extraction method developed by edwards et al. (1991) was followed in this experiment. the simplified mini scale procedure for dna isolation in pcr analysis of this method was done in the biotechnology lab, bina. the quality of the isolated dna in the protocol was sufficient for pcr analysis. one set of 2 ml microfuge tubes were labeled with the sample names for harvesting tissue, and the second set of 1.5 ml tubes were labeled for the dna extraction with the same sample names. it is most efficient to work in sets of 24 tubes at a time. the samples were brought to the dna extraction lab, the water bath was fixed to 65 °c, water level checked, and the extraction buffer was pre-heated before use (30 sec in the microwave). the spike samples were cut into 2-3 cm pieces and the sample was crushed in small mortar and pestle. after crushing, the tubes were removed to a room temperature tube rack, to let them warm up briefly (2-3 min.) then 800 μl re-heated extraction buffer was added and mixed well by vortexing and inverting. the tubes were placed in a 65 °c water bath in a tube holder for 20 minutes (after 10 minutes mixed by inverting and return to the water bath). the tubes were removed, mixed by inverting, and brought to a chemical fume hood. then 800 μl l chloroform mix was added (24:1 mixture of chloroform and isoamyl alcohol). tubes were closed tightly, placed in tube rack, covered with paper towels and hold a second tube rack against the top of the tubes and inverted repeatedly for 3 minutes. the tubes were centrifuged for 8 minutes at 11,000 rpm in a micro centrifuge. 500 μl of the upper aqueous layer was removed to a new 1.5 ml tube (already labeled) being careful not to pipette near the "dirty" layer. later, the chloroform and plant tissue were poured into a liquid organic waste container. 1000 μl of cold 100% ethanol was added and mixed by inverting. then centrifuged for 12 minutes at maximum speed (13,200 rpm). a small pellet was visible. the solution was decanted by pouring the solution into a beaker and then touched the tip of the tube to a tissue to remove the excess solution (or pipette off excess solution with a p 200). 1000 μl cold 70% ethanol was added to all tubes (adding at an angle away from the side of the tube with the dna pellet) and spinned for 3 minutes at 13,200 rpm. the pellet was dried by inverting the tubes on a bench top on top of tissue for 30-45 min. it was made sure that there is no residual ethanol, but also not dried too long (which makes re-suspending difficult). the pellet was re-suspended in 100 μl te buffer and dissolved pellet by warming in a 65 °c water bath for up to 1 hr (with frequent mixing or flicking the tube with finger). after the pellet was dissolved, the concentrated dna was stored at -20 °c. b) conventional pcr the pcr cocktail including dna had a total volume of 10 μl/reaction based on a wheat protocol (pieck et al., 2013) was placed in the pcr tubes and run in the dna thermal cycler. for a single reaction 3.5 μl of green taq polymerase, 0.5 μl of dntps, 0.25 μl of dna polymerase, 1 μl of primer (forward+reverse) and 3.75 μl of ddh2o was required. for 15 reactions, at first 3.75 μl of sterilized ddh2o, 2.5 μl of dna polymerase, 0.5 μl of dntps were taken in a 1.5 ml pcr tube. then 1 μl of primer (forward and reverse) were added. the mixture was then vortexed. at last 3.5 μl of taq dna polymerase was mixed with it. 1.0 μl of each template dna samples were pipette into the wells of the pcr tubes for pcr amplification with initial denaturation at 94°c for 90 s; followed by 30 cycles of 94°c for 30 s, 62°c for 30 s, and 72°cfor 60 s; and a final extension at 72°c for 2 min. amplified pcr products were analyzed on 2% agarose gels and stained with ethi-dium bromide. about 2 μl of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 5 published by ideas spread each pcr product was loaded in each well. dna size marker like 100 bp dna ladder was used for size determination. after staining, the gel was taken out carefully from the staining tray and placed on high performance ultraviolet light box (uv-trans-illuminator) of gel doc for checking the dna bands. table 1. the sequence and size of the selected specific primer used in this study c) statistical analysis the collected data were analyzed statistically by using web agri stat package (wasp) program, version 2 software. the mean of all the treatments was compared by tukey’s hsd test with a 95% level of significance. 3. results and discussion 3.1 symptoms of wheat blast the infection appeared on the emerging heads at pre-heading stage generally at 46-49 days age of wheat plants. the infection appeared as whitening of the spike most commonly from the top. infection occurred on the emerging head in different points i.e. in the middle or near the tip or at the base (figure 2). the common thing was observed that irrespective of the point of infection, whitening commonly called bleaching from the top downward. it means if infection occurred at the base, the whole of the spike bleached, infection near the top caused bleaching of the spike from top to down the point of infection and an infection in the middle caused bleaching of the half of the spike from the top. however, with time the whole of the spike in all cases turned silvery-white i.e. completely bleached. 3.2 isolation and characterization of magnaporthe oryzae triticum infected spikes were collected, room dried and stored at 4 °c in brown paper envelopes. microscopic slides were prepared through picking up fungal structures from the infected spikelets and observed under microscope. secondly, infected spikelets were observed directly under stereo binocular microscope and recorded the fungal structures on the surface of the grains and prepared slides picking up those structures with needles. thirdly, infected spikelets were splitted into small parts and incubated in moist chamber and agar plates. the plates were observed for fungal growth. slides were prepared picking up growing fungal structures and observed under a microscope. pyriform 3 celled hyaline conidia with beaks of different length were observed in plenty (figure 2). 3.3 germination of mot spores continued observation of the watch glass under microscope revealed mot started germination producing germ tube within 12h. germ tubes were seen developed from both ends as well as from side cells (figure 2). the germination of the spores confirmed that the infected samples collected from wheat plants of the experimental plot were in live condition. screening m1 population m1 population in the bina campus did not find any infection of magnaporthe oryzae triticum. screening m2 population the experiment in farmers field found infection of magnaporthe oryzae triticum showing different levels of disease incidence (di) and disease severity (ds). both di and ds increased with time. at the initial stage infection of magnaporthe oryzae triticum was low which showed a very alarming hike towards the end of the season. 3.4 effect of seed irradiation on the incidence and severity of blast of wheat under natural infection seed irradiation at different doses significantly affected the incidence of blast disease of three wheat varieties infected at the pre-heading stage (table 2). primer name seqa sequence annealing temperature (°c) target species mot1 wb01 forward gctgttctgggccacctac 62 magnaporthe oryzae triticum reverse attcctccccgatttccttt as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 6 published by ideas spread figure 2. a. typical blast symptoms of bleaching of spikes b. symptoms on leaf (eye shaped spot) c. lesion photo taken by mobile microscope (60x view) d. microscopic view of mot spores (40x view) c. germinating spores table 2. effect of seed irradiation on the incidence and severity of blast of wheat on three wheat varieties under natural infection irradiation bari gom-25 bari gom-29 bari gom-30 disease incidence (%) disease severity (%) disease incidence (%) disease severity (%) disease incidence (%) disease severity (%) no irradiation 56.66 a 87.33 a 48.00 a 94.00 a 34.33 a 85.00 a 150 gy 37.33 c 80.00 b 30.00 c 81.66 b 29.33 b 74.33 b 200 gy 22.33 d 42.33 d 28.66 c 72.66 b 18.00 c 51.66 e 250 gy 32.33 c 52.33 c 17.33 d 60.00 c 25.00 b 57.66 d 300 gy 44.00 b 75.00 b 36.00 b 77.66 b 28.66 b 68.33 c the letters denote statistical differences at the 95% level using tukey’s hsd (honestly significant difference) test. seed irradiation caused a notable impact on the incidence and severity of blast on wheat varieties. variation in the doses posed a significant difference on both incidence and severity. in all the varieties, wheat plants from nonradiated seeds carried the maximum wheat blast infection. within the varieties, difference in radiation doses caused significant variation in blast infection (table 2). among the treatments, 200 gy and 250 gy reduced the disease effectively. the maximum disease incidence (56.66%) was found in control of bari gom-25 and the maximum as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 7 published by ideas spread disease severity (94.00%) was found in control of bari gom-29. the minimum disease incidence (17.33%) was found in 250 gy treated seed of bari gom-29 and the minimum disease severity (42.33%) was found in 200 gy treated seed of bari gom-25. in case of bari gom-25 and bari gom-30, the performance of 200 gy was mentionable for their ability to suppress disease incidence and severity. 3.5 quantification of dna the dna isolated from infected spikes of m2 families of wheat was quantified through nanodroptm spectrophotometer (table 3). it was found that dna concentration varied from 250 ngμl-1 to 1942.73 ngμl-1. the amount in each m2 family was adjusted to 50 ngμl-1. table 3. the concentration of dna of 15 m2 families of wheat spike sample sl. no. treatments dna concentration ngμl1 absorbance ratio a260/280 a260/230 1. bwm-1 583.80 1.41 0.82 2. bwm-2 250.08 1.34 0.78 3. bwm-3 647.10 1.86 0.60 4. bwm-4 299.64 1.60 0.57 5. bwm-5 616.24 1.70 0.52 6. bwm-6 266.02 1.97 0.78 7. bwm-7 481.57 1.92 1.57 8. bwm-8 417.83 2.05 1.37 9. bwm-9 347.89 2.02 1.77 10. bwm-10 388.13 1.16. 1.64 11. bwm-11 288.89 1.83 0.64 12. bwm-12 272.60 2.00 0.93 13. bwm-13 1942.73 1.54 0.84 14. bwm-14 1062.43 2.01 0.69 15. bwm-15 386.48 2.02 1.47 bwm-1: bari gom-25 (150gy), bwm-2: bari gom-25 (200gy), bwm-3: bari gom-25 (250gy), bwm-4: bari gom-25 (300gy), bwm-5: bari gom-25 (control), bwm-6: bari gom-29 (150gy), bwm-7: bari gom-29 (200gy), bwm-8: bari gom-29 (250gy), bwm-9: bari gom-29 (300gy), bwm-10: bari gom29 (control), bwm-11: bari gom-30 (150gy), bwm-12: bari gom-30 (200gy), bwm-13: bari gom-30 (250gy), bwm-14: bari gom-30 (300gy), bwm-15: bari gom-30 (control) 3.6 pcr based detection of magnaporthe oryzae triticum using specific primer genomic dna was extracted from 15 infected m2 wheat spike samples. the dna concentration was found between 250.08 ngμl-1 (bwm-2) to 1942.73 ngμl-1 (bwm-13). a working dna solution of 50 ngμl-1 was prepared for each sample. polymerase chain reaction (pcr) of the extracted genomic dna from the infected samples was done using mot1 primer. the results showed that nine m2 families’ samples (bwm-2, bwm-4, bwm-5, bwm-8, bwm-10, bwm-11, bwm-13, bwm-14, and bwm-15) clearly amplified an amplicon of 350 bp by mot1 primer. (figure 3). the other seven m2 families did not show any amplification by this primer. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 8 published by ideas spread figure 3. agarose gel electrophoresis of dna of wheat blast infected spikes of m2 families amplified with primer mot1. lane m-100bp dna ladder; lane (1-15) contains pcr products of 15 m2 families (bwm-1 to bwm-15). an amplicon size of 350 bp found in spikes of nine m2 families. the size of the band confirms the infection of m2 families by mot in general, disease incidence and severity on the m2 plants were reflected on the presence or absence of banding on agarose gel except in few cases. the mot infection was recorded on all the m2 families while molecular detection of disease by mot1 primer was found in nine m2 families. the primer detected the expression of the disease as an amplicon of 350 bp semi-quantitatively. it showed that semi-quantitative detection of disease which varied in different m2 families of wheat. the low infection might not be detected by mot1 primer only. therefore, further analysis should be done using other specific primers like mot2, mot3, etc. for the quantitative expression of magnaporthe oryzae triticaum, real time pcr study is recommended. the research findings of the present investigation have some similarities to the findings of vishwakarma et al., 2017 who mutagenized by gamma rays a high yielding wheat variety, dbw-88 (released in 2014) at different doses (viz.200, 250, 300 & 350 gy), raised m2 generation in kernel, indian institute of wheat and barley research (iiwbr), a hot spot for yellow rust. variable resistance compared to susceptible parent was observed. continued selection until m5 generation yielded immune mutant wheat against the susceptible parent variety (6080s) (vishwakarma et al., 2017). similarly, in 2004, wonchu mutant variety of oryza sativa was developed by irradiating seeds at 250 gy of gamma rays. this variety has been shown to have higher yield and better disease resistance (raina and danish, 2018). 4. conclusion and recommendations radiation doses of 200 gy and 250 gy performed better in suppressing wheat blast incidence and severity and among the evaluated variety bari gom-30 performed best followed by bari gom-25 and bari gom-29. these mutant lines need to be advanced to m3 through m5 and artificially inoculated with wheat blast pathogen and evaluated for resistance. the findings of the present study enhance the way of more investigation on wheat blast disease resistant line screening. irradiated seeds are not harmful to the ecosystem rather completely safe for human health. therefore, irradiation can be utilized as an alternative approach for combating with wheat blast by developing resistant variety which will reduce the use of chemical pesticides as well as farmers additional cost to purchase pesticides. acknowledgments the authors would like to express their thanks to kgf, bangladesh for fund support to conduct this research. they are grateful to bina authority, bangladesh for providing the field and laboratory facilities. also we extend our thanks to the farmers at mahepur, bangladesh who helped us during our study. the authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this manuscript. references ahmed, s., alam, m. j., awan, t. h., & islam, akmm. 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(2017). radiation induced mutations for developing enhanced resistance to yellow (stripe) rust of wheat. barc newsletter novdec/17. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v1n1p30 30 published by ideas spread retrospective study on the occurrence of reportable priority cattle diseases in southern nations, nationalities and peoples’ regional state, southern ethiopia semayat oyda1, rahmeto abebe2 & bekele megersa2 1 wolaita sodo university dawuro – tarcha campus, department of animal and range science, p. o. box 01, tarcha, ethiopia 2 hawassa university school of veterinary medicine, p.o. box 05, hawassa, ethiopia correspondence: semayat oyda, school of veterinary medicine, wolaita sodo university, dawuro, tarcha campus, ethiopia. e-mail: drsemayat@gmail.com, semayatoy79@gmail.com. tel: 251-910-049-011/251-926089-330 received: december 1, 2019 accepted: december 25, 2019 online published: january 4, 2020 abstract a retrospective study was conducted between october 2016 and march 2017 in southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state (snnprs) to identify major reportable cattle disease outbreaks. the retrospective study was based on a nine years (2007-2015) cattle disease outbreak report data retrieved from the ministry of livestock and fisheries (molf) data bases. the retrospective study revealed that of the 15,840 disease outbreak reports expected from snnprs, only 1,578 (11%) reports were submitted to molf during the nine years’ time. according to the data retrieved from molf, a total of 1,496 cattle disease outbreaks with 44,646 morbidity cases and 4,709 mortalities were recorded in snnprs over the nine years period. the outbreaks were caused by blackleg (40.6%), hemorrhagic septicemia (hs) (26.3%), lumpy skin disease (lsd) (16%), anthrax (11.4%), foot and mouth disease (fmd) (4.7%), contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (cbpp) (0.8%) and rabies (0.3%) in decreasing order of their proportion. lsd was responsible for the highest proportion of morbidity cases (35.9%) followed by fmd (26.2%) while blackleg and lsd were the leading causes of cattle mortalities, which accounted for 31% and 30.2% of the deaths recorded, respectively. in contrast, the lowest number of outbreaks, morbidity and mortality of cattle was caused by rabies. disease outbreaks were occurred in all the seasons of the year; however, relatively higher number of outbreaks (30.7%) was recorded in early dry season (september to november). in conclusion, the retrospective study has shown a very low level of disease outbreak reporting rate in snnprs, which may be due to misreporting or no outbreak of diseases. keywords: constraints, epidemic disease, outbreak, seasons, retrospective 1. introduction according to recent estimates, ethiopia has 56.71 million cattle, 29.33 million sheep, 29.11 million goats, 1.16 million camels and 56.87 million poultry (csa, 2015). the predominant livestock production system in ethiopia is extensive, where indigenous breeds are kept under low-input/low-output husbandry practices. despite the huge resource, ethiopia’s livestock productivity is lower than the africa’s average. the major biological constraints contributing to low productivity include low genetic potential of the animals, poor nutrition and the prevailing animal diseases (csa, 2011). the main effect of the diseases include mortality, low production, reduced quality of animal products such as milk and meat, decreased drought power and risk of zoonotic diseases to man (sindato et al., 2011). ethiopia ranks highest in africa in the health burden of zoonotic diseases (grace et al., 2012). in ethiopia, there are several endemic and epidemic animal diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasites that compromise the productivity of the livestock sector. among, the most important diseases are: lsd, cbpp, fmd, blackleg, anthrax, hemorrhagic septicemia and so on (ldmfsb, 2016). the spatial distribution of major priority diseases among african countries in 2010 mirrors that of the previous years with a significant number of countries affected by lsd (63.26%), cbpp (48.97%) and fmd (48.97%) (paahyb, 2010). risk factors for disease occurrences are host factors, environmental factors, pathogen factors and climate condition are the most important (radostits et al., 2007; bayissa et al., 2011). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 31 published by ideas spread most of diseases are transmitted and gain entrance to the body by ingestion, inhalation, or through the skin contact (fasanella et al., 2011; hugh-jones & blackburn, 2009). the most serious priority diseases are caused by rapidly transmitting pathogens that produce acute and serious disease in large numbers of hosts (grace et al., 2015). their occurrence is maintained when an agent and susceptible hosts are present in adequate numbers, and the agent can be effectively conveyed from a source to the susceptible hosts (cdc, 2012). the controlling and management measures involve treating the cases, preventing further spread of the disease, monitoring the effects of control measures (bonita et al., 2006; radostits et al., 2007; tuppurainen, 2005) and ring vaccination is sometimes termed 'emergency vaccination' (all susceptible animals on farms within a certain radius of the farm (ellis, 1994) and movement restriction (holleman, 2002; steffen et al., 1998). in ethiopia, priority was given to decreasing the morbidity and the mortality of production related diseases (mainly external and internal parasites); to trade-limiting diseases (fmd, ovine/caprine pox, lsd, cbpp); and to the prevention of other economically important diseases (blackleg and anthrax) (elmp, 2015). therefore, the objective of the study was to identify major priority reportable cattle disease outbreaks and seasonal occurrences in selected districts of southern nations, nationalities and peoples’ regional state. 2. materials and methods 2.1 study area the study was conducted in southern nations, nationalities and peoples’ regional state (snnprs) in 2017 which has 14 zones (139 woredas) and 4 special districts. geographically, the region is located between 4.43 – 8.58° (6.505°) north latitude and 34.88 – 39.14° (37.01°) east longitude and agro-ecologically characterized as semidesert (6.2%), kolla (lowland) (49.8%), woynadega (midland) (36.5%) and dega (highland) (7.5%) total cattle population of the region is 11,215,636 (bolfr, 2016). 2.2 study design and sample size retrospective study design was employed to conduct priority reportable cattle disease outbreaks of nine years’ data (2007-2015) which was extracted from the ministry of livestock and fishery (molf) disease outbreak record data bases as well as from livestock and fishery bureau of snnprs. disease outbreak reports collected from all zones and special districts in the region were searched thoroughly. the disease outbreaks reported in nine (9) were anthrax, blackleg, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease, hemorrhagic septicemia and rabies. for retrospective study of cattle disease outbreaks, all zone and special districts found in snnprs were included in the study irrespective of the frequency and regularity of reporting to the molf or to snnprs bureau of livestock and fishery. among 14 zones and four special districts, most have reported outbreak cases less than 50%. 2.3 data collection a nine years (2007-2015) data about priority reportable cattle disease occurred in all zones and special districts was collected from disease outbreak record databases in snnprs bureau of livestock and fishery resource and ministry of livestock and fishery (molf) on specially designed format. 2.4 statistical analysis descriptive statistics was used to summarize the number of outbreaks, cases and deaths occurred during the nine year period (2007-2015) by administrative zone, type of disease and month and year of occurrence. 3. results total number of disease outbreaks, morbidity cases and deaths in cattle reported from southern nations, nationalities and peoples’ regional state (snnprs) during the nine year period (2007-2015) has been summarized by zone and special districts in table 1. data were obtained for 14 administrative zones and four special districts. as a rule, each district must report to the ministry of livestock and fisheries (molf) about livestock disease outbreaks (whether an outbreak occurs or not) once every month. accordingly, the total number of reports expected from all zones/ districts in snnprs during the nine-year period was 15,840 but total reports submitted were only 1,578 (11%). the highest reporting rate was made by sidama zone (40%) followed by halaba special district (28.7%) and the lowest was made by gedeo zone (0.5%). the data retrieved revealed that a total of outbreak, morbidity and death were 1,496, 44,646 and 4,709 respectively from different causes over the nine year period. among the administrative zones, the highest numbers of disease outbreaks were reported from sidama zone (51.6%) while cattle morbidity and death case reports were relatively higher in kefa zone. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 32 published by ideas spread table 1. total number of cattle disease outbreaks, morbidity and deaths reported during the period 2007 to 2015 from snnprs zone/special district no. of reports expected no. of reports submitted total outbreak total cases total deaths alaba sd 108 31 (28.7) 29 (2) 511 (1.1) 154 (3.3) amaro sd 108 1 (0.9) 1 (0.07) 8 (0.02) 5 (0.11) basketo sd 108 3 (2.8) 3 (0.2) 104 (0.23) 13 (0.28) benchi maji 1080 20 (1.9) 20 (1.3) 2259 (5.1) 217 (4.6) burji sd 108 3 (2.8) 3 (0.2) 196 (0.44) 1 (0.02) dawuro 540 3 (0.6) 3 (0.2) 36 (0.08) 11 (0.23) derashe sd 108 3 (2.8) 3 (0.2) 66 (0.15) 13 (0.27) gamo gofa 1620 42 (2.6) 41 (2.7) 1563 (3.5) 200 (4.2) gedeo 648 3 (0.5) 3 (0.2) 19 (0.04) 5 (0.11) gurage 1404 160 (11.4) 159 (10.6) 2905 (6.5) 404 (8.6) hadiya 1080 49 (4.5) 46 (3.1) 8887 (19.9) 165 (3.5) kefa 1080 182 (16.9) 164 (11) 11842(26.5) 1471 (31.2) kembata tambaro 756 28 (3.7) 27 (1.8) 303 (0.67) 70 (1.5) south omo 864 29 (3.4) 28 (1.9) 1514 (3.39) 159 (3.4) sheka 324 6 (1.9) 6 (0.4) 165 (0.37) 29(0.62) sidama 2052 820 (40) 772(51.6) 8090 (18.1) 1210 (25.7) silti 972 24 (2.5) 23 (1.5) 587 (1.31) 113 (2.4) wolaita 1296 171 (13.2) 165 (11) 5591 (12.5) 469 (10) total 14,256 1578 (11) 1,496 44,646 4,709 sd = special district a value in the parenthesis indicates the respective proportion for each zone/special district from the total outbreaks, cases and deaths recorded during the nine year based on the report of symptomatic diagnosis the outbreaks were caused by seven diseases, namely anthrax, blackleg, hemorrhagic septicemia (hs), foot-and-mouth disease (fmd), contagious bovine pleuro-pnuemonia (cbpp), lumpy skin disease (lsd) and rabies. the highest proportion of outbreaks were caused by blackleg (40.6%) followed by hs (26.3%), lsd (16%), anthrax (11.4%), fmd (4.7%), cbpp (0.8%) and rabies (0.3%) in that order. lsd was responsible for the highest proportion of morbidity cases (35.9%) followed by fmd (26.2%). blackleg and lsd were the leading causes of cattle mortalities, which accounted for 31% and 30.2% of the deaths recorded respectively. in contrast, the lowest number of outbreaks, morbidity and mortality of cattle was report to be rabies (table 2). table 2. number of outbreaks, morbidity and deaths reported during 2007-2015 in snnprs diseases outbreaks morbidity cases mortality cases total number proportion (%) total number proportion (%) total number proportion (%) anthrax 170 11.4 1,604 3.6 715 15.2 blackleg 607 40.6 9,092 20.4 1,461 31.0 cbpp 12 0.8 320 0.7 48 1 fmd 71 4.7 11,700 26.2 123 2.6 hs 393 26.3 5,844 13.1 905 19.2 lsd 239 16 16,043 35.9 1,420 30.2 rabies 4 0.3 43 0.1 37 0.8 total 1,496 100 44,646 100 4,709 100 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 33 published by ideas spread when the temporal pattern of top five most frequently occurred disease outbreaks was evaluated over the nine years period, all diseases showed a tendency to decline with time. the highest number of outbreaks from all causes was recorded in 2008 while the lowest in 2015. fmd outbreaks were not recorded during the period 2007-2009. since the total number of outbreaks caused by cbpp and rabies were so small that it was not possible to clearly show the temporal pattern of the diseases (figure 1). figure 1. temporal distribution of major cattle disease outbreaks in snnprs from 2007-2015 the spatial distribution of the seven diseases reported during the nine year period has been shown by zone and special district in table 3. it was shown that more than 50% of anthrax outbreaks were reported from two zones (wolaita and sidama) and about 56% blackleg, 72% hs and 34.7% lsd reports were from sidama zone. cbpp outbreaks were reported from gamo-gofa, south omo and guraghe zones and basketo special district while rabies from sidama, sheka and south omo zones only. table 3. spatial distribution of disease outbreaks recorded by disease type zone/special district no. of outbreaks recorded by disease type anthrax blackleg cbpp fmd hs lsd rabies total alaba sd 21 1 0 1 0 6 0 29 amaro sd 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 basketo sd 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 3 benchi maji 3 1 0 7 3 6 0 20 burji sd 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 dawuro zone 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 derashe sd 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 gamo gofa zone 3 17 5 3 1 12 0 41 gedeo zone 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 3 guraghe zone 0 65 1 9 44 40 0 159 hadiya zone 5 15 0 11 5 10 0 46 kefa zone 10 66 0 16 36 36 0 164 kembata ta. zone 13 10 0 1 1 2 0 27 south omo zone 1 12 4 2 3 5 1 28 sheka zone 0 1 0 1 0 3 1 6 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 nu m be r of o ut br ea ks year of report total lsd hs fmd blackleg anthrax as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 34 published by ideas spread sidama zone 50 340 0 14 283 83 2 772 silti zone 8 5 0 2 1 7 0 23 wolaita zone 54 69 0 2 13 27 0 165 total 170 607 12 71 393 239 4 1496 sd = special district the number of cattle vaccinated in nine years’ period against the seven diseases reported is presented in table 4. it was noted that nearly 2 million cattle were vaccinated for all diseases during the period; however, the vaccination coverage varied from disease to disease. the highest proportion of vaccination was done for lsd (36.8%) and the lowest for cbpp (0.3%) while no vaccination was done for rabies. table 4. vaccine coverage of outbreak by disease in nine years’ (2007 – 2015 gc) in snnpr year number of cattle vaccinated by disease types anthrax blackleg cbpp fmd hs lsd rabies total sum 2007 15239 73370 0 0 61156 43520 0 193,285 2008 19620 82680 0 0 92201 21280 0 215,781 2009 25516 67698 2194 0 60893 40560 0 196,861 2010 21246 62835 0 824 31731 97257 0 213,893 2011 57947 43503 0 86000 32561 50300 0 270,311 2012 9790 56605 0 14783 72939 142373 0 296,490 2013 14150 37304 0 35393 34653 175207 0 296,707 2014 20222 53286 3500 750 29224 21390 0 128,372 2015 7665 18019 0 500 864 133034 0 160,082 total 191,395 495,300 5694 138,250 416,222 724,921 0 1,971,782 seasonal distribution of outbreaks from each disease is presented in table 5. it can be noted that disease outbreaks from all causes, except rabies, were reported in all seasons of the year. however, the highest frequency of occurrence especially due to blackleg, fmd, hs and lsd was recorded in the early dry season (sep nov). anthrax outbreaks were relatively higher in the dry (29.4%) and early dry (27.1%) seasons than in other seasons. table 5. seasonal distribution of cattle disease outbreaks in snnpr (2007 – 2015) season total outbreaks diseases anthrax blackleg cbpp fmd hs lsd rabies long rainy (june-aug) 356 (23.8) 31(18.2) 148(24.4) 5(41.7) 11(15.5) 100(25.4) 61(25.5) 0 early dry (sept -nov) 459 (30.7) 46(27.1) 183(30.1) 1 (8.3) 23(32.4) 104(26.5) 101(42.3) 1 (25) dry (dec-feb) 383 (25.6) 50(29.4) 159(26.2) 1 (8.3) 22 (31) 100(25.4) 49(20.5) 2 (50) short rainy (mar-may 298 (20) 43(25.3) 117(19.3) 5(41.7) 15(21.1) 89 (22.6) 28 (11.7) 1 (25) total 1496 170 607 12 71 393 239 4 values in the parenthesis indicate the proportion of disease outbreaks in each season. seasonal distribution of morbidity cases from each cattle disease during the study period has been shown in table 6.morbidity cases from all diseases were reported across all the seasons; however, as with outbreak reports, morbidity cases from blackleg, fmd, hs and lsd were relatively higher in the early dry than in other seasons. in contrast, anthrax cases were higher in the short rainy than in other seasons. although the total cases from cbpp are fewer compared to other diseases, the frequency of occurrence was relatively higher in the long rainy season. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 35 published by ideas spread table 6. seasonal distribution of morbidity from each cattle disease outbreak reported in snnpr (2007 – 2015) seasons number (%) morbidity cases from each disease total cases anthrax blackleg cbpp fmd hs lsd rabies early dry 329(20.5) 3824(42.1) 30(9.4) 4654(39.8) 2277(39) 7776(48.5) 12(27.9) 18,902 dry 374(23.3) 1061(11.7) 13(4.1) 3000(25.6) 1053(18) 1644(10.2) 17(39.5) 7,162 short rainy 568(35.4) 2479(27.3) 70(21.9) 2298(19.6) 1150(19.7) 1558 (9.7) 14(32.6) 8,137 long rainy 333(20.7) 1728 (19) 207(64.7) 1748(14.9) 1364(23.3) 5065(31.6) 0 10,445 total 1604 9092 320 11700 5844 16043 43 44,646 values in parenthesis are proportion of cases from the disease in each season. 4. discussion total number of cattle disease outbreaks reports expected from southern nations nationalities and peoples’ regional state (snnprs) during the nine-year’s period (2007 to 2015 g.c) was 14,256 but the reports retrieved from molf disease data base was only 1,578 (11%). this shows that 89% of the reports were missing due to irregularity of reporting by the zones in the region. based on the available reports a total of 1,496 outbreaks with 44,646 morbidity cases and 4,709 deaths were occurred in cattle in the region from 2007 – 2015. the outbreaks were caused by blackleg (40.6%), hs (26.3%), lsd (16%), anthrax (11.4%), fmd (4.7%), cbpp (0.8%), and rabies (0.3%) in decreasing order of their proportion which agrees with berhanu and shibru, 2016). according to the proportion of morbidity cases observed the diseases were ranked as lsd (35.9%), fmd (26.2%), and blackleg (20.4%), hs (13.1%) anthrax (3.6%), cbpp (0.7%) and rabies (0.1%) in descending order. analysis of the temporal pattern of disease occurrence over the nine-year period showed a decreasing trend in the number of outbreaks. it is difficult to associate this change with the application of effective control measures such as prophylactic vaccination because the annual vaccination coverage didn’t show considerable increase over the reporting period (mondal and yamage, 2014). although disease outbreaks were recorded in all the seasons of a year, more outbreaks were noted in the early dry season (september through november), which comes after the long/heavy rain season (june aug) and outbreaks were relatively lower in the short rainy season (mar-may). blackleg was also responsible for the highest proportion of deaths (31%) over the nine year period and its outbreak was noted in the early dry (30.1%) season while the lowest in the short rainy (19.3%) season. this is nearly similar with the study conducted in india by sivakumar et al., 2012 (33.03%) from season march to may. the seasonal occurrence of the disease is mainly observed in early dry (sept – nov) (30%) followed by dry (dec – feb) (26%) seasons which indicated that the occurrence of disease depends on seasons (andrew and windsor, 2004). outbreaks are often associated with alternating heavy rainfall and drought, and high temperatures (parker et al., 2002). immature animals and those in good condition are relatively more susceptible and hereditary differences in susceptibility have also been observed (bayissa et al., 2011). for this retrospective data, the highest number of outbreak was held by blackleg (40.6%) followed by heamorrhagic septicemia (26.3%). blackleg is associated with areas of high humidity and occurs during rainy seasons. there is an agreement with sutmoller et al., (2003). hs was the second major cause of disease outbreak (26.3%) during the nine year period next to blackleg. it is a fatal septicemia which is influenced by the season of the year. its incidence was highest during early dry season and similar to the retrospective study conducted in bangladesh by mondal and yamage, (2014) in that hs resulted in high outbreak (34%) in periods september through november (post-monsoon). the occurrence is mostly in the transition period from wet season to dry or cold weather. the seasonal variations and mortality pattern of hemorrhagic septicemia and found that the mean hemorrhagic septicemia mortalities increased with increase in rainfall (sivakumar et al., 2012; bisht et al., 2006). moist conditions also prolong the survival of the hs organism (p. multocida), and thus the disease tends to spread more rapidly during the monsoon season when rice cultivation also brings about movements of animals. this concept agrees with the concept of mondal and yamage, (2014). lsd accounted for the highest (35.92%) proportion of cases over the nine-year period and it was responsible for the highest proportion of deaths (30.2%) next to blackleg. the proportion of lsd outbreaks (42.3%) and morbidity cases (48.5%) were found to be higher in the early dry season than in other seasons. this result is due to the fact as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 36 published by ideas spread that lsd is a viral infectious disease of cattle that disseminate through vectors and this season is favorable for vector (culex mirifinces and others) multiplication/reproduction (berhanu and shibru, 2016; abera et al., 2015). although anthrax ranked fourth in its contribution for the outbreaks recorded, it was responsible for the highest case fatality rate (44.6%) which contradicts the result of mondal yamage, 2014. it is true that anthrax is a peracute disease that causes sudden death in livestock and very important cattle disease among others. anthrax has great impact in human social life in that it causes wealth loss (per-acute death of cattle), zoonotic importance to human, sometimes ignorance of area where carcass were dropped. anthrax outbreaks were recorded in all the seasons but more frequently in the early dry (27.1%) and dry (29.4%) (bahiru et al.,2016) seasons than in the short rainy (25.3%) and rainy seasons (18.2%). the study conducted in bangladesh by mondal and yamage, (2014) stated that environmental factors, including high ambient temperature and relative humidity that provide a situation for germination of anthrax spores from infected carcasses thrown into flood waters or in open fields may favor the presence of anthrax. the cases of anthrax were seen to occur more commonly in the short rainy (spring season) (35.41%) than the other seasons. this report relatively agrees with teklu et al., 2015. this is possibly due to the fact that this season is often hot and the condition is favorable for spore formation, hence, it is likely true that anthrax can relatively occur at higher rate in the short rainy (spring) seasons (radostits et al. 2007 and coherence and fraser, 2006) who stated that animals become readily infected with anthrax, when the minimum daily temperature is above 15°c. furthermore, the animals’ crowds together at drinking points as water sources become scarce. the outbreak occurred during the hot and humid transition period between the dry season and the wet season. the soil was also significantly disturbed during this time (cultivation season), which possibly disturbed old anthrax grave sites. this agrees with the concept of shiferaw, (2004). fmd is one of outbreak occurred in the study area with total proportion of 4.7%. the number of outbreaks increased during early dry and dry seasons, probably due to the favorable environmental conditions of dry weather, dry winds and moderately high relative humidity. this is also the time of the year when migration and movement of livestock is common, especially in rural livestock fairs (amitha et al., 2014). the disease occurrence is highest in early dry season (sept – nov) (32.4%). seasonally, the highest number of fmd cases report was found to be registered in early dry season (39.8%) followed by dry seasons (25.6%) (mondal and yamage, 2014). the reason for the highest occurrence may be due to massive movement of cattle population for seek of pasture and water points. so that, many herds of cattle meets at such places, thereby hastening the spread of infection from one herd to another (genchwere and kasanga, 2014). generally, outbreaks develop when a large population of susceptible animals is present. if immunized animals are present in the herd, then outbreaks cannot occur until a sufficient number of young, non-resistant animals have been bred or non-immune animals from outside are introduced in the herd (smith, 1995). vaccination programs are effective when a large proportion of the population is protected: usually at least 72% of the susceptible cattle need to be vaccinated (muleme, 2012). the result of high proportion rate shows as due to lack of attention for the prophylaxis vaccination of animals in the area (berhanu and shibru, 2016). 5. conclusion and recommendation the retrospective study of disease outbreak data base revealed that anthrax, blackleg, cbpp, fmd, hs, lsd and rabies were the major causes of disease outbreak in cattle in southern nation nationalities and peoples’ regional state (snnprs). however, the reporting rate over the nine year period was noted to be only 11% and approximately 89% of disease outbreak reports expected from the region were missed. based on the retrieved data, blackleg was noted to be the leading cause of disease outbreak in cattle followed by hs while rabies accounted for the least proportion of outbreaks. the occurrence of outbreak was mainly season dependent. seasonally, the dominant disease outbreak was occurred in early dry season. the vaccination coverage of study area was found to be smaller than the recommend level that is about 1.97 million cattle were vaccinated in nine year’s period. based on the above conclusion, the following recommendations are forwarded:  outbreak investigation in the region was based mainly on symptomatic diagnosis and history from farmers. thus, veterinarians working at district level need to be supported by confirmatory diagnostic techniques specific to each disease.  retrospective study has shown that cattle disease outbreaks occur in all the seasons of the year. this warrants the need for implementation of awareness creation among veterinarians and policy makers and strategic disease prevention program through vaccination, which should be considered before the anticipated season of outbreak for each disease. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 37 published by ideas spread  since some of cattle diseases were zoonotic and life threatening, enhancing the awareness of livestock keepers about the disease is of paramount importance. conflict: there is a high internet access problem in area. references abera, z., degefu, h., & gari, g. 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(2005). detection of the lumpy skin disease virus in samples of the experimentally infected cattle using different diagnostic techniques. j. vet. med., 4(8), 247-261. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p205 205 published by ideas spread evaluation of the cost of production of fish clarias gariepinus burchell, 1822 (siluriformes, clariidae) with three types of food based on local agricultural by-products in the democratic republic of congo victor pwema kiamfu1,2, alex mayoni matondo2, santos kavumbu mutanda1,2, clément munganga kilingwa1,2, nadine bipendu muamba3, athanase kusonika ndamba4 & willy lusasi swana1,2 1 laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture, department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 2 department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 3 laboratory of inorganic chemistry, department of chemistry, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 4 laboratory of ecotoxicology and ecosystem health, department of environmental sciences, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo correspondence: willy lusasi swana, laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture, department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), p.o box 190 kinshasa xi, democratic republic of congo. tel: 243-813-662-026. e-mail: willy.lusasi@unikin.ac.cd received: april 4, 2020 accepted: april 28, 2020 online published: may 19, 2020 abstract clarias gariepinus burchell, 1822 is a catfish with high commercial value in the democratic republic of congo and in several african countries. the breeding of this species is controlled, but congolese fish farmers are confronted with the problem of a lack of compound feed in the form of granules. the recovery of local agricultural waste would be essential to fill this gap. the objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of three types of food based on local agricultural by-products on the growth of c. gariepinus. the 25%, 41% and 51% crude protein feed formulas were tested in duplicate for 96 days. fry averaging 2.20±0.43 g were distributed in 6 closed-loop plastic containers. the fish were fed twice a day by hand. weighing and measuring took place every 14 days. the results obtained show that the highest final average weight (g) and specific growth rate (%/d) (f = 2.87; p = 0.002) are obtained with food a1: 27.5±1.9 g and 0.25±0.15% /d respectively. it took 812.6 congolese francs to develop food a1, 942.6 congolese francs to produce the a2 ration and 836.6 congolese francs to produce food a3. the a1 ration is the one that gave a better compromise in price and quality by promoting fish growth at a lower cost (3.827 congolese francs). keywords: clarias gariepinus, food, growth performance, food efficiency, economic approach. 1. introduction fish remains one of the foodstuffs perfectly integrated into the diet in the democratic republic of congo. it lends itself to a variety of culinary combinations, from the preparation of fresh or smoked fish in sauce to salted fish (diayeno, 2016). it is one of the alternatives to solve the problem of malnutrition in the country because it contains proteins of high biological value and contains essential amino acids (fiogbe et al., 2009) and essential fatty acids of the omega 3 and 6 category whose metabolic role is obvious (mbadu et al., 2017). today, more than 43% of the fish found on the world market come from fish farming, compared to only 9% in 1980. aquaculture continues to grow at a faster rate than all other sectors of food production of animal origin. this prodigious growth is the result of research and innovations in the control of farm management and especially in feed (ouédraogo, 2014). debates about the availability and use of feed for fish farming often focus on fish meal and fish oil. however, based on past trends and projections for the future, the sustainability and profitability of fish farming may benefit from a sustained supply of supplementary feeds, produced on an industrial scale as compound feeds in the form of pelleted feeds with an optimum protein content (fao, 2012). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 206 published by ideas spread thus, it seems essential to valorise local agricultural by-products in order to offer congolese fish farmers solutions adapted to the context of their farms. the aim of this study is to evaluate the production cost of clarias gariepinus burchell, 1822 fish (siluriformes, clariidae) by developing three types of feed based on local agricultural byproducts in the democratic republic of congo. specifically, it is a question of developing three types of feeds with different protein contents; evaluating the zootechnical parameters of the fish fed with the formulated feeds; evaluating the production cost of one kg of each type of feed; determining the production cost of one kg of fish with the three types of feeds and making simulations of financial profitability of the fish farming activity based on some local products and imported feeds. the value of this study is obvious because the profitability simulations for feed and fish production discussed in this study will guide fish farmers and fish entrepreneurs in this area to increase their revenue while minimizing expenses. 2. material and methods 2.1 experimental structure in the course of this study, six plastic bins (50 cm long, 38 cm wide and 30 cm deep with a capacity of 50 litres each and interconnected by p.v.c. pipes) were put into operation. these tanks are composed of a continuous water renewal system in a closed circuit. they are intended for fish farming tests at the limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture laboratory (located at 4°25′07.374″ south, 15°18'31.588″ east and at an altitude of 464 m) of the biology department of the faculty of sciences of the university of kinshasa in the democratic republic of congo. 2.2 origin of fish biological material consists of the fry of clarias gariepinus burchell, 1822. the fish were purchased from the hatchery mont-thabor located in the commune of mont-ngafula, kindele district on the road from kimwenza to kinshasa. the fry were obtained by artificial reproduction according to the methodology described by hogendoor (1980); pham (1980); viveen et al, (1985); de graaf and janssen (1996); ducarme and micha (2003). the fish had an average weight and initial mean size of 2.20±0.43 g and 62.16±2.00 mm respectively. a total of 180 fry were tested. in the laboratory, the fry were acclimatised for 6 days in an above-ground circular tank with a capacity of 1.000 litres before being loaded into the test tanks. the choice of this fish species is justified in the sense that it is one of the fish species whose farming is perfectly controlled (adouvi, 2013), this fish is one of the most sold in the markets of kinshasa (masua et al., 2020) and is prized by the majority of the congolese (lusasi et al., 2019b). 2.3 evaluation of the physico-chemical parameters of the water used the dissolved oxygen (mg/l), temperature (°c), ph and conductivity (µs/cm)) of the water in the tanks used in this experiment were measured using an oximeter (brand voltcraft do-100) and a multi-parameter probe (brand hanna combo hi 99 1300). the evaluation of these parameters was carried out during the control fisheries that took place every 14 days (munganga et al., 2020). 2.4 fish feeding three different types of food (table 1) at 25.2%, 41.01% and 51% crude protein were made from local agricultural by-products (soybean and palm kernel meal, wheat bran, maize, cassava and fish flours) as well as palm oil and cooking salt. these ingredients were selected according to their availability on the local market, their selling price but also the crude natural protein content (lusasi et al., 2019a). the fish were fed twice a day (9:00 am' and 3:00 pm') and the feed was distributed by hand. the daily amount of feed given to the fry corresponded to 10% of their total biomass as suggested by lusasi et al., (2019a). after each control fishery, the amount of feed to be distributed in the days following these fisheries was adjusted according to the evolution of the average weight of fish. feed a1 was distributed to the fish kept in tanks 1 and 2, fish reared in tanks 3 and 4 received feed a2 and feed a3 was intended for fish kept in tanks 5 and 6. fry of clarias gariepinus were tested in duplicate and the experiment lasted 96 days. table 1. centesimal composition of each type of food (n.p: natural protein) ingredients types of food a1 (%) a2 (%) a3 (%) corn flour 0.45 0.2 0.9 cassava flour 0.1 0.02 0.3 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 207 published by ideas spread fish flour 13 39.0 8.4 soybean meal 24 7.2 wheat bran 1.5 1.8 3.4 palm kernel meal 1.9 2.85 12 total (%) of n.p in the ration 41 51.0 25 2.5 weighing and measuring fish a growth-monitoring fishery was scheduled every 15 days, during which the weight (g) of fish was taken using a salter electronic scale (accuracy 0.1g) and the size was measured to the nearest 0.1g with a digital caliper electronic ichthyometer (lusasi et al., 2019a). 2.6 zootechnical parameters and calculated indices to estimate fish growth during the experiment and characterize the efficiency of use of the developed feed rations, the following zootechnical parameters and indices were calculated (iga-iga, 2008; elegbe et al., 2015; lusasi et al., 2019a): • ts = (nf/ni) x100 (1) ts (%): survival rate, nf: final number of fish and ni: initial number of fish. • pm: pm = b/np (2) pm: mean weight (g), b: biomass (g) and np: number of fish. • gpm = pmf-pmi (3) gpm: average weight gain, pmf: average final weight of fish (g) and pmi: average initial weight of fish (g). • cij = (pf-pi)/de (4) cij: individual daily growth (g/d), pf: final weight (g), pi: initial weight (g) and de: breeding duration (d). • ci = qasi/gpm (5) ci: consumption index, qasi: quantity of dry food ingested and gmc: body mass gain (g). 2.7 evaluation of the production cost of fish feed rations the purchase price of a given ingredient in a kilogram of feed is obtained by multiplying the price of one kilogram of that ingredient by its incorporation rate divided by 100. the total production price of one kilogram of a feed ration is the sum of the purchase prices of each ingredient that makes up the ration (ouédraogo, 2014; elegbe et al., 2015; lusasi et al., 2019a). 2.8 estimated cost of feed to produce one kilogram of fish the feed cost of producing one kilogram of fish is estimated by multiplying the price of one kilogram of feed by the consumption index (diayeno, 2016; lusasi et al., 2019a). 2.9 data analysis and statistical processing the values obtained on the physico-chemical parameters of the waters used, the weight and linear growth, the survival rate and the weight gain of the fish were encoded on the excel 2013 spreadsheet and then processed with origin 6.1 and spss 20.1 software. data related to zootechnical fish parameters were compared by analysis of variance with a one factor (anova 1) to estimate the performance of the developed feed rations at the 5% significance level. 3. results 3.1 physico-chemical parameters of water the variation in the different physico-chemical parameters (dissolved oxygen (mg/l), temperature (°c), ph and conductivity (µs/cm)) of the waters used for the fish farming experimented in this study is shown in table 2 below. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 208 published by ideas spread table 2. physico-chemical parameters of the waters contained in the experimental tanks (max: maximum; min: minimum; moy: average) bins dissolved oxygen (mg/l) temperature (°c) ph conductivity (µs/cm) max min moy max min moy max min moy max min moy a1 6.1 3.8 5.18±0.73 28.5 26.3 27.8±0.59 6.15 4.97 5.84±0.39 197 93 148.16±42.16 a2 6.7 5.2 5.95±0.4 27.8 25.9 27.8±0.62 6.85 5.13 6.29±0.36 201 98 150.83±42.16 a3 6.2 5.3 5.78±0.37 27.8 25.6 27.8±0.62 6.16 5.12 6.03±0.23 203 93 151.83±45.5 the results in table 2 show that, on average, dissolved oxygen during the experiment ranged from 5.18±0.73 to 5.95±0.4 mg/l and, on average, remained within the range conducive to the growth of the experimental poisons. the average temperature of all treatments met the requirement (or 27.8±0.62 °c) of the desired values for good growth of clarias gariepinus poisons in livestock. the ph showed slightly acidic values (tank a1: 5.84±0.39; tank a2: 6.29±0.36 and tank a3: 6.03±0.23), but could not disturb the growth of fish. the conductivity of the water varies between 148.16±42.16 and 151.83±45.5 µs/cm. 3.2 zootechnical parameters of fish table 3 summarizes the growth performance of clarias gariepinus fry fed with the experimental feeds for 96 days. table 3. growth performance of fry of clarias gariepinus after 96 days (ts: survival rate (%); pmi: initial average weight (g); pmf: final average weight (g); tmi: initial average size (mm); tmf: final average size (mm); tcs: specific growth rate (%/d); gpm: average weight gain (g/d) and ci: consumption index) types of food ts pmi pmf tmi tmf gpm tcs ci a1 13.33±4.03 3.00±1.20 27.5±1.9 63.1 ±2.02 138.65±6.67 24.52±2.58 0.25±0.15 4.71±0.36 a2 70.00±3.87 2.20±0.43 11.6±0.95 62.16±2.00 94.10±4.18 9.40±0.86 0.09±0.21 11.39±2.46 a3 73.3 ±2.5 2.80±0.77 9.2±0.41 65.90±2.26 75.00 ±3.14 6.41±0.64 0.06±0.2 18.12±3.83 3.2.1 survival rate the survival rate is 73.3 ±2.5% in fish fed the a3 diet, 70.00±3.87% in fry fed the a2 diet and 13.33±4.03% in fish fed the 1 diet. analysis of variance (significance level 5%) indicates that fish survival rates vary significantly (f = 5.61; p = 0.01) depending on feed type (figure 1). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 209 published by ideas spread figure 1. variation in fish survival rates by feed type 3.2.2 average final weight the weight growth curves maintained an upward trend during the test. the highest value (or 27.5±1.9 g) was recorded in fish receiving feed a1, followed by fish receiving feed a2 (or 11.6±0.95 g) and the lowest value was recorded in fish receiving feed a3 (or 9.2±0.41 g). analysis of variance shows a significant difference between the rations at the 5% significance level (f = 48.48; p = 0.001). the paired multiple comparison test (lsd = 0.67) indicates that feed a1 has a more significant influence on fry weight than feed a2, which in turn has a significant impact on the same parameter as feed a3 (figure 2). a1 a2 a3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 fi sh s ur vi va l r at e (% ) types of food as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 210 published by ideas spread figure 2. evolution of the average weight (g) of fish according to the types of food 3.2.3 final average size the final average size of fish varies according to the type of food. analysis of variance indicates a significant difference between rations (f = 600.98; p = 0.039), the lsd test (0.66) shows that the a1 ration had a more significant effect on linear fish growth (ranging from 63.1±2.02 to 138.6±6.67 mm) than the a2 ration (ranging from 62.16±2.00 to 94.10±4.18 mm), which significantly influenced fry size than the a3 ration (ranging from 65.90±2.26 to 75.00±3.14 mm) (figure 3). 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 va ria tio n in a ve ra ge w ei gh t ( g) o f f is h breeding duration (days) a1 a2 a3 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 211 published by ideas spread figure 3. variation in average size (mm) of fish according to feed types 3.2.4 average weight gain the weight gain of farmed fish has evolved with the types of feed distributed. analysis of variance (f = 2.87; p = 0.002) shows that feed a1 significantly influenced fish weight gain (or 24.52±2.58 g/d) followed by feed a2 (or 9.40±0.86 g/d) and feed a3 resulted in low weight gain (or 6.41±0.64 g/d) 5 (figure 4). figure 4. variation in weight gain (g) of fish in relation to feed types 0 20 40 60 80 100 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 va ria tio n in a ve ra ge fi sh s iz e (m m ) breeding duration (days) a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3 0 5 10 15 20 25 va ria tio n in w ei gh t g ai n (g ) o f f is h types of food as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 212 published by ideas spread 3.2.5 specific growth rate with regard to the specific growth rate, the feed rations developed differed significantly (f = 3.21; p = 0.001); feed a1 had a favourable effect on this parameter (or 0.25±0.15%/d) compared to feed a2 (or 0.09±0.21%/d), which in turn had a significantly greater influence on fish growth than feed a3 (or 0.06±0.2%/d) (figure 5). figure 5. variation in specific growth rate of fish by feed type 3.2.6 consumption index the index of food consumption by fish varies very significantly by food type (f = 71.861; p = 0.001). with the critical value of 0.05%, the fish fed with food a3 are those that recorded a high value (or 18.12±3.83) of this parameter followed by those fed with food a2 (or 11.39±2.46). fish fed food a1 recorded the lowest value (or 4.71±0.36) of feed conversion efficiency (figure 6). a1 a2 a3 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 sp ec ifi c gr ow th ra te o f f is h (% ) types of food as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 213 published by ideas spread figure 6. varation of the consumption index according to type of food 3.3. economic aspects of fish feed 3.3.1 price per kilogram of food developed the price in congolese francs (cf) of production of one kilogram of each type of food is given in table 4. table 4. cost (fc) of producing one kilogram of the different types of food developed (1 usd = 1.750 cf) ingredients price (fc) types of food a1 a2 a3 corn flour 800 800 x 5/100 = 40 800 x 2/100 = 16 800 x 10/100 = 80 cassava flour 800 800 x 5/100 = 40 800 x 1/100 = 80 800 x 10/100 = 80 wheat bran 200 200 x 10/100 = 20 200 x 12/100 = 24 200 x 17/100 = 34 palm kernel meal 1.000 1.000 x 10/100 = 100 1.000 x 15/100 = 150 1.000 x 50/100 = 500 fish flour 1.000 1.000 x 20/100 = 200 1.000 x 50/100 = 500 1.000 x 13/100 = 130 soybean meal 800 800 x 50/100 = 400 800 x 20/100 = 160 palm oil 600 600 x 1.6/100 = 9.6 600 x 1.6/100 = 9.6 600 x 1.6/100 = 9.6 kitchen salt 500 500 x 0.6/100 = 3 500 x 0.6/100 = 3 500 x 0.6/100 = 3 total price in cf 812.6 942.6 836.6 from the data in table 4 above, it takes 942.6 cf to make one kilogram of food a2, 836.6 cf to develop one kilogram of food a3 and 812.6 cf to produce one kilogram of food a1. a1 a2 a3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 c on su m pt io n in de x types of food as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 214 published by ideas spread 3.3.2 cost of producing one kilogram of fish with different feed types the price in cf of producing one kilogram of fish with the different types of feed rations formulated is given in table 5 below. table 5. production cost in cf of one kilogram of fish with the feed produced (cf = congolese franc; ci = consumption index) according to the information in table 5, it is necessary to spend 15.159 cf to produce one kilogram of fish with feed a3 while it is necessary to spend 10.736 cf to produce one kilogram of fish with feed a2 and 3.827 cf to have one kilogram of fish with feed a1. 4. discussion the physico-chemical parameters of the waters remained within the range of optimal values recommended for the rearing of clarias gariepinus fish. average dissolved oxygen concentrations varied between 5.18 and 5.95 mg/l in the ponds. these levels are higher than the 3 mg/l indicated by viveen et al., (1985); baras and jobling (2002), which are favourable for the growth of fingerlings of c. gariepinus. the hydrogen potential varied between 4.97 and 6.85 during the experiment. the ph values found in this study are thought to be due to the alkalinity of the water coming from the taps. in fact, these values are at the lower limit of the optimal limit (6.5 to 8) favourable to good growth of clarias (kanangire, 2001; adouvi, 2013). the temperature was relatively high in all the basins and varied globally between 25.6 and 28.5 °c throughout the experiment and is comparable to that reported by franco et al., (2017) (or between 24 and 35 °c), who stipulate that the optimum temperature for the growth of c. gariepinus is between 26 and 30 °c. with regard to the zootechnical parameters of the fish reared, the survival rate of the fish varied significantly depending on the type of feed. it was high in treatments a3 (or 73.3±2.5%) and a2 (or 70.00±3.87%) and lower in treatment a1 (or 13.33±4.03%). these rates remain low compared to those obtained by elegbe et al., (2015) (or 80 and 87.78%) at the end of the trial in clarias gariepinus fry. the recorded mortalities could be explained by the stress related to fish handling during control fisheries but also to the period prior to the acclimatization of the fry (ouédraogo, 2014); soumaïla et al., (2016). the final average weight of fish also varied according to the types of food. the highest value (or 27.5±1.9 g) was recorded in fish fed with food a1. for this parameter, these results are higher than those obtained by de ducarme and micha (2003) (or 1.4 to 4.6 g) on the intensive production technique of african catfish, c. gariepinus. diayeno (2016) developed a feed for the larviculture of c. gariepinus and noted a lower weight growth (or r1: 0.03±0.00 to 10.99±0.33 g, r2: 0.03±0.00 to 9.38±0.32 g and r3: 0.03±0.00 to 7.91±0.01 g). the performance of food a1 would be due to the combination of the ingredients used to develop this food because variations in the digestibility of a food also depend on the nutritional quality of the ingredients and their rate of incorporation (elegbe et al., 2015; lusasi et al., 2019a). the best specific growth rate of fish was obtained in fish fed with feed a1 (or 0.25±0.15%/d) prepared with soybean meal and the lowest are those obtained with feeds a2 (or 0.09±0.21%/d) and a3 (or 0.06±0.2%/d) in which soybean was partially replaced respectively by fish meal and palm kernel meal which influenced the efficiency of these feeds (otchoumou et al., 2011). the observations made are close to those noted by gandaho (2007) (or 0.19%/d) who developed feed rations with the leaves of moringa oleifera to improve the growth of c. gariepinus. on the other hand, these values remain below 1.67±0.23%/d and 1.88±0.03%/d obtained by elegbe et al., (2015) on the co-crop of clarias gariepinus-oreochromis niloticus in benin. the production price of one kilogram of a feed ration varies from one food to another. the results obtained showed that feed a2 is the most expensive (or 942.6 cf) followed by feed a3 (or 836.6 cf) and feed a1 is the least expensive (or 812.6 cf). however, lusasi et al., (2019a) reveal that in kinshasa markets in the democratic republic of congo, imported food costs 67.500 cf per kilogram and another food that can be ordered from france or belgium would cost up to 185.000 cf per kilogram. iga-iga (2008) has also made the same observation and confirms that it is preferable to rely on local agricultural by-products rich in animal and vegetable protein to formulate feed for farmed fish in order to minimize production costs. indeed, it has been shown that it is less types of food price (cf) ci cost (fc) of fish production a1 812.6 4.71 3.827 a2 942.6 11.39 10.736 a3 836.6 18.12 15.159 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 215 published by ideas spread expensive to produce one kilogram of fish with feed a1 (or 3.827 cf) than with feed a2 (or 10.736 cf) and feed a3 (or 15.159 cf). these results do not agree with those obtained by iga-iga (2008) who developed two feed rations for oreochromis niloticus based on local inputs in gabon. according to the results reported by the latter author, it is necessary to spend 257 fcfa (equivalent to 675 fcfa) to produce one kilogram of fish with ration 1, and producing one kilogram of fish with ration 2 will cost 300.3 fcfa (equivalent to 810 fcfa). elegbe et al., (2015) also pointed out that the production cost of clarias gariepinus and oreochromis niloticus raised in coculture is lower with the local feed produced in benin (830.4 fcfa equivalent to 2.035 fcfa) than with the imported feed (911.4 fcfa equivalent to 2.530 fcfa). lusasi et al., (2019a) made the same observations by developing four feed rations based on local animal and plant by-products for the breeding of distichodus maculatus in the democratic republic of congo. 5. conclusion faced with the constraints linked to the lack of compound feeds in the form of granules faced by congolese fish farmers, we developed three types of feeds based on local agricultural by-products to test the cost of producing clarias gariepinus burchell, 1822 fish using these feeds. the results obtained indicated that the highest final average weight (g) of fish and specific growth rate (%/d) were obtained with feed a1 (or 27.5±1.9 g and 0.25±0.15%/d respectively) containing 41% crude protein. analysis of the economic approach to the feed rations developed revealed that there is a considerable difference in the production price of one kilogram of feed and fish with the three types of formulated feeds. with reference to the growth performance of the fish studied, feed a1 therefore presented the best compromise between price and quality by covering the nutritional requirements of the farmed fish in the best and cheapest way. these results confirm the economic and technical interest in using local agricultural by-products for the profitability of congolese fish farming. acknowledgements we thank the persons in charge of the laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture of the department of biology of the faculty of sciences of the university of kinshasa for the material placed at our disposal as well as mr léon bwamayama for having facilitated the acquisition of the fry of clarias gariepinus, biological support of this study. references adouvi, e.c. 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(2016). effets de la substitution de la farine de poisson par la farine d’achatina fulica (férussac, 1821) sur la survie & la croissance des alevins de clarias gariepinus (burchell, 1822) au bénin. bulletin de la recherche agronomique du bénin (brab), issn sur papier (on hard copy): 1025-2355 & issn en ligne: 1840-7099. viveen, w. j. a., richter, c. j. j., van oordt, p. g., janssen, j. n. l., & huismon, c. a. (1985). manuel de pisciculture du poisson-chat africain (clarias gariepinus). département de pisciculture & des pêches de l’université agronomique de wageningen, pays-bas, 93. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v1n1p18 18 published by ideas spread evaluation of drought tolerance indices and nitrogen fertilization for some groundnut (arachis hypogaea l.) genotypes iancu paula1, păniță ovidiu1 & soare marin1 1 faculty of agronomy, university of craiova, romania correspondence: ovidiu păniță, faculty of agronomy, university of craiova, libertății street, no. 19, romania. e-mail: ovixfp@yahoo.com received: november 7, 2019 accepted: december 2, 2019 online published: december 23, 2019 abstract water is essential to maximize crop yield and quality. this natural resource has assumed huge importance, especially in the warmest areas, where drought and environmental degradation has affected agricultural production. in order to identify drought tolerance of some groundnut genotypes and to investigate the relationships between seed yield, quality and drought tolerance indices a study was made using 10 promising genotypes. the experiment was carried out during 2014-2017 and sowed under randomized block design with four replicates. it included three factors: two levels of irrigation (a1 – non irrigated and a2 irrigated), two levels of fertilization (b1 – non-fertilized and b2 100 active nitrogen/ha) and genotype (c1-c10). seed yield depending on the influence of the factor, varied from 535.95 kg/ha (non-irrigated) to 2020.95 kg/ha (irrigated); from 1055.30 kg/ha (non-fertilized) to 1501 kg/ha (fertilized) and from 1111.30 kg/ha to 1388 kg/ha depending on genotype. same influence factors for protein content varied from 25.65% (irrigated) to 28.61% (non-irrigated); from 26.33% (non-fertilized) to 27.93% (fertilized) and from 25.59% to 28.52% depending on genotype. stress susceptibility index (ssi) varied from 0.964 to 1.040; stress tolerance index (sti) from 0.138 to 0.435; mean productivity (mp) from 883.5 to 1616.0; geometric mean productivity (gmp) from 750.3 to 1332.7; tolerance index (tol) from 933.0 to 1844.0; harmonic mean (hm) from 637.2 to 1099.0; yield index (yi) 0.777 to 1.308 and yield stability index (ysi) from 0.236 to 0.309. high values of ssi, sti, yi, di, rdi and sspi indicate drought tolerance and those variants present high stability. keywords: fertilization, irrigation, pca analysis, sandy soils 1. introduction groundnut is a self-pollinating species and an annual herbaceous legume crop (adinya et al., 2010). they have the potential to fix atmospheric nitrogen at the rate of 21 to 206 kg/ha annually in soils through root nodule bacterium. they belongs to the genus rhizobium, thus improves soil fertility (yakubu et al., 2010). the amount of n-fixed in nodulated legumes is highly variable due to environmental conditions such as: solar irradiance (izaguirre-mayoral & sinclair, 2009, pp. 807-818), drought (sinclair & vadez, 2012, pp. 501-512), soil temperature divito & sadras, 2014, pp. 161–171) or other deficiencies. nitrogen is an important element for efficient production of groundnut. adequate supply of nitrogen fertilizer is essential for obtaining better plants growth and yield. an application of 10kgn/ha at the time of sowing is recommended for soils with moderate to low nitrogen (fagbemigun & oguntola, 2019, pp. 86-94). lack of nitrogen is observed when leaves turn into yellow and eventually, the plant’s growth stops. in other cases, too much nitrogen is provided for the plant, it normally leads to watering of protoplasm and brittleness of the plant itself which would result in becoming vulnerable to diseases and pests (awadalla & abbas, 2017, pp. 40-46). fertilizers and variety represents adequate agricultural practices to increase yield and quality to groundnut crop (iancu paula et al., 2014). the selection of high yielding genotypes is important for any crop productivity per unit area (seadh, s.e. et al., 2017). although groundnuts are known to be more tolerant to drought stress than most other related plant species (wan et al., 2014), drought seems to become one of the important abiotic stresses for crop productivity. high temperatures from the summer months can destroy many of the heat-sensitive species. groundnuts are plants that grow on large areas in warm regions but may be affected by drought in certain phases of growth such as flowering and pods formation. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 19 published by ideas spread groundnut consumption is in continuous increase in romania so adapting or creating new resistant/tolerance varieties is an important theme for researchers. also, high yielding and of quality genotypes are preferred in the context of climate change. so, given the economic potential of groundnut, optimal fertilizer use, appropriate crop and soil fertility management practices could enhance productivity, food security and income of smallholder farmers from south region. groundnut research experiences are set up in highly variable, low to medium rainfall and poor soil. generally, the historical average annual rainfall is below 500 mm (occasionally 700 mm). in agricultural policy terms, this region is considered to be less favored area (soare et al., 2016). the aim of this study is to investigate growth and yield response of groundnut genotypes as influenced by nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation. 2. method to evaluate yield and its quality, ten groundnut genotypes subjected to the influence of two irrigation levels and two different doses of nitrogen, in a field experiment was conducted at tamburesti research station, of university of craiova, romania, during 2014-2017, located at latitude of 44°1'40'' n, longitude 23°56'9'' e. the sandy soil contains 6-8% physical clay. the depth of the phreatic water is approximately at 7m from the surface of dunes. the difference of the levels between dunes and interdunes varies between 2m. the quantity of humus is low (0.30.5% at the sand of dune and 0.6-1.2 at the sand of interdune). the reaction of these sands varies from weak acid till neutral (d.h. = 6.3-7.1), while the total capacity of cation exchange is reduced (3-5m is at 100/g soil in the dune and 5-7m is at 100/g soil at interdune). the sands are very poor in nitrogen and phosphor and mediocre supplied with potassium (0.03-0.05% total nitrogen; 2-5 mg/100 g soil phosphor assimilable and approximately 12 mg/100g soil assimilable potassium) (sand analysis made in chemistry laboratory of faculty of agronomy). the experiment was carried out during 2014-2017 and sowed in randomized block design with three replicates. it included three factors: two levels of irrigation (a1 – non irrigated and a2 irrigated), two levels of fertilization (b1 – non-fertilized and b2 100 active nitrogen/ha) and genotype (c1-c10). data were statistically analyzed and means were compared by least significant differences (lsd), p=0.05. drought tolerance indices were calculated using the formulas: stress susceptibility index (ssi) = (1ys/yp) / (1(ys/yp) tolerance (tol) = yp -ys mean productivity (mp) = (yp-ys) / 2 geometric mean productivity (gmp) = yp − ys stress tolerance index (sti) = (ys x yp) / yp 2 yield index (yi) = ys / ys yield stability index (ysi) = ys / yp harmonic mean (hm) = (2xysxyp) / (yp+ys) sensitivity drought index (sdi) = (yp-ys) / yp drought resistance index (di) = ys 2 / (𝑌s x yp) relative drought index (rdi) = (ys/yp) / (ys/yp) stress susceptibility percentage index (sspi) = (yp-ys) x 100 / (2 x yp) in order to analyze the yield potential under irrigation or drought conditions, the yp values were considered the values of the axbxc interaction from a2 level (irrigation), being of a2bici type. the ys values were considered the values of the axbxc interaction from a1 level (drought), being of a1bici type. correlation analysis yield, protein content and drought tolerance indices was performed to determine the best drought-tolerant genotypes and indices. principal component analysis (pca) was performed based on the analyzed indices. both correlation and pca were performed by ibm spss version 2011 and ms office excel 2016. 3. results and discussions agriculture uses 11% of the world’s land surface for crop production. it also uses 70% of all water withdrawn from aquifers, streams and lakes (fao, 2011). for increasing agricultural yield it must use rationally doses of fertilizer as well as research for the possibility of water supplying. tamburesti research station is often subjected to unpredictable periods of water deficit and high temperatures in various stages of plants development. mostly, the climate of the region is arid, characterized by cold winters and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 20 published by ideas spread hot/dry summers. three of the four experimentation years (2014-2017) were considered with drought, average temperatures being of 26°c and 400mm rain water, with 4 degrees above, respective 300mm under the average of the last 30 years. factor a: analysis of yield under the influence of this factor, indicate that the mean of the irrigated variants recorded significant differences compared to the average of non-irrigated variants. in case of protein content, the average of variants in non-irrigated registered significant differences compared to the average of irrigation variants (table 1). it can see that drought can lead to a substantial decline in yield and this reduction depends on the genotype. water stress causes a significant reduction in groundnut lines pod yield/ha and other characteristics (nassar et al., 2018), so that water availability is a critical factor for a successful groundnut production. factor b: analysis of yield from the average of the fertilized variants showed significant differences compared to the mean of non-fertilized variants. in the case of protein content, also the average of fertilized variants recorded significant differences compared to the mean of the non-fertilized variants. table 1. factor a analysis influence on yield and protein content factor factor level a b yield (kg/ha) protein (%) yield (kg/ha) protein (%) first level 535.95+85.641b 28.61+4.82a 1055.30+599.83b 26.33+2.05b second level 2020.95+405.976a 25.65+1.08b 1501.60+912.34a 27.93+1.70a mean 1278.45+245.809 27.13+2.95 1278.45+756.09 27.13+1.87 lsd 5 % 35.70 2.61 76.440 0.673 *mean followed by similar letters in each column, are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability. applying nitrogen fertilizer dose of n90 twice, before sowing and in vegetation, leads to the obtaining of a very significant increase of production 1321 kg/ha (dima et al., 2013). same authors reported a protein content ranging from 21.3% in the control variant unfertilized and 23.9% in the variant fertilized with n60p60k60 and nitrogen was given 1/3 at sowing + 2/3 in vegetation. the effects of n fertilization in oil seeds increase protein content but also have an adverse effect on oil content (maheswari et al., 2017). romania is being placed in the north limit of cultivation areal of groundnut, where the interaction genotype x environment is very high, making difficult the identification of some cultivars easily adaptable to the sudden change of temperature which appears along vegetation period and to different levels of ensuring the heat factor from one year to another (soare and iancu, 2011). as concern the method of irrigation, it seems that the application of micro-irrigation in groundnut has shown that the technique results in high water use efficiency, saves water, reduces fertilization requirement, provides better quality crop and higher pods yield (jeetendra, k.s. et all., 2016). factor c: analysis on yield of this factor leaded to a best result by genotype c10 which, along with the second genotype c9, recorded significant differences compared to the last 7 classified genotypes. in the analysis of factor c influence on protein content, the first classified genotype, c1, shows significant differences compared to all other analyzed genotypes (table 2). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 21 published by ideas spread table 2. factor c analysis on yield and protein content index c level yield (kg/ha) protein (%) c1 1111.75+742.76 f 28.52+2.33 a c2 1215.50+809.22 e 27.75+2.09 b c3 1232.25+813.72 de 27.50+2.18 bc c4 1246.25+826.87 cde 27.34+1.90 bcd c5 1275.75+831.99 cd 27.24+1.88 cd c6 1281.25+834.08 cd 27.05+2.04 de c7 1304.25+844.81 bc 26.92+1.97 def c8 1351.25+857.26 ab 26.78+2.10 e c9 1378.25+861.46 a 26.55+1.95 f c10 1388.00+872.16 a 25.59+0.99 f mean 1278.45+829.43 27.12+1.94 lsd 5 % 58.357 0.443 *mean followed by similar letters in each column, are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability referring to the analysis of the influence of factors axb on yield, the differences between the variants are significant, the best result being obtained by a2b2 variant, fertilized and irrigated. the last classified variant is a1b1, non-fertilized and non-irrigated variant. in the case of protein content, the differences between variants are significant, the best result being realized by a1b2 variant, non-irrigated and fertilized. the last classified variant is a2b1, non-fertilized and irrigated (table 3). ghanbari et al., 2011, reported that yield, plant growth and nutrient uptake reduces under conditions of drought. junjittakarn et al., 2013 sustain that water regimes can significantly affects nutrient uptakes of peanut, but selection of genotypes for high nutrient uptakes could be done under in any water regimes because the interactions between genotype and water regimes were not significant, showing the consistency of the nutrient uptakes across water regimes. table 3. factors a and b interaction analysis influence on yield and protein content indices factors level yield (kg/ha) protein (%) a level b level a1 a2 a1 a2 b1 470.40+38.63d 1640.20+151.27b 27.96+1.64b 24.69+0.57d b2 601.50+74.49c 2401.70+141.62a 29.25+1.45a 26.61+0.39c mean 1278.45+101.50 27.13+1.01 lsd 5 % 108.102 0.952 *mean followed by similar letters in each column, are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability in the case of the analysis of the axc interaction factor influence on the yield, between the first three variants (a2c10, a2c9 and a2c8), genotypes with high potential under irrigation, there were not found significant differences, first two differentiating significant from the last 17 ranked variants. the last variant (a1c1), c10 genotype under irrigation, recorded significant negative differences compare with the first 12 ranked variants. in the case of protein content, the first ranked variant (a1c1), c1 genotype under irrigation, recorded significant differences compare with all others variants. the last two ranked variants (a2c9 and a2c10) recorded significant differences compare with the first 14 ranked variants (table 4). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 22 published by ideas spread table 4. factors a and c interaction analysis influence on yield and protein content indices factors level yield (kg) protein (%) a level c level a1 a2 a1 a2 c1 466.00+91.09j 1757.50+452.39f 30.61+0.97a 26.45+0.84fghi c2 493.50+85.07ij 1937.50+426.98e 29.43+1.32b 26.09+1.11fghi c3 507.00+68.67hij 1957.50+435.46de 29.13+1.77bc 25.89+1.02fghi c4 508.00+58.23hij 1984.50+439.02cde 28.88+1.20cd 25.82+0.97ghij c5 527.00+59.20ghij 2024.50+416.96cde 28.75+1.21cd 25.74+0.96hijk c6 530.00+60.91ghij 2032.50+415.08cd 28.56+1.62cde 25.54+1.07ijk c7 552.00+80.28ghi 2056.50+453.41bc 28.38+1.50de 25.47+1.13ijk c8 577.50+93.79gh 2125.00+413.66ab 28.31+1.59de 25.26+1.27jk c9 600.00+105.64g 2156.50+409.71a 27.96+1.43e 25.15+1.28k c10 598.50+114.14g 2177.50+405.56a 26.08+0.57fghi 25.12+1.14k mean 1278.450+254.26 27.13+1.20 lsd 5 % 82.529 0.627 *mean followed by similar letters in each column, are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability in the case of the analysis of the bxc interaction factors influence on the yield, between the first four ranked variants (b2c10, b2c9, b2c8 and b2c7) there were no statistical differences, the first two differentiating significant from the last 16 ranked variants. the last ranked variants (b1c1) recorded significant negative differences compare with all others genotypes (table 5). concerning the protein content, the first ranked variant (b2c1) recorded significant differences compare with all others differences, except with the next two ranked variants (b2c3 and b2c3). the last ranked variants (b1c10) recorded significant negative differences compare with the first 18 ranked variants. table 5. factors b and c interaction analysis influence on yield and protein content indices factors level yield (kg/ha) protein (%) b level c level b1 b2 b1 b2 c1 883.50+513.685i 1340.00+728.60d 28.170+2.815 bcde 28.880+1.951 a c2 991.50+513.68h 1439.50+908.20c 26.750+1.919 gh 28.765+1.875 ab c3 1017.50+616.25h 1447.00+969.77c 26.520+1.769 hi 28.490+2.235abc c4 1028.50+618.72h 1464.00+981.43bc 26.475+1.800 hi 28.220+1.715bcde c5 1061.50+635.69gh 1490.00+993.11bc 26.425+1.880 hijk 28.060+1.632cde c6 1068.50+640.01fgh 1494.00+1001.54bc 26.200+2.237 hijk 27.900+1.577cdef c7 1069.00+643.32fgh 1539.50+1004.00ab 26.085+2.190 ijk 27.760+1.450def c8 1125.50+643.81efg 1577.00+1011.35ab 25.840+2.261 jk 27.725+1.584ef c9 1147.50+687.56ef 1609.00+1010.80a 25.695+2.224 kl 27.405+1.312fg c10 1160.00+708.47e 1616.00+1001.45a 25.115+1.129l 26.075+0.590ijk mean 1278.450+1008.88 27.128+1.81 lsd 5 % 82.529 0.627 *mean followed by similar letters in each column, are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 23 published by ideas spread table 6 indicate the influence of the 3 factors on yield and the first ranking variants are the most productive genotypes, c7, c8, c9 and c10, under irrigation and with fertilization, those ones differentiating significantly from all other variants, except the next three ranked under them. the last ranking variants are all without fertilization and irrigation in order of their yield potential. table 6. analysis of influence of the factors a, b and c interaction on yield and protein content indices factors level yield (kg/ha) protein (%) a level bxc level a1 a2 a1 a2 b1c1 417.00+29.4418 1350.00+77.1112 30.64+1.201 25.70+0.2715-16 b1c2 432.00+55.4318 1551.00+84.8711 28.40+1.005-7 25.10+0.1716-17 b1c3 455.00+60.6217-18 1580.00+64.3710 28.05+0.836-8 24.99+0.3316-18 b1c4 457.00+20.7817-18 1600.00+173.2110 28.00+1.066-9 24.95+0.0916-18 b1c5 478.00+31.1816-18 1645.00+40.739-10 27.95+1.326-9 24.90+0.3616-18 b1c6 482.00+38.4616-18 1655.00+51.969-10 27.82+2.156-9 24.58+0.1417-19 b1c7 483.00+22.5216-18 1655.00+74.329-10 27.68+2.046-9 24.49+0.4317-19 b1c8 500.00+17.3216-18 1751.00+88.338-9 27.57+1.947-10 24.11+0.1918-19 b1c9 505.00+12.1216-18 1790.00+127.588 27.39+1.918-11 24.00+0.3419 b1c10 508.00+59.7716-18 1825.00+21.707-8 27.35+0.198-11 24.10+0.3118-19 b2c1 515.00+112.5816-18 2165.00+112.586 30.57+0.951 27.19+0.208-12 b2c2 555.00+60.6215-17 2324.00+60.625 30.45+0.431 27.08+0.299-13 b2c3 559.00+45.7315-17 2335.00+108.735 30.20+1.911-2 26.78+0.2910-14 b2c4 559.00+15.5915-17 2369.00+105.594-5 29.76+0.401-3 26.68+0.2910-14 b2c5 576.00+24.2515-16 2404.00+240.253-5 29.54+0.072-3 26.58+0.2911-15 b2c6 578.00+48.5015-16 2410.00+408.502-5 29.30+0.523-4 26.50+0.2611-15 b2c7 621.00+36.3714-15 2458.00+360.371-4 29.07+0.023-5 26.45+0.3212-15 b2c8 655.00+60.6214-15 2499.00+60.621-3 29.05+0.973-5 26.40+0.2612-15 b2c9 695.00+25.9814 2523.00+25.981-2 28.52+0.714-6 26.29+0.2713-15 b2c10 702.00+20.7813 2530.00+20.781 26.02+0.9014-15 26.13+0.2314-15 mean 1278.78+46.92 27.16+0.65 lsd 5 % 116.714 0.900 *mean followed by similar numbers in each column, are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability regarding the influence of the three factors on the protein content, the first ranking variants are the ones of the c1 genotype with fertilization and no fertilization, respectively c2, c3 and c4 genotypes variants with fertilization. the last two variants are the ones of the c9 and c10 genotypes with no fertilization and under irrigation. drought indices are considered a measure to provide information about drought based on loss of yield in drought conditions in comparison to normal conditions and are used for screening drought tolerant genotypes. in order to analyze the yield potential both under irrigation or drought conditions, the yp values were considered the values of the axbxc interaction from a2 level (irrigation), being of a2bici type. the ys values were considered the values of the axbxc interaction from a1 level (drought), being of a1bici type. the values are shown in table 7. thus, the mp, gmp and hm show the yield potential under irrigation or drought conditions. in the comparative analysis, based on the absolute value of those indices it can be seen the variants with the highest yield potential both under irrigation and in drought conditions, high values emphasizing the variants with highest potential. tol, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 24 published by ideas spread ysi and sdi show the drought tolerance, in the comparative analysis based on the values of those indices, being able to identify the variants with the highest yield stability, lowest values indicated them. ssi, sti, yi, di, rdi and sspi show the drought tolerance of each variant reported on the average of the all variants, high values showing variants with high stability. table 7. analysis of drought indexes values index variants y s ( a 1 b i c i) y p ( a 2 b i c i) p s (a 1b ic i ) p p (a 2b ic i ) ss i to l m p g m p st i y i y si h m sd i d i rd i ss pi aib1c1 417.0 1350.0 30.6 25.7 0.941 933.0 883.5 750.3 0.138 0.777 0.309 637.2 0.691 0.240 1.163 23.1 aib1c2 432.0 1551.0 28.4 25.1 0.982 1119.0 991.5 818.6 0.164 0.805 0.279 675.8 0.721 0.224 1.049 27.7 aib1c3 455.0 1580.0 28.1 25.0 0.969 1125.0 1017.5 847.9 0.176 0.848 0.288 706.5 0.712 0.244 1.085 27.8 aib1c4 457.0 1600.0 28.0 25.0 0.973 1143.0 1028.5 855.1 0.179 0.852 0.286 710.9 0.714 0.243 1.076 28.3 aib1c5 478.0 1645.0 28.0 24.9 0.966 1167.0 1061.5 886.7 0.193 0.891 0.291 740.8 0.709 0.259 1.094 28.9 aib1c6 482.0 1655.0 27.8 24.6 0.965 1173.0 1068.5 893.1 0.195 0.898 0.291 746.6 0.709 0.262 1.097 29.0 aib1c7 483.0 1655.0 27.7 24.5 0.964 1172.0 1069.0 894.1 0.196 0.900 0.292 747.8 0.708 0.263 1.099 29.0 aib1c8 500.0 1751.0 27.6 24.1 0.973 1251.0 1125.5 935.7 0.214 0.932 0.286 777.9 0.714 0.266 1.075 31.0 aib1c9 505.0 1790.0 27.4 24.0 0.977 1285.0 1147.5 950.8 0.221 0.941 0.282 787.8 0.718 0.266 1.063 31.8 aib1c10 508.0 1825.0 27.4 24.1 0.983 1317.0 1166.5 962.9 0.227 0.947 0.278 794.8 0.722 0.264 1.048 32.6 aib2c1 515.0 2165.0 30.6 27.2 1.038 1650.0 1340.0 1055.9 0.273 0.960 0.238 832.1 0.762 0.228 0.896 40.8 aib2c2 555.0 2324.0 30.5 27.1 1.036 1769.0 1439.5 1135.7 0.316 1.034 0.239 896.0 0.761 0.247 0.899 43.8 aib2c3 559.0 2335.0 30.2 26.8 1.036 1776.0 1447.0 1142.5 0.320 1.042 0.239 902.0 0.761 0.249 0.902 43.9 aib2c4 559.0 2369.0 29.8 26.7 1.040 1810.0 1464.0 1150.8 0.324 1.042 0.236 904.6 0.764 0.246 0.889 44.8 aib2c5 576.0 2404.0 29.5 26.6 1.035 1828.0 1490.0 1176.7 0.339 1.073 0.240 929.3 0.760 0.257 0.902 45.2 aib2c6 578.0 2410.0 29.3 26.5 1.035 1832.0 1494.0 1180.2 0.341 1.077 0.240 932.4 0.760 0.258 0.903 45.3 aib2c7 621.0 2458.0 29.1 26.5 1.018 1837.0 1539.5 1235.5 0.374 1.157 0.253 991.5 0.747 0.292 0.952 45.4 aib2c8 655.0 2499.0 29.1 26.4 1.005 1844.0 1577.0 1279.4 0.401 1.221 0.262 1037.9 0.738 0.320 0.987 45.6 aib2c9 695.0 2523.0 28.5 26.3 0.986 1828.0 1609.0 1324.2 0.429 1.295 0.275 1089.8 0.725 0.357 1.037 45.2 aib2c10 702.0 2530.0 26.0 26.1 0.984 1828.0 1616.0 1332.7 0.435 1.308 0.277 1099.0 0.723 0.363 1.045 45.2 mean 536.6 2021.0 28.7 25.7 0.995 1484.4 1278.8 1040.4 0.273 1.000 0.269 847.0 0.731 0.267 1.013 36.7 max 702.0 2530.0 30.6 27.2 1.040 1844.0 1616.0 1332.7 0.435 1.308 0.309 1099.0 0.764 0.363 1.163 45.6 min 417.0 1350.0 26.0 24.0 0.941 933.0 883.5 750.3 0.138 0.777 0.236 637.2 0.691 0.224 0.889 23.1 std. dev. 82.5 409.0 1.3 1.1 0.032 334.7 242.9 181.8 0.094 0.154 0.023 137.0 0.023 0.038 0.088 8.3 analyzing the correlation coefficients values for the drought tolerance indices, it can be seen that some of them show the same thing, because of the high correlation values between them. those types of correlation with values almost equal with 1 or -1 were found between: yi and ys; ssi and ysi; ssi and sdi; ssi and rdi; tol and sspi; ysi and sdi; ysi and rdi and between sdi and rdi. the yield recorded under irrigation conditions (yp) is in very strong correlation with the next indices: ys, ssi, tol, mp, gmp, sti, yi, hm, sdi and sspi. the correlation between yp and ys suppose that the genotypes with as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 25 published by ideas spread high potential under irrigation conditions obtain the highest yield values on drought. ys is in high strong correlation with: tol, mp, gmp, sti, hm, di and sspi. the indices that show high yield potential under irrigation conditions are in high positive correlation between them. there are strongly negative correlations between indices that show yield potential and indices that show yield stability on drought (table 8). table 8. analysis of correlations between drought indices ys (a1bici) yp (a2bici) ps (a1bici) pp (a2bici) ssi tol mp gmp sti yi ysi hm sdi di rdi yp (a2) 0.919 ps (a1) -0.058 0.238 pp (a2) 0.551 0.759 0.715 ssi 0.467 0.776 0.575 0.790 tol 0.876 0.995 0.305 0.791 0.832 mp 0.943 0.998 0.190 0.732 0.732 0.986 gmp 0.974 0.984 0.110 0.681 0.654 0.962 0.994 sti 0.982 0.974 0.097 0.679 0.614 0.948 0.987 0.998 yi 1.000 0.919 -0.058 0.551 0.467 0.876 0.943 0.974 0.982 ysi -0.467 -0.776 -0.575 -0.790 -1.000 -0.832 -0.732 -0.654 -0.614 -0.467 hm 0.995 0.954 0.015 0.612 0.553 0.920 0.972 0.992 0.995 0.995 -0.553 sdi 0.467 0.776 0.575 0.790 1.000 0.832 0.732 0.654 0.614 0.467 -1.000 0.553 di 0.841 0.559 -0.439 0.125 -0.084 0.476 0.614 0.697 0.729 0.841 0.084 0.782 -0.084 rdi -0.467 -0.776 -0.575 -0.790 -1.000 -0.832 -0.732 -0.654 -0.614 -0.467 1.000 -0.553 -1.000 0.084 sspi 0.876 0.995 0.305 0.791 0.832 1.000 0.986 0.962 0.948 0.876 -0.832 0.920 0.832 0.476 -0.832 *p 5 %=0.44 significant positive correlations among ys and (yp, sti, yi, mp, ysi, gmp and hm), yp and (tol, yr, sti, yi, mp, gmp and hm) reported others authors (abejide et al., 2017). same authors concluded that drought tolerance indices such as sti, mp, gmp, yi and hm which showed significantly high positive correlations with yield in both stressed and non-stressed conditions are good indicators which can be used for the screening and selection of drought tolerant genotypes also in bambara groundnut. also, ilker et al., 2011 concluded that mp, gmp and sti values are convenient parameters to select high yielding wheat genotypes both in stress and nonstress conditions. pca analysis: concerning the pca analysis, the first component reaches over 74% from total variance, while the second component reaches over 21% from total variance. together they have more than 95% from total variance. the first component shows the yield potential both under irrigation and under drought conditions and low stability of the yield, the indices that quantify this potential being di, yi, hm, gmp, sti, mp, sdi, ssi and sspi. the second component shows the variants with high protein content both under irrigation or drought conditions, the indices that quantify this being ysi and rdi. the correlation coefficients values of the two components and the analyzed indices are shown in table 9. all indices have at least 1 positive value for the correlation with the two components. in the case of the first component, 12 of the analyzed indices are in very high positive correlation, while only two indices, ysi and rdi, are in very high negative correlation with the second component. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 26 published by ideas spread table 9. variation of correlation coefficients values between the two components and the analyzed indices ei ge nv al ue s % o f cu m ul at iv e y s ( a 1 b i c i) y p ( a 2 b i c i) p s (a 1b ic i ) p p (a 2b ic i ) ss i m p g m p st i y i y si h m sd i d i rd i ss pi c1 11 .9 0 74 .3 8 74 .3 8 0. 88 5 0. 99 6 0. 31 0 0. 80 5 0. 82 0 0. 98 9 0. 96 7 0. 95 4 0. 88 5 -0 .8 20 0. 92 7 0. 82 0 0. 49 4 -0 .8 20 0. 99 9 c2 3. 39 21 .1 9 95 .5 7 0. 46 4 0. 08 2 -0 .7 69 -0 .3 73 -0 .5 43 0. 14 8 0. 25 5 0. 29 3 0. 46 4 0. 54 3 0. 37 4 -0 .5 43 0. 86 0 0. 54 3 -0 .0 14 in the case of the second component, 9 of the analyzed indices have positive values, from which only di is in strongly positive correlation with these one. concerning the indices that are in negative correlation with the second component, only the correlation between one and ps has a high negative value. the variants ranking according to components score is shown in table 10 and figure 1. table 10. the variants ranking according to components score based on pca analysis the component sign index variants yield (kg/ha) protein (%) c1 c2 ai bici a1bici (ys) a2bici (yp) yp-ys (%) a1bici (ys) (%) a2bici (yp) (%) + + aib2c7 621.0014-15 2458.001-4 74.74 29.073-5 26.4512-15 aib2c8 655.0014-15 2499.001-3 73.79 29.053-5 26.4012-15 aib2c9 695.0014 2523.001-2 72.45 28.524-6 26.2913-15 aib2c10 702.0013 2530.001 72.25 26.0214-15 26.1314-15 mean 668.25 2502.5 73.31 28.17 26.32 + aib2c1 515.0016-18 2165.006 76.21 30.571 27.198-12 aib2c2 555.0015-17 2324.005 76.12 30.451 27.089-13 aib2c3 559.0015-17 2335.005 76.06 30.201-2 26.7810-14 aib2c4 559.0015-17 2369.004-5 76.40 29.761-3 26.6810-14 aib2c5 576.0015-16 2404.003-5 76.04 29.542-3 26.5811-15 aib2c6 578.0015-16 2410.002-5 76.02 29.303-4 26.5011-15 mean 557 2334.5 76.14 29.97 26.80 aib1c1 417.0018 1350.0012 69.11 30.641 25.7015-16 aib1c2 432.0018 1551.0011 72.15 28.40-7 25.1016-17 aib1c3 455.0017-18 1580.0010 71.20 28.056-8 24.9916-18 b1c4 457.0017-18 1600.0010 71.44 28.006-9 24.9516-18 mean 440.25 1520.25 70.97 28.77 25.19 + aib1c5 478.0016-18 1645.009-10 70.94 27.956-9 24.9016-18 aib1c6 482.0016-18 1655.009-10 70.88 27.826-9 24.5817-19 aib1c7 483.0016-18 1655.009-10 70.82 27.686-9 24.4917-19 aib1c8 500.0016-18 1751.008-9 71.44 27.577-10 24.1118-19 aib1c9 505.0016-18 1790.008 71.79 27.398-11 24.0019 aib1c10 508.0016-18 1825.007-8 72.16 27.358-11 24.1018-19 mean 492.67 1720.17 71.34 27.63 24.36 *mean followed by similar numbers in each column, are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability principal component analysis accounted 95.57% with the first pc of 74.38 % whereas the second pc of 21.19%. regarding the variants ranking, the variants that have both components with high values are the variants where there were cropped c7 to c10 genotypes and there were applied the fertilization, those ones proving under irrigation and drought conditions the highest yield potential and the lowest drought tolerance and high protein content on drought and the lowest protein content under irrigation. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 27 published by ideas spread the variants with first component with high value and second component with low value are the variants where there were cropped c1 to c6 genotypes and there were applied the fertilization, those ones proving under irrigation conditions high yield potential and on drought conditions low yield potential, low yield drought tolerance and the highest protein content on drought and low protein content under irrigation. the variants that have both components with low values are the variants where there were cropped c1 to c4 genotypes and there were not applied fertilization, those ones proving under irrigation and drought conditions the lowest yield potential and the highest drought tolerance and the highest protein content. the variants with first component with low value and second component with high value are the variants where there were cropped c5 to c10 genotypes and there were not applied fertilization, proving under drought conditions the low yield potential and high yield potential under irrigation and medium protein content both under irrigation and drought conditions and also good yield drought tolerance. in another experiment with winter wheat, principal component analysis was found of 96.063% from the variance which indicated limited variation in the response to reduced n fertilization and vice versa (iancu paula et al. 2019). others authors also observed that the rank of genotypes for some studied traits under water stress changes from that under well watering conditions (nassar et al. 2018). figure 1. biplot for drought or combine effect of all factors 4. conclusions for groundnut crops, water support is the most important factor, then fertilization and nitrogen factors. some computed indices for the drought tolerance have very high values of the correlation coefficients, which proves that those ones are similar in determining the drought tolerance. the yield under irrigation (yp) is in positive correlation with the next indices: ys, ssi, tol, mp, gmp, sti, yi, hm, sdi and sspi. the high correlation between yp and ys means that the genotypes with high yield potential under irrigation conditions have also high yield potential under drought conditions compare with the ones with low potential under irrigation. the indices that indicate high yield potential under irrigation conditions are in high correlation between them. on the pca analysis, the first component shows the variants that have the highest yield potential both under irrigation or drought conditions and low tolerance under drought, those indices being: di, yi, hm, gmp, sti, mp, aib1c1 aib1c2 aib1c3 aib1c4 aib1c5 aib1c6 aib1c7 aib1c8 aib1c9 aib1c10 aib2c1 aib2c2 aib2c3 aib2c4 aib2c5 aib2c6 aib2c7 aib… aib2c9 aib2c10 yi yp ps pp tol mp gmp stiys y… hm sdi ssi di r… sspi -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -1.8 -1.3 -0.8 -0.3 0.3 0.8 1.3 co m po ne nt 2 (2 1. 19 % ) component 1 (74.38 %) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 28 published by ideas spread sdi, ssi and sspi. the second component shows the variants with high protein content both under irrigation or drought conditions, the indices that quantify this being ysi and rdi. references abejide, d. r., falusi, a. o., adebola, m. o., gana, a. s., muhammad, l. m., & gado, a. a. (2017). evaluation of drought tolerance indices in some nigerian bambara groundnut (vigna subterranea l. verdc.) landraces. ijabr, 8(2), 142-148. adinya, i. b., enun, e. e., & ijoma, j. u. (2010). exploring profitability potentials in groundnut production through agroforestry practices: a case study in nigeria. journal of animal and plant sciences, 20(2), 123 – 131. awadalla, a. o., & abbas, m. t. (2017). peanut (arachis hypogaea l.). yield and its components as affected by n-fertilization and diazotroph inoculation in toshka desert soil-south valley-egypt. environ risk assess remediat. 1(3), 40-46. https://doi.org/10.4066/2529-8046.100023 dima, m., croitoru, m., & drăghici, r. (2013). research on application of npk fertilizers in peanuts grown on sandy soils. scientific papers. series a. agronomy, lvi, 223-225. divito, g. a., & sadras, v. o. 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(2011). selection indices used to groundnut for choosing the initial material of breeding by irradiation. analele universitatii din craiova, seria agricultura montanologie – cadastru, xli(2), 231-236. soare, m., iancu, p., & matei, g. (2016). drought and its influence upon groundnut crop. sgem 16th international multidisciplinary scientific geoconference. advances in biotechnology. book 6(1), 517-524. https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2016/b61/s25.068. wan, l., wu, y., huang, j., dai, x., lei, y., yan, l., jiang, h., zhang, j., varshney, r. k., & liao, b. (2014). identification of erf genes in peanuts and functional analysis of aherf008 and aherf019 in abiotic stress response. funct. integr. genom., 14, 467–477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10142-014-0381-4 yakubu, h., kwari, j. d., & tekwa, j. a. (2010). nodulation and n2 – fixation by grain legumes as affected by boron fertilizers in sudano – sahelian zone of north eastern nigeria. american eurasian journal of agriculture and environmental science, 8(5), 514-519. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p148 148 published by ideas spread combined effects of vernalization and gibberellic acid on quality seed production of summer onion (allium cepa l.) lamia khatun1, md. rezaul karim1, fakhar uddin talukder2 & md. sohanur rahman2 1 department of horticulture, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh-2202, bangladesh 2 pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhaka-1207, bangladesh correspondence: lamia khatun, department of horticulture, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh2202, bangladesh. e-mail: lamiarimi28@gmail.com received: june 5, 2020 accepted: september 4, 2020 published: october 26, 2020 abstract the purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of vernalization and ga3 on seed yield and reproductive quality of summer onion. there were three vernalization treatments viz., no vernalization (control), vernalization at 5°c for 14 days and vernalization at 10°c for 14 days and four ga3 treatment viz., 0, 50, 100 and 150 ppm. the two-factor experiment was conducted in the randomized complete block design (rcbd) with three replications. combination between vernalization and ga3 was significant on the parameters such as plant height, number of leaves plant-1, the highest number of flowering stalk, number of umbels plant-1, number of bud umbel-1, percent flowering at 45 and 60 dap, number of seeds umbel-1, weight of seeds umbel-1, weight of seeds plant-1, weight of seeds plot-1, 1000 seed weight, seed yield, number of fruits umbel-1, percent of fruit set umbel-1and percent germination. combined effect of vernalization & ga3 was considered the highest seed yield (280.42 kgha-1) was obtained from vernalization at 5°c for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3. the lowest values of all the parameters were recorded in the control treatment. no limitation is found in the present experiment. combined use of proper vernalization of mother bulb and suitable concentration of gibberellic acid can be one possible way to expand onion production during the summer. keywords: vernalization, gibberellic acid, seed production, onion 1. introduction vernalization is a proper process required for some definite plant species, e.g. onion (allium cepa l.), to enter into the reproductive stage, through an introduction to low but non-freezing temperatures (streck, 2003). onion is a herbaceous biennial crop, and the temperature is an environmental factor that is a major controller of its development (brewster, 1983, 1987; rabinowitch, 1985). at the time of onion development, there have a temperature function (brewster, 1987). the expression of vegetative plants (after a juvenile stage which corresponds to a minimum 7-10 initiated leaves) or bulbs to low temperatures introduces flowering, which terminates the growth of the main axis (rabinowitch, 1985). the outpouring to low temperatures either in natural winter or in artificial cold treatment which brings about the induction of flowering in plant species (e.g. onion) is called vernalization (pinthus, 1985; flood & halloran, 1986). vernalization of onion is an important research interest because of the need to induce flowering for seed production for breeding purposes in the shortest period (brewster, 1987). lack of cold temperatures to induce flowering is the main constrain to onion seed production in tropical countries (kimani et al., 1994). the reaction of plants to vernalization is occurred by the combination of 2 factors, the duration of the vernalization period and the temperature during the vernalization period (hodges & ritchie, 1991; ritchie, 1991). brewster (1987) processed data every day vernalization rate to temperature with a stepwise linear function. a step-wise function is not the most suitable response work as a temperature response function because biological systems seem to respond to temperature, continuously and smoothly rather than in a combination of linear functions that introduce sudden changes in the response (shaykewich, 1995; streck, 2002a). in the case of onion, a short duration cold treatment of 10 °c for 10 days enhances the seed yield (yalamalle 2016). the inoculation of mycorrhizae and the application of humic substances can enhance bulb growth and quality (sekara et al. 2017). the proper vernalization temperature of mother onion bulbs enhance early flowering and produces a higher yield of onion seed (khokhar 2014). vernalization of the bulb is required for flower initiation in onion (brewster, 1994). the suitable vernalization temperature of the mother bulb incites early flowering and produces a better yield of seed (jones and mann, 1963). gibberellins are one of the major regulators of plant as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 149 published by ideas spread growth and development which suppress the growth and promoting cell elongation and division (olszewski et al., 2002; ubeda tomas et al., 2009). it is well known that ga3 enhances plant growth and its accompanying metabolite production (jones et al., 2009). the applications of gibberellic acid (ga3) on plants promote plant height and, secondarily, increase dry weight (sharma et al. 1999). the effect of ga3 on onion seed production is characterized by an increase in the number of inflorescences per plant, and synchronization of pistillate & staminate patterns (corgan and montano 1975). medium or large bulbs sprayed with gibberellic acid at 50ppm provide significantly higher seed yield per hectare, germination, and vigor (shaikh et al. 2002). spraying of ga3 on plants increased seed yield and quality parameters compared with controls (rizk et al. 1996). one of the most important problems is the unavailability of good quality seeds due to a lack of cold temperatures for summer onion seed production. the proper vernalization temperature of the mother bulb stimulates early flowering and produces a heavier yield of seed (jones and mann, 1963). plant growth regulators (e.g. gibberellic acid) are new generation agrochemicals and are expected to play an important role in overcoming the hurdles in the manifestation of biological yield. to meet up the demand for onion in bangladesh, one possible solution is to expand onion production during the summer season. the present research work has been undertaken to find out the appropriate vernalized temperature with a proper dose of ga3 for obtaining a maximum yield of summer onion seed. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental site, soil, climate the present research work was conducted at the horticultural farm, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh during the period from november 2017 to april 2018. the experimental area is located at 24°46’n latitude and 90°24’e longitude. the experimental area belongs to old brahmaputra flood plain under the aez number-9. the field was above inundation level and texturally silty loam with a ph value 6.8. the climate of the experimental area was sub-tropical, characterized by heavy or scanty rainfall. 2.2 experimental material the bulbs (different size graded) of summer onion variety bari piaz-3 were used in this study. these seed bulbs were collected from bangladesh agricultural research institute, gazipur. the distance maintained between the rows was 25 cm and between the plants was 20 cm and each unit plot accommodated 20 plants. 2.3 experimental treatments the experiment had two factors. the levels of each factor were factor a: vernalization v0 =no vernalization, v1 =vernalization at 5°c for 14 days, v2 =vernalization at 10°c for 14 days factor b: concentrations of ga3 g0 = 0 ppm, g1 = 50 ppm, g2 = 100 ppm, g3 = 150 ppm 2.4 design and layout of the experiment the two-factor experiment consisting of twelve treatment combinations was laid out in the randomized complete block design (rcbd) with three replications. thus in total 36 unit plots were obtained. the total area of this experiment was divided into three blocks and each blocks contained twelve plots. the treatment combinations were randomly placed to unit plots in each blocks. the size of each unit plot was 1m × 1m. the distance between the blocks was 75 cm and between the plots was 50 cm. 2.5 vernalization of mother bulbs selected bulbs of the same size were put in white cotton cloth bags. bulbs were then vernalized for 14 days in two different refrigerators calibrated at 5 °c and 10 °c. 2.6 planting of bulbs in the experimental plot bulbs were taken out from the refrigerators four hours prior to planting and then kept under ceiling fan for surface drying. the distance maintained between the row was 25 cm and between the plant was 20 cm. 2.7 preparation of ga3 solution and its application laboratory grade reagents were used to prepare 50, 100 and 150 ppm of ga3 solution. the stock solution of 1000 ppm of ga3 was prepared by protein 1.0 gm. of ga3 into a conical flask. then a little amount of ethyl alcohol (c2h5oh) was added into the conical flask. then the flask was stirred for some time and exact volume in the volumetric flask was made up by adding distilled water with frequent stirring to have the desired 1l stock solution. the stock solution was then preserved in glass jars at low temperature in a refrigerator for preparing solutions of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 150 published by ideas spread desired concentrations. to prepare three concentrations of ga3 solution of 50,100 and 150 ppm; at first 50,100 and 150 ml solution had taken from ga3 stock solution (1000 ppm) and then ware diluted to prepare 1 liter volume with the required amount of distilled water. the prepared solutions were sprayed over the plants in two times one at 30 and 50 days after planting (dap). the solutions were sprayed as foliar spray with the help of hand sprayer. 2.8 harvesting matured seed umbels were harvested in several installments when 10-20% of the capsules were splited and exposed their black seeds. umbels were harvested with a small portion of flowering stalk in the morning to prevent shattering of seed. 2.9 postharvest operation harvested umbels were dried in open sunlight on brown paper for 4-5 days. threshing was done manually, seed were cleaned and were dried again until they reached safe moisture content (brewster, 1994). seeds were then kept in polythene bag, which were kept in refrigerator at 8±10°c. 2.10 germination test germination percentage of onion seed was recorded in the postgraduate laboratory of the department of horticulture, bau, mymensingh at ambient room temperature immediately after drying seeds with 3 replications. for each treatment 75 seeds were taken. it was performed following tp (top of paper) method and in sterile petridish (90 mm diameter). in each petridish 25 seeds were placed (for each replication) on three layer of tissue paper saturated with water. germination data were collected at 7th day of testing. 2.11 data collection data were collected from selected plants in each unit plot. to avoid border effect with the highest precision six plants were selected randomly from each plot out of 30 discarding the outer two rows and outer plants of the middle lines. plant height the height of plants was measured from ground level to the tip of the longest leaf. average plant height was determined from selected plants at 20, 40 and 60 dap in centimeter (cm). number of leaves plant-1 number of leaves including green and dry from six selected plants were recorded at 20, 40 and 60 dap. height of flowering stalk it was measured from ground level to the tip of the scape before harvest, and the average was recorded in centimeter (cm) from selected plants. number of umbels plant-1 average number of umbels per plant was recorded from randomly selected plants at full bloom stage. number of fruits umbel-1 average number of seeded fruits per umbel was computed from randomly selected six sampled umbels, after harvesting. number of bud umbel-1 average number of buds per umbel was computed from randomly selected six sampled umbels at maximum flowering stage and the average number was recorded. percent flowering plants the number of plants flowered was conducted at 5 days interval from initiation to completion. percentage was determined by the following formula: percent flowering plants = × 100 no. of plants flowered total no. of plants in the plot as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 151 published by ideas spread number of seeds umbel-1 average number of seeds per umbel was computed from randomly selected six sampled umbels at maximum flowering stage and the average number was recorded. weight of seeds umbel-1 average weight of seed per umbel was determined in gram (g) from randomly selected 6 umbels. weight of seeds plant-1 it was recorded from randomly selected 6 plants and was expressed in gram (g). weight of seeds plot-1 total amount of seeds for each plot were bulked and weighted in gram (g). percent of fruit set umbel-1 the average number of seeded fruits per umbel was recorded from randomly selected 6 sampled umbels after harvesting. then it was counted per plot. seeded fruits divided by no. of flowers per umbel were calculated as % fruit set. number of umbels plot-1 average number of umbels per plot was determined from previously selected six plants. yield of seeds plant-1 the seed were collected, weighed and recorded from randomly selected six plants and the mean weight was expressed in gram (g). yield of seeds plot-1 total amount of seeds for each plot was bulked, was weighed and was expressed in gram (g). seed yield (kg ha-1) it was determined from conversion of the respective seed yield per plot to ha and was expressed in kg per ha. 1000 seed weight for each plot 1000 seeds were counted and weighed by electric balance and was recorded in gram (g). germination percentage the number of seeds germinated was recorded respectively for each petridish daily. seeds were considered to have germinated when radical emerged about 2 mm from the seed. the germination percentage was determined by the following formula. germination percentage = × 100 2.12 statistical analysis the collected data were statistically analyzed by the computer using statistical package programme mstat-c. the analysis of variance was performed by f variance test. the pair of comparisons were performed by least significant difference (lsd) test at 5% and 1% level of probability (gomez and gomez, 1984). 3. results 3.1 combined effects of vernalization and ga3 on plant height the interaction effect of vernalization and ga3 on the plant height of onion was found to be significant at 20 dap, 40 dap and 60 dap. the variation among the treatment combinations was significant. in general, plant height increased gradually with the advancement of time upto 60 dap (table 1). the highest plant (52.75 cm) at 60 dap was recorded from the treatment combination of v1g2 (vernalization at 5°c with 100 ppm ga3) and 60 dap the lowest height (40.80 cm) was recorded from the v2g0 treatment combination (table 1). no. of seeds germinated no. of seeds set for germination as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 152 published by ideas spread table 1. combined effects of vernalization and ga3 concentration on plant height of summer onion at different days after planting treatment combination plant height (cm) at days after planting (dap) 20 40 60 v0g0 11.33 32.83 41.85 v0g1 11.83 34.33 44.67 v0g2 14.50 44.00 50.00 v0g3 14.17 39.67 46.75 v1g0 20.50 37.67 42.33 v1g1 20.83 41.50 46.80 v1g2 23.17 45.33 52.75 v1g3 21.17 43.50 49.00 v2g0 16.83 34.33 40.80 v2g1 16.91 37.33 45.72 v2g2 19.50 44.83 49.58 v2g3 18.67 43.17 48.30 lsd0.05 0.39 0.75 0.65 lsd0.01 0.53 1.02 0.89 level of significance 0.78** 5.63** 1.82** ** = significant at 1% level of probability. vo, v1, and v2 indicates no vernalization, vernalization at 50c and 100c for 14 days respectively and g0, gi, g2, g3 indicates 0, 50, 100 and 150 ppm respectively 3.2 combined effect of vernalization and ga3 on number of leaves plant-1 the combined effect of vernalization and ga3 on the number of leaves per plant was found to be significant at 20,40 and 60 dap. the variation among the treatment combinations was significant. at 60 dap, the highest number of leaves (34.17) per plant was recorded from the treatment combinations of v1g2 (vernalization at 5°c for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3) while the lowest number of leaves (17.83) plant-1 was obtained from the v0g0 treatment combinations (table 2). table 2. combined effects of vernalization and ga3 concentration on number of leaves/plant of summer onion at different days after planting treatment combination no. of leaves/plant at days after planting (dap) 20 40 60 v0g0 8.17 15.97 17.83 v0g1 10.33 18.50 21.17 v0g2 13.50 22.82 22.50 v0g3 11.17 18.83 21.67 v1g0 15.33 18.33 22.33 v1g1 16.00 19.60 32.00 v1g2 19.83 21.67 34.17 v1g3 17.89 20.08 33.00 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 153 published by ideas spread v2g0 14.50 17.06 18.33 v2g1 15.67 18.93 22.83 v2g2 17.67 21.50 32.33 v2g3 16.67 19.77 30.17 lsd0.05 0.64 0.66 0.74 lsd0.01 0.87 0.90 1.00 level of significance 0.90** 1.83** 22.28** ** = significant at 1% level of probability. here vo, v1, and v2 indicates no vernalization, vernalization at 50c and 100c for 14 days respectively and g0, gi, g2, g3 indicates 0, 50, 100 and 150 ppm respectively 3.3 combined effect of vernalization and ga3 on percent germination of summer onion the combined effect of vernalization and ga3 on the percent germination per plant was found to be significant. the variation among the treatment combinations was significant. the highest percent germination (74.00) was recorded from the treatment combinations of v1g2 (vernalization at 5°c for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3) while the lowest percent germination (48.00) was obtained from the v0g0 treatment combinations (table 3). table 3. combined effects of vernalization and ga3 concentration on percent germination of summer onion treatment combination germination (%) v0g0 48.00 v0g1 54.00 v0g2 60.00 v0g3 56.00 v1g0 54.00 v1g1 58.00 v1g2 74.00 v1g3 60.00 v2g0 50.00 v2g1 56.00 v2g2 62.00 v2g3 58.00 lsd0.05 1.39 lsd0.01 1.88 level of significance 22.67** ** = significant at 1% level of probability. vo, v1, and v2 indicates no vernalization, vernalization at 50c and 100c for 14 days respectively and g0, gi, g2, g3 indicate 0, 50, 100 and 150 ppm respectively 3.4 combined effect of vernalization and ga3 on flowers and seed characters at 60 dap there was a significant variation in respect of height of flowering stalk, highest percent flowering, number of umbels plant-1, number of flowers plant-1, number of seeds umbel-1, number of fruits umbel-1 at 60 dap due to different levels of vernalization and ga3. the longest flowering stalk (86.92cm) was found in the plots which received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 while the shortest (61.00cm) was recorded in the plant that received no vernalization and no ga3. the highest percent flowering (82.40) was found in the plots which received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 while the lowest (71.65) was recorded in the plant that received no vernalization and no ga3. the maximum number of umbels plant-1, number of flowers umbel-1 (7.70, 263.57) was found in the plant that received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 and minimum (4.19, 168.50) was observed respectively in the plant that received no vernalization and no ga3. the maximum number of seeds umbel-1, number of fruits umbel-1 (320.50, 100.00) was found in the plant that received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 and minimum (198.00, 67.85) was observed respectively in the plant that received no vernalization and no ga3 (table 4). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 154 published by ideas spread table 4. combined effects of vernalization and ga3 concentration on quality seed production of summer onion treatment combination height of flowering stalk highest percent flowering no. of umbels/ plant no. of flowers/umbel no. of seeds/ umbel no. of fruits/ umbel v0g0 61.00 71.65 4.19 168.50 198.00 67.85 v0g1 63.31 72.68 4.68 193.60 210.50 75.67 v0g2 73.50 75.88 6.03 222.75 230.24 85.71 v0g3 70.00 73.89 5.50 205.40 219.75 80.61 v1g0 72.67 76.90 5.15 212.67 231.75 75.67 v1g1 77.99 78.71 6.73 225.57 253.80 86.67 v1g2 86.92 82.40 7.70 263.57 320.50 100.00 v1g3 78.22 80.37 7.25 245.74 287.50 90.60 v2g0 69.33 73.55 4.66 179.00 220.50 71.67 v2g1 74.50 75.66 5.20 210.50 237.50 80.67 v2g2 79.50 79.33 6.87 237.50 275.67 90.47 v2g3 76.61 76.28 6.23 219.37 250.67 86.67 lsd0.05 0.86 0.55 0.18 6.90 8.90 1.88 lsd0.01 1.17 0.75 0.24 9.37 12.09 2.55 level of significance 9.65** 0.52** 0.22** 46.42* 501.65** 7.50** ** = significant at 1% level of probability, * = significant at 5% level of probability. vo, v1, and v2 indicates no vernalization, vernalization at 50c and 100c for 14 days respectively and g0, gi, g2, g3 indicate 0 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm and 150 ppm respectively. 3.5 combined effect of vernalization and ga3 at 60 dap there was a significant variation in respect of number of fruits plant-1, percent fruits, weight of seeds umbel-1, 1000 seeds weight, weight of seeds plant-1, weight of seeds plot-1 and seed yield due to different levels of vernalization and ga3. the highest number of fruits plant-1 (770.13) was found in the plots which received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 while the minimum (284.16) was recorded in the plant that received no vernalization and no ga3. the highest percent fruits set (41.97) was found in the plots which received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 while the lowest (38.40) was recorded in the plant that received no vernalization and no ga3. the maximum weight of seeds umbel-1 (1.22g) was found in the plant that received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 150 ppm ga3 and minimum (0.31) was found in the plant having no vernalization and no ga3. the maximum 1000 seeds weight (3.10 g) was found in the plant that received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 and minimum (2.10 g) was observed in the plant that received no vernalization and no ga3. the maximum weight of seeds/ plant (7.29 g) and weight of seeds/ plot (66.68 g) was found in the plant that received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 and minimum 1.84 g & 16.82 g was found in control respectively (table 5). table 5. combined effects of vernalization and ga3 concentration on quality seed production of summer onion treatment combination no. of fruits/ plant % fruit set weight of seeds/ umbel (g) 1000 seed wt (g) weight of seeds/ plant (g) weight of seeds/ plot (g) v0g0 284.16 38.40 0.31 2.10 1.84 16.82 v0g1 354.13 38.75 0.42 2.24 2.51 22.92 v0g2 516.85 39.42 0.50 2.61 3.00 27.43 v0g3 443.34 39.20 0.46 2.37 2.76 25.23 v1g0 389.72 39.37 0.95 2.30 5.67 51.84 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 155 published by ideas spread v1g1 583.33 40.33 1.01 2.52 6.08 55.62 v1g2 770.13 41.97 1.13 3.10 7.29 66.68 v1g3 656.95 41.67 1.22 2.75 6.77 61.90 v2g0 333.99 38.67 0.59 2.15 3.51 32.09 v2g1 419.35 39.19 0.63 2.31 3.75 34.29 v2g2 621.53 40.22 0.78 2.75 4.67 42.70 v2g3 540.03 39.61 0.70 2.49 4.22 38.58 lsd0.05 20.62 0.47 0.05 0.08 0.15 2.96 lsd0.01 28.02 0.64 0.07 0.10 0.21 4.02 level of significance 3616.03** 0.50** 0.01** 0.01** 0.21** 83.57** ** = significant at 1% l evel of probability, * = significant at 5% level of probability. vo, v1, and v2 indicates no vernalization,vernalization at 50c and 100c for 14 days respectively and g0, gi, g2, g3 indicate 0 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm and 150 ppm respectively. 3.6 combined effect of vernalization and ga3 on seed yield the combined effect of vernalization and ga3 on seed yield. the highest seed yield (280.42 kg ha-1) was found in the plots which received 5°c vernalization for 14 days with 100 ppm ga3 while the lowest seed yield (70.75 kg ha-1) was recorded in the plant that received no vernalization with no ga3 (fig. 1). figure 1. combined effects of vernalization and ga3 concentration on quality seed production of summer onion. vo, v1, & v2 indicates no vernalization, vernalization at 50c and 100c for 14 days respectively and g0, gi, g2, g3 indicate 0 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm and 150 ppm respectively 4. discussion data were collected from six randomly selected plants and seed yield was recorded from all plants of unit plots. observations were made on plant height, number of leaves plant-1, percent germination, height of flowering stalk, highest percent flowering, number of umbels plant-1, number of flowers plant-1, number of seeds umbel-1, number 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 v0g 0 v0g 1 v0g 2 v0g 3 v1g 0 v1g 1 v1g 2 v1g 3 v2g 0 v2g 1 v2g 2 v2g 3 treatment combination se ed y ie ld (k g/ ha ) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 156 published by ideas spread of fruits umbel-1 at 60 dap number of fruits plant-1, percent fruits, weight of seeds umbel-1, 1000 seeds weight, weight of seeds plant-1, weight of seeds plot-1 and seed yield. the collected data were statistically analyzed and the means were compared with lsd values. the treatment combination of vernalization at 5°cfor 14 days with the 100 ppm ga3 gave the highest values of plant height at 60 dap (52.75 cm), the maximum number of leaves (34.17), the maximum germination at (74.00 percent), height of flowering stalk (86.92), highest percent flowering (82.40), number of umbels plant-1 (7.70), number of flowers plant-1 (263.57), number of seeds umbel-1 (320.50), number of fruits umbel-1 (100.00), number of fruits plant-1 (770.13), percent fruits (41.97), weight of seeds umbel-1 (1.13), 1000 seeds weight (3.10), weight of seeds plant-1 (7.29), weight of seeds plot-1 (66.68) and seed yield (280.42) were observed with the vernalization at 5°c for 14 days and 100 ppm ga3. whereas the lowest values of all other parameters were found in the vernalization control with 100 ppm ga3 treatment. a combination of vernalization at 5°c for 14 days and 100 ppm ga3 considerably helped to produce early flowering and good quality heavier onion seed yield. usually, a flowering stalk may consist of 50 to 2000 flowers (jones and mann, 1963). muthamia (1994), khokhar (2009) proves that cold treatment enhances scape emergence. the emergence and differentiation of scape depend on temperature (zemah et a., 2001). vernalization treatment mostly alters the source-sink relation in favor of reproductive growth (linwattana et al., 1997). according to (streck, 2003), the temperature reaction of vernalization in onion (allium cepa l.) was described as having cardinal temperatures of 0 °c, 10 °c, 16 °c. the observed vernalization response to the temperature of various onion cultivars and the temperature response curve predicted with the beta function. the observed data proved a maximum response in the range of 9-12 °c and a reduction when temperature departs from optimum temperature. a higher proportion of scape emergence and greater uniformity in floral initiation was observed when at 10 °c increased as the length of vernalization (d’angelo and goldman 2019). in the case of onion, a comparison of the cardinal temperatures for vernalization (0 °c, 10 °c, 16 °c) with other species gives some similarities and differences. the cardinal temperatures for vernalization in carrot are -1, 6.5, and 16ºc (atherthon et al., 1990), in lily, are 0, 5, and 21ºc (roh & wilkins, 1977; roh, 1985; holcomb & berghage, 2001); in calabrese is -2.8, 15.8, and 23.6ºc (wurr et al., 1995); and in winter wheat are -1.3, 4.9, and 15.7ºc (porter & gawith, 1999). vernalization treatment of 10 0c for 10 days is effective in enhancing the seed yield in onion (yalamalle 2016). low temperatures exposure (in natural or artificial conditions) that causes induction of flowering is called vernalization (lee et al., 2013; thomas and vince-prue, 1997) due to incomplete vernalization seed yield will be poor (voss et al., 2013). the increase in yield could be characterized by the more number of flowers in vernalized plants. the results are similar to the previous findings of msika et al. (1997); khokhar (2009). according to (brewster, 1994) at the time of thermo phase the onion seed crop apart from temperature, high concentration of soluble carbohydrates is an important factor enhancing flowering in onion and bulbing of alliums. benkeblia et al. (2004) noticed that the higher activity of soluble invertase, glucose, sucrose, and fructose levels in onion bulbs stored at 10 °c than those stored at 20 °c. vernalization helped in the conversion of complex sugars in the bulbs to simple sugars which were deliberately available for transition to reproductive growth. these increased in number of flowers and the increase of seed yield subsequently (yalamalle 2016). flowering in bolting resistant cultivars can be particularly difficult and large bulb size or long treatment at low temperature may be required (shishido and saito 1977). the optimum duration to completely vernalize onion cultivars at low temperatures (3 to 11° c) is in the range of 7 to 90 days (woodbury 1950; kruzhilin and shvedskaya 1962; rabinowitch 1985; pike 1986; bertaud, 1988; peters, 1990; rabinowitch, 1990). the seed stalk elongation rate was increased by higher temperatures and long photoperiods (brewester, 1982 and brewester 1987). the variation in the results of seed stalk length during both seasons could be characterized by the effect of the environment, because the genotypes used were identical (elsiddig et al., 2015). geetharani et al., 2008 noticed that 100 ppm ga3 spray increased the flowering by 47%. naamni et al. (1980) & looper and waller (1982) investigated that 30–40% increase in seed yield due to ga3 application. a better part of the plants with ga3 treatment exhibited stunted growth and were chlorotic in appearance shows the toxic effect mostly due to high dosage (yalamalle 2016). vernalization of bulbs (cultivar -texas early grano) at 4-5° c for 180 days with the application of ga3 at the rate of 600 ppm for seed production is suitable under gezira state (sudan) conditions (elsiddig et al., 2015). ga3 increased the number of flowers per plant, length of flower stalks, and seed yield per plant. the highest seed yield was achieved with the application of ga3 at 75 ppm (bhople et al., 1999). without vernalization, application of ga3 singly, all the concentrations tested failed to induce flowering of onion (cultivar texas early grano) when planted offseason but it accelerated the effect of vernalization on bolting and seed production (elsiddig et al., 2015). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 157 published by ideas spread 5. conclusion to obtain the highest seed yield and quality seeds of summer onion the combination of vernalization at 5°c for 14 days and 100 ppm ga₃ may be suggested to mymensingh region. this experiment may be repeated under different agro-climatic regions of bangladesh. acknowledgement the author takes an opportunity to express thier gratefulness to ministry of science and technology, the people’s republic of bangladesh for awarding the national science and technology (nst) fellowship which had the financial contribution on the successful completion of this research and thesis work conflict of interest the authors have no conflict of interest to report references atherton, j. g., craigon, j., & basher, e. a. 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(2001). florogenesis and the effect of temperatures on the development of allium aflatunense. journal of horticultural science & biotechnology, 76, 507–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2001.11511401 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p23 23 published by ideas spread households' choice of genotypes and traits of preference in yoruba ecotype chicken in ibadan, nigeria popoola moshood abiola1, lamidi luqman o.1, raji ademola moshood1, adebisi gbadebo luqman1, onuoha chinyere joy1 & olaoye ridwan oyebamiji1 1 federal college of animal health and production technology, ibadan, nigeria correspondence: popoola moshood abiola, federal college of animal health and production technology, ibadan, nigeria. tel: 234-703-458-4168. e-mail: moshood.popoola@fcahptib.edu.ng received: january 13, 2020 accepted: february 14, 2020 online published: march 5, 2020 abstract this study aimed at evaluating yoruba ecotype chicken genotypes of choice and traits of preference in the chicken by households in ibadan, nigeria. data were obtained from a total of 120 households using structured interview schedule. data were subjected to both descriptive statistics and principal components analysis (pca). results revealed that most of the respondents were female; they raised the chicken for income generation and consumption. most of the respondents preferred normal feather yoruba ecotype chicken to other genotypes. the result also revealed that traits of preference by most of the respondents were growth rate, body size, egg production, fertility, disease resistance, temperament, broodiness, mothering ability, hatchability, plumage colour and distribution, social-cultural value, survivability, fecundity, ease of sales and laying of large number of eggs. the principal component 1 explained over 86.2% in household preferences for all the variables considered in the study. based on the result of this study, it was concluded that most of the respondents’ preferred normal feather yoruba ecotype chicken compared to other genotypes like frizzle feather and naked neck. traits of economic importance appeared to be consistent in preference for genotype of choice by respondents. the pci value explained over 86.2% in household preferences for all the variables. further research efforts on genotypes and traits of economic importance of yoruba ecotype chicken could facilitate future breeding programs geared towards increasing the chicken production and productivity among households and smallholders. there is also a need for effective breeding and conservation program to preserve economically important genetic resources of this chicken to prevent the risk of loss of the indigenous chicken genetic pool. keywords: chicken, ecotype, indigenous, preference, traits 1. introduction poultry, particularly chickens are the most widely kept livestock species in the world and also the most numerous (perry et al; 2002; moreki et al., 2010). in africa, indigenous chicken make over 70% of the total chicken population (fao, 1986). indigenous chicken in africa are in general hardy, adaptive to rural environment, survive on little or no input and adjust to fluctuations in feed availability. chicken largely dominate flock composition and make up about 98% (gueye, 2003) of the total poultry members (chickens, ducks and turkeys) kept in africa. indigenous chicken constitutes 80% of the 120 million poultry type raised in the rural areas in nigeria (rim,1992). they are self-reliant and hardy birds with the capacity to withstand harsh weather condition and adaptation to adverse environment. they are known to possess qualities such as ability to hatch on their own, brood and scavenge for major parts of their food and possess appreciated immunity from endemic diseases (rim, 1992). there are various ecotypes of the local chicken in different agro ecological zones in nigeria as reported by different authors. olori (1992) noted two ecotypes characterized as forest and savannah or yoruba and fulani ecotypes respectively. nwosu (1979) identified three main strains in ecotype named nsukka, owerri and awgu types at the south eastern states of nigeria. recent works revealed that the different ecotypes can be grouped into two major categories on the basis of body size and body weight as heavy ecotype and light ecotype (momoh et al; 2007).the heavy ecotype (also referred to as fulani ecotype) is found in the dry savannahs (guinea and sahel savannah).the light ecotypes are those chicken types from the swamp, rain forest and derived savannah agro ecological zones whose mature body weight ranges between 0.68-1.5kg. yoruba ecotype is made up of four strains which are normal feather, frizzle feather, necked neck and frey. in nigeria, indigenous chickens were characterized along genetic lines of feather and plumage colour (such as as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 24 published by ideas spread normal or frizzled feathered), body structure (such as naked neck, dwarf types and colour variants such as black, white, brown, mottled). the frequency distribution of the normal feathered chicken were about 91.8% while that of frizzled and naked neck were 5.2 and 3.0% respectively in bayelsa state, nigeria (ajayi and agaviezor, 2009). there are wide range of factors responsible for preference of yoruba ecotype chicken strains among households raising them. knowledge of trait preferences for breeding decisions is central to the formulation of livestock policies aimed at improving the livelihoods of smallholder chicken farmers (yakubu et al., 2019). thus, this study was conducted to evaluate the preference for choice of strains of yoruba ecotype chicken raised among households in ibadan, nigeria. 2. method 2.1 area of the study the study was conducted in ibadan, the capital city of oyo state, with a population of over 3 million people. it is made up of 11 local government areas (lgas). ibadan is the largest metropolitan geographical area in nigeria. there are several cattle ranches, a dairy farm as well as a commercial abattoir in ibadan; these, coupled with other reasons such as favourable climatic condition, economy of the city (being the third cheapest city to live in nigeria), largest metropolitan, have made ibadan to be a strategic location where appreciable number of livestock such as cattle, chicken, sheep and goat can be found. 2.2 data collection the target population of the study were households raising indigenous (yoruba ecotype) chicken. these households were selected randomly in the study area to select 120 respondents. interview schedule was used to obtain information from these respondents; information collected include, socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, chicken production characteristics and traits of preference in the chicken by these respondents. 2.3 statistical analyses data were subjected to both descriptive statistics such as (mean, frequency and percentage) and principal components analysis (pca) using spss (v.22) 3. results table 1 shows the results of socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. result shows that most of the respondents were within the age range of 25-29 (27.5%). the mean age of the respondents was 28.4 years. the result of this study indicates that majority of the respondents are still in their economical active ages as reported by akinbile, (1994); popoola et al., (2017). result showed that majority of the respondents were female (63.3%), while 36.7% of them were male. this implies that more women are involved in rearing of indigenous chicken than their male counterparts in the study area. this could be attributed to small body size of chicken and ease of handling unlike other large animals like cattle which may be difficult to handle by women. according to gueye, (2000), about 80% of chicken in some african countries are owned and controlled by women; badubi (2000) also reported that about 98% of chicken in rural areas are managed by women and only the remaining 2% are owned by men. marshall et al. (2016) reported that gender differences may result from production objectives and the specific roles and responsibilities of males and females in traditional livestock rearing. abubakar et al., (2007) observed that in most nigerian households, chicken belong to the entire family with women owning majority of the birds, followed by children and men being the last. the result implies that more than half of the respondents were married (62.5%) and this is expected considering the age group of most of the respondents in this study. odebode and popoola (2016) reported similar report that at older age, individuals are expected to have been married. most of the respondents had tertiary education (46.7%), followed by those who had secondary education (38.3%) which implies that most of them can read and write. thus, this will enhance better communication as well as adoption of innovation. the result revealed that most of the respondents were christians (53.3%), followed by those who were muslims (43.3%), and (3.4%) of the respondent were traditionalists. analysis of profile of the respondents as regards their beliefs or religious group implies that there is no religious taboo on raising of indigenous chicken among the respondents. the result shows that majority of respondents had household size between 2-5 people (58.3%); the mean household size of the respondents was 4 members. this result agrees with result of bameke (2003) who reported household size of between 2-6 people as the modal family size among households. most of the respondents were traders (37.5%), while other occupations like farming (29.2%), civil service (15.0%) and artisans (18.3%) were practiced by the respondents. this implies that respondents are not involved in one income generating activities, but rather in different ones as means of increasing their income so as to improve their livelihood. majority of the respondents earned between ₦18,000 ₦23,000 (42.5%).the remarkable difference in as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 25 published by ideas spread income realized is due to differences in the primary occupation of the responds (popoola et al., 2017 ). the mean income of the respondents was ₦23,145.02. table 1. distribution of socio-economic characteristics of the respondents variable frequency percentage mean age (years) < 20 2 1.7 20 – 24 24 20.0 25 – 29 33 27.5 30 – 34 23 19.2 28.4 35 – 39 15 12.5 >39 23 19.2 sex male 44 36.7 female 76 63.3 marital status single 39 32.5 married 75 62.5 divorced 1 0.8 widowed 5 4.2 other occupation civil service 18 15.0 farming 35 29.2 trading 45 37.5 artisan 22 18.3 religion islam 52 43.3 christianity 64 53.3 traditional 4 3.3 educational level non formal education 11 9.2 primary education 7 5.8 secondary education 46 38.3 tertiary education 56 46.7 household size 2 – 5 70 58.3 6 – 9 42 35.0 4 10 – 13 7 5.8 above 13 1 0.8 income n18000 – n23000 51 42.5 n24000 – n29000 21 17.5 n30000 – n35000 16 13.3 23,145.02 n35000 – n40000 5 4.2 above n40000 27 22.5 indigenous chicken production enterprise of the respondents is presented in table 2. the result revealed that respondents’ purpose of production were majorly for income generation (41.7%) followed by consumption (36.7%), income and consumption (19.2%) and the least was for research (2.5%). this is an indication that rearing of chicken can serve the purpose of generating immediate cash for household members. ondwassy et al., (2005) reported that rearing of indigenous chicken is a relevant tool in the eradication of poverty in rural areas. chicken serves as an investment and source of security for households in addition to their use as source of meat and eggs for consumption and income (muchadeyi et al; 2007). result also shows that most of strain of the chicken raised by respondents were normal feather (61.7%) followed by those who raised normal feather, frizzle feather and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 26 published by ideas spread naked neck (11.6%), normal feather and frizzle feather (9.2%), normal feather and naked neck (5.8%), only frizzle feather (5.0%), only naked neck (4.2%), frizzle feather and naked neck. (2.5%). the result implies that normal feathered chicken is the most abundant strain of yoruba ecotype chicken raised by the respondents. this could be due to its appearance unlike other strains with appearance that may not be appealing to these respondents. the result further revealed that most of the respondents’ flock size were 6-10 (27.5%) followed by 11-15 (20.8%), 15 (19.2%), 16-20 (18.3%) and above 20 (14.2%) chicken. table 2. chicken production characteristics of the respondents variables frequency percentage mean purpose of production income generation 50 41.7 research 3 2.5 consumption 44 36.7 income and consumption 23 19.2 strain of the chicken normal feather 74 61.7 frizzle feather 6 5.0 naked neck 5 4.2 normal feather and frizzle feather 11 9.2 normal feather and naked neck 7 5.8 frizzle feather and naked neck 3 2.5 normal feather, frizzle feather and naked neck 14 11.6 flock size 1 – 5 23 19.2 6 – 10 33 27.5 11 – 15 25 20.8 16 – 20 22 18.3 17 above 20 17 14.2 preference of respondents for genotype of yoruba ecotype chicken is presented in fig. 1; result showed that most of the respondents preferred normal feather chicken (46%); followed by preference for frizzle feather (32%) and the least preferred genotype of yoruba ecotype chicken by the respondents was the naked neck (22%). respondents’ choice of particular genotype may be attributed to poultry keeping objectives and varied importance attached to such genotype. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 27 published by ideas spread fig. 1. respondents’ preference for genotype of yoruba ecotype chicken table 3 showed the quality attributes of yoruba ecotype chicken genotype as preferred by respondents. result showed that growth rate (30.8%), plumage colour (24.2%), survivability (27.5%), plumage distribution (27.5%), appearance (32.5%), acceptability (26.7%), ability to protect chicks from predators (24.2%) and ease of sales (25.8%) were the most preferred traits by the respondents in the preferred genotype (normal feather) of yoruba ecotype chicken of their choice. result further revealed that body size (30.8%), egg production (27.5%), fertility (26.7%), disease resistance (40.8%), temperament (24.4%) , broodiness (26.7%), mothering ability (30%), hatchability (27.5%), socialcultural purpose (43.3%), fecundity (27.5%) and ability to lay eggs in large number (29.2%) were the preferred traits by respondents in the preferred genotype of yoruba ecotype chicken of their choice. however, heat tolerance (36.7%) was the most preferred trait by respondents who chose to raise frizzle feather yoruba ecotype chicken. the result of this study implies that respondents had reasons for choice of their preferred genotype of the chicken based on specific traits possessed by different genotypes of the chicken. some of the merits indicated by farmers for the choice of a particular genotype in the current study are similar to the egg productivity, body size and fast growth traits reported by sisay et al. (2018) and mahoro et al. (2018). the choice of preferred genotypes by respondents may be attributed to poultry keeping objectives and varied importance attached to the genotype of choice by respondents. terfa et al., (2019) reported the magnitude of plumage colour which is more pronounced than productive traits of importance in chicken. faustin et al., (2010) reported preference for disease resistance traits of chickens which may be a consequence of economic importance of poultry diseases. for the traits of chickens, terfa et al., (2019) reported good mothering ability, diseases resistance, good meat and egg taste, large body size, larger number of eggs per clutch, and white plumage color in order of prioritization as traits of preference in chicken genotypes. in a similar study, yakubu et al (2019) reported that the preference for body size and the high ranking of egg number, egg size, meat taste, and ease of sales was connected to their direct monetary values as consumers may be willing to pay premium with a unit increase in the traits. the authors further noted that the easier the sales of the birds, the more the income also generated. heat tolerance is another valuable attribute preferred and should be considered in selection of indigenous chicken since domestic chicken become easily susceptible to heat or cold environmental stress (ramnath et al; 2007). 22% 32% 46% frizzle feather naked neck normal feather as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 28 published by ideas spread table 3. quality attributes of yoruba ecotype chicken genotype as preferred by respondents traits of preference frizzle feather naked neck normal feather most preferred preferred not preferred most preferred preferred not preferred most preferred preferred not preferred growth rate 20 (16.7) 14 (11.7) 1 (0.8) 12 (10.0) 14 (11.7) 2 (1.7) 37 (30.8) 17 (14.2) 3 (2.5) body size 15 (12.5) 17 (14.2) 2 (1.7) 11 (9.2) 16 (13.3) 1 (0.8) 19 (15.8) 37 (30.8) 2 (1.7) egg production 16 (13.3) 15 (12.5) 3 (2.5) 13 (10.8) 12 (10.0) 3 (2.5) 18 (15.0) 33 (27.5) 7 (5.8) fertility 18 (15.0) 15 (12.5) 1 (0.8) 9 (7.5) 19 (15.8) 21 (17.5) 32 (26.7) 5 (4.2) disease resistance 13 (10.8) 14 (11.7) 7 (5.8) 5 (4.2) 15 (12.5) 8 (6.7) 2 (1.7) 49 (40.8) 7 (5.8) heat tolerance 44 (36.7) 16 (13.3) 3 (2.5) 10 (8.3) 16 (13.3) 2 (1.7) 3 (2.5) 15 (12.5) 11 (9.2) temperament 26 (21.7) 6 (5.0) 2 (1.7) 16 (13.3) 10 (8.3) 2 (1.7) 19 (15.8) 29 (24.2) 10 (8.3) broodiness 14 (11.7) 14 (11.7) 6 (5.0) 9 (7.5) 17 (14.2) 2 (1.7) 20 (17.0) 32 (26.7) 6 (5.0) mothering ability 12 (10.0) 14 (11.7) 8 (6.7) 10 (8.3) 12 (10.0) 6 (5.0) 15 (12.5) 36 (30.0) 7 (5.8) hatchability 11 (9.2) 18 (15.0) 1 (0.8) 7 (5.8) 19 (15.8) 2 (1.7) 22 (18.3) 33 (27.5) 7 (5.8) plumage colour 10 (8.3) 12 (10.0) 12 (10.0) 3 (2.5) 18 (15.0) 7 (5.8) 29 (24.2) 22 (18.3) 7 (5.8) socio cultural purpose 7 (5.8) 19 (15.8) 8 (6.7) 8 (6.7) 13 (10.8) 7 (5.8) 4 (3.3) 42 (43.3) 12 (18.3) survivability 22 (18.3) 11 (9.2) 1 (0.8) 9 (7.5) 16 (13.3) 3 (2.5) 33 (27.5) 22 (18.3) 3 (2.5) plumage distribution 5 (4.2) 10 (8.3) 19 (15.8) 3 (2.5) 17 (14.2) 8 (6.7) 33 (27.5) 28 (23.3) 6 (5.0) appearance 14 (11.7) 12 (10.0) 8 (6.7) 2 (1.7) 20 (16.7) 6 (5.0) 39 (32.5) 15 (12.5) 4 (3.3) fecundity 12 (10.0) 15 (12.5) 7 (5.8) 9 (7.5) 16 (13.3) 3 (2.5) 21 (17.5) 33 (27.5) 4 (3.3) acceptability 10 (8.3) 22 (18.3) 2 (1.7) 3 (2.5) 22 (18.3) 3 (2.5) 32 (26.7) 19 (15.8) 7 (5.8) ease of sales 14 (11.7) 11 (9.2) 9 (7.5) 6 (5.0) 12 (10.0) 10 (8.3) 31 (25.8) 15 (12.5) 12 (10.0) ability to protect chicks from predator 12 (10.0) 19 (15.8) 3 (2.5) 9 (7.5) 13 (10.8) 6 (5.0 29 (24.2) 18 (15.0) 11 (9.2) ability to produce large number of chicks 7 (5.8) 14 (11.7) 17 (14.2) 7 (5.8) 17 (14.2) 4 (3.3) 13 (10.8) 35 (29.2) 6 (5.0) table 4 shows the eigen values and variance obtained from principal component analysis (pca) which indicated that 11 principal components (pc) affect households’ preferences on chicken traits. the pci value explained over 86.2% in household preferences for all the variables, principal component 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and 11 had low variance ranging from 2.3%, 1.9%, 1.5%, 1.2%, 1.2%, 0.9%, 0.9%, 0.7%, 0.6% and 0.5%. this implies that the high variance (86.2%) of traits possessed by the chicken were mostly preferred by the households, while the low variance of pc2-pc11 implies that some of the traits possessed by the chicken were preferred by the households. according to ajayi et al. (2012); lopes et al., (2013) pca can be used for ranking and grouping and to explore the relationship between traits in a dataset (pinto et al. 2006). table 4. eigen values and variance obtained from principal components analysis (pca) principal component total % of variance cumulative % pc1 17.238 86.189 86.189 pc2 0.467 2.336 88.524 pc 3 0.385 1.926 90.450 pc 4 0.271 1.356 91.805 pc 5 0.238 1.190 92.995 pc 6 0.231 1.154 94.149 pc 7 0.196 0.979 95.127 pc 8 0.185 0.927 96.054 pc 9 0.135 0.673 96.727 pc 10 0.124 0.621 97.348 pc 11 0.106 0.530 97.878 pc – principal component as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 29 published by ideas spread 4. conclusion based on the result of this study, most of the respondents’ preferred normal feather yoruba ecotype chicken compared to other genotypes like frizzle feather and naked neck. traits of economic importance appeared to be consistent in preference for genotype of choice by respondents. the pci value explained over 86.2% in household preferences for all the variables. further research efforts on genotypes and traits of economic importance of yoruba ecotype chicken could facilitate future breeding programs geared towards increasing the chicken production and productivity among households and smallholders. there is also the need for effective breeding and conservation program to preserve economically important genetic resources of these chicken to prevent the risk of loss of the indigenous chicken genetic pool. conflict of interest there is no conflict of interest among the authors of this study. thus, all authors agreed on its publication. references american psychological association. 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(1923). bibliography on job analysis. in l. outhwaite (series ed.), personnel research series: vol. 1. job analysis and the curriculum (pp. 140-146). https://doi.org/10.1037/10762-000 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p80 80 published by ideas spread participatory evaluation and selection of improved bread wheat (triticum aestivum. l) varieties in northern ethiopia berhanu meles1, chekole nigus1, atsede teklu1 & yonas g mariam1 1 tigrai agricultural research institute, axum agricultural research centre, ethiopia correspondence: berhanu meles, tigrai agricultural research institute, axum agricultural research centre, p.o. box 230, axum, ethiopia. e-mail: brehortic@gmail.com received: june 10, 2020 accepted: july 17, 2020 online published: july 29, 2020 abstract participatory variety selection trials were conducted in 2018 g.c in laelay-maichew, tahtay-maichew and ahferom districts of central zone of tigrai to evaluate the performance of improved bread wheat (triticum aestivum. l) variety and to assess farmers’ criteria for bread wheat variety selection. six improved bread wheat varieties (mekelle-1, mekelle-2, ogolcho, kingbird and hedasse) including the most popular variety ‘kakaba’ were used for the study at eighteen farmers (six from each district). the experiment was laid out using randomized complete block design at baby trial with three replications. analysis of variance revealed a significant difference among the tested varieties for most of the agronomic traits except for kernels per spike and harvest index in all the tested locations. in the preference ranking, farmers used their own traits of interest which were very important in their wheat varieties for selection. hence, common criteria’s identified by the farmers to select the best varieties were; grain yield, biomass yield, earliness, disease resistance, spike length and seed size. accordingly direct matrix ranking by farmers showed that ogolcho was top ranked both at l/maichew and ahferom followed by kakaba, however mekelle-1 was first ranked followed by kakaba at t/maichew. therefore farmers of l/maichew and ahferom were recommended to use ogolcho and kakaba, whereas mekelle-1 was recommended for t/maichew. keywords: participatory variety selection, direct matrix ranking, baby trial 1. introduction wheat is a major cereal crop in ethiopia, which is largely grown in the highlands and the country is considered the largest producer of the crop in the sub-saharan africa (faostat, 2015). it is a cool-weather grain crop which is commonly grown at elevations ranging from 1500 to 3000 meter above sea level, with the most suitable regions fall between 1900 and 2700 meter above sea level (white et al., 2001). one of the major challenges for improving food security in rural resources poor farmers is to develop varieties that are breed for specific environments and preferred by the farmers varieties are typically developed at international or national center and incorporate a number of genetically useful traits, which are a major challenge for scientists with limited resources to test the full range of genetic diversity generated by a breeding program under all possible environments. among the major challenges for improving the food security of resources poor communities is less availability of improved varieties for different agro-ecologies and preferred by the farmers singh (2014). researchers are the actors for the development of improved crop varieties and their production packages mainly in the research sites and farmers’ field as verification trial in very few locations of the potential areas. variety recommendation is also done based on the average performance of the varieties in most cases without considering genotype by environment interactions and farmers’’ needs and preferences, and the released varieties are distributed to the growers across the country (workneh et al., 2014). this top-down approach did not convince the farmers to grow more improved varieties. thus, in crop improvement and other technology development process the involvement of the end-users (participatory approach) may fasten the process and increase the adoption and dissemination of the new technology. participatory variety selection is a process by which the field testing of finished or nearly finished varieties, usually only a limited in number is done with the participation of the partners (ceccarelli, 2012). it is a simple way for breeders and agronomists to learn which varieties perform well on-farm and preferred by farmers. breeding and cultivar introduction programs produce and evaluate many varieties, and these varieties may produce high yield in researcher managed trials (on research station) but sometimes do not perform well in farmers’ field or may lack a quality trait that is important to the farmers. therefore, participatory variety selection is usually an integral part of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 81 published by ideas spread participatory plant breeding, representing its final stage but can also stand alone if farmers’ opinion is collected and used during the final stage (ceccarelli, 2012). participatory variety selections (pvs) can effectively be used to identify farmer’s acceptable varieties that are better than old varieties with which farmers stick for long period (witcombe et al., 1996). farmers’ participation in the pvs enabled them to increase their knowledge to select superior varieties that fit in their own agro economic and management condition. farmers’ low or lack of participation and failure to select best varieties is a costly mistake. that is; research costs can be reduced and adoption rates increased if farmers are allowed to participate in variety testing and selection (joshi et al., 2002). a very important advantage of pvs is that the adoption of new cultivars is much faster than under the formal crop improvement and also the spread of varieties from farmer-to-farmer through the local seed system can be very fast (bellon and reeves, 2002). participatory crop improvement may have many advantages, such as increased and stable crop productivity, faster release and adoption of varieties, better understanding of farmers’ criteria for variety selection, increased cost of effectiveness and facilitated farmers learning (sperling 2001). in ethiopia, a number of improved bread wheat varieties have been released, however farmers cultivating old improved varieties which are either low yielder or susceptible to disease. still, the ongoing efforts to improve access to and use of available technologies is below the requirements in terms of area coverage and number of beneficiaries in central zone of tigrai. this is not because of potential agro-ecologies or high yielding bread wheat varieties, rather due to coordination and linkage in a sustainable way (multi-stakeholder approach). this zone is among the wheat producing areas of the region with different agro-ecologies, however farmers use only one improved bread wheat variety (kakaba) which is susceptible to the rust disease. thus, having alternative improved varieties for the different agro-ecologies and for varying seasons is mandatory; having this information the following objectives were initiated. objectives: to select high yielding and adaptive improved bread wheat variety/varieties using farmers’ and breeders’ selection criteria. to increase farmers’ awareness and their access to improved bread wheat varieties 2. material and methods 2.1 site description the experiment was conducted at three target areas (woredas); laelay-maichew, tahtay-maichew and ahferom. these areas represent the major wheat growing locations of central zone of tigrai. table 1. altitude, rainfall, temperature, latitude, longitude and soil type of study locations location altitude (m.a.s.l) total annual rainfall(mm) temperature(0c min max latitude longitude soil type hatsebo 2118 782.8 10 29 140 06’ 40.2’’ 0380 45’ 45.8’’ verti soil tahtay maichew 2090 656.6 12.6 25.51 14006’76.2’’ 038039’14.5’’ clay loam ahferom 2214 690.5 10.3 24.3 14o06’40.2” n 039004’15.6’’e clay type source: national meteorological agency (mekelle branch) 2.2 experimental materials six improved bread wheat varieties which were released from different research centers were used for the study. the varieties are listed in the table below and, ‘kakaba’ was considered as a standard check which is widely cultivated by the farmers. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 82 published by ideas spread table 2. description of experimental materials used in the participatory variety selection s.no varieties institution year of release altitude rainfall 1 kakaba karc/eiar 2010 1500-2200 500-800 2 mekelle-1 marc/tari 2011 1980-2500 300-500 3 mekelle-2 marc/tari 2011 1980-2500 300-500 4 kingbird eiar 2014 1500-2200 500-800 5 hedasse karc/eiar 2012 2100-2800 >600 6 ogolcho karc/eiar 2012 1500-2100 500-800 karc= kulumsa agricultural research center, marc = mekelle agricultural research center, eiar= ethiopian institute of agricultural research, tari= tigray agricultural research institute 2.3 experimental design and field management the varieties were planted in the first week of july 2018 production season and the experiment was conducted using mother-baby method. the mother trial was conducted on station using randomized complete block design (rcbd) with three replications and plot size of 2.5 m length by 1.2 m width whereas the baby trials were conducted at six selected farmers from each testing areas (a total of eighteen farmers) under their own cultural practices. each farmer’s field was considered as replication and, the varieties were randomized in each replicated field with plot size of 5m*5m (25 m2), thus the mother trial was used to generate breeders’ data while the baby trial was used for participatory variety selection. the seed rate was 150 kg/ha with spacing of 20 cm between rows, while the fertilizer rate was, urea; 100kg/ha (1/3 during planting and 2/3 at tillering stage of the crop), blended fertilizer of 100kg/ha all applied at planting. the varieties were treated with full recommended wheat production packages (agronomic recommendations and practices). 2.4 data collected researchers collected important data from mother trials on economically important traits. these traits include: days to heading (50%), days to maturity (90%), plant height at physiological maturity, spike length, kernels per spike, biomass yield, grain yield and harvest index. data were collected from the four central rows and, five plants were randomly selected from the four rows to recorded data on traits like; plant height, spike length and number of kernels per spike. for the farmers’ data collection; the researches together with the district agricultural workers identified and selected farmers and fields for the trial. more than forty-five farmers of both sexes were participated and each location has about twenty-one evaluators of both male and female. training on capacity building for farmers and development agents on bread wheat production and management packages (from site selection to post harvest handling) was given. two randomly assigned replications were selected for evaluation at each location, and farmers evaluate the varieties at heading and physiological maturity stage. the overall performance of the varieties was evaluated at maturity stage by allowing farmers to select and rate each variety. the common criteria’s identified by the farmers to select the best varieties were; grain yield, biomass yield, earliness, disease resistance, spike length and seed size. direct matrix ranking method was used to rank the varieties with respect to each selection criteria as: (5 = excellent, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = poor, 1 = very poor) based on consensus where differences were solved by discussion (boef and thijssen, 2006). a matrix was prepared as per the selection criteria: wheat varieties were listed in the row and traits in the column. the performance of the bread wheat varieties were evaluated and computed each other at each location. seifu et al., (2018), kifle et al., (2018) and astawus (2016) has been used the same approach 2.5 data analysis the data were subjected to r-software to analyze the breeders’ data (data of mother trial) and, statistical package for social science (spss) version 16 was used to analyze the participatory varietal selection data collected through farmer participation (preference ranking) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 83 published by ideas spread 3. result and discussion 3.1 researchers’ evaluation analysis of variance showed highly significant differences (p ≤ 0.01) for heading days and maturity days (table 3, 4 and 5) at both locations. the mean values for heading days ranged from 51.7 to 65 with mean of 57.1, 53.3 to 68.7 with mean of 58.83 and 54 to 70.33 with mean of 60.1at laelay-maichew, tahtay-maichew and ahferom respectively. the number of days to physiological maturity (90%) ranged from 97.7 to 111 at laelay-maichew, 93 to 107 at tahtay-maichew and 83 to 111 at ahferom. there was a difference in heading and maturity days between the locations which could be due to the difference in altitude, temperature and rain fall; therefore the highest days to physiological maturity variety (ogolcho) is suitable for areas having optimum rain fall; laelay-maichew and ahferom (adi-ahferom). such a difference in days to heading and maturity among improved bread wheat varieties was also reported by astawus (2016) and ayalew (2017). the analysis of variance (anova) revealed that plant height, spike length, biomass yield and grain yield on mother trial were highly significantly different (p ≤ 0.01) at the three locations, however there was no significant difference among the improved bread wheat varieties for the traits; kernels per spike and harvest index. similar to the findings of the present study kifle et al., (2018) have reported significant differences for plant height, spike length, biomass yield and grain yield. at all locations (laelay-maichew, tahtay-maichew and ahferom) the highest plant height; 82.7, 87.3 and 95.3 cm respectively was recorded from ogolcho, while short plant height was recorded from hedasse (66.5cm) at laelay-maichew, mekelle-2 (82.9 cm) at tahtay-maichew and mekelle-1 (85.9 cm) at ahforom. spike length ranged from 6.1 to 8.1 cm at laelay-maichew, 4.6 to 8.5 cm at tahtay-maichew, and 7.2 to 8.8 cm at ahforom. similar to plant height, the highest spike length at all locations was recorded from ‘ogolcho’ variety, thus the variety showed consistency which indicated less affected by the growing environments. in the present investigations kernels per spike was found to be non-significant. though the varieties were not statistically significant, ogolcho had the highest kernels per spike (38 and 46.2) at l/maichew and t/maichew respectively. analysis of variance revealed a significant difference among the tested improved bread wheat varieties for both biomass and grain yield at all the tested locations. biomass yield ranged from 5333.3 (kingbird) to 8666.7 (mekelle-1) kg/ha, from 11000 (mekelle-2 and kingbird) to 14750 (ogolcho) kg/ha and from 9000 (kingbird) to 11666 (ogolcho) kg/ha at laelay-maichew, tahtay-maichew and ahferom respectively. the highest grain yield was recorded from variety ogolcho (3386.7 kg/ha) followed by mekelle-1 (3319.3 kg/ha) at laelay-maichew, variety ogolcho (4715.7 kg/ha) followed by kingbird (4561 kg/ha) at tahtay-maichew, and variety ogolcho (3750 kg/ha) followed by mekelle-2 (3600 kg/ha) at ahferom. the results indicated that ogolcho and mekelle-1were high yielder in both testing locations and perhaps would be widely adapted. this study is in agreement with study of fano and tadeos (2017) reported significant differences of bread wheat varieties for grain yield, however they reported non-significant difference for biomass yield which contradicted with the present study. table 3. mean grain yield and agronomic traits of bread wheat varieties for at laelay-maichew in mother trial varieties parameters dh dm ph sl kps by gy hi kakaba 59b 103b 71b 6.9bc 33.5 7333.3b 2772.2c 0.38 mekelle-1 52.7cd 100bc 70.9b 6.9bc 35.1 8666.7a 3319.3ab 0.39 mekelle-2 55c 101b 70.7b 7.3ab 33.9 7333.3b 2846.7bc 0.39 kingbird 59.3b 101b 69.8b 6.7bc 33.4 5333.3c 2062.8d 0.39 hedasse 51.7d 97.7c 66.5b 6.1c 29.3 8000ab 2879.2bc 0.37 ogolcho 65a 111a 82.7a 8.1a 38 8166ab 3386.7a 0.42 mean 57.1 102.3 71.93 33.9 7472 2878 0.39 cv (%) 2.25 1.7 5.1 7.97 16 9.7 9.7 12 lsd (5%) 2.34 3.16 6.67 1.01 ns 1314.6 505.82 ns dh = heading days, dm= maturity days, ph = plant height (cm), sl= spike length (cm), kps= kernels per spike, by= biomass yield (kg/ha), gy= grain yield (kg/ha), hi = harvest index, l/maichew = laelay-maichew, t/maichew = tahtay-maichew as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 84 published by ideas spread table 4. mean grain yield and agronomic traits of bread wheat varieties for at laelay-maichew in mother trial varieties parameters dh dm ph sl kps by gy hi kakaba 61b 97bc 88.5b 6.7b 43.1 13000d 4329.5b 0.33b mekelle-1 53.3d 96bc 83.9b 5.8bc 43.7 14000ab 4552.7ab 0.33b mekelle-2 54.3cd 96.7bc 82.9b 6.3b 45.1 11000d 4400b 0.4a kingbird 60.7b 99b 86.1b 5.1cd 44.9 11000d 4561ab 0.4a hedasse 55c 93c 83.9b 4.6d 42.2 13500bc 4013.5c 0.3b ogolcho 68.7a 107a 98.6a 8.5a 46.2 14750a 4715.7a 0.32b mean 58.83 98.2 87.3 6.2 44.2 12875 4429 0.35 cv (%) 1.24 2.2 4.45 9.8 6.7 3.9 3.1 6.6 lsd (5%) 1.32 3.94 7.07 1.10 ns 928.39 247.61 0.04 table 5. mean grain yield and agronomic traits of bread wheat varieties at ahforom in mother trial varieties parameters dh dm ph sl kps by gy hi kakaba 61b 99b 89.1 7.8b 44.5 9666.7cd 3202bc 0.33 mekelle-1 57c 83b 85.9 8ab 47.4 10666.7b 3564ab 0.34 mekelle-2 56.66c 96b 87.6 8ab 48.7 10167bc 3600ab 0.36 kingbird 61.66b 98.7b 87.3 7.5b 47.8 9000d 2947.2c 0.33 hedasse 54d 95.7b 86.8 7.2b 44.9 10000bc 3558ab 0.35 ogolcho 70.33a 111a 95.3 8.8a 47 11666.7a 3750a 0.32 mean 60.1 99.8 88.78 7.9 46.7 9889 3437 0.34 cv (%) 1.65 2.8 5.3 6.4 8.98 5.3 7.9 9.45 lsd (5%) 1.8 5.05 ns 0.92 ns 991.83 495.77 ns dh = heading days, dm= maturity days, ph = plant height (cm), sl= spike length (cm), kps= kernels per spike, by= biomass yield (kg/ha), gy= grain yield (kg/ha), hi = harvest index table 6. combine mean of grain yield and agronomic traits of bread wheat varieties in mother trial varieties parameters dh dm ph sl kps by gy hi kakaba 60.33b 99.67b 82.87b 7.15b 40.38ab 10222.2b 3506.17c 0.34 mekelle-1 54.33d 98.11b 80.22b 6.91bc 42.07ab 11111.1ab 3812.11ab 0.35 mekelle-2 55.33c 98b 80.4b 7.2b 42.58a 9944.4bc 3615.81bc 0.37 kingbird 60.55b 99.55b 81.07b 6.4cd 42.06ab 8777.8c 3112.41d 0.36 hedasse 53.55d 95.55c 79.09b 5.95d 38.82b 10111.1b 3612.19bc 0.36 ogolcho 68a 109.55a 92.17a 8.48a 43.73a 11666.7a 3950.78a 0.35 mean 58.7 100.1 82.6 7.02 41.6 10306 3603 0.36 cv (%) 1.6 2.14 5.4 8.1 8.4 12 8.3 11 lsd(5%) 0.95 2.11 4.37 0.56 3.44 1212.49 295.77 ns dh = heading days, dm= maturity days, ph = plant height (cm), sl= spike length (cm), kps= kernels per spike, by= biomass yield (kg/ha), gy= grain yield (kg/ha), hi = harvest index as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 85 published by ideas spread figure 1. mean grain yield of varieties at each location in mother trial 3.2 participatory varietal evaluation the evaluators ranked the bread wheat varieties at each location based on the suggested selection criteria, and ranking of the varieties for each selection criteria was done based on evaluators common score agreement. accordingly, grain yield, disease resistance, spike length, biomass yield, plant height and seed size were identified as the most important farmers’ selection criteria. farmers’ evaluations of the varieties using direct matrix ranking are displayed on table 7, 8 and 9 at the three locations. at l/maichew testing location (table 7) farmers varietal assessment showed that varieties; ogolcho (4.24), kingbird (3.8) and kakaba (3.41) were ranked first to third, while; hedasse was ranked lowest (2.72). varieties with the best score indicates preferred varieties by the local community using the common criteria, therefore ogolcho was the best, and selected by l/maichew farmers. kingbird and kakaba were also selected by few farmers. alebachew (2012) and astawus (2016) were also reported similar results, where grain yield, disease resistance and spike length were identified as important farmers’ criterias. similar to l/maichew farmers at ahferom also preferred ogolcho over the other improved bread wheat varieties due to its better yield, good in both field and marketability preferences. varieties; kakaba and mekelle-1were also selected by some farmers who has loom soil type because of their early to medium maturity. the overall ranking for the above selected top varieties showed that the high yielding varieties was also top ranked by the farmers based on both field and yield preferences ranking, this showed the positive relationship of farmers’ and researchers’ preferences. however, some high yielding varieties (mekelle-2) was not selected by evaluators because their maturity was not uniform. at t/maichew variety mekelle-1 was preferred by the farmers followed by kakaba and kingbird, this is because mekelle-1 is very early maturing variety which require clay loam soil type with lower altitude. therefore location specific varietal selection is important since it affects the qualitative and quantitative traits of the varieties and varieties should be grown at climatic conditions that suited their growth for good seed or grain production. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 86 published by ideas spread table 7. farmers’ preference score and direct matrix ranking of bread wheat varieties on baby trial at laelaymaichew district parameters and scores varieties gy disease resistance sl dm ph by mean rank ogolcho 4.37 3.23 4.8 3.2 4.81 5 4.24 1 mekele-1 3.73 3 3.64 3.3 3.69 2.7 3.34 4 kakaba 3.47 3 3.63 3.9 3.51 3 3.41 3 hedasse 3 2 3 3 3 2.32 2.72 6 mekele-2 3 3 3.25 3.7 3 2.51 3.07 5 kingbird 3 4 5 3 4 2.9 3.80 2 dm= maturity days, ph = plant height (cm), sl= spike length (cm), by= biomass yield (kg/ha), gy= grain yield (kg/ha), disease resistance table 8. farmers’ preference score and direct matrix ranking of bread wheat varieties on baby trial at tahtaymaichew district parameters and scores varieties gy disease resistance sl dm ph by mean rank ogolcho 3.69 3 3.72 2.6 4 3.58 3.43 4 mekele-1 5 4 4 4.7 4 4 4.28 1 kakaba 3.56 4 3.58 2.5 4.44 3.64 3.62 2 hedasse 2.57 2 2.47 3 2.5 2.62 2.53 6 mekele-2 3.31 2.39 2 3.3 3 2.35 2.73 5 kingbird 4 2.33 3 3.4 4.3 4 3.51 3 dm= maturity days, ph = plant height (cm), sl= spike length (cm), by= biomass yield (kg/ha), gy= grain yield (kg/ha), disease resistance table 9. farmers’ preference score and direct matrix ranking of bread wheat varieties on baby trial at ahferom district parameters and scores varieties gy disease resistance sl dm ph by mean rank ogolcho 4.05 3.56 5 3.1 5 5 4.29 1 mekelle-1 3.78 2.91 3.78 4 4 4 3.75 3 kakaba 3.78 3.8 3.36 4.6 3.73 3.64 3.82 2 hedasse 3.57 2 2 2.4 2.67 2 2.44 6 mekelle-2 4 2.14 3.67 4.7 3 2 3.25 5 kingbird 3 4.33 3 3.4 4 4 3.62 4 dm= maturity days, ph = plant height (cm), sl= spike length (cm), by= biomass yield (kg/ha), gy= grain yield (kg/ha), disease resistance as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 87 published by ideas spread figure 2. participatory variety selection 4. conclusion and recommendation six varieties; kakaba (most popular in the tested locations) as standard check, mekelle-1, mekelle-2, ogolcho, kingbird and hedasse were evaluated with the objective of selecting adaptable and best performing bread wheat varieties with full participation of farmers. traits like grain yield, spike length, biomass yield, days to maturity and seed size were selected by the farmers based on the criteria they set. accordingly varieties ogolcho (first) and kakaba (second) were selected both at l/maichew (having verti soil with good rain fall distribution) and ahferom (high altitude area) districts because ogolcho is medium maturing variety and required good rainfall distribution. at t/maichew mekelle-1 was selected by the farmers which was early matured and high yielder variety. therefore, for cost effective and fast track delivery of new and existed technologies to farmers future breeding program should include the participation of farmers and their selection preferences early during varietal development program. references alebachew, h. 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(2014). participatory evaluation and selection of bread wheat (triticum aestivum l.) varieties: implication for sustainable community based seed production and farmer level varietal portfolio managements at southern ethiopia. world journal of agricultural research, 2(6), 315-320. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v3n1p7 7 published by ideas spread prevalence and distribution of cassava bacterial blight in the kenyan coast a. livoi1*, a. w. mwang’ombe1, e.nyaboga2, d. kilalo1 & e. obutho1 1 department of plant science and crop protection, university of nairobi, nairobi, kenya 2 department of biochemistry, university of nairobi, nairobi, kenya correspondence: antony livoi musera, department of plant science and crop protection, university of nairobi, po box 30197-00100, nairobi, kenya. e-mail: livoiantony@gmail.com received: november 11, 2020 accepted: november 26, 2020 online published: february 18, 2021 the research is financed by (regional universities forum for capacity building in agriculture: ruforum) abstract cassava (manihot esculenta crantz) is one of the staple food crops grown in kenya. diseases remain one of the major constraints for cassava production. apart from other major viral diseaes cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak, cassava bacterial blight (cbb) caused by xanthomonas axonopodis pv manihotis and xanthomonas axonopodis pv cassavae are a major constraint in cassava production in kenya. this study was done to identify the prevalence, distribution, and farmers' knowledge of cassava bacterial blight in the coastal region of kenya. a survey was conducted involving 250 farmers who were randomly selected from two regions of kilifi and taita taveta counties. among the 250 farmers interviewed, 61.6 % identified cassava bacterial blight symptoms in their farms. the main varieties found growing in the region were tajirika, karembo, kibandameno, and shibe which were all confirmed by farmers as susceptible to cassava bacterial blight. during the survey, plant samples were randomly collected in the field. out of the 70 samples collected, 40 of them were confirmed positive with x.pv manihotis and x.pv cassavae which cause cassava bacterial blight. the study concluded that there is a widespread of cassava bacterial blight in kilifi and taita taveta counties. kilifi county had the highest incidence of 22% with taita taveta having the lowest incidence of 13%. kilifi county had a higher severity of 8% as compared to taita taveta which had 5% severity. therefore there is a need for a proper management program to be deployed in managing the disease to enhance cassava production in the region. keywords: cassava, survey, incidence, x. axonopodis pv manihotis, x. axonopodis pv cassavae 1. introduction cassava manihotis esculenta is one of the major crops grown and consumed in the sub-saharan africa. it provides carbohydrates for more than 800 million people in africa (fao, 2017). cassava production quantity in kenya is at 946,076 metrics tones from 61,592 of hectares of land (faostat 2018). western kenya is the leading producer of cassava, followed by the coastal regions (moa 2007; abong’ et al., 2016). the crop is grown for its tubers which provide starch and carbohydrates and leaves which are rich in protein and other minerals like calcium, iron and phosphorous. production of cassava is on the increase as compared to the years back and this is because it has potential in adapting to climate change, food security and also an industrial potential to produce starch and feed for animals. cassava is faced by challenges both biotic and abiotic challenges. one of the main biotic challenges is cassava bacterial blight, caused by xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis and xanthomonas axonopodis pv. cassavae (verdier et al .,1994); (ogunjobi & fagade, 2008). the disease is commonly spread through infected planting materials (lozano et al., 1980). since the pathogen exists in stems in latent form, it is not easy to detect the disease. therefore, farmers have played a major role in disseminating the disease unknowingly by sharing planting materials over long distances (taylor, 2009). in kenya, the disease was first reported in western region (mukunya et al., 1980). survey done in 2016 across the country in cassava growing regions indicated that cassava bacterial blight exists in all the cassava growing regions (odongo et al., 2016). this study was conducted to determine the prevalence of cassava bacterial blight in two cassava growing regions of kilifi and taita taveta counties in coastal kenya. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 8 published by ideas spread 2. materials and methods 2.1 survey of cassava bacterial blight and sample collection a survey was conducted in two counties along the kenyan coast. this was kilifi county and taita taveta county as geographically described below. taita taveta county it is one of the counties in the coastal region known for its tourist attraction sites and wildlife. the county has some neighboring counties including makueni, tana river, and kitui in its north direction. it borders kilifi and kwale in its east direction. on the south, the county borders the republic of tanzania. as per the census done in 2019 the county is home to a population of 340,671 people with an area of 17,084 km2. (kenya county fact sheet, 2011). topographically, the county has three major zones. the upper zone comprises taita, mwambirwa, and sagalla hills regions with altitudes ranging between 304 and 2,208 meters above sea level. the lower zone has plains while the third zone is the volcanic foothills zone covering the taveta region. the region has two lakes, jipe and challa, both found in taveta. the county is largely dry although taita hills are wetter. two rainy seasons are experienced, long rains between march and may while the short rains occur between october and december. the annual mean rainfall is estimated at 650 mm. some of the crops grown in this region include: cassava, sweet potato, vegetables, sorghum, millet, green grams, cow pea and macadamia. kilifi county it is one of the counties touching the indian ocean and known for its best beaches that attract both local and international tourists. it hosts a population of around 1,109,735 people as per the census done in the year 2009. it has a geographical size of 12,245 km2 according to kenya's independent electoral and boundaries commission. it is quite large and has seven counties including magarini, malindi, ganze, rabai, kaloleni, kilifi south, and kilifi north. crops grown in this region include coconut, cassava, cashew nuts, maize, sweet potatoes, and legumes. the county has a warm climate with temperatures ranging from 21oc during the cold month and up to 320c during the hottest months. it receives an annual rainfall of 900mm to 1000mm, with long rains experienced in april to june and short rain experienced in october to december. (kenya county fact sheet, 2011). survey conducting a survey was conducted in kilifi and taita taveta counties in july 2018 during short rain seasons by randomly administering structured questionnaires to cassava farmers. purposive random sampling was done whereby farmers were selected randomly at an interval of 2km from each farmer for questionnaire administering. a sample size of 250 farmers were randomly selected from cassava farmers and interviewed during the survey for the two regions. all the questionnaires were brought back to the college, cleaned, and entered. the analysis was done using the science statistical package (spss). plant samples were collected in cassava fields both symptomatic for cassava bacterial blight and asymptomatic samples. sampling was done on plants along diagonals and the number of samples collected per field depended on the variability of symptoms and field size (trujillo et al., 2014 ). from the two sites of study 70 leaf plant samples were collected, 34 plant samples from taita taveta, and 36 plant samples from kilifi county. this was done randomly on farms having cassava. they were then stored in brown envelopes and put in a cool box and transported to the college of agriculture and veterinary science in the department of plant science and crop protection and stored at – 4 °c. 2.2 disease assessment disease assessment was done using the severity index and incidence index. incidence was obtained by counting symptomatic plants in relation to total number of plants in the field according to the equation of bansal. disease severity was scored using a scale developed by (wydra & misikita 1998) where: 1 no symptom, 2 angular leaf spots, 3 – angular leaf spots, blight, wilt, defoliation, and sometimes exudates on stems, petioles or leaves, 4 –blight on leaves, leaf wilt, defoliation, exudates, and tip dieback, and 5 blight on leaves, leaf wilt, defoliation, exudates, abortive lateral shoot formation, and stunting, complete dieback. severity was obtained using the formula by song, et al. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 9 published by ideas spread to establish farmers’ knowledge and perceptions on cbb in coastal kenya, information such as the source of planting material, age of the crop, name(s) of the cultivar(s) grown in the fields, disease management approaches used, source of information and the duration for which they have grown the crop were asked during questionnaire interview. 2.3 isolation of bacteria from collected leaf samples isolation was done according to (ogunjobi & fagade, 2008). infected plant samples stored at -4 0c were cut into small pieces of 2mm2 and washed in sterile distilled water. the pieces were then washed in 3% sodium hypochlorite for 3 minutes and triple rinsed in sterile distilled water using the universal bottles. yeast peptone glucose (ypg) broth was prepared containing yeast 1%, peptone 1%, and glucose1%. the cut infected parts were placed in universal bottles containing 10ml broth and placed on the rotary shaker at a speed of 100rpm for 48 hours at room temperature to allow the bacteria to ooze into the broth. the broth was then serial diluted to 10-6 and then from each dilution, a drop of 100µl was spread on plates containing freshly prepared selective media containing yeast1% peptone1%, glucose1% and agar1.5% (ypga). the plates were then placed in an incubator for 28oc for 48 hours. the bacterial colonies obtained were identified and used for pathogenicity tests on clean symptomless plants multiplied through tissue culture technique from tissues culture laboratory in the department of plant science and crop protection. after four weeks the symptoms were recorded and photos captured both for the infected plants and the control which were not infected. re-isolation was done using ypga to fulfill koch’s postulates. 2.4 data analysis data collected during the survey was cleaned, entered and analyzed using the statistical package for social science spss. graphs showing the output of farmer response were developed using an excel spreadsheet (2016) 3. results 3.1 incidence and severity of cassava bacteria blight from the survey conducted in the study regions, kilifi county had the highest incidence of 22% with taita taveta having the lowest incidence of 13%. kilifi county had a higher severity of 8% as compared to taita taveta which had 5% severity as seen in figure 1. during the survey, a range of symptoms were observed as captured in figure2 with the highest score of symptom remaining at 3 on the disease scale used. angular leafspot, blighting, watersoaked lesions were visible but defoliation, bacterial exudates, abortive lateral shoot formation, stunting, and die back were not record as per the scale used. the grouping was done for the farms in which plant sampling was done as seen in table 1. there were farms which had 0% incidence and other farms were found in the highest scale grouping of 76-100% table 1. showing incidence and severity scale grouping. scale 0% scale 1-25% scale2650% scale 51-75% scale 76-100% taita-taveta region incidence 14 10 1 4 4 severity 16 8 10 1 0 kilifi region incidence 20 9 2 3 2 severity 15 6 5 6 4 the table above shows how many sampled farms were found in each scale grouping for the two study regions of taita taveta and kilifi at the kenyan coast. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 10 published by ideas spread figure 1. incidence and severity of cbb on average in the two surveyed counties figure 2. showing symptoms on infected plants and clean non infected plants respectively 3.2 confirmation and pathogenicity of the isolates the isolated bacteria colonies ranged between whitish, creamish, and yellow with convex shape, shiny and mucoid as described by wydra et al., 1990. inoculation of the bacterial on the plants after 2 weeks showed blighting around the point of inoculation with the control showing no blighting at the point of inoculation as seen in fig 3 hence indicating the pathogenicity of the bacteria. figure 3. showing xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis colonies isolated from plants collected in the field, infected plant showing symptoms and control plant showing no symptoms at the point of infection 3.3 distribution of cbb in coastal kenya among the 70 plant samples collected from different farms in the field, isolation was done and 40 samples showed bacteria characteristic to xanthomonas axonopodis pv cassavae and xanthomonas axonopodis pv manihotis. of the 40 samples, 21 samples were from taita taveta and 19 samples were from kilifi. the colonies obtained were mucoid, cream to whitish, circular, shiny and convex as described by wydra et al., 1990. a distribution map was 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 kilifi county taita taveta incidence saverity as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 11 published by ideas spread developed using arch gis software and the incidence was grouped into four classes of 1-25%, 26-50%, 51-75% and 75-100%(odongo et al., 2019). the geographical coordinates used to develop the map were taken using gps tools at the point of sample collection in the field. figure 4. distribution map for cbb in kilifi and taita taveta showing incidence levels in different places 3.4 farmers’ knowledge and awareness of cbb during the survey a representative population of 250 farmers were interviewed, among them, 50.8% of the farmers were interviewed from kilifi while 49.2% of the farmers were interviewed from taita taveta. among the interviewed farmers, 61.6% of them had once interacted with symptoms characteristic to cassava bacterial blight as seen in the photos used during the survey. farmers experiencing cbb every season in their farms were 43,6%. only 17.2% of the farmers reported having never seen cbb symptoms in their farms. other farmers, 39.2% were not in a position to tell if they have once seen cbb in theirs farms since some were new in farming, others had only planted one season. on resistance and susceptibility of the available varieties, 38% of the farmers reported kibandameno variety as highly affected by the disease followed by tajirika reported by 13.2% of the farmers. all the mentioned variety shibe, girikacha, and kaleso were confirmed as susceptible to cbb by the interviewed farmers. there is no single farmer who reported a resistant variety in both the regions. most farmers that is 80% of the interviewed, don’t manage cassava bacterial, although they do intercropping with a major reason to maximize on their limited land space. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 12 published by ideas spread figure 5. graph a showing the seasonality existence of cbb. graph b showing how farmers manage cbb. graph c showing varieties susceptible to cbb. graph d showing the year in which farmers first interacted with cbb. 4. discussion the study shows that cassava bacterial blight caused by xanthomonas axonopodis pv manihotis and xanthomonas axonopodis pv cassavae is widely distributed in the coastal region of kenya both in taita taveta and kilifi counties visited during the study. this confirms work done by (odongo et al., 2016; chege et al., 2017) on the distribution of cassava bacterial blight disease in kenya. their work similarly reported the presence of cassava bacterial blight in major cassava growing regions of kenya. all the varieties grown both in kilifi and taita taveta county are susceptible to cassava bacterial blight as referred to the response from the farmers who grow the varieties. an indication that there is no resistant variety for cassava bacterial blight in the region and no landrace variety has been identified by farmers in the region to show resistance to cbb, this confirms work done on evaluation of resistance of cassava cultivars in kenya on cbb. (mbaringong et al .,2017). most of the interviewed farmers reported having seen the disease even before 2016 which was more than 3 years back from the year of study. this confirms that cbb has been in existence in the region for quite some time and it is not a new disease in the region hence proving work done on distribution of cbb in kenya(odongo et al., 2016) most of the farmers reported to have experienced cbb in their farms every season they plant cassava. this indicates that they could be starting their crop with infected planting materials or they don’t do proper farm hygiene to remove crop debris from the previous crops to reduce the inoculum. this demonstrates the gap that exists among farmers in awareness and management of cbb as indicated in the study where by 80% of them who don’t manage cbb. 5. conclusion the study proved the existence and distribution of cassava bacterial blight in all the study areas of kilifi and taita taveta. varieties grown in this region: kibandameno, tajirika, girikacha, shibe and kaleso which are both local varieties and improved varieties have shown to be susceptible to cassava bacterial blight. therefore there is need to address the issue through developing plant resistant varieties. farmers in this region are poor at managing the disease therefore need for developing an integrated management practice program and good communication system to disseminate information to farmers through extension officers. there is also an urgent need for a program on clean planting material so that as cassava farming uptake is increasing, farmers can access and use healthy planting materials for establishing the new crop. unless such mitigation measures are put in place, the spread of the disease is likely to increase as cassava is being advocated for as a food security crop and climate smart crop. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 13 published by ideas spread due to inadequate planting materials and poor seed system in cassava farming, farmers keep exchanging and sharing the materials which are infected hence contributed to the risk of spreading the disease in the region. acknowledgments the authors would like to appreciate the regional universities forum for capacity building in agriculture (ruforum) for supporting this work under the carp project. references abong’, g. o., shibairo, s., wanjekeche, e., ogendo, j., wambua, t., lamuka, p., … masha, c. k. 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(2014), a complex population structure of the cassava pathogen xanthomonas axonopodis pv . manihotis in recent years in the caribbean region of colombia (pp. 155– as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 14 published by ideas spread 167). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-014-0411-8 verdier, v., boher, b., maraite, h., & geiger, j. p. (1994). pathological and molecular characterization of xanthomonas campestris strains causing diseases of cassava (manihot esculenta). applied and environmental microbiology, 60(12), 4478–4486. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.60.12.4478-4486.1994 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p263 263 published by ideas spread a rice variety (brri dhan29) yield performance as influenced by foliar application of salicylic acid in bangladesh shahnaz parveen1, mohammad issak2, md. sohanur rahman3, fakhar uddin talukder3 & shanta islam4 1 department of soil science, sher-e-bangla agricultural university, bangladesh 2 professor, department of soil science, sher-e-bangla agricultural university, bangladesh 3 scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, bangladesh 4 agriculture extension officer, department of agriculture extension, bangladesh correspondence: md. sohanur rahman, scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, bangladesh. e-mail: sohanbau2010@gmail.com received: april 20, 2020 accepted: may 20, 2020 online published: may 29, 2020 abstract objective of this study was to examine and evaluate the role of different rates of salicylic acid (sa) as foliar spray on growth and yield performance of brri dhan29. the experiment was conducted at sher-e-bangla agricultural university, bangladesh from november, 2016 to may, 2017 following a randomized complete block design with five rates of sa in six replications. the results showed that the lower rate of sa (upto 0.75 mm) has a positive effect on rice biomass production including effective tiller per hill, filled grain per panicle, grain yield and straw yield. the highest dry matter production at both maximum tillering and panicle initiation stages was found at sa spray rate of 0.5 mm. the highest number of effective tillers per hill (14.7) as well as the highest filled grain (120.4) and grain yield (8.1 t/ha) were found at sa rate of 0.75 mm. however, the maximum biomass production was obtained at sa rate of 0.25 mm. the minimum grain yield (7.0 t/ha) was observed in the control treatment. keywords: staple food, biomass production, harvest index, tillering stage, panicle initiation. 1. introduction the most important food for the people of bangladesh is rice (oryza sativa l.) and it is the staple food for more than two billion people of asia (hien et al., 2010). asia has the largest growing area with top producing countries including china, india, thailand, bangladesh and vietnam (xiao et al., 2013). it is also the most important source of the food energy for 50% of the global population (zhao et al., 2011). among the most cultivated cereals in the world, rice ranks at second to wheat with over 685 million tones recorded in 2009 (abodolereza and racionzer, 2009). rice is a major cereal consumed by the world population, representing about 30% of world production of grains (yadav and jindal, 2008). rice is grown in more than one hundred countries with a total harvested area of nearly 160 million hectares, producing more than 700 million tons every year (irri, 2010). nearly 640 million tons of rice are grown on asia, representing 90% of global production (irri, 2010). rice is the staple food for about 156 million people of bangladesh (israt et al., 2016) where it covers about 28.49 million acres in which 34.5 million m tons of rice are produced with an average yield of around 1.2 tons/acre (bbs, 2016). about 82% of the total cropped land in the country is covered by rice (alam et al., 2012). it accounts for 92% of the total food grain production in bangladesh which provides more than 50% of the agricultural value addition employing about 48% of total rural labour force. it was estimated that per capita rice consumption in the country reached about 166 kg/year (bbs, 2015). the agricultural sector contribution to gdp was 16.33% in 201314 fiscal year (bangladesh economic review, 2015). in the agricultural sector, food crops provides with 10.74 percent in gdp of which rice alone dominates with about 53 percent as well as about one-sixth of the national income comes from rice sector (rahman et al., 2015). the population of bangladesh is growing by two million every year and increases by another 30 million over the next 20 years. thus, bangladesh will require about 27.3 million tons of rice for the year 2020 (brri, 2011). meanwhile, total rice area will shrink to 10.3 million hectares and the increased population will require 70 percent more rice in 2025 than the present consumption (kim and krishnan, 2002). therefore, rice yield needs to be increased by 53.3% (mahamud et al., 2013). food security remains a major concern in bangladesh because food requirement is increasing at an alarming rate as a result of the increasing population. rice yield, in the country is as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 264 published by ideas spread comparatively lower than that of other south east asian countries because of severe insect infestation, drought, salinity etc. yield losses up to 50% were recorded on susceptible rice varieties when all the leaf sheaths and leaf blades were infected (kumar et al., 2012). about 475 million metric tons of rice were produced across the world over 159.6 million hectares with an average yield of 4.4 t/ha in the year 2014-15 and 34.5 million tons in bangladesh over 11.7 million ha in 2016-17 (usda, 2015). growth and development of rice plant are significantly influenced by the environmental factors, boitic factors, variety and cultural practices. salicylic acid (sa) plays notable role regarding growth and development as well as yield components like number of effective tillers, length of panicle, number of filled grain per panicle, weight of 1000 grain etc. of rice plants. foliar application of salicylic acid increased net photosynthetic rate and proline content in salt stressed plants and may have contributed to the enhanced growth parameters (khoshbakht and asgharei, 2015). salicylic acid treated plants showed greater chlorophyll content compared to untreated plants (khoshbakht and asgharei, 2015). it can affect seed germination, cell growth, stomatal opening, expression of genes associated with senescence and fruit production (klessing et al., 2009) in addition, by detoxification of superoxideradicals sa plays an essential role in preventing oxidative damage in plants (bowler et al., 1992) and is also involved in calcium signaling (kawano et al., 2013). plants treated with sa showed increased photosynthetic rates and water use efficiency, decreased stomatal conductance and transpiration rate (khan et al., 2003), increased vigor of early seedling growth (farooq et al., 2008b). moreover, it was also found that exogenous application of sa could alter antioxidant capacity in plants, providing protection against oxidative damage (rao et al., 1997; larkindale & huang 2004). this phytohormone can directly affect pathogens as well as contribute to the establishment of sar (tamaoki et al., 2013) salicylic acid is a natural compound that plays a central role in certain physiological processes and defense responses in plants (shi and zhu, 2008). plants pre-treated with sa showed induced stress tolerance and protection against oxidative damage due to various stresses (larkindale & knight, 2002). a good number of research works have been conducted at home and abroad on the effect of foliar application of sa on cultivation. salicylic acid is more or less unknown in bangladesh by farmers with regard to crop production. the present study deals with the effect of foliar application of sa on rice productivity. 2. materials and methods 2.1 site, soil and weather condition the experiment was conducted at sher-e-bangla agricultural university from november 2015 to may 2016. the site was situated at 23°77′n latitude and 90°33′e longitude at an altitude of 8.6 meter above m.s.l. soil type was shallow red brown terrace soil belonging to “the modhupur tract”, aez-28 (anon., 1988a). soil physical and chemical characteristics are displayed in table 1. the climate was subtropical with low temperature and minimum rainfall from november to may that was the main feature of the rabi season. the annual precipitation on site was around 2200 mm with 1300 mm of potential evapo-transpiration. the average maximum and minimum air temperatures reached 30.3 and 21.2 0c, respectively. the average daily temperature was 25.20c. the experiment was conducted during the rabi season, temperatures over crop cycle ranging from 12.20c to 34.50c with a relative humidity from 62 to 82%. table 1. physical and chemical properties of the initial soil characteristics value % sand 27 % silt 43 % clay 30 textural class clay loam ph 6.2 organic carbon (%) 0.60 organic matter (%) 1.03 total n (%) 0.03 available p (ppm) 21.00 exchangeable k (me/100g soil) 0.12 available s (ppm) 48 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 265 published by ideas spread 2.2 crop/planting material the rice variety used in the experiment, namely brri dhan29, was developed by the bangladesh rice research institute (brri). it is moderately tolerant to leaf blight, sheath blight, with a pedigree line of br 802-118-4-2 and a crop cycle of about 160 days. crop average height is 95 cm with medium sized and white colored grains. 2.3 experimental design and treatments the experiment was set up following a randomized complete block design with six sa applications rates in six replications. each plot size was 2 m × 2 m. adjacent replications were 1m distanced with 0.5 m of row spacing. sa application rates tested ranged from 0 to 2.0 mm with 0.25 increment. fertilizers were applied equally, irrespective of sa treatments, following recommended rates. 2.4 growing of brri dhan29 seeds were collected from brri, joydebpur, gazipur, bangladesh and sown on nursery bed on december 10, 2015 for seedling production. experimental units of were fertilized with urea, triple super phosphate (tsp), muriate of potash (mop), gypsum and zinc sulphate @ 150, 58, 58, 38 and 10 kg/ha respectively. the entire amounts of triple super phosphate, muriate of potash, gypsum and zinc sulphate were applied as basal dose at the time of seedling transplanting. after seedling recovery, urea was applied in three splits. at first, half of the total amount of urea was applied to the soil during vegetative stage. half of the remaining urea was applied at tillering stage and half at 7 days before panicle initiation. the nursery bed was watered in one day before seedling transplanting. seedling of 37 days old were transplanted carefully from the nursery beds on 16 january, 2016. afterwards, different cultural operations included crop protection practices were achieved to enhance seedling growth and development. at harvest occurred on may 04, 2016, five hills per plot were preselected randomly from which different growth and yield attributes data were collected and 1 m2 area from middle portion. each plot was harvested separately, bundled, properly tagged and then brought to the threshing floor for recording grain and straw yield. 2.5 preparation and application of salicylic acid the mixture of 6.9 g sa in 100 ml ethanol is called 0.5 m stock solution of sa. 10 ml ethanol in 5 l solution was prepared to apply in t1 (control). 2.5 ml sa solution was taken from stock solution in 5 l solution for making 0.25 mm sa solution. similarly 5ml, 7.5 ml, 10 ml and 20 ml sa solution were taken from stock solution in 5 l solution for making 0.5 mm, 0.75 mm, 1.0 mm and 2.0 mm solution respectively. foliar application of sa was done in rice field in three times. first step was applied on 49 dat (tillering stage). 2nd application on 84 dat (panicle initiation stage) and 3rd application on 92 dat (flowering stage). 2.6 detailed procedures of recording data plant height at harvest plant height measured from the ground level to the tip of the tallest panicle was recorded. plants of 5 hills were measured and averaged for each plot. number of tillers per hill the number of tillers per hill was counted at harvest from ten randomly pre-selected hills and averaged as their number per hill. only those tillers having three or more leaves were considered for counting. effective tillers per hill the total number of effective tillers per hill was counted as the number of panicle which had at least one grain. the number of effective tillers per hill was recorded and finally averaged for counting effective tillers number per hill. ineffective tillers per hill the total number of ineffective tillers per hill was counted as the tillers which have no panicle on the head. the number of ineffective tillers per hill was recorded and finally averaged for counting ineffective tillers number per m2. panicle length the length of panicle was measured from basal node of the rachis to apex of each panicle. each observation was an average of 5 panicles. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 266 published by ideas spread filled grains per panicle if any kernel was present in grain, the grain was considered to be filled. the total number of filled grains were recorded on five panicles and finally averaged. unfilled grains per panicle unfilled grains mean the absence of any kernel inside and such grains present on each of five panicles were counted and finally averaged. total grains per panicle total number of grains per panicle was calculated by summation of filled and unfilled grains per panicle. weight of 1000 grains one thousand cleaned and dried grains (12% moisture) were counted randomly from each sample and weighed by using a digital electric balance with weight expressed in gram. grain yield grain yield determined from the central 1m2 area of each plot were sun dried, cleaned, weighed carefully and adjusted at 12% moisture level. weight of grains of each plot was converted into t/ha. grain moisture content was measured by using a digital moisture tester. straw yield straw yield was determined from the central 1 m2 area of each plot. after grain separation, the sub-samples were oven dried to a constant weight and finally converted to t/ha. biological yield grain yield together with straw yield was regarded as biological yield and calculated with the following formula: biological yield (t/ha) = grain yield (t/ha) + straw yield (t/ha) harvest index harvest index denotes the ratio of economic yield to biological yield calculated as follows: grain yield (t/ ha) harvest index = × 100 biological yield (t/ ha) 2.7 statistical analysis the collected data were compiled and analyzed statistically so that the mean differences were adjudged by lsd test using statistix 10computer package program. 2.8 collection and preparation of initial soil samples the initial soil samples were collected from a 0-15 cm soil depth before land preparation. samples were collected by means of an auger from different locations covering the whole experimental plot mixed thoroughly to make a composite sample. after collecting soil samples, the plant roots, leaves etc. were picked up and removed. then the samples were dried and sieved through a 10-mesh sieve and stored in a clean plastic container for physical and chemical analysis. 2.9 chemical analysis of soil samples soil samples were analyzed for both physical and chemical properties determination, following standards methods (jackson, 1962; walkley and black, 1934) in the laboratory of department of soil science of sher-e-bangla agricultural university, dhaka-1207. 3. results and discussion 3.1 dry matter production as influenced by sa at two growth stages a significant variation was observed in the dry matter production of brri dhan29 due to the foliar application of different doses of sa at the maximum tillering (mt) and panicle initiation (pi) stages. at mt stage the highest oven dry weight (2.34 t/ha) of dry matter product was found in the t3 treatment having foliar spray of sa @ 0.5 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 267 published by ideas spread mm which was statistically different to all other treatments. the lowest oven dry weight (1.67 t/ha) was found in the treatment t6 with the concentration of sa of 2.0 mm which was statistically similar with the control t1 having no sa. again at pi stage the highest oven dry weight (4.72 t/ha) was found in treatment t3 that was statistically different to all other treatments. the lowest oven dry weight was found in treatment t6 which was statistically similar to t1 and t5 treatments. these results showed that foliar application of sa at lower doses have positive effect on the dry matter production of brri dhan29 and agreed with issak et al. (2017) who showed that, biomass production, dry matter production and yield and yield contributing characters were significantly increased due to the foliar application of sa. this result also revealed that the higher doses of sa up to 2.0 mm have no negative effect on the dry matter production (figure 1). this was strongly supported by usharani et al. (2014) who showed that dry matter production increased due to application of sa. figure 1. effect of different doses of salicylic acid on dry matter production at at maximum tillering (mt) stage and panicle initiation (pi) stage of brri dhan29 at harvest, boro 2016, sau. bars with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying dmrt, sau, 2016. 3.2 rice effective tillers/hill as affected by sa at harvest the application of different levels of salicylic acid had a significant effect on number of effective tillers per hill (figure 2). number of effective tillers increased with the increases of sa levels upto a certain limit. the highest number of effective tillers per hill (14.66) was found in the treatment t4 due to the application of 0.75 mm salicylic acid which varied significantly from the control t1 treatment (0 mm sa). the lowest number of effective tillers per hill (12.33) was found in the control t1 treatment. in producing effective number of tillers/hill the treatments may be arranged as t4>t3>t2>t5>t6>t1. these results might be due to the optimum use of irrigation water because foliar application of sa reduces the transpirational water losses and increases the total chlorophyll levels in the leaves. singh et al. (2015) found that foliar application of salicylic acid significantly increases number of 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 d ry m at te r a t m t traeatment brri dhan29 c 1.67 c 1.71 c 1.86 a 2.34b 1.96c 1.84 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 d ry m at te r a t p i treatement brri dhan29 c 3.4 5 c 3.50 b 3.65 a 4.7 2 b 3.92c 3.35 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 268 published by ideas spread effective tillers/hill of rice. saranja p. (2014) also reported that the exogenous spray of sa had significant effect on number of tillers. figure 2. effect of different doses of salicylic acid on number of effective tillers/hill of brri dhan29 at harvest, boro 2016, sau. bars with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying dmrt, sau, 2016 3.3 rice filled grain/panicle as affected by sa at harvest the foliar application of different levels of salicylic acid had a significant effect on filled grains per panicle (figure 3). the highest number of grain per panicle (120.4) was found in the t4 treatment having foliar application of 0.75 mm salicylic acid and this result was statistically different from all other treatments. the lowest number of filled grain per panicle (105.23) was found in the t1 treatment having 0 mm salicylic acid. according to the filled grains/panicle the treatments may be arranged as t4>t3>t2>t5>t6>t1. this result suggests that foliar application of sa could help to increase the grain yield of brri dhan29. singh et al., (2015) and usharani, et al., (2014) showed that filled grain/panicle increased significantly by the application of salicylic acid. figure 3. effect of different doses of salicylic acid on rice filled grain per panicle at harvest, boro 2016, sau. bars with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying dmrt, sau, 2016 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 ef fe ct iv e t ill er /h ill treatment brri dhan29 a 14.66 bc 12.66 bc 13.0 ab 14.0 abc 13.66c 12.33 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 fi lle d gr ai n/ pa ni cl e treatment brri dhan29 d 107.56c 108.54 a 120.40 b 117.13 b 115.78e 105.23 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 269 published by ideas spread 3.4 rice unfilled grain and 1000-grain weight as affected by sa at harvest table 2. role of foliar application of salicylic acid on unfilled grain and 1000-grain weight of brri dhan29 at harvest, boro 2016, sau. treatment (dose) unfilled grains/ panicle 1000-grain weight t1 3.39a 29.18a t2 3.1bc 30a t3 2.97c 32a t4 2.3d 32.9a t5 2.45d 29.71a t6 3.21b 29.53a lsd0.05 0.1503 1.5824 level of significance ** * cv (%) 2.85 2.85 values in a column with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying lsd. *= nonsignificant at 1% level of probability ** = significant at 1% level of probability the application of different levels of salicylic acid had a significant effect on the unfilled grain per panicle (table 2). the lowest number of unfilled spikelet per panicle (2.3) was found in application of 0.75mm salicylic acid under the treatment t4 and that was statistically different from other treatments. the highest number of unfilled spikelet per panicle (3.39) was found in the control treatment t1that was statistically different from other treatments. sterility (%) also decreased with increases of salicylic acid level. these results showed that number of unfilled spikelet per panicle was decreased with increases of level of salicylic acid as foliar application. mohammed, r.a. (2011) reported that number of unfilled spikelet per panicle was decreased due to foliar application of salicylic acid. it was found that 1000-grain weight was statistically insignificant with compare to the t1 treatment (control) (table 2). the maximum 1000 grain weight (32.9 g) was found in the treatment t4 having 0.75 mm salicylic acid which was statistically similar to all other treatments. the lowest 1000 grain weight (29.18 g) was found in the control treatment t1. though there was no statistical difference among the treatments, there were increase results due to foliar spray of sa. it was observed that, as the level of salicylic acid foliar application increases the 1000-grain weight increases insignificantly. ibrahim, et al., (2014) showed 1000 grain weight increased due to the application of salicylic acid. chen, et al. (2017) also indicated that the mean grain-filling rate and grain weight of the inferior grains were significantly increased under the sa200 (200mgl-1). 3.5 rice grain and straw yields as affected by sa the influence of salicylic acid on grain yield was significantly varied among the treatments. figure 4 shows the effects of different level of salicylic acid on grain yield of brri dhan29. the maximum grain yield (8.13 t/ha) was found in the treatment t4 having 0.75 mm salicylic acid which differed statically from all other treatments and this result revealed that the grain yield of treatment t4 had 15.84% higher yield over control (treatment t1). here treatment t1 (control) shows the lowest yield (7.02 t/ha). treatment t2, t3 and t4 did not differ significantly but they differ significantly with control (treatment t1). treatment t5 and t6 are statistically identical to the treatment t2 having the highest yield. according to grain yield treatments can be arranged as t4>t3>t2>t5>t6>t1. this result is strongly supported by mohammed, a. r. (2011). he showed that sa treated plants gave 13.5% higher grain yield compared to controlled plants. the increasing result may cause due to the increased tiller per hill, increased filled grain per panicle, increased amount of chlorophyll content which helps the plant to produce more food. ultimately the grain yield increases. saranraj, p. (2014) also showed that the application of sa can increase grain yield. sharafizad et al., (2012) showed that dosage of sa significantly affected total grain yield. the foliar application of different levels of salicylic acid had a significant effect on straw yield. figure 4 shows that the foliar application of salicylic acid on brri dhan29 gave higher straw yield compared to control (treatment t1). here the lowest straw yield (9.84 t/ha) was found in treatment t6 (2 mm sa) which was statistically identical to control (t1) having 9.89 t/ha yield. treatment t6 had the lowest result may be due to the higher dose of salicylic as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 270 published by ideas spread acid. the highest yield (11.66 t/ha) was found in treatment t2 which differs significantly to control (t1). treatments t3, t4 and t5 was statistically identical to the control (treatment t1) but they had higher yield compared to control. the treatments can be arranged according to straw yield as t2>t4>t3>t5>t6>t1. this increased result caused may be due to the increased level of chlorophyll content as well as increased dry matter content. this result is strongly supported by saranraj p (2014) who showed that application of sa can increase straw yield even upto 74.53% over control. usharani et al., (2014) also showed highest straw yield was achieved by the application of salicylic acid. figure 4. effect of different doses of salicylic acid on grain and straw yield of brri dhan29 at harvest, boro 2016, sau. bars with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying dmrt, sau, 2016 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 g ra in y ie ld (t /h a) treatments brri dhan29 b 7.02 a 8.10 a 7.98 a 8.13 ab 7.77 ab 7.55 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 st ra w y ie ld (t /h a) treatments brri dhan29 ab 11.35b 9.89 a 11.66 ab 11.17 ab 10.22 b 9.84 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 271 published by ideas spread 3.7 rice biological yield and harvest index as affected by sa salicylic acid provided substantial increases in seed yield. table 3. effect of different doses of salicylic acid on grain, straw, biological yield and harvest index of brri dhan29, boro 2016, sau. treatments grain yield (t/ha) straw (t/ha) biological yield (t/ha) harvest index (%) t1 7.02 b 9.89 b 16.91 41.51 t2 7.98 a 11.66 a 19.64 40.63 t3 8.10 a 11.17ab 19.27 42.03 t4 8.13 a 11.35ab 19.48 41.74 t5 7.77ab 10.22ab 17.99 43.19 t6 7.55ab 9.84 b 17.39 43.42 lsd0.05 0.9003 1.62 se (±) 0.3091 0.556 level of significance ** ** cv (%) 9.76 12.75 values in a column with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying lsd. ** = significant at 1% level of probability table 4. grain yield and straw increase over control of brri dhan29, boro 2016, sau. treatments grain yield (t/ha) % increase over control straw yield (t/ha) % increase over control t1 7.02 b 9.89 b - t2 7.98 a 13.65 11.66 a 17.9 t3 8.10 a 15.36 11.17ab 12.94 t4 8.13 a 15.84 11.35ab 14.76 t5 7.77ab 10.66 10.22ab 3.34 t6 7.55ab 7.6 9.837 b -0.54 lsd0.05 0.9003 1.6207 se (±) 0.3091 0.556 level of significance ** ** cv (%) 9.76 12.75 values in a column with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying lsd. ** = significant at 1% level of probability significant response was observed in the biological yield of brri dhan29 due to foliar application of different level of salicylic acid (table 3). the biological yield was varied from 16.91 19.64 t/ha. the highest biological yield (19.64 t/ha) was obtained in the t2 treatment. on the other hand, lowest biological yield (16.91 t/ha) was obtained from the t1 treatment. in terms of biological yield the treatments may be arranged as t2>t4>t3>t6>t5>t1. it was observed that, as the rate of foliar application of salicylic acid increases biological yield also increases. harvest index (hi) is the ratio of seed yield to total above ground plant yield. significant response was not observed in the harvest index due to the foliar application of different levels of salicylic acid on brri dhan29 (table 3). from the results, it was found that the highest harvest index (43.42%) was obtained from the treatment t6 and the lowest index (40.63%) was obtained in the t2 treatment whereas, treatment t1 having the harvest index 41.51%. tavares, et al. (2014) reported that 3.8 soil properties as influenced by sa the value of ph, organic carbon and organic matter of post-harvest soils did not differ significantly due to the foliar application of sa. the ph, organic carbon and organic matter remain almost similar among all the six treatments (table 5). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 272 published by ideas spread table 5. effect of different doses of salicylic acid on ph of post harvest soils of brri dhan29, boro 2016, sau. treatments ph of post-harvest soils organic carbon of post-harvest soils organic matter of postharvest soils t1 6.3a 0.61a 1.05a t2 6.3a 0.62a 1.07a t3 6.2a 0.62a 1.07a t4 6.2a 0.63a 1.07a t5 6.4a 0.60a 1.03a t6 6.2a 0.61a 1.04a initial soil ph 6.2 initial soil organic carbon 0.60 initial soil organic matter 1.03 lsd0.05 0.0920 0.0380 0.0663 level of significance * * * cv% 0.81 3.41 3.46 values in a column with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 applying lsd. *= non significant at 1% level of probability 4. conclusion application of salicylic acid has a profound effect on effective tillers/hills, 1000 grain weight, filled grain/panicle, unfilled grain/panicle, grain yield, straw yield and biological yield but not on ph, organic matter, organic carbon of post-harvest soil. decreased respiration rates and increased membrane integrity as a result of salicylic acid application might have increased the amount of photo synthates transported to the grains, thereby increasing the number of filled grains per panicle, hence increased spikelet fertility. so foliar application of lower doses of the salicylic acid (0.75 mm) is highly recommended for rice production compared to the control treatment t1. acknowledgement authors are grateful to the ministry of science and technology, bangladesh for providing financial support to conduct the research work. conflict of interest the authors have no conflict of interest to report. references abodolereza, a., & racionzer, p. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p70 70 published by ideas spread grain yield performance and parametric stability statistics of tef {eragrostis tef (zucc) trotter} genotypes in tigray, ethiopia chekole nigus1, yonas g/mariam1, hailegbreal kinfe2, brhanu melese1 & ataklty mekonen1 1 tigar agricultural research institute, axum agricultural research center, axum, ethiopia 2 tigar agricultural research institute, maytsebrie agricultural research center, ethiopia correspondence: chekole nigus, tigar agricultural research institute, axum agricultural research center, p. o. box. 230, axum, ethiopia. e-mail: chekolenigus@gmail.com received: february 24, 2020 accepted: march 27, 2020 online published: april 2, 2020 abstract the most constraints of tef productions are lodging, drought, low yield cultivars; insect and disease affected the growth of tef. these, factors causes inconsistence performance yield due to gei. the objective was to evaluate tef genotypes on their yield performance, stability and parametric stability to select most independent and informative statistics method. the experiment was conducted at four locations for two seasons; with design of rcbd three replications, two standard checks and 19 tef genotypes. data was collected on grain yield and analyzed by r software and stabilitysoft. the analysis of variance for the combined mean of grain yield showed that there was significance difference (p<0.001) between genotypes, environments and gei. yield performance was influenced by environments and gei. the mean grain yield of genotypes over gei varies from 820.94kg/ha to 2438.90kg/ha, while the genotype grain yield was ranged from 1382 to 1989kg/ha. g19, g17 and g6 were identified the higher grain yield performance over seven environments. whereas, g8 and g11 were the lowest yielding tef genotypes. nine parametric methods and gge biplot were used to evaluate the stability of the genotypes. g19 was the most stable following g17 and would be grown for unfavorable growing environments. however, g6 was stable for favorable environmental condition. g19 and g17 had static stability and fitting for area faced with erratic rain fall. even though, parametric stability did not show a positive and statistically significant correlation with mean yield the mean variance component (θi) is selected with gge biplot for evaluation of tef genotypes in the development of cultivar. effective selection of variety would be best if megaenvironment, representative and discriminating testing areas are identified. keywords: genotype by environment interaction, tef yield stability, stability parametric methods of tef 1. introduction then national tef breeding program working on the development of high yielding varieties for wider adaptable, lodging tolerant, tolerant to low moisture stress, desirable grain quality (kbebew et al. 2011) and introducing nontraditional areas of tef production. the development of tef variety for wider adaptable is a major interest and a challenging condition for breeders (kassa et al. 2013). this challenge is due to the genotype by environment interaction (gei) which causes limiting for identifying superior genotypes. gei is the relative performance of genotypes varies from one environment to others (y ali et al. 2004). fluctuation in the performance yield reduced by classifying heterogeneous region into mega-environment (small region with homogeneous) to develop genotypes for specific location (mohammadi et al. 2007) and selection of higher yielding and stabile genotypes across different environments (eberhart and russell 1966). plant breeders test genotypes in multi environmental trial (met) to solve the difficulty of selection on grain yield due to gei (ülker et al. 2006). selection of genotype is valuable in plant breeding, when the environment is variable and unpredictable (mohammadi et al. 2010). due to the different factors the productivity of tef is low 17.5qt/ha (csa 2018). the most constraints of tef production are lodging, drought, low yield cultivars; insect and currently different types of disease affected the growth of tef. despite the national tef research program attend to develop up to 42 tef varieties (moalr 2017), yet, from the released tef varieties achieved the potential yield of the crop. it shows there is higher difference between the potential of tef and the actual yield called yield gap which is less than half. this is due to the limitation of well performing and stable tef genotypes in wider areas of the region. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 71 published by ideas spread tef adapted to highly diverse climatic condition and soil types of the country (ebba 1969). the optimum altitude ranges from 1700-2200 m and growing-season rainfall of 300 mm (seyfu 1993). the central statistics agency (csa 2018) reported that the area covered by tef is more than 3 million hectare and 23.85% of the total land allocated to cereal crops. tef has a plenty of merits; of them cope from erratic climate, generate house hold income (grain and straw), fulfill nutritional needs(assefa et al. 2015), its grain is free of gluten (spaenij-dekking et al. 2005) and it has relatively few disease and insect pest problems(kebebew, 2009). stability of yield is consistently performing genotypes over a range of environments (heinrich et al., 1983). stable genotype has a minimum interaction with environment caused by genetic traits (eberhart and russel 1966). whereas, unstable genotypes had higher interaction due to the environmental factors (rain fall, temperature, soil type etc.) vary their performance per location and season. the stability of variety existed by three cases; with small variance among environments, parallel response of variety to mean response of all varieties in the trial and small residual ms from the regression (binns and lefkolitch 1985). as kassa et al. (2013) report shows that there is a significance difference of environments and genotypes of tef. this reveal that the environments influence on tef genotypes diversely to express their performance and stability and tef genotypes which have higher grain yield and stabile (small variance of deviation) are responsive to favorable growing condition. genotype performance would predicted their adaptability and stability through different method of evaluation because of there is different level of association between them (silva and duarte 2006; roostaei et al. 2014). therefore, a comparative study among the more widely used methods is important. from varies methodologies nine parametric and gge biplot were selected to evaluate the adaptability and stability of method for the present study. these methods were regression coefficient (bi; finlay and wilkinson,1963), variance of deviation from the regression(s2di; ebrehart and russel 1966), wricke’s ecovalence stability index(wi2;wricke 1962), shukla’s stability variance(σi2;shukla 1972), environmental coefficient of variance (cvi;francis and kannenberg 1978), peterson’s mean variance component (θi;plaisted and peterson ,1959), plaisted’s ge variance component (θi;plaisted 1960), yield stability index(ysi; kang 1991), ammi stability value(asv; purchase et al. (2000) and gge biplot (yan et al.2010 and mohammedi et al. 2010). the stability evaluation method grouped in to two concept of stability based on the discrimination and correlation analysis. these groups were static and dynamic stability (mohammedi et al. 2010). crossing of tef parent to produce recombinant inbred lines and evaluation of tef genotypes their yield performance and stability in multi-location trial (met) is an important phenomenon. due to the climatic fluctuation providing tef variety that has higher yielding and stable over the tested location per season is more necessary. higher yielding and stable tef varieties increases the production and productivity of tef in the nation. the purpose of this study was to evaluate tef genotypes their yield performance, stability and parametric stability statistics for select the most independent and informative statistics method 2. materials and methods 2.1 description of the study areas tef genotypes were selected for evaluation of their stability at axum and maytsebri agricultural research center during the 2017/18 and 2018/19 cropping season at stations of these centers. the list of locations their names, coordination point, altitude and soil texture (table 1). except selekhlekha all tested location were ranged in similar altitudes. table 1. lists of locations, their geographical coordination of each location and soil texture s.on locations longitude latitude altitude(masl) soil texture 1 hatsebo 380 46’17.403’’ 140 6’28.051’’ 2100 clay loam 2 maysiye 380 36’41’’ 140 6’43’’ 2200 sandclay loam 3 n/adet(adeyselam) 380 38’18.366’’ 130 52’16.302’’ 2100 slit loam 4 selekhlekha 380 16’45.768’’ 140 4’9.084’’ 1961 loam 2.2 experimental design and materials the trial was conducted having nineteen recombinant inbred lines with two checks, standard and local. these recombinant lines were obtained from the national tef research program of preliminary yield trial (pvt) tested at our site (hatsebo 2015/16). consequently, lines which were higher in yield than the standard checks selected for as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 72 published by ideas spread regional variety trial. the experiment was layout using rcbd design with three replication and plot size of 2mx2m=4m2 with ten number of rows per plot and the net harvestable plot size 3.2 m2, 0.2m between rows,0.5m between plots and 1m between replication were spaced. the seed were sown by drilling in a row with hand. type of fertilizer used and their application was: blended fertilizer had applied per the blanket recommendation of the tested locations with rate of 100kg/ha while urea was applied 100kg/ha for all locations with split application. the first phase at early two weeks later after germination the second phase also applied near to heading of the crop. all recommended agronomic management practice was applied. table 2. list of the pedigree for the tested genotypes and their source pedigree source code pedigree source code dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-9) dzarc g1 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-80) dzarc g12 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-13) dzarc g2 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-107 ) dzarc g13 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-18) dzarc g3 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-114 ) dzarc g14 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-23) dzarc g4 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-116) dzarc g15 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-24) dzarc g5 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-117 ) dzarc g16 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-30) dzarc g6 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-133 ) dzarc g17 dz-cr-387xkey-murri(ril.133b)kora dzarc g7 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-60) dzarc g18 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-40) dzarc g8 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-7) dzarc g19 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-106) dzarc g9 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-44) dzarc g20 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-48) dzarc g10 local check axarc g21 dz-cr-387 x r\osea(ril-71) dzarc g11 dzarc=debre ziet agricultural research center, axarc= axum agricultural research center g1=genotype 1 etc…. 2.3 data collection and analysis of variance data collected on grain yield and was estimated in kg ha-1 by converting the grain harvested per net harvestable plot to hectare. combined analysis of variance for 21 tef genotypes in seven environments was computed to determine the effect of environment (e), genotypes (g) and their interaction for grain yield at the probability alpha level of 0.05 and the comparison mean difference was subjected by least significance difference (lsd). analysis of variance assumptions normality was tested by shapiro using the r software. homogeneity of residual variance (mse) was computed according to cruz et al. (2004), when the ratio between the highest and lowest mse was less than 7. therefore, the data was subjected to analysis of variance (anova) to compute significance difference of the source of variance in model by r software. the significance of g, e, and gei effect was determined by probability value (p<0.001). moreover, stability and adaptability of 21 tef genotypes were tested by ggebiplot (yan et al. 2000) and nine parametric stability statistics. the model for the gge bioplot was linear mixed model effect the genotype was considered as random effect while the environment was fixed effect. this model used a package to run was lme4 package (chambers, john m. 2016). as yan and tinker, (2006) described the gge biplot and stability analyze was r functions (commands) of the ggebiplotgui package. from the biplot tools menu bar, select tester-center (g+ge), without any scaling and row metric preservation for mean performance and stability of genotypes was used. at mean vs stability gge biplot graph the projection vector length shows the magnitude of the stability (yan et al., 2006) when the projection of the vector is perpendicular to the straight line of the average longer regardless of the direction this implies there is greater tendency of gei and lower genotype stability (bornhofen et al. 2017). the gge biplot shows the first two principal components (pc1 and pc2) derived from subjecting environment centered yield data to singularvalue decomposition (asio et al. 2007: gabriel et al., 1971 and yan et al. 2000). the factor explained (%) for the genotypes by environment interaction was calculated, subtracting the sum square of residual from the total and sum square of the remained source of variation to divided by the total sum square multiplied by 100. the parametric stability statistics was analyzed by online tool http://mohsenyousefian.com/stability/ (pour aboughadareh et al. 2019). all the statistic parameter was detailed described see at appendix 1. the program calculates patterns of genotypes, based on each index and the result as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 73 published by ideas spread would present on excel of two separate sheets with naming of statistics and ranks including average grain yield, parametric and ranking of the genotypes per each statistic along and also standard deviation (aboughadareh et al. 2019). the pearson’s correlation was analyzed by spss software (spss in.2009). 3. results and discussions 3.1 analysis of variance the analysis of variance for the combined mean of grain yield showed that there was significance difference (p<0.001) between genotypes, environments and genotype by environment interaction (gei)(table 3). the statistical significance difference of genotypes and environments shows that there was variance in response of genotypes for grain yield performance whereas, the different environment also differently influencing the genotypes for their yield performance. therefore, the variance performance of genotypes leads for plant breeders to select superior genotypes differently responding. however, environmental variance indicates assorting of tef genotypes through their stability and for specific adaptation. gei reveal that, the performance of genotypes was not parallel over all testing environments. this indicates the substantial contribution of gei in influencing the grain yield of tef genotypes (kefyalew 1999). then, the significance of gei makes difficulty in selection of superior genotypes across environments (hagos and abay 2013; bornhofen et al.,2017). mohammedi et al. (2007) and eberhart and russel (1966) suggested for the minimization of gei in selection of genotypes, creating homogeneous environment and development of stable genotypes. the presence of significance difference for genotypes, environments and gei on tef was reported by (jifar et al.,2019). the occurrence of significance difference on gei helps to proceed for estimating phenotypic stability (farshdar and sutka 2006). kassa et al. (2013) also reported that a significance difference between tef genotypes and genotype by interaction. the result was combined from the seven environments which missed from maysiye at 2017/18 of cropping season due to the waterlogging problem at the site. the environmental effect was responsible for the total sum of squares (ss) of grain yield about (48.71%). while, the effect of genotypic was 13.60% and gei was 37.68% of the total sum of square explained. the present finding shows a significant change on grain yield due to both environment and gei effect. this implies that selection of genotypes on their performance of grain yield depends on environment and gei. the larger variance of on the total sum square obtained from the environment and gei might be; environment is combination of location and season. while, location is combination of different weather conditions effect, biotic and abiotic factors of the event. mainly the climatic and soil fertility depletion might be causes to vary the responds of tef genotypes for yield. moreover, phenotypic performance is not only influenced by environment rather the combination of both genotypic and phenotypic effect. therefore, in addition to the environmental factors the genotypic by environment interaction causes differently responding tef genotypes for yield. this source of variance is expected when genotypes were conducted in multi-environmental trails (met) through more seasons (yan and kang, 2003). the gei mean of grain yield varied from 820.94kg/ha to 2438.96kg/ha(table 5) while the genotype mean yield was varied from 1382.432 and 1989.697kg/ha(table 4) with grand mean of 1698.20kg/ha. in the present study higher variance of grain yield in gei shows that alteration of climatic factors mainly in rain fall, a black soil (hatsebo) that causes low germination due to un appropriate compaction and moisture limitation. whereas, the genotype mean variance might be due to the genetic makeup of the tef genotypes. then, selection of tef genotypes with higher yielding and stable performance are important per the tested locations. jifar et al. (2019) reported that the variability in grain yield performance is due to a large changeability in climatic and soil condition. out of the 21 tef genotypes three genotypes g19, g17 and g6 were identified with high grain yield performance across four locations. the first two principal components of the gge biplot in this study explained 82.58% (axis1=44.23% and axis2=38.35%) of the total variance (fig. 2). the gei is stronger with presence of the crossover interaction (yan and tinker, 2006). there was a larger obtuse angle between selekhliha and adet it is negatively correlated (fig 2.) each other and causes to occur a crossover gei (fig 1). association of the angle between genotypes and location with larger angle indicates there was interaction between the genotypes and locations. in addition to this alignment of genotypes on the bioplot: tef genotypes failed near the origins are well stable than the far apart one. the maximum numbers of genotypes were failed near the origin. the single arrowed line is the aec abscissa; it points to higher mean yield across environments (fig 3). as yan et al. (2006) stated the performance genotypes with individual location, in the present finding shows g19 was the highest yielding genotype and also its angle and the locations shows less than 90° which implies genotype 19 and the location has positive correlation. whereas, g8 and g11 had an angle greater than 90° it indicates these genotypes were below the average. while the angle between g2 and the locations hatsebo(table 1) was about 90° meaning it was near the grand mean(fig 2). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 74 published by ideas spread 3.2 stability analysis the parametric stability statistics such as asv, ysi, wi, σi2, bi, θi and θ(i) indicated that g19 was the most stable genotype however, the cvi and s2di parameter resulted a genotype stability for g17 and g7 respectively(table 4.). genotypes g19, g17, g12, g2, and g4 had the best static stability, however, g6, g9 and g11 were dynamic stability over the tested locations (fig.1.). this shown that, g19 was consistently performing across different environments. it also confirmed by the ranking of stability methods except the s²dᵢ, cvi, and θᵢ(table 4.). lin et al. (1986) and lin and binns (1991) reported that s2di and cvi statistics are grouped under the same stability method. therefore, g19 was evaluated its stability in multi-location trail that is best strategy in the development of the variety. hence, this genotypes was constantly achieved its grain yield in different environments it is so stable as stated by (romagosa & fox 1993). in general, genotypes categorized by dynamic stability are very important for the addition of the inputs (fertilizer and chemical ….. etc applications). while the static stability is useful for areas with erratic rain fall and affected by different edaphic factors (annicchiarico 2002). this consistence stability of tef genotype performance might be due to the inheritance of the traits for stability. however, g8 and g11 were the lower yielding tef genotypes. whereas, g20 was highly stable but, with low yield (fig 3). farmers under inadequate inputs and erratic rain fall prefer yield stability than increment (bantayehu 2009). therefore, selection of genotypes within higher yielding and stable is important for environment faced with moisture stressed areas of tigray. stable genotypes explained by parametric stability statistics when ammi stability value (asv), yield stability index(ysi), mean variance component( θi) shuklas’ stability variance( σi2), and ge variance component θ (i) were shown lower value and regression coefficient (bi) near a unit (table 4.)the average rank values in table 4 indicated that g19 was scored lower value which means this method confirmed that genotype 19 is higher yielding and stable one. a genotype with lower average ranking value is selected as superior and stable genotypes (pour aboughadareh et al. 2019). the g19 shows that first ranked by five parametric stability methods, while the g7, g17 and g9 were ranked by s²dᵢ, cvi, and θᵢ, respectively. g19 was stable and high yielder following g17 in mean vs stability analysis of gge bioplt(fig 3). the singlearrowed line is the aec abscissa (or aea); it points to higher mean yield across environments (gge biolpot).the tef genotype which is at point and shorter projection from the aec abscissa indicated the higher yielding and stable genotype (yan and tinker 2006; frutos et al. 2014).whereas, g9 shows that a longer projection and it was unstable genotype. in this study the gge bio plot of stability was taken the genotype by location rather than the genotypes by environment. in agreement with chandra et al.(1974) report the stability of genotypes was evaluated that the ge interaction with location is more important than ge interaction with years. there was a crossover performance of tef genotype over four locations and two seasons (fig. 1). the crossover ranking implies that the gei causes to vary in yield performance of the genotype in magnitude and direction (bnrnn 1988). mainly that showed the yield of the gxe interaction mean of the genotypes and g9 was the higher yield but the g8 was the lower yielding from the tested genotypes (fig.3). genotypes measured their stability on the static were the g19 and g17 this implies that these tef genotypes were recommended for the unfavorable growing environments. however, g6 and g9 had dynamic stability this variety/genotype would be better to the favorable growing environment (mohammadi et al. 2010). 3.3 association between mean yield and parametric stability mean yield was not shown positively and statistically significance difference with all parametric stability statistics except the yield stability index ((ysi, r=-0.75**) which shown a statistically significance difference having a negative correlation (table 7). presence of association among parametric stability used to defines the discriminating ability among genotypes for stability (duarte and zimmermann, 2014). however, the finding indicated that all parametric stability did not have shown positive and significant correlation with mean yield. parametric stability methods which are not significantly and positively correlated with yield belongs to the static stability while, methods correlated with mean yield also grouped with dynamic stability (bornhofen et al. 2017). therefore, as bornhofen et al., reported these methods were recommended for use in selection of tef genotypes for static stable tef varieties. however, khalili and pour-aboughadareh (2016) reported in double haploid of barley lines non-significant methods were not used for stability selection. the following parametric stability statistics shows a correlation with each other; asv was positively and significantly with strong correlation of wi2(r=0.829**), σi2(r=0.829**), and θi r=0.829**). whereas, the wi2, also associated with σi2(r=1.000**), cvi(r=0.73**) and θi(r=1.000**); σi2 was significantly correlated with cvi(r=0.73**) and θi(r=1.000**); bi was correlated with cvi(r=0.843**) and cvi was also correlated with θi(r=0.73**). significant and high magnitude correlation coefficients indicate similarity in the ranking of genotypes (sabaghnia et al. 2006). the mean variance component (θi) was highly correlated with all parametric as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 75 published by ideas spread stability except the yield stability index (ysi) and ge variance component {θ(i)}. therefore, evaluating tef genotypes with this parametric stability is important including gge biplot. the import of gge biplot is uses for mixed models (yang et al. 2099). table 3. combined analysis of variance for mean grain yield of 21 tef genotypes in two year and for four locations sources df sum of square mean square fvalue p>f explained ss (%) coefficient of variance % genotypes 20 8683673 434184 3.599 0.000 13.60 18.05 environment 6 31101186 5183531 42.976 0.000 48.71 gxe 120 24059613 200497 1.666 0.0029 37.68 residuals 294 35460062 120612 total 99304534 grand mean(kg/ha) 1698.2 nbthe df =degree of freedom, the environment showed the 6 was one year data was missed figure 1. grain yield performances of tween one tef genotypes across four locations ha=hatsebo,my=maysiye, n/ade=naeder adet, sel=selekhelekha,) and two years showing the existence of relative changes in ranks (crossovers) due to genotype by environment interaction 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 g1 g1 0 g1 1 g1 2 g1 3 g1 4 g1 5 g1 6 g1 7 g1 8 g1 9 g2 g2 0 g2 1 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7 g8 g9 yl el d9 kg /h a0 tef genotypes the cross over 21 tef genotypes in two year over four locations n/adet hatsebo maysiye selekhlekha locations as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 76 published by ideas spread figure 2. the gge bioplot of the 21 tef genotypes describes the presence of gei and relationship of genotype and locations for grain yield performance figure 3. the average-environment coordination (aec) view to show the mean grain yield performance and stability of the tef genotypes -1000 -500 0 500 -5 00 0 50 0 10 00 gge biplot axis1 44.23 % a x is 2 38 .3 5 % g1 g10 g11 g12 g13 g14 g15 g16 g17 g18 g19 g2 g20 g21 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7 g8 g9 adi ha my sel -500 0 500 -6 00 -4 00 -2 00 0 20 0 40 0 60 0 mean vs. stability axis1 44.23 % ax is 2 38 .3 5 % g1 g10 g11 g12 g13 g14 g15 g16 g17 g18 g19 g2 g20 g21 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7 g8 g9 adi ha my sel as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 77 published by ideas spread table 4. mean grain yield and ten parametric stability statistics measures for: 21 tef genotypes across seven environments genotypes codes yield mean(kg/ha) asv ysi wᵢ² σ²ᵢ s²dᵢ bᵢ cvi θ₍ᵢ₎ θᵢ ar rank dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-9) g1 1713.59cdefgh 23.44 25.00 132781.99 46457.04 14594.77 0.32 10.94 46806.88 47863.28 11.8 11 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-13) g2 1599.53efghi 26.39 34.00 117475.15 40817.68 8346.91 0.05 8.64 47088.84 45184.58 13.9 16 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-18) g3 1756.92bcdef 37.22 29.00 253487.03 90927.31 23540.69 -0.16 13.21 44583.36 68986.66 14.25 7 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-23) g4 1729.57bcdefg 18.62 20.00 57313.77 18652.95 2155.70 0.20 4.41 48197.08 34656.34 5.88 9 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-24) g5 1672.84defgh 35.01 34.00 205416.35 73217.06 16419.46 -0.17 11.65 45468.87 60574.29 15.81 15 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-30) g6 1863.97abc 25.19 19.00 105696.05 36478.01 1397.24 2.21 17.36 47305.83 43123.24 7.94 3 kora g7 1779.92bcde 16.00 11.00 62839.35 20688.70 1009.37 1.92 15.79 48095.29 35623.32 7.25 6 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-40) g8 1382.43j 21.77 34.00 213144.30 76064.20 27634.06 1.55 24.33 45326.52 61926.68 16.31 21 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-106) g9 1691.55cdefgh 60.98 29.00 706676.04 257891.69 13642.69 4.05 35.04 36235.14 148294.74 17.75 12 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-48) g10 1785.12bcde 7.14 9.00 39564.93 12113.91 5644.12 0.97 10.15 48524.03 31550.29 6.63 5 dz-cr-387 x r\osea(ril-71) g11 1457.27ij 18.34 29.00 104255.44 35947.25 13353.40 1.40 18.51 47332.37 42871.13 14.38 20 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-80) g12 1552.51ghij 10.74 24.00 18996.58 4536.10 1271.38 0.61 6.69 48902.92 27950.83 6.56 18 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-107 ) g13 1587.98fghi 21.76 29.00 82793.72 28040.31 6478.35 1.75 17.79 47727.71 39115.33 12.25 17 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-114 ) g14 1685.45cdefgh 8.36 17.00 37336.86 11293.04 4781.49 1.24 12.39 48565.08 31160.38 8.31 14 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-116) g15 1795.26bcd 5.88 9.00 89432.06 30486.01 12300.41 0.78 11.36 47605.43 40277.04 10.31 4 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-117 ) g16 1690.08cdefgh 21.29 24.00 122407.72 42634.94 14604.23 1.55 17.27 46997.98 46047.78 14.94 13 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-133 ) g17 1903.28ab 24.85 19.00 99894.50 34340.60 1987.54 -0.14 3.74 47412.70 42107.97 8.19 2 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-60) g18 1755.22bcdef 17.97 15.00 55113.61 17842.37 3312.95 1.70 14.90 48237.61 34271.31 6.88 8 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-7) g19 1989.69a 4.89 2.00 13919.53 2665.60 1465.82 1.24 9.50 48996.45 27062.35 3.69 1 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-44) g20 1729.04bcdefg 5.46 16.00 195002.62 69380.43 19081.67 0.03 12.40 45660.71 58751.89 14.56 10 local check g21 1541.061hij 24.78 34.00 93865.45 32119.36 2216.30 -0.09 4.73 47523.76 41052.88 11.88 19 asv=ammi stability value, ysi=yield stability index, wi=wricke’s ecovalence stability index, σ2i=shukla’s stability variance s2di=deviation for the regression, bi=regression coefficient, cvi=environmental coefficient of variance, θ(i)=ge variance, θi=mean variance component ar=average rank table 5. the mean yield performance of tween one tef genotypes across seven environments genotypes code n/adet hatsebo maysiye selekhilekha 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2010 2011 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-9) g1 1815.73 1909.06 1640.94 1649.69 1934.17 1789.44 1256.15 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-13) g2 1593.75 1785.73 1467.5 1749.9 1747.08 1806.2 1046.56 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-18) g3 1747.4 1665.42 2050.52 1899.38 1968.12 1750.46 1217.19 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-23) g4 1830 1511.25 1530.83 2026.56 1833.12 2414.54 960.73 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-24) g5 1900.1 1459.38 1604.79 2054.17 1848.85 1794.81 1047.81 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-30) g6 1889.17 1600.52 1413.12 1648.33 2246.15 2634.91 1615.62 kora g7 1681.67 1745.83 1959.06 1031.56 2165.73 2232.59 1643.02 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-40) g8 1530.62 1621.77 820.94 965.31 1572.29 2082.13 1083.96 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-106) g9 936.35 1409.38 1285.21 1382.19 2438.96 2323.52 2065.31 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-48) g10 1689.79 1452.4 1821.25 1766.77 2008.96 2551.3 1205.42 dz-cr-387 x r\osea(ril-71) g11 1375.52 1639.9 1057.92 1111.35 1594.48 2406.85 1014.9 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 78 published by ideas spread dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-80) g12 1344.27 1641.04 1650 1399.58 1728.12 1992.31 1112.29 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-107 ) g13 1509.79 1529.06 1170.73 1336.98 1812.19 2517.59 1239.58 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-114 ) g14 1841.77 1627.08 1435.94 1384.9 1899.17 2386.3 1223.02 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-116) g15 1590.52 1480.42 1986.15 1597.92 1851.46 2425.37 1635 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-117 ) g16 1312.4 1524.9 1501.15 1534.06 1834.69 2502.87 1620.52 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-133 ) g17 1983.65 1774.48 2048.85 1926.46 1940.83 2504.44 1144.27 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-60) g18 1697.71 1682.71 1629.17 1278.54 2008.33 2511.02 1479.06 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-7) g19 1673.44 1997.5 1996.98 1810.73 2260.31 2356.11 1832.81 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-44) g20 1619.27 1654.58 1794.69 1511.35 1513.96 2498.24 1511.25 local check g21 1581.25 1572.92 1703.23 1451.98 1598.85 1506.59 1372.6 table 6. ranks of genotypes for mean yield and phenotypic stability measures in 21 tef genotypes genotype code wᵢ² σ²ᵢ s²dᵢ cvi θ₍ᵢ₎ θᵢ rasv rysi dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-9) g1 16 16 16 8 16 6 14 11 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-13) g2 14 14 12 5 14 8 18 16 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-18) g3 20 20 20 13 20 2 20 9 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-23) g4 6 6 6 2 6 16 10 10 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-24) g5 18 18 18 10 18 4 19 15 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-30) g6 13 13 3 17 13 9 17 2 kora g7 7 7 1 15 7 15 7 4 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-40) g8 19 19 21 20 19 3 13 21 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-106) g9 21 21 15 21 21 1 21 8 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-48) g10 4 4 10 7 4 18 4 5 dz-cr-387 x r\osea(ril-71) g11 12 12 14 19 12 10 9 20 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-80) g12 2 2 2 4 2 20 6 18 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-107 ) g13 8 8 11 18 8 14 12 17 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-114 ) g14 3 3 9 11 3 19 5 12 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-116) g15 9 9 13 9 9 13 3 6 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-117 ) g16 15 15 17 16 15 7 11 13 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-133 ) g17 11 11 5 1 11 11 16 3 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-60) g18 5 5 8 14 5 17 8 7 dz-cr-387 x alba(ril-7) g19 1 1 4 6 1 21 1 1 dz-cr-387 x rosea(ril-44) g20 17 17 19 12 17 5 2 14 local check g21 10 10 7 3 10 12 15 19 wi2=wricke’s stability index, σ²ᵢ =shula’s ecovalence stability index, s²dᵢ=deviation from the regression, cvi=environmental coefficient of variance, θ₍ᵢ₎=ge mean variance, θᵢ =mean variance component, sd=standard deviation, rasv=rank of ammi stability value, rysi=rank of yield stability index and rs=rank sum table 7. pearsons correlation coefficient among grain yield, stability parameters for 21 tef genotypes across seven environments at tigray regional state yield asv ysi wᵢ² σ²ᵢ s²dᵢ bᵢ cvi θ₍ᵢ₎ θᵢ yield 1 -0.156 -.750** -0.13 -0.13 -0.41 -0.012 -0.266 0.13 -0.13 asv 1 .640** .829** .829** 0.3 0.323 .532* -.829** .829** as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 79 published by ideas spread ysi 1 0.403 0.403 .451* -0.116 0.228 -0.403 0.403 wᵢ² 1 1.000** .495* .477* .732** -1.000** 1.000** σ²ᵢ 1 .495* .477* .732** -1.000** 1.000** s²dᵢ 1 -0.067 .454* -.495* .495* bᵢ 1 .843** -.477* .477* cvi 1 -.732** .732** θ₍ᵢ₎ 1 -1.00** θᵢ 1 asv= ammi stability value, ysi= yield stability index,wi2=wricke’s stability index, σ²ᵢ =shula’s ecovalence stability index, s²dᵢ=deviation from the regression, cvi=environmental coefficient of variance, θ₍ᵢ₎=ge mean variance and θᵢ =mean variance component 4. conclusion the combined analysis of multi-environmental trail shows significance difference within the genotypes, environments and genotypes by environments interaction. yield was varied due to the higher source of variation of environment and the interaction of genotype by environment. the gei also shows there is inconsistence of genotype performance across the tested environments. in addition to this stability of tef genotypes were evaluated through the static and dynamic stability. therefore, g19 and g17 were the best static stable tef genotypes and these are suited for the unfavorable environments. this is fitting for the testing areas, which is faced to fluctuation of climatic condition and fertility depletion. but, g6 was the dynamic stable and better to grow in the favorable environments. the association of mean yield and parametric stability statistics do not shown a statistically significance difference except for ysi with negatively correlated. according to the gge bioplot g19 was stable and selected for the national variety releasing committee. the mean variance component (θi) was highly correlated with all parametric stability except the yield stability index (ysi) and ge variance component {θ(i)}.therefore, this method combined with gge bioplot is good for development of tef variety. finally, this research finding recommended that g19 was the most stable followed by g17 and these were the promising tef genotype with high yield performance. moreover, use of the evaluation method gge bio plot is better for the evaluation of tef genotypes for the development of cultivar. however, the higher yielding and dynamic stable tef was g6; this genotype could be grows in the potential tef growing area of ethiopia. to increase the effectiveness of the plant breeders during selection of the genotype and reducing cost as well as to increase or decrease testing year and location the following situation should fulfill. that is identifying meg-environments, discriminant locations, representativeness of location and ideal testing location and genotype are the important criteria for plant breeding program. acknowledgments we wish to thank tigray agricultural research institute axum and maytsebri centers allocating the budget to accomplish this activity and the staff of both centers of axum and maytsebri center as well as the tef national coordinators debre zeit agricultural research center providing the recombinant tef lines. references annicchiarico, p. 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(2009). biplot analysis of genotype × environment interaction: proceed with caution. crop science, 49, 1564-1576. http://dx.doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2008.11.0665 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p99 99 published by ideas spread enhancing soybean production through on-farm demonstration of improved soybean varieties at tselemti and tahtay adyabo districts of north-western zone tigray, ethiopia teklemariam abadi1, desale gebretsadik1, abadi girmay1, tesfahun mekuanint1 & daniel desta1 1 shire-maitsebri agricultural research centre, ethiopia correspondence: teklemariam abadi, shire-maitsebri agricultural research centre, p.o.box 81, shireindaslassie, ethiopia. e-mail: teklish190 mail.com received: june 9, 2020 accepted: july 11, 2020 online published: july 28, 2020 abstract soybean is a drought tolerant crop which can grow from low to medium altitudes. in the lowland areas of northwestern tigray the growing of leguminous crop is very low. to introduce soybean commodity in north-western tigray, demonstration of improved soybean varieties were conducted in 2018/19. the trail was conducted at tahtay adyabo and tselemti districts that have a potential for growing the soybean. it was conducted by selecting three kebelles from the districts. a total of 35 farmers were involved in the intervention. the necessary training was given to the participant farmers and experts. following this improved seed of awassa-95 and gizo varieties at tahtay adyabo districts, and wegayen and gizo seed at tselemti district were offered to participant farmers. each farmer have been planted a plot size of 0.02 ha for each of the two varieties. the descriptive result shows, awassa-95 soybean variety has given significantly higher yield at tahtay adyabo as compared to gizo variety. the variety was gave an average yield of 1067 kg/ha and 570 kg/ha respectively awassa-95 and gizo varieties. on the other hand an average yield of 1231 kg/ha and 1052 kg/ha, respectively was obtained for gizo and wegayen varieties at tselemti district. this shows that tselemti district is more better for the cropping of gizo variety. moreover, the improved soybean verities (gizo at tselemti district and awassa-95 at tahtay adyabo district) were found to be early maturing and best option to moisture stressed areas for the society protein source. based on the result it is recommended to be popularize awassa-95 soybean variety at tahtay adyabo district and gizao soybean varieties at tselemti district to large farmers. therefore, the research center and the office of agriculture and rural development of the districts to be popularized the varieties to large number farmers of the areas. keywords: demonstration, farmers perception, soybean 1. introduction soybean (glycine max) is one of the most important food plants of the world. this crop is tolerant to moisture stress which grows in the altitude ranged from 0-2200 m above sea level (urgessa, 2015). moreover, soybean is the main source of edible oil globally with the highest gross output of vegetable oil among the cultivated crops with total cultivated area of 121.5 million ha and total production of 334.8 million tons with the productivity of 2.76 ton ha-1 (dragan et al., 2016). soybean is a stable food of great nutritional value. it is an important global crop providing oil and protein. soybean plant has tawny or grey-color pubescence on the stems, leaves and pods and also the presence of rhizobium japonicum on the roots to fix atmospheric nitrogen. considering many advantages of the crop, soybean was introduced to ethiopia in the early 1950s. though its introduction to the country it has become one of the most important lowland grain legumes in the country by adapting to diverse agro ecological zones. as soybean provides a nutritious combination of calorie and protein intake, producing and consuming more soybean would improve food insecurity and malnutrition of the society (hailegiorgis, 2010). even though soybean can be grown in different parts of the country, the major areas currently growing are in the western and south-western part of the country, notably benishangul-gumuz, gambela and parts of oromia region and, to a lesser extent, in the amhara region. in recent years given the wide range of health and other diverse benefits of soybean; the country started exporting the crop. production and area cultivated under soybean in the country has also shown an increased trend. for instance in area coverage it increased from 26,000 ha in 2013/14 to 38,072 ha in 2017/18 and in production it as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 100 published by ideas spread raised from 49,000 ton in 2013/14 to 86,467.8 ton in 2017/18. though tigray region has potential areas for growing soybean but cultivation of this crop is negligible and not yet included in the crop type produced in the region as reported by (csa, 2018). so to introduce the crop to north-western tigray, shire-maitsebri agricultural research center is conducting many research activities. therefore shire-maitsebri agricultural research center recommended three varieties namely, gizo, awassa-95 and wegyen soybean varieties to be demonstrated at the farmers field. thus, this study was aimed to enhance soybean production and create awareness on the improved soybean varieties to the farming community. 2. research methodology 2.1 description of the study area the study was conducted at tahtay adyabo and tselemti districts of north-western zone of tigray, ethiopia. tahtay adyabo is located at the degree of 14.05-14.89 oc northing and 37.34-38.17 oc easting. the district has 38-40oc of temperature and 450mm-550 mm annual rainfall. agro ecologically 94.13% of the district is lowland and the remaining 5.87% is midland. likewise, tselemti district is located in the altitude ranges from 800-2870 meter above sea level, and latitude and longitude of 13o05’n and 38o 08’ e, respectively. the mean maximum and minimum temperature are 38ocand 16o c respectively and the area receives annual rainfall of 758-1100 mm. agro ecologically 78.35%, 19% and 2.65% of the district is lowland, midland and highland, respectively (ooard of the hosted districts, 2016). demonstration of the improved soybean variety was conducted at lowland parts of the districts in 2018 by purposively selecting according their potentials for growing the crop. three potential for growing soybean kebelles namely; lemlem, medhanalem and wuhdet kebelles was selected for conducting the demonstration trail. a total of 35 farmers were participated in executing of the trail. training was given to farmers, das and experts. improved seed of wegayen and gizo soybean varieties in tselemti and, seed of gizo and awasa95 soybean varieties in tahtay adyabo district were delivered to the farmers. each farmer has planted a plot size of 0.02 ha for each of the two varieties. experience sharing was held at maturity stage of the crop by including farmers, development agents, experts and researchers. figure 1. map of the study area as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 101 published by ideas spread 2.2 data collection and analysis quantitatively data on grain yield was collected from the farmers field using a quadrant. whereas for the qualitative data, farmers’ perception have been collected from 18 farmers on different attributes of the commodity. the response of the farmers on the demonstrated of improved soybean varieties was collected from 18 randomly selected farmers. attributes such as germination performance, higher number of capsule, early maturity, drought tolerance, diseases tolerance, insect tolerance, its taste, seed weight and grain yield was used to compare the improved soybean varieties for the specified commodity attributes. five levels strongly disagree, disagree, no change, agree and strongly agree was used to compare the attributes for the varieties. the scale for levels is given starting from 1-5 respectively for the mentioned levels. the collected data was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as mean, std.dev and percent. 3. result and discussions 3.1 grain yield table 1. yield obtained from improved soybean varieties (n=9) sn district variety min (kg/ha) max (kg/ha) mean (kg/ha) std.dev. p-va lue yield increment in (%) 1 tselemti wegayen 520 1381 1052 3.953 0.489 17.01 gizo 633 1650 1231 3.879 2 t/adyabo gizo 378 710 570 1.460 0.004 87.19 awassa95 820 1200 1067 1.692 gizo variety gave better yield as compared to wegayen at tselemti district, which is 17.01% yield increment. on the other side in tahtay adyabo district awassa-95, gave significantly higher yield than gizo soybean variety which is 87.19% yield increment. though the productivity of the soybean obtained in the area is below the national average which is 2270 kg/ha, but the yield gained in the area is promising result (csa, 2018). figure 2. farmers conducted managemental practices on the demonstrated improved soybean varieties (ms shwaynesh redda and mr gebru redda) at tahtay adyabo district, august 2018 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 102 published by ideas spread figure 4. farmers field day on the demonstrated soybean varieties, september 2018 3.2 farmers preference as indicated in table 2 farmers were preferred awassa-95 soybean variety in attributes such as early maturity, drought tolerance, capsule number and its yield as compared to gizo variety. in general base the farmers are agreeing as awassa-95 soybean variety is preferred on the main attributes of the commodity as compared to gizo variety at tahtay adyabo district. on the other hand farmers agreed that gizo variety were better in its earliness, capsule number and its yield as compared to wegayen variety at tselemti district. generally, farmers had preferred awassa-95 and gizo as better performing variety with the overall mean score of 4.55 and 4.44 respectively at tahtay adyabo and tselemti district (table2). table 2. farmers’ response on attributes of soybean, awassa-95 versus gizo soybean variety at tahtay adyabo district and gizo versus wegayen variety at tselemti district. sn attributes at tahtay adyabo district n (8) at tselemti district n (10) variety variety gizo awassa-95 gizo wegayen 1 germination performance 5 5 5 5 2 early maturity 2 5 2 2 3 capsule number 2 5 4 3 4 drought tolerance 2 5 5 4 5 diseases tolerance 3 4 5 3 6 insects tolerance 3 4 5 2 7 its taste in stew or other forms 4 4 5 4 8 seed weight 4 4 4 4 9 grain yield 3 5 5 3 total score 28 41 40 30 mean 3.11 4.55 4.44 3.33 4. conclusion and recommendations demonstration trail of improved soybean varieties was conducted at tselemti and tahtay adyabo districts. on average basis, gizo variety gave higher yield as compared to wegayen soybean variety at tselemti district. but at tahtay adyabo district, awassa-95 was gave better yield than gizo variety. therefore, the improved variety, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 103 published by ideas spread gizo soybean variety, at tselemti district and awassa-95 soybean variety at tahtay adyabo district has to be popularized to large farmers of the area so as to enhance the leguminous crop production in the area. acknowledgement the authors would like to acknowledge agricultural growth programme for the research grant. special thanks also go to agricultural experts and respondent farmers of the hosted districts for their kind cooperation in conducting the study. references csa (central statistics agency). (2014). area and production of major crops, addis ababa, ethiopia. csa (central statistics agency). (2018). area and production of major crops, addis ababa, ethiopia. dragan, t., vera, p., mladen, t., viliana, v., vera, d., … pasaga, a. (2016). soybean area, yield and production in world. xxii eco-conference. 2018. ecological movement of novi sad. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327982246 hailegiorgis, b. a. (2011). export performance of oilseeds and its determinants in ethiopia. american journal of economics, 1(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.economics.20110101.01 ooard (office of agriculture and rural development). (2016). unpublished report of the hosted districts. urgessa, t. (2015). empirical review of production, productivity and marketability of soya bean in ethiopia. international journal of u-and e-service, science and technology, 8(1), 61-66. https://doi.org/10.14257/ijunesst.2015.8.1.06 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p184 184 published by ideas spread biopesticidal management of pulse beetle (callosobruchus chinensis l) in chickpea seeds md. israfil jahan1, masum ahmad2, md. sohanur rahman3 & fakhar uddin talukder4 1 department of seed science and technology, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh-2202, bangladesh 2 professor, department of entomology, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh-2202, bangladesh 3 scientific officer, department of entomology, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhaka1207, bangladesh 4 scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhaka1207, bangladesh correspondence: md. sohanur rahman, scientific officer, department of entomology, bangladesh jute research institute, manik mia avenue, dhaka-1207, bangladesh. e-mail: sohanbau2010@gmail.com received: april 12, 2020 accepted: may 7, 2020 online published: may 14, 2020 abstract the pesticidal efficacy of four locally available leaves of botanicals like neem (azadirachta indica), datura (datura stramonium), marigold (tagetes erecta) and garlic (allium sativum l.) tablet powders was assessed on pulse bettle (callosobruchus chinensis l) through adult mortality and emergence, oviposition performance, seed damage, weight loss and germination of chickpea (cicer arietinum). the above test biopesticides were tested at three different rates (0.5 g, 1.0 g and 1.50 g powder/kg of chickpea seeds). all the tested powder showed significant effect on the above parameters. the highest adult mortality was recorded when chickpea seeds were treated with datura leaf powder at 1.50 g/kg, whereas marigold showed the least effect on adult mortality. the powders used in the experiment effectively controlled oviposition and adult emergence of pulse beetle. the lowest number of adult emergence was obtained from chickpea seeds treated with datura leaf powder at 1.50 g/kg. the highest weight loss was observed in control seeds followed by marigold leaf powder 0.5 g/kg gram seeds. datura leaf powder treated seeds showed the lowest seed weight loss followed by neem, garlic and marigold. plant powders had profound effect on seed germination. the highest germination was observed in treated seed with datura leaf powder at 1.50 g/kg and the lowest germination in control seed followed by marigold leaf powder at 1.5 g/kg treated seeds. the pesticidal effect on oviposition, adult mortality, adult emergence, and seed weight loss was directly proportional to leaf powder rates. keywords: leaf powder, biopesticide, insect damage, pulse crop, oviposition, adult emergence, seed germination 1. introduction chickpea (cicer arietinum l.) belongs to the leguminosae family. it is the world’s third most important food legume, and one of the most important pulse crops in bangladesh. it is the third major pulse crop after grass pea and lentil (islam et al., 1981 and anon, 1998). the yield potential of present-day chickpea cultivar exceeds 4t/ha (chaithra, 2009). however, average yield in bangladesh is less than 0.8t/ha (bbs, 2011). the pulse beetle, callosobruchus chinensis linn. (coleoptera: bruchidae), is a major pest of economically important leguminous grains, such as cowpeas, lentils, green gram, and black gram (talukder and howse, 1994; raja et al. 2000; mulatu and gebremedhin, 2000; park et al., 2003). pulse seeds suffer a great damage during storage due to insect attack (sharma, 1984). three species of pulse beetles, viz, callosobruchus chinensis linn.,c. analis fab., and c. maculates fab. have been reported from bangladesh as the pest of stored pulses (begum et al., 1984 and alam, 1971). among them c. chinensis cause enormous losses to almost all kind of pulses in storage condition. in bangladesh, c. chinensis commonly called pulse beetle, but in america and japan it is known as the cowpea weevil or adzuki bean beetle. the degree of damage varies with different kinds of legumes on the basis of exposure time, storage facilities and other factors associated with seeds. under farmers’ storage conditions, as high as 53 to 98% of grains in pulse crops like blackgram, grasspea, lentil and chickpea, were reported to be damaged by pulse beetle (c. chinensis) in as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 185 published by ideas spread bangladesh (anon, 1984). the rate of increases or decreases with the duration of storage under normal condition i.e., the longer the duration the higher the damage (gujar and yadav, 1978). the extent of damage to pulse seeds is very high both qualitatively and quantitatively. there was a 55-69% loss in seed weight and 45-66% loss in protein content due to pulse beetle on chickpea. about 100% loss of pulse seeds was found due to pulse beetle infestation (gujar and yadav, 1978). in the world, as many as 2400 plant species were known for their potential pesticidal properties and biological activity against a wide range of pests (grainge and ahmed, 1988). a study conducted by chavan et al. (1997) on the ovipositional preference of callosobruchus chinensis for different cowpea lines and showed that rough seed surface were less attractive, resulting in a lower rate of grains infected. sharmila and roy (1994) studied the effects of oviposition and development of the bruchid c. maculats on nine legume seeds under common storage conditions in the bundelhand region of madhya pradesh, india. bengal gram was most preferred both under choice and no choice conditions. however, under no choice condition, bruchids developed on green gram (vigna radiata), cowpeas, lentils and red gram (pigeon pea). it was reported that when mixed with stored-grains, leaf, bark, seed powder or oil extracts reduced oviposition as well as seed damage rates, and suppressed adult emergence of bruchids (keita et al., 2001; shaaya et al., 1997; onu and aliyu, 1995 and talukder and howse, 1994). leaf powder of plant species like biskatali, marigold, castor, nishinda, dholkolmi, mahogany, dhutra, oleander and mango were also effective in reducing adult emergence in lentil and chickpea (bhuiyan, 2001). shiau et al., (1994) studied the oviposition choice of c. maculatus, a stored products pest, by providing its females with different ratios of azuki beans (v. angularis) and chickpeas (v. radiata). the fraction of eggs laid on azuki beans increased with increasing ratio of azuki beans, whereas it decreased with a shorter duration of oviposition. ahmed (1992) observed that in all the seasons, lentil and chickpea were highly preferred for oviposition and the emergence of adults were considerably high, while gram and black gram were least preferred for oviposition except for high rates of adult emergence regarding gram and pigeon pea in summer. the control of storage pests by using synthetic chemicals has become a common practice among farmers and stockholders. it is now widely known that chemical method has several concerns, which include health hazards to the users and grain consumers. it causes residual toxicity, environmental pollution and development of pesticide resistance against bruchids. sometimes persistent pesticides accumulate in the higher food chain of both wildlife and human and become concentrated by bio magnification (metcalf, 1975). the traditional method of controlling storage pests by sun-drying is safer to human health and environment. but this method is laborious, time consuming, often expensive and requires suitable drying yard, when large volume of stored grain is involved. moreover, it depends on favorable weather conditions. recently, the use of different plants and their derivatives has appeared as an effective alternative to synthetized insecticides in the control of various insect pests of food grains. under storage conditions, this pest is controlled by synthetic insecticides which are prone to several limitations with respect to environmental hazards. in contrast, biopesticides are cheaper, more readily biodegradable, some of them being less toxic to mammals, more selective in action, and less subjected to pest resistance. their main advantage is that they may be easily and cheaply produced by farmers and small-scale industries as crude, or partially purified extracts. the present study was undertaken to determine the efficacy of four different biopesticides made of leaf powder of local plants in the control of pulse beetle. 2. materials and methods the study was carried out, from august to october 2018, in the laboratory of the department of entomology, bangladesh agricultural university (bau), mymensingh. temperature in the laboratory ranged from 25 to 31°c and the air moisture content from 68 to 75%. the laboratory was kept well aerated throughout the study. 2.1 pulse beetle 2.1.1 pulse beetle as a major pest among the insect pests attacking stored food grains, the pulse beetle known as an economically important one (alam, 1971). its larvae bore into pulse grains, which become unsuitable for human consumption and non-viable for replanting. a number of major pests of food grains under storage conditions were reported in asia and africa (ogunwolu and idowu, 1994; okonkwo and okoye, 1996; raja et al., 2000; mulatu and gebremedhin, 2000; tapondjou et al., 2002). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 186 published by ideas spread 2.1.2 systematic position phylum – arthropoda class – insecta sub class pterygota division endopterygota order – coleoptera family – bruchidae genus – callosobruchus species – callosobruchus chinensis l 2.1.3 egg and oviposition the female beetle oviposited within 24 hours, with 1 to 3 eggs were laid per pulse grain although many of them could be observed in a single grain (raina, 1970). she also observed that the female laid on chickpea an average of 78 eggs ranging from 63 to 90 over a period of 8 days at 30°c and 70% of relative humidity. lambrides (2000) reported that the texture, layer present on the seed coat of some chickpea varieties and small grains size might act as oviposition deterrents. the freshly laid eggs were translucent, smooth and shining but become pale yellowish or grayish white with age. eggs were elongated and oval in shape (alam, 1971). 2.1.4 larval period razzak and pundy (1965) observed that the full grown larvae were curved and the dorsal body was raised into a segmented done like structure. according to alam (1971) the full grown larva was 6 mm long, flesh strongly wrinkled, perfectly white except brown color at mouth region. soon after hatching, seeds were bored by young larvae causing their weight losses with negative impact on seed quality for human consumption and germination. 2.1.5 pupal period dennis (1990) reported that the pupation took place inside the seed in a chamber covered by a thin window of testa prepared by a mature larva. the pupae were exerate type with a mean pupal duration of 2.5 days in summer and 4.25 days in winter (bhuiyan and peyara, 1978). 2.1.6 adult emergence before emergence, the adult remain a few days inside the pupal chamber. the adult emergence occurred by cutting a window hole and then pushing head and forelegs through it (razzak and pundey, 1965). the beetle was dark and incospicuous in color, its body being hair-clothed. bhuiyan and peyara (1978) reported that the head of the beetle is small, hypognathous and provided with short snout. the males were short lived and smaller than females. the adult was 4 mm long and distinguished from other species by the elevated ivory like spots near middle of the body (alam, 1971). arora and singh (1970) found that the adult generally more around the grains and were also capable of making short flights with hind wings. according to bhuiyan and peyara (1978), the longevity of male and female beetle is respectively 4.3 and 5.4 days in summer, or 7.4 and 9.2 days in winter. the life cycle of c. chinensis was completed in 30-32, 20-23, and 40-46 days in early summer, mid summer and winter, respectively. 2.1.7 nature and extent of damage begum et al., (1982) stated that in bangladesh c. chipnensis l. was one of the major pests belonging to callosobruchus spp. which causes considerable damage to stored legume grains. the larval stage causes severe damage on pulse grains jeopardizing their quality for human consumption and germination. in a laboratory study, it was found that the initial presence of 4 larvae or one pair of callosobruchus spp adult could completely damage 10 g of the pulse grain within 2-4 month depending on the type of the pulse, stage of maturity and species of the beetle. gujar and yadav (1978), recorded 55-60% loss by seed weight and 45-66% loss in protein content due to pulse beetle. chowdhury (1961) reported that the extent of weight losses on chickpea seeds under storage, due to c. chinensis and c. maculatus could reach up to 100% over a period of one year. 2.2 chickpea among food legumes, chickpea is known as the most nutritive pulse extensively used as protein adjunct to starchy diet (sastri, 1950; duke, 1981; huisman and van der poel, 1994). chickpea after dehulling is valued for its nutritive seeds with high protein content (12.3-31.5%). chickpea seeds are eaten fresh as green vegetables, parched, fried, roasted and boiled as snack food, sweet and condiments. they contain as much as 38-59% carbohydrate, 3% fiber, 4.8-5.5% oil, 3% ash, 0.2% calcium, and 0.3% phosphorus. the digestibility of protein and carbohydrate as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 187 published by ideas spread varies, respectively, from 76-78% and from 57-60% (huisman and van der poel, 1994). they also contain essential amino acids like isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, and valine (karim and fattah, 2006). it is a good and cheap source of protein for people in developing countries (especially in south asia), who are largely vegetarian either by choice or economic reasons. moreover, they are rich in minerals (phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc), fiber, unsaturated fatty acids and β-carotene (jukanti et al., 2012). chickpea meets 80% of its nitrogen requirement from symbiotic nitrogen fixation and can fix up to 140 kg n/ha from air (ullah et al., 2002). 2.3 mass culture of the pulse beetle pulse beetles were reared by maintaining insects on chickpea seeds under room conditions (27⁰c, 70% air moisture) in the laboratory. fifty (50) pairs of adult male and female pulse beetles were placed in a glass jar containing chickpea seeds. the jar was then covered with black cotton cloth and the beetles were allowed for free mating and oviposition over 7 days in the aforementioned environmental conditions in a dark place. the parent beetles were removed and pulses containing eggs were kept in a jar for further development and getting new adults. rearing of the insects was continued for the whole experimental period. plate 1. adult pulse beetle 2.4 botanical species tested as biopesticides three different rates of four biopesticides (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 gm/kg seeds) were used for the experiment, namely, neem (azadirachta indica – meliaceae), datura (datura stramonium – solanaceae), garlic (allium sativum l. liliaceae), marigold (tagetes erecta – calenduleae). 2.5 preparation of plant material all four treatments made of leaf power of local plant species were assessed for their insecticidal potency against pulse beetle. they were collected from the local market of mymensingh, bangladesh. the test materials have been oven dried at 600c for three to four days until they were reached a constant weight before powder preparation. spice powders were prepared by pulverizing the oven dried seeds/cloves with the help of a steel blender. then the dust was passed through a 25 unit diameter sieve to obtain fine and uniform powder. plate 2. prepared botanical materials: (a) neem leaf powder, (b) garlic tablet, (c) marigold leaf powder, (d) datura leaf powder, (e) garlic tablet in broken form as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 188 published by ideas spread 2.6 collection of chickpea seeds chickpea (c. arietinum) seeds were used in this experiment as host of pulse beetle and collected on local market of mymensingh. the seeds were completely free from insects, microorganisms, food grains and other materials. there were no other crop seeds and foreign materials in the seed lot. before being stored, seeds were properly dried and kept free of any insecticide treatment. plate 3. fresh chickpea seed 2.7 insect bioassay the powders were mixed up with gram seeds following three different rates (1.5, 1.0, and 0.50 g/kg seeds) in separate petridishes of 90 mm in diameter. five pairs of newly emerged adult beetles were released into each petridish containing treated seeds. three replications were made for each treatment, the control included. petridishes were kept at the room temperature without any disturbance. the efficacy of powders against pulse beetle was evaluated with due consideration of parental mortality, number of eggs, adult emergence, seed weight loss and germination regarding treated and untreated seeds. plate 4. experimental set up of chickpea seeds with treatments as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 189 published by ideas spread 2.8 mortality and oviposition test of pulse beetle data on the parental mortality was recorded daily from 1st to 7th day of pulse beetle release. after seven days, beetle mortality rate was calculated as follows: % mortality = × 100 after seven days, seeds were carefully checked using a magnifying glass so that seeds with eggs or without eggs were separated and their total number determined afterwards. after separation total number of egg bearing seeds and total number of eggs were recorded. 2.9 effect of plant powders on adult emergence after hatching beetle larvae penetrated to attack cotyledon before getting out as adult by making holes on seed coat. the number of emerged adult beetles was counted daily from the first to the last day emergence. pulse beetle started emerging after 24 days of release. the emerged beetles were counted and removed every day before removing them from the petridish upto 7 consecutive days. 2.10 seed weight loss assessment of chickpea seeds the seeds were separated from dust and dead bodies of pulse beetle by winnowing. clean seeds in each petridish were separately weighted. the weight loss of pulse seed was calculated by subtracting final weight from initial weight as follows: weight loss (%) = × 100 where, a= initial weight, b=final weight plate 5. damaged 1gram seed after 1 month 2.11 seed germination test the effect of treatments on seed germination and viability was determined after 28 days of storage. seed germination was tested following standard procedures. about 75 seed sub-samples were germinated under laboratory conditions on moistened blotter paper covering petridishes being arranged in three replicates. the number of seedlings from each petridish was recorded after 5 days for determining their germination rate as follows: germination (%) = × 100 where, ng = number of seeds that germinated as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 190 published by ideas spread tg = total number of test seeds 2.12 statistical analysis data obtained were statistically analyzed in accordance with two factors completely randomized design (crd) and treatment means were compared by duncan's multiple range test (dmrt). 3. results and discussion the pesticidal effect of datura leaf powder, neem leaf powder, marigold leaf powder and garlic tablet powder on pulse beetle, callosobruchus chinensis l at different ratio were investigated. the result of the experiment have been presented and discussed under following sub heading. 3.1 effect of different powders on the adult mortality of pulse beetle table 1. effect of plant powders at various ratios on adult mortality of pulse beetle, callosobruchus chinensis l treatments doses (g/kg) adult mortality (%) datura leaf powder 0.50 61.0c 1.00 77.0a 1.50 81.0a neem leaf powder 0.50 50.0d 1.00 61.0c 1.50 78.0a garlic tablet powder 0.50 49.0d 1.00 61.0c 1.50 70.0b marigold leaf powder 0.50 32.0f 1.00 42.0e 1.50 61.0c control 22.0g lsd 5.12 cv (%) 3.93 the mean numbers of adult mortality on gram seeds treated with different powders at different rate at laboratory condition are presented in table 1. it was revealed that lowest number of adult mortality from untreated seeds 22 compared to all other treatments. the number of adult mortality was higher at higher ratio of all powders. among the treated seeds, the highest number of adult mortality 81 was found from seeds of datura leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg followed by neem leaf powder @1.5 g/kg 78. the lowest number of mortality 32 from seeds treated with marigold leaf powder @ 0.5 g/kg followed by marigold leaf powder @ 1.0g/kg 42. this result was similar to the findings reported by tapondjou (2002) indicating that the adult mortality was more when stored seeds were treated with some indigenous plant powder and oils. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 191 published by ideas spread 3.2 effect of different powders on the oviposition inhibition of pulse beetle table 2. effect of plant powders at various ratios on egg of pulse beetle, callosobruchus chinensis l treatments doses (g/kg) no. of laid eggs / 20 gm seed datura leaf powder 0.50 54.0hi 1.00 51.0i 1.50 40.0j neem leaf powder 0.50 65.0ef 1.00 63.0fg 1.50 58.0gh garlic tablet powder 0.50 72.0cd 1.00 70.0de 1.50 68.0def marigold leaf powder 0.50 80.0b 1.00 78.0bc 1.50 75.0bcd control 87.0a lsd 6.73 cv (%) 4.46 it was found that the powders had profound influence on the egg deposition by the beetles. number of egg laid varied significantly when seeds were treated with different powders at different ratios (table 2). mean number of eggs increased gradually with the decrease of ratios of powder. higher number of eggs 87/ 20 gm seed was laid on the untreated seeds. among the seeds treated with powders, the highest number of eggs 80/20 gm seed was laid on on seeds treated with marigold leaf powder @ 0.5 g/kg. the lowest number eggs 40/20 gm seed was deposited in seeds treated with datura leaf powder @ 1.5g/kg which was followed by neem leaf powders @1.5 g/kg 58/20 gm seed /, garlic tablet powder @ 1.5 g/kg 68, marigold leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg 75. the oviposition inhibition was more at higher ratios than at lower ratios of all the plant powders. among the seed treated with powders, the highest number of egg bearing seeds (80) from seed treated with marigold leaf powder @ 0.5 g/kg. the lowest number of egg bearing seeds 40 from seeds treated with darura leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg. this result was similar to the findings reported by rouf et at.(1996) indicating that the oviposition was inhibited when stored seeds were treated with some botanicals such as neem, nishinda and biskatali leaf powder. 3.3 effect of different powders on the adult emergence of pulse beetle table 3. effect of plant powders at various ratios on adult emergence of pulse beetle, callosobruchus chinensis l treatments doses (g/kg) adult emergence (%) datura leaf powder 0.50 26.00ef 1.00 19.67g 1.50 11.11h neem leaf powder 0.50 33.67c 1.00 27.33de 1.50 21.00fg garlic tablet powder 0.50 41.00b 1.00 32.33cd 1.50 21.33fg marigold leaf powder 0.50 44.67b as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 192 published by ideas spread 1.00 42.00b 1.50 31.00cde control 51.33a lsd 5.95 cv (%) 8.48 it was noted from the results of present investigation that the number of adult emergence was greatly reduced by the applicatioin of powders on the seeds. the number of adult emergence in the treated seeds ranged from 11.11% to 44.67% (table 3). among the treated seeds, the highest number of adult emergence (44.67%) from seeds trated with marigold leaf powder @ 0.5 g/kg. the lowest number of adult emerged (11.11%) from seeds treated with datura leaf powder @1.5 g/kg which was followed by neem leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg (21%), garlic tablet powder @ 1.5 g/kg (21.33%), marigold leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg (31%). the results suggest good potentiality for use of datura and neem leaf powder as protectants in storage pest management in bangladesh. this result was similar to the findings reported by latif et al., (2012) indicating that the adult emergence was inhibited when stored seeds were treated with some indigrnous plant powders. 3.4 effect of different powders on seed weight loss due to infestation of pulse beetle the pulse beetle caused damage to gram seeds in the petridish. the larvae fed on the internal contents of seeds for their growth and development. pupae formation takes place inside the seeds and finally emerged as adult from the seed creating hole(s) on gram seeds. the effect of different ratios of powders on percent seed weight loss by the attack of pulse beetle was statistically significant at 1 % level of probability at table 4. table 4. effect of plant powders at various ratios on seed weight loss infested by pulse beetle treatments doses (g/kg) weight loss (%) datura leaf powder 0.50 3.20i 1.00 2.40k 1.50 1.60m neem leaf powder 0.50 4.30g 1.00 3.00ij 1.50 2.50l garlic tablet powder 0.50 6.10e 1.00 4.90f 1.50 3.80h marigold leaf powder 0.50 9.00b 1.00 7.88c 1.50 6.33d control 14.08a lsd 0.05 cv (%) 4.08 the percent of seed weight loss was inversely proportional to ratios .the highest weight loss was recorded from untreated seeds (14.08%).among the plant powders, the lowest weight loss (1.6%) was recorded from the seeds treated with datura leaf powder @1.5 g/kg followed by datura leaf powder @ 1g/kg (2.40%), neem leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg (2.5%) and garlic tablet @ 1.5 g/kg (3.80). among the seeds treated with plant powder, the highest weight loss (9.00%) was recorded from the seeds treated with marigold @ 0.5 g/kg (table 4). this result with similar to the findings reported by rouf et al., (1996) indicating that the seed weight loss was protected when stored seeds were treated with some botanicals such as neem, nishinda and biskatali leaf powder. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 193 published by ideas spread 3.5 effect of different powders on seed germination due to infestation of pulse beetle table 5. effect of plant powders on seed germination of chickpea infested by pulse beetle treatments doses (g/kg) germination (%) datura leaf powder 0.50 82.67ab 1.00 83.00ab 1.50 85.00a neem leaf powder 0.50 77.67bcd 1.00 80.00abcd 1.50 82.00ab garlic tablet powder 0.50 81.00abc 1.00 80.00abcd 1.50 78.00bcd marigold leaf powder 0.50 75.00cde 1.00 73.00de 1.50 70.00f control 65.00g lsd 6.07 cv (%) 3.39 the pulse beetle caused damage to gram seed in petridish. plant powders have profound effect on germination of seed. it is shown in the table 5. among the seed the lower germination in untreated seed (65%). in the treated seed the lowest germination was observed from the seeds treated marigold @ 1.5 g/kg (70%). the highest germination was observed in the treated seeds of datura leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg 85 followed by datura leaf powder @ 1g/kg 83 and neem leaf powder @ 1.5 g/kg 82. this result was similar to the findings reported by tabu et al. (2012). 4. conclusion among the four powders, datura leaf powder was found most effective against the oviposition of pulse beetle. the results suggest good potentiality for use of datura and neem leaf powder as protectants in storage pest management in bangladesh. the percent of seed weight loss due to pulse beetle infestation increased with the decreased of ratios of all plant powders. conflict of interest the authors have no conflict of interest to disclose. authors' contribution md. israfil jahan contributed in conducting the experiment and analysing data. masum ahmad provided help for the experimental design. md. sohanur rahman contributed in data presentation, analysing data, searching journal for publication and finally manuscript processing & writing of this article. fakhar uddin talukder helped in data prosessing. this article was read and approved by all authors for final publication. references ahmed, k. s. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n1p1 1 published by ideas spread tracing the flock: a look at the current state of duck raising industry of hermosa leslie r. jorge-acain1 & hermogenes m. paguia1 1 bataan peninsula state university, city of balanga, bataan, philippines correspondence: leslie r. jorge-acain, bataan peninsula state university, city of balanga, bataan, philippines tel: 63-932-675-0254. e-mail: lrjorge@bpsu.edu.ph received: february 28, 2022 accepted: march 29, 2022 online published: april 27, 2022 the research is financed by the research and development office, bataan peninsula state university. abstract the study aimed to describe the state of the duck raising industry in the town of hermosa, province of bataan in the philippines from the point of view of various stakeholders. the study is a qualitative type of research built on a phenomenological deductive approach. the researcher used interviews as the main tool in gathering the data needed for the study which focuses on the experiences the participants had in association to duck raising and duck egg processing from mallard duck locally known as itik. the study revealed that the duck raising industry in the town of hermosa has been part of the growing up years of the participants and has greatly influenced their choice of livelihood and that the second generation of duck raisers in the family take on the business but is unlikely to be favored by the 3rd generation due to shifting careers and varied interests. the duck raising industry remains to be a good source of income and is appreciated by farmers for the quick daily turn out of profits. it is evident that through knowledge acquired from parents and relatives along with personal experiences, hermosa duck raisers were able to generate best practices, techniques, and methods in duck raising. keywords: mallard duck, qualitative, phenomenology, culture, balut 1. introduction food tourism has increasingly gained popularity over the years, tourists are drawn to visit destinations for their local produce and a handful of tourist destinations are centering their product development and marketing accordingly. with food being deeply rooted in its origin, destinations are marketing themselves distinctively that appeal to tourists through their flavors (unwto 2012). with destinations establishing signature dishes creating particular branding, the process by which food is consumed is in itself an attraction and so is how they are processed and managed. food according to le (2017) is an important part of the culture, traditional cuisines and delicacies are passed on from one generation to the next and operate as a cultural identity, that unique cuisine can reflect unique history, lifestyle, values, and beliefs. the study is an inquiry on the state of duck raising industry in the town of hermosa, recognized to be the top producing duck eggs for processing to balutan iconic food, known to be exotic in the philippines and is currently the identified one town one product of hermosa with its symbolic value and is known to be an acquired taste for native filipinos and a rite of passage for others as it became increasingly popular among westerners brought by sensationalized depictions in various cultures and genres (ty matejowsky, 2013) balut became the iconic symbolism of the town of hermosa as it was hailed as its signature; one town one product (otop), the program headed by the department of trade and industries as a strategic tool that remains to provide an ecosystem of assistance from local government units, national government agencies, and the private sector (dti, 2018).with the identification of products to carry the name of particular towns in the province of bataan, an extensive study was conducted by the bataan provincial tourism office along with the department of trade and industry to establish which product best describes a town and determines the most abundant resource each municipality has to offer. but over the years, with the changing time and various factors, the balut and duck raising industry in the town of hermosa have observably declined. this study aims to explore whether there is indeed a threat and what could be the possible reasons behind the emergence of the thought of the possible loss of an industry people of hermosa grew up with. with the pending thought of retaining balut as an iconic representation of a town and its heritage, the study would shed light on the threat of losing an industry on the brink of extinction or could be an as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 2 published by ideas spread opportunity to save, conserve and preserve an agricultural heritage. the study aimed to identify the state of the duck raising industry in the town of hermosa from the point of view of various stakeholders. the study may be able to generate a description of the best practices of active duck raisers’ and egg processors’ operations; problems and issues that possibly brought former duck raisers and egg processors to halt operations that may lead to the possible eventual loss of industry in hermosa. the study sought to answer the following specific objectives: 1. to describe the duck raising industry in hermosa as perceived by various stakeholders as per: 1.1. current duck raisers’ perspective 1.2. former duck raisers’ perspective 1.3. current duck eggs processors’ (balutan) perspective 1.4. former duck eggs processors’ (balutan) perspective 1.5. department of agriculture’s perspective 1.6. department of tourism officials and practitioners’ perspective 1.7. residents of hermosa 1.8. local government unit 1.9. duck raisers’ family members 1.10. department of trade and industry and msmes 2. to describe the problems encountered in duck raising from the perspective of various stakeholders mentioned in item number 1. 3. to determine methods and strategies utilized in duck raising. 5. to determine the implication of the study in the determination of retaining the one town one product commodity of the town of hermosa. duck raising and balut production is not just an industry to produce food or delicacy but in itself a culture, a way of life, and a tradition that is supposed to be passed on to the next generation to come. the town of hermosa is recognized for its one town one product; balut. but over the years, the duck raising and duck egg processing industry in the town gradually declined. the recognized barangays and families in this small town have been observed to stop the business. to the data gathered from the municipality of hermosa (mallard duck farm, 2015) out of the 48 backyard and commercial farm owners in the town of hermosa in 2014, 21 were no longer in operation by 2015. an alarming number considering the incident was in occurrence for just one year. though there may be several reasons for the inability of the municipality to gather adequate data for the past years and for the reason why there is a considerable number of farmers who stopped, they would shed light and gathered data to be used in tracing the state of duck raising industry in the town. based on the organization for economic cooperation and development in its 2009 study on the impact of culture in tourism; culture tourism is one of the largest and fastest-growing global tourism markets. with culture and creative industries, the promotion of destinations has increased their competitiveness and attractiveness. this is one of the motivations of many locations, in developing their tangible and intangible cultural assets as a means of developing a competitive advantage in the tourism marketplace and creating a distinctive identity despite globalization. 2. method the study is a qualitative type of research built on a phenomenological approach. defined as an approach to qualitative research that focuses on the commonality of a lived experience in a particular group where data collected is analyzed for similar phrases and themes that are then grouped to form clusters of meaning (creswell, 2013), applied in the study to determine the state of duck raising industry in the town of hermosa from various lenses. participants of the study were active duck raisers, former duck raisers, active duck egg processors, former duck egg processors, the department of agriculture, the department of tourism, and the community. the study focuses on the experiences the participants had in association to duck raising and duck egg processing from mallard duck; locally known as itik. the researchers used the interview as the main tool in gathering the data needed for the study. a self-made interview guide was formulated in response to the answers the researchers wish to find out from the study. a semi-standardized interview was applied where the principal questions are prepared and beyond the specific questions, the interviewer is free to probe as the interview commences (dudovskiy, 2018). the interview guide was formulated through an initial interview and review of the literature. the set of questions generated was validated by professionals and experts in the field of agriculture, sociology, psychology, and research. on the actual data gathering, appointments were set with the participant’s interviews in their respective as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 3 published by ideas spread farms, manufacturing sites, and meeting places more convenient to the interviewees. the whole course of the interview was digitally recorded and transcribed for constant comparative analysis. to secure anonymity and for the privacy of the participant’s responses, the recorded interviews were stored in an encrypted external hard drive with only the interviewer; interviewee and transcriptionist can have access. it was then processed by analyzing common phrases grouped in themes and clusters. all gathered data were then analyzed and interpretation of the meaning of the experiences of the duck raisers and duck egg processors were documented, labeled, coded, and grouped in themes. 3. results this section presents the findings of the study arranged according to the sequence of the objectives shown in the introduction, chronologically arranged to the following topics: state of duck raising industry in the town of hermosa in the eyes of various stakeholders. problems and issues experienced by duck raisers and methods and strategies utilized in duck farming. the interview contained inquiries on the duck raising industry, particularly with the start of the participants’ duck raising experience, acquisition of skills, view on income generation, and intentions to continue with duck raising. analysis of the data resulted in the emergence of the following themes: 3.1 findings on the duck raising industry in hermosa the interview contained inquiries on the duck raising industry, particularly with the start of the participants’ duck raising experience, acquisition of skills, view on income generation, and intentions to continue with duck raising. analysis of the data resulted in the emergence of the following themes: growing up with it. several participants mentioned that they learned about duck raising from their parents during their growing up years. some consider duck raising as a livelihood they grew up with and consider it to be the only business they know of. “since we were kids, my father’s livelihood is duck raising. then when i got married, we went here (hermosa). then all of my brothers-in-law followed and raised ducks. ducklings were still cheap at that time, only 35 cents”. current duck raiser 24 good source of income. extra income, use for daily expenses, a good source of money to support children’s education and daily living has been frequently mentioned as reasons why duck raising is still pursued and continued. “during that time, if you are to look at families, all that were raising ducks were able to send their children to finish college. so, i have relatives who have their children finish no matter how many, just in duck raising”. former duck raiser 1 “earning is good in duck raising. it’s better than working abroad”. current duck raiser 5 “all is well, see my children can finish their education. just with perseverance. but you are to have sleepovers in huts even if you have a huge house, you are spending the night with roof dripping and sometimes you sleep in tents just to tent to your ducks”. current duck raiser 11 complements rice farming. the data revealed that most of the participants considered duck raising to be complementary to their rice farming; that in most flood-prone areas in town, rice farming may be difficult during rainy seasons, so to compensate for the lack of farming activities and jobs, duck raising is an alternative: “in our case, just like my husband, we will buy in the month of june, sometimes may, depending on the harvest, sometimes we harvest early. we will then buy ducks, usually may-june then we will have the ducks wander in our rice fields since it’s the rainy season. not everybody plants because it floods. usually planting around here is october –november”. current duck raiser 16 “i don’t go full time in duck raising, only in this time, then october i will remove it already. because i will plant rice here. because i do not plant in rainy seasons yet due to flooding so, i put in ducks”. current duck raiser 18 require knowledge and techniques. based on the participants’ responses, duck raising could be a very good business that would certainly bring profits when one is knowledgeable and techniques are applied. participants articulated that they have been in the industry for a number of years and that even in the sound of the duck and the appearance of their feathers they would know if they were filled with eggs: “we know that already, from their feathers, sound, then you would see. just by their sound you would know if they are already filled with eggs”. current duck raiser “but if you didn’t see the technique, for example, those that have the money. they will buy in as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 4 published by ideas spread bulk then they will neglect it. if you do, then you need to work on it for them to produce more eggs, then everything that you have earned will be used up and it wouldn’t be enough to recover. however, if you know the techniques, just like that guy that you have interviewed earlier, you will not be bankrupt”. current duck raiser 12 decreased in number but is still in business. data revealed that participants recognized the decrease in the number of duck raisers in the town of hermosa but are well aware that there may be some that stopped but others are starting up. it is likewise mentioned in several instances that some temporarily stopped but would still eventually return to business while others are replaced. “maybe it will not be lost as long as people have a capital. it wasn’t given much attention but in reality, there are a lot of duck raisers here, actually we have the greatest number of eggs produced”. current duck raiser 5 “here in our town, there are a lot of duck raisers here, they never stopped. because here in our barangay we never stopped”. current duck raiser 12 “there are people who stopped, there are also those who return”. current duck raiser 14 “at the moment, we still have duck raisers. so, we haven’t lost it. there are just some time periods or seasons that it declines but there are those still willing to do duck raising here. at the moment we still have some in various barangays that have that type of business”. tourism officer of hermosa “maybe not, because, we haven’t lost the duck raising here in hermosa. if some would leave some would add up. if their duck is 200, some 500, oh, it wasn’t lost”. municipal agriculturist of hermosa 3.2 findings on the problems and issues met by duck raisers to determine the underlying reasons associated with the decreased number of duck raisers in hermosa, the study covered the identification of possible reasons why participants along with their fellow duck raisers halted operations. participants identified the eruption of mt. pinatubo, bird flu, boracay island closure, lack of capital, feeds price and quality, urbanization, developments, calamities, people taking advantage, and poor succession to affect duck raising at varied levels. “the start of the decline in duck raising was when mt. pinatubo erupted in 1991 because most of the duck raisers let their ducks wander in rice fields to save money. they won’t buy feeds because the ducks would feed on snails and rice grains on the rice fields. that’s why there are a lot of duck raisers then because it was less expensive, they no longer have to buy feeds. we pick up eggs as far as zambales because duck raisers of hermosa were there and in pampanga, and other provinces. but almost all are from hermosa. they only care for the ducks in those areas because of the spacious rice fields. now when mt. pinatubo erupted, all of the rice fields were gone; meaning, it was covered with sand, therefore, ducks have nothing to eat until such time that they were sold, got culled to be eaten, and was sold as food. duck raisers lost their livelihood. since they are not rich, when they lost their ducks, they weren't able to replace them. when the time came that they can use the rice fields to tend to their ducks again, they already lost their capital and found other means to earn; that was the start of the decline in the number of duck raisers.”. former duck egg processor; balutan 1 “last year, in 2017 almost all duck raisers were in agony, it suddenly dropped because of the bird flu, but now, it is going up, the price of the egg went up”. current duck raiser 24 “there are a lot who stopped especially with bird flu, there was a lot that got bankrupt. we are a bit affected because we didn’t know where to take the eggs because they were saying, bird flu”. current duck raiser6 “we were affected by that; we almost went down twice. first with the bird flu then with boracay closure” current duck raiser 11 “what boracay needs if i’m not mistaken is 25,000 balut a week. that’s why when boracay was closed they lost their market”. current duck raiser 5 “there was a slight decline in profit, this is because of the low price given by those that collect the eggs. so that is one major discrepancy why we stopped and the price of the feeds is too high”. former duck raiser 1 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 5 published by ideas spread “price increases, price of the egg would go up minimally while feeds go up constantly”. current duck raiser 12 “during the ’80s if you are to look at barangay san pedro, in the mid area; almost all houses may have ducks, 200,300, 400 heads, but you can hardly see it now. they are almost gone. you would see the trend. so maybe it’s due to urbanization because those places became subdivisions”. former duck raiser1 “before, my duck pen was just on the other side. of course, there were complaints already, due to the noise and smell since there are a lot of houses already”. current duck raiser 15 “our population is one problem because we are getting bigger. before just at the back of your house you can raise ducks because you do not have neighbors. that’s why there are several duck raisers before. but now that the population grew, the residential area became bigger. that’s why those that have them in backyards stopped because they are being complained”. former duck raiser 1 “for now, there are duck raisers downtown, but those that are in barangays that have several houses already will be moved. of course, if they do not have a place to go, they will no longer pursue it because they do not have a choice they will be forced since they are surrounded by houses and they do not have a rice field to transfer to so they will eventually stop”. municipal agricultural officer “sometimes, there are limited rice fields to utilize for tending ducks. this is due to the harvest and early replanting”. current duck raiser 9 “another problem is that harvesting is faster, because of the use oof machine. sometimes, in just two weeks they will replant already. the rice field will no longer be used by those that release ducks to wander”. current duck raiser 1 “the only problem is when there is flooding. duck egg production decreases”. former duck egg raiser10 “the typhoon at times, floodwater would be in our area, because it’s not perfect as to the elevation of the soil. if it’s raining for a month, almost everywhere has water. even if they will say it subsides if there is more pouring in”. former duck raiser 4 “the generation, in another, the inheritance, nobody replaces them; for instance, our parents are duck raisers, no one replaces them to continue raising ducks. it’s that, as a farmer, the dream of a parent is for their children to get an education, isn’t it? now, once you were able to send your child to school and became an engineer, of course, that will no longer raise ducks. they will be employed or perhaps have their own business or whatever it may be. so that’s why successor of duck raising is lost”. former duck egg processor; balutan 1 “there are a lot. like those, that probably have parents that have the expertise in (raising ducks) but when their children grew up and maybe finished their studies. when they finish, they don’t want to raise ducks anymore. that’s how it is”. municipal agriculturist of hermosa “no, because i already have a different line of work, when i was processing balut, i wasn’t working then. but when i started working, i never went back on processing balut”. former duck raiser 3.3 findings on the methods and strategies utilized by active duck raisers to stay afloat in the industry the study may lead to the improvement if not development of a practiced – based instructional manual for duck raising; that may complement the changing time, environment, resources, and community. the purpose of the inquiry is to identify the current state of the duck raising industry as well as possible points of interest that could be an initial source of information to generate more studies and possible extension projects to further assist in the improvement and or sustainability of duck raising industry in hermosa. the researcher gathered the following: methods that suite. with the varied topography of hermosa, with 23 barangays spread across its landscape, every area has its resources and a unique capability to adapt the most suitable method to use in every location. data revealed that there are two main methods used by duck raisers, duck house poultry, pagala, or letting duck flock wander in rice fields while some applied both. respondents were also able to identify three main stages/ages of ducks to start with; duckling, locally known as seho, kite, malutog; 6-month-old duck called dumalaga and matured ducks locally referred to as manaon. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 6 published by ideas spread “when the ducks are wandering in the rice fields there is no expense, in other words, you will only spend when there is flooding, you will buy palay”. current duck raiser 16 business expansion to cope and profit. the data revealed that participants utilize opportunities for extending more profit windows within the duck raising industry in the form of duck egg processing, duck meat selling, breeding, and other livestock options. “it is even better because you can extend it. if you are hard-working, you can make salted eggs, you would have more profit. for example, you can sell the fresh egg at seven pesos and if you ferment the eggs, you can sell it for nine fifty, like that”. current duck raiser 5 “there is no problem with duck raising. since i didn’t start with ducklings, i prefer mature ones that have already been to poultry. i don’t have any problems, i don’t lose, i just buy it, like for 90 pesos. if i want to sell it cull, i can sell it for 100, it is like i already benefit from the eggs and the meat”. current duck raiser 22 “i never stopped. every year i get new ones. i don’t get loans but this time i have pigs and 45 days of chicken. so that when my duck is in molting, with the chicken, it would take a month and i’ll earn a profit, in the pigs, about three to four months”. current duck raiser 24 community spirit. data revealed that duck egg production and processing in the town of hermosa were among families, friends, and communities that established camaraderie and good working relationships over the years. they practically grew up together sharing experiences and assistance they may extend as the needs arise. “i buy eggs, that’s the help i can extend with my fellow duck raiser. of course, if you are a duck raiser, then you don’t have a buyer to purchase your eggs, it’s nothing. during those times, our buyers declined because it cannot be disposed of”. former duck raiser 3 “we are getting tired already, at my age, i don’t want to do it anymore. but i pity the people, they won’t have anything to sell, so i still do it. every day they buy rice to feed their families from the profit they make. they are complaining too”. current duck egg processor; balutan3 “we are planning, that by december when we release ducklings, i will take him (whose poultry was washed out from the flood) as an assistant, then i will give him 200 heads because that was 700. that’s what the plan with my husband”. current duck raiser 24 “of course, you are to seek permission with the farm owner, and when it’s time for them to plant rice, we will look for a different one”. current duck raiser 10 “it is also with how you mingle with the neighboring farm when tending to ducks in the field”. current duck raiser 20 understanding duck characteristics. data revealed that participants over the number of years of experience and acquired knowledge from their parents were able to gauge the needs of the ducks as they tend to them and respond to the required care to maximize productivity while being able to work with the resources available to them. “ducks are sensitive; if cats, dogs, or chickens went in their pen the production of eggs will decrease”. current duck egg processor; balutan3 “problem there are animals like dogs, because when you leave them in the rice field, then there were stray dogs, they will kill the ducks. that’s the second problem of the ducks, the dogs”. current duck raiser 19 “when they get disturbed, they won’t have any eggs. you are to watch out for everything, if there’s a dog, anything, including people”. current duck raiser 10 “also, i only allow one person to enter their pen, my employee. even in clothes they only want one color of the person who enters. they know the scent; we can try to enter and they will be disturbed. but if he will enter, the ducks even go run after him”. current duck raiser 23 “also, when it’s the season for molting, there, the egg production is low”. current duck raiser 8 “in duck raising, when the weather changes the egg production will decrease”. current duck processor balutan 3 4. discussion based on the results of the study it can be reckoned that the duck raising industry in the town of hermosa has as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 7 published by ideas spread been part of the growing up years of the participants and has greatly influenced their choice of livelihood. it can be concluded that the second generation of duck raisers in the family take on the business but is unlikely to be favored by the 3rd generation in the family due to shifting careers and varied interests. the duck raising industry remains to be a good source of income and is appreciated by farmers for the quick daily turnout of profits and is suited for daily consumption. however, problems with the price and quality of feeds, flooding, and capitalization were highly observed. duck raising is complementary to rice farming as it serves as an alternative livelihood during rainy seasons. it is likewise evident that residents strengthened resiliency in going about adapting to the threats of flooding is the creation of a scheduling scheme alternating rice farming and duck raising. however, it is not without risks and inconveniences toward maximization of profits. it can be decided that through knowledge acquired from their parents and relatives along with personal experiences, hermosa duck raisers were able to identify best practices, techniques, and methods in duck raising. the duck raising industry in hermosa has declined but cannot be reckoned to have been lost for though some stopped, some are starting while others return on an irregular basis to provide for capitalization in between. it is recommended that succession planning be extended to families with an inclination to take on the business. it is also recommended that the local government unit of hermosa, use the duck raising industry to create a platform for its local tourism and capitalize on the industry that has been associated with the municipality for decades; the provincial government or national agencies may be tapped to see about getting financial support for the duck raisers in terms of capitalization and or government subsidies. with the observed concern on the quality and price of duck feeds; it is recommended that the pool of agricultural experts and scientists through research in state universities and other related agencies see about developing a cheaper and equally adequate type of feeds to alleviate the burden of duck raisers experience on the price of commercial feeds. though the farmers and duck raisers manage to go about the flooding situation, it is recommended that engineering and architecture departments in the university lead a team of researchers that may come up with projects that may help ease flooding problems thru innovative engineering and other similar assistance that can be corroborated with the local government unit of hermosa. a second phase of the study may be made to document the best practices, techniques, and strategies of the duck raisers of hermosa and come up with a practical, experience and practice-based learning manual to help standardize duck farming and to preserve the duck raising culture of hermosa into an outcomes-based book. in terms of the highlighting commodities, it is suggested that the one town one product of the town of hermosa remain to be the iconic delicacy balut, for though there is a decline in the number of duck raisers that produce and process it, the industry itself is still thriving and further measures and in-depth analysis may first be made if a replacement is to be considered. future researchers may also use the results of this study to conduct quantitative research to further investigate leading to the development of a business model in collaboration with the local government for the duck raisers and processors to follow. references dudovskiy, j. 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p169 169 published by ideas spread farmer preference of cassava cultivars in eastern uganda: a choice beyond disease resistance faizo kasule1, peter wasswa1, settumba brasio mukasa1, anthony okiror1, selma ndapewa nghituwamhata1, evalyne chepkoech rono1, clever mukuze1 & agnes wakesho mwang’ombe2 1 college of agricultural and environmental sciences, department of agricultural production, makerere university, p. o. box 7062, kampala, uganda 2 department of plant science and crop protection, university of nairobi, p.o. box 30197-00100, nairobi, kenya correspondence: faizo kasule, college of agricultural and environmental sciences, department of agricultural production, makerere university, kampala, uganda. tel: 256-702-018-571. e-mail: kfay337@gmail.com received: august 20, 2020 accepted: september 1, 2020 published: december 2, 2020 abstract the cassava breeding program in uganda has released many improved cultivars resistant/tolerant to cassava brown streak disease (cbsd) and cassava mosaic disease (cmd). however, many farmers have continued to use cultivars that are susceptible to these major viral diseases but with diverse attributes. there is a need to understand farmers’ cassava cultivar attribute preferences and cbsd, cmd prevalence on the preferred cultivars. a total of 150 cassava farmer fields (74 in bukedea district and 76 in kumi district) located in eastern uganda were evaluated for farmers’ cultivars and attribute preferences, as well as prevalence of cbsd and cmd on the farmer selected cultivars. the eastern region was of interest in the study, due to it-being the major cassava producing area in the country. in addition, 30 cassava plants of different genotypes were chosen randomly along transects of each field and assessed for cbsd/cmd incidence and severity on preferred cultivars. results showed that more than 64% of the farmers in eastern uganda preferred nase 03 due to its sweet taste and high yields, followed by nase 14 (21%) because of its high yields. there was a significant (p≤0.001) correlation between cassava cultivars preferred and cbsd severity (r = -0.56), cbsd incidence (r = -0.53), cmd severity (r = -0.51) and cmd incidence (r = -0.39). in corroboration, the most preferred cultivar, nase 03 was found most susceptible to cbsd and cmd in both bukedea and kumi districts with cbsd incidence of 62.2% and 52.7% and cmd incidence of 56.9% and 34.3% respectively. the results showed that cbsd and cmd are prevalent on farmer preferred cassava cultivars, and that farmer cultivar preference depends not only on disease resistance but also other attributes. keywords: cassava brown streak disease, cassava mosaic disease, preferred cassava cultivars, cassava attributes 1. introduction cassava (manihot esculenta crantz) is an important staple food crop cultivated in many parts of africa by more than 800 million people. in uganda cassava is grown in all parts of the country, with eastern region being the major producer (faostat, 2017; ubos, 2017). however, cassava production in uganda is greatly constrained by a number of biotic factors. of these, cassava brown streak disease (cbsd) caused by cassava brown streak viruses (cbsvs) and cassava mosaic disease (cmd) caused by different species of cassava mosaic geminiviruses (cmgs) are the major viral diseases leading to severe yield losses of up to 100% (legg et al., 2011; legg et al., 2014). the cbsvs and cmgs are transmitted by whitefly bemisia tabaci gennadius, and can also be spread through cuttings, which is exacerbated by the virtue that cassava is vegetatively propagated (maruthi et al., 2005; legg et al., 2015). the vegetative nature of cassava has made management of viral diseases difficult, as often cassava planting materials and the cyclic-propagation of field sourced planting materials in cassava leads to continued virus presence and build up in the environment (maruthi et al., 2005; legg et al., 2014). prevention of cbsd and cmd through breeding for resistance is the most sustainable strategy especially for the resource poor farmers. many cassava cultivars have been released and adopted by farmers throughout uganda, especially in the eastern region which is a major cassava producing area. despite the efforts for cbsd and cmd prevention, these viral diseases are still prevalent in all agro-ecological zones in uganda and most cassava fields usually have both diseases occurring on the same cassava plants at the same time and causing significant yield as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 170 published by ideas spread losses (kawuki et al., 2017). besides, resistant varieties are not the most preferred by farmers as they are deficient in some farmer preferred attributes; farmers in uganda growing cassava prefer a diversifying approach to a directional selection of cassava varieties, keeping some low yielding and disease susceptible varieties but with sweet taste as it is beyond disease resistance when selecting cassava varieties for planting (kawuki et al., 2017; nakabonge et al., 2017). although the cassava breeding program in uganda has developed and released the improved varieties with differential levels of viral disease resistance, these may not be attractive to local farmers unless they possess some specific attributes that farmers consider important. some farmers in the country are still growing local cassava varieties despite the distribution of disease-tolerant and high yielding improved varieties. the duration of cassava cultivation in uganda has evolved over time and undergone both environmental and human selection on farmers’ fields. ugandan farmers commonly grow nase 1, tme 14, nase 03, nase 14, nase 14, nase 18, nase 19, narocass 1, narocass 2 among others as improved varieties (kawuki et al., 2017). many local cassava varieties are also preferred by farmers in uganda; gbasumenge, abiria, mingoro varieties (northwest), kwatamumpale and bukalasa varieties (central), magana and ofumbachai varieties (eastern), nyaraboke and timtim varieties (western uganda) (kawuki et al., 2017; nakabonge et al., 2017). cassava farmers in uganda use clean planting material of their preferred but susceptible cultivars when establishing new fields, which are obtained from seed multiplication blocks that are 250m away from other cassava fields (kasule et al., 2020). it is also clear that farmers have preferences that influence the decisions taken to retain or abandon particular varieties (nakabonge et al., 2017). the performance of many of these released cassava cultivars also deteriorates as viruses build up in the field sourced planting materials (kawuki et al., 2016; mcquaid et al., 2016). in order to design appropriate control measures for cbsd and cmd, prevalence of these diseases needs to be reassessed, especially on farmer preferred cultivars. furthermore, periodic surveys help in providing information for establishing current cbsd and cmd prevalence, farmer preference attributes, deterioration in virus resistance and modelling disease behavior over time in farmer preferred cassava cultivars. therefore, this study explores farmers’ preference attributes for the different cassava cultivars and also determines cbsd and cmd prevalence on farmer preferred cassava cultivars in eastern uganda. 2. materials and methods 2.1 study area the study was conducted in bukedea and kumi districts of eastern uganda – being the major cassava producing area, in 2018 to determine farmers’ preference attributes for the different cassava cultivars and cbsd and cmd prevalence on farmer preferred cassava cultivars. bukedea is located between latitudes 1°20′30.60″n and longitudes 34°02′24″e and kumi is located between latitudes 1°27′38″n and longitudes 33°56′10″e. 2.2 sampling frame the two districts were purposely selected because they are dominantly cassava growing areas in the region. a survey was conducted in the two districts targeting farmers growing cassava, therefore purposive simple random sampling was used. each cassava farm evaluated was spaced at least 1 km from each other (sseruwagi et al., 2004). a total of 150 cassava farmers were evaluated (74 in bukedea district and 76 in kumi district). cassava fields between the ages of six months to two years were selected. cassava fields in the sub-county (territorial division within a district) were used as the sampling frame. overall, five sub-counties were sampled in bukedea district (malera, kabarwa, kidongole, koena and kocheka), where, the number of cassava fields sampled per sub-county were 20, 14, 17, 17, 6 respectively. in kumi district, four sub-counties (ongino, kumi, kanyum and ngero) were surveyed and cassava fields sampled per sub-county were 20, 15, 21 and 20 respectively. 2.3 data collection data were collected through observations and interviews with cassava farmers using a structured questionnaire to record variables which included; farmer attributes for cassava cultivar preference, preferred cultivars, cbsd/cmd incidence and severity. within each cassava field, 30 cassava plants of different genotypes were chosen randomly along transects of a field and assessed for farmer preference, cbsd/cmd incidence and severity. each cassava plant was an observational unit and farmer preferred cultivars were noted. for cbsd severity, the assessment was done using foliar and stem symptoms, and was based on a scale of 1 – 5 (gondwe et al., 2003). where 1 = no apparent symptoms; 2 = slight foliar feathery chlorosis and no stem lesions; 3 = pronounced foliar feathery chlorosis, mild stem lesions, and no dieback; 4 = severe foliar feathery chlorosis, severe stem lesions, and no dieback; and 5 = defoliation, severe stem lesions, and dieback. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 171 published by ideas spread cmd severity was assessed using a 1 -5 severity scale (iita, 1990). where 1 = no symptoms observed (shoot healthy); 2 = mild chlorotic pattern on most leaves, mild distortions at the bases of most leaves, with the remaining parts of the leaves and leaflets appearing green and healthy; 3 = a pronounced mosaic pattern on most leaves, with narrowing and distortion of the lower one-third of most leaves; 4 = severe mosaic distortion of two-thirds of most leaves, with general reduction in leaf size and some stunting of shoots; and 5 = very severe mosaic symptoms on all leaves, with distortion, twisting, and severe reduction in leaf size in most leaves, accompanied by severe stunting of plants. the cbsd and cmd incidence data were obtained from the number of plants showing foliar disease symptoms, expressed as a percentage of the total number of plants assessed for each district. 2.4 data processing and analyses the collected data on the cbsd and cmd severity, and farmer preferred cassava cultivars were subjected to analysis of variance using genstat 14th edition. averages for preferred cassava cultivars were used to generate graphs using microsoft excel (microsoft corporation 2016) software. comparisons of means were made using fisher's protected least significant difference (lsd) at p≤ 0.05. correlation analysis using genstat 14th edition was also done to establish the relationship between farmer cultivar preference with cbsd and cmd prevalence, to assess virus presence on farmer preferred cultivars. 3. results 3.1 cassava farmer preference attributes used in selecting preferred cultivars in bukedea and kumi districts of eastern uganda from the survey, the farmers from eastern uganda in both bukedea and kumi districts mostly preferred nase 03, with percentage rating of 70.3% and 64.6% respectively followed by nase 14 with 17.5% and 25% respectively (figure 1). narocass 1 was the least preferred in bukedea with 2.7% while nase 19 was the least preferred in kumi with 2.6% (figure 1). figure 1. cassava cultivars preferred by farmers in bukedea (blue)and kumi (orange) districts of eastern uganda. nase 03 was the most preferred followed by nase 14 while nase 19 and narocass 1 were the least preferred it was clear that farmers in bukedea and kumi districts preferred improved cassava cultivars basing mostly on attributes of sweet taste, good disease tolerance, good storability in the ground, high yields, early maturity among others (table 1). the percentage for the different attributes farmers in eastern uganda put into consideration when selecting cassava cultivars are shown in table 1. nase 03 was mostly preferred because of sweet taste and high yielding attribute while nase 14 was preferred because of high yielding and good disease resistance attributes (table 1). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 172 published by ideas spread table 1. attributes preferred by farmers for the different cassava cultivars in eastern uganda attribute farmer preferred cassava cultivars in eastern uganda nase 03 nase 14 tme 14 nase 19 narocass 1 high yielding 16.67 31.25 0 42.86 20 very good storability in the ground 12.5 3.13 60 0 0 good cooking quality 9.38 0 0 0 0 sweet taste 26.04 12.5 0 0 0 very early maturing 5.2 9.38 40 0 0 increased disease tolerance 9.38 3.13 0 0 0 very good disease resistance 2.08 21.87 0 57.14 80 good flour quality 8.33 9.37 0 0 0 good marketability 10.42 9.37 0 0 0 3.2 incidence and severity for cbsd and cmd in bukedea and kumi districts in eastern uganda cbsd and cmd were prevalent in all sub-counties in both bukedea and kumi districts (table 2). the presence of cbsd and cmd were observed in the local cultivars/landraces and the improved cultivars. in both districts, dual infection with cbsd and cmd was observed. mean cbsd severity was higher than that of cmd in both bukedea and kumi districts (table 2). cbsd was severer in bukedea than in kumi with a mean severity of 3.2 compared to 3.0 respectively. cmd was also more severe in bukedea with average severity score of 2.8 than in kumi with average severity score of 2.5 (table 2). similarly, there was a high incidence of both cbsd and cmd in all sub-counties in both bukedea and kumi districts (table 2). there was higher incidence of both cbsd and cmd in bukedea than in kumi district. the cbsd incidence was 53% and 48.1% in bukedea and kumi respectively while the average cmd incidence was 43.9% and 29.8% in bukedea and kumi respectively (table 2). table 2. cassava brown streak disease and cassava mosaic disease foliar severity and incidence (%) for the different sub counties surveyed in bukedea and kumi districts of eastern uganda bukedea sub counties cbsd cmd severity incidence severity incidence malera 2.9 42.8 2.75 36.8 kabarwa 2.93 48.6 2.79 48.3 kidongole 3.71 58.2 2.94 40.6 koena 3.94 75.9 3.47 74.3 kocheka 2.67 39.4 2.17 19.5 mean 3.2 53 2.8 43.9 lsd(0.05) 0.73 19.02 0.78 18.19 cv (%) 23.7 37.7 28.6 41.3 kumi sub counties cbsd cmd severity incidence severity incidence ongino 3.2 50 2.45 27.3 kumi 2.93 50.2 2.47 29.6 kanyum 2.76 43 2.62 31.6 ngero 3.3 49 2.45 30.7 mean 3.0 48.1 2.5 29.8 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 173 published by ideas spread lsd(0.05) 0.55 13.03 0.56 13.85 cv (%) 28.2 43.3 34.4 73.9 lsd = the least significant difference at p≤0.05, cv = the coefficient of variation 3.3 cbsd and cmd prevalence on preferred cassava cultivars in eastern uganda overall, there were significant differences (p<0.05) between preferred cassava cultivars for both cbsd and cmd severity and incidence in eastern uganda (table 3). both cbsd and cmd were prevalent on farmer preferred cassava cultivars in eastern uganda (table 3). nase 03 (the most preferred cultivar in both bukedea and kumi districts; figure 1) had the highest cbsd severity score of 3.6 in bukedea and 3.3 in kumi, and highest cmd severity score of 3.3 in bukedea and 2.8 in kumi (table 3). cbsd and cmd incidence were highest on nase 03 in both bukedea and kumi with cbsd incidence of 62.2% and 52.7% respectively and cmd incidence of 56.2% and 34.3% respectively (table 3). narocass 1 had the least cbsd and cmd incidence (0%) (table 3), although it was among the least preferred cultivars (figure 1). table 3. cassava brown streak disease and cassava mosaic disease foliar severity and incidence (%) on preferred cassava cultivars in bukedea and kumi districts of eastern uganda cultivar bukedea kumi cbsd cmd cbsd cmd severity incidence severity incidence severity incidence severity incidence narocass 1 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 nase 19 2.0 15.8 1.0 0 2.0 15 1.0 0 tme 14 3.0 34.4 2.0 30 2.7 36.7 2.3 27.8 nase 14 2.8 47.9 1.0 0 2.5 35.4 1.0 0 nase 03 3.6 62.2 3.3 56.9 3.3 52.7 2.8 34.3 mean 2.5 32.1 1.7 17.4 2.3 28 1.6 12.4 lsd (0.05) 1.01 26.61 0.89 28.62 0.86 20.84 0.9 24.78 cv (%) 21.1 34 23.4 48.3 20.7 32.4 28.6 74.3 lsd = the least significant difference at p≤ 0.05, cv = the coefficient of variation narocass 1 was observed to have 0% cmd and cbsd incidence even in situations where some farmers grew it in close proximity to very highly cmd and cbsd susceptible cultivars (figure 2). there was a highly significant correlation between cassava cultivars preferred and cbsd severity (r = -0.56***), cbsd incidence (r = -0.53***), cmd severity (r = -0.51***) and cmd incidence (r = -0.39***) (table 4). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 174 published by ideas spread figure 2. unique observation in a farmer field in bukedea district of eastern uganda; where healthy narocass 1 cultivar depicted as “a” is planted together with cassava brown streak disease and cassava mosaic disease infected nase 03 cultivar as “b”. narocass 1 did not show any disease symptoms neither did it succumb to the two diseases, as was confirmed by pcr/rt-pcr table 1. correlation coefficients between cassava brown streak disease/cassava mosaic disease severity, cassava brown streak disease/cassava mosaic disease incidence (%) and cassava cultivar preferred for eastern uganda cbsd severity cbsd incidence cmd incidence cmd severity cultivar preferred cbsd severity 1 cbsd incidence 0.76*** 1 cmd incidence 0.43*** 0.58*** 1 cmd severity 0.45*** 0.52*** 0.75*** 1 cultivar preferred -0.56*** -0.53*** -0.39*** -0.51*** 1 *** = p≤ 0.001 4. discussion this study assessed cassava cultivars on 150 cassava farms from eastern uganda (bukedea and kumi districts), which is the major cassava producing area (ubos, 2017). results showed that the farmers growing cassava in bukedea and kumi districts preferred nase 03 cultivar (released in 1993) followed by nase 14 (released in 2011) while nase 19 (released in 2011) and narocass 1 (released in 2015) were the least preferred. these findings are in agreement with observations by kawuki et al. (2017) who also noted that nase 03 and nase 14 cultivars were the most predominant in eastern uganda. preference for nase 03 and nase 14 cultivars by farmers was determined by a number of attributes that the cultivars possess (table 1) which include; sweet taste, good cooking quality, high yielding, very early maturing, good marketability, good storability in the ground and tolerance to diseases among others (nakabonge et al., 2017). narocass 1 variety was the least preferred and yet among the recently released improved cultivars with increased disease tolerance. no doubt suggesting the need a b as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 175 published by ideas spread for multi trait breeding to introgress attributes like sweet taste, good cooking quality, good marketability among others in newly released improved cassava cultivars to result in a trait balance, suiting the end beneficiary of any breeding program, which is the farmer. the top four attributes based on percentage preference according to the farmers were; sweet taste, high yields, good storability and disease resistance, in that order. the preferred cultivars however, showed susceptibility to major cassava viral diseases. this showed high regard for produce quality rather than production benefits and indicated that farmers may have limited information on effects of viral diseases on cassava, let alone their most preferred attributes. symptoms characteristic of cbsd and cmd were observed on farmers’ cassava cultivars during this study indicating the presence of cbsd and cmd in eastern uganda. the high incidence of both viruses among the preferred cultivars (table3) in both districts indicated that the two diseases were still important in the region. the high prevalence of cbsd and cmd could be due to the distribution of the common vector, whitefly. bukedea and kumi districts are at a low altitude characterized by conditions that favor high multiplication of whiteflies, which are the vectors for cbsv and cmv (jeremiah et al., 2015, mwila et al., 2018). other researchers have also correlated high cbsd prevalence to high whitefly numbers and evidence suggests that white fly, b. tabaci has changed and has become better adapted to cassava grown in environmental conditions prevalent at this altitude (jeremiah et al., 2015; mwila et al., 2018). additionally, alicai et al. (2007) observed that the re-emergence of cbsd in uganda coincided with generally high whitefly populations in areas where cbsd was highly prevalent. furthermore, the periods of spread of cbsd at coastal tanzania closely coincided with surges in whitefly populations (maruthi et al., 2005). therefore, whiteflies may be responsible for the high prevalence of cbsd and cmd in eastern uganda. however, some researchers have considered transmission by whiteflies to be low (hillocks et al., 2001). therefore, the other possible reason for the high cbsd and cmd prevalence in eastern uganda is the high rate of exchange of planting materials among farmers without due consideration of the disease status of the planting materials. since cassava is a clonally propagated crop, the exchange of planting material across cassava growing regions contributes significantly to virus accumulation and dissemination leading to high disease incidence (legg et al., 2015; kawuki et al., 2016; nakabonge et al., 2017). in addition, farmers’ preference for the sweet yet susceptible cultivars showed the need for continuous supply of clean planting material of the preferred cultivars while a more permanent solution is sought for. this is because cyclic-propagation of farmer field sourced cassava cuttings that are not obtained from clean planting material sourced from seed multiplication blocks that are 250m away from other cassava fields leads to continuous virus presence and build up in the environment (maruthi et al., 2005; kasule et al., 2020). there was significant negative correlation among cassava cultivars preferred and cbsd/cmd severity and incidence. nase 03 was found to have more prevalence of and most susceptible to cbsd and cmd, yet the variety was most preferred by the farmers. meanwhile narocass 1 was found most resistant to the two diseases and yet was among the least preferred by farmers. our findings indicated that farmers preferred sweet and high starch taste qualities which may be linked to pathogen presence and spread culminating in disease incidence and severity. the sweet varieties were more susceptible to cbsv and cmv infections than the bitter varieties documented by okpara et al. (2014) and nakabonge et al. (2017). the findings support those of nakabonge et al. (2017), where preference for cultivars was determined by a number of factors including sweet taste, good cooking quality, high yielding, early maturing, high marketability, good storability in the ground and tolerance to diseases among others. furthermore, the susceptibility of popular cultivars to major viral diseases showed that farmers lacked accurate information on the symptoms, causes, spread and management of the cassava viruses and this could exacerbate the virus prevalence in susceptible cultivars (alicai et al., 2007). this could also explain why disease resistance is lower among the top preferred attributes. narocass 1 is a relatively new released cassava cultivar with excellent disease resistance and this explains the low disease prevalence observed for this cultivar. the low disease prevalence for narocass 1 was also observed by mukiibi et al. (2019). it is prudent that much attention should be given to this cultivar to improve its other attributes and avail it to farmers but also that reassessments on the variety are made to show its stability. in addition, both cbsd and cmd incidences were highest in bukedea than kumi probably because many farmers in bukedea were growing the cbsd and cmd susceptible cultivar nase 03. on the other hand, cbsd prevalence was found to be higher than that of cmd in the districts sampled in eastern uganda. this difference could be because the spread of cbsv and cmv in cassava depends on the cultivar and virus or virus strain (alicai et al. 2007, 2016). also genotype by environment interactions coupled with difference in number of whiteflies led to differential viral disease prevalence in eastern uganda (jeremiah et al., 2015; mwila et al., 2018). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 176 published by ideas spread furthermore, average cbsd and cmd prevalence varied among cassava cultivars and these were consistent with those reported in other studies by kawuki et al. (2017). this was because the farmers’ cassava fields were found close to each other increasing the failure to prevent vectors from spreading the viruses. according to kasule et al. (2020) cassava fields located in areas that are hotspots for cbsd and cmd and with a high whitefly infestation should be 250m. in cognizant of these challenges farmers face, breeding still remains as a top priority in cultivar improvement. the observed variations in cbsd and cmd prevalence among cassava cultivars could be because of the remarkable progress in genetic improvement of cassava for disease resistance (kawuki et al., 2016). 5. conclusions the study reports that nase 03 and nase 14 cassava cultivars were the most predominant in studied districts of eastern uganda. this showed that farmers have adopted improved varieties from breeding programs. however, nase 03 which was found to be the most preferred due to its sweet taste and high yields, was also found to be the most susceptible to cbsd and cmd, implying that it is beyond disease resistance when farmers select cassava cultivars for planting in eastern uganda. the more recently released narocass 1 variety was the least preferred and yet had the least prevalence of cbsd and cmd. although this illustrates the remarkable progress in genetic improvement of cassava for disease resistance, it is recommended that other farmer preferred attributes be incorporated in such improved varieties through multi trait breeding to improve on farmers’ adoption. 6. acknowledgement the authors are grateful to the regional universities forum for capacity building in agriculture (ruforum) for funding this research through the cassava community action research programmes plus (carp+). we thank the farmers of kumi and bukedea districts of eastern uganda who participated in this study. conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. references alicai, t., ndunguru, j., sseruwagi, p., tairo, f., okao-okuja, g., nanvubya, r., kiiza, l., kubatko, l., kehoe, m. a., & boykin, l. m. 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(2017). uganda bureau of statistics 2017 statistical abstract. ministry of finance, planning and economic development, government of uganda. retrieved from https://www.ubos.org.2017.statistical copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v3n1p1 1 published by ideas spread effect of fertigation and foliar application of seaweed’s bio stimulant on banana yield edouard tabet1,2, reem al-haf2, chadi hosri2, zahi zind3, lina farah1 & dalida darazy2 1 crfa: centre de recherche et formation agricole, lebanese university, ghazir, lebanon 2 faculty of agriculture and veterinary medicine, lebanese university, beirut, lebanon 3 van iperen international b v, westmaas, smidsweg 24-3260 ah oud-beijerland, netherlands correspondence: lina farah, crfa: centre de recherche et formation agricole/ lebanese university, ghazir, lebanon. tel: 961-376-1116. received: january 15, 2021 accepted: january 25, 2021 online published: january 29, 2021 abstract in order to shed light on the effect of the seaweed ascophyllum nodosum (l.) bio stimulant on the banana fruit, foliar application (fo), fertigation(f1) and a mix of both interventions (m) were done during 2018-2019 season on banana plants grown in south lebanon compared with control (ctrl). the period between flowering and harvest, the bunch weight, the weight and dimensions of fruit, were measured during the study. the results showed that the shortest period between flowering and harvest was observed on samples treated through foliar application (fo), less with fertigation and then the mix of both (m). those treatments were very effective in stimulating the weight of bunch and length of fruit, while a significant increase in the weight of fruit was noticed when both applications were done together (m). all treated modalities showed better performance compared with control. there was no difference in the diameter of fruit between all treatments. therefore, the application of eco-friendly seaweed-based bio stimulant would be beneficial for the time of harvesting, and the size of banana fruits. keywords: ascophyllum nodosum (l.), bio stimulant, banana, yield 1. introduction banana (musa sp.), is an important fruit crop in sub-tropical and tropical countries. it is native to tropical south and southeast asia, cultivated in the world in an area of 4.8 million ha with global production of 99.99 million metric tons (dombale et al., 2018). banana cultivation in lebanon is widespread, in general, in coastal areas and in the south in particular. export value of lebanon bananas, including plantains, fresh or dried was more than 12 million $ in 2014 (un, 2014). however, due to syrian war, the banana exports dropped from 38,000 to 30,000 tons in 2017 (fao, 2017). concerning world imports, the import value of bananas in lebanon including plantains, fresh or dried was 135,060$ in 2014 with an estimated weight of 198 tons (un, 2014). banana farming in lebanon had been booming. however, in the recent period, because of some climate-related problems, difficulty in the discharge of production, and spread of high levels of diseases with a continuous rise in pesticides’ cost, the quality of banana decreased and banana cultivation isn’t competitive in the market as before. this caused the orientation of farmers towards other profitable crops (avocado, citrus), but they didn’t have experience in that. thus they moved back to banana culturing, and tried to plant more areas to receive higher productivity. therefore, the aim of our study was to improve the production and the quality of banana culture. it was based on applying the brown algae, ascophyllum nodosum (l.), as a growth bio stimulant to confirm its effect on the productivity and quality of bananas. by accomplishing these objectives, we would contribute to higher banana land productivity and encouraging farmers to keep on planting bananas, that can promote the evolution of sustainable banana cultivation in lebanon. 2. material and methods this study was carried out during 2018, 2019 on a 130 banana plants (spanish variety) at adloun, a coastal village at south lebanon at 61 km from beirut with geographical coordination of elevation: 127 m above sea level, latitude: 33.41ºn and longitude: 35.27ºe. the plants were cultivated at spacing 2 m x 3 m. drip irrigation system was used. all horticultural practices already applied in the orchard, were applied as usually implemented by local farmers. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 2 published by ideas spread the bio stimulant van iperen stim pure aa produced by van iperen is composed mainly from pure seaweed (ascophyllum nodosum) at 85%, amino acid (6%), k2o (5%), and nitrogen (2%). 2.1 planned experimental design the plot was divided into four modalities: control (ctrl) by irrigating banana with only water. fertigation (f1), the bio stimulant liquid was used through the irrigation system at a dosage of 500 ml per deca (1000m2). the first application was done ten weeks before flower emergence, followed by a four monthly treatments. foliar application (f0), the bio stimulant liquid was sprayed on the leaves at a dosage of 200 ml per deca (1000m2). the first application was done ten weeks before flower emergence, followed by a second one 20 days later. mixed (m) application where both fertigation and foliar application where used. 2.2 parameters of the experiment the studied parameters were the time between flower emergence and harvest, the bunch weight, and the finger weight and dimensions. time between flower emergence and harvest the time (in days) between flower emergence and harvest for each plot was collected by monitoring the dates of flower emergence and harvesting for each sample, and calculating the time in days between them. bunch weight the banana bunch weight (kg) of each sample was measured using a digital balance after they were harvested at bunch maturation stage, when the fingers reached the full mature stage during the season. weight of finger the finger weight (g) was calculated by dividing the total weight of the bunch on the number of fingers per bunch. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐵𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 1000𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 dimensions of finger the dimensions of finger (length, diameter and perimeter) were measured in (cm) using a measuring tape. 2.3 statistical analysis a statistical analysis was performed using one-way anova in spss 24.0 software (ibm corporation, armonk, new york, usa) and means were compared using tukey’s b and tukey hsd tests at 5% level. the results of this study were expressed as means. 3. results and discussion 3.1 time between flower emergence and harvest the average period between flower emergence and harvest for treatments ctrl, f0, f1 and m was 178.50 days, 126.91 days, 156.83 days and 148.08 days respectively. according to the obtained results (table 1), the average period between flowering and harvest in treatments f0 was slightly lower than that in treatments m and f1 respectively where there was a trend close to significant difference. on the other hand, our results showed that there was an interesting trend between the treatment ctrl and the two treatments, m and f1 at p>0.1 where the average period between flowering and harvest in m and f1 was lower than that of the ctrl. the only clear significant difference was between treatments f0 and ctrl in which p=0.005 where the samples in f0 clearly needed less time to be harvested after flowering than that of the ctrl. a shorter interval between flower emergence and harvest was observed in the trial done in west africa by van iperen where the same product was used on banana plants. these results agreed with the study done by roshdy (2014), who showed that the time of flowering was significantly advanced when spraying potassium silicate and seaweed on grand naine banana. these findings were also clarified by soliman et al. (2000) and neumann and zur-nieden (2001), noting that the advancing effect of silicon and seaweed extract on flowering time might be attributed to their essential role in balancing the ratio between carbohydrates and nitrogen in favor of flowering. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 3 published by ideas spread table 1. average time between flower and harvest, bunch weigh and finger dimensions treatments number of samples time between flower emergence and harvest (day) bunch finger dimensions weight (kg) weight (g) length (cm) diameter (cm) perimeter (cm) f0 12 126.9a 27.2b 132.0ab 13.52b 3.49 12.21b m 12 148.1ab 28.7b 135.8ab 13.36b 3.44 11.63a f1 12 156.8ab 28.3b 133.7ab 13.38b 3.48 11.65a ctrl 6 178.5b 22.5a 115.8a 12.68a 3.48 11.58a *in columns the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of significant difference at p>0.05 3.2 bunch weight the results of the weight of bunch for each plot are shown in table 1. the average bunch weight for treatments ctrl, f0, f1 and m was 22.45kg, 27.15 kg, 28.28 kg, and 28.68 kg respectively. based on the above results (table 1), the average bunch weight of treatment f0 was slightly lower than that of treatments f1 and m respectively where the difference wasn’t significant between them. however, the bunch of samples treated by van iperen stim pure aa liquid through the 3 types of the mentioned applications were significantly heavier than that of the ctrl p<0.05. the improving effect of seaweed extract on the yield and its attributes came to an agreement with those obtained by roshdy (2014), where the single application of seaweed extracts was significantly accompanied with improving the bunch weight. according to the study of eman a. abd el moniem et al. (2008), the increase in bunch weight was due to the great benefits of algal extract on amending the plants with their requirements from organic and mineral nutrients. indeed, our results confirm that in banana crops, foliar spray application is as effective as the application by root drench. similar increase in weight has been found with other seaweed extracts (kumari et al., 2011; zodape et al., 2011), and on other crops sprayed with a. nodosum extract including cucumber, watermelon and pepper (abdelmawgoud et al., 2010). these results were in conformity with those obtained by el-shamaa (2001), hosam el-deen et al. (2001) on williams banana, abd el-aziz (2002), abd el-moniememan and radwan (2003), ahmed et al. (2003) and hammam (2003). according to the study of ali et al. (2015), a. nodosum extract conduct a significant increase by 63% in fruit yields, with 0.5% of a.nodosum extract. this increase in fruit yield was due to the bio-stimulant and bio-fertilisation effects. 3.3 weight of finger the results of weight of finger for each plot are shown in table 1. the average weight of finger for treatments ctrl, f0, f1 and m was 115.75 g, 132.03 g, 133.74 g and 135.75 g respectively. the average weight of finger in ctrl was slightly lower than that of treatments f0 and f1 which showed approached significant difference between the ctrl and treatments f0 and f1 in which p was approximately 0.1. on the other side, the average weight of fingers in treatment m was slightly greater than that of treatments f0 and f1 which also showed no significant difference between them in which p>0.05. we can note that the only significant difference appeared between treatments m and ctrl, where the average weight of finger treated by both fertigation and foliar application (mix) was significantly higher compared with that of the control. similar results about other crops were reported by little and spann (2010), neily et al. (2010), ross and holden, (2010) and nahed et al. (2011) where the highest amounts of different fruit yield was recorded from a. nodosum extract usage. based on the study of norrie j. (2014), the application of ascophyllum nodosum (l.) under field conditions, showed 8% yield increase in tomato trials, 30% weight gain in pepper trials,25% in bananas,31% in grapes and 7% in apples. koyama et al. (2012) confirmed that a. nodosum causes the stimulation of vegetative growth in the early stages and promoted reproductive growth in the later stages of crop development, the increased fruit yield is suggested to be partly due to increased translocation of nutrients in the large stems. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 1; 2021 4 published by ideas spread in other crops, some authors noticed an increase in fruit weight sprayed with a. nodosum seaweed extract (abetz and young, 1983, jeannin et al., 1991; danesh et al., 2012; bozorgi, 2012) or with extracts from other seaweed species (khan et al., 2009; briceno-dominguez et al., 2014; satish et al., 2015). 3.4 dimensions of finger the dimensions of finger consist of the average length, average diameter and average perimeter. 3.4.1 average length of finger the results for the average length of finger for each plot are shown in table 1. the average length of fingers for treatments ctrl, m, f1 and f0 was 12.68 cm, 13.35 cm, 13.37 cm, and 13.51 cm, respectively. according to table 1, the average length of fingers in m was slightly lower than that in f1 and f0 which showed no significant difference between them. we can note that the foliar, fertigation and mix (foliar with fertigation) applications of van iperen stim pure aa liquid were clearly responsible for the increase in the length of finger in which the average length of finger in ctrl was significantly lower than that of f0, f1 and m at p<0.05. similar results about eggplants and different plants were reported by bozorgi (2012) where the highest fruit length of eggplant was 34.42 cm recorded from 2 g/l of a. nodosum extract applied by foliar spraying application. 3.4.2 average diameter of finger the results for the average diameter of finger for each plot are shown in table1. the average diameter for treatments m, f1, ctrl, and f0 was 3.44 cm, 3.48 cm, 3.48 cm, and 3.49 cm respectively. the average diameter of finger (table 1) in treatment m was slightly lower than that of treatments f1, ctrl and f0 which showed no significant difference between them at p>0.05. thus, the application of seaweed bio stimulant has no effect on banana average diameter of fingers. 3.4.3 average perimeter of finger the results for the average perimeter of finger for each plot are shown in table 1. the average perimeter for treatments ctrl, m, f1 and f0 was 11.58 cm, 11.63 cm, 11.65 cm, and 12.21 cm respectively. the average perimeter (table 1) in treatment ctrl was slightly lower than that of treatments m and f1 which showed no significant difference between them at p>0.05. 4. conclusions van iperen’s ascophyllum nodosum (l.) bio stimulant product used clearly showed effects on reducing period between the banana flowering and harvest time, with a significant increase in bunch weight disregarding the method of treatment (foliar, fertigation or mixed application). even though we noticed a slight increase in fruit length of 5.83%, no significant correlation was established between the increased weight and the dimensions of the fruit. this leads us to conclude that the average increase in finger weight at 15.57% is actually more due to an increase in fruit density rather than fruit size. the application of bio stimulant in the mediterranean coastal area can be economically justified because of increase of yield and financial returns. references abdel-mawgoud, a. m. r., tantaway, a., hafez, m. m., & habib, h. a. m. 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(2011). foliar application of seaweed sap as biostimulant for enhancement of yield and quality of tomato (lycopersicon esculentum mill). journal of scientific and industrial research, 70, 215–219. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p49 49 published by ideas spread effect of foliar application of urea on growth and yield of short durative lentil variety (bari masur-9) md. shahriar kobir1, md. harun-or-rashid2 & md. hafijur rahman1 1 bangladesh agricultural research institute, bangladesh 2 international maize and wheat improvement center (cimmyt), bangladesh office, bangladesh correspondence: md. shahriar kobir, bangladesh agricultural research institute, bangladesh. e-mail: shahriar1302027@gmail.com received: june 26, 2020 accepted: july 17, 2020 online published: july 20, 2020 abstract an experiment was conducted at regional agricultural research station, jashore, bangladesh during rabi season of (2019-2020) to evaluate the effect of foliar application of urea on growth and yield of short durative lentil variety (bari masur-9). the experiment was conducted in split plot design with three replications where time of urea spraying, p1= at branching stage, p2= at pod initiation stage were distributed in main plots and doses of urea spraying t1= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea, t2= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal, t3= application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying, t4= application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying, t5= application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying were distributed in sub plots. the highest plant height, number of pods per plant were obtained from application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea spraying at pod initiation stage. the highest seed yield was also found from application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea spraying at pod initiation stage followed by application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal and application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying at branching stage. plant height, pods per plant and days to maturity showed positive correlation with seed yield. on the other hand days to flower and plants per m2 has no linear relationship with seed yield. the highest marginal benefit cost ratio (3.29) was recorded from application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage. so based on findings to increase the yield potential of bari masur-9 foliar application of urea may be a tool and hence application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage may be consider as the best treatment. keyword: foliar urea spray, lentil, pulses, bari masur-9 1. introduction besides the main crops pulses also play a major role to minimize the human food needs. lentil (locally masur) is an important food source for the people especially in the subcontinent (hamayun et al., 2011). pulses are important source of protein particularly for the poor people and provides nutritional security (das and jana, 2015). in the year 2018-19, bangladesh produced about 0.17 million tons of lentil from its 0.14 million hectares land (bbs, 2019) and average productivity was only 1.3 tons ha-1 (ais, 2020). bari masur-9 is a recent released variety of lentil in bangladesh by bangladesh agricultural research institute which is a short durative variety whose average life cycle is about 90 days. a huge number of cultivable land became remain fallow in between transplanted aman and boro rice in bangladesh but after releasing this variety this problem may be solved somehow (azad et al., 2019). but as this varieties average yield (1.19-1.52 tha-1) is very much lower than the other on season varieties, adaptation and acceptance of this variety to the farmer’s is not satisfactory. moreover the area of lentil cultivation in the country is decreasing day by day because of it’s poor yield (salam et al., 2019). in addition farmers are growing lentil under resource constraints situation.the major constraints are being poor crop establishment and drought in the later stages of crop growthand it affects the productivity. farmers are very much habituated to apply basal dose of fertilizer in lentil, which ultimately results in poor yield (ram and punia, 2018). so time to time measures have to apply to increase the yield of released variety. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 50 published by ideas spread foliar application is regarded as a preferred solution when quick supply of nutrients is hindered or the soil conditions are not conducive for the absorption of nutrients (salisbury and ross, 1985). pods and seeds development are mainly dependent on nitrogen and carbon accumulation, prior to podding (davies et al., 2000) but root fails to absorb nitrogen from dry soil. this technique helps the nutrients to reach the site of food synthesis directly, leading no wastage and quick supply of food and thereby reduce the requirement of fertilizers. photosynthesis gets reduced due to depletion of nitrogen in leaves, senescence starts earlier in lentil before completion of maturity which break the source to sink relation, thereby the yield reduces. foliar nutrition can hasten the growth of a crop by delaying senescence. the positive effect of supplying lentil with supplementary nitrogen was found to have beneficial effects on enhancing growth and increasing seed yield by quick supply of nitrogen (das and jana, 2015). therefore foliar application of water soluble fertilizers like urea as supplementary nitrogen or a balanced dose of nutrients may be a very good option to increase the yield of bari masur-9 as well as other cultivars. 2. materials and methods the experiment was conducted at regional agricultural research station, jashore, bangladesh during rabi 20192020 to investigate the “effect of foliar application of urea on growth and yield of short durative lentil variety (bari masur-9)”. the methods and materials that had been used in the experiment will be described in this chapter: experimental site: the site where the experiment has conducted is located on 23°18' latitude and 89°18' longitude with an elevation of 19 m from sea level (kobir et al., 2020). the experimental site is undergoes the agro ecological zone (aez-11) namely ‘high ganges river floodplain’ (bbs, 2019). soil: textural class of the experimental site’s soil was sandy clay loam in nature and general soil type of the site is ‘calcareous dark grey floodplain’ soil. the soil contain 1.7% organic matter and the soil is slightly alkaline in reaction (table 1). table 1. particle size distribution, textural class, bulk density, ph and soil organic matter of initial soil of the experimental field soil depth (cm) particle size distribution textural class bulk density (g cm-3) ph som (%) sand% silt% clay% 0-15 53.00 24.28 22.72 sandy clay loam 1.42 7.6 1.7 source: soil science division, bangladesh agricultural research institute climate: annual average temperature of the experimental site is 15.40c to 34.60c and annual rainfall is 1537 mm (wikipedia). the prevailed average temperature, average humidity and total rainfall during the operation of the experiment is showed in (fig 1): figure 1. weather data of jashore from november 2019may 2020 30.1 6.1 37.3 5.4 50.2 71.7 351 27 24 25 27 32 34 33 64 58 54 48 36 36 54 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 20 40 60 80 100 nov-19 dec-19 jan-20 feb-20 mar-20 apr-20 may-20 to ta l p re ci pi ta tio n a v. h um id ity & te m p. total precipitation (mm) av. temperature (c) av. humidity (%) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 51 published by ideas spread planting material: the planting material that had been used in this experiment was bari masur-9. bari masur9 is a short durative lentil variety that can be cultivated in the fallow period of between transplanted aman and boro rice. seeds of the planting material was collected from pulses research centre, ishurdi, pabna. average life cycle of this variety is 85-90 days, in addition this variety is tolerante to stemphylium blight disease and average yield is 1.19-1.52 tha-1. the most special character of this cultivar is that it is fe and zn enriched in nature (azad et al.,2019). experimental treatment: the experiment was conducted considering the following factors factors details of the treatments factor a: phases of urea spraying p1 urea spraying at branching stage p2 urea spraying at pod initiation stage factor b: doses of urea spraying t1 t1= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea t2 t2= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal t3 t3= application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying t4 t4= application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying t5 t5= application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying experimental design and layout: the research was conducted in split plot design where various stages of urea spraying distributed in main plots and different doses of urea spraying distributed in sub plots. thus total number of plot was (2*5*3) = 30 and each plot size was (1.5*4) m2 = 6 m2. crop husbandry: at first the land was ploughed three times by tractor drawn cultivator followed by rotavator till the soil appeared as fine tilth. then collected seeds of bari masur-9 was treated with a fungicide provax-200 wp@2.5 gkg-1 seed. seeds were sown in continuous line sowing method @ 70-80 kgha-1 where line to line distance was 30 cm. fertilizers were applied as per the proposed treatments method and doses (table 2). table 2. different doses of urea spray as per proposed treatments treatmen t urea basal (kgha-1) urea spray (kgha-1) tsp (kgha-1) mop (kgha-1) gypsum (kgha-1) boric acid (kgha-1) t1 0 0 80 30 50 7 t2 40 0 80 30 50 7 t3 30 10 80 30 50 7 t4 10 30 80 30 50 7 t5 20 20 80 30 50 7 two times weeding was done at 30 days after sowing and 60 days after sowing, respectively. crops were harvested at proper harvest maturity and harvested crops were sun dried for three days and then threshed on floor. collection of experimental data and analyzing statistically: data of days to flower, days to maturity, plants per m2 at harvest, pods per plant at harvest, plant height at harvest and grain yield was collected from each plot and then collected data were converted to per hactre. then the collected data were tabulized and a statistical software statistix-10 was used to calculate analysis of variance and means of the measured parameters were compared using lsd at alpha = 0.05. 3. results effect of different phases of urea spraying: different phases of urea spraying showed significant variation among the parameters except plants per m2, pods per plant and yield (table 3). the highest days to flower (40), days to as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 52 published by ideas spread maturity (94), plant height (32.93 cm) was recorded from p1 (at branching stage), p2 (at pod initiation stage) and p2 (at pod initiation stage) phases respectively (table 3). on the other hand the lowest days to flower (39), days to maturity (92) and plant height (32.43 cm) was recorded from p2 (at pod initiation stage), p1 (at branching stage) and p1 (at branching stage) phases, respectively (table 03). table 3. yield and yield contributing characters of lentil affected by different phases of spraying phases days to flowering days to maturity plant height (cm) plants m-2 (no.) podsplant-1 (no.) yield (kgha-1) p1 40 92 32.43 161 28 1326 p2 39 94 32.93 161 30 1274 cv (%) 0.80 0.68 7.45 1.68 13.33 6.54 lsd (0.05) 0.49 0.99 3.82 ns ns ns p1= at branching stage, p2= at pod initiation stage effect of different doses of urea spraying: different doses of urea showed significant variation among the parameters except plants per m2 (table 4). the highest days to flower (40) were found from t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) treatment which is similar to t4 (application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying) and t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying) treatments. on the other hand the lowest days to flower (39) were recorded from t1 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea) and t2 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal) treatments. the highest (94) and the lowest (92) days to maturity was found from t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying) and t1 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea) treatment respectively (table 04). the highest plant height (34.75 cm) was observed from t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) treatments and the lowest (28.33) from t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying) treatment. the highest pods per plant (34) was observed from t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) treatments and the lowest (21) from t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying) treatment (table 04). the highest yield (1517.3 kgha-1) was recorded from t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) treatment followed by t2 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal) and t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying) treatments (table 04). on the other hand the lowest yield (1160.8 kgha-1) was found from t1 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea) treatment (table 4). table 4. yield and yield contributing characters of lentil affected by different doses of urea spraying treatments days to flowering days to maturity plant height (cm) plants m-2 (no.) podsplant-1 (no.) yield (kgha-1) t1 39 92 33.20 158 26 1160.8 t2 39 93 33.16 160 32 1400.2 t3 40 93 34.75 164 34 1517.3 t4 40 93 33.96 160 30 1170.7 t5 40 94 28.33 161 21 1252.0 cv (%) 0.95 0.75 10.84 3.96 14.34 7.22 lsd (0.05) 0.46 0.85 4.33 ns 5.01 114.85 t1= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea, t2= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal, t3= application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying, t4= application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 53 published by ideas spread urea by spraying, t5= application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying. effect of different interactions: interaction effect of different phases of urea spraying and different doses of urea spraying showed significant variation among the parameters except days to flower (table 5). the highest plants per m2 (168) and the lowest (152) was found from p2t4 (application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) and p1t4 (basal application of 25% of the urea recommended dose + full dose of other fertilizers during final land preparation and rest of the 75% of urea recommended dose by spraying at branching stage ) interaction effect, respectively (table 05). the highest days to maturity (95) was observed from p2t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) and p2t4 (application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) interaction effect which is statistically similar to p2t1 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea), p2t2 (basal application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal) and p2t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) interaction effect. on the other hand the lowest (91) days to maturity was observed from p1t1 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea) interaction which is statistically similar to p1t2 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal), p1t3 (basal application of 75% of the urea recommended dose + full dose of other fertilizers during final land preparation and rest of the 25% of urea recommended dose by spraying at branching stage) and p1t4 (application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying at branching stage) interaction effect (table 05). the highest (39 cm) and the lowest (23 cm) plant height were observed from p2t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) and p2t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) interaction effect respectively. the highest (38) and the lowest (21) pods per plant was recorded from p2t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) and p2t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) interaction effect respectively (table 05). the highest yield (1625.7 kgha-1) was observed from p2t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) interaction effect followed by p1t5 (application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying at branching stage), p1t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at branching stage) and p2t2 (application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal) interaction effect. on the other hand the lowest yield (1006.3 kgha-1) was observed from p2t4 (application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) interaction effect (table 05). table 5. yield and yield contributing characters of lentil affected by different interaction interactions days to flowering days to maturity plant height (cm) plants m-2 (no.) podsplant-1 (no.) yield (kgha-1) p1t1 39 91 33.20 156 25 1124.3 p1t2 40 91 29.00 161 32 1302 p1t3 40 92 30.50 165 29 1409 p1t4 40 92 35.80 152 30 1334.7 p1t5 40 92 33.67 167 21 1460.7 p2t1 39 94 33.20 159 28 1197.3 p2t2 39 94 37.33 159 32 1498.3 p2t3 39 94 39.00 162 38 1625.7 p2t4 39 95 32.13 168 30 1006.3 p2t5 40 95 23.00 155 21 1043.3 cv (%) 0.95 0.75 10.84 3.96 14.34 7.22 lsd (0.05) 10.51 ns 6.43 3.91 8.28 184.42 p1= at branching stage, p2= at pod initiation stage were distributed in main plots and doses of urea spraying, t1= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea, t2= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal, t3= application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying, t4= application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 54 published by ideas spread urea by spraying, t5= application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying correlation co-efficient and regression equation: plant height (r = 0.65) showed strong positive correlation with grain yield (fig 4), pods per plant (r = 0.5) showed moderate positive correlation with grain yield (fig 5), days to maturity (r = 0.21) showed small positive correlation with grain yield (fig 3). on the other hand days to flower and plants per m2 have non-linear relationship with grain yield (fig 2, 6). figure 2. correlation co-efficient of days to flower vs grain yield (kgha-1) figure 3. correlation co-efficient of days to mature vs grain yield (kgha-1) figure 4. correlation co-efficient of plant height (cm) vs grain yield (kgha-1) y = 29.735x + 328.34 r² = 0.4331 0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45g ra in y ie ld (k gh a1) plant height (cm) y = -28.932x + 3990.8 r² = 0.0487 0 500 1000 1500 2000 90.5 91 91.5 92 92.5 93 93.5 94 94.5 95 95.5 g ra in y ie ld (k gh a1) days to mature 0 500 1000 1500 2000 38.8 39 39.2 39.4 39.6 39.8 40 40.2 g ra in y ie ld (k gh a1) days to flower no linear relationship as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 55 published by ideas spread figure 5. correlation co-efficient of pods plant-1 vs grain yield (kgha-1) figure 6. correlation co-efficient of plants m-2 vs grain yield (kgha-1) economic analysis: the highest amount of grain yield (1625.7 kgha-1), the highest additional yield over practising method (225.7 kg ha-1), the highest additional return (11736.4 bdt ha-1) as well as the highest marginal benefit cost ratio (3.29) was recorded from p2t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) interaction effect (table 6). table 6. partial cost analysis of interactions for different time of urea spraying and different doses of urea spraying in lentil interaction s grain yield (kg ha-1) additional yield (kg ha1) over practising method additional return (bdt ha-1) variable cost (bdt ha1) total variable cost (bdt ha-1) mbcr (over practising method) (labour + sprayer) urea p1t1 1124.3 0 0 0 p1t2 1302 0 560 560 p1t3 1409 107 5564 3000 560 3560 1.56 p1t4 1334.7 32.7 1700.4 3000 560 3560 0.47 p1t5 1460.7 158.7 8252.4 3000 560 3560 2.31 p2t1 1197.3 0 0 0 p2t2 1400 3000 560 3560 p2t3 1625.7 225.7 11736.4 3000 560 3560 3.29 p2t4 1006.3 3000 560 3560 p2t5 1043.3 3000 560 3560 p1= at branching stage, p2= at pod initiation stage were distributed in main plots and doses of urea spraying, t1= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal except urea, t2= application of 100% recommended fertilizers as basal, t3= application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying, t4= application of 25% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 75% of urea by spraying, t5= application of 50% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 50% of urea by spraying y = 19.834x + 732.92 r² = 0.2544 0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 g ra in y ie ld (k gh a1) pods plant-1 0 500 1000 1500 2000 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170g ra in y ie ld (k gh a1) plants m-2 non linear relationship as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 56 published by ideas spread input price: ureabdt 16 kg-1, labour: bdt 400 day-1 08 hours-1, sprayerbdt 200 ha-1, lentil seedbdt 100 kg-1 output price: lentilbdt 52 kg-1 4. discussions yield and yield contributing characters or growth parameters values were increased due to adequate supply of nutrient like nitrogen in proper time incase of basal application of urea with spraying later as in pod initiation stage which is revealed in this present study and this result also similar to (kuttimani and velayutham, 2011). (hossain et al., 2018) reported that maximum grain yield was found when dap was applied in both branching and pod initiation stages as spray. but in the present study urea was applied only either in branching stage or in pod initiation stage as lentil is a very sensitive to over fertilizer dose and two time spray will increase the production cost ultimately bcr value will be lesser than the recommended method of basal urea application in bangladesh. in addition incase of two time spray there is a possibility of increasing days to maturity that will destroy the purity of the variety as this variety has released to fit under the fallow period of aman and boro rice in bangladesh. however urea spraying at pod initiation stage with t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) method of fertilizer application gives maximum result in yield and yield contributing character in the present study. moreover in p2t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) interaction 14% yield has increased over recommended method of basal urea application. simlarly (ram and punia, 2018) revealed that two time spray is on par with one time spray either in branching or pod initiation stage for seeds/pod which is directly involved in increasing seed yield. from the above result chapter it is clear that fertilizer management in t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) method along with urea spraying in pod initiation stage significantly increase the yield and growth parameters over no spray or basal application. (ashour and thalooth, 1983; el-karmany et al., 2003; das and jana, 2015) reported that 2% urea spray has positive effect on growth and yield attributes of lentil. though in the present experiment the doses of urea spraying did not calculated in (w/v) or in percent basis, rather in weight (kg/ha) basis but indirectly our doses fits in the @2% urea spray as about 500 litre water is required to spray one hactre of land and 10 kg of urea was sprayed in t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) treatment at pod initiation stage which showed the best result among the all interactions. similar result was also found by (ram and punia, 2018). they reported that urea spraying by @ 2% yielded maximum grain which was 25.4 per cent higher over no spray. the reason behind that is additional nitrogen application may delay the senescence of plants then the plants are getting more time to carbon assimilation in the sink parts so that positive effect implies on plant height, pods/plant as well as in seed yield. delayed maturity also increases the time to store food material into sink. in correlation analysis it is found that more number of pods/plant facilitate more seeds and thus it can boost seed yield. similar trend also found by (nandan and pandaya, 1980; rahman and sarwar, 1982; balyan and singh, 1986; luthra et al., 1990). plant height also showed positive correlation and it may be as vigourous growth increases the chances of more number of pods/plant, hence it can increase the seed yield also. (latief et al., 2015) recorded that pods/plant and plant height and biological yield of lentil is directly involved in increasing seed yield so far. in economic analysis maximum benefit cost ratio was observed in p2t3 (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying) interaction. though in urea spraying treatments total variable cost is higher than no spray but in foliar urea spray there was 14% yield improvement over no spray which ultimately results in higher bcr over no spray. so urea spray as t3 method of application at pod initiation stage may be beneficial for yield improvement in bari masur-9. 5. conclusion from the above results and discussions it may be concluded that seed yield of bari masur-9 may be boosted up by the application of fertilizer like nitrogen containing urea as foliar spray at the later stage of plant growth as pod initiation stage. fertilizer application in the method of (application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage) gives the maximum result incase of seed yield as well as other yield contributing characters. correlation coefficient showed that there is positive correlation between seed yield and most of the other yield contributing characters. economic analysis also reveled that foliar spray of urea as per the above mentioned doses and time gives the highest economic return over other treatment. so application of 75% of urea with 100% of other fertilizers as basal and rest of the 25% of urea by spraying at pod initiation stage may be recommended for yield increasing of bari masur-9. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 57 published by ideas spread 6. acknowledgement regional agricultural research station, jashore of bangladesh agricultural research institute has provided the financial support to operate the experiment smoothly. md. hafijur rahman of regional agricultural research station, jashore has provided scientific support in the research work and md. harun-or-rashid of cimmyt, bangladesh has enriched the article by writing of it’s several parts. references ais. (2020). agricultural information services of bangladesh-krishi diary 2020 version. ashour, n. i., & thalooth, a. t. (1983). effect of soil and foliar application of nitrogen during pod development on the yield of soybean (glycine max l.) field crop res., 6, 261-266. azad, a. k., wahab, a., saha, m. g., nesa, z., rahman, m. l., rahman, h. h., amin, l. (2019). krishiprojuktihatboi (handbook on agro-technology), 8th edition. bangladesh agricultural research institute, gazipur-1701, bangladesh, 54. retrieved from http://www.bari.gov.bd balyan, h. s., & singh, s. (1986). character association in lentil. lens., 13(1), 1-3. bbs (2019). bangladesh bureua of statistics. yearbook of agricultural statistics-2018, p08. retrieved from http://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/1b1eb817_9325_4354_a756_3d1841 2203e2/yearbook-2017-final-05-05-2018.pdf das, s. k., & jana, k. 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(1985). plant physiology (3rd ed.). wadsworth, belmont, ca. 540 p. who (2020). world health organization timeline covid-19. retrieved june 23, 2020, from https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19 wikipedia. an encyclopedia of wikimedia foundation. jessore district (climate). retrieved june 22, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jessore_district world bank (2020). the international bank for reconstruction and development (ibrd) andthe international development association (ida), food security and covid-19. retrieved june 23, 2020, from https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/food-security-and-covid-19 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p16 16 published by ideas spread effect of adding different levels of duckweed (lemna minor linn.) in the diet on live body weight, hematological traits and production cost of free-range chickens, gallus domesticus linn. (black austrolorp x barred playmouth rock) hermogenes m. paguia1, rina q. paguia1,2, jesus rex a. pinsel1, steve zaballa1, abigail g. abuan2 & mark nell c. corpuz3 1 organic agriculture reserch and development innovation center, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines 2 college of agriculture and fisheries, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines 3 center for research on aquaculture and aquatic resources in brackishwater systems, bataan peninsula state university, orani, bataan, philippines correspondence: hermogenes m. paguia, organic agriculture research and development innovation center, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines. e-mail: hmpaguia@gmail.com received: june 26, 2022 accepted: july 3, 2022 online published: august 22, 2022 the research is financed by bataan peninsula state university research development office. . abstract the present study was conducted at bataan peninsula state university abucay campus to evaluate the growth performance and hematological profile of gallus domesticus linn. (black austrolorp x barred playmouth rock) chicken fed formulated diets of varying inclusions of lesser duckweed (lemna minor linn.). three formulated treatments diets of homogenous crude protein level were prepared: 0% duckweed (control), 10% duckweed, and 15% duckweed inclusion. five chickens (average weight 202.5 g) per replicate were reared in a single factorial experiment and the feeding trial was carried-out for three months. chicken fed diet containing 15% duckweed meal treatment had significantly (p < 0.05) higher body weight (1,425.88 ± 55.24 g) compared to chicken fed normal diet (1,223.48 ± 174.47 g). mean cost to produce a kilogram of meat was significantly cheaper in the treated diets (f = 4.82; p < 0.05). mean values of hematological variables were not significantly different among treatments. keywords: bataan, duckweed meal, feed conversion ratio, feed formulation 1. introduction demand for chicken meat has been increasing tremendously over the years globally at an average 2.4% per annum and in the philippines at an average of 3.4% per annum. using local sourced alternative for feed ingredient relatively a timely and practical option in increasing the production yield and economic gains of the small animal poultry holders (espino and bellotindos, 2020). in 2021, the total number of chickens inventories in the philippines was about 179.78 million birds. this was about 0.9% higher than the 178.26 million birds reported in the same period of 2020. native / improved chicken and layer chicken inventory increased by 3.1 % and 4. 2%, respectively (psa, 2021). backyard free-range chickens require sustainable sources of nourishment for optimum production efficiency and performance. commercial feeds are usually complemented to the forage and free-range activities of the birds to have a consistent and stable marketable weight. the use of commercial feeds with increases the cost of production, thereby, supplemental feeding is more economical (mananghaya, 2017). the highest cost of production is from feeds, which accounts for about 50 % to 70%; the feed cost can go as high as 75% of the total cost of production, being the major portion of the variable costs. (dozier et al., 2008). as the price of commercial feeds is constantly rising, it is necessary to explore the potentials of different alternative protein feedstuffs as practical replacements to imported feedstuffs such as soybean meal and fishmeal. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 17 published by ideas spread various studies have explored the different alternative protein feedstuffs that are locally available and abundant (haustein et al., 1994; anderson et al., 2011; ahammad et a., 2003). one of the promising alternative forages is duckweed, a small nitrogen-fixing aquatic plant found worldwide and often seen growing in thick, blanket-like mats on still or slow moving, nutrient-rich fresh or brackish water (van der spiegel et al., 2013). duckweeds have been fed to animals and fish to complement diets, largely to provide a protein of high biological value (leng et al., 1995) and essential nutritional components (culley jr et al., 1981). community-based organic farming schemes has been adopted to promote and demonstrate eco-friendly and costeffective agri-fisheries production in central luzon, philippines (flores et al., 2016; paguia et al., 2019, 2020; vinzon et al., 2021). the extent of the project is now directed towards the use duckweed as a diet for livestock, which requires confirmatory trials on various breeds of chicken and other livestocks. therefore, the present study established to evaluate the impact of adding different levels of duckweed meal, l. minor on performance, hematological traits, and production cost of free-range chickens, gallus domesticus linn. (black austrolorp x barred playmouth rock). 2. method 2.1 experimental chicken and feeds out of 150 pre-acclimatized chickens, a total of 75 chicken individuals (g. domesticus), 35-day old (black austrolorp and barred playmouth rock crossed) were used in the feeding experiment. experimental chickens were initially reared in bataan peninsula state university (bpsu) abucay. the locally available feedstuffs such as rice bran, molasses, vegetable oil, oyster shells, salt, fish meal, soybean meal and yellow corn were used in the production of experimental feeds. the experimental diets were prepared following the formulation in table 1. the experimental plant (l. minor) that is predominantly available in the locality was cultured in the 2 m x 10 m (60 cm deep) concrete pond. duckweed meal was prepared through the conventional process such as partial washing of the fresh duckweeds using clean water, draining, and five days sun drying. duckweed samples were also oven dried for 15 min to attain the 14.0% moisture content. the formulated feeds containing 14.0% crude protein and 2,600 me/kcal/kg were achieved and standardized among treatment groups. proximate composition and nutrient attributes of formulated feeds are shown in table 1. 2.2 research design and feeding experiment a single factor experiment of three (3) dietary treatments with five (5) replications (five birds per replication) were employed for this study following a completely randomized design (crd). initial mean weight (ca. 200 g each) of birds were homogenous. the treatments groups were as follows — t1 (control): corn-based diet without duckweed meal, t2: corn-based diet with 10% duckweed meal, and t3: corn-based diet with 15% duckweed meal. the experimental feeds were formulated on the basis of duckweed meal proximate composition — 5.80% moisture, 21.30% crude protein, 16.30% ash, 1.20% crude fat, 21.30% crude fiber, 0.30% phosphorous, 34.10% nitrogen free extract, and 2,041 kcal kg-1 metabolizable energy. the acclimation phase and the actual experiment was conducted from july 2021 until december 2021 at the poultry experimental facility in bpsu abucay following the floor space of 2.0 ft² per bird in a full litter system. birds were fed with pre-weighed experimental ration throughout the feeding trial. 2.3 production parameters the weight (g) of each chicken individual was determined monthly using a digital balance (0.01 g), whilst daily gain in weight (%), gained in weight (g), final mean weight (g), feed conversion ratio [fcr = (feed consumed / gain in weight), and mortality were determined after three months of experimental trial. similarly, the cost per kg of bird produced was determined and calculated as: 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 (𝑃ℎ𝑃)𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑘𝑔) 2.4 hematological parameters at the end of the experiment, one chicken per replicate were used for blood sample analysis. blood samples (1.0 ml per bird) was collected from a wing vein into anticoagulant ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid treated tubes for determination of hematological parameters including erythrocytes, leukocytes, lymphocytes, granulocyte, mid (other types of leukocytes not classified as lymphocytes or granulocytes), hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit. the hematological parameters were analyzed using automatic fully digital hematological analyzer, bc 3000 plus, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 18 published by ideas spread shenzhenbminday, bio-medical electronics co. ltd. table 1. ingredients used in the ration of the experiment ingredients treatment 1 treatment 2 treatment 3 yellow corn % 56.9 45.27 48.538 fish meal, 60% % 2.10 4.93 5.763 soybean meal (full fat) % 19.8 9.60 7.253 duckweed meal % 10.00 15.00 rice bran (d1) % 15.0 24.00 17.561 molasses % 5.0 5.00 4.683 limestone (oyster shell) % 1.0 1.00 1.00 salt % 0.20 0.20 0.20 total 100.00 100.00 100.00 calculated analysis crude protein, % 14.2 ± 2.0 14.2 ± 2.0 14.2 ± 2.0 me, kcal kg-1 2,639 2,629 2,697 moisture content, % 12.5 12.9 13.7 crude fat, % 1.0 1.32 2.3 ash, content % 11.1 12.6 4.9 crude fiber, % 4.0 6.0 8.5 phosphorus, % 0.28 0.53 .61 nfe, % 61.3 66.03 59 calcium, % 0.826 0.78 0.826 lysine, % 1.3 1.16 1.31 methionine, % 0.410 0.382 0.411 methionine + cysteine, % 0.923 0.824 0.924 chemical and nutritional composition of the dry duckweed samples was determined according to standard aoac methods (aoac, 1975). 2.5 statistical analyses treatment means of each parameter in growth performance, production efficiency, and hematological profile of experimental birds were compared using analysis of variance for single factor crd experiment (p < 0.05). tukey’s post-hoc test was employed to determine the significant variation between treatment groups (p < 0.05). statistical analyses were performed using a statistical package software, statistical tool for agriculture research. 3. results and discussion data of growth and feeding performance of experimental chicken is presented in (table 2). inclusion of duckweed meal in the diets significantly improved the mean final weight of the experimental chicken; the highest final weight was observed in t3 (p < 0.05). after three months, no mortality was observed and growth performance of chicken reared under t3 diet was 16.54% higher than t1, whilst t2 was 6.45% higher than t1 (figure 1). the present findings concur with the results of previous feeding trials estimated that performance of broiler chicken fed diets containing corn-duckweed based diets l. minor (paguia, 2021), and l. gibba (haustein et al., 1994) was better compared to control. on the other hand, kusina et al. (1999) reported that inclusion of duckweed in broiler finisher diets at 10% level did not compromise growth performance and carcass quality of broiler chickens. the findings also demonstrated the potential of duckweed, l. minor as a viable substitute to soybean for free-range chicken diet considering the plant higher crude protein and mineral contents (37.7%, and 3.8%, respectively). however, the types of species, and the rearing medium of duckweed must be taken into account as these can influence the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 19 published by ideas spread nutrient concentration of the aquatic plant (du thanh et al., 2009). the efficiency of duckweed as a poultry feed for improved poultry production is attributed to its nutritional composition and balance amino acid profile (porath et al., 1979). comparing to other plant protein sources, duckweed is known to possess higher levels of balanced essential amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine) and bear a similitude to that of animal protein composition (mbagwu and adeniji, 1988). while the present finding is promising, islam et al. (1997) did not suggest for full replacement of animal protein components of feeds with plant-based ingredients, but rather recommended for partial replacement of fish meal with duckweed and soybean meal. table 2. growth and feeding performance (mean ± sd) of experimental free-range chicken (gallus domesticus) fed treatment diets with varying inclusion of duckweed meal. growth and feeding performance t1 (n = 25) t2 (n = 25) t3 (n = 25) f value initial weight (g) 201.20 ± 38.95a 205.5 ± 26.37a 202.67 ± 36.00a 0.11ns final weight (g) 1,223.48 ± 174.47b 1,302.40 ± 56.26b 1,425.88 ± 55.24a 4.26* daily gain (%) 12.78 ± 3.68a 14.31 ± 4.52a 14.87 ± 3.35a 1.17ns gained in weight (g) 89.46 ± 25.73a 93.98 ± 24.37a 101.52 ± 23.46a 0.92ns feed conversion ratio 6.17 ± 3.39a 5.22 ± 1.64a 4.62 ± 0.82a 2.03ns cost per kg of meat produced (php) 121.53 ± 70.36a 87.91 ± 49.14b 80.64 ± 14.40b 4.82* 1 $ = php 55; in a row, means with different superscript letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a > b. ns not significant at 5% level of confidence; *significant at 5% level of confidence it is worthy to note that the cost per kg of meat produced was significantly lower (p < 0.05) for birds fed diet containing 10% and 15% duckweed meal compared to control diet (table 3, figure 2). this finding corresponds with khang and ogle, (2004) who reported a reduced in cost when a duckweed-based diet was used and compared with 100% soya bean. moreover, olorunfemi et al., (2006) reported that using diet containing duckweed, l. paucicostata at approximately 30% is cost-effective to reduce the cost of feed by about 21%, thereby improving profitability in broiler finisher production. variation in gained in weight, and fcr were found to be not significant among treatment means (table 3). the variation in mean levels of each hematological parameter was also not significant (p > 0.05), despite the inclusion of duckweed meal diets (table 4). similar results in daily gains and in feed conversion can be attributed to the decreasing intakes of digestible energy and of total and digestible protein. it can be speculated that the results might have been better if the feed mixture was supplemented with additives and natural growth promoters like phytobiotics (e.g., garlic, turmeric, and moringa) (krauze, 2021). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 20 published by ideas spread months b od y w ei gh t ( g) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 control 10% duckweed 15% duckweed cost per kg of meat produced (php) 0 100 200 300 400 500 m on th 1 2 3 control 10% duckweed 15% duckweed figure 1. changes in the mean live body weight of free-range chicken, gallus domesticus (black austrolorp x barred plymouth rock) fed diets of varying inclusion levels of duckweed, lemna minor. means with different letters in each treatment are significantly different (p < 0.05). vertical bars = sd figure 2. mean cost (1 $ = 55 php) spent to produce a kilogram of live free-range chicken, gallus domesticus (black austrolorp x barred plymouth rock) 1 2 3 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 21 published by ideas spread table 4. hematological parameters (mean ± sd) of 100-d old free-range chicken, gallus domesticus (black austrolorp x barred plymouth rock) fed diets with varying inclusion of duckweed, lemna minor hematological variables t1 (n = 3) t2 (n = 3) t3 (n = 3) f value erythrocyte (106 /mm3) 2.65 ± 0.29 2.87 ± 0.31 2.83 ± 0.36 0.08ns leukocyte (103 / mm3) 28.74 ± 6.22 27.88 ± 7.54 26.80 ± 11.39 0.06ns lymphocyte % 85.68 ± 2.29 84.18 ± 2.45 85.48 ± 3.83 0.38ns granulocyte % 7.14 ± 1.34 8.42 ± 1.70 7.80 ± 2.43 0.58ns mid % 7.18 ± 0.97 7.40 ± 1.12 6.72 ± 1.63 0.37ns hb, g dl-1 9.74 ± 12.54 9.44 ± 15.99 9.77 ± 14.77 0.07ns mcv, fl 101.66 ± 1.91 100.82 ± 2.29 100.8 ± 2.14 0.27ns mch, % 44.36 ± 3.12 40.98 ± 0.99 42.76 ± 2.33 2.66ns mchc, g ml-1 43.7 ± 2.71 40.81 ± 1.61 43.63 ± 2.36 2.49ns hematocrit, % 29.56 ± 3.69 27.72 ± 3.64 29.30 ± 3.78 0.36ns mid: other types of leukocytes not classified as lymphocytes or granulocytes; hb: hemoglobin; mcv: mean corpuscular volume; mch: mean corpuscular hemoglobin; mchc: mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration; ns not significant at 5% level of confidence 4. conclusion and recommendations the present study demonstrated the efficiency of duckweed meal-based diets in improving the growth performance of free-range chicken and reducing the cost of production. the finding provides evidence of the potential of l. minor as a replacement to soya bean meal or fish-meal as a main protein source for poultry feed. further studies can be done using other species or varieties of duckweeds of varying inclusion to diet, with emphasis on growth and reproduction performance, nutritional profile, and sensorial quality of various chicken breeds commonly raised in the country. acknowledgments the authors are grateful for the funding support of bpsu research and development office; to the non-teaching members of the project for the assistance during the conduct of the feeding experiments; and to the anonymous reviewers who provided constructive comments for the improvement of the manuscript. references ahammad, m. u., swapon, m. s. r., yeasmin, t., rahman, m. s., & ali, m. s. 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(2021). green microalgae, chlorella sorokiniana promotes the growth of chinese cabbage, brassica rapa chinensis (l.) hanelt. international journal of agriculture innovations and research, 9(4), 265–270. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 23 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p69 69 published by ideas spread analysis of the ichtyological composition of smoked fish sold in the liberté and gambela markets in kinshasa, democratic republic of congo willy lusasi swana1,2, rosette manza kilunda2, nadine bipendu muamba3, clement munganga kilingwa1,2, santos kavumbu mutanda1,2, goslin gafuene nkosi2,4 & victor pwema kiamfu1,2 1 laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture, department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 2 department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 3 laboratory of inorganic chemistry, department of chemistry, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 4 laboratory of analysis and research on food and nutrition, department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo correspondence: willy lusasi swana, laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture, department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), p.o box 190 kinshasa xi, democratic republic of congo. tel: 243-813-662-026. e-mail: willy.lusasi@unikin.ac.cd received: june 15, 2020 accepted: july 6, 2020 online published: july 22, 2020 abstract the objective of this study is to analyse the ichthyological composition of smoked fish sold in the liberté and gambela markets in kinshasa in the democratic republic of congo through a systematic inventory. a 7-month survey was carried out among 200 smoked fish vendors in the two markets in order to extract the information sought. the results obtained show that the sale of smoked fish in kinshasa is an activity reserved for women with a dominance of married vendors. the smoked fish sold in the two markets are diversified and belong to 6 orders, 13 families, 20 genera and 22 species. fish belonging to the siluriformes (30.8%), characiformes (23.1%), osteoglossiformes and perciformes orders (15.4% respectively) are in the majority, while at the family level, distichodontidae and mormyridae fish are the most abundant (13.6%). parachanna spp: 27.6%, protopterus doloï: 26.3%, clarias spp: 19.4% and channalabes apus: 19.1% are the most sold fish species. households (with 57.6%), restaurateurs (26.4%) and exporters (with 10.2%) are the biggest consumers of smoked fish sold in kinshasa, which come from the interior of the country and, essentially, from the provinces of equateur, mai-ndombe, mongala and sud ubangi. keywords: smoked fish, artisanal fishing, diversity, nutrition, food security, kinshasa 1. introduction the democratic republic of congo has a fishing potential estimated at 700,000 tonnes per year through its many lakes, rivers and 40 km2 on the atlantic coast. the country's hydrographic network allows fishermen to practice subsistence and commercial fishing (ipuka, 2016). this hydrographic network is rich in fish species that supply the local market with fresh, salted and smoked fish (lusasi et al., 2019a). it is estimated that approximately 600.000 people work in inland fishing, which is the most important sector. these people are involved in catching, processing and marketing, input supply, transport, gear and boat building and engine repair (fao, 2009a). as in several african countries, fishing is an important source of employment in d.r. congo and plays an important role in terms of food security, social and economic benefits. artisanal fishing communities and other rural communities carry out income-generating activities and thus contribute to the livelihoods of rural communities. fish is one of the most traded staple foods in the world. trade in fishery products has grown considerably in recent decades as the fisheries sector operates in an increasingly globalized environment. the way fishery products are prepared, marketed and delivered to consumers has changed considerably, and products may cross national borders several times before final consumption. fish may be produced in one country, processed in a second and consumed as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 70 published by ideas spread in a third (fao, 2014). the families of fish most caught and sold in kinshasa are mormyridae, protopteridae, oesteoglossidae, clariidae, cichlidae, cyprinidae, distichodontidae, schilbeidae and mochokidae (lusasi et al., 2019a). fish are perishable foods with a high rate of spoilage (gram, 1987; liston, 1992). post-harvest and preconsumption losses of fish can reach at least 25% of the catch. if most of the fish caught in the country's river system is sold fresh, the remainder is otherwise retained for later sale. congolese fishermen use several processes to extend the shelf life of fish, either to add commercial value to the fish or to ensure its availability on the local market. on the other hand, the fishermen and fish wholesalers who exploit the country's water resources (congo river, lakes and rivers) face many difficulties related to the conservation of their products. equipment for industrial processing (cold chain, smoking room and availability of processing materials) does not exist. the conservation methods used by the latter are: freezing, sun drying, salting and smoking. salting is done with limited means and concerns several fish families and species (cichlidae, cyprinidae, clariidae, distichodontidae, mormyridae, mochokidae, oesteoglossidae, schilbeidae,…). of all these conservation methods, smoking is the main method for preserving fish in rural areas (kabré et al., 2003). smoked fish is an important source of protein, accessible to low-income households, especially in developing countries where the price of meat remains beyond the reach of the average consumer (fao, 2009b). in africa, more than 200 million people consume fish that is regularly fresh, but more often smoked or dried (mananga et al., 2019). however, smoked fish is found regularly and continuously in the markets of kinshasa, the capital of the democratic republic of congo. it is combined in several congolese culinary recipes, but the diversity of species sold, the rate of sale and the source of origin of these fish are not well known. to fill this gap, this study proposes to analyse the ichthyological composition of the species of smoked fish sold in the liberté market of masina and gambela of kasa-vubu in kinshasa. the results of this study will help to highlight the contribution of smoked fish to the supply of kinois food, will help to determine the contribution of smoked fish to the maintenance of social equilibrium and to the demand for proteins of animal origin by the kinois. 2. study environment and methodology 2.1 study framework this study took place in two markets in the city province of kinshasa, in the democratic republic of congo. these are the liberté market located in the commune of masina and gambela market located in the commune of kasavubu (figure 1). figure 1. map of the city of kinshasa showing the study sites as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 71 published by ideas spread the city province of kinshasa covers an area of 9.965 km2 with an estimated population in 2018 of 13.2 million inhabitants. its urban agglomeration is the third most populated in africa after cairo and lagos. it is located between 4° 19′ 30″ south and 15° 19′ 20″ east. administratively, the city is managed by a governor and is subdivided into 24 communes (including kasa-vubu and masina) headed by burgomasters and at least 400 neighbourhoods headed by neighbourhood chiefs. the city has a hot and humid tropical climate of the aw4 type according to the köppen classification, where the average temperature varies from 22.5 °c to 25 °c. there are two seasons: the great rainy season (september to mid-may) and the dry season (mid-may to august). the soil is mainly sandy and is of little use for agricultural activities. thus, no agricultural products characterize this province, which is supplied with agricultural products from the provinces of central kongo, kwango, kwilu, mai-ndombe, ecuador and others. several rivers of various sizes (the most important in terms of flow are: mai-ndombe, n'sele and n'djili) cross the plains of the city-province. generally, they originate in the hills, flowing from south to north, and flow into the congo river. smaller lakes, such as lac ma vallée and lac vert, are also located there (mbadu, 2011; lusasi et al., 2019b; munganga et al., 2020). 2.2 methodology 2.2.1 pre-investigation this step was used to survey sites selected for investigation in order to certify the presence of smoked fish vendors in these markets. we used the interview technique to talk to the vendors in the liberté and gambela markets get an idea of their willingness to respond to our concerns. 2.2.2 the survey itself on the basis of a fact sheet with survey questions designed for this purpose, the interview technique, based on direct questioning between us and the sellers of smoked fish, was used to extract the information sought on the sale of smoked fish in the target markets. the information collected covered the profile of respondents, the different species of smoked fish sold, the frequency of sale from one species of fish to another, the consumer groups of fresh fish and the source of origin of the fish sold. in addition to these exchanges, open-ended interviews lasting several minutes were conducted with the sellers who were motivated to tell us more (lusasi et al., 2019a; masua et al., 2020). 2.2.3 survey process and sample size this study took place over seven months, from april to october 2019. data collection took place twice a month and a total of fourteen field trips were conducted. the survey was comprehensive in that almost all the smoked fish vendors found in the fish vendors' shelves in the two markets were interviewed. the criteria for membership are based on age (the respondent should only be ± 18 years old) and the type of food sold (the survey should only be of those who sell smoked fish in these markets). exclusion criteria take into account categories of vendors other than those selling smoked fish as well as customers found in the markets. the sample is composed of 200 respondents in total, including 100 at the liberté market and 100 others at the gambela market. 2.2.4 direct observation and documentary methods direct observations were made on the existence of smoked fish vendors in the two markets and the type of fish sold by them. various documents (books, end-of-cycle and end-of-study works, theses as well as library and internet contents) related to our theme were of great importance to us in approaching this study. 2.2.5 systematic identification of smoked fish in order to make it possible to systematically identify smoked fish that have been recorded, we used the vernacular (in lingala) and common (in french) names of fish collected from smoked fish vendors in the liberté and gambela markets. thus, the fish were classified in order, family, genus and species according to the binomial linnaeus classification. to this end, the systematic fish identification keys proposed by boulenger (1911); poll (1939a & b, 1959); poll & gosse (1995a & b); tshibwabwa (1997); lévêque et al., (1990 & 1992); mbega & teugels (2003); stianssny et al., (2007) were used. this took place at the laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture of the department of biology of the faculty of sciences of the university of kinshasa. 2.2.6 statistical processing and data analysis the information collected from the sellers of smoked fish was compiled according to the category of questions on the survey form in the form of absolute frequencies. this data was then entered into the excel 2013 spreadsheet prior to analysis. the results on the profile of respondents, the relative abundance of orders and families, the most sold fish species and the potential consumers of smoked fish sold were expressed as percentages using the following mathematical formula: % = fra/tech x 100 where, % expresses the percentage, fra determines the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 72 published by ideas spread absolute frequency and tech denotes the sample size. origin 6.1 a software was used to generate some of the graphs. 3. results 3.1 profile of smoked fish sellers in the markets surveyed table 1. general characteristics of smoked fish vendors surveyed variable markets absolute frequency % liberté gambela sex male 12 14 26 13 female 88 86 174 87 total 100 100 200 100 marital status single 19 17 36 18 married 56 61 117 58,5 divorced 4 7 11 5,5 widowed 21 15 36 18 total 100 100 200 100 age range (years) 18 – 28 21 19 40 20 29 – 40 42 46 88 44 41 – 50 34 30 64 32 51 and over 3 5 8 4 total 100 100 200 100 level of education without instruction 11 9 20 10 primary 25 21 46 23 secondary and humanities 50 59 109 54,5 higher and university 14 11 25 12,5 total 100 100 200 100 the results in table 1 above show that the majority of smoked fish vendors in the liberté and gambela markets are female (87%) rather than male (13%). with regard to marital status, most vendors are married (58.5%), followed by single and widowed persons (18%) and divorced persons are less representative (5.5%). the most representative age group of salespeople is between 29 and 40 years old (with 44%) followed by respondents between 41 and 50 years old (or 32%) and salespeople between 18 and 28 years old (or 20%). the remainder of the salespeople are less representative. regarding the level of education, respondents with secondary education and humanities are in the majority (54.5%), followed by those with primary education (23%) and those with higher and university degrees (12.5%). smoked fish vendors who have no level of education are in the minority (10%). 3.2 smoked fish sold at the liberté and gambela markets in kinshasa table 2. smoked fish sold at liberté and gambela markets (+: presence and -: absence) orders families genera species vernacular name (in lingala) markets liberté gambela ceratodontiformes protopteridae protopterus p. doloï nzombo + + characiformes citharinidae citharinus c. gibbosus liyanga + distichodontidae distichodus d. spp mboto + + characidae hydrocynus h. goliath mbenga + cypriniformes cyprinidae barbus b. lincatus mopongo + + labeo l. lineatus monganza + osteoglossiformes mormyridae mormyrops m. mbongo, + + as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 73 published by ideas spread anguilloïdes nzanda gnatonemus g. petersii mbese + + petrocephalus p. banae mbese + oesteoglossidae heterotis h. niloticus congo ya sika + + perciformes channidae parachanna p. obscura mongusu + + p. insignis mongusu + + cichlidae oreochromis o. niloticus libundu, tilapia + + tilapia t. spp tilapia, libundu + siluriformes bagridae cephyroglanis c. congicus mosombo + + auchenoglanis a. occidentalis mpoka + + clariidae clarias c. gariepinus ngolo + + c. gabonensis mpiki + + channalabes c. apus nkamba nioka + + mochokidae synodontis s. spp makoko + euchilicthys e. guenteri ngulu masa + malapterirudae malapterus m. electricus nina + 6 13 20 22 19+ 17+ the results on the inventory of smoked fish in the two markets as shown in table 2 above show the presence of 6 orders, 13 families, 20 genera and 22 species of smoked fish. of the 22 species inventoried, 19 are listed at the liberté market and 17 at the gambela market. 3.2.1 relative abundance of the orders of smoked fish inventoried of all the orders of smoked fish identified in the kasa-vubu liberté and gambela markets, siluriformes is the most abundant (30.8%) followed by characiformes (23.1%), osteoglossiformes and perciformes (15.4% respectively) and fish of the orders ceratodontiformes and cypriniformes (7.69% respectively) (figure 2). figure 2. relative abundance of smoked fish orders recorded as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 74 published by ideas spread 3.2.2 relative abundance of the families of smoked fish identified from the information shown in figure 3 below, it appears that the families distichodontidae and mormyridae are the most abundant (representing 13.6% respectively) followed by fish from the families bagridae, channidae, cichlidae, cyprinidae and mochokidae respectively (with 9.09%). the remains of the families are less representative. figure 3. relative abundance of the families of smoked fish identified 3.2.3 top-selling smoked fish species of all the smoked fish species recorded, parachanna spp was the most popular (27.6%), followed by protopterus doloï (26.3%), clarias spp (19.4%), channalabes apus (19.1%) and distichodus spp (2.82%). tilapia spp is sold at a proportion of 2.51% and mormyrops anguilloïdes is sold at up to 2.19% while the other smoked fish species are sold at low proportions (figure 4). figure 4. top selling smoked fish species in markets surveyed 9 .0 9 % 1 3 .6 % 4 .5 5 % 9 .0 9 %4 .5 5 % 9 .0 9 % 4 .5 5 % 9 .0 9 % 4 .5 5 % 1 3 .6 % 4 .5 5 % 9 .0 9 % 4 .5 5 % p ro to p te rid a e c yp r in id a e c ith a rin id a e m o rm yrid a e d is tic h o d o n tid a e c ic h lid a e c h a ra c id a e c h a n n id a e o e s te o g lo s s id a e b a g rid a e m a la p te r iru d a e c la riid a e m o c h o k id a e 19.1% 2.19% 19.4% 26.3% 2.51% 27.6% 2.82% distichodus spp parachanna spp tilapia spp protopterus doloi clarias spp mormyrops anguilloides channalabes apus as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 75 published by ideas spread 3.3 potential consumers of smoked fish sold of all consumers of smoked fish sold in the liberté and gambela markets, households are in first place (with 57.6%), followed by restaurateurs (with 26.4%), exporters (with 10.2%), retail sellers (with 4.38%) and wholesale sellers come in last place (with 1.46%) (figure 5). figure 5. potential consumers of the smoked fish sold 3.4 places of origin of smoked fish sold table 3. places of origin of smoked fish sold provinces markets absolute frequency % liberté gambela equateur 53 47 100 32,05 mongala 24 29 53 16,98 mai-ndombe 46 32 78 25 sud ubangi 22 25 47 15,06 tsopo 13 21 34 10,89 total 158 154 312 99,98 the information on where the smoked fish comes from, as shown in table 3 above, shows that equateur is the province that supplies the liberté and gambela markets in large quantities (32.05%) with smoked fish, followed by mai-ndombe (25%), mongala (16.98%), sud ubangi (15.06%) and tsopo (10.89%). 3.5 selling price of smoked fish (fc = congolese franc) the selling price of smoked fish varies according to the quantity of fish (figure 6). a package of smoked fish weighing 500 grams costs 4.000 fc while one weighing 2.000 grams costs up to 17.500 fc. it should be noted here that the most expensive smoked fish species sold are parachanna spp, protopterus doloï, clarias spp and distichodus spp (figure 7). (1 usd = 17.000 congolese franc). 1.4% 4.38% 10.2% 26.4% 57.6% households restorers exporters sellers in detail bulk sellers as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 76 published by ideas spread figure 6. selling price of smoked fish in relation to quantity sold figure 7. top-selling species of smoked fish (photo lusasi, 2019) 4. discussion after analysis and processing of the data, the results obtained showed that the activity of selling smoked fish is very much practiced by women, who represented 87% of the respondents in both markets more than men. married people were in the majority (58.5%) than other vendors with another marital status. respondents in the 29-40 age group were the most active (44%) in both markets. these observations are consistent with those made by kabré et 4000 8500 12500 17500 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 500 g 1000 g 1500 g 2000 g pr ice (c on go le se fr an c) quantity of smoked fish sold (grams) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 77 published by ideas spread al., (2003); fao (2013). according to the latter, women account for more than half of the workforce among the many people working in important secondary sectors in the fisheries and aquaculture chain, such as fish handling, processing and sales. the same finding was also made by lusasi et al., (2019a) in a study of the proportion of sales of local and imported fresh fish in two markets in kinshasa where the activity of selling fish was seen as the exclusive work of women. most of the respondents had a satisfactory level of education. this is sufficient proof that the smoked fish sellers in the markets surveyed in kinshasa have chosen this activity as their daily job, which provides them with the means of survival. with regard to the ichthyological composition of smoked fish, the systematic identification of fish showed that the smoked fish sold in the two markets are diversified. six orders, 13 families, 20 genera and 22 species of smoked fish were identified. of all the orders of smoked fish identified, siluriformes was the most abundant. at the family level, those of distichodontidae and mormyridae were the most represented with 13.6% respectively. these results are similar to those found by lusasi et al., (2019a); masua et al., (2020), who pointed out that the fish families mentioned above have a considerable contribution to several markets in the country in general and in kinshasa in particular. these observations are also similar to those made by mananga et al., (2019) in a study on the evaluation of marketing and consumption of smoked fish in congo brazzaville. according to these authors, the families of smoked freshwater fish are in the majority in the markets of brazzaville than those in marine waters. kabré et al., (2003) conducted a comparative study of the characteristics and profitability of three types of improved smokehouses for smoking fish in burkina faso and highlighted the relative importance of fish from the families clariidae, cichlidae, mochokidae and mormyridae, oesteoglossidae among the smoked fish sold in some markets in burkina faso. the best-selling smoked fish (parachanna spp: 27.6%, protopterus doloï: 26.3%, clarias spp: 19.4% and channalabes apus: 19.1%) are also the most preferred of the kinois, whose first three species associated with the fish distichodus spp are sold at a higher price. in terms of consumption, these fish are also among those regularly consumed by congolese from brazzaville in the republic of congo (mananga et al., 2019). this can be explained in the sense that the republic of congo shares much of its fish wealth with the democratic republic of congo through the congo basin and, more mainly, the congo river in the malebo pool and some other rivers. the other reason is the rapprochement of the population of these two countries, which also share several customs, including certain culinary recipes. of all the consumers of smoked fish sold in the liberté and gambela markets, households occupy the first position (with 57.6%) and are followed by restaurant owners (with 26.4%) and exporters (with 10.2%). this distribution confirms the analysis made by fao (2009b) according to which: "smoked fish is an important source of animal protein accessible to low-income households, especially in developing countries where the price of meat remains out of reach of the average consumer". the sale, consumption and imports of smoked fish in d.r. congo contribute to food security, poverty alleviation in vulnerable households and gdp. fao (2014) argues that fish can be produced in one country, processed in a second and consumed in a third. the results of this study showed that smoked fish sold in the liberté and gambela markets come from the different provinces of the country except kinshasa. the provinces of equateur, mai-ndombe, mongala and sud ubangi are the provinces that supply the kinshasa markets with large quantities of fish. 5. conclusion the objective of this study was to make an inventory of the different species of smoked fish sold in the liberté and gambela markets in kinshasa in order to highlight the diversity of the species sold, their contribution to food security and the source of origin of these fish. interviews with 200 vendors revealed that the smoked fish sold in these markets are diversified. the same results showed that the sale of smoked fish in kinshasa markets plays an important role in terms of employment, food security, social and economic benefits. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank the authorities of the liberté de masina and gambela markets in kasa-vubu and the smoked fish vendors at these markets for their time during the field interviews. a big thank you to mr. espoir kuzangamana for his support during the surveys. references boulenger, g. a. 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(1997). systématique des espèces africaines du genre labeo (teleostei, cyprinidae) dans les régions ichtyogéographiques de basse-guinée et du congo. thèse de doctorat présentée et défendue en vue de l’obtention du grade de docteur en sciences biologiques, facultés universitaires notre dame de la paix, namur, 512 p. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 79 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p160 160 published by ideas spread numerical analysis of spreading process of ellipsoidal spraying droplet impacting on superhydrophobic surface qingmin pan1, deyu tu1, baohong tong1, yongguang hu2 & tao wang1 1 school of mechanical engineering, anhui university of technology, maanshan, anhui, china 2 school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china correspondence: deyu tu, school of mechanical engineering, anhui university of technology, maanshan, anhui, china. e-mail: qmpan_ahut@163.com received: october 16, 2020 accepted: november 1, 2020 online published: november 15, 2020 the research is financed by national science foundation of china (51975005 、 51975174 、 51875152&51875154) and anhui natural science foundation (2008085me148&1908085qe195) abstract agricultural spray deposition is especially important for pesticide application because low efficiency can lead to environmental pollution, poor biological efficiency and economic loss. the deposition of pesticide spray on the leave surfaces is related to the impact kinetic behavior of droplets. but after considering the deformation of the droplet, how impingement will affect the deposition is an interesting research. in this study, a superhydrophobic surface was used to replace the plant surface that the pesticide droplets may affect. an interface tracking method was proposed to characterize the impingement dynamics behaviors of different ellipsoid droplets impacting on the surface. the maximum spreading coefficient and time of ellipsoidal droplets increased with the raise of their size. a lower sized droplet has a faster spreading rate, while the center of a higher sized droplet is thinner. as the velocity of pesticide increases, maximum spreading coefficient of droplet increases with a decrease in the maximum spreading time of droplet. the simulation results can contribute to provide theoretical basis for improving spray efficiency. keywords: ellipsoidal droplet, kinetic behavior, pesticide spray, gas-liquid flow, spreading factor, interface tracking environmental impact 1. introduction spraying pesticide is one of the indispensable methods to prevent and control pests in agricultural production. the pesticide preparation is usually diluted with water and sprayed onto the leaves of the target plant after atomizing with plant protection machinery. but many spray programs widely used in the agricultural industries seem to provide poor pest control compared to experimental results (zwertvaegher, et al., 2014). statistics results show that hundreds of millions tons of liquid pesticide are applied to farmland every year in china. however, most pesticide droplets bounce or float away and enter the environment, which not only reduces the operation efficiency, but also deteriorate the ecological environment. therefore, it is essential to study the potential mechanism of droplet impact behavior to improve pesticide utilization rate. at present, a large number of scholars have carried out related researches on the impact of liquid droplets on the plant surface. from the view of fluid mechanics, the impact kinetic energy and surface energy of pesticide droplets are converted into viscous dissipation energy and surface energy during the collision. subsequently, the droplet oscillates with gradually attenuated amplitude until it reaches a sessile state (kim, et al., 2001; subhasish, et al., 2013). there are a lot of interesting things happening when droplets hit the leaves of plants. for example, when the droplets hit a barley leaf, the bounce of the droplet is the main dynamic behavior of the impact, but in wenzel's model, there are also spatter phenomena (boukhalfa, et al., 2014). dorr et al. (2014) studied that droplets hit the surface of different plant leaves, they would also break, bounce and stick according to different impact conditions. andrade et al. (2012) experimentally studied the surface of cabbage and banana skin impacted by different droplets, and found that viscosity had a greater impact on the dynamic characteristics of the droplets, and droplet occurrence: no bounce, partial bounce and all bounce. zhu et al. (2018) used clsvof method to numerically simulate the process of liquid droplets hitting tea leaves and proved that this method could be well applied in agricultural as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 161 published by ideas spread research. the phenomenon of droplets impacting on hydrophobic or superhydrophobic surfaces is more complicated. bange et al. (2015) numerically investigated bouncing and non-bouncing of droplets during impact on superhydrophobic surfaces. they found that the droplet bounces off the surface because the total energy of the droplet at maximum recoiling exceeds the initial surface and gravitational energy, while the non-bouncing droplet was due to the competition between kinetic energy and surface tension. wang et al. (2020) found that the contact time of bouncing droplets on high solid fraction surfaces can be reduced by reducing the texture size to ~100 nm. they demonstrated that this phenomenon could be attributed to the advantage of line tension on nano-textures, and that compact arrangement of nano-textures is essential to withstand the impact pressure of raindrops. when the droplets move towards the surface, it will deform under the influence of actual factors such as airflow and vibration, making the droplet non-standard spherical (kékesi, et al., 2014). yun et al. (2013, 2014) used an annular electrode to stretch the droplet along the direction of the parallel wall into a long ellipsoid and hit the wall in an asymmetric way. the effects of droplet morphology, impact velocity, wall wettability and other physical parameters on the rebound height were studied in combination with experiments and numerical simulation. furthermore, they studied the process of egg-shaped droplet impacting (yun, et al., 2018). in the process of pesticide spraying, the influence of deformation on its impact on the surface cannot be ignored. at the same time, the spreading process of droplets on the leaves has a great influence on the retention. the study of the spreading characteristics of ellipsoidal droplets after impact on the wall can not only deepen the understanding of the droplet impact characteristics under complex conditions, but also promotes the application of a numerical simulation method in agricultural research to improve the efficiency of pesticide spray. 2. computational domain and numerical methodology 2.1 numerical method in the clsvof method, the volume function α is used for interface reconstruction, and the level set function ϕ is used to accurately calculate the curvature and normal vectors on the interface (sussman, et al., 2000). the continuity equation and momentum equation of two phases are respectively expressed as: 0u∇⋅ = (1) 21 ( ) t ( ) ( ) ( ) u p fu u g uμ ϕ ρ ϕ ρ ϕ ρ ϕ ∂ ∇+ ⋅∇ = − − ⋅∇ + ∂ (2) where u is the velocity vector, g is the gravity acceleration, p is the pressure, ( )φρ is the density, ( )φμ is the viscosity, f is the surface tension. the normal vector n and the curvature ( )φκ can be defined as follows: n φ φ ∇= ∇ (3) ( ) φκ φ φ ∇= ∇ ⋅ ∇ (4) during calculation, heaviside function was used to smooth the density and viscosity of the interface, which could be expressed as: ( ) 1, 1 1 2 2 2 0 sin h ϕ ε ϕ πϕϕ ϕ ε ε π ε ϕ ε >     = + + ≤       < − ， ， (5) where rδ= 5.1ε , and rδ is the minimum size of the grid. the density and viscosity at the gas-liquid interface after smoothing are expressed as follows: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 162 published by ideas spread (1 )l gρ ρ α ρ α= − + (6) (1 )l gμ μ α μ α= − + (7) where g and l represent the gas and liquid phases, respectively. the continuous surface force (csf) model proposed was used to solve the surface tension (brackbill, et al., 1992). it can be described by the following equation: ( ) ( )f hσκ φ φ= ∇ (8) where σ is the surface tension coefficient. 2.2 feasibility verification of the numerical model when the droplet was not deformed, its diameter was 2.13 mm, the impact velocity was 0.447 m/s, and the static contact angle was taken as 160°. the calculation area was 5 × 5 mm and a 2d axisymmetric model was adopted for numerical calculation, the grid was quadrangular uniform, the pressure velocity coupling was piso method, the level set equation was discretized by the finite volume method, quick format was adopted, and the pressure term was presto!, geometric reconstruction method was selected for gas-liquid interface interpolation. figure 1a is an experimental morphology of the ellipsoid droplet which generated though vibration of the equipment impacting the wall (paola, et al., 2015) and figure 1b shows the numerical simulation results. it can be shown that the numerical simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental results. according to the test, the difference between forward and backward contact angles and the static contact angles of 2.25 mm droplet on the superhydrophobic wall surface was not more than 5° (lin, et al., 2017), so the static contact angles were adopted. figure 1. experimental verification of ellipsoidal droplets hitting wall surface 2.3 computational domain under the action of forces, the spherical droplet will be compressed or stretched into ellipsoid. in the following text, the radius of the spherical droplet with the same volume will be taken as the equivalent radius (re) of the ellipsoidal droplet. the ellipsoidal droplet has an asymmetry along x and y axes, and the radius is a and b respectively, as shown in figure 2. to facilitate the study, the ratio of different axial radii is defined as the axial diameter ratio ar = a/b. a 2d axisymmetric model is adopted for calculation, in which the x-axis is the one of symmetry and the size of domain is 10 × 20 mm. we meshed the calculation area by icem and selected 6 mesh sizes to verify the independence of grids . the area of the ar = 0.65 droplet is 2469, 4380, 6835, 9835 and 13379 times of the unit grid area. comparing the spreading radius at the same time shows that the refinement of the grid has a certain improvement on the simulation results, but when the mesh size reaches (1/9835) ar = 0.65 droplet area, the spreading radius no longer changes. therefore, the mesh size of (1/9835) ar = 0.65 droplet area is chosen as the computing grid. the method used in the calculation is the same as that in section 2.2. the initial contact between droplet and wall surface is the initial moment of impact. according to the equal volume, the following formula can be obtained: 2 3 e 4 4 3 3 v ab rπ π= = (9) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 163 published by ideas spread 3 erb a = (10) table 1 shows part of the size design of ellipsoidal droplets with re = 1. figure 2. schematic diagram of the initial time of pesticide droplet impact on wall surface table 1. design of partial ellipsoidal droplets size ar a(mm) b(mm) v(mm3) 0.65 0.75 1.16 4.191 0.85 0.90 1.05 4.184 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.188 1.23 1.15 0.93 4.184 1.40 1.25 0.89 4.186 because the droplet size is small and many plants have smooth waxy layer or tomentum on their leaves, the impact surface is simplified to a superhydrophobic flat wall. the air and water are incompressible fluid, and the ambient pressure is maintained at 1 standard atmosphere (101325 pa). other relevant parameters are shown in table 2. table 2. table of calculation parameters parameters units value droplet equivalent radius m 1×10-3 droplet density kg/m3 998.2 droplet viscosity pa·s 100.2×10-5 air density kg/m3 1.225 air viscosity pa·s 1.789×10-5 droplet velocity m/s 1 static contact angle ° 160 surface tension n/m 0.073 3. results and discussion 3.1 ellipsoid droplet spreading stage morphology figure 3 shows the morphological characteristics of 5 different droplets during spreading. by comparing different ar droplets in figure 3 at the same time, it can be found that each droplet has a similar form at the initial stage of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 164 published by ideas spread impacting. at the time of 0.2 – 0.8 ms, the top of each droplet did not change significantly, because the droplet was mainly affected by surface tension and viscous force so remained intact in its initial shape. by observing the morphology of each droplet at 0.4 ms, it can be seen that liquid at the bottom forms a relatively thin layer with a certain thickness, which extends outwards with the development of time. due to the small influence of wall wettability at the initial stage of impact, the size and shape of each liquid thin layer were similar. however, by comparing the morphology of droplet maximum spreading, there was less liquid in the center of the droplet with a high ar, and the liquid film formed was relatively thinner. the average thickness of the liquid film in the center area of ar = 1.40 droplet is 0.28 mm, which is about 43% of ar = 0.65 droplet. this means that droplets with high ar are distributed more evenly when acting on the target surface. (a)ar=0.65 (b) ar=0.85 (c) ar= 1.00 (d) ar= 1.23 (e) ar= 1.40 figure 3. the spreading morphology of 5 ellipsoidal droplets figure 4 shows changes of spreading radius (rx) of 5 ar droplets with time. the rx of the ellipsoidal droplet increases rapidly, and the spreading speed gradually decreases. after reaching the maximum spreading radius, the spreading stops under the action of surface tension and viscous force (eggers, et al., 2010). with the increase of ar, the initial value and curve position gradually decrease, which indicates that droplet with high ar spreads slowly in a period of time after the collision. from calculation, the spreading radius of ar = 0.65 droplet at 0.1 ms is 57.4% higher than that of ar = 1.40 droplet, and the maximum difference between both droplets at 0.6 ms is 0.48 mm. by observing maximum spread radius data, it was shown that with increase in ar, the maximum value was larger. this indicates that lower sized droplets being rapidly spread at early stage do not have the maximum spreading radius and reach the maximum spreading time relatively early. a total of 21 ellipsoidal droplets with the same liquid volume (ar in the range of 0.35 ~ 2.02, re = 1) were further analyzed numerically and found that with increase in ar, the maximum spreading time (tx) and the maximum spreading coefficient (βx) of ellipsoid droplet as a whole showed an increasing trend, as displayed in figure 5. the maximum spreading coefficient of the ellipsoid droplets defined as: βx = rx /b. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 165 published by ideas spread figure 4. the spreading radius of different ar droplets figure 5. effect of ar on droplet spreading 3.2 ellipsoid droplet flow field analysis the left side of figure 6 shows the isoline of pressure inside the 1/2 droplet in unit pa, while the right side is trace line and velocity isoline with unit of m/s, the black solid line is droplet free surface. by comparing the velocity distribution, there is an obvious velocity gradient inside each droplet. flow velocity near the phase interface in the droplet is relatively larger, while that near the wall and center is smaller. this flow distribution makes liquid inside droplet constant on both sides of the impact point, forming a thin layer at the bottom. velocity comparison of 5 ar droplets on the outside of thin layers, shows that the lower ar the higher liquid velocity at the outside of the thin layer. the internal pressure of droplet forms a distinct gradient, and wall pressure is maximum. the difference is that at 0.4 ms, with increase in ar of ellipsoidal droplets, the area of high-pressure shows a trend of gradual increase. with the pressure distribution of each droplet at 0.4 ms, the internal pressure changes more rapidly at early stage of the impact of the low ar droplet. in conclusion, the higher spreading rate of the low ar droplet at early stage of impact is due to higher pressure on the central point and the rapid change in pressure. t = 0.1 ms t = 0.2 ms t = 0.3 ms t = 0.4 ms （a）ar = 0.65 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 166 published by ideas spread t = 0.1 ms t = 0.2 ms t = 0.3 ms t = 0.4 ms （b）ar = 1.00 t = 0.1 ms t = 0.2 ms t = 0.3 ms t = 0.4 ms （c）ar = 1.40 figure 6. internal pressure and velocity isoline of the first 0.4 ms 3.3 effect of droplet velocity (we) on droplet spreading weber number (we) is the ratio of inertial force and surface tension. the impact velocity is usually converted to the we when research the effect of the droplet's velocity, so we got five different we by changed the impact velocity of the droplet. figure 7 shows variations of maximum spreading coefficient (βx) and time (tx) depending on the velocity of droplets after hitting the surface wall. the maximum spreading coefficient of different droplets increases gradually with raise in we as shown in figure 8a. βx regarding droplet size ratio ar = 1.40 increases by 0.44, 0.48, 0.57, 0.63 and 0.77, respectively, compared with that of ar = 0.65. this indicates that droplet velocity has a more significant effect on higher-sized droplets. as droplet velocity increases, the droplet spreading process is significantly affected by inertia forces, with a larger value of maximum spreading coefficient. from figure 7b, the maximum spreading time regarding a droplet size ratio ar = 1.40 is always longer under different droplet velocity data, which correspond to larger spreading radius. however, with increase in droplet velocity, the time for ar = 1.40 droplet to reach maximum spreading always decreases. for example, when we = 53.70, its maximum spreading time tx decreases by 25.7% compared with that of we = 6.85. from we = 17.53, the maximum spreading time did not change significantly despite the increase in droplet velocity regarding droplet size ratios like ar = 1.00 and ar = 1.40. this is mainly due to the fact that, in a certain range of we, droplet size ratios less than unity (ar ≤ 1) are significantly affected by surface tension inherent to the spreading process. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 167 published by ideas spread (a) spreading coefficient (b) time to reach maximum spreading figure 7. effect of droplet velocity on droplet spreading 4. conclusion to some extent, the maximum spreading coefficient and time of ellipsoid droplets increased with the raise of their size. lower-sized droplet has a faster spreading rate due to the large pressure and its fast change in droplet central point. the influence of inertia force on liquid in the center of higher-sized droplet makes the maximum spreading coefficient larger. at maximum spreading time, central point of higher-sized droplet is thinner. within a certain range, maximum spreading coefficient of different droplets increases significantly with increase in droplet velocity. the detailed research on the spreading of ellipsoidal droplets not only provides a foundation for the regulation of droplet size, but also promotes the use of interface tracking method in pesticide spraying research. acknowledgments the authors are grateful for financial support from the national science foundation of china (51975005、 51975174、51875152&51875154) and anhui natural science foundation (2008085me148&1908085qe195). references andrade, r., skurtys, o., & osorio, f. 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(2014). control of a bouncing magnitude on a heated substrate via ellipsoidal drop shape. appl. phys. lett., 105 (24): 244108. https://doi:10.1063/1.4904838 zhu, l., ge, j. r., qi, y. y., chen, q., hua, r. m., luo, f., & chen, p. r. (2018). droplet impingement behavior analysis on the leaf surface of shu-chazao under different pesticide formulations. comput. electron. agr., 144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.11.030 zwertvaegher, i. k., micheline, v., brusselman, e., verboven, p., frederic, l., mathieu, m., … nuyttens d. (2014). the impact and retention of spray droplets on a horizontal hydrophobis surface. biosyst. eng., 126, 82–91. https://doi:10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.07.013 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p89 89 published by ideas spread performance of wheat in five soils of different textures under freshwater and wastewater irrigation mohammad a. mojid1, khadija a. mousumi1 & tanvir ahmed1 1 department of irrigation and water management, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, 2202, bangladesh correspondence: mohammad a. mojid, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh. e-mail: ma_mojid@yahoo.com received: june 27, 2020 accepted: july 11, 2020 online published: july 29, 2020 abstract this study investigated the effects of five soils of different textures on wheat cultivation under irrigation with freshwater (fw) and municipal wastewater (ww). the experimental design was a split-plot with irrigation water quality as main factor and soil texture as sub-factor in three replications. these factors respectively comprised 2 and 5 treatments. soil texture significantly (p≤0.05) influenced plant height, leaf area index (lai), spike length, number of grains per spike, above ground dry matter (adm), grain yield, straw yield and biomass yield of wheat in most cases both under fw and ww irrigation. the harvest index (hi) of wheat responded significantly under fw irrigation only. under fw, treatment t5 (silt loam) produced the highest grain yield (4.2 t ha–1) followed by t3 (loam-1) (3.1 t ha–1); the lowest yield (2.0 t ha–1) was in the control treatment, t1 (loamy sand). under ww, treatment t2 (sandy loam) produced the highest grain yield (5.0 t ha–1) followed by t4 (loam-2) (4.5 t ha–1) both of which are statistically similar; the lowest yield (3.4 t ha–1) was in the control treatment. treatments t2 and t4 provided the highest straw yield (5.6 t ha–1) and treatment t2 provided the highest biomass yield (10.6 t ha–1), both under ww; both t2 and t4 produced invariant biomass yields. compared to other treatments, t2 and t4 gave statistically similar but significantly higher water productivity with respect to straw and grain yields. the lowest water productivity was in treatment t1 under both water qualities. the results of this study provided sound criteria in selecting suitable lands for wheat cultivation based on irrigation water quality, specifically in alluvial plains where soil texture is prone to high variations. also, the observed facts of improved productivity of lower quality coarse-textured soils due to addition of easily available and inexpensive clay would provide guidance to bring unproductive sandy soils under production by clay amendments. keywords: soil texture, water quality, cereal crop, yield response, water uptake, water productivity 1. introduction irrigation water is becoming scarce with continuous increase in its demand almost everywhere in the world, especially in areas with intensive agricultural practices. therefore, effective ways of water conservation and management are of primary importance (al-rashed and sherif, 2000; rahman et al., 2020). wastewater (e.g., urban wastewater, industrial wastewater) is an unconventional water source, the availability of which is increasing over time due to increasing use of water by the growing population (van rooijen et al., 2005). under water-scarce situations, use of wastewater in irrigation is increasingly getting attention because of its increasing supply together with relatively low cost and growing awareness of environmental quality (mojid et al., 2010). in case of poor fertility soils, wastewater is an important source of nutrients for crop production (kiziloglu et al., 2007; mojid and wyseure, 2013). however, wastewater irrigation may also be hazardous to environment since it contains pollutants, such as macroand micro-organic and inorganic matters. these constituents of wastewater may harm environment, health, soil, aquifer and crops (feigin et al., 1990; us environmental protection agency, 1992). disposal of urban/municipal wastewater is also a problem of increasing importance throughout the world. consequently, both the necessity to conserve freshwater and to dispose of wastewater safely and economically makes wastewater use in agriculture a very feasible option (wang et al., 2007). irrigation with municipal wastewater may permit a more efficient use of water resources and considerably limit environmental pollution due to its direct disposal into surface water bodies. wastewater irrigation may be a prime solution in the optimization of water resources in water-scarce areas (virto et al., 2006). peri-urban agriculture with municipal wastewater is an emerging agricultural practice in bangladesh (mojid et al., 2010) and several other countries in the world. wastewater reuse can reduce fertilizer rates due to its fertilizer contribution in crop production (tabriz et al., 2011; biswas et al., as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 90 published by ideas spread 2017; biswas and mojid, 2018) and thus can provide a low-cost source of irrigation water (mojid et al., 2012a). in many countries, most of the suitable lands have already been brought under agriculture, and cultivation now needs spilling over to marginal lands like hilly lands, charlands and other inferior quality lands. for example, the agriculture in bangladesh is now being expanded in the large charland areas (river shores) of the country where soils are mostly coarse-textured (e.g., sandy soil). but, soil texture is an important control of water regime and nutrient availability for crop production; it influences the physical, chemical and hydraulic properties of soils. sandy soils, characterized by less than 18% clay and more than 68% sand in the top 100 cm of the soil profile, occur in every part of the world (van wambeke, 1992). the productivity of such soils is limited due to their low water holding capacities, high infiltration rates, high evaporation, low fertility levels, very low organic matter content (mojid, et al., 2012b), and excessive deep percolation losses. these unfavorable soil properties cause low water productivity of the crops cultivated in these soils. consequently, these soils have not received adequate research attention yet although cultivating sandy soils may be a promising intervention to increase food production in many developing countries like bangladesh. a significant proportion of such land has been remaining unproductive because of its low fertility. management of these soils through proper reclamation measures to increase crop productivity adds a great deal to interest in a day wherein the available land area for cultivation is declining all the time in bangladesh and many other countries in the world. addition of fine natural deposits, such as clay and bentonite, can increase productivity of sandy soils by eliminating or minimizing constraints associated with these soils. this proposition is specifically suitable in areas where these amendment materials are available naturally in abundance and inexpensive (al-omran et al., 2004). until now, information on the effects of using clay as an amendment for sandy soils on crop yields, specifically wheat yield, under wastewater irrigation are not available. however, soil texture is an important factor to be considered in wastewater irrigation because soil fertility or soil contamination will depend mainly on soil texture. therefore, a suitable soil texture for irrigated crops is a concern in wastewater irrigation. if wastewater irrigation could be used for keeping soil productivity sustainable, it would reduce water deficit, increase the overall crop production and thereby provide food security in resource-scarce regions, such as bangladesh. a comprehensive knowledge of the effects of municipal wastewater on the growth and yield of crops in soils of different textures is necessary before recommending irrigation with wastewater. this study was planned to investigate the impact of five soils of different textures on wheat cultivation under irrigation with municipal wastewater in terms of growth and yield attributes of wheat as well as the yield, and to identify suitable soil texture(s) for wheat cultivation under freshwater and wastewater irrigation. 2. material and methods 2.1 experimental site the experiment was done in the central farm of bangladesh agricultural university in mymensingh, bangladesh (24.75on latitude, 90.50oe longitude and 18 m a.m.s.l.). the average maximum and minimum air temperatures ranged from 22.2oc to 30.0oc and from 10.7oc to 20.0oc, respectively, over the experimental period (november through march) in three consecutive cropping seasons (2008–09, 2009–10 and 2010–11). the mean relative humidity, pan evaporation and sunshine varied from 74% to 86%, 1.9 mm to 3.9 mm and 4.3 h to 8.4 h, respectively. an amount of 53-mm rainfall (i.e., 41 mm and 12 mm in december and february, respectively) was recorded over the 2010–11 cropping season with 50.2 mm of effective rainfall. no rainfall occurred over crop cycle in the two previous years. 2.2 field plot preparation an area of 14 m × 10 m was divided into 3 strips each of them being split in 2 blocks. the distance between the adjacent strips was 2 m and that between the adjacent blocks was 1 m. each block was split in 5 unit plots of 1 m2 each. two adjacent unit plots within a block was 1 m separated. the experimental layout was a split-plot with 10 irrigation water quality and soil texture treatments in 3 replications that gives a total number of 30 plots. in each unit plot, a pit of 60 cm depth and 1 m square area was dug manually with a spade. a polyethylene sheet was placed on the four vertical sides of each pit to prevent lateral seepage of water. all the pits were filled with a mixture of loamy sand collected from river shore and field soils at different ratio to obtain the five different soil textures required in each block (table 1); this table also contained the average bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity, organic matter, electrical conductivity (ec) and ph of the soils. more details on plot preparation are available in the literature (mojid et al., 2009; mojid et al., 2012b). 2.3 experimental design and set-up three-year historical data involving irrigation experiments were analyzed with the aim to evaluate the interaction as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 91 published by ideas spread effects of soil texture and irrigation water quality on wheat cultivation. the experimental design was a split-plot with irrigation water quality as the main factor of two levels and soil texture as sub-factor of 5 levels, which gives 10 treatments in 3 replications (fig. 1). the water quality was composed of freshwater (fw) obtained from a deep borehole well (i1) and wastewater (ww) from municipal sewage of mymensingh town (i2). the soil texture involved loamy sand (control t1), sandy loam (t2), loam-1 (t3), loam-2 (t4) and silt loam (t5). table 1. percentage of sand, silt and clay, and textural classes, average bulk density (γ), saturated hydraulic conductivity (ksat), organic matter content (om), electrical conductivity (ec) and ph of the experimental soils treatments % sand % silt % clay textural class γ (g cm−3) ksat (cm h−1) om (%) ec (s cm−1) ph t1 79.48 14.48 6.04 loamy sand 1.41 27.36 0.39 11.4 5.99 t2 54.48 37.02 8.50 sandy loam 1.37 1.34 0.99 14.9 5.88 t3 52.72 38.24 9.04 loam-1 1.38 1.27 0.86 13.3 5.13 t4 41.00 49.00 10.00 loam-2 1.36 0.67 1.34 34.1 4.88 t5 15.00 72.00 13.00 silt loam 1.28 0.41 1.47 29.8 6.05 table 2 lists the pertinent chemical constituents of freshwater and wastewater used for irrigating the experimental wheat plots. it is noted that the concentrations of boron, iron, potassium, nitrate nitrogen, phosphate phosphorus, sodium, lead, copper, zinc and cadmium in wastewater were below their threshold values set by food and agriculture organization (fao) (1992) for safe use in agriculture, except for manganese. details of the quality parameters of mymensingh sewage are found in mojid et al. (2010). recommended fertilizer doses for wheat – 120 kg n, 32 kg p, 62 kg k, 20 kg s, 3 kg zn and 1 kg b per hectare in the form of urea, triple super phosphate, muriate of potash, gypsum, zinc sulphate and borax, respectively – were used. two-thirds of urea and the entire doses of the other fertilizers were applied as basal dose. the remaining urea was top dressed before applying the first irrigation. wheat seeds (cv. shatabdi, @ 120 kg ha–1) were sown at 2−3 cm depth in 20-cm apart rows on 6 december 2008, 6 december 2009 and 24 november 2010. in order to control insect pests, bavistine (0.9 kg ha– 1) and ridomil gold (1 kg ha–1) were sprayed before first irrigation. figure 1. field layout of the irrigation water quality vs. soil texture experiment executed on the central farm of bangladesh agricultural university in mymensingh, bangladesh as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 92 published by ideas spread table 2. chemical constituents of freshwater (fw) and wastewater (ww) used for irrigation of experimental plots of wheat at bangladesh agricultural university farm, mymensingh water type chemical constituents (mg l–1, ds m–1 for ec) tn p k ec ph fw 1.52 ± 0.03 0.039 ± 0.005 2.35 ± 0.04 0.385 ± 0.017 7.08 ± 0.03 ww 18.39 ± 2.4 4.28 ± 0.64 13.59 ± 1.25 1.049 ± 0.078 7.33 ± 0.12 2.4 data recording irrigation was scheduled based on crop-water requirement and observation of soil moisture condition. because of lighter texture, total four irrigations were applied to treatments t1 (loamy sand), t2 (sandy loam) and t3 (loam-1) compared to treatments t4 (loam-2) and t5 (silt loam) in which total three irrigations were applied. soil moisture was measured in the plots with a digital soil-moisture meter (dsmm, general tools and instruments) before applying irrigation. leaf area index (lai) was determined at 75 days after sowing (das) on five representative plants collected from each plot with an li-3100 area meter (li-cor. inc. lincoln. nebraska, usa). total area covered by all five plants was calculated from the planting density. by definition, the lai was calculated as the ratio of leaf area to the covering ground area. the above ground dry matter (adm) of the crop was also determined at 75 das by collecting five representative plants from each plot. the plants were oven-dried at 60oc in 72 h and weighed to determine the adm. the crop was harvested when the spikes were completely ripened. the harvested crop of each plot was bundled separately and tagged. in order to assess the change in soil moisture status during the growing season, the soil-moisture content of each plot was measured immediately after harvesting. soil-moisture content data, recorded over time, were used to estimate water used by the crop during the growing season. after harvest, different crop attributes, such as the number of total tillers, effective and non-bearing tillers, plant height, spike length, spikelets per spike and grains per spike for each plot were counted. plant materials were then air-dried. threshing, cleaning and drying of grains and straws of each plot were done carefully, grain and straw yields being recorded separately. the harvest index (hi) of wheat was determined by the ratio of grain yield to total biomass yield (grain plus straw yield). the water productivity of wheat, defined as the ratio of yield to total amount of water used, was determined both for grain and biomass yields. root development of wheat in different treatments was measured at the end of the growing season. just after harvest, roots over three different soil depths (0–15, 15–30 and 30–45 cm) were collected separately by sampling soil columns with a representative area of the soil surface. roots were obtained after careful soil-washing through a plastic net. they were successively air-dried and oven-dried at 60oc in 72 h to obtain their mass. the root-density was calculated by dividing the root dry weight by the covering area. the analysis of variance of data obtained was done by using statistix 10 software package of analytical software (2019). comparison of means of the plant attributes among the factors and treatments was done using tukey’s hsd test at 5% level of significance (p ≤0.05). 3. results and discussion 3.1 growth attributes of wheat quality of irrigation water affected the plant height, leaf area index, above-ground dry matter and root-density at different depths significantly (p <0.05) except root density at 30–45 cm soil layer (table 3). ww (i2) produced significantly taller plants and greater lai and adm than fw (i1), which produced greater root-density than ww. texture of the soils did not influence plant height and lai significantly (p ≤0.05) except treatment t1 (loamy sand, table 1), which produced significantly shorter plant and smaller lai than the other treatments (table 3). treatment t3 (loam-1, table 1) produced the tallest plants (84.6 cm) and t4 (loam-2) produced the shortest plants (82.9 cm). treatment t5 (silt loam) produced the highest lai and t1 produced the least lai; in general, lai increased with the increase in clay content of the soils. lower saturated hydraulic conductivity of the amended soils (t2–t5) than the control treatment (t1) (table 1) reduced percolation losses of water in the amended treatments. the reduced percolation loss augmented soil-water and nutrient retention with a consequent increase in soil fertility, which enhanced the growth of wheat leaves and, consequently, caused increase in lai. adm of wheat increased significantly as texture of the soils became finer except treatment t5, which produced significantly higher adm than treatment t1 but lower adm than the other treatments. soil texture significantly influenced root-growth at the top 0–15 cm soil layer; the coarser the texture the higher was the root-density. most of the roots were obtained in the top 0–15 cm soil layer; only small fractions of roots were in the lower layers. soil texture exerted only minimal influence on root-growth at the lower soil layers. the topsoil retained most of the nutrients both from the applied fertilizers and ww and promoted more extensive growth of roots in the upper soil profile compared to the lower one (table 3). increased root growth with increasing as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 93 published by ideas spread fertilizer was also reported by li et al. (2004). the three coarser-textured soils (t1, t2 and t3) provided significantly higher root-density compared to the two finer-textured soils (t4 and t5) (table 3). lesser amount of irrigation water could be applied in coarser-textured soils with a quicker water loss through percolation and evaporation compared to the finer-textured soils. consequently, plants in coarse-textured soil (e.g., t1) generally suffered from water stress for a while before each irrigation application. although irrigation was scheduled based on soil-water status, the allowable soil-water deficit was higher in coarse-textured soils compared to that in finetextured soils. the extensive root system helped the plants to take up more water and nutrients from the soil than did the narrow root system. the plants thus compensated, to some extent, water deficit by increasing water-uptake through additional rooting in coarse-textured soils. the interaction effects of irrigation water quality and soil texture were significant on the growth attributes in most cases except for the root-density at two lower soil layers, 15–3 cm and 30–45 cm (table 3). the plant height ranged from 75.7 cm (i1t1) to 89.7 cm (i2t2) among different (10) combinations of irrigation water quality and soil texture. only a few treatment combinations exerted significant effect on lai. the highest lai was obtained in t2 under fw irrigation (3.6) and in t5 under ww irrigation (2.7) and the overall lowest lai in t1 under ww irrigation (1.2). these observations in lai are in agreement with the findings of mojid et al. (2012c) who obtained levelingeffects of irrigation water quality when it contained more than 75% ww; the influence of ww on lai reached a plateau when irrigation was applied entirely with ww (fig.5 in mojid et al., 2012c). the leveling-off of irrigation on lai occurred due to over-fertilization of wheat with recommended fertilizer doses in combination with fertilizer contribution of ww in their experiments. this effect also occurred in our study in the plots irrigated with ww; with recommended fertilizer doses and fertilizer contribution from ww the plots provide smaller lai than those under fw irrigation. most treatment combinations exerted significant effect on adm. the smallest adm was in i1t1 and largest adm in i2t4. table 3 demonstrates that ww contributed more in increasing plant height and adm than fw in all five soil textures. the textural effects on plant height and adm were more systematic under fw than under ww; in general, the coarser the soil the smaller were these plant attributes. the trend of rootgrowth in the top soil layer in relation to irrigation water quality was opposite to that of plant height and adm. fw in combination with the soil textures produced more roots compared to the combination of ww and soil textures. the interaction of irrigation water quality and soil texture did not reveal any systematic textural effect on root density. since the root density in the entire root zone was dominated by that in the top layer, the interaction effect of irrigation water quality and soil texture was also similar to that in the top soil layer. table 3. quantity of applied irrigation, average plant height, leaf area index (lai), above-ground dry matter (adm) and root density of wheat as influenced by irrigation water quality, soil texture and their interaction over three cropping seasons in mymensingh, bangladesh treatment irrigation (cm) plant height (cm) lai at 75 das adm at 75 das root density (kg m–2) at depth 0−15 (cm) 15−30 (cm) 30−45 (cm) 0−45 (cm) irrigation i1 (fw) – 80.5a 1.84a 3.3a 0.44a 0.11a 0.04a 0.58a i2 (ww) – 85.0b 2.92b 6.0b 0.31b 0.07b 0.04a 0.42b soil texture t1 22.7 79.1a 1.72a 3.6d 0.41a 0.10a 0.04a 0.55a t2 20.7 84.2b 2.46b 4.6bc 0.39ab 0.11a 0.05a 0.54a t3 18.2 84.6b 2.37b 5.2ab 0.39ab 0.09a 0.04a 0.52ab t4 15.0 82.9b 2.61b 5.5a 0.35bc 0.08ab 0.04a 0.48b t5 13.8 82.9b 2.74b 4.3cd 0.31c 0.06b 0.04a 0.41c irrigation × soil texture i1t1 22.7 75.7e 2.3bc 1.9f 0.46ab 0.13a 0.04a 0.63bc i1t2 20.7 78.7de 3.6c 2.5ef 0.52a 0.13a 0.04a 0.69c i1t3 18.2 82.2bcd 2.6bc 4.3cd 0.45bc 0.1ab 0.04a 0.58ab i1t4 15.0 80.7cd 3.4c 3.6de 0.43bc 0.1ab 0.04a 0.58ab i1t5 13.8 85.1abc 2.8c 3.9d 0.31de 0.06b 0.04a 0.42a i2t1 22.7 82.6bcd 1.2a 5.2cd 0.35bcd 0.08ab 0.05a 0.48ab as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 94 published by ideas spread i2t2 20.7 89.7a 1.3a 6.8ab 0.26e 0.08ab 0.06a 0.39a i2t3 18.2 86.9ab 2.2bc 6.0bc 0.32bcde 0.09ab 0.05a 0.46ab i2t4 15.0 85bc 1.9ab 7.3a 0.27e 0.07b 0.04a 0.38a i2t5 13.8 80.7cde 2.7c 4.8cd 0.32cde 0.06b 0.03a 0.41a common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance. d.f. regarding the split-plot design: erro1 = 2; interaction factor 1 x factor 2: 4; error 2: 16. total 53-mm rainfall (41 mm in december and 12 mm in february) occurred in 2010–11 cropping season; no rainfall occurred over crop cycles in the two previous years. addition of even a small quantity of amendment (as in t2) remarkably improved soil-water retention; the rate of this improvement, however, decreased with further increase in amendment. reduced evaporation rate due to higher water-holding capacity of clay than sand also helped increasing soil-water content in the amended treatments. the water content at field capacity increased with increasing clay content of the treatments following a strong linear relation (r2 = 0.93). the amendment helped increasing the field capacity by 78%, 80% and 91% in treatment t2, t3 and t4, respectively compared to t1 (mojid et al., 2012b). the ww contained n, p and k at concentration of 17.5 mg l−1, 3.7 mg l−1 and 10.3 mg l−1, respectively and added these nutrients to the irrigated soils and elevated their fertility. increased nutrients (e.g., n, p, k) in ww compared to fw improved fertility of the soils under irrigation with ww and enhanced vegetative growth of wheat with the consequent increase in plant height, lai and adm of the crop (table 3). however, the elevated quantity of available water associated with more nutrient retention in finer-textured soils generally enhanced crop growth attributes more compared to that of the coarsetextured soils. 3.2 yield attributes of wheat irrigation water quality influenced significantly the yield attributes of wheat, such as spike density, spike length, spikelets per spike and grains per spike, with ww producing more spikes per unit area, longer spike, more spikelets per spike and more grains per spike (table 4). the weight of 1000 grains of wheat remained unaffected by irrigation water quality. soil texture exerted significant influence on spikes per square meter and spike length for most treatments and on spikelets per spike and 1000-grain weight for a few treatments; grains per spike remained unaffected by the soil textures. table 4 demonstrates that all the yield attributes improved as texture of the soils became finer. poor nutrient availability and water-retention capacity of loamy sand (t1) and sandy loam (t2) compared to the other soil textures suppressed the yield attributes in these treatments. table 4. quantity of applied irrigation, average number of spikes per square meter, spike length, spikelets per spike, grains per spike and 1000-grain weight of wheat as influenced by irrigation water quality, soil texture and their interaction over three cropping seasons in mymensingh, bangladesh treatment irrigation (cm) spikes (m–2) spike length (cm) spikelets (spike–1) grains (spike–1) 1000-grain weight (g) irrigation i1 (fw) – 208.5a 12.9a 15.7a 36.8a 47.9a i2 (ww) – 267.3b 13.5b 16.8b 39.2b 47.4a soil texture t1 22.7 199.2c 12.7b 15.1b 36.3a 46.6b t2 20.7 243.2ab 13.2ab 16.0ab 37.1a 46.2b t3 18.2 235.8b 13.5a 16.7a 38.9a 49.8a t4 15.0 248.6ab 13.2ab 16.6a 39.1a 47.5b t5 13.8 262.6a 13.5a 16.8a 38.7a 47.9ab irrigation × soil texture i1t1 22.7 177.0a 12.3ab 14.6c 33.6de 44.5a i1t2 20.7 195.9ab 12.5ab 14.2c 33.1e 46.5abc i1t3 18.2 221.7bcd 13.3bc 17.3ab 39.4abc 49.4bc i1t4 15.0 199.2ab 12.8ab 15.4bc 36.4bcde 49.1bc i1t5 13.8 248.6cde 13.8c 17.3ab 41.5ab 47.3abc i2t1 22.7 221.3abc 13.0abc 15.6bc 39.0abc 48.7abc as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 95 published by ideas spread i2t2 20.7 290.6e 13.9c 17.9a 41.1abc 46.0ab i2t3 18.2 249.9cde 13.7bc 16.2abc 38.4abcd 50.3c i2t4 15.0 298.0e 13.6bc 17.9a 41.9a 45.9ab i2t5 13.8 276.6de 13.1abc 16.4abc 35.9cde 48.6abc common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance. d.f. regarding the split-plot design: erro1 = 2; interaction factor 1 x factor 2: 4; error 2: 16. the interaction effects of irrigation water quality and soil texture on the yield attributes of wheat were significant for most treatment combinations (table 4). fw in combination with loamy sand (i1t1) and sandy loam (i1t2) produced the poorest yield attributes, while ww in combination with loam-2 (i2t4) produced the most improved spikes per square meter, spikelets per spike and grains per spike. the longest spike was obtained in i2t2 treatment combination, which produced statistically similar spike length to i2t3, i2t4 and i2t5 treatment combinations. the 1000-grain weight was the highest in i2t3. ww in combination with the five soil textural treatments provided more improved yield attributes of wheat compared to fw in combination with the soil treatment, further implying that ww contributed more in improving the yield attributes compared to fw. table 4 also demonstrates that the yield attributes generally continued increasing as the texture of the soil became finer under irrigation with fw; however, such trend was not evident under irrigation with ww. these results revealed that under fw irrigation and recommended fertilizer doses the overall fertility levels of the soil textural treatments did not reach their possible maximum limits in all treatments for fertilizing wheat. although irrigation with ww contributed increasingly on the growth attributes of wheat as soil texture became finer, it did not contributed in the same way on the yield attributes. 3.3 yield and harvest index of wheat as given in table 5, irrigation water quality influenced significantly wheat traits like grain yield, straw yield and biomass yield; harvest index remained unaffected. irrigation with ww improved these wheat traits irrespective of soil textural differences. the effect of soil texture was statistically similar on these traits of the crop except treatment t1 (loamy sand, table 1), which produced significantly lower grain, straw and biomass yields compared to the other treatments (t2–t5). however, these three yield measures of wheat increased with the increase of clay content in the treatments. the field soil (t5) contained four times higher organic carbon (0.85%) than the control (t1). consequently, the amendment considerably elevated organic carbon (hence organic matter) in treatments t2, t3 and t4 compared to t1. poor yields in t1 could be explained by lower organic matter, other nutrients (n, p and k) and water contents in this treatment. reduced wheat yield under lower soil-water content was also reported by simsek et al. (2005). table 5. quantity of applied irrigation, average grain, straw and biomass yields, harvest index (hi), and water productivity resulting from grain (wpg) and biomass yields (wpb) as influenced by irrigation water quality, soil texture and their interaction over three cropping seasons in mymensingh, bangladesh treatment irrigation (cm) grain yield (t ha–1) straw yield (t ha–1) biomass yield (t ha–1) hi (-) wpg (kg m–3) wpb (kg m–3) irrigation i1 (fw) – 2.88a 3.61a 6.48a 0.44a 1.25a 2.84a i2 (ww) – 4.12b 4.83b 8.95b 0.46a 2.28b 4.99b soil texture t1 22.7 2.70a 3.31a 6.02a 0.44a 1.20c 2.75a t2 20.7 3.66b 4.44b 8.10b 0.44a 1.84ab 4.05b t3 18.2 3.47b 4.16b 7.62b 0.45a 1.68b 3.78b t4 15.0 3.72b 4.54b 8.26b 0.46a 1.99ab 4.45b t5 13.8 3.94b 4.64b 8.59b 0.46a 2.11a 4.55b irrigation × soil texture i1t1 22.7 2.0f 2.8f 4.7e 0.42ab 0.8f 1.94f i1t2 20.7 2.3ef 3.3ef 5.6de 0.41b 0.9ef 2.28f i1t3 18.2 3.1de 4.0cde 7.0cd 0.44ab 1.3de 3.04def i1t4 15.0 2.9def 3.4def 6.3de 0.46ab 1.2ef 2.79ef as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 96 published by ideas spread i1t5 13.8 4.2abc 4.6bcd 8.7bc 0.47a 2.0cd 4.16bcd i2t1 22.7 3.4cde 3.9cde 7.3cd 0.47ab 1.6de 3.55cde i2t2 20.7 5.0a 5.6ab 10.6a 0.47ab 2.8a 5.82a i2t3 18.2 3.8bcd 4.4cd 8.2c 0.47ab 2.0cd 4.51bc i2t4 15.0 4.5ab 4.7abc 10.2ab 0.45ab 2.7ab 6.12a i2t5 13.8 3.7bcd 5.6a 8.4bc 0.45ab 2.2bc 4.94ab common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance. d.f. regarding the split-plot design: erro1 = 2; interaction factor 1 x factor 2: 4; error 2: 16. the interaction effect of irrigation and soil texture under recommended fertilizer dose was more favorable for wheat yields (grain, straw and biomass yields) when irrigation was done with ww compared to irrigation with fw. irrigation with ww produced greater grain, straw and biomass yields in the corresponding soil treatments when compared with irrigation with fw (table 5). harvest index, hi, remained mostly unaffected by the interaction effect of irrigation water quality and soil texture. like yield attributes, fw in combination with loamy sand (i1t1) produced the lowest yields of wheat that were similar to the yields under the combination of fw and sandy loam (i1t2) but significantly lower than the yields of other treatment combinations. treatments t3, t4 and t5 produced statistically similar grain and straw yields under fw irrigation. inadequate soil water along with reduced nutrient in t1 retarded physiological processes in the plants and consequently reduced the crop yields. under fw irrigation, the grain, straw and biomass yields increased as the texture of the soil became finer except the treatment combination i1t4, which produced lower yields than the treatment combination i1t3. the enhanced vegetative growth in terms of plant height and number of tillers per plant in the amended treatments increased straw yield that, in turn, together with yield attributes, improved the biomass yield. the amendment, however, did not systematically influence the harvest index of wheat. irrigation with fw in combination with recommended fertilizer dose produced the most improved yield of wheat in silt loam (t5), thus revealing that this soil texture is the most suitable for wheat cultivation under recommended fertilizer doze and irrigation with fw. the interaction effect of irrigation with ww and soil texture on the yields of wheat had no systematic trend with the texture of the soils except that the treatment combination i2t1 produced the lowest yields, which were significantly lower than the yields of other treatment combinations. the highest grain yield was obtained in treatment combination i2t2, straw yield in i2t2 and i2t5, and biomass yield in i2t4. the enhanced vegetative growth due to increased soil-water content augmented straw yield, which, together with yield attributing characters, improved the biomass yield. under ww irrigation, soil texture minimally influenced the hi of wheat. these results again revealed that, under fw irrigation and recommended fertilizer doses, the overall fertility levels of the soil textural treatments did not reach their maximum limits in all treatments for wheat growth, while the fertility levels under irrigation with ww might reach or even exceeded the maximum limits except in the most light-textured soil (t1). these results are in agreement with the findings of mojid et al. (2012c) who obtained suppressed grain yield of wheat when the applied irrigation comprised over 75% ww and recommended fertilizer dose was applied. 3.4 water productivity of wheat irrigation water quality influenced significantly water productivity of wheat related to grain and biomass yields, with ww providing significantly greater water productivity compared to fw (table 5). both water productivity data increased as soil texture became finer since the treatments with high clay content consumed small amount of water. similar findings were reported by ismail and ozawa (2007). particularly, treatments t2 to t5 saved 30% to 60% irrigation water compared to treatment t1. irrespective of water quality, loamy sand (t1) provided the least water productivities of wheat and silt loam (t5) provided the greatest values. both water productivities were significantly lower in t1 treatment than in the other soil treatments. in terms of water productivity related to grain yield, treatment t5 performed best; this performance was however statistically similar to that of t4. in terms of water productivity related to biomass yield, the best-performing treatment was also t5, whose performance was similar to that of treatments t2, t3 and t4. soil texture exerted varying degrees of influence on the two water productivity data in different combinations of irrigation water quality and soil texture. ww in combination with soil textures provided higher water productivities related to both grain and biomass yields compared to the corresponding treatment combinations of fw and soil textures. loamy sand (t1) in combination with irrigation with fw (i1t1) produced the least water productivities, while silt loam (t5) with fw irrigation (i1t5) produced the greatest water productivities. under fw irrigation, both water productivity data increased as the texture of the soil became finer except treatment t4, which provided statistically similar but lower water productivities compared to treatment t3. the highest water productivity for as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 97 published by ideas spread grain production in t5 revealed that wheat, cultivated under irrigation with fw in combination with the recommended fertilizer doses, most effectively utilized water in grain production. thus, clay helped conserving soil water and nutrients by improving soil structure that contributed increasing growth and water productivity of wheat. the control treatment always provided the lowest water productivity since irrigation requirement and, hence, total water used in a plot increased with the decreasing clay content of the plot. under ww irrigation, the treatment combination i2t1 provided the least water productivities, which were significantly lower than that under the other treatment combinations. the treatment combination i2t2 provided the most improved water productivity related to grain yield and i2t4 provided such water productivity related to biomass yield. the interaction effects of irrigation with ww and soil texture did not reveal any systematic trend in relation to textural variations except the loamy sand (t1), which provided the least water productivity data. 4. conclusions addition of small quantities of clay (2.4–4.0%) through silt loam transformed loamy sand to sandy loam and loam. this amendment improved soil structure, reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity (by reducing the macro pores) of the soil, and increased soil-water and nutrient contents. consequently, irrigation water quality contributed to wheat cultivation differently following soil texture. soil-water and organic-matter contents of fine-textured soils were much higher than that of loamy sand. in terms of grain, straw and biomass yields, sandy loam and loam-2 performed the best with high water productivity followed by silt loam irrespective of irrigation water quality; loamy sand performed the least. the least water productivity was obtained in loamy sand while the amended soils could save 30% to 60% of irrigation water. among the five soil textures, sandy loam and loam appeared the most suitable soil textures for wheat cultivation since they produced more grain and biomass yields compared to loamy sand. the results of this study thus provide information in selecting lands with suitable soil texture for wheat cultivation, specifically in alluvial plains where soil texture varies widely. however, the essence of this study is that amendment of lower quality coarse-textured soils by adding naturally available and inexpensive clay could improve crop productivity through better water regimes and higher nutrient content. conflict of interest the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. references al-omran, a. m., falatah, a. m, sheta, a. s., & al-harbi, a. r. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v3n3p1 1 published by ideas spread the solar-heat pump combined drying characteristics and dynamic model of kelp knots yang li1, zicheng hu1, yongguang hu2, fenghua ge1 & hongzhi cai1 1 school of energy and power engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, china 2 school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china correspondence: yang li, school of energy and power engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, 212013, china. e-mail: received: august 9, 2021 accepted: august 15, 2021 online published: august 29, 2021 the research is financed by national natural science foundation of china (51806088) and jiangsu university scientific research foundation for the senior scholars (14jdg186). abstract for controlling the entire drying process of a material, it is crucial to understand the moisture ratio of the material in the drying process. in order to ascertain the moisture change rules of kelp knots in the solar-heat pump combined drying process, an analysis was made on the impacts of different drying temperatures, wind speeds and loading capacities on the drying rate in this research; meanwhile, three common drying dynamic models were selected and compared to know their applicability to the solar-heat pump combined drying of kelp knots. further, the model coefficient was determined and the optimal model was obtained. the results reveal as follows: drying temperature, wind speed and loading capacity have significant impact on and significant correlation (p<0.05) with the drying rate of kelp knots; under different drying conditions, the drying rate is always high in the early stage, lowered and gradually moderate in the later stage. after fitting the drying dynamic model, it is found that among the experimental data, regression coefficient (r2) is the largest in the verma model, and the sum of squares for error (sse) and root mean square error (rmse) are low. this indicates that the verma model can be used to accurately express and predict the change rules of moisture in kelp knots during the solar-heat pump combined drying. according to fick's second diffusion law, the effective diffusion coefficient deff increases with the increase in drying temperature and wind speed, and decreases with the increase in loading capacity. keywords: kelp knots, solar-heat pump combined drying, drying characteristics, drying dynamic model 1. introduction the kelp production in china accounts for about 50% of the total kelp production in the world. fresh kelp is an important marine resource due to its high moisture ratio, seawater growth environment, wide distribution, rich nutrients and low cost (wang, et al., 2008), but usually needs to be dried and dehydrated because of its high moisture ratio and perishability. due to the huge demand for kelp in chinese market, it is necessary to apply industrial equipment and technology, such as drying equipment and technology, to the preservation and transportation of kelp (song, et al., 2014). drying process is widely used in various fields (2000), and drying is also a technological operation with high energy consumption. according to statistics, in developed countries such as britain, the united states, and france, the energy consumption of drying process accounts for about 12% of the total energy consumption (bhesh, et al., 2015). therefore, it is of important practical significance to research the energy saving and consumption reduction in the drying process, and research new drying process. usually, fresh kelp knots are dried in the open air without any cost. however, this drying method is of low efficiency, easy to get the material mouldy under environmental influence, and has a narrow range of application, leading to insufficient drying of the material and loss of nutritional value. in contrast, solar drier as a new energysaving drying machine can convert light energy into heat energy (ban, et al., 2011) to improve the drying efficiency of material greatly. however, it is not applicable to continuous operation for reason that it is susceptible to weather, day and night (kapsalis, et al., 2016). heat pump has high drying stability, low operating cost and short drying cycle. in actual application, solar collector is combined with heat pump to form a solar-heat pump combined drier as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 2 published by ideas spread to overcome the unfavorable factors (xu, et al., 2004). currently, solar-heat pump combined drying technology has been applied to drying of lentinula edodes (zhu, et al., 2020), tobacco (li, et al., 2021) and chinese chestnut (liu, et al., 2020), etc. and obtained remarkable effects. moisture ratio is an important indicator affecting the drying quality of a material, but difficult to be determined in the drying process. in order to better control the drying process, it is necessary to establish a mathematical model and analyze the drying process by mathematical means. both in china and foreign countries, there have already been a large number of researches on the dehydration of fruits, medical materials and other materials. reference (zhang, et al., 2021) studied the characteristics and dynamic model of the hot-air drying of yellow peach fruits and found that temperature played a key role in the drying of yellow peach fruits; with the increase in drying temperature, the drying time was shortened and the drying rate was significantly improved. reference (liu, et al., 2020) studied the characteristics and dynamic model of the hot-air drying of chinese chestnuts and discovered that page model conformed to the drying characteristics of chinese chestnuts. reference (wu, et al., 2020) researched the characteristics and dynamic model of the drying of seahorse in different drying methods and proved that page model and midilli model were more suitable for characterizing the hot-air drying process of seahorse, while page model and weibull model can describe the vacuum drying model of seahorse accurately. however, there are few researches on the characteristics and dynamic model of the drying of kelp knots (hu, et al., 2019), making it important to research the solar-heat pump combined drying of kelp knots. taking fresh kelp knots as the research object, solar-heat pump combined drying technology is used in this paper to research the rules in which different drying temperatures, wind speeds and loadings affect the drying characteristics of kelp knots, and determine the drying dynamic model suitable for characterizing the change in moisture ratio of kelp knots in the drying process. the result can provide a technical support and theoretical basis for the application of solar-heat pump combined drying technology in the drying of kelp knots in the future. 2. materials and methodology 2.1 materials and instruments the experimental materials are fresh kelp knots purchased from the local market of zhenjiang, china, with uniform size and without mechanical damage. a set of solar-heat pump combined drying equipment was designed and installed in order to research the drying characteristics of kelp knots. the flow chart of the equipment is as shown in figure 1. figure 1. flow chart of the drying equipment working principle: water in the water tank is heated up by the solar radiation energy absorbed by the solar collector, then passes through the radiator below the drying box under the traction of the water pump, and exchanges heat with the air filled in the radiator by the fan; after that, the heated air passes through the pallet loaded with dried materials and flows through the wet materials at constant speed to finish the heat and mass transfer. in this equipment, the temperature and wind speed can be adjusted as required. the heat pump is used for auxiliary heating. when the temperature in the water tank is lower than the set temperature, the heat pump will start to compensate for the heat till reaching the set temperature. the intelligent control system is used to control (temperature and wind speed) and digitalize the drying process. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 3 published by ideas spread figure 2. picture of the real solar-heat pump combined drying equipment other instruments and devices: fa1604n analytical balance (jiangsu jiangdong precision instrument co., ltd.); fluke-923 hot-wire anemometer (changsha tesai measurement and control technology co., ltd.). 2.2 experimental method in order to explore the impacts of different drying conditions on the drying characteristics of kelp knots, the experiments were respectively conducted at different drying temperatures (35, 40, 45 and 50℃, with an error of ±1℃) but constant loading capacity (3.6 kg±6 g) and wind speed (1.5±0.1 m/s), at different wind speeds (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 m/s, with an error of ±0.1 m/s) but constant loading capacity (3.6 kg±6 g) and drying temperature (45±1℃), and at different loading capacities (1.2, 3.6, 6.0 and 8.0 kg, with an error of ±6 g) but constant drying temperature (45±1℃) and wind speed (1.5±0.1 m/s). the initial mass of the kelp knots was measured, and then the mass of the kelp knots was measured at an interval of 10 min during the drying till the moisture ratio of the kelp knots dropped to 0.2 and the drying is stopped. each group was conducted three parallel experiments. 2.3 method for calculation of drying parameters 2.3.1 moisture ratio of dry basis the moisture ratio of dry basis can be calculated as per the following equation: ddtt m/)mm(m −= (1) in the equation, mt is the moisture ratio of dry basis of the material at time t, in g/g; mt is the mass of the material at time t, in g; md is the mass of the absolutely dried material, in g; 2.3.2 drying rate the equation of drying rate can be expressed as: 21 21 r tt mmd − −= (2) in the equation, dr is the drying rate, in g/(g·min); m1 is the moisture ratio of the dry basis when the material is dried to t1, in g/g; m2 is the moisture ratio of the dry basis when the material is dried to t2, in g/g; 2.3.3 moisture ratio the equation of moisture ratio can be expressed as: e0 et r mm mmm − −= (3) in the equation, mr is the moisture ratio; me is the moisture ratio of dry basis of the material at drying equilibrium, in g/g; m0 is the initial moisture ratio of dry basis of the material, in g/g. 2.4 drying dynamic model and evaluation parameters the drying of kelp knots can be classified as a dehydration process of wet porous media, which is a typical heatmass coupling process. through a large amount of experimental and data analysis, scholars both in china and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 4 published by ideas spread foreign countries (shi, et al., 2010; yang, et al., 2013; li, et al., 2016;) have summarized multiple theories on the rules in which moisture ratio changes with time in the drying process and established semi-empirical and empirical models. as found by reading relevant documents, the most common drying dynamic models for drying agricultural products are as illustrated in table 1 (shi, et al., 2013). hence, the dynamic model used in this experiment is as shown in table 1. table 1. drying dynamic mathematical models selected by analyzing the r2, sse and rmse between the experimental data and the predicted data, it is concluded that the higher the r2 is, the lower the sse and rmse are and the better the fitting effect is. 2.5 effective moisture diffusion coefficient effective moisture diffusion coefficient represents the ability to remove moisture by diffusion and transfer. since the width of kelp knot is much larger than its thickness, it is assumed that the mass transfer only occurs in axial one-way manner. hence, fick’s second law can be used to characterize the moisture diffusion in the drying process of kelp knots well. the volume shrinkage of kelp knot is ignored in the drying process (simal, et al., 1997). assuming that the samples have the same initial moisture distribution, the effective moisture diffusion coefficient can be calculated as per the following equation: t l deff)8(lnmln 2 2 2r π π −= (4) in the equation, mr is the moisture ratio; t is the drying time (h); l is the thickness of the sample (m); deff is the effective moisture diffusion coefficient (m2/h), which is estimated in slope method; the average deff at different temperatures can be obtained as per the logarithmic drying curve. letting the slope of equation (4) be k0, the effective moisture diffusion coefficient can be expressed as: 2 2 0 lkeffd π −= (5) 2.6 data processing the software origin2018 was used for drawing, and matlab2020a was applied to linear/non-linear regression fitting of the experimental data; based on this, the degree of fitting was analyzed. 3. results and analysis 3.1 the impact of drying temperature on the drying characteristics of kelp knots figure 3a shows the drying characteristic curves of kelp knots at different drying temperatures. as shown in figure 3a, when the set drying temperature is within the range of 35 ~ 50℃, the moisture ratio of dried kelp knots shows a decreasing trend with time (fast in early stage but gradually gentle in the later stage). within this drying temperature range, the higher the drying temperature is, the faster the drying is, which greatly reduces the drying time. this is because in this drying method, low-humidity hot air is used as the drying medium, the heat-humidity exchange with material is conducted in form of convection; when the air temperature rises, the moisture on the surface of the kelp knot will get more heat, leading to moisture diffusion inside the kelp knot, acceleration of water evaporation and shortening of the drying time. when the drying temperatures are 35℃ and 40℃, the drying times are 380 min and 280 min, respectively. however, long drying time is not conducive to saving cost. when the drying temperatures are 45℃ and 50℃, the drying times are 150 min and 200 min respectively and the drying trends are almost the same. comprehensive analysis reveals that about 45℃ is the suitable temperature for solarheat pump combined drying of kelp knots. model name model equation logarithmic c)ktexp(am r +−= page )kt(expm n r −= verma )gtexp()a1()ktexp(am r −−+−= as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 5 published by ideas spread the impacts of different drying temperatures on the drying rate of kelp knots are presented in figure 3b. as can be seen, the drying rate of the material depends on temperature. drying temperature is directly proportional to the highest drying rate (baher, et al., 2018). the drying rate is high initially till reaching the peak, then maintains low for a long time. the reason may be as follows: in the early stage of drying, there is much moisture on the surface and much free moisture inside the material; the internal temperature is also rising increasingly while moisture on the surface is evaporated fast under the action of hot air, so that the free moisture inside the material transfers quickly outward and the drying rate is increased. as the drying time goes, the moisture of the material reduces, and the drying rate begins to reduce. this may be for reason that kelp knot is a porous media so that the internal moisture is evaporated out through the holes and cracks; with the shrinking and hardening of the kelp surface, the heat and mass transfer encounters enhanced resistance in the process of conveying the internal moisture to the surface of the material, resulting in lowered decrease in drying rate. from the 120th min of drying to the time finishing the final drying goal, there is no large difference in the drying rate at different drying temperature. this reveals that after the 120th min of drying, temperature almost has no effect on the drying rate. provided that the drying efficiency is improved and the energy consumption is reduced, about 45℃ is the most suitable temperature for solar-heat pump combined drying of kelp knots. figure 3a. figure 3b. 3.2 the impact of wind speed on the drying characteristics of kelp knots figure 4a presents the drying characteristic curves of kelp knots at different wind speeds. as shown in figure 4a, wind speed has a certain impact on the drying characteristics of kelp knots. when the wind speed is at 0.5 m/s, 1.0 m/s, 1.5 m/s and 2.0 m/s, it takes 280 min, 260 min, 190 min and 150 min respectively to have the kelp knots dried to the target moisture ratio. this reveals that the time taken to have the material dried to the target moisture ratio is shortened significantly with the increase in wind speed. the reason is that with the increasing of wind speed, the coefficient of convective heat transfer between hot air and kelp knot is increased, leading to acceleration of the moisture evaporation on the surface of the kelp knot and improvement in the drying efficiency. the increase in wind speed can help take away the water vapor on the surface of the kelp knot as soon as possible, increase the partial pressure difference of water vapor between the surface of the kelp knot and the air. in the early stage of drying, the pressure difference measured by air promotes less diffusion of moisture inside the kelp knot. in the middle and late stages of the drying, increasing heat transfer resistance is faced between air and the material. the results demonstrate that in the drying process by heat pump, internal diffusion is the physical mechanism most possible to control the internal moisture of kelp knots. by comprehensive analysis of experimental results, it is determined that the suitable wind speed for drying of kelp knot is 1.5 m/s approximately. figure 4b shows the impact of wind speed on the drying rate of kelp knots. as displayed, there is no stage of constant speed in the solar-heat pump combined drying process of kelp knots, but the stages of adjustment and deceleration, which is similar to the drying characteristics of clausena lansium (yang, et al., 2021). when the moisture ratio is fixed, the drying rate increases with the increase in wind speed. in the initial stage of drying, the kelp knot has a relatively high moisture ratio and contains much bound water on the surface, and the moisture evaporation speed is accelerated with the increase in wind speed; after the drying rate reaches the peak, the drying rate will maintain at low level for a long time. when the wind speed is 1.5 m/s, the drying rate is little different as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 6 published by ideas spread from that at wind speed of 2.0 m/s in terms of the downtrend. on the premise of improving efficiency, as well as energy saving and emission reduction, the optimal wind speed for solar-heat pump combined drying of kelp knots is 1.5 m/s. figure 4a. figure 4b. 3.3 the impact of loading capacity on the drying characteristics of kelp knots figure 5a illustrates the drying characteristic curves of kelp knots with different loading capacities. as observed, loading capacity has certain impact on the drying of kelp knots, and the lower the loading capacity is, the larger the downtrend of the moisture ratio is, and the shorter the time is taken to reach the required drying goal. when the loading capacity is 1.2 kg, 160 min is needed for drying; when the loading capacity is 8.0 kg, the time for drying is 320 min. this indicates that the loading capacity is directly proportional to the drying time required. as can be seen from the figure, with the increasing of loading capacity, the spreading density of kelp knots on a single pallet is increased, the relative surface area of heat and mass transfer with the air is decreased, and the resistance to heat and mass transfer is increased. the greater the loading capacity is, the higher the total moisture ratio of kelp knots is, the more the moisture is to be evaporated to reach the same moisture ratio, the longer the drying time is. as discovered in figure 5a, when the loading capacities are 1.2 kg and 3.6 kg, the drying times and curves tend to be consistent basically. based on an analysis of the economic effects and experimental results, it is known that the suitable loading capacity for drying kelp knots is about 3.6 kg. the impact of loading capacity on the drying rate of kelp knots is demonstrated in figure 5b. to be specific, the drying rate varies with the change in loading capacity. given the same moisture ratio, the lower the loading capacity is, the shorter the drying time is and the higher the drying rate is. the increase in loading capacity contributes to the increase in drying time and decrease in drying rate. this may be for the following reasons: namely, the contact between materials becomes closer with the increase in loading capacity, resulting in decreased contact between air and the material; meanwhile, the increase in the material may also cause increase in the required moisture evaporation capacity; however, at certain drying temperature and wind speed, the heat is fixed. hence, the increase in the material may lead to reduction in the heat provided to unit mass of the material in the unit time. on the premise of improving efficiency, the optimal loading capacity for solar-heat pump combined drying of kelp knots is 3.6 kg. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 7 published by ideas spread figure 5a. figure 5b. 3.4 establishment of dynamic model 3.4.1 fitting results of the drying dynamic model of kelp knots the statistical results obtained by experimental data based nonlinear fitting of three common drying dynamic models are shown in table 1. in detail, the r2 of logarithmic, page, and verma models are the highest, all above 0.994; the rmse varies within the range of 0.0029 ~ 0.0059, 0.0035 ~ 0.0192, and 0.0029 ~ 0.0079, respectively; and the sse is within the range of 0.0001 ~ 0.0014, 0.0001 ~ 0.0092, and 0.0001 ~ 0.0011, respectively. this demonstrates that the three models can be used to characterize the change rules of moisture ratio in the solar-heat pump combined drying process of kelp knots. among them, the verma model has the highest r2 (0.9996) and the lowest sse (0.0004) and rmse (0.0042), indicating that the verma model has the highest fitting degree. thereby, it can be confirmed that the verma model is the dynamic model most suitable for characterizing the moisture ratio of kelp knots in the process of solar-heat pump combined drying. table 1. statistical result of drying mathematical models for dried kelp knots model sse r2 rmse logarithmic 0.0006 0.9994 0.0053 page 0.0017 0.9988 0.0071 verma 0.0004 0.9996 0.0042 3.4.2 solving of the verma model table 2 lists the statistical results of the parameters of the three models. on the basis of the parameters (a, k and g) of the verma model, software matlab2020a was used to fit the experimental data and finally obtain the parameter values, taking drying temperature, wind speed and loading capacity as variables. the equations of the optimal results are expressed as follows: m060.0v6871.0t044.0124.3a +−−= (r2=0.91) m0221.0v0786.0t035.0457.1k −++−= (r2=0.93) m0589.0v0589.0t0053.0457.0g +++−= (r2=0.90) in the equations, t is the drying temperature, in℃; v is the wind speed, in m/s; m is the loading capacity, in kg. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 8 published by ideas spread table 2. parameters statistical results of three models for drying process of kelp knots 3.4.3 verification of the verma model in order to verify the accuracy of the model, an experiment was made on the kelp knots under different drying conditions such as drying temperature of 45℃, wind speed of 1.5 m/s, and loading capacity of 3.6 kg respectively. the fitting verification result of the drying dynamic model for kelp knots is as shown in figure 6. to be specific, the fitting degrees of the experimental result and the result predicted by the model are basically consistent and significantly correlated (p<0.05). this implies that the verma model can well characterize the moisture ratio of kelp knots in the process of solar-heat pump combined drying. figure 6. verification of the verma model 3.5 effective moisture diffusion coefficient in the drying process of kelp knots drying is a process of mass, momentum and energy transfer. when the heat absorbed by the material is transferred from the outside to the inside, the moisture in the material will absorb the heat and be evaporated to the outside. till reaching the critical moisture ratio, the drying process is finished. in order to simplify the calculation results, liquid diffusion theory was used in the drying process of the material regardless of the driving force of diffusion; the influence of all dynamics was counted in the diffusion coefficient; the effective diffusion coefficient deff was used to characterize the average speed of moisture transfer in the drying process (he, et al., 2016); then nonlinear fitting was conducted on the lnmr and drying time t of kelp knots in different drying manners. table 3 shows the moisture diffusion coefficient in the drying process of kelp knots under different conditions. as revealed in table 3, provided that the drying temperature is 35 ~ 50℃ and other drying conditions are fixed, the model parameters 35℃ 1.5m/s 3.6kg 40℃ 1.5m/s 3.6kg 45℃ 1.5m/s 3.6kg 50℃ 1.5m/s 3.6kg 45℃ 0.5m/s 3.6kg 45℃ 1.0m/s 3.6kg 45℃ 2.0m/s 3.6kg 45℃ 1.5m/s 1.2kg 45℃ 1.5m/s 6.0kg 45℃ 1.5m/s 8.0kg logarithmic a k c 0.9301 0.0052 0.0598 0.9301 0.0052 0.0598 0.8949 0.0114 0.1014 0.9849 0.0123 0.0169 0.9098 0.0074 0.0937 0.8798 0.0086 0.1017 0.9580 0.0127 0.0459 0.9319 0.0117 0.0591 0.9007 0.0097 0.1224 0.9335 0.0061 0.0613 page k n 0.0067 0.9320 0.1631 0.0284 0.0148 0.8993 0.0125 0.9904 0.0091 0.9215 0.0124 0.8854 0.0131 0.9721 0.0147 0.9256 0.0109 0.9163 0.0075 0.9392 verma a k g 0.0059 0.0053 0.0049 0.0037 0.03810.0057 0.6816 0.0136 0.0039 0.0006 0.7847 0.0119 0.9535 0.0070 0.0017 0.8356 0.0095 0.0009 0.0007 -0.0237 0.0118 0.0782 0.0508 0.0096 0.9799 0.0070 0.9075 0.2683 0.0104 0.0044 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 9 published by ideas spread effective moisture diffusion coefficient deff is 3.9251×10-9 ~ 1.0012×10-8 m2/s; provided that the wind speed is 0.5 ~ 2.0 m/s and other drying conditions are fixed, the deff is 5.1118×10-9 ~ 1.0028×10-9 m2/s; when the loading capacity of the material is 1.2 ~ 8.0 kg and other drying conditions are fixed, the deff is 2.1908×10-9 ~ 9.1282×109 m2/s. the analysis demonstrates that the effective moisture diffusion coefficient in the drying process of kelp knots is directly proportional to the drying temperature and wind speed, and inversely proportional to the loading capacity. moreover, the coefficient of determination r2 varies within the range of 0.9421 ~ 0.9994, indicating a good linear regression result. according to pearson correlation analysis, drying temperature, wind speed, and loading capacity are of extremely significant correlation with deff (p<0.01), which is consistent with the results of researches on potato (yin, et al., 2016), daqu (xia, et al., 2018), tomato slices (salih, et al., 2017) and seahorse (wu, et al., 2020). table 3. effective moisture diffusion coefficient of kelp knots under different drying conditions experimental number drying temperature/℃ wind speed/(m·s-1) loading capacity/kg k0 r2 deff/(m2·s-1) 1 35 1.5 3.6 -0.0043 0.9425 3.9251×10-9 2 40 1.5 3.6 -0.0057 0.9862 5.2031×10-9 3 45 1.5 3.6 -0.0084 0.9991 7.6677×10-9 4 50 1.5 3.6 -0.0118 0.9994 1.0012×10-8 5 45 0.5 1.5 -0.0056 0.9951 5.1118×10-9 6 45 1.0 1.5 -0.0062 0.9915 5.6595×10-9 7 45 2.0 1.5 -0.0112 0.9981 1.0028×10-8 8 45 1.5 1.2 -0.0100 0.9984 9.1282×10-9 9 45 1.5 6.0 -0.0064 0.9807 5.8420×10-9 10 45 1.5 8.0 -0.0024 0.9421 2.1908×10-9 4. conclusion in this paper, a discussion is made on the impact of solar-heat pump combined drying equipment on the drying characteristics and dynamics of kelp knots at different drying temperatures, wind speeds and loading capacities, obtaining the following conclusions: first, as revealed in the analysis on the drying characteristics of kelp knots under three different drying conditions, the drying curves of the material under different drying conditions tend to be the same basically; there is a short period of adjustment in the initial stage of drying, but decelerated drying predominates in the whole drying process; with the increase in drying time, the moisture ratio of the material shows an exponential downtrend. second, three common drying dynamic models was used to fit the experimental curves of different drying processes. by comparing r2, rmse and other relevant evaluation parameters, it is found that the verma model is the fittest model for characterizing the moisture ratio change in the solar-heat pump combined drying process of kelp knots. the equation of this model was obtained by linear regression analysis on the experimental data. as discovered by verification of the equation, the experimental value fits the value predicted by the model well. this further verifies that the verma model is most suitable for characterizing the solar-heat pump combined drying process of kelp knots. third, as calculated as per fick's second diffusion law, the effective moisture diffusion coefficient deff under different drying condition is within the range of 2.1908×10-9 ~ 1.0012×10-9 m2/s; it is directly proportional to the drying temperature and wind speed, and inversely proportional to the loading capacity. by comparing the impacts of the three drying conditions on the deff, it is discovered that drying temperature has extremely significant impact on the deff. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 10 published by ideas spread acknowledgments the authors are grateful for financial support from the national natural science foundation of china (51806088) and jiangsu university scientific research foundation for the senior scholars (14jdg186). references tsotsas, e., & mujumdar, a. s. 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(2020). design of solar-heat pump combined device and experiment on drying of shiitake mushroom. acta energiae solaris sinica, (11), 149-155. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p304 304 published by ideas spread effect of different fertilization rates on cyanogen and foliage and tuber yields of cassava yin yin kyawt1, achara lukkananukool2, win mi htwe3 & min aung1 1 department of animal nutrition, university of veterinary science, nay pyi taw, 15013, myanmar 2 department of animal production technology and fisheries, faculty of agricultural technology, king mongkut’s institute of technology ladkrabang, bangkok, 10520, thailand 3 livestock breeding and veterinary department, nay pyi taw, 15013, myanmar correspondence: yin yin kyawt, department of animal nutrition, university of veterinary science, nay pyi taw, 15013, myanmar. e-mail: dr.yinyinkyawt81@gmail.com received: may 26, 2020 accepted: june 21, 2020 online published: june 23, 2020 abstract this experiment was conducted to determine the effect of different fertilization rates on the cyanogen and yields of cassava foliage and tuber. nine fertilization rates, three nitrogen and potassium levels (n: 0, 50, 100 kg/ha and k: 0, 100, 250 kg/ha, respectively) with constant phosphorus level (p: 50 kg/ha) (f-0:n0-p50-k0, f-1:n0-p50-k100, f-2:n0-p50-k250, f-3:n50-p50-k0, f-4:n50-p50-k100, f-5:n50-p50-k250, f-6:n100-p50-k0, f-7:n100-p50-k100, f-8:n100p50-k250), were applied in the randomized completely block design. after one year experiment, cassava foliage and tuber were harvested, and determined the yields and cyanogen (hcnp) content. the lowest (p < 0.05) hcnp contents and the highest (p < 0.05) foliage, tuber and protein yields were observed in cassava applied with f-4 (n50-p50-k100) and f-5 (n50-p50-k250) in compare with other fertilization rates. regarding growth characteristics, the plant height (p < 0.05) was also highest in cassava fertilized by f-4 (n50-p50-k100) and f-5 (n50-p50-k250), whereas the leaf numbers per plant and branches number per plant were highest in cassava applied with f-5 (n50p50-k250) and f-7 (n100-p50-k100), respectively. it could be recommended that the nitrogen (n: 50 kg/ha) and potassium (k: 100-250 kg/ha) should be used to reduce cyanogen contents for safe utilization and increased cassava foliage and tuber yields. keywords: cassava, nitrogen, potassium, hcnp, yield 1. introduction cassava (manihot esculenta, crantz) is one of the important crops in tropical regions of the world and cassava tubers are very rich in carbohydrates, a major source of energy. it has been reported that cassava can produce the highest carbohydrate (calorie/ha/day) compared to other staple crops such as rice, wheat, maize and sorghum (okigbo, 2001). cassava tubers are used as human food, animal feed and industrial raw material (nambisan, 2010). cassava leaves, a by-product after cassava tuber harvest are generally rich in crude protein (cp), minerals, vitamin b1, b2, c and carotenes (eggum, 1970). however, the major constraint with the use of cassava foliage as animal feed is the risk of hydrocyanic acid potential (hcnp) toxicity (gomez et al., 1980). surprisingly, despite its availability and high cp content, there was little interest until recently to utilize fresh cassava foliage in ruminant feeding. this reluctance is probably related to the possibilities of cyanide toxicity. to achieve the yield potential of cassava, good soil fertility and adequate fertilization are essential (gomez et al., 1980). the major nutrients required by cassava for optimum top growth and tuber yields are nitrogen (n) and potassium (k). cassava plant is well adapted to low levels of available phosphorus (p) but requires fairly high levels of n and k, especially when grown for many years on the same plot or continuously cultivated plots (ayoola and makinde, 2007). adequate k levels in soil stimulate response to n fertilizers but the excess amount of both nutrients leads to luxuriant growth at the expense of tuber formation (onwueme and charles, 1994). howler (1985) reported that the application of k increases starch content and decreases hcnp level. on the other hand, the application of increases n level progressively increases the hcnp content (sher et al., 2012). hence, the need to upgrade the existing fertilizer recommendations in sustainable cassava production is imperative. however, suitable fertilizer use with minimum polluting effects on the environment should be the major rule. for most crops, the best fertilizer types, rates and time of application were not known and this constituted a major constraint to fertilizer use in the country (sarfo et al., 1998). several studies have documented the proximate composition, amino acid as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 305 published by ideas spread profile (rogers and milner, 1963), and mineral content of cassava foliage (ravindran et al., 1982), but in none was the hcnp content elucidated in relation to the different rates of fertilizer (n-k). few published reports focus on agronomic management or cultivation practices for optimizing cassava foliage together with tuber production. therefore, the objectives of the present study were to determine the effect of different fertilization rates on the cyanogen and yields of cassava foliage and tuber. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental location and climate condition this experiment was carried out at the experimental field of the university of the ryukyus, okinawa, japan. the climate data during experimental period (figure 1) were obtained from japan meteorological agency. figure 1. climate data (rainfall and mean temperature) during experimental period 2.2 land preparation pre-treatment soil samples for soil analysis were taken before land preparation and fertilizer treatment. the soil fertility status before the commencement of the experiment was shown in table 1. the type of soil in the experimental area is gray soil (locally named jagaru). before plantation, the area (122 m2) for cassava plantation was ploughed with a machine about 20 cm depth. table 1. soil nutrient composition for the 0-20 cm layer of the soil at the experimental site parameters values ph (h2o) 8.15 total n (%) 0.14 available p (ppm) 56.52 exchangeable k (meq 100g-1) 0.26 na (meq 100g-1) 0.24 ca (meq 100g-1) 35.40 mg (meq 100g-1) 1.97 p= phosphorus, k= potassium, na= sodium, ca= calcium, mg= magnesium 2.3 experimental treatments and design the combination of three nitrogen (n) level (0, 50, 100 kg/ha) and three potassium (k) level (0, 100, 250 kg/ha) with constant phosphorus level (50 kg/ha), total nine fertilization rates (f-0:n0-p50-k0, f-1:n0-p50-k100, f-2:n0p50-k250, f-3:n50-p50-k0, f-4:n50-p50-k100, f-5:n50-p50-k250, f-6:n100-p50-k0, f-7:n100-p50-k100, f-8:n100-p50-k250) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 306 published by ideas spread were used in this experiment. total of 27 plots for 9 treatments (3 replicates for each treatment) were arranged according to the randomized completely block design (rcbd). each plot has 1.5 m × 3 m in size. irrigation was applied when the rainfall was low, especially summer time. as the weed management, all weed were cleaned by hand monthly. 2.4 cassava plantation, fertilizer application and sample collection the variety of cassava used in this experiment was a local variety called red cassava, due to the red colour of the petiole. old cassava stems, which were obtained after cutting into about 20 cm were planted in continuous rows with 0.5 m between rows, 1 m between stalks in the same row. all experimental fertilizers were applied at the time of the first leaf that appeared from cassava stand at one month after planting. foliage and tubers were harvested at the age of 12 months and their weights are taken per stand to determine the yielding of cassava foliage and tuber. the fresh samples were dried at 60°c in a forced air oven for 48 h. dried samples were ground and passed through a sieve of approximately 0.5 mm for the further analysis. 2.5 chemical analysis the soil quality such as total nitrogen (n), available phosphorus (p) and exchangeable potassium (k), sodium (na), calcium (ca), and magnesium (mg) of soil were determined by micro-kjeldahl method (aoac, 1990), the methods described by truog (1930) and peech et al., (1962), respectively. the dry matter (dm) and crude protein (cp) contents of cassava foliage and tubers were analyzed using the procedures described by aoac (1990). the measurement of hcnp content was analyzed by using the acid hydrolysis method (bradbury et al., 1991) and continued with a spectrophotometer (o’brien et al., 2007). 2.6 statistical analysis the data were subjected to the analysis of variance (anova) and the significance of differences between means was compared by duncan’s multiple range test (dmrt) using spss (version 16.0) software. the significant differences were considered at p < 0.05. 3. results and discussion the application of fertilizer significantly affected the hcnp content of foliage and tuber in this experiment (table 2). the minimum hcnp content (p < 0.05) in cassava foliage was obtained by the application of f-4 followed by f-5. however, the difference between f-4 and f-5 was not significant (p > 0.05) in this experiment. a similar result was observed in the hcnp content of tuber by the application of f-5 followed by f-4 at the final harvesting time of tuber. moreover, the application of n-k treatments in tuber had significantly lower (p < 0.05) hcnp content than those of the control treatment. therefore, it is evident that the lowest level of hcnp content was observed at f-4 and f-5 fertilization rates in both foliage and tuber. the hcnp reduction as influenced by n-k fertilization compared with the control treatment for foliage and tuber was also presented in table 2. table 2. effect of fertilizer application on hydrocyanic acid potential (hcnp) content of cassava foliage and tuber fertilization rate n-p-k (kg/ha) foliage tuber hcnp (mg/kg dm) hcnp reduction (%) hcnp (mg/kg dm) hcnp reduction (%) f-0 (n0-p50-k0) 129.49a 0.00b 95.66a 0.00c f-1 (n0-p50-k100) 80.01ab 38.21a 65.55b 31.47b f-2 (n0-p50-k250) 87.53ab 32.41ab 66.62b 30.35b f-3 (n50-p50-k0) 76.82ab 40.67a 55.37b 42.11b f-4 (n50-p50-k100) 51.89b 59.93a 34.02c 64.44a f-5 (n50-p50-k250) 54.77b 57.70a 31.97c 66.58a f-6 (n100-p50-k0) 86.43ab 33.25ab 59.11b 38.21b f-7 (n100-p50-k100) 67.01ab 48.25a 54.94b 42.57b f-8 (n100-p50-k250) 66.85ab 48.37a 50.95b 46.73b sem 4.41 3.39 3.62 3.76 p value 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 a-c values with different superscript on the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05). in literature, the ranges of the hcnp content of different varieties of cassava contain 1-1550 mg/kg (cardoso et al., 2005). the average values of hcnp content in the present results are included in the range of low hcnp levels compared to the recent report of hue et al., (2012). the amount of hcnp content in cassava varies even different parts of the same plant according to variety, its age, geographical locations and other factors like soil, fertilization as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 307 published by ideas spread and climate also contribute to the quantities of hcnp in the plants (bradbury et al., 1999). in this experiment, a higher rate of n application tended to increase in hcnp content and it was observed in f-6, f-7, f-8 compared with f-4 and f-5 treatments. therefore, it could be reasoned that the suitable quantity of n fertilizer application would encourage plant growth to the climax, but the excess dose would enhance to increase the hcnp content. sher et al., (2012) also revealed that an increase in n application resulted in an enhanced hcnp level. furthermore, peter and birger (2002) stated that the applied n stimulates the enzymatic conversion of tyrosine to phydroxymandelonitrile which ultimately leads to an increase in the biosynthesis of cyanogenic glucoside. worthington (2001) also stated that plants require n for normal growth and protein synthesis however, if n is applied over what the plant requires for protein formation, the excess is accumulated as nitrate and stored predominantly in the green leaf part of the plant. the highest value of hcnp reduction was observed in f-4 and f-5 in this experiment. therefore, the appropriate combination rate of n and k are required for cassava cultivation concerning for the hcnp reduction. the same trend of hcnp reduction as influenced by fertilization was observed in the tuber. from this result, the combined n-k treatment showed a higher hcnp reduction than the individual treatment of either n or k. therefore, the hcnp content in tuber clearly showed that both n-k applications promote the hcnp reduction. moreover, the highest hcnp reduction with the minimum hcnp content in tuber was observed in the higher dose of k namely f-5 followed by f-4 in this experiment. therefore, the results obtained in this experiment are consistent with the report of howeler (2002). putthacharoen et al. (1998) stated that cassava removed less n and p but similar amounts of k in the harvested plant parts as compared to maize, sorghum, peanut, mung bean, pineapple and sugarcane. long-term fertility trials indicate that without adequate k fertilizer, in this case referring to tuber production, cassava yields eventually decline due to k depletion, except in those soils containing large amounts of k-bearing minerals (howeler, 1985). the cp yields in foliage and tuberous roots of cassava were summarized in table 3 and 4, respectively. the high (p < 0.05) cp yield (356.24-404.79 kg/ha) in the foliage were obtained in f-4, f-5 and f-7 fertilization treatments, although, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) among them. the high cp yield (p < 0.05) of tuber also observed for f-4 and f-5 fertilization treatments were not significantly different (p > 0.05) between them, but were all significantly higher than the control treatment. the results of the growth attributes showed that the n-k application tended to increase the plant height compared with f-0 treatment (table 03). the control treatment (f0) had a smaller number of leaves and branches per plant than fertilized treatments. moreover, the treatments were applied with n-k showed a higher number of leaves per plant than other treatments and it was observed in f-5 followed by f-4 (table 3). the application of n fertilizer together with k (f-4 and f-5) showed a more pronounced effect on the foliage yield compared with the control treatment (table 03). similar results were also obtained in the tuber, although, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) among them (table 4). the foliage yield peaked at f-4, but the tuber yields obtained at f-5 in this experiment. both foliage and tuber yields generally increased in all treatments with increasing rates of fertilizer application, however, it tended to decrease with a higher rate of nk dose at f-7 and f-8. table 3. effect of fertilizer application on protein%, growth characteristics and yielding of cassava foliage fertilization rate n-p-k (kg/ha) chemical composition growth characteristics yielding (kg/ha dm) dm (%) cp (%) plant height (cm) leaf no./ plant branches/ plant foliage protein f-0 (n0-p50-k0) 25.81 12.54 149.60b 229.33c 7.67b 1479.33d 185.30d f-1 (n0-p50-k100) 25.70 13.20 166.13ab 307.67abc 9.00ab 1821.83cd 239.79bcd f-2 (n0-p50-k250) 25.54 13.25 160.07ab 394.33ab 12.67ab 1810.43cd 238.50bcd f-3 (n50-p50-k0) 24.79 13.64 156.67ab 291.00bc 13.00ab 1494.13d 204.07cd f-4 (n50-p50-k100) 24.99 13.80 183.60a 395.00ab 12.67ab 2930.93a 404.79a f-5 (n50-p50-k250) 25.58 13.82 182.20a 435.00a 13.00ab 2684.73a 370.87a f-6 (n100-p50-k0) 25.96 13.58 162.87ab 299.00abc 13.00ab 2102.23bc 285.71b f-7 (n100-p50-k100) 27.16 14.09 164.47ab 363.67abc 14.33a 2528.53ab 356.24a f-8 (n100-p50-k250) 24.87 13.96 165.07ab 336.00abc 12.33ab 1877.73cd 260.78bc sem 0.32 0.15 12.1 2.46 0.53 99.68 14.94 p value 0.859 0.399 0.0001 0.002 0.022 0.0001 0.0001 a-d values with different superscript on the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 308 published by ideas spread table 4. effect of fertilizer application on protein percent and yielding of cassava tuber fertilization rate n-p-k (kg/ha) chemical composition yielding (kg/ha dm) dm (%) cp (%) tuber protein f-0 (n0-p50-k0) 23.18 0.87b 4639.20b 40.82c f-1 (n0-p50-k100) 25.67 1.00ab 6115.80ab 61.12ab f-2 (n0-p50-k250) 25.14 0.99ab 7229.50ab 71.60abc f-3 (n50-p50-k0) 26.06 1.13ab 6401.40ab 73.35abc f-4 (n50-p50-k100) 26.55 1.25a 9124.40a 114.07a f-5 (n50-p50-k250) 25.07 1.19ab 9474.10a 114.62a f-6 (n100-p50-k0) 25.39 1.28a 6363.70ab 81.91abc f-7 (n100-p50-k100) 26.32 1.24a 7766.00ab 96.59ab f-8 (n100-p50-k250) 25.75 1.32a 6897.60ab 85.90ab sem 0.36 0.04 311.06 4.96 p value 0.455 0.115 0.0001 0.0001 a-c values with different superscript on the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05). in this experiment, the control treatment without n and k fertilization produced lower cp content compared with other treatments. ravindran (1993) reported that the foliage contains approximately 21% cp with a range from 17 to 40% cp depending on cultivar, maturity, sampling procedure, soil fertility and climate. nitrogen increased the chlorophyll of leaves thereby promoting the photosynthetic capacity of the plant, plays a part in the manufacture of proteins and is also responsible for high yield in plants. the cp yields of foliage and tuber generally, increased in all treatments as compared to control with increasing rates of n fertilizer application in this experiment. the increase in protein content with n fertilization is in agreement with the finding of mahmud et al., (2003). potassium, on the other hand, promotes co2 assimilation and translocation of carbohydrates from leaves to the tubers and tuberous roots of crops where carbohydrates are the main storage material (howeler, 2002). the control plots recorded the shortest plants in height with the lowest number of leaves and branches. the superior growth attributes obtained by the application of n and k in this experiment had been reported by uwah et al., (2013). the positive response of growth characters to the applied nutrients is suggested to attributable to their role in cell multiplication and photosynthesis which gave rise to an increase in size and length of leaves and stems. nitrogen is a major element (mosier et al., 2004) that is essential for the synthesis of amino acids, nucleic acids and some organic acids which is necessary for plant growth and development and its limits reduce yield (zhao et al., 2005). okpara et al., (2010) reported that plant height was increased by the application of k up to 150 kg/ha. fertilization resulted in higher foliage and tuber yields in the fertilized plots than the control. this observation supports the findings of gomez et al., (1980) who obtained higher cassava yield when fertilizer was applied. molina and ei-sharkawy (1995) reported that fertilization induced the production of the more vigorous plant increased nutrient recycling from fallen leaves and improved the quality of the planting material. the increase in fodder yield with fertilizer application may be due to greater plant height, higher stem diameter, a higher number of leaves per plant and greater leaf area per plant (mahmud et al., 2003). hence, mehdi et al., (2007) stated that the positive response of tuber yield and yield components to increased rates of n and k could be adduced to high starch synthesis and translocation activities stimulated by n and k application. the effect of different nitrogen and potassium levels on hcnp content and dm yield of cassava were also presented in figures 2 and 3, respectively. in which, the highest foliage and tuber yields and the lowest hcnp content were observed in n50 for different nitrogen level and in k100 and k250 for different potassium level. parkes et al., (2012) reported that tuber yields generally increased in all cassava genotypes with increasing rates of fertilizer application up to n120-k180. however, they recommended that the economic rate of the fertilizer application for all genotypes was n60-k90. viewing both yield and hcnp contents, the results of the present experiment exhibited that f-4 and f-5 fertilizer combinations gave the higher cassava yield with lower hcnp content than without n-k fertilization. furthermore, the maximum dry matter yield and lowest hcnp content in foliage and tuber were obtained by the application of n50 and k100-250 fertilization rates. therefore, the combination of n50 and k100 fertilization appeared appropriate for optimum yield and hcnp reduction in our study. bolhuis as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 309 published by ideas spread (1954) had set the following classification of toxicity according to hcnp content: 0-50 mg/kg, innocuous or harmless, 50-100 mg/kg moderately toxic and >100 mg/kg dangerous or toxic. therefore, this study revealed that the control treatment had the hcnp level (129.49 mg/kg) considered a poisonous level while other treatments were moderately poisonous levels (51.89-90.00 mg/kg). figure 2. effect of different nitrogen levels on hydrocyanic acid potential (hcnp) content and dm yield of cassava foliage and tuber figure 3. effect of different potassium levels on hydrocyanic acid potential (hcnp) content and dm yield of cassava foliage and tuber 4. conclusions this research’s findings indicated that cyanide poisoning can be managed by management practices such as the appropriate amount of fertilization for provision safe cassava crop for livestock. thus, it could be recommended that the nitrogen (n: 50 kg/ha) and potassium (k: 100-250 kg/ha) should be used to reduce cyanogen contents for safe utilization and increased cassava foliage and tuber yields. conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. references aoac. 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(2005). nitrogen deficiency effects on plant growth, leaf photosynthesis and hyperspectral reflectance properties of sorghum. european journal of agronomy, 22(4), 391-403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2004.06.005 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v3n3p12 12 published by ideas spread the efectiveness of jamblang (syzygium cumini) leaves extract inclusion skim milk-egg yolk extender on motility and viability of aceh cattle spermatozoa during pre-freezing and post-thawing cut intan novita1, faqihuddin nasution1 & eka meutia sari1 1 department of animal science, faculty of agriculture, universitas syiah kuala, darussalam, banda aceh 23111, indonesia, and research centre of aceh cattle and local animal, usk, indonesia correspondence: cut intan novita, department of animal science, faculty of agriculture, universitas syiah kuala, and research centre of aceh cattle and local animal, indonesia. e-mail: received: august 24, 2021 accepted: september 22, 2021 online published: september 24, 2021 abstract the process of semen freezing causes an increase in free radicals concentration which can damage spermatozoa. the addition of natural ingredients in semen diluent is expected to solve this challenges. one of the natural ingredients that can be used is jamblang (syzygium cumini) leaves. the objective of the current study was to investigate the quality of spermatozoa in aceh cattle which was added with jamblang leaves extract in skim milk egg yolk extender during pre-freezing and post-thawing. this study applied completely randomized design (crd) with 5 treatments and 5 replications. the treatments consisted of j0 = skim milk-egg yolk; j1 = skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.2%; j2 = skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.4%; j3 = skim milkegg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.6%; and j4 = skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.8%. the parameters observed in this study were the percentage of motility and viability of frozen semen of aceh cattle. the data obtained were analyzed using analysis of variance (anova) and if differences were found, then it would be continued with duncan's multiple distance test. the results showed that the addition of jamblang leaves extract in egg yolk skim milk significantly affected the percentage of motility during pre-freezing and post-thawing, significantly affected spermatozoa viability during pre-freezing and significantly affected the spermatozoa viability during post-thawing. j3 treatment (jamblang leaves extract 0.6 gram/100 ml) it should be higher than the other treatment, where the percentage of motility at pre-freezing and post-thawing were 55.48% and 52.71%, respectively, and the percentage of viability during pre-freezing and post-thawing were 56.59% and 53.94%, respectively. it was concluded that the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk-egg yolk extender affected the percentage of spermatozoa motility and viability of aceh cattle during pre-freezing and post-thawing. keywords: spermatozoa of aceh cattle, jamblang (syzygium cumini) leaves extract, motility, viability, prefreezing, post-thawing 1. introduction the population of aceh cattle which have been determined as indonesian germplasm has decreased in the last 4 (four) years. its population was 86,618 cattle in 2017, but decreased to 76,811 cattle in 2020 (isikhnas, 2020). therefore, this fact urges the efforts to increase the population of aceh cattle sustainably. one of the methods to increase the population of aceh cattle is the application of artificial insemination (ai). the quality of semen used in the artificial insemination program is affected by the semen processing process starting from the storage, dilution, equilibration, and freezing (fraser and strzezek, 2005; baumber et al., 2005). furthermore, thawing method employed also has a significant role in determining the semen quality. the most critical part of the freezing process is the freezing process itself (ozkavukcu et al., 2008; ezzati et al., 2020;) and the thawing period (garcia et al., 2010). during the freezing, water molecules were released massively from the cell, causing an increase in the concentration of intracellular electrolytes and the formation of ice crystals (rasul et al., 2001; rodriguez-martinez et al., 2008; baust et al., 2009). meanwhile, during the thawing process, semen experiences heavy pressure due to a drastic increase in temperature. such conditions increased the metabolic activities which further lead to the increase of metabolic products, which is the concentration of free radical (chatterjee and gagnon, 2001; kumar et al., 2011). all of these negative effects will decrease the motility and viability of spermatozoa (mansour et al., 2010). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 13 published by ideas spread the quality of semen can be maintained through the dilution process. this process needs a good extender that does contain nutrients, anti-cold shock, cryoprotectants, and antioxidants that can maintain the quality of semen during the equilibration to freezing process (schafer-somi et al., 2006). skim milk-egg yolk can be utilized as extender because skim milk contains protein, lactose, water, and little fat (pagl et al., 2006). in addition, egg yolks and milk contain phospholipids and lecithin which can protect spermatozoa from cold shock during the freezing process (amirat et al., 2004). the main content of milk is lecithin which can protect spermatozoa from cold stress during the freezing process (feradis, 2009). egg yolk is a food provider, energy source, and intracellular protector of spermatozoa from cold shock conditions during freezing, and provides a buffer effect against spermatozoa (aboagla and terada, 2004; alcay et al., 2016). in order to overcome plasma membrane damage caused by free radicals, it needs additional antioxidants in the diluent. according to leao et al. (2021), the addition of antioxidants in semen diluents can reduce oxidative stress and can increase fertilization power. one of the natural ingredients that can be used is jamblang (syzygium cumini) leaves. jamblang leaves contain antioxidant substances including flavonoids, phenolics (ruan et al., 2008; mohamed et al., 2013), alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, tannins (gowri and vasantha, 2010), β-sitosterol, quercetin, and terpenoid (sarma et al., 2020). in addition to being a natural antioxidant, as a diluent, jamblang leaves is also expected to save the cost of frozen semen production, because jamblang leaves are easy to obtain. based on this background, it is necessary to further study the effect of the addition of jamblang (syzygium cumini) leaves extract in skim milk-egg yolks extender on the motility and viability of aceh cattle spermatozoa during pre-freezing and post-thawing. 2. material and method the materials used in this research were 4 kg of jamblang leaves that were extract and fresh semen from a 10year-old aceh cattle at artificial insemination center of saree region, aceh besar. completely randomized design (crd) was applied in this research consisting of 5 treatments and 5 replications. these five treatments were included j0 = skim milk-egg yolk; j1 = skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract of 0.2 gram/100 ml; j2 = skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract of 0.4 gram/100 ml; j3 = skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract of 0.6 gram/100 ml; and j4 = skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract of 0.8 gram/100 ml. meanwhile, the parameters observed were the percentage of motility and viability of frozen semen of aceh cattle. the extraction process of jamblang (syzygium cumini) leaves began with 1day air-drying and pulverizing the leaves until they formed simplicia powder. simplicia powder was then macerated using 4 litters of 96% ethanol for 1000 grams of jamblang leaves. after 4 days of maceration process, the results were filtered, and then concentrated using a vacuum rotary evaporator at 40°c and a speed of 60 rpm to obtain a paste-shaped extract. skim milk-egg yolk extender contained skim milk, egg yolk, fructose, distilled water, penicillin, and streptomycin. as much as 95 ml of distilled water was heated at 37°c, added with skim milk by 10 grams, and then homogenized. furthermore, 1 gram of fructose was added into the erlenmeyer and homogenized, added by 5 ml of egg yolk and then homogenized again. the solution was then steamed for 15-20 minutes until it reached room temperature of 37°c. after the solution cooled down, 1000 iu/ml penicillin by 0.34 grams and 1000 iu/ml streptomycin by 0.16 grams were added. the solution was then stored in the refrigerator and settled for 3 (three) days to form a supernatant. the resulting supernatant was further used as the diluent, while the sediment was removed. semen was collected at 8 a.m. using an artificial vagina. furthermore, macroscopic evaluations (volume, color, consistency, ph, and odor) and microscopic evaluations (mass movement, concentration, motility, viability, and abnormality) were carried out to determine the quality of the fresh semen. the semen that were used must have at least ++ mass movement, motility above 70%, and abnormalities below 20%. after evaluating the quality of the semen, the semen was divided into 5 parts and added with skim milk-egg yolk and jamblang leaves extract according to the treatment and then homogenized. the desired concentration was 100 million spermatozoa/ml of the diluent. the semen freezing process consisted of glycerolization, equilibration, filling (inserting to straw), sealing (straw sealing), pre-freezing, freezing, and post-thawing. the semen that has been added by diluent of skim milk-egg yolk and jamblang leaves extract according to the treatment was cooled in the refrigerator until it reached a temperature of 4 °c. after that, glycerolization was conducted in the form of adding glycerol to semen gradually and slowly at a temperature of 4 °c for 1 hour aiming to prevent the occurrence of ice crystals and avoid the accumulation of intracellular electrolytes in spermatozoa. then, equilibration was conducted at 4 °c for 3−4 hours. equilibration is the adaptation process of the spermatozoa intracellular fluid to the new environment. furthermore, semen that has been diluted was filled into the straw by 0.25ml/straw, then sealed. straw sealing was done by placing it on a straw rack 2-3 cm above the surface of liquid nitrogen for 9 minutes (-110 °c to -140 °c), then the motility and viability of spermatozoa were examined. the next step was the freezing process that was performed as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 14 published by ideas spread at -196 °c, in which the mini straws were put into liquid nitrogen and stored in a container for 7 days. each sample was then thawed again by inserting the straw into water at 37 ºc for 15 seconds. furthermore, evaluation of the motility and viability of spermatozoa were examined. fresh semen quality data were analyzed descriptively, while semen quality data before freezing (pre-freezing) and after thawing (post-thawing) were analyzed using analysis of variance (anova). duncan multiple range test were conducted if difference was found. 3. results and discussion quality of fresh semen of aceh cattle before further processing into frozen semen, fresh semen was evaluated to know the semen feasibility. the evaluation results of the semen quality of aceh cattle were shown in table 1. table 1. quality of fresh semen of aceh cattle parameter observation results macroscopic volume (ml) 3.75 ± 0.35 color milky white consistency medium odor fishy (typical) acidic level 7.00 ± 0.00 microscopic mass movement ++ motility (%) 81.5 ± 7.78 concentration (106/ ml) 1.68 ± 0.60 viability of sperm (%) 92.68 ± 1.76 abnormality (%) 5.86 ± 0.02 the average volume of aceh cattle semen obtained was 3.75 ± 0.35 ml/ejaculation with a range between 3.505.00 ml. the average volume of semen obtained from aceh cattle in this study was lower than bali cattle which was 4.5 ± 2.3 ml (ratnawati et al., 2008), brahman cattle which was 4.72 ± 1.82 ml (kuswahyuni, 2009), and fries holstein (fh) cattle which was 8.8 (komariah et al., 2013), and limousine cattle which was 6.75 ± 0.68 ml. however, it was relatively higher than the average semen volume of ongole crossbreed cattle which was 2.6 ± 1.5 ml (affandhy et al., 2013). such differences were caused by various factors, including nation, age, food level, temperature, frequency of storage, testicular size, and body weight (fuerst-waltl et al., 2006). this is supported by the statement given by (hafez, 2004) that the characteristics of semen is affected by the age of the male and the interaction between age and the storage interval. significant relationship also occurs between age and season so that it can affect the concentration of ejaculation volume and the percentage of spermatozoa motility (brito et al., 2002; boujenane and boussaq, 2013). the color of semen reflects the viscosity of the semen. in general, the color of fresh semen of aceh cattle obtained in this study was milky white, while the consistency was medium (slightly runny) with a concentration of 1.68 ± 0.60 × 109. this was reinforced by the opinion stated by nugraha et al. (2019) that semen with medium consistency had a spermatozoa cell concentration of 1000 million – 2000 million or more per ml. the average ph of aceh cattle semen obtained in this study was 7.00 ± 0.00 ranging from 6.8 to 7.2. this result is relatively the same as fh cattle semen which was 6.9 ± 0.1 (komariah et al., 2013) and po cattle which was 7.00 ± 0.00 (sholikah et al., 2016) obtained in the previous study. spermatozoa which has good quality has characteristics of having mass movement and motility with progressive movement. the mass movement of fresh semen of aceh cattle obtained in this study was (++). this was indicated by black clouds that are not so dark but they move fast. this result is similar to the previous report (santoso, 2021) that the mass movement of bovine spermatozoa that are suitable for processing ranges from (++) to (+++). the observation results of the average spermatozoa were 1.68 ± 0.60 x 106/ml with a range of 1000–1200 x 106 sperm/ml. the average spermatozoa concentration in aceh cattle obtained in this study was relatively the same as the spermatozoa concentration in limousine cattle of 1153.64 ± 127.50 x 106/ml and simmental cattle of 1129.75 ± 180.99 x 106 spermatozoa/ml obtained in the previous research (sukmawati et al., 2014). motility or progressive movement of spermatozoa after ejaculation is always used as the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 15 published by ideas spread easiest guide in evaluating the semen quality for further processing. spermatozoa motility of fresh semen of aceh cattle obtained was 81.5 ± 7.78% with a range between 70.00%-83.00%. this result is higher than the percentage of po cattle motility obtained in the previous study which was 70.00 ± 0.00% (sholikah et al., 2016). the average percentage of living spermatozoa in the fresh semen of aceh cattle obtained this study was 92.68 ± 1.76% with a range of 90.00% to 95.00%. this result is higher than the average percentage of living spermatozoa in bali cattle obtained in the previous research which was 75% (savitri et al., 2014), but lower than the percentage of living spermatozoa in bali cattle which was 88.03 ± 3.07% (ratnawati et al., 2008) and limousine cattle which was 94.08% (sukmawati, 2014). the percentage of abnormal spermatozoa from fresh semen of aceh cattle obtained in this study was 5.86 ± 0.02% ranging from 7.00% to 11.00%. the percentage of abnormal spermatozoa obtained in this study is relatively the same as revealed in the previous report (dewi et al., 2012) that the percentage of abnormal spermatozoa in bali cattle bred in indonesia was 6.56 ± 3.05%, but higher than the previous study (zulyazaini et al. al., 2016) in aceh cattle, which was 3.52 ± 8.40% and limousine cattle which was 4.33 ± 1.2% (sunami et al. 2017). percentage of spermatozoa motility of aceh cattle due to the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk and egg yolk extender during pre-freezing and post-thawing spermatozoa motility is an important indicator used to determine the quality of semen. the percentages of spermatozoa with progressive motility on pre-freezing and post-thawing examinations after being provided with the treatment of various concentrations of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk-egg yolk extender are presented in table 2. table 2. percentage of spermatozoa motility of aceh cattle due to the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk and egg yolk extender during pre-freezing treatments observation period pre-freezing post-thawing j0 (0%) 40.05cd±3.05 33.61cd±4.85 j1 (0.2%) 31.77bc±9.80 29.59bc±6.72 j2 (0.4%) 23.85a±3.89 20.22d±4.70 j3 (0.6%) 55.85d±6.48 52.71d±5.92 j4 (0.8%) 26.16ab±5.19 23.53ab±3.73 the results of variance revealed that the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk and egg yolk extender significantly affected (p<0.01) the progressive motility of spermatozoa on pre-freezing examination. further tests showed that there was significant difference between j0 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk) (p<0.01) and j2 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract of 0.4%) and j4 (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract of 0.8%). however, no differences were found between j0 treatment and j1 treatment (skim milkegg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.2%) and j3 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.6%). furthermore, significant differences were also found between j1 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.2%) (p<0.01) and j2 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.4%) and j4 (skim milkegg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.8%). in addition, differences were also found between j3 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.6%) and j1, j2 and j4 treatments. the highest percentage of spermatozoa motility was obtained from j3 treatment with the addition of jamblang leaves extract by 0.6% of diluent, reaching 55.48%. this result was higher compared to the previous study conducted by samsudewa and suryawijaya (2008), which obtained 45% on spermatozoa motility of simmental cow. similarly, report from the research conducted by umar and maharani (2005) revealed that 9 minutes pre-freezing on limousine cattle provides 47.25% percentage of spermatozoa motility as well as the research report of madyawati et al. (2013) which obtained percentage rate of 47.5% from holstein friesian cattle. the percentage obtained in this study is still below the percentage of sperm motility of wagyu cattle as reported by hanifi et al. (2016) using andromed® diluent which was 58.33%. according to pratiwi et al. (2006) the damage of cold shock and the formation of ice crystals was not too high during the pre-freezing process compared to the process. according to buffone et al. (2012), decreased motility can also be caused by the thawing process. during thawing process, spermatozoa are highly susceptible to cell damage due to sudden changes in osmotic pressure caused by rapid thawing. the constant changes of temperature causes damage to the spermatozoa. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 16 published by ideas spread furthermore, the results of variance showed that the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk-egg yolk extender significantly affected (p<0.01) the spermatozoa motility during post-thawing examination. further tests showed that there were significant differences between j0 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk) (p<0.01) and j2 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.4%) and j4 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.8%). however, no difference found between j1 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.2%) and j3 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaf extract 0.6%). in addition, significant differences were found between j1 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.20%) (p<0.01) and j2 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.4%) and j4 treatment (skim milkegg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.8%). j3 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.6%) was also different from j1, j2 and j4. the highest percentage of spermatozoa motility during post-thawing process (52.71%) was obtained from j3 treatment, while the lowest was found in j2 treatment (20.22%). spermatozoa motility is one of the benchmarks in evaluating semen to be used in artificial insemination, but the microscopic evaluation on spermatozoa motility is subjective (gillan et al., 2004). in addition, petyim et al. (2014) also revealed that the minimum requirement for individual sperm motility in post-thawing process to be used in artificial insemination is 40%. based on this opinion, frozen semen of aceh cattle in the skim milk-egg yolk extender added with jamblang leaves extract by 0.60% (j3) has met the requirements to be used in the artificial insemination, since its post-thawing motility percentage was 52.71%. such situation was assumed because the treatment has optimized the rate of fructolysis which causes the energy needs to live and move spermatozoa fulfilled. jamblang leaves extract containing antioxidants with diluent of 0.6% (j3) can bind free radicals so as to prevent lipid peroxidation which can inhibit glycolysis and motility (thuwanut et al., 2008). in j4 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + addition of jamblang leaves extract of 0.8%), post-thawing motility decreased. this indicates that the dose was not suitable to be used as a diluent. according to basavaraja and hegde (2004), the addition of inappropriate diluent as a medium for spermatozoa can be toxic to spermatozoa. signs of cold shock or nonisotonic media with the semen will cause circular motions. when spermatozoa stop moving, they are considered dead (feradis, 2009). motility is the progressive forward movement of spermatozoa. this progressive movement has an important role in the success of fertilization (kostaman and sutama, 2006). the respiration process in spermatozoa metabolism produces lactic acid. the longer the respiration process, the more lactic acid produced. lactic acid has an effect on reducing the life of spermatozoa motility (ferramosca and zara, 2014). spermatozoa motility depends on mitochondrial function. adenosine triphosphate (atp) is produced by oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrial membrane and transferred to microtubules as energy for motility, therefore the decrease in sperm motility due to clotting is believed to be related to mitochondrial damage. sperm motility can occur if the sperm has a membrane that functions properly to produce energy for movement. during the freezing process, extreme changes in temperature and osmolality occur so that it will damage the lipid composition of the plasma membrane which has an effect on the decrease of sperm motility (januskauskas et al., 2003). comparison of spermatozoa with progressive motility from pre-freezing process to post-thawing shows varied numbers. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. comparison of percentage of spermatozoa motility at pre-freezing and post thawing process as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 17 published by ideas spread figure 1 shows the best percentage decrease in motility (4.99%) was found in j3 treatment (addition of jamblang leaves extract of 0.6%), while the highest decrease (16.07%) was found in the treatment without the addition of jamblang leaves extract. therefore, it can be summed up that the addition of jamblang leaves extract can reduce the percentage decrease in motility from the pre-freezing stage to the post-thawing stage. this condition proves that the antioxidants contained in jamblang leaves can suppress cell membrane damage due to cold shock. in accordance with the results of previous research performed by bucak et al. (2008), it was discovered that antioxidant additives can be used to increase the efficiency of sperm cryopreservation, where the use of an antioxidant (cysteine) gave the best results for post-thawing spermatozoa motility (61.0±1.9%). it was assumed that during the freezing and thawing process, the spermatozoa was damaged so that it affects the stability and living functions of the cell membrane, thus the percentage of spermatozoa motility after thawing decreased. this is supported by the statement made by nagy et al. (2004) that 50% of spermatozoa will die after freezing and thawing process. spermatozoa can be destroyed rapidly in the cooling and freezing process, in which during the thawing process, spermatozoa are highly susceptible to cell damage due to sudden changes in osmotic pressure caused by rapid thawing. the spermatozoa is also damaged by the constant changes of temperature in which the pre-freezing process was done for 5 – 9 minutes at -140oc, freezing was done for 7 days of storage at -196oc until the post-thawing process which took 15 seconds at a 37oc. percentage of viability of frozen semen of aceh cattle in the skim milk-egg yolk extender with the addition of jamblang leaves extract during pre-freezing and post-thawing process living spermatozoa test (viability) was employed as an indicator of the integrity of membrane structure. data on the percentage of living spermatozoa (viability) on pre-freezing and post-thawing examinations after provided by treatments in various concentrations of jamblang leaves extract in diluent of skim milk-egg yolk are presented in table 2. table 2. percentage of spermatozoa viability of aceh cattle due to the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk-egg yolk extender during pre-freezing and post-thawing treatments observation period pre-freezing post-thawing j0 (0 %) 49.50cd±12.52 33.12cd±22.64 j1 (0.2 %) 43.85bc±5.04 33.04bc±14.63 j2 (0.4 %) 41.25a±2.05 28.41d±3.95 j3 (0.6 %) 56.59d±1.21 53.94d±3.94 j4 (0.8 %) 42.99ab±4.76 32.43ab±5.77 the results of variance discovered that the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk-egg yolk extender significantly affected (p<0.01) the percentage of spermatozoa viability of aceh cattle during the pre-freezing process. the results showed that the highest percentage of spermatozoa motility after pre-freezing was obtained from j3 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.6%) which was 56.59%, while the lowest percentage of spermatozoa motility obtained from j2 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.4 % which was 41.25%. the decrease in the percentage of living spermatozoa after pre-freezing process was caused by cold shock and damage to the spermatozoa membrane due to ice crystals which caused differences in osmotic pressure outside and inside the cell, thus it increases the death rate of spermatozoa. khan and ijaz (2008) stated that an increase in osmotic pressure in the semen plasma can reduce the permeability of spermatozoa membranes and increase damage to the membrane which leads to the death of spermatozoa. the results of previous research carried out by pratiwi et al. (2014) obtained the percentage of viability of simmental cattle spermatozoa using andromed® in pre-freezing process for 9 minutes which was 58.17%. the decrease in viability during prefreezing process was less than post-thawing process because the spermatozoa were adapting to cold temperatures during the pre-freezing process to prevent the death of more spermatozoa so that less damage can be obtained by the spermatozoa in the post-thawing process. the average percentage of spermatozoa viability in the skim milk-egg yolk extender with additional of jamblang leaves extract during the post-thawing process is described in table 2. the results of the variance stated that the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milk-egg yolk extender significantly affected (p<0 0.05) the spermatozoa viability in aceh cattle in the post-thawing process at 37ºc for 15 seconds. furthermore, j3 treatment as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 18 published by ideas spread (skim milk-egg yolk + jamblang leaves extract 0.6%) showed the highest percentage (53.94%) and were significantly different (p < 0.05) with j1, j2, and j4 treatments, but not different from j0 treatment (without the addition of jamblang leaves extract). the percentage of viability of aceh cattle in this study was lower than the research results reported by sukmawati et al. (2014) in simmental cattle (61.72%), limousine cattle (62.29%), and fh cattle (60.85%). the decrease in viability is still considered normal because according to pesch and bergmann (200), the decrease in the quality of spermatozoa after freezing is very high, which is around 50%. arifiantini et al (2006) claimed that artificial insemination needs 40-50 % live and motile spermatozoa. differences in decreased viability between individuals also possibly occur. according to zahn et al. (2006), each individual has different protein composition of semen plasma and spermatozoa membranes and it is related to the resistance of spermatozoa to freezing. in addition, semen plasma proteins such as osteopoitin and lipocalin-clump prostaglandin d-synthase varied between males. furthermore, holden et al. (2017) stated that semen plasma composition is not homeostatic and varies not only between species but also between individuals and between ejaculations from the same animal. the decrease in viability in the post-thawing process is due to the very low temperature during freezing. during semen processing, the environmental conditions of spermatozoa extremely change. lemma (2011) stated that there are two temperature ranges that are susceptible to spermatozoa damage during freezing, those are the cooling period (0ºc to -5ºc) and ice crystal formation (-6ºc to -15ºc). the percentage of spermatozoa viability from prefreezing to post-thawing decreased. the decrease in the spermatozoa viability of aceh cattle in the diluent of skim milk-egg yolk added with jamblang leaves extract with various concentrations is presented in the following figure 2. figure 2. comparison of spermatozoa viability percentage during pre-freezing and post-thawing process figure 2 shows that the decrease of viability percentage of in each treatment varies. j3 treatment (skim milk-egg yolk + addition of jamblang leaves extract of 0.6%) provided the lowest percentage decrease of 4.68%, while j0 treatment (without the addition of jamblang leaves extract) provided the highest percentage decrease of 33 ,09%. this shows that the addition of jamblang leaves extract can reduce spermatozoa damage due to cold shock. savitri et al. (2014) stated that the percentage of live spermatozoa in bali cattle in the skim milk-egg yolk extender with additional vitamin c on post-thawing examination reached 54.33%. furthermore, asadpour et al. (2012) claimed that the addition of superoxide dismutase (sod) and butylated hydroxytoluene (bht) in semen citrate egg-yolk (cey) extender can increase the percentage of spermatozoa viability. similar to vitamin c, sod and bht, jamblang leaves extract also contains antioxidants. according to margaret et al. (2015) jamblang leaves extract contains alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, steroids, phenolics, and saponins. in this case, antioxidants play a role in binding oxygen radicals contained in cells to prevent the formation of lipid peroxidation which can inhibit glycolysis and motility. 4. conclusion based on the results of this study, it was concluded that the addition of jamblang leaves extract in the skim milkegg yolk extender affected the percentage of spermatozoa motility and viability of aceh cattle during pre-freezing as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 3; 2021 19 published by ideas spread and post-thawing. the best percentage of motility and viability was found in the concentration of jamblang leaves extract of 0.6% in 100 ml of skim milk-egg yolk extender, both during pre-freezing and post-thawing. 5. suggestion it is expected that further research will be performed concerning the addition of jamblang leaves extract (syzygium cumini) in other diluents in the frozen semen production process for aceh cattle so that the best formulation of diluent media can be obtained in maintaining the quality of frozen semen of aceh cattle. references aboagla, e. m. e., & terada, t. 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(2008). the effect of antioxidants on motility, viability, acrosome integrity and dna integrity of frozen-thawed epididymal cat spermatozoa. theriogenology, 70(2), 233-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.04.005 umar, s., & maharani, m. (2005). pengaruh berbagai waktu ekuilibrasi terhadap daya tahan sperma sapi limousin dan uji kebuntingan. jurnal agribisnis peternakan, 1(1), 17-21. zahn, f. s., papa, f. o., & melo, c. m. (2006). blood serum, seminal plasma and sperm membrane protein profiles in stallions; are they corelated to semen freezability? anim. reprod. sci., 94, 64-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2006.03.088 zulyazaini, dasrul, s., wahyuni, akmal, m., & abdullah, m. a. n. (2016). karakteristik semen dan komposisi kimia plasma seminalis sapi aceh yang dipelihara di bibd sare aceh besar. jurnal agripet, 16(2), 121130. https://doi.org/10.24815/jts.v%25vi%25i.5803 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p122 122 published by ideas spread response of chickpea (cicier arietinium l.) to rhizobium inoculation and blended fertilizer rates in laelay maichew, central zone of tigray, northern ethiopia kiros wolday1 & atsede teklu1 1 crop core process axum agricultural research center, tigray agricultural research institute, ethiopia correspondance: kiros wolday, crop core process, axum agricultural research center, tigray agricultural research institute, ethiopia. tel: 251-925-425-358. e-mail: kiroswolday@gmail.com received: june 15, 2020 accepted: july 17, 2020 published: august 11, 2020 abstract low soil fertility is one of the limiting factor for low productivity of chickpea in central zone of tigray, northern ethiopia. field experiment was therefore, conducted for two consecutive years (2016-2017) in laelay maichew (hatsebo) to evaluate the effects of npsb fertilizer and rhizobium inoculation on yield and yield components of chickpea. the experiment was laid out in a split plot design with three replications. rhizobium inoculation was assigned to the main plots with two levels (with and without rhizobium inoculation) and npsb fertilizer rates in sub plot with seven levels (0, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 kg ha-1 npsb). data collected were subjected to the analysis of variance (anova) using sas software. a combined analysis of variance showed a significant interaction effects of npsb and rhizobium inoculation on chickpea yield and yield components (p<0.05) across the two years. the highest number of pods per plant (76.8) was recorded from 125 kg ha-1 npsb along with rhizobium inoculation and the highest grain yields were obtained from 150 kg ha-1 (3609 kg ha-1) and 125 kg ha-1 npsb (3514 kg ha-1) along with rhizobium inoculation. maximum marginal rate of return (4106.68%) was gained when chickpea was inoculated with rhizobium and 125 kg ha-1 npsb application. from the present results it could be concluded that 125 kg ha-1 npsb along with rhizobium inoculation seeds would be the optimum treatment combination for enhancing chickpea yield and better profitability in soils with low level of available plant nutrients (npsb). keywords: chickpea, marginal rate of return, npsb, rhizobium inoculation, yield 1. introduction in ethiopia pulses are among the various crops produced in all the regions of the country after cereals (csa, 2018). in 2017/18 pulses were cultivated in about 1.6 x 106 ha with annual estimated production of 2,978,588 tons (csa, 2018). among the pulses crops, chickpea is an important annual crop. it is only cultivated species of genus cicer. chickpea is the world’s third most important food legume next to haricot bean and soybean (namvar and sharifi 2011). globally it was cultivated on area of 13.65 million ha with production of 13.10 million tons (faostat, 2016). it is grown in 35 countries of the world. india, turkey, pakistan, iran, mexico, myanmar, ethiopia, australia, spain, canada and usa are top ten chickpea producing countries. ethiopia contributed around 3% of the global chickpea production. in africa, ethiopia is the leading chickpea producer and ranked third in its production next to faba bean and haricot bean (faostat, 2012). chickpea is a relatively cheap source of protein (20–23% in the grain), energy (carbohydrates, 40%), oil (3–6%) (gil etal.,1996) and minerals (mg, k, p, fe, zn, and mn (ibrikci et al 2003) and β-carotene (milan etal., 2006) in the developing world. chickpea contributes significantly to sustainability of cereal-legume cropping systems, increasing the yield of cereals through enhancing the soil nitrogen and breaking the disease cycles of important cereal pathogens (pande et al.,2011). however its productivity is low (1630 kg ha-1) in tigray compared to the national average (2053 kg ha-1) in ethiopia (csa, 2018) and very much below the potential of the crop. moisture stress (drought) mainly terminal drought, decline in soil fertility, diseases (dry root rot, wilt) insect pests (pod borer and cut worm) are the major constraints for low productivity of chickpea. declining in soil fertility is one of the constraints contributing for low chickpea production and productivity. many of the soils in ethiopia are deficient in n, p, k, s (ethiosis, 2014). moreover, soil fertility declining is aggravetaed due to intensive cropping as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 123 published by ideas spread and unbalanced use of fertilizers by the farmers. therefore, balanced fertilization is needed for optimum growth and production of crops including chickpea. in the study area, use of fertilizer was focused mainly on the use of nitrogen (urea) and phosphorous (di-ammonium phosphate-dap) for almost all crops. such unbalanced application of plant nutrients might have aggravated the depletion of nutrient elements in soils including the recently identified s and micronutrient (b). hence, the yield gap in pulses in general and chickpea in particular could be fulfilled through combined application of biofertilizers (rhizobium inoculants) and blended fertilizers along with improved varieties. there is also a need to consider the relative cost and profitability of these technologies with the respect to their adoption by small-holder farmers. this study was therefore initiated with to evaluate the sole and comined rhizobium and blended (npsb) fertilizer application on yield and yield components chickpea. it was hypothesized that application of optimum npsb fertilizer rates combined with rhizobium inoculation would improve yield and agronomic traits of chickpea in the study area. 2. materials and methods 2.1 description of the study site the experiment was conducted at hatsebo experimental site of axum agricultural research center. the experimental site is located 5 km east from axum town of tigray regional state, northern ethiopia at 14°6’46”n and 38°46’3” e and attitude of 2084 meter above sea level. it has a vertisols dominated clay soil type. it is situated in the northern semi-arid tropical belt of ethiopia where teff, chickpea, wheat and faba bean are commonly grown. chickpea is an important crop in the area both economically and ecologically. the rainy season is mono modal concentrated in one season from july to september and receives from 400 to 800 mm rainfall per annum. 2.2 experimental design, treatments and procedures the experiment was carried out for two consecutive years (2016– 2017) during the rain fed conditions. the experiment was conducted in a split plot design with three replications at axum agricultural research station (hatsebo site) and sown at mid august. the main factor was rhizobium inoculation with two levels (inoculated and uninoculated). the sub-plots factor was blended fertilizer rates with seven treatments (0, 25, 50, and 75,100,125,150 kg npsb ha-1). the experiment was conducted in a plot size of 3 m length by 2.4 m width with spacings of 0.10 m, 0.30 m, 0.50 m, 1 m and 1.5 m between plants, rows, sub plots, main plots and replications, respectively. popular and predominant grown improved chickpea variety (arerti) was used for the trial. the recommended biofertilier level 500 g ha-1 was used for chickpea inoculation. rhizobium chickpea strain cp-m-41 was obtained from menagesha biotech industry p.l.c, addis ababa, ethiopia. it is popular strain across the country in enhancing chickpea yield and yield components. the inoculants were prepared based on the recommended rate of 10g kg-1 seeds for inoculation. before planting, 1.5 kg of chickpea (arerti) seeds was prepared for inoculation. seeds were soaked in water for 30 minutes. then excess water was removed from the seeds by placing in a sack. there after sugar was applied as adhesive material to stick the inoculums in to the seeds. finally the inoculants was applied to the seeds and dressed until the seeds showed a black color in a shade to avoid direct sun light so as to maintain the viability of the inoculums. blended fertilizer (npsb) at rates of 0, 25, 50, 75,100,125,150 kg ha-1 were applied at the center of the row and covered with soil to avoid contact with the inoculated seeds. at seed sowing, daily laborers were grouped into two before planting was started. one group planted the inoculated seed on the other hand the other group planted the non inoculated seeds. finally, plots planted with inoculated seeds were immediately covered with soil to avoid direct sun light. 2.3 soil sampling, preparation and analysis pre-sowing surface soil samples were collected at 0-30 cm depth diagonally from 20 spots in the experimental field using an auger. sub samples were composited and processed for soil analysis before sowing. composite soil samples were analyzed for organic carbon (oc), total n (kjeldahl method) and available soil p (olsen method). particle size was determined following the hydrometer method. cation exchange capacity, ec and soil ph were also measured using standard laboratory procedures followed by shire soil research center. 2.4 agronomic data collection days to 90% maturity was recorded for all the plots when 90% of the plot was ready for harvesting when the foliage color becomes yellowish, lower pods starting shedding pods and seeds harden. at harvesting time, plant height and number of pods plant-1 were estimated from randomly tagged six plant samples in each plot. harvesting as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 124 published by ideas spread was done from the central six rows threshing was done manually after a week. grain yield of the six inner 6 rows was measured by using sensitive balance and converted kg ha-1. grain yield of each plot was adjusted to 12% seed moisture content. finally 100 seed data were weighed by counting 100 seeds from each plot by using sensitive balance. 2.5 statistical analysis all collected data were subjected to the analysis of variance (anova) using the sas computer program, version 9.1 (sas, 2002). error variance of the individual years was tested for homogeneity. treatment means were compared using least significant difference at 5% probability level (petersen, 1994). 2.6 partial budget analysis partial budget analysis of the rhizobium and blended (npsznb) fertilizer treatments were performed on the basis of prevailing market prices (cimmyt,1988). the partial budget analysis was performed to assess treatment combinations that would give acceptable returns at low risk to farmers. all costs and benefits were calculated on hectare basis in ethiopian birr (etb). variable costs (fertilizer and rhizobium, application and transport costs) were considered for partial budget analysis. mean grain yield of the two years result were used for partial budget analysis. the average grain yield was adjusted to 10% downwards to reflect the difference between the experimental yield and the yield farmers will expect from the same treatment. 3. results and discussion 3.1 experimental soil selected physical and chemical properties selected soil physical and chemical properties of the experimental site before planting are indicated in table 1. the soil textural class is clay. the soil ph was neutral and non-saline (ethiosis, 2014). the soil ph is in optimal ph range for most plants. soil organic carbon and total nitrogen were low according to the rating of tekalign et al. (1991). available p was in the marginal level while cation exchange capacity was high according to the rating of landon (1991). table 1. physico-chemical properties of the experimental site soil before planting (0-30cm) soil characters values clay (%) 66 sand (%) 12 silt (%) 22 textural class clay soil ph 7.2 oc (%) 0.67 total n (%) 0.06 available p (mg kg -1) 10.28 cec (meq100 g-1 soil) 58.4 ec (ds m-1) 0.986 notes: cec: cation exchange capacity; ec: electrical conductivity; n: nitrogen; p: phosphorus; oc: organic 3.2 effects on yield and yield components the interaction effects are presented and discussed as most of the parameters are significantly affected by the combination effects of rhizobium and npsb application in chickpea (tables 2, 3 and 4). analysis of variance result showed that significant differences among the majority of yield and yield components of chickpea for the interaction effect of npsb and rhizobium inoculation. there was significant (p<0.05) interaction effects of rhizobium inoculation along with npsb application on 90% days to maturity in a separate year and combined over years. a significant and increasing trend was observed in 90% days to maturity with increasing among the rhizobium npsb fertilizer levels. the shortest days to maturity (108.33) was recorded in the untreated check. on the contrary, the longest days to maturity (113) was observed in the maximum fertilizer doses and inoculation across the two years (table 4). this could be attributed to the high nitrogen due to the increased n-in the higher fertilizer rates and able to fix of atmospheric nitrogen due to rhizobium inoculation. abdula (2013) reported that the delay in maturity recorded at the maximum fertilizer dose combined with rhizobium inoculation. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 125 published by ideas spread table 2. effect of inoculation and npsb application on chickpea yield and yield components in l/maichew (hatsebo), 2016 ino*npsb (kg ha-1) 90% dtm ph (cm) nppl gy (kg ha-1) hsw (g) 0*0 104e 33.8e 52e 1625.7f 25e 0*25 106bcd 35.93cde 55.2de 1779.8ef 25.5de 0*50 105.67cde 36.53cde 53.5de 2075.8de 25.13e 0*75 105de 37.2bcd 65.47b-d 1821.3ef 25.7cde 0*100 106.67a-d 36.97bcd 73.33a-d 2653.8c 26.87ab 0*125 106.33bcd 38.27abc 77.6abc 2256.9cd 27.07ab 0*150 107.33abc 37.87b 75.2abc 2522.1c 26.73abc 1*0 105de 34.47de 61.37cde 1670.2ef 25.8cde 1*25 105de 36cde 63.6cde 2284.7cd 25.4e 1*50 105.33de 37.07cd 69.4b-e 2397.9cd 26.53bcd 1*75 106.67a-d 37.73bc 75.6abc 3349.8b 26.6bc 1*100 107.67ab 38.73abc 92.7a 3210.9b 27.27ab 1*125 107.33abc 39.07ab 85.2ab 3626.7ab 27.37ab 1*150 108.33a 40.99a 78.6abc 3785.1a 27.67a grand mean 106.17 37.19 69.91 10.01 26.33 lsd (5%) 1.67 2.93 19.98 419.3 1.04 cv (%) 0.94 4.7 17.09 10.01 2.96 ino indicates for rhzobium inoculantion; 0= uninoculated, 1= inoculated with rhizobium; dm= days to maturity; ph= plant height; nppl= number of pods per plant; gy=grain yield; hsw=hundred seed weight. means followed by the same letter(s) with in a column are not significantly different at p = 0.05 with regard to the plant height the analysis of variance test showed a significant statistical difference (p<0.05) among the interaction effect of rhizobium inoculation and npsb application in the single year as well as over years. the highest plant height (40.40 cm) was obtained from the interaction effect of rhizobium inoculation and npsb application over the two years (table 4) and the shortest plant height (32 cm) was recorded from the untreated check. this could be attributed to the high nitrogen source obtained from the fixed ndue to inoculation rhizobium inoculants as well as maximum vegetative growth of the plants under higher n availability from the higher npsb levels. number of pods per plant significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced by combine effect of rhizobium inoculation and npsb levels in the separate years as well as across the two years (tables 2,3 and 4). significantly highest number of pods per plant was counted from the combine effect of rhizobium inoculation and 125 kg npsb ha-1 (65.13) compared to the control (37.67) over the two years (table 4). this result revealed that the combined application rhizobium and npsb could be the optimum levels to obtain the higher number of pods per plant. table 3. chickpea yield and yield components as influenced by inoculation and npsb application in laelay maichew (hatsebo), 2017 ino*npsb (kg ha-1) dtm ph (cm) nppl gy (kg ha-1) hsw (g) 0*0 112.67a 32e 37.67d 1357.3f 24.97b 0*25 113.33a 33.4de 44.27cd 1483.2ef 25.4ab 0*50 114ab 34.33cde 45.9bcd 1851.7d 25.37ab 0*75 115ab 34.87cde 47.8bcd 1937.6d 25.5ab 0*100 114.67abc 34.27cde 46.6bcd 2013.9d 25.7ab 0*125 113.67bc 37.2abc 55.33abc 2029d 25.3ab 0*150 115bcd 36.8abc 53.33abc 2711.7c 25.17b 1*0 114bcd 34.47cde 46.2bcd 1451.1ef 25.13b 1*25 114bcd 36bcd 51.93bc 1729.4de 25.47ab 1*50 115bcd 35.27cd 52.73abc 2980.7bc 25.83ab 1*75 114cd 36.47bcd 56.3abc 3151.6ab 26.46a 1*100 115.67bcd 38.4ab 57.9ab 3332.2a 26.03ab 1*125 116.33bcd 38.6ab 65.13a 3401.9a 25.77ab as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 126 published by ideas spread 1*150 117.67bcd 39.8a 57.2abc 3433.1a 25.97ab grand.mean 114.64 35.84 51.31 2347.46 25.57 lsd (5%) 2.62 3.08 13.19 308.07 1.18 cv (%) 1.36 5.14 15.37 7.84 2.75 ino indicates for rhzobium inoculantion; 0= uninoculated, 1= inoculated with rhizobium; dm= days to maturity; ph= plant height; nppl= number of pods per plant; gy=grain yield; hsw=hundred seed weight. means followed by the same letter(s) with in a column are not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 in relation to grain yield analysis of variance revealed that statistical significant difference (p<0.05) among the combined application of rhizobium and npsb. application of npsb and rhizobium inoculants at the same time had synergistic effect on the yield of chickpea thus increased the yield. all the treatments gave higher number of pods per plant over the control. application of 125 kg/ha npsb along with rhizobium inoculation had resulted 134% yield inncrea than the untreated check (control). synergetic and positive response of rhizobium inoculation and di-amonium phsphate was reported in birhanu and pant (2012) in chickpea grain yield at shoa robit area. hundred seed weight (hsw) analysis of variance test showed a significant statistical difference (p≤0.05) among the combination of rhizobium inoculation and npsb application (table 4). the highest hundred seed weight (26.46 g) was recorded with inoculation rhizobium inoculants along with 75 kg npsb ha-1, followed by rhizobium inoculation along with 100 kg npsb ha-1 which were significantly higher than control. table 4. combined mean value of chickpea yield and yield components as influenced by the application of rhizobium inoculation and npsb in laelay maichew (hatsebo) 2016-2017 ino*npsb (kg ha-1) 90% dtm ph (cm) nppl gy (kg ha-1) hsw (g) 0 *0 108.33 32.9f 43.5f 1501e 24.98e 0 *25 109.67 34.67ef 49.73ef 1631.5de 25.45cde 0 *50 109.83 35.43cde 49.70c-f 1903.7cde 25.25de 0 *75 110 36.03ed 56.63c-f 1956.7cd 25.6bcde 0 *100 110.67 35.62de 59.97b-e 2191.8bc 26.28abc 0 *125 110 37.73bc 66.47a-e 2261.3bc 26.18a-d 0 *150 111.17 37.33bcd 64.27def 2616.9e 25.95a-d 1 *0 109.5 34.47ef 51.95def 1517.6e 25.47cde 1 *25 109.5 36cde 57.77c-f 1640.4de 25.43cde 1 *50 110.17 36.17cde 58.73b-f 1910.7cde 26.18a-d 1*75 110.33 37.1bcd 65.95a-d 2200.7c 26.53ab 1*100 111.67 38.57ab 70.18abc 2489.9b 26.65a 1*125 111.83 38.83ab 76.8a 3514.3a 26.57a 1 *150 113 40.40a 73.83ab 3609.1a 26.82a grand.mean 110.4 36.53 60.39 2210.39 25.95 lsd (5%) ns 2.11 15.31 437.94 0.94 cv (%) 4.4 5.01 22.2 17.21 3.16 ino indicates for rhzobium inoculantion; 0= uninoculated, 1= inoculated with rhizobium; dm= days to maturity; ph= plant height; nppl= number of pods per plant; gy=grain yield; hsw=hundred seed weight. means followed by the same letter(s) with in a column are not significantly different at p = 0.05 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 127 published by ideas spread table 5. net benefit analysis of npsb application and rhizobium inoculation on chickpea grain yield in hatsebo (2016-2017) ino*npsb (kg ha-1) yield (kg ha-1) adj yield gross field benefit total variable cost net benefit 0*0 1501 1350.9 29719.8 0 29719.8 1*0 1517.6 1365.84 30048.48 40 30008.48 0*25 1631.5 1468.35 32303.7 482.19 31821.5125 1*25 1640.4 1476.36 32479.92 522.19 31957.7325 0*50 1903.7 1713.33 37693.26 964.38 36728.885 0*50 1910.7 1719.63 37831.86 1004.38 36827.485 0*75 1956.7 1761.03 38742.66 1446.56 37296.0975 1*75 2200.7 1980.63 43573.86 1486.56 42087.2975 0*100 2191.8 1972.62 43397.64 1928.75 41468.89d 1*100 2489.9 2240.91 49300.02 1968.75 47331.27 0*125 2261.3 2035.17 44773.74 2410.94 42362.8025 d 1*125 3514.3 3162.87 69583.14 2450.94 67132.2025 0*150 2616.9 2355.21 51814.62 2893.13 48921.495d 1*150 3609.1 3248.19 71460.18 2933.13 68527.055 0= inoculated; 1= inoculated; d = dominated (any treatment that has net benefit less than or equal to that of a treatment with lower cost that vary is dominated) partial budget analysis of combine effects of rhizobium inoculation and npsb fertilizer applied indicated that inoculation with 125 kg npsb ha-1 was the most economical with maximum marginal rate of return (4106.48%) followed by inoculation along with 75 and 100 kg ha-1 npsb respectively (table 5 & table 6). table 6. mariginal rate of analysis of npsb application and rhizobium inoculation on chickpea grain yield in hatsebo (2016-2017) ino*npsb (kg ha-1) adjusted yield gross field benefit total variable cost net benefit mrr% 0 *0 1350.9 29719.8 0 29719.8 _ 1*0 1365.84 30048.48 40 30008.48 721.7 0 *25 1468.35 32303.7 482.19 31821.5125 410.01 1 *25 1476.36 32479.92 522.19 31957.7325 340.55 0*50 1713.33 37693.26 964.38 36728.885 1078.99 1*50 1719.63 37831.86 1004.38 36827.485 246.5 1*75 1980.63 43573.86 1486.56 42087.2975 1090.82 1 *100 2240.91 49300.02 1968.75 47331.27 1087.54 1 *125 3162.87 69583.14 2450.94 67132.2025 4106.48 1 *150 3248.19 71460.18 2933.13 68527.055 289.28 0= inoculated; 1= inoculated; marginal rate of return = marginal net benefit x 100/marginal cost; current price of chickpea= 22 birr/kg 4. conclusion the interaction effect of npsb and inoculation for most of the parameters were significant in each year and across the two years. the highest grain yield of chickpea was recorded from the inoculated seed planted with the application of 125,150 and 100 kg ha-1 blended (npsb) fertilizers, respectively in decreasing order over the two as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 128 published by ideas spread years at hatsebo research site in laelay maichew district. however maximum marginal rate of return were obtained from 125, 75 and 100 kg ha-1 npsb along with rhizobiaum inoculation. therefore, 125 kg ha-1npsb along with rhizobiaum inoculation would be the optimum treatment combination for enhancing chickpea grain yield and profitability in soils having low npsb availability. conflict of interest the authors have not declared any conflict of interest. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank tigrai agricultural research institue for the financial support of the research study and great appreciation goes to crop core process colleagues for supporting during implementation of the study. references abdula, i. a. 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(2002). version 9.1.sas institute inc., cary, nc, usa. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p141 141 published by ideas spread effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on dekoko (pisum sativum var.abyssinicum a. braun) yield and yield related traits kiros wolday1, araya alemie2 & yemane tsehaye2 1 crop research core process,axum agricultural research center, ethiopia 2 department of crop and horticultural science, mekelle university, ethiopia correspondence: kiros wolday, crop research core process,axum agricultural research center, ethiopia. tel: 251-925-425-358. e-mail: kiroswolday@gmail.com received: june 7, 2020 accepted: june 27, 2020 online published: august 11, 2020 abstract a field experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of different nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer levels on dekoko (pisum sativum var.abyssinicum a.braun) yield and yield components as well as to establish the net benefit at each fertilizer levels. the experiment was conducted at mekelle university endayesus campus in tigray, northern ethiopia in 2013/14. it was laid out in a randomized complete block design with four blocks. it comprises four nitrogen (n) and phosphorus (p) fertilizer treatments combinations. viz., control (n0p0), 30 kg n ha-1 and 30 kg p2o5 ha-1 (n1p1), 60 kg n ha-1 and 60 kg p2o5 ha-1(n2p2) and 90 kg n ha-1 and 90 kg p2o5 ha-1 (n3p3).the highest yield (2114.55 kg ha-1), biomass (5312.5 kg ha-1), nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency (4.58 kg kg-¹) and maximum marginal rate of return (499%) were obtained when treated with n2p2. from the present results it could be concluded that 60 kg n ha-1 and 60 kg p2o5 ha-1 fertilizer rate would be optimum treatment combination for enhancing dekoko yield and yield components, np use efficiency, and economic profitability. therefore, application of 60 kg n ha-1 and 60 kg p2o5 ha-1 is recommended for better productivity and profitability of dekoko at low soil fertility levels. keywords: dekoko, marginal rate of return, nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization, yield 1. introduction grain legumes, play a key role in organic cropping systems (aslamet al., 2010). they could provide nitrogen (n) to the system via n fixation and produce grain rich in protein while improving soil n for the succeeding crop (newton and yoong, 2015). in ethiopia, dekoko is known for its high market price and for its food preference (yemane and skjelva˚g, 2002). it is well known for its good taste and high nutritional value. most often, the dry seeds of dekoko are decorticated and split (‘split peas’) before boiling. sometimes they are boiled without decortications and consumed as soup. in ethiopia the annual consumption per person of field pea including dekoko seeds is estimated at 6-7kg/year (sentayehu,2009). dekokois importantbecause of its favorable amino acid profile;it can be a suitable complementary protein source for a cereal based diet (yemane and skjelva˚g, 2002). moreover, its early maturation can make it an important crop in areas where the growing season is too short for other cool season food legumes (csfls) and yield losses caused by terminal droughts are common.in areas where crop yields are mainly waterlimited under dryland production systems in semi arid regions. despite its high nutritional and economic value, dekoko is the most neglected pulse crop in the research area. hence, its productivity is low because of lack of improved varieties, low soil fertility; little or no application of fertilizers or fertilizer requirement of the crop is not well known. dekoko is usually sown without fertilizer and as a result its yield under farmer’s condition is often below optimum. nitrogen and phosphorus are the essential nutrients for dekoko growth and to improve its productivity. nitrogen promotes the vegetative development of the crop where as phosphorus plays a vital role in root development, nitrofen fixation, maturity and energy transfer processthere is limited information about the effect of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization on dekoko yield, np use efficiency and economic profitability. it was hypothesized that supplying optimum amount of n and p2o5 in dekoko fields could improve its productivity and profitability. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 142 published by ideas spread 2. materials and methods 2.1 description of the study area the study was carried out at mekelle university endayesus campus research site in tigray region, northern ethiopia in 2013/14 growing season. the area is located at a geographical location of latitude 13o28’47’’n and longitude 39o 29’10’’e and at an altitude of 2225 meter above sea level (m.a.s.l). figure 1. location map of the study area climatologically the area is categorized as semi arid. rainfall distribution of the study area is largely mono-modal that spreads from june to first week of september. the long term (1993 -2013) mean annual rainfall for the study site is approximately 543 mm. the highest rainfall is received in july and august and the mean annual average maximum and minimum temperature of the study area approximately, 26.2oc and 11.5oc respectively. the dominant soil type of the experimental site is a cambisol (habtegebrial and singh, 2006). it has sandy clay loam (53% sand, 27% silt and 20% clay). the soil ph, cation exchange capacity (cec), available phosphorus, and total nitrogen were 6.9, 19.75 cmol kg-1, 2.75mg kg-1 and 0.1% respectively. the percent organic carbon content of the soil was 1.15%. the organic carbon of the soil is computed by multiplying the organic carbon content with conversion factor of 1.724, and the organic matter of the soil was 1.98%. 2.2 treatments, experimental design and procedures the experiment consisted of four treatment combinations: control (n0p0), 30 kg n ha-1 and 30 kg p2o5 ha-1 (n1p1), 60 kg n ha-1and 60 kg p2o5 ha-1(n2p2) and 90 kg n ha-1and90 kg p2o5 ha-1 (n3p3) were laid out in randomized complete block design (rcbd) and replicated four times andeach treatment was randomly assigned to each plots. dekoko seeds for planting were obtained from farmers living in korem (163km south of mekelle). the plots had an area size of 4 m x 4m with harvestable area of 2m x 2 m and 1m between plots and 1.5 m between replications. inter and intra row spacing was 0.2 m and 0.05 m, respectively. two seeds where planted per hill. after emergence plants where thinned to one seed to maintain normal plant density. fertilizer sources for phosphorus was dap (di-ammonium phosphate) and urea for nitrogen-ammonium phosphate was applied at sowing whereas; urea was applied after 100% crop emergence. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 143 published by ideas spread 2.3 data collection data were collected on plant and plot basis. the collected data are listed as follows: days to 50% flowering and maturity were recorded as number of days from planting up to the time when 50% of the plants in each plot flowered and matured, respectively. plant height was recorded from five individual plants by measuring the length from the ground to the apex of the plant during maturity stage; pod length was assumed as the average pod length of the total pods from five plants; number of pods per plant were recorded from five plants randomly taken from the central(harvestable) rows by counting all grain filled pods on each plant; number of seeds per pod were recorded from five randomly selected plants by dividing to the total number of pods counted from the five randomly selected plants;aboveground biomass weight per plot was taken as the total aboveground biological yield from the harvestable plot area(4m2) and weighed after sun drying for a week; grain yield per plot was recorded by separating the grains from the straw after threshing; thousand grain weight was estimated by counting and weighing 1000 seeds from each harvestable plot area. finally harvest index was estimated as the ratio of grain yield to the total aboveground biological yield. 2.4 partial budget analysis partial budget analysis was worked out to determine the most economically accepted treatments by estimating the varying costs and benefits depending on the prevailing market prices (cimmyt,1988). the yields harvested from the experimental plots were converted in to hectare basis and the market values were calculated by multiplying the existing market price with grain yield obtained per hectare. net benefits for each treatment were calculated by subtracting the variable costs from the gross income. and the marginal rate of return was calculated by comparing the marginal (extra) cost with the marginal net benefit. because higher net benefit may not be accepted if they are attained at higher costs. gross and net benefits were determined according to cimmyt (1988). gross benefit (gb) =yield * price, net benefit (nb) = gross benefit (gb) – varying cost (vc). this analysis helps to undertake the marginal rate of return (mrr) analysis which is important for correct evaluation of alternative technologies. cost that varies between treatments (cost of n and p2o5 fertilizer) was used in the calculation of partial budget analysis. marginal analysis was calculated by using the net benefit and variable cost values. final recommendations to farmers were given on the basis of marginal rate of return, which was calculated by the following formula (cimmyt, 1988). marginal rate of return (%) = *100 (1) 2.6 data analysis plots of the distribution of the residuals, a normal and half-normal plots and a plot of the residuals against the fitted values were produced to assess whether the normality assumptions of the data was violated. all the parameters measured were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance (anova) function of statistical analysis system (sas institute, 2002). the least significance difference (lsd at a probability level of 5%) test was used to separate the treatment mean value after treatment effect was found significant at p≤ 0.05. moreover, simple correlation analysis was worked out to reveal the magnitudes and directions of relationships between selected yield and yield components. 3. results and discussion 3.1 effect of n and p2o5 on dekoko phenology, yield and yield components analysis of variance on 50% flowering exhibited a significant difference among treatments of n and p2o5 fertilizer treatments compared to the control at (p ≤ 0.05) (table 1).the plants received the highest fertilizer level (n3p3) took longer days to 50% flowering (41 days) as compared to the control (40.25 days).whereas, early flowering was observed on the control treatment (40.25 days). as n and p2o5 level increased from 0 to 90 kg n ha-1, the days to 50% flowering was delayed. increasing n fertilizer level promoted greater vegetative development for a longer period of time before reproductive phase begins and hence, might have caused delayed in flowering (achakzai, 2012). results presented in table1 revealed that there was a non-significant variation among various levels of added n and p2o5fertilizers, as indicated in table 1, however, the clear and significant variation was between the high level of n and p2o5 and the untreated control. days to maturity followed the same trend as that of the days to flowering; as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 144 published by ideas spread as the n and p2o5 rate increases maturity tend to delay (table 1). the increase in n level could increased the vegetative growth of the crop as a result crop maturity tend to delayed. days to maturity followed the same trend like the days to flowering by the application of various levels of n and p2o5 (table 1). this might be attributed to the specifically higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer application which increases the vegetative growth of crops and hence delayed maturity. rahim et al. (2008) observed significant variation in days to 50% maturity by the application of various levels of nitrogen fertilizers in mung bean. similarly khanet al. (2008) reported that crop maturity delayed by application of n fertilizer. n and p2o5 fertilizer combination level had a significant effect on pod length at p ≤ 0.05. increasing of n and p2o5 fertilizer from n0p0 to n3p3 increased pod length in a linear fashion. the linear trend between pod length and fertilizer rate observed in this study may further proved that nitrogen is the essential component for growth of the crop. the maximum pod length (4.7cm) was recorded in n3p3 followed by n2p2 (4.53cm). however, both treatments were statistically alike. increasing the n and p2o5 rate beyond n2p2 had no significant effect on pod length (table 1). this indicates n2p2 could be the optimum fertilizer level, which should be applied for dekoko. table 1. yield and yield components of dekoko as influenced by the combined application of n and p2o5 fertilizer levels n + p2o5(kg ha-1) 50% dtf 50% dtm pl (cm) nppp nspp abyld (kg ha1) gy (kg ha1) tsw(g) hi (%) 0(n0p0) 40.25b 65.5b 3.83b 4.20c 3.78b 4037.50b 1565.50b 91.83 b 38.58 30 + 30(n1p1) 40.75ab 65.75ab 3.87 b 4.85b 4.43b 4550.00b 1736.80b 95.68 b 38.1 60 + 60(n2p2) 40.75ab 65.5ab 4.53a 5.49a 5.38a 5312.50a 2114.50a 106.76a 39.8 90 + 90(n3p3) 41.00 a 66.75a 4.7a 5.75a 6.00a 5750.00a 2145.00a 105.85a 39.88 cv (%) 1.024 1.22 6.5 7.63 8.42 9.6 10.86 3.75 7.19 lsd(5%) 0.67 1.12 0.45 0.62 0.66 754.05 331.99 5.99 ns where: dtf=days to flowering, dtm= days to maturity, pl= pod length, nppp = number of pods per plant, nspp= number of seeds per pod, abyld =aboveground biomass yield, gy = grain yield, hi= harvest index, tsw = thousand seed weight **means with different letters in each group are statistically significant at p ≤ 5% (lsd), nsnot significant. application of n and p2o5 significantly affected the number of pods per plant (p≤ 0.05) at all levels except in n1p1 when compared with the control (table 1). the maximum number of pods per plant was recorded from the application of high levels of n3p3 followed by n2p2, whereas, the lowest number of pods per plant attributed to the control (table 1). this increased number of pods per plant with an increase in fertilizer level (apart from the fertilizer effect) may also emanate from the increase in number ofbranches. the result agrees with the finding of rajpal (2003) who reported an increase in number of pods per plant with increasing level of phosphorus up to 60 kg p2o5 ha-1. ahmed (200) also reported increase in number of pods per plant linearly with increase p2o5 up to 75 kg ha-1. it could be an increase in the number of branches per plant could increase the number of reproductive nodes and then number of pods/plant might be increased. the effect of n and p2o5 on the number of seeds per pod was significant (p≤ 0.05) (table 1). the mean values of the treatments except at n1p1 were significantly higher than the control. the highest number of pods were recorded from the treatment combination of n3p3 followed n2p2 (table 1). however, the mean values of the latter two treatments were not statistically different to each other. there was a significant variation among the treatments of n and p2o5 fertilizer levels for above ground biomass compared to the control treatment (table 1). with increasing the n and p2o5 fertilizer level, the above ground biomass appeared to increase linearly. however, the mean values of n2p2 and n3p3 were not statistically different from each other and the yield increment beyond (n2p2) was not that significant. the low availability of n and p2o5 nutrients in the soil and application of n and p2o5 from the external inputs below n1p1, may be inadequate for the optimum growth and development of dekokoas can be noticed from the low aboveground biomass in n1p1 (table 1).the non-significant difference between the higher levels of fertilizer combinations could be due to the adequate n and fertilizer level for dekoko growth and development from the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 145 published by ideas spread external input (n2p2). the increase aboveground mass could be the supply of nitrogen with phosphorus and other soil minerals which causes for the high vegetative growth of dekoko. this result is in acordance with the report of masresha et al. (2016). the results are also in line with those of fatima et al. (2013) who reported n and p2o5 combination showed significantly highest growth and yield contributing character. the analysis of variance showed that grain yield was significantly affected by the combined application of the different nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers levels at (p≤ 0.05). nitrogen and phosphorus application at all levels except at n1p1 brought significantly higher grain yield than the control (table 1). it is evident from the result that the highest grain yield was recorded from the application of the higher fertilizer level. however, no significant variations were observed between n2p2 and n3p3. the lowest grain yield was recorded from the control treatment, where no fertilizer was applied. at lower levels, the nutrients were not available to plants in sufficient quantities which ultimately resulted in lower yield. the increase in grain yield of dekoko with increasing fertility level was mainly due to significant improvement in different growth and yield contributing characters at higher nitrogen and phosphorus level. application of higher quantity of nitrogen might have favored rapid growth and enlargement of tissues, resulting in higher leaf area index. in addition to this application of phosphorus may increase the availability of p to plants leading to higher contents of p in grains. the increase in grain yield with increasing n and p2o5 fertilizer levels may be due to the increase in number of branches/plant number of pods/plant, number of seeds/pod and pods/plant. similar findings have been reported by bolland et al. (2001) for various legumes. nitrogen along with phosphorus fertilizers significantly affected 1000 grain weight (p≤ 0.05) (table 1). the analysis of variance showed that with increasing the combined application of n and p2o5 appeared to increase the 1000 seed weight up to the application of n2p2 (table 1). maximum 1000 grain weight i.e.,106.68g was recorded in plots received n2p2 followed by n3p3 (105.85g), although the two treatment means were not significantly different from each other. the minimum seed weight was observed in the control treatment (91.83g). however, beyond n2p2, the seed weight slightly declined. the most likely reason for having higher seed weight with an increase in n and p2o5 rate was attributed to better crop development and better np uptake. similar result was reported by arif et al. (2003) and sadozai et al. (2013). none of the treatments had any significant effect on harvest index (hi) (table 1). but the highest hi was obtained at the highest fertilizer levels (n2p2 and n3p3). nevertheless, the treatment means were not statistically different from each other and this could be likely due to simultaneous increase in biomass resulted from an increase in n and p2o5 application. in line with current findings, meseret (2006) and gifole et al. (2011) have also reported nonsignificant response of harvest index to p application on mung bean and haricot bean respectively. 3.6 partial budget analysis of the combined application of n and p2o5 increasing the amount of n and p2o5 from n0p0 to n1p1 and n2p2 lead to an increment in net benefits beyond which further increment in the amount of n andp2o5 resulted in decline the net benefits. the marginal rate of return (mrr) from n0p0 to n1p1 and n2p2 were 170 and 499%respectively. partial budget analysis on the n and p2o5 fertilizer applied indicated that the treatment n2p2 was the most economical with the highest marginal rate of return (mrr) followed by the n1p1. on the contrary further increase in n and p2o5 beyond n2p2 was dominated due to less benefit than the preceding treatment. application of n3p3 gave marginal net benefit -800.69 (table 2). table 2. effect of n and p2o5 combined application on dekoko grain yield marginal rate of return (n+p2o5) kg ha-1 vcio mvc nb (et.birr) mnb (et.birr) mrr (%) 0(n0p0) 35225 30 + 30(n1p1) 1424.58 1424.58 37650.42 2425.42 170 60 + 60(n2p2) 2852.78 1428.2 44772.22 7121.8 499 90 + 90(n3p3 4278.47 1425.69 43971.53d -800.69 d=dominated treatment (due to less benefits than preceding treatments) vcio = variable cost in increasing order, mvc= marginal variable cost = net benefit, mnb=marginal net benefit, mrr = marginal rate of return, et=ethiopia as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 146 published by ideas spread 4. conclusion the effect of nitrogen and phosphorus were statistically significant for most of the measured attributes, yield and yield components of dekoko (pisum sativum var.abyssinicum a. braun). application of 60 kg n ha-1 and 60 kg p2o5 ha-1 was found to be the suitable treatment combination level among the deferent levels of n and p2o5 fertilizers, for enhancing dekoko yield and yield components. and also gave maximum marginal rate of return as compared to the other n and p2o5 levels of fertilizer, which indicates increasing application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer beyond 60kg n ha-1 and 60kg p2o5 ha-1 may not be a sound strategy to achieve maximum yield of dekoko. therefore, based on the present finding, it is recommended that application of60kg n ha-1 and 60kg p2o5 ha-1 (n2p2) would be the optimum rate for increasing yield and better profitability of dekoko at low soil fertility levels. furthermore, the results will applicable to areas possessing similar agro ecologies and similar soil fertility status. further study should be conducted to analyze the main (separate) effect of n and p2o5 on dekoko yield and yield traits. conflict of interest the authors have not declared any conflict of interest. acknowledgements we sincerely thank rockfeller foundation for the finacial support of this project references achakzai, a. k., shah, b. h., & wahid, m. a. 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(2002). the physic-chemical features of dekoko (pisumsativum var. abyssinicum) seeds. j. agron and crop sci., 189, 14-22. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-037x.2003.00595.x appendix weather condition of the study area copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v5n1p1 1 published by ideas spread water management of organic-based pineapple in upland sloping production areas ricson l. ines1, precious grace b. daping2, zoila m. duque2 & romar p. regalario3 1 department of agricultural and biosystems engineering, bataan peninsula state university abucay campus bangkal, abucay, bataan 2 department of agriculture, bataan peninsula state university abucay campus, bangkal, abucay, bataan 3 organic agriculture research, development and innovation center, bataan peninsula state university abucay campus, bangkal, abucay, bataan correspondence: ricson l. ines, department of agricultural and biosystems engineering, bataan peninsula state university abucay campus bangkal, abucay, bataan. e-mail: rhenz554@yahoo.com received: february 9, 2023 accepted: march 27, 2023 online published: april 18, 2023 abstract irrigation of crops in the upland is one major problem in crop production because of water availability during the dry season which includes the right irrigation water method, one of major factors in crop production. the main objectives of the study were to assess the growth and yield of organically grown pineapple at different water management; and to evaluate the cost and economic returns of organically grown pineapple at different water management. study conducted at bpsu bangkal, abucay, bataan (n 14°46’ east 120°30’). the total rainfall depth at bpsu-aws station for july 2020 to june 2022 was 5,002.4 mm during the study period. the microsprinkler irrigation system (90 lph, 5.5 m – 12.5 m wd) was used to supplement the irrigation water. four treatments were subjected for verification (t1 – no supplemented water, t2 – irrigate up to 30% soil mc, t3 irrigate up to 50% soil mc, and t4 – irrigate up to 70% soil mc) with the aid of an atmometer and soil moisture meter. pineapple (t4) has 72.7 cm high, 109.5 cm crown diameter with 25.7 leaves, and t4 has the most number of large size (126/179). pineapple production has a good return in terms of income, and roi, and has a short payback period compared with other commodities. with the application of supplemented irrigation water to upland and rolling production areas, the farmer’s income could increase with the right irrigation method for specific and selected crops to be raised. keywords: micro sprinkler, irrigation, double-row-triangular, bataan philippines 1. introduction climate change is a significant change in climate in the regions which is the result of careless human activities that were observed on common measurements like rainfall, temperature, and air. the philippines had excessive rainfall but was not uniformly distributed within the country. the unpredictable distribution results in runoff, flooding and soil erosion, and water deficit during the dry season. therefore, a need to impound part of excessive rainfall water for supplemental purposes during scarce water supply specifically for crop production. water system in the upland is one major problem in crop production because of irregular soil surface configuration and source of irrigation water. soil surface configuration is one factor in the selection of production area which includes water the major factor for crop production. because of this soil aspect, few areas are productive. in bataan province however crop are produced even in sloping and upland areas such as pineapple, cassava, sweet potato, banana, taro, and other high value crops. during the second quarter of 2020, the production of pineapple increased to 712.26 thousand metric tons or by 1.4 percent from 702.25 thousand metric tons in the same quarter of 2019. northern mindanao, which contributed 50.5 percent to the total production this quarter, was the top pineapple producer with 359.72 thousand metric tons. this was followed by soccsksargen with 184.41 thousand metric tons or 25.9 percent share (https://psa.gov.ph/fruits-crops-bulletin/pineapple). in bataan upland areas, pineapple were also produced. production of these crops relies on the rainfall occurrence for its irrigation without any other means of watering the plants. because of the unpredictable occurrence of rains, insurance of high production cannot be projected and it was not maximized. and when a small amount of rainfall, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 2 published by ideas spread surely losses for the farmer. however, if there is a source of irrigation water, proper irrigation method, and timing of application, maximum crop production will be expected. the main objective of the study was to establish the irrigation management of organic-based pineapple in sloping production areas, specifically: assessing the growth and yield of organically grown pineapple and evaluating the cost and economic returns of organically grown pineapple at different water management. application of irrigation water at the proper time will sustain the growth development of crops and giving all nutrient requirements of pineapple will result in high production. establishment of water management for pineapple, considering nutrient management and crop maintenance. the establishment of irrigation requirements and irrigation intervals for specific soil types for pineapple will increase the product quality resulting in increasing the income of the farmer. 2. methodology includes and present the materials used, the crop used in the study, the site identified, the preparation of the experimental area, data gathered and monitored, the experimental design, and data analysis. 2.1 conceptual framework the framework (figure 1) illustrated and discussed the input, process, and output of the study. the identified area was cleared, crop establishment, instrumentation, and organic materials for crop production including agroclimatic data to be used (inputs). during crop development, the pineapple was maintained through scheduled irrigation, fertilization, and pest management including the gathering of crop growth parameters. soil moisture was also monitored (process). as a result, there was established water management for pineapple production, growth parameters and yield, and economic benefit of the study (output). figure 1. conceptual framework 2.2 materials a. pressurized sprinkler and attachments. this was established to water the crops at specific conditions. sprinkler has 90 lph with 5.5-15.5 m wetted diameter. b. crops. pineapple was raised and produced using foliar organic fertilizer. c. hdpe pipe. this was laid out in the production area where irrigation equipment was established. d. soil moisture meter. used to measure and monitor the soil moisture for irrigation scheduling (figure 2). e. atmometer. use to measure the daily evapotranspiration of a specific crop (figure 2). f. pineapple sucker. planting material for production. g. foliar organic fertilizer. used as a nutrient supplement for crop production. crops was applied with foliar organic fertilizers every two weeks. h. automatic weather station. instrument where agro-climatic data are recorded and to be used for analysis specifically rainfall. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 3 published by ideas spread figure 2. moisture meter, sprinkler and atmometer 2.3 identified site upland and rolling area was identified within the campus for the study probably with 17%-30% slope for the agroforestry development. the area has more or less 1,200 square meter demonstration site located in the organic crop demonstration area, bpsu abucay. 2.4 crop production establishment the identified area was cleared. remove the vegetative covers through manual hoeing. pineapple was planted along the contour lines established in a triangular-double row at 0.5 m per plant and 1.0 m between double rows. the area was added with rice hull up to 5 cm thick after planting to reduce the occurrence of unwanted plants and serve as organic fertilizers upon decomposition. 2.5 crop management and maintenance the crop established was maintained. regular weeding was done including irrigation based on the crop water requirement and soil moisture content. pest and disease management was observed and control. two sprinklers (90 lph, 5.5-12.0 m wetted diameter) were established in every replication of pineapple treatment for 100 m2 per replication (figure 3). figure 3. watering (sprinkler irrigation) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 4 published by ideas spread 2.6 data gathered and collected data gathered and collected were depth of rainfall, soil moisture, irrigation volume and irrigation time, crop growth parameters, and yield. changes in soil physical and chemical properties were also observed. rainfall. it was collected every 8 am and 2 pm every day at the agromet station. soil moisture. it was measured, monitored, and recorded using a digital soil moisture meter at the depth of 10 cm. irrigation time and frequency. it was dependent on the atmometer reading every 10-day irrigation interval. growth parameters. height, number of leaves, and crown diameter were gathered and measured from the pineapple. yield. harvested pineapple based on sizes (extra small, small, medium, and large) and prices were recorded from each treatment. 2.7 experimental design and data analysis the compiled data from the study were analyzed (figure 4), statistical analysis for mean differences, and using ftest for the significance of the gathered data. economic analysis was presented using the cost and return analysis. layout: treatment 1, t1 – no irrigation treatment 2, t2 – irrigate up to 30% soil mc treatment 3, t3 – irrigate up to 50% soil mc treatment 4, t4 – irrigate up to 70% soil mc figure 4. experimental layout 3. result and discussion 3.1 rainfall the area has two distinct seasons, dry season which starts from november to may, and the rainy season from june to october of year. table 1 illustrated the depth of rainfall in bpsu-aws station from july – december 2020, january – december 2021 and january – june 2022. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 5 published by ideas spread table 1. rainfall depth (mm) during the study period 3.2 growth and yield performances in the production of pineapple (sweet cayenne), the evapotranspiration reading from atmometer (figure 7) was the basis for irrigation including the soil moisture level using a soil moisture meter. the daily evapotranspiration rate was from 1.0 mm/day to 6.0 mm/day. pineapple has more than 72.7 cm average height and has a wider crown diameter (treatment 4), however it has 26 least number of leaves (table 7). the harvested pineapple has extra small (xs – 6.3 cm height and 4.8 cm diameter), small (s – 7.3 cm height and 5.5 cm diameter), medium (m – 8.1 cm height and 5.8 cm diameter), and large (l – 8.8 cm height and 5.9 cm diameter). the percentages of pineapple harvested in terms of sizes were 13.2, 24.0, 27.1, and 35.6 for xs, s, m, and l, respectively. on the other hand, in terms of production per treatment were 19.0, 30.6, 20.6, and 29.7 for treatment 1, treatment 2, treatment 3, and treatment 4, respectively (table 8). figure 7. atmometer reading in pineapple area as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 6 published by ideas spread table 7. growth performance of pineapple table 8. yield performance of pineapple 3.3 cost and benefit initial cost covered the materials which includes irrigation facilities like pe pipes, sprinklers, valves, filters, etc. depreciation, interest on investment, repair, and maintenance were included in the fixed cost while variable costs were farm inputs and labor costs for crop production. gross income (table 4) comes from sales of different crops. pineapple has higher roi because of high demand sales of products due to supply and demand. table 4. cost and benefit analysis 4. summary and conclusion in the production of pineapple, the evapotranspiration reading from the atmometer was the basis for irrigation including the soil moisture level. the daily evapotranspiration rate was from 1.0 mm/day to 6.0 mm/day. pineapple has more than 72.7 cm average height and has a wider crown diameter (treatment 4), however it has 26 least as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 7 published by ideas spread number of leaves. the harvested pineapple fruit has extra small (xs – 6.3 cm height and 4.8 cm diameter), small (s – 7.3 cm height and 5.5 cm diameter), medium (m – 8.1 cm height and 5.8 cm diameter), and large (l – 8.8 cm height and 5.9 cm diameter). the percentages of pineapple harvested in terms of sizes were 13.2, 24.0, 27.1, and 35.6 for xs, s, m, and l, respectively. on the other hand, in terms of production per treatment were 19.0, 30.6, 20.6, and 29.7 for treatment 1, treatment 2, treatment 3 and treatment 4, respectively. initial cost covered which includes irrigation materials like pe pipes, sprinklers, valves, filters, etc. depreciation, interest on investment, repair, and maintenance were included in the fixed cost while variable costs were farm inputs and labor costs for crop production. recommendation crop production in the upland rolling area crop considers elevation, land configuration, weather data, crop characteristics and planting materials, farmer’s management, planting method, and timing of planting/transplanting. pineapple has better yield as long regular maintenance like weeding, regular application of foliar organic fertilizers, and monitoring of et, especially during the season for proper timing of supplemented irrigation water. references arcelo, m. m. (2020). production guide for pineapple. retrieved sept 29, 2020, from http://bpi.da.gov.ph/bpi/images/production_guide /pdf/pineapple%20.pdf business diary ph. (2018). sweet potato production guide. retrieved november 10, 2020, from https://businessdiary.com.ph/4609/sweet-potato-production-guide/ clarrdec farm primer. (2001). pagtatanim ng gabi. clarrdec – clsu, science city of muñoz, nueva ecija. issn 1655-2202 onwueme, i. (1999). taro cultivation in asia and the asia pacific. food and agriculture organization. fao – rap publication. retrieved november 15, 2020, from http://www.fao.org/3/ac450e/ ac450e04.htm# topofpage. pcaarrd information bulletin no. 290/2012. (2008). sweet potato production. institute of plant breeding, crop science cluster, college of agriculture. up los baños, laguna. pcaarrd information bulletin no. 75/2016. (2016). pineapple – science and technology based smooth cayenne production in bataan and aurora. pcaard – dost, los baños, laguna. issn 0116-7736. philippine council for agriculture and resources research and development. (1998). philippine recommends for irrigation management for crop diversification. pcarrd technical bulletin series no. 83. national science and technology authority and the bureau of soils. los baños, laguna, philippines. rashmi dr, raghu n, gopenath ts, pradeep palanisamy, pugazhandhi, bakthavatchalam, … kanthesh m basalingappa (2018). taro (colocasia esculenta) : an overview. journal of medicinal plants studies, 6(4), 156-161. retrieved november 15, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 330397951_taro_colocasia_esculenta_an_overview reddy, j. (2015). pineapple farming cultivation and techniques – a full guide. retrieved november 10, 2020, from https://www.agrifarming.in/pineapple-farming reddy, j. (2015). sweet potato farming information guide. retrieved november 10, 2020, from https://www.agrifarming.in/sweet-potato-farming villamayor jr., f. g., & amante, v. dr. (2000). sweet potato in the upland agroecology of the philippines. chapter 3. sweet potato in tropical asia by rasco, jr. e. t. and amante, v. dr. book series no. 171, 2000. pcarrd – dost. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p24 24 published by ideas spread agronomic performance of madre de agua (trichantera gigantean nees) under upland area in abucay, bataan abigail g. abuan1, christian m. balba1, larry g. nonan jr.1, cherlyn u. gripo1, hermogenes m. paguia1, gregorio j. rodis1 & jovert m. balba1 1 bataan peninsula state university, abucay campus, abucay, bataan, philippines correspondence: abigail g. abuan, college of agriculture, abucay campus, abucay, bataan 2114, philippines. tel: 63-0909-207-3975. e-mail: abigailabuan@gmail.com received: may 12, 2022 accepted: may 23, 2022 online published: september 9, 2022 the research is funded by the bataan peninsula state university research and development office central as internal funding source. abstract madre de agua (trichantera gigantean nees) is forage and considered a multiple purpose tree species used for ruminants and poultry animals with a good potential source of protein and contain good amino acid. few studies were conducted in terms of the agronomic characteristics of the madre de agua prior to utilization as feeds and most studies conducted were mainly conducted to feed monogastric animals. the study intends to produce data for the agronomic characteristics of madre de agua as planted and produces a shaded portion of the upland area in bpsu abucay campus, abucay, bataan. the following parameters were gathered; plant height, leaf to stem ratio, herbage yield, and dry matter yield and soil analysis. moreover, the following baseline data were used: the area with an elevation of 141.1 feet above sea level with an average rainfall of 296.45mm and temperature ranges from 26oc to 30oc during the duration of the study. fertilizer requirements are based on the result of bswm soil analysis (30g/tree ammonium phosphate, 169g/tree urea, and 4kg/tree organic fertilizer) applied during and after transplanting with adequate irrigation. the study was carried out using systematic random sampling for plants. the result of agronomic characteristics in upland conditions showed that the average plant height of madre de agua was 110.50 cm, leaf to stem ratio was 65.82%/34.18% per plant, herbage yield was 556.50 grams per plant, dry matter yield (oven dry) was 87.57% per plant. the established area for the production of the madre de agua will be utilized to provide a continuous source of feed to small ruminants and other monogastric species for future research in animal production. keywords: nutrition, feeding, forages, herbage yield, dry matter 1. introduction 1.1 introduce the problem feeding management is one of the most important aspect need to prioritize by growers in order to increase and sustain the productivity of small ruminants. inadequate supply of roughage and source of planting materials are not locally available especially during dry season from which there is subsequent increase of forage scarce in feeding animals. one of the project directed of bureau of animal industry was to introduce madre de agua in feeding animals specifically in pigs. however, there is a need to conduct a research to further support the development and utilization of this roughage as feed stuff for small ruminants. madre de agua (trichantera gigantean nees) is a fodder tree also known as nacedero which was introduced in the philippines some years ago from latin america (columbia and venezuela) and adapts well in local tropical conditions. it is used as fodder for pigs, rabbits and ruminants (heuze et. al, 2016). the leaves of madre de agua are good sources of protein with varying level from 13 to 22% in dry matter form and apparently most of the protein content is considered as true protein and contain good amino acid balance (rosales, et al.,1999 and rosales, 1997). generally, the study aimed to evaluate agronomic performance of madre de agua under upland area in abucay, bataan. specifically, it aimed to determine these parameters: plant height, leaf to stem ratio, herbage yield and dry matter yield, and soil analysis for fertilizer application. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 25 published by ideas spread 2. method 2.1 propagation of cuttings planting materials of madre de agua were purchased from farmer in arayat, pampanga. the cuttings measured at 6-8 inches with 3 nodes ideal as planting materials. cuttings were grown in a plastic bag (10 inches’ x 6 inches) and grew for one (1) month prior transplanting in the field to acclimatized from stress incurred during transportation and the heavy rains during its adaptation period. 2.2 land preparation and transplantation an approximately 2000 square meter of underdeveloped area was cleaned and prepared as an experimental area for production of madre de agua. the area was cleaned, plowed and harrowed using a hand tractor for ease management. three months old seedlings are plated in auger-dug holes with furrow distance of 1.0 meter by 1.0 meter between plants. a total of 2000 planting materials were grown in between furrows to ensure that plants received enough supply of water in the absence of rainfall to keep the soil moisture. 2.3 experimental site the area of production for madre de agua were located at the vicinity of bataan peninsula state university abucay campus, abucay, bataan. the area was located at 14°44’n, 120°32’e, in the north-eastern section of the bataan peninsula with an agro climatic condition classified as tropical. during most months of the year, there is significant rainfall and a short dry season. the climate is classified as ante meridiem (am) by the koppen-geiger system. the temperature average from 27.5 °c and about 2852 mm of precipitation falls annually. bataan has distinct dry and wet seasons categorized as type i in the coronas system. the dry season begins in november and end in april while the rainy season starts in may and ends in october. 2.4 fertilizer application fertilizer applied was based from the results obtained from bureau of soil and water management (bswm), philippines after subjecting samples of soils are as follows:4 kg/tree basal application, 30g/tree ammonium phosphate and 169g/tree urea mixed and applied one month after transplanting. 2.5 harvesting harvesting was done 6 months after transplanting. the height of the sample plants, weight of the stems and leaves were measured and recorded and pruned 100 cm from the soil surface. the herbage consisting of leaves (including petioles) and edible twigs were harvested from individual plants. the leaves and stems were separated, weighed and recorded. after cutting, the separated leaves and stems were wrapped in old newspapers and air-dried in an oven at 85°c for 48hours. the dried samples were weighed individually and data were recorded. the plants were allowed to re-grow up to the time of next cutting. 2.6 sampling procedures the study was carried out using systematic random sampling for plants. a total of 167 sample plants was identified using slovin’s formula and provided with individual tags for identification. 2.7 research design descriptive method was used as research design for the study. all the data for agronomic performance were described and presented. 3. results 3.1 statistics and data analysis all the data for agronomic performance of madre de agua was subjected to descriptive analysis presented in tabular and graphical. table 1. average leaf to stem ration, average herbage yield and average dry matter yield. the average leaf to stem ratio, average herbage yield and average dry matter yield. parameters values average plant height (cm) 0.50 cm (6 months from transplanting to harvesting average leaf to stem ratio 65.82%/34.18% average herbage yield average dry matter yield 556.50 grams 87.57% as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 26 published by ideas spread the average plant height which was 110.50 cm (6 months from transplanting to harvesting) and 164.09 cm (3 months after harvesting), average leaf to stem ratio was 65.82%/ 34.18% per plant and the average herbage yield was 556.50 grams per plant. chemical analysis of madre de agua leaf meal from study of a.f.jaya et al., 2008 contained 88.44% dry matter, 18.21% crude protein, 12.5% crude fiber, 2.66% crude fat, 21.80% ash, 11.56% moisture, 5% calcium,0.41% total phosphorus and 2, 983 kcal/kg gross energy. the average dry matter yield (oven dry) was 87.57%, the result of the study conformed to a.f.jaya et al., 2008 that madre de agua leaf meal contained 88.44% dry matter. a total biomass production for both fresh leaves and stems is 1,112 kg harvested for 2,000 square meter of established madre de agua production area. 4. discussion average plant height presented in figure 1, the average plant height of madre de agua plants for six months during wet season. after a month, shoots were approximately 37.6 cm in height, which continuously followed by 44.5 cm, 49.5 cm, 604 cm, 72.2 cm and 110.5 cm was observed during the six months’ study period. a slow growth was observed during second to five months with an average increment of 6.9 cm, 5 cm, 10.9 cm and 11.8 cm, respectively and increased at six months with 38.3 cm average height per plant. figure 1. average plant height (cm) of madre de agua according to cipav (1996), the ideal height at cutting of madre de agua is 1.0 m at the age of 8 to 10 months. the result of the average plant height in the study of 110.50 cm or 1.105 m conforms with the standard cutting height considering the madre de agua was harvested in 6 months of age after transplanting. plant height (ph) derived during the wet season supported the importance of moisture on agronomic characteristics and the location of the production was shaded which greatly influence as this forage species perform well at the shaded area. leaf to stem ratio based from the above table, the leaf and stem ratio of madre de agua is 65.82%/ 34.18% which a good indication of good quality source of feed for animals. leaf to stem ratio is considered as an important parameter in determining agronomic characteristics. leaf to stem ratio describes the quality, diet selection and forage intake. leaf to stem ratio in legumes is valuable because the leaves are metabolic organs while the quality of stems are largely affected by their structural function (tarigan and ginting, 2012). relative increase in leaf area over time is importantly described as the leaves are the part where the protein content of leguminous trees is concentrated and the leaf to stem ratio reflects a maximized nutrient content (waters et al., 2010). herbage yield as shown in table 1, herbage yield of madre de agua composed of fresh and stem was 556.50 grams and equivalent to 1,112 kg biomass harvested from 2,000 square meter of land under upland condition. the locale was 37.6 44.5 49.5 60.4 72.2 110.50 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 pl an t he ig ht month average plant height (cm) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 27 published by ideas spread the madre de agua was planted was surrounded by old trees that serves and provides a source of shade to multiple tree species were they are considered as shade loving tree and most productive under shade than in full-light does better for instance under leucaena or banana shade (cook et al., 2005; rosales, 1997). herbage yield depends primarily on leaf and stem formation which were both affected by cell division and elongation. the herbage yield was mainly dependent on the factors that promote cell division and elongation zones as sites of high metabolic activity to sustain high herbage production and biomass accumulation (abdullah and suharlina, 2010). dry matter yield as presented in table 1 was the dry matter yield of the madre de agua which value is 87.57% that may provide a measure of the amount required to supply the amount of nutrients needed by the animals for the maintenance, growth, development and reproduction. dry matter is an important indicator to measure the amount of nutrients that are available to the animal in a particular feed. dry matter yield is a parameter required for agronomic characterization in a particular crop, forage or roughage. environmental and weather conditions greatly affect the amount of moisture content in feeds which directly upset the dry matter content of forage or roughage. based on findings, the study limits to gather data in comparison of performance of madre de agua for wet and dry season. the production of madre de agua under upland condition produced agronomic characteristics as start-up for production as fodder in feeding goats, other ruminants and poultry species. it is recommended to conduct further study for agronomic performance to evaluate the production in wet and dry season, fertilizer application, cutting intervals to measure the growth during harvest period sufficient and available to feed the animals. acknowledgments the authors are pleasingly thankful to bpsu research and development office for funding the study and the staff whom devote their time and effort to grow the animals and manage the madre de agua production; and to the anonymous reviewers who provided constructive comments for the improvement of the manuscript. references: abdullah, l., & suharlina, (2010). herbage yield and quality of two vegetative parts of indigofera at different times of first regrowth defoliation. med. pet., 33(1), 44–49. https://doi.org/10.5398/medpet.2010.33.3.169 association of official chemists official methods of analysis (18th ed) (2011). crude protein in animal feed, forage, grain, and oilseeds. block digestion method using copper catalyst and steam distillation into boric acid. pdf. retrieved june 10, 2014 from http://img.21food.cn/img/biaozhun/20100108/177/11285182.pdf. bureau of animal industry. trichantera gigantean. publication. department of agriculture, diliman, quezon city. cook, b. g., pengelly, b. c., brown, s. d., donnelly, j. l., eagles, d. a., franco, m. a., … schultze-kraft, r., (2005). tropical forages. csiro, dpi&f(qld), ciat and ilri, brisbane, australia. heuzé v.,tran g., boudon a., & bastianelli d. (2016). nacedero (trichanthera gigantea). feedipedia, a program by inra, cirad, afz and fao. retrieved february 25, 2016, from http://www.feedipedia.org/node/7270 jaya, a. f.,soriano, m. i. i, valladaro, d. m., intong, r. i., & carpentero, b. b. (2008). utilization of madre de agua (trichanthera gigantean var. guianensis) leaf meal as feed for growing-finishing pigs. philippine journal of veterinary and animal sciences. kearl, l. c. (1982). nutrient requirements of ruminants in developing countries. international feedstuffs inst., logan, ut (usa), 1982, 381. accession no: 233404, isbn 0-87421-116-6 rosales, m., & rios, c. i. (1999). research into variation in nutritive value of provenances of trichanthera gigantea. in: conf. electr. fao agroforestería para la producción animal en latinoamérica. rosales, m. (1997). trichanthera gigantea (humboldt & bonpland.) nees: a review. livest. res. rural dev., 9(4). tarigan, a., abdullah, l., ginting, s. p., & permana, i. g. (2010). productivity, nutritional composition and in vitro digestibility of indigofera sp at different interval and intensity of defoliations. indonesian j. anim. vet. sci. (jitv), 15(3), 188-195. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 28 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p112 112 published by ideas spread value stream analysis of fresh-cut vegetables in bangladesh shakila salam1, mousumi saha1 & mahmuda nasrin2 1 institute of agribusiness and development studies, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh 2 department of agricultural economics, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh correspondence: shakila salam, institute of agribusiness and development studies, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh. tel: 880-179-057-2293. e-mail: shampa.bau@gmail.com received: july 1, 2020 accepted: july 13, 2020 online published: august 4, 2020 the research is financed by university grants commission of bangladesh (ugc). abstract fresh-cut vegetable is a value added product and its demand shows remarkable growth tendency in bangladesh. the study specifically examined the roles of value chain actors, value addition through marketing system and evaluating prospects of fresh-cut vegetables. data obtained from a total of 103 vegetable customers (from dhaka city), 10 outlet managers of shwapno supermarket (from dhaka city), 20 vegetable growers and 35 marketing intermediaries by using purposive sampling technique. among available fresh-cut vegetables, 5 vegetables named taro root, amaranth stem, taro root stem, green pea and bean seed are considered in this study. using marketing margin and value added models; the results indicate that each actor along the value chain starting from farmer to retailer (supermarket) added a significant amount of value. processor and supermarket added highest value among all selected fresh-cut vegetables’ value chain actors. there is enough scope to develop specific channel for freshcut vegetable marketing. moreover, the evaluation results of swot analysis accurately reflected the fresh-cut vegetable market situation which made it possible to assess the potentiality and identify strategies for development of this market in bangladesh. keywords: fresh-cut vegetables, value chain; supermarket, swot analysis, bangladesh 1. introduction the concept of fresh-cut produce is mostly common in developed countries, but also not too primitive in the context of bangladesh. at present, developing country’s consumers get more concerned about the nutritional and sensory aspect as well as the safety of the food they eat due to growing health awareness (da costa et al., 2000; quadri et al., 2015). with growing consumer demand for ready-to-eat products in asian countries, bangladesh is also likely to show a continuous growth trend for more convenience, fresh, nutritious, and safe fresh-cut products. customer demand for these attributes has indeed, led to considerable innovation and diversification in the freshcut industry. "fresh-cut" indicates to raw vegetables and fruits that have been cut, shredded, peeled, abraded, or otherwise prepared to produce convenient ready-to-eat or ready-to-cook portions (brecht et al., 2004). the international fresh-cut produce association (ifpa) defines fresh-cut produce as ‘any fresh fruit or vegetable or any combination thereof that has been physically altered from its original form, but remains in a fresh state’ (qadri et al., 2015). as vegetables and fruits in our daily diet are the major sources of important antioxidants, maximum utilizations through proper fresh-cut processing of vegetables and fruits are highly desirable. international food and policy research institute (ifpri) shows in research that during 2011-12 to 2015 average bangladeshis have increased fruits and vegetable intake; fruits 35 g from 10 g, leafy vegetable 41 g from 38 g (khan, 2020) and this change in diet is making us optimistic. though fresh-cut fruits and vegetables marketing has started in bangladesh just in a recent past, anticipate that it has considerable rapid growth potential like many other developing and developed countries. united kingdom is now in the top position in europe based on fresh-cut fruits and vegetable sales (eur 1.1 billion), while per capita spending on fresh-cut produces is highest in case of switzerland and netherland (fao, 2010; rabobank, 2009). with decreasing income level, the probability of consuming fresh-cut produces also decreased in usa (sonti, 2003). fresh-cut products market in thailand and vietnam shows a persistent growth tendency (fao, 2010). besides, fresh-cut vegetables command a larger market share than fresh-cut fruits in regular and upscale as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 113 published by ideas spread supermarkets of thailand where price of fresh-cut produce was higher than that of intact fresh produce (sanguanpuag et al., 2007). fresh-cut vegetables are only available at the supermarkets of bangladesh, even not all supermarkets. not only people in higher income bracket, but also people in mid income level have become the customers of supermarkets. currently, around 30 companies operate about 200 supermarkets in bangladesh where annual turnover in food items is estimated at about 2 percent of food retailing (hussain & leishman, 2013). among them, some largest supermarkets named shwapno, agora, meena bazar preliminary started to market fresh-cut produces. normally, they make these produces available only some largest outlets in the big cities like dhaka, chittagong, cumilla, etc. different types of fresh-cut vegetables like mixed vegetables, carrots (shredded, sticks, peeled), broccoli and cauliflower, capsicum, amaranth stem, onions (sliced, whole peeled), taro root, taro root stems, bitter gourd, green jackfruit, jackfruit seed, bean seed and green pea are available at different supermarkets of bangladesh. value-added can be almost anything that enhances the dimensions of a business. the key is that the value-adding activity must increase or stabilize profit margins, and the output must appeal to the consumer (aafc, 2004). still now, vegetable farmers have no influence in product pricing rather they are strongly managed and monopolized by giant traders, wholesalers, and retailer syndicate and they take the profitability and preference of farmers (karim and biswas, 2016). but farmers in bangladesh cannot avoid intermediaries’ for shifting their product to market. generally, vegetable producers in bangladesh hardly get the fair price for their produce, whereas city dwellers have to pay double, triple, sometimes even much more to meet their vegetable needs (jamaluddin, 2017). choice of fresh vegetables is often not influenced by the price of an individual item (owen et al. 2002), when these vegetables reach at the final consumer hand at a fresh, convenient, easy-to-use format with minimal wastage, it pose more value to him/her. fresh-cut vegetable is a more value added product as it’s an innovation that enhances or improves the existing product, or introduces new perspective or new uses. this allows creating new markets, or differentiating the product from others and thus gaining an advantage over competitors. as a new evolved concept in the context of bangladesh, literature on fresh-cut vegetable is hardly available. sporadic information that is available on other countries is mostly very specific and incomplete in nature. wiryawan and djatna (2020) conducted a study on value chain and sustainability analysis of fresh-cut vegetable at sss co., indonesian, where value chain analysis measured by green value stream mapping. they selected three competitive products namely bell peppers, lettuce head, and broccoli for this analysis. the result of value chain analysis indicated that the environmental impact was less than the productivity level of those competitive products. the sustainability analysis of fresh-cut vegetable in aggregated multidimensional scale showed that the fresh-cut vegetable agro-industry had “enough sustainable” status. reddy et al. (2010) examined the growth and performance of modern retailing of fresh vegetables and fruits and its impact on traditional retailers in andhra pradesh, india. the study indicated that the number of players is less in modern retailing than in the traditional retailing. in the traditional value chain, only 10.8% of the gross value added by the traditional retailer, whereas highest percentage of the value (38%) held by supermarkets in modern retailing. different forms of value additions also identified by the modern retailing system in this study like minimally process items which is closer to the final consumer product (e.g., fresh-cut vegetables and ready-to-eat salad mixes). this study concluded that the emergence of modern retail chains created new food value chains which helped in reduction of price and production risks and thereby increased returns from farming. therefore, it is essential to provide information about this modern retailing of vegetables through supermarkets and its value additions in the context of bangladesh. besides, investors/supermarkets have keen interest to know future prospect and constraints of fresh-cut vegetable, and find out the environment to increase its demand tremendously as marketing of this produce has been started recently at supermarkets in bangladesh. customers are not always fully satisfied due to higher price where extra value addition than the traditional vegetable marketing might be responsible for this (salam et al. 2020). though the demand for fresh-cut items is gradually increasing in bangladesh, yet there has not been any research available on the fresh-cut vegetable topic. therefore, identifying the existing value chain used in the fresh-cut vegetables helps to determine the market problems and reduce the unwanted cost in the value chain. as a consequence, farmer can get the maximum value of their products and customers can get fresh-cut vegetables at lower prices. this study attempts to explain the fresh-cut vegetables value stream analysis through the value chain map that will provide a way to identify the intermediaries’ contribution in value addition, causes of higher price, and to improve efficiency. present situation and future prospect of fresh-cut vegetables business venture are also evaluated through swot analysis. the findings will help to make appropriate marketing strategy and pricing policy of vegetables in bangladesh. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 114 published by ideas spread 2. method 2.1 data sources due to wider availability of fresh-cut items, shwapno supermarket was chosen among the top most supermarkets where fresh-cut vegetables are only available to sell (shwapno, agora and meena bazar). among available fresh-cut vegetables, 5 different vegetables named taro root, amaranth stem, taro root stem, green pea and bean seed are considered in this study. these 5 types of fresh-cut vegetables are the only fresh-cut forms those are processed in outside of the supermarkets by suppliers/processors. generally, processors purchase these vegetables from the local wholesale market of dhaka, process these in their vendors and supply to the supermarkets. therefore, besides supermarket and processors, all intermediaries involved in the vegetables marketing (from producer points to the dhaka wholesale markets) are also included in the value chain analysis of the present study. this study followed a key informant interview (kii) and questionnaire survey for data collection. a set of questionnaires was prepared for farmers, marketing intermediaries, outlet managers of shwapno, and customers. the process was fully participatory through ensuring involvement of 103 vegetable customers (from dhaka city), 10 outlet managers of shwapno supermarket (from dhaka city), 20 vegetable growers/farmers and 35 marketing intermediaries (4 farias, 14 beparies, 16 wholesalers and 1 processor/supplier) by using purposive sampling technique. considering the availability and huge production of selected fresh-cut vegetables in bogura and naogaon districts, vegetable growers were sampled from these 2 districts of bangladesh. primarily, fresh-cut vegetable supply chain from bogura and naogaon towards dhaka was set as an investigation chain in order to develop a general understanding on the research objectives. data were collected during the period from august 2018 to march 2019. additionally, secondary data were collected from relevant websites, articles, research papers and journals on e-commerce, text books of related topics, and annual reports. 2.2 data processing and analysis collected data were sorted and arranged in order to perform further study and analysis. for analyzing the data, a combination of descriptive, statistical and mathematical techniques was used to achieve the objectives. data were arranged by using graphs, tables and flowcharts. future prospect and current situation of fresh-cut vegetables business were analyzed through swot analysis. 2.2.1 marketing margin and value addition the marketing margin and value addition of different value chain actors were estimated by the following formula: marketing margin= sales price – purchase price value addition (%) = 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒−𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑥 100 2.2.2 external and internal factors evaluation matrices following ommani (2011), external factors evaluation (efe) matrix and internal factors evaluation (ife) matrix processes used five steps: 1. list factors: the first step is to gather a list of external factors and divide them into two groups: opportunities and threats. 2. assign weights: weight is assigned to each factor. the value of each weight should be between 0 and 1. 0 means the factor is not important, while 1 means the factor is the most influential and critical. however, the total value of all weights put together should equal 1. 3. rate factors: rating is assigned to each factor, and is between 1 and 4. rating indicates how effective the firm’s current strategies respond to the factor. for example, in case of efe, rating captures whether the factor represents a major threat (rating = 1), a minor threat (rating = 2), a minor opportunity (rating = 3), or a major opportunity (rating = 4). if rating scale 1 to 4 is used, then strengths must receive a 4 or 3 rating and weaknesses must receive a 1 or 2 rating. 4. multiply weights by ratings: multiply each factor weight with its rating in order to calculate its weighted score. 5. total weighted scores: add all the weighted scores of each factor, in order to calculate the company’s total weighted score. regardless of how many factors are included in an efe or ife matrices, the total weighted score can range from 1.0 to 4.0 where average score is 2.5. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 115 published by ideas spread 3. results and discussions 3.1 value chain map of fresh-cut vegetables the value chain map shows the movement of the vegetables through marketing channel and identifies the actors and their activities (karim and biswas, 2016). flowchart 1 identifies the existing major distribution channels of fresh-cut vegetables in bangladesh which has started from the farmer and ended at consumers through following different marketing channels. flowchart 1: value chain of fresh-cut vegetables in bangladesh note: for the selected fresh-cut vegetable items, supermarkets used only channel i based on the flowchart 1, three distribution channels are identified through which market actors formed value chain. channel i is the most important path as used widely as the main channel for selected five fresh-cut vegetable marketing in bangladesh. most of the supermarkets that marketed these fresh-cut vegetable (like shwapno, meena bazar) are following this same channel. though supermarkets have direct channel to collect some raw vegetables from their contract farmers like modern retailing system (reddy, et al., 2010), they do not have any such channel for selected fresh-cut items; traditional marketing system for collecting these items have been used till now. as a newly introduced item in the customer cart, the demand of fresh-cut vegetable is not stable. due to this risk and uncertainty, they do not make full-time contact with the producers of these vegetables. however, distinct market actors named faria, beparies, wholesalers, processors/suppliers and retailers (supermarket) are involved in this value chain. the actors of this channel are: farmer: as selected vegetables are widely cultivated in bogura and naogaon, growers from these districts have been identified as farmer in this value chain. they produce taro root, amaranth stem, taro root stem, green pea, bean, and bring their product to sell in their local market. in some cases, farias and beparies come to their farm gate to purchase and collect the product. the productions of these vegetables differ from season to season. the farmer sold 93%, 84%, 91%, 94% and 95% of taro root, amaranth stem, pea, bean and taro root stem to the local wholesaler (faria and bepari), respectively and the remaining in the local retail market. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 116 published by ideas spread faria: farias are rural traders who purchase vegetables at small scale from farmers either in farm gate or from local market and sell these vegetable to beparies. in this study, involvement of faria is only found in amaranth stem supply chain where they made a market margin of 7.32% (figure 1). bepari: beparies purchase vegetables from faria or directly from the farmers and transport them to the central wholesale markets located at karwan bazar for urban consumption. they made a market margin of 11.43% to 24.39% (figure 1) in the present study. wholesaler: wholesalers are located centrally and purchased the selected vegetables through berpari. in some cases, they also directly purchase vegetables from farmers through prior contract basis. processor of fresh-cut vegetables and supermarkets directly purchase vegetables from them. figure 1 indicates that wholesaler made a market margin of 15.66% to 29.27%. processors/suppliers: “trading bangladesh worldwide” is associated with this marketing channel as processor/supplier of fresh-cut vegetables. the job of this organization is to collect selected vegetable items from wholesalers at karwan bazar, dhaka, process these in their own vendor and supply these to the supermarket's central zone/branch as fresh-cut form. they made a market margin of 17.14% to 32.94% (figure 1). supermarket: in this study, supermarkets act as retailer of fresh-cut vegetables. figure 1 shows that supermarket made a market margin of 19.51% to 51.43%. figure 1. marketing margin (in percentage) of different market actors in fresh-cut vegetable marketing besides processor’s supply, some vegetable items those are collected from wholesale market to sell in the supermarket as raw form are also processed in the outlets as fresh-cut vegetables like mixed vegetable, sliced capsicum, brinjal and cucumber, chopped bitter gourd, cauliflower and cabbage, unshelled green papaya etc. this procedure is indicated as channel ii (in flowchart 1) which is also partially used to distribute products. shwapno supermarket also maintained another channel for collecting their fresh and hygiene raw vegetable under channel iii. a project named “suddho” collected vegetables from their contract farmers following their recommended guideline for production process and then like channel ii, some of these collected vegetable are processed in the outlets as fresh-cut vegetables. about 21 items of fruits and vegetables are supplied in shwapno supermarket by the contract farmer. at present, 65 percent of shwapno fresh produce is procured directly from source (ahmed, 2018). contract farmers were maintained organic practices and it is the minor channel for fresh-cut vegetable marketing. 3.2 value addition by different market actors following bar diagram (figure 2) depicts value addition of different market actors in fresh-cut vegetable marketing. the study reveals that among selected fresh-cut vegetables, farias are only involved in amaranth stem marketing where they added around 18 percent of the product value. beparies sold the vegetables by price bargaining with wholesalers at karwan bazar and got their margin. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 117 published by ideas spread figure 2. value addition (in percentage) by different market actors in fresh-cut vegetable marketing among all market actors, the beparies added lowest value (17.39%) in taro root stem but added highest value (55.56%) in bean seed and second highest value (41.67%) in taro root among these selected vegetables value chains. around 26% to 35% value of each fresh-cut vegetable has increased by the wholesalers, and among all selected vegetables, highest (35.29%) added value is of taro root (figure 2). processing follows wholesaling, then supermarkets sell the processed vegetables to the customer at higher price. processors process (peeling, slicing, shredding, trimming, washing and packaging) fresh vegetables according to supermarket demand. depicted diagram (figure 2) asserts that a great portion, about 45 percent value of bean seed and green pea have risen by the processors. before moving the product to the ultimate consumers’ hand, final value addition is done by the retailer (supermarket), where highest (45%) value addition has noticed in case of taro root stem and lowest (14%) is of taro root. 3.3 swot analysis of fresh-cut vegetable market to gain insights into the past and think of possible solutions to existing or potential problems (either for an existing business or for a new one), a swot analysis is beneficial for business owners or managers (usda, 2008; nouri et al., 2008; ommani, 2011). swot analysis involves specifying the objective of the fresh-cut vegetable business venture and identifying the internal and external factors that are favorable and unfavorable to achieving that objective. it provides analysis and interpretations of different aspects of fresh-cut vegetable market in bangladesh in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. 3.3.1 external factors evaluation (efe) matrix efe matrix is the first part of the swot analysis where outside own business environments are evaluated that we cannot control but can manage (enhance or reduce) their impact on own business. for assessing the current business conditions by visualizing and prioritizing the opportunities and threats, strategic-management tool like efe is often used. according to the stakeholders’ idea, each item was evaluated and then ranked (table 1). this table indicates that increasing income level and purchasing power of people, women employment, positive customer attitudes and demand got the higher weight in the opportunity of fresh-cut vegetables in bangladesh. however, major portion of population in bangladesh are habituated to traditional food consumption pattern and thought purchasing of fresh-cut vegetable at a higher price is just wastage of money. as it is a new concept in the context of bangladesh, all peoples are not interested to purchase and assume all the items are spoiled and wastage product. besides, customers’ purchasing nature of fresh-cut items is not stable. therefore, a supermarket has to face unstable demand which implies huge wastage of the products and ultimately great financial loss for the supermarkets which causes reluctance to introduce new items in the fresh-cut section. this type of customer psychology and unstable purchasing behavior pose great threats for fresh-cut vegetable industry in bangladesh. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 118 published by ideas spread the total weighted score of the external factors is found 2.63 for fresh-cut vegetable industry (table 1) which indicates that the fresh-cut business has above than average ability to respond to external factors. table 1. external factors evaluation (efe) matrix of fresh-cut vegetables external factor weight rating weighted score o pp or tu ni tie s expansion of women employment opportunities 0.09 3 0.27 increasing income level and purchasing power of people 0.10 4 0.40 positive customer attitudes and demand help to expand market span outside supermarket 0.08 4 0.32 the increasing information and new technology 0.07 3 0.21 consumer demanded more items as fresh-cut 0.09 3 0.27 export facilities help to develop fresh-cut indigenous vegetable market in international arena 0.04 3 0.12 health consciousness of the people 0.06 4 0.24 total 0.53 1.83 th re at s unstable demand 0.10 2 0.20 consumer habit and mentality 0.09 2 0.18 high cost of processing materials 0.07 2 0.14 price fluctuations in vegetable market 0.08 1 0.08 risk of new competitors 0.07 2 0.14 marketing risk 0.06 1 0.06 total 0.47 0.80 total weighted score 1.00 2.63 3.3.2 internal factor evaluation (ife) matrix internal factor evaluation (ife) matrix is a strategic management tool used for evaluating own business’s strengths and weaknesses in functional areas. based on the stakeholders’ idea, each item was evaluated and then ranked (table 2). preparation of vegetables (peeling, shredding, cutting, washing, etc.) for cooking is not hassle-free and time consuming. moreover, women who are involved in outside economic activities have less time for cooking purposes. fresh-cut vegetable items aid them as it requires less time to cook and it is easy to cook. therefore, nature of the fresh-cut product exerted top most strength following quality, hygiene and wastage reduction at household (table 2). in fresh-cut vegetable business, the total weighted score of the internal factors is found 2.53 (table 2) which depicts that the fresh-cut business is slightly above average in its overall internal strength. table 2. internal factors evaluation (ife) matrix of fresh-cut vegetables internal factor weight rating weighted score st re ng th nature of the product (less time consuming, easy to cook) 0.10 4 0.40 quality of the product 0.10 3 0.30 maintaining hygiene 0.10 3 0.30 reducing wastage at household level 0.08 4 0.32 employment opportunities creation 0.07 3 0.21 branding 0.07 3 0.21 total 0.52 1.74 w ea kn es s lack of organic products 0.09 1 0.09 huge wastage of the products due to perishable nature 0.10 2 0.20 high price of the product 0.08 1 0.08 lack of availability 0.07 2 0.14 lack of proper preservation and freshness 0.08 2 0.16 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 119 published by ideas spread engagement of many middlemen in vegetable marketing 0.06 2 0.12 total 0.48 0.79 total weighted score 1.00 2.53 3.3.3 swot matrix strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (swot) analysis indicates a framework for helping the researchers or planners to identify and prioritize the business goals, and to further identify the strategies of achieving them. swot matrix comprises four strategic groups (ommani, 2011): (i) how strengths are used to take advantage of opportunities (ii) how weaknesses are reduced by taking advantage of opportunities (iii) how strengths are used to reduce the impact of threats (iv) how weaknesses that will make these threats a reality are addressed in this study, group ii strategies are the suggested strategies for fresh-cut market development in bangladesh (figure 3). internal factors external factors strength: 1. nature of the product 2. quality of the product 3. maintaining hygiene 4.reducing wastage at household level 5. employment creation 6. branding weakness: 1. lack of organic products 2. perishable nature 3. high price of the product 4. lack of availability 5.lack of preservation & freshness 6.engagement of many middlemen in vegetable marketing opportunities: 1. expansion of women employment 2.increasing income level and purchasing power of people 3. positive customer attitudes 4. the increasing information and new technology 5. consumer demand 6. export facilities 7. health concerned people threats: 1. unstable demand 2. consumer habit and mentality 3. high cost of processing materials 4. price fluctuations 5. risk of new competitors 6. marketing risk strategies: 1. development of organic fresh-cut vegetables market 2. production of vegetable through contract farming 3. fulfilling customer demand by developing new fresh-cut items 4. development of governmental supports for exporting traditional fresh-cut items and importing required materials 5. improvement of the management system at the supermarkets 6. promotional activities through mass media figure 3. swot matrix as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 120 published by ideas spread 4. conclusion based on the findings it can be concluded that considerable scope exists to expand the fresh-cut vegetable market and to develop its value chain. the study is mainly focused on the value chain analysis and its overall prospect of fresh-cut vegetables business venture. the findings of the study indicate that all traditional vegetable market intermediaries along with processors/suppliers and supermarkets are involved in the selected fresh-cut vegetables value chain. processors procured raw vegetables from wholesalers who added around 26% to 35% value of each fresh-cut vegetable value stream. then, processor processed various fresh vegetables, adds significant extent of value to the produce which follows final value addition by the retailers. processor and supermarket (retailer) added highest value among all selected fresh-cut vegetables’ value chain actors. the marketing system of fresh-cut vegetable is not well developed as this channel is almost same as traditional system of vegetable marketing. there is enough scope to develop specific channel for fresh-cut vegetable marketing like channel iii. through this channel of contract farming it will be possible to eliminate number of middlemen in existing vegetable supply chain, cost reduction and ensure quality product. it will also help vegetable growers to get higher price and reduce price spread as the number of middlemen and their margins will be then eliminated. in this case, government might help entrepreneurs (supermarket owner and processors) by providing different incentives. moreover, technical and scientific knowledge regarding processing, packaging, and distribution of fresh-cut products will help to minimize wastage of fresh-cut produces. it can also be concluded from this study that the fresh-cut vegetable market has potentiality to expand in bangladesh. therefore, it is necessary to consider following strategies to enlighten the future of this market in the country: 1. development of organic fresh-cut vegetables market to ensure higher quality. 2. production of vegetable through contract farming. 3. satisfying customer demand by developing new fresh-cut items. 4. development of governmental supports for exporting traditional fresh-cut items and importing required materials. 5. improvement of the management system at the supermarkets. 6. promotional activities through mass media. acknowledgement authors are grateful to the university grants commission of bangladesh (ugc) for financial support to conduct this research. references agriculture and agri-food canada (aafc) (2004). value-added agriculture in canada. report of the standing senate committee on agriculture and forestry 2004, agriculture and agri-food, canada. ahmed, n. 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(2020). value chain and sustainability analysis of fresh-cut vegetable: a case study at sss co. journal of cleaner production, 260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121039 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p37 37 published by ideas spread design and testing of an online fertilizing amount detection device based on the moment balance principle chuanke yang1, jianian li1, xiaocheng wang1, daoran li1 & guoxuan wang1 1 faculty of modern agricultural engineering, kunming university of science and technology, kunming, china correspondence: jianian li, faculty of modern agricultural engineering, kunming university of science and technology, kunming, china. tel: 86-18288654908. e-mail: ljn825@163.com received: october 22, 2022 accepted: october 27, 2022 online published: october 28, 2022 the research is financed by (national natural science foundation of china (52069008), basic research project of yunnan province (202101at070113). abstract based on the principle of moment balance, this paper designs a fertilizer application amount online detection device, which is mainly composed of two major parts: the fertilizer guide mechanism and the fertilizer metering and discharging mechanism.under the electromagnetic reversing and buffering of the fertilizer guide mechanism, the fertilizer discharged into the device falls alternately into the storage box of the two metering units of the metering and discharging mechanism. once the gravity of the fertilizer in the storage box is greater than the suction of the electromagnetic sucker, the fertilizer discharging board is automatically opened for fertilizer discharge, and the metering pulse signal is accumulated once. meanwhile, the fertilizer guide plate is driven by the electromagnetic commutator to reverse the material, and then another storage box is started for fertilizer storage and metering. in this approach, online detection of fertilizer flow can be realized by repeatedly guiding and reversing and metering the incoming fertilizer. according to the single metering fertilizer quality and the number of metering pulse signals, the fertilization amount can be calculated in real-time.the performance of the device was verified by bench test. the test results indicated that: the established fertilizer application detection model is a quadratic function (r2>0.98), and the verification error was less than 3.73% in the detection of alternating cycle fertilizer discharge; the coefficient of determination (r2) and the root mean square error (rmse) reached 0.992 and 9.858 respectively, indicating high detection accuracy of the device is. keywords: fertilization amount, fertilizer mass flow, mechanical fertilization, moment balance principle, fertilizer guide mechanism, fertilizer discharging mechanism 1. introduction variable fertilizer application is an important part of precision agriculture because it can improve fertilizer utilization, increase crop yield, and reduce soil and water pollution, thus promoting sustainable agricultural development and reducing agricultural surface source pollution (zhu and jin, 2013; kamilaris et al., 2017; de araujo zanella et al., 2020; li et al., 2021; jia et al., 2021). in the process of mechanical fertilization, online monitoring of fertilizer mass flow is a key link and technical prerequisite for precise variable fertilization contro (chen et al., 2017; hong et al., 2015; chen et al., 2013; zhai et al., 2022; liu et al., 2020). currently, the main methods of fertilizer mass flow detection include the capacitance method, the mass method, the imaging method, the photoelectric method, and the indirect measurement of the fertilizer discharge shaft. the capacitance method uses fertilizer as a dielectric and designs an online detection system for fertilizer application based on the difference in the dielectric properties of fertilizer and air, thus achieving individual monitoring of fertilizer application in each discharge pipe (zhou et al., 2010, 2017). also, capacitive sensors consisting of adjacent electrode plates can be sued to detect the decline degree in the fertilizer tank level, and the relationship between the capacitance value between adjacent electrodes and the amount of fertilizer applied can be established, thereby enabling real-time detection of fertilizer flow (zhao et al., 2019a, 2019b). the quality method realizes the real-time flow of fertilizer at the discharge port and the amount of fertilizer per unit area of the fertilizer applicator according to the difference between the total mass of fertilizer and the current residual mass by designing a dynamic weighing system (van bergeijk et al., 2001) or a fertilization performance detection device based on belt scale (yu et al., 2016). the imaging method uses a ccd (charge coupled device) camera to obtain as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 38 published by ideas spread images of the falling of granular fertilizer, and then it adopts image recognition technology to obtain the diameter and quantity of fertilizer particles and combines fertilizer density information to achieve online monitoring of the mass flow of discharged fertilizer (back et al., 2014). the photoelectric method mainly uses photoelectric sensors to realize online monitoring of fertilizer particle flow. for example, swisher et al. (2002) designed a sensor for measuring the flow condition of fertilizer particles in the airflow by using a laser generator and a photoelectric sensor; grift et al. (2001) investigated the relationship model between the output pulse width of the near-infrared photoelectric detector and fertilizer flow rate, and then the detection accuracy of photoelectric flow sensors was verified in the laboratory under different density and flow rate conditions. the indirect measurement method of fertilizer discharge shaft mainly uses hall sensors and encoders (zhao et al., 2010), etc. to monitor the rotation circumference and angle of the fertilizer discharge shaft in real time and establishes their relationships with the amount of fertilizer discharged to indirectly achieve real-time monitoring of fertilizer mass flow. the comprehensive analysis of the existing fertilizer mass flow detection methods shows that the capacitance method is less costly and more sensitive, but it is susceptible to electromagnetic interference, changes in fertilizer moisture content, and environmental humidity; the mass method has high measurement accuracy, but it cannot well adapt to practical applications; the photoelectric and image methods are fast, but their detection equipment is susceptible to fertilizer powder; the indirect measurement of the fertilizer discharge shaft is simple and easy to implement, but it suffers from a large measurement error. besides, most of the above-mentioned detection methods require pre-assembly or have a high correlation with the mechanical fertilizer discharge structure (gao, 2016; yang et al., 2020; jin et al., 2018). aiming at the above problems, this paper designs an online fertilizer application amount device based on the moment balance principle. this device can be connected with the discharge pipe of the existing fertilizer application machinery to realize online real-time monitoring of fertilizer application amount in a low-cost universal post-installation way. it can provide real-time feedback to the fertilizer application machinery for precise variable fertilizer application control, thus improving the intelligence of the existing small and medium-sized fertilizer application machinery. 2. structure design 2.1 overall structure design the overall structure of the fertilizer amount online detection device and its prototype are shown in figure 1. it is mainly composed of two parts: a fertilizer guide mechanism and a metering and discharging mechanism. the fertilizer guide mechanism is connected with the fertilizer discharge pipe of the external fertilizer applicator through its inlet port, and it is used to introduce the fertilizer into the device and change the flow direction, discharge, and buffering of the fertilizer. the metering and discharging mechanism detects and discharges the imported fertilizer in real-time, and it maintains the continuity of the fertilizer discharge through the device to the greatest extent. (a) (b) figure 1. the structure and picture of the device. (a) the structure (b) the picture of the device as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 39 published by ideas spread 2.2 design of key components 2.2.1 fertilizer guide mechanism the fertilizer guide mechanism is mainly composed of a feed fertilizer inlet, a fertilizer guide plate, two fertilizer guide tubes, and two electromagnetic commutators. its structure is illustrated in figure 2. the fertilizer guide plate is installed between the fertilizer inlet and the guide fertilizer pipe through the rotating shaft, and the fertilizer can only flow into one of the guide fertilizer pipes within a certain period. through the installation of the fertilizer guide plate on both sides of the electromagnetic commutator (model xrn-19x42tl, energized to generate instantaneous thrust, power-off self-reset, voltage 12vdc, stroke 10 mm), fertilizer is fed into the switch two guide fertilizer pipe to drive the fertilizer guide plate to control the left and right commutation and guide fertilizer pipe embedded slope to buffer. figure 2. the schematic diagram of the guide fertilizer mechanism structure. 1. fertilizer inlet 2. electromagnetic commutator ⅰ 3. electromagnetic commutator ⅱ 4. guide fertilizer pipe ⅰ 5. guide fertilizer pipe ⅱ 6. fertilizer guide plate 7. rotating shaft 2.2.2 metering and discharging mechanism the metering and discharging mechanism is composed of two identical units set side by side, each of which includes a fertilizer storage box, a fertilizer discharging board, an electromagnetic sucker, a reset motor for the fertilizer discharging board, a measurement and control circuit, a pwm voltage regulating module, etc. the schematic diagram of the structure is presented in figure 3. the inlets of the two fertilizer storage boxes are connected with the outlets of the two guide fertilizer pipes respectively. the bottom of the fertilizer storage box is an open structure, and it is blocked by the fertilizer discharging board. the fertilizer discharging board is designed as a ‘seesaw’ structure that rotates counterclockwise around a fixed rotating shaft (with a maximum rotation angle of 78.6°). one end of the fertilizer discharging board is embedded with a magnetic sheet. under the suction of a fixed electromagnetic sucker (model xda-08/20, voltage range 0~12 v, suction range 0~150 g), the fertilizer discharging board is in a horizontal state, and the other end of the plate is completely enclosed at the bottom of the fertilizer storage box. only when the gravity of fertilizer in the storage box is greater than the suction force of the electromagnetic disk, the horizontal state of the fertilizer drainage plate is broken, and a counterclockwise rotation is generated, which makes the bottom of the storage box open for fertilizer drainage. because the fertilizer storage box is designed of 6.2, 4.0, and 3.6 cm and the fertilizer bulk density is about 900~1200 kg/cm³, the maximum fertilizer storage capacity is 80.3~107 g. to adapt to different fertilizer application requirements and not affect the fertilizer application continuity, a pwm voltage regulating module is designed to adjust the suction force of the electromagnetic sucker, which in turn changes the single metering and fertilizer discharge of the fertilizer storage box, thus adjusting the quality of the fertilizer. meanwhile, a photoelectric fertilizer leakage detection sensor is designed on the inner wall of the housing in the rotation path of the fertilizer discharging board. the detection sensor is triggered when the fertilizer discharging board rotates counterclockwise and outputs a counting pulse, indicating that a mass measurement of the fertilizer storage box has been performed. also, a limit-type detect the fertilizer guide sensor is designed under the fertilizer discharging board to detect the fertilizer discharge situation of the fertilizer discharging board, thus controlling the operation of the electromagnetic commutator and driving the fertilizer discharging board to change the direction of fertilizer flow from the left to right. in this way, fertilizer is alternately introduced into the fertilizer storage box to realize alternate metering and storage and discharge of fertilizer in the two units; a limit-type reset detection as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 40 published by ideas spread sensor is designed on the rightmost side of the fertilizer storage box to determine whether the fertilizer discharging board is reset to the horizontal after the fertilizer storage box is emptied. if the fertilizer discharging board is not reset, it will control the fertilizer discharging board reset motor to drive the drive rod to rotate, forcibly reset the fertilizer discharging board to the horizontal state, and make the fertilizer discharging board reset motor to return to the initial state, thus ensuring that the fertilizer discharging board can be reset properly next time. figure 3. the structure diagram of the metering and fertilizer discharging mechanism. 1. fertilizer leakage detection sensors 2. reset detection sensors 3. magnetic sheet 4. discharge fertilizer board reset lever 5. detect the fertilizer guide sensor 6. electromagnetic sucker 7. pwm voltage regulating module 8. circuit control box 9. fertilizer outlet 10. fertilizer discharging board 11. rotating shaft 12. reset motor 13. fertilizer storage box 14. buffer plate ⅰ 15. buffer plate ⅱ 16. guide fertilizer pipe 3. detection principle according to the design structure, after the discharge fertilizer from the fertilizer applicator falls into this device, online real-time detection of fertilizer application can be realized through alternate metering and discharge of fertilizer by two metering units under the synergistic action of the fertilizer guide mechanism and the metering and discharging mechanism, as shown in eq. (1). q m f m f (1) where q is the detected value of fertilizer application volume (unit: g); m1 and m2 are the single fertilizer discharge mass of the two fertilizer storage boxes at a specific metering voltage (unit: g), and their values are set by the pwm voltage regulating module, i.e., by adjusting the electromagnetic sucker suction force; f1 and f2 are the pulse signal counts of the two fertilizer storage boxes for fertilizer drainage. the single measurement and discharge of fertilizer in each fertilizer storage box is conducted according to the principle of moment balance. specifically, during the operation of the device, the fertilizer discharging board takes the rotating shaft as the rotating fulcrum, one end of which is subjected to the suction of the electromagnetic sucker, and the other end is subjected to the gravity of the fertilizer in the fertilizer storage box. when the gravity of the fertilizer is equal to the suction of the electromagnetic sucker, the moment reaches a critical equilibrium state, as shown in formula (2). once the gravity in the fertilizer storage box is greater than the suction of the electromagnetic sucker, the critical equilibrium state is broken, and the metering and discharging of the fertilizer are started. figure 4 shows the stress analysis diagram of the fertilizer discharging board during fertilizer detection. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 41 published by ideas spread figure 4. the schematic diagram of the force analysis of the fertilizer discharging board during fertilizer quality detection mg f (2) where m is the mass of fertilizer in the storage box (unit: kg); g is the coefficient of gravity (unit: n/kg); f is the electromagnetic suction force (unit: n). the specific value is closely related to the suction cup electromagnet structure and material (jia et al., 2012; liang et al., 2021; tang et al., 2019; ning et al., 2021; ding et al., 2021), as shown in eq. (3). f ² (3) where s is the effective area of the suction surface (unit: mm2); μ0 is the vacuum permeability, 4π×10-7n/a2; b is the magnetic induction intensity of the air gap between the contact surfaces (unit: t), and its value is calculated by eq. (4). b niμ (4) where n is the number of turns of the coil, and i is the circuit current (unit: a). according to equations (1) to (4) and ohm's law, the calculation method of fertilizer application detection is derived and shown in eq. (5). q ² ² f u f u (5) since n,μ0, s, and r are constants, the fertilizer application quantity q is only related to the drainage fertilizer pulse signal count f and metering voltage u. usually, the metering voltage u is set by the pwm voltage regulating module before the device works, and once it is set, it determines the electromagnetic sucker suction force and thus the single discharge mass of the fertilizer storage box, i.e., establishes the correspondence between the metering voltage u and the single discharge mass of the fertilizer storage box. therefore, online detection of fertilizer application can be achieved by detecting the number of pulses of the corresponding discharge signal of two fertilizer storage boxes at a specific metering voltage. 4. online detection system design 4.1 hardware circuit design the hardware circuit mainly includes a power supply, signal acquisition circuit, an atmega328 micro-controller main controller, metering and the control circuit of the metering and guide fertilizer mechanism, the reset circuit of the discharge board, an lcd module, etc., as shown in figure 5. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 42 published by ideas spread figure 5. the diagram of the device core control circuit 12v linear dc stabilized voltage power supply is used, and it provides a stable operating voltage after step-down for each circuit unit. the main control system of the atmega328 single-chip microcomputer is exploited to collect the measurement voltage and the signal of each sensor, realize interrupt counting, calculate fertilizer amount, and drive the electromagnetic commutator to control the commutation of the guide plate, thus controlling the reset of the stepper motor and driving the lcd. the lcd module is used to display the relevant information of the online detection of fertilizer amount. the signal acquisition circuit mainly includes the infrared photoelectric sensor and the limit sensor to detect the fertilizer discharge action of the fertilizer discharging board (each time the fertilizer is discharged, a counting pulse is output), the reset situation, and the measurement suction cup to control signal. the control circuit of the metering and fertilizer guide mechanism is composed of a pwm voltage regulating module, an rc filter circuit, an electromagnetic commutator, and a sensor. it controls the power acquisition of the metering sucker, guides fertilizer application with the electromagnetic commutator, and resets the fertilizer discharging board. the reset circuit of the fertilizer discharging board consists of a 12v stepping motor and its driver drv8825 when the main controller detects that the fertilizer discharging board is not reset, the reset stepper motor is controlled to rotate 78.6° clockwise to drive the fertilizer discharging board to quickly reset to the initial position. besides, the control and execution of the mechanism are assisted by a control 4-way 12v relay. 4.2 software design based on the arduino ide development environment, the design is implemented with c++ programming language in a modular approach. its main functions include system initialization, real-time acquisition and processing of metering voltage, calling delay function, real-time acquisition of sensor signal, interrupt signal detection and interrupt counting, fertilization calculation based on the detection model, and driving the oled lcd screen to display fertilization information in real-time. the main program flow is presented in figure 6. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 43 published by ideas spread start system initialization and parameter configuration set metering voltage fertilizer discharge plate i start? metering unit ⅰpulse count plus 1 trigger fertilizer guide signal ⅰ leakage fertilizer plate i has been reset? fertilizer discharge plate ii start? metering unit ii pulse count plus 1 trigger fertilizer guide signal ii leakage fertilizer plate ii has been reset? start the reset motor does the reset motor start within 5s? start the reset motor again start the reset motor does the reset motor start within 5s? start the reset motor again calling the model to calculate the fertilizer amount display fertilizer amount information n y n y y y y y n n n n figure 6. the program flow of the fertilizing amount detection system after the system is powered on and initialized, the metering voltage is obtained in real-time through the a/d conversion port of the single-chip microcomputer. meanwhile, the single-discharge fertilizer quality of the current two fertilizer storage boxes is determined according to the mathematical relationship between the metering voltage obtained by the experiment and the single-discharge fertilizer quality of the two fertilizer storage boxes. then, the fertilizer discharge is detected in real-time, and fertilizer discharging board i and ii are set: when the fertilizer discharge signal of fertilizer discharging board i is detected, the pulse signal of the metering unit i is added to 1 by interrupt counting, and fertilizer guide signal i is triggered to drive the fertilizer discharging board to guide the material. also, reset and the corresponding control are performed according to the detection of fertilizer discharging board i; when the reset situation of fertilizer discharging board i is not detected within 5s, the delay function is called, and the reset motor is energized to forcibly reset fertilizer discharging board i. the measurement and control of the discharge and reset of fertilizer discharging board ⅱ is the same as that of fertilizer discharging boardⅰ. finally, the number of pulses of metering units ⅰ and ⅱ are substituted into the calculation model of fertilizer application amount based on eq. (5) and the experiment, and the real-time information of fertilizer application amount can be obtained and displayed on the oled lcd screen. 5. test results and analysis 5.1 test materials and methods to test the performance of the device designed in this paper, a test bench shown in figures 7 and 8 was built with a uniform and non-clumping granular compound fertilizer commonly used in agricultural production. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 44 published by ideas spread figure 7. the test bench of the online fertilizer application amount detection device figure 8. performance verification test bed for fertilizer application amount detection in the test bench, the electric fertilizer discharge device with adjustable speed (xingbang, 12v/50w) driven by a stepping motor is used to feed the detection device for the amount of fertilizer, and the multi-channel adjustable dc regulated power supply (suzhou guwei electronics gpc-3060d, 30v/3a) is used to supply power to the fertilizer device. by adjusting the power supply voltage, the rotation speed and the fertilizer amount of the fertilizer applicator are changed to test the fertilizer detection performance of the device at different rotation speeds, and the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 45 published by ideas spread test bench is placed on the conveyor belt device to carry out the fertilizer detection performance verification test. the experiments were mainly conducted in three aspects: the influence of fertilizer discharging speed of the fertilizer applicator on the detection device, the mathematical relationship between fertilizer quality and metering voltage, and the fertilizer application volume detection model and its performance verification. through the test bench shown in figure 7, the influence of the fertilizer discharge speed of the fertilizer applicator on the detection device and the mathematical relationship between the fertilizer quality and the measurement voltage were investigated. the measurement voltage of the detection device was verified by the bench-type digital multimeter (model gdm-8352). the quality of the fertilizer flowing through the detection device was measured by the mass weighing method, i.e., the fertilizer quality collected at the electronic scale (model sl4001, 4000±0.1 g) was used for confirmatory measurement. since the device is used to detect the fertilizer mass flow rate of the external fertilizer applicator, the performance of fertilizer application amount detection is verified by the test bench shown in figure 8 according to the 'fertilization machinery quality evaluation specification' (ny/t1003-2006) and the 'fertilization machinery test method' (gb/t20346.2-2006, part2: standards for inter-row fertilizer applicators). during the test, the tape measure was used to measure the length of the strip, the 6236p tachometer was used to detect the speed of the conveyor belt (lai et al., 2022; chen et al., 2015; ding et al., 2019), and the stopwatch was used for fertilizer timing. 5.2 test results and analysis 5.2.1 effect of the rotation speed of fertilizer applicator on detection performance according to the field operation speed of the machine, the fertilizer discharging speed of the fertilizer applicator is generally 10-60 r/min (its discharging fertilizer mass range is about 200-900 g/min) (chen et al., 2015; ding et al., 2019). to test the effect of fertilizer applicator discharge speed on the detection performance of the device, the fertilizer applicator discharge speed was set to 10 r/min, 25 r/min, 35 r/min, 45 r/min, 55 r/min, and 60 r/min, respectively. meanwhile, the working voltage range of the metering electromagnetic sucker is 0-12 v. after the pre-test, it was found that when the metering voltage of the electromagnetic sucker is set below 4 v, the single fertilizer metering value of the metering unit is smaller than 10 g, and there is a large detection error. when the metering voltage is set to 10 v or higher, the single fertilizer measurement value of the metering unit is larger than 40 g, and the continuity of the fertilizer discharge after the fertilizer application volume detection does not meet the fertilization requirement. therefore, the working voltage range of 4-10 v, 5 v, 7 v, and 9 v were selected as the metering voltage of metering units i and ii, respectively. then, the single-factor test was conducted, and the significance of the influence of the rotation speed of the fertilizer under each metering voltage was analyzed. each test was repeated six times, and the average value was taken as the final test result. during the test, the fertilizer flow direction was manually controlled and switched, the two metering units were tested under different metering voltages, and the fertilizer metering values of the two metering units were weighed and compared one at a time. as indicated by the anova in table 1, the p values among the groups are 0.13, 0.76, 0.14, 0.55, 0.28, and 0.49, and they are all greater than 0.05. this demonstrates that the guide mechanism of the device has a good buffering effect on fertilizer falling at different speeds and achieves good applicability and detection performance within the conventional discharge speed (10-60 r/min) of the fertilizer applicator. thus, the influence of the external fertilizer applicator speed on the detection of fertilizer applied to the device is not significant and can be ignored. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 46 published by ideas spread table 1. analysis of variance results for different metering voltages in metering units i and ii metering unit metering voltage ss df ms f p-value f crit ⅰ 5v inter-group 2.73 7 0.39 1.71 0.13 2.25 within group 9.13 40 0.23 grand total 11.86 47 7v inter-group 5.71 7 0.82 0.59 0.76 2.25 within group 55.21 40 1.38 grand total 60.93 47 9v inter-group 4.76 7 0.68 1.69 0.14 2.25 within group 16.13 40 0.40 grand total 20.89 47 ⅱ 5v inter-group 4.40 7 0.63 0.86 0.55 2.25 within group 29.32 40 0.74 grand total 33.71 47 7v inter-group 7.16 7 1.02 1.29 0.28 2.25 within group 31.72 40 0.79 grand total 38.88 47 9v inter-group 2.44 7 0.35 0.94 0.49 2.25 within group 14.82 40 0.37 grand total 17.26 47 5.2.2 establishment of fertilization amount detection model according to the structure of the metering unit of the device and the principle of fertilizer application detection, determining the correspondence between the metering voltage of the metering unit and the mass of a single discharge of fertilizer in the storage box is the basis and key to establishing the fertilizer application detection model. basically, the detection performance of the fertilizer amount of the device is not affected by the rotation speed of the external fertilizer applicator, so the test was conducted under the condition that the rotation speed of the fertilizer applicator is 40 r/min according to the requirements of the conventional operation. before the test, the measurement voltage was set by the pwm voltage regulating module, and the working voltage of the electromagnetic sucker was set at a step of 0.5 v in the range of 4-10 v. during the test, for each metering voltage, the selected fertilizer was gradually poured into the testing device from small to large in the range of 10-90 g until the mass of the poured fertilizer is equal to the critical discharge volume of the fertilizer discharging board (i.e., thus triggering the fertilizer discharging board discharge action). this process was repeated 10 times, and the average value was taken as the test result. to avoid the error caused by the manufacturing difference between the electromagnetic sucker and the metering unit, two metering units were tested respectively. the test results are presented in figure 9. generally, the mathematical models between the metering voltage of the two metering units and the critical discharge amount of the fertilizer discharging board are the same, and only the coefficients are different. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 47 published by ideas spread (a) (b) figure 9. the relationship between critical fertilizer discharge and metering voltage for fertilizer discharging boards. (a)metering unit ⅰ(b) metering unit ⅱ based on the test results in figure 9, eq. (5), and the principle of fertilizer application detection, the fertilizer application detection model shown in eqs. (6) ~ (8) can be obtained. 𝑚 1.63𝑢 12.64𝑢 40.25 𝑓 (6) 𝑚 1.1𝑢 11.07𝑢 42.75 𝑓 (7) m=𝑚 +𝑚 (8) where m1 and m2 are the critical fertilizer discharge of the discharge plate of metering units i and ii, respectively (unit: g); u1 and u2 are the metering voltage of metering units i and ii, respectively, (unit: v); f1 and f2 are respectively the pulse number of discharge plate fertilizer action counting of metering units i and ii; m is the amount of fertilizer detected by the device (unit: g). 5.2.3 fertilization detection performance verification following the design structure and the detection principle, based on the single detection amount of the two metering units (i.e., the critical fertilizer discharge amount of the fertilizer discharging board), the device realizes online detection of the fertilizer mass flow according to the pulse number of the fertilizer discharge action of the fertilizer discharging board, which does not affect the fertilizer discharge effect of the fertilizing machine. therefore, the test was mainly conducted from two aspects: the amount of fertilizer online detection and fertilizer performance verification. the fertilizer application amount online detection test includes a single detection amount of the metering unit and an online detection test of the fertilizer mass flow rate of the device. it is shown above that the fertilizer discharge speed of the external fertilizer applicator has no significant effect on the detection performance, and the detection of fertilizer amount is closely related to the metering voltage. thus, in the verification test of single detection and online detection of fertilizer mass flow, the rotation speed of the fertilizer applicator was set to 40 r/min, and the test was conducted under three measurement voltages of 5 v, 7 v, and 9 v. for each metering voltage, each test was repeated 10 times, and the mean value was taken as the test result. the accuracy of fertilizer application detection was verified by the weighing method. the accuracy verification results of online detection of fertilization amount are listed in tables. 2 and 3. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 48 published by ideas spread table 2. the verification results of metering unit single test accuracy metering unit metering voltage/v measuring mass/g real mass/g relative error/% ⅰ 5v 18.93 19.58 3.32 7v 33.24 33.95 2.09 9v 54.45 55.58 2.03 ⅱ 5v 16.68 16.1 3.60 7v 25.57 24.78 3.19 9v 38.75 37.4 3.61 table 3. fertilizer mass flow online testing accuracy verification results metering voltage/v experiment serial number measuring mass/g real mass/g relative error/% 5v 7v 9v 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 163.24 276.04 341.34 285.02 386.38 456.1 271.56 452.6 511.1 169.58 283.36 330.25 275.15 374.72 470.28 279.36 462.82 518.72 3.73 2.58 3.35 3.58 3.11 3.01 2.79 2.2 1.46 table 2 presents the verification result of the single detection accuracy of the two metering units, and the detection error is less than 3.61 %. table 3 presents the verification results of the online detection accuracy of the fertilizer mass flow rate of the device, and the detection error is less than 3.73 %. these results indicate that the device has high detection accuracy and can be well applied to online detection of fertilizer mass flow of fertilization machinery. the fertilizer discharge performance test includes the fertilizer discharge effect test of the device, and the fertilizer application amount detection accuracy analysis test. in the first test, the height of the falling fertilizer point and the drive belt was set to 30 mm; meanwhile, the fertilizer applicator discharge speed was set to 40 r/min, and the drive belt speed was set to 0.37 m/s so that the two speed paces are consistent. besides, the fertilizer metering values were set to 20 g, 25 g, and 35 g, and the unit metering voltage values corresponding to the two metering units were set to 5.5 v, 6.3 v, 7.3 v, and 7.2 v, 8.1 v, 9.3 v respectively. let the fertilizer applicator and the drive belt work in a unit of 1 m and a normal cumulative travel of 10 m, and then the test section of the broken strips was observed and recorded. (a) (b) (c) figure10. fertilizer discharge effect of the fertilizer application detection device. (a) 20 g (b) 25 g (c) 35 g by observing the measuring area of the fertilizer discharge uniformity test with fertilizer metering values of 20 g, 25 g, and 35 g, the continuity of fertilizer discharge was obtained according to the broken strips of the fertilizer. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 49 published by ideas spread the field fertilization standards indicate that there is no fertilizer during normal operations of the machine section length greater than 10cm above identified as broken bars. the fertilizer discharge effect of the device is illustrated in figure 10. the test results show that the fertilization broken strips rate is 0, indicating that the detection device does not affect the fertilizer discharge performance of the external fertilization machine when the fertilizer mass flow is carried out. in the accuracy analysis test of fertilizer application amount detection, the parameters were set the same as the above, and the online detection results of single detection amount and fertilizer mass flow rate were analyzed. then, the fertilizer application amount detection results of the detection device shown in figure 11 were compared with the mass obtained by the weighing method. (a) (b) figure 11. comparison of the actual quality and detection quality. (a) comparison of the actual quality and single detection quality (b) comparison of the actual quality and detection quality of alternating discharge fertilizer quantity by a measurement unit it can be seen from figure 11 that the amount of fertilizer detected by the device is consistent with the actual amount of fertilizer. for the single detection amount, the determination coefficient r2 and the root mean square error rmse are 0.995 and 0.873, respectively; for the fertilizer mass flow rate detection, the determination coefficient r2 and root mean square error rmse reached 0.992 and 9.858 g/g, respectively, indicating that the device has high detection accuracy. 6. conclusion (1) based on the moment balance principle, this paper designs an online detection device for fertilizer application rate, which has a simple structure and no need for pre-installation. it can be installed on the fertilizer discharge port of fertilization machinery to realize online detection of fertilizer mass flow, and the single detection amount of the metering unit can be adjusted according to the actual operation requirements to ensure the continuity of its fertilization. (2) the fertilizer guide mechanism has a good buffering effect on the fertilizer falling at different speeds. for the commonly used fertilizer discharge speed (10~60 r/min) of the fertilizer applicator, the metering units i and ii were measured at 5 v, 7 v, and 9 v, respectively. the p values between the groups of the rotation speed of the fertilizer are 0.13, 0.76, 0.14, 0.55, 0.28, and 0.49 respectively, which are greater than 0.05, indicating that the rotation speed of the external fertilizer applicator has no significant effect on the detection performance of the fertilizer application rate of the device. thus, the device has good applicability and consistency of detection performance. (3) the fertilizer detection model (r2 > 0.98) was established, and the detection performance of the device was verified through experiments. the test results showed that the single detection error of the two metering units is less than 3.61 %, and the detection error of fertilizer mass flow is less than 3.73 %. the determination coefficient (r2) and the root mean square error (rmse) reached 0.992 and 9.858, respectively. when the fertilizer measurement value of the metering unit was less than 35 g, the fertilization broken strips rate was 0, indicating as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 50 published by ideas spread that the fertilizer discharge effect of the external fertilization machinery was not affected. therefore, the device can be well applied to the online detection of fertilizer mass flow of fertilization machinery. in this paper, the principle of moment balance is adopted to realize the online detection of fertilizer. at present, the uneven field in the mechanical fertilization process will lead to the bump and jitter of the fertilizer applicator. in the previous test, the influence of the bump and jitter of the working fertilizer applicator on the detection device is not considered. therefore, in the follow-up study, we will investigate the anti-shake of the detection device to improve the detection device’s adaptability. acknowledgments funding received from national natural science foundation of china (52069008), basic research project of yunnan province (202101at070113). references back, s. w., yu, s. h., kim, y. j., chung, s. o., & lee, k. h. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p1-13 agricultural science; vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v6n1p1 1 published by ideas spread the effect of three different concentrations of a bio-stimulant on lettuce yield and quality variation in nft system edouard tabet1, maria hosry1, suzy rouphael1, dalida darazy1, khaled el omari2,3 & joe sakr4 1 faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 2 quality control center laboratories at the chamber of commerce, industry and agriculture of tripoli and north lebanon, tripoli 1300, lebanon 3 laboratoire microbiologie santé et environnement (lmse), doctoral school of sciences and technology, faculty of public health, lebanese university, lebanon 4 van iperen international b v, westmaas, smidsweg 24-3260 ah oud-beijerland, netherlands correspondence: edouard tabet, faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon. tel: 961-365-5178. e-mail: edouard.tabet@ul.edu.lb received: december 1, 2024 accepted: december 29, 2024 online published: december 31, 2024 abstract this study examines the impact of three different doses (d2: 0.675 ml/week; d3: 3.375 ml/week; d4: 13.5 ml/week) of a bio-stimulant (p4p-vita), provided by van iperen, on lettuce yield and quality variation in a nutrient film technique (nft) system. the study compared these doses to a control group (d1) and evaluated the most effective dose for maximizing yield and quality. parameters such as fresh weight, leaf number, leaf size (length and width), and root system volume were measured on day 0, day of harvest to assess productivity. additionally, weight loss, brix degree, and ph were measured on post-harvest days: (0,4,7 and 14) during refrigerated storage to assess quality variation. results indicate that the bio-stimulant positively influenced lettuce growth and storage. the moderate dose (d2) yielded the best results, promoting higher fresh weight, longer and wider leaves, a more developed root system, reduced weight loss, longer shelf life and improved taste compared to other treatments. keywords: lettuce locarno, bio-stimulant, nft, productivity, quality variation 1. introduction lettuce (lactuca sativa l.), a versatile leafy green, cultivated globally across diverse climates. global production, particularly in countries like china and the united states, underscores its significance in human diets (shatilov et al., 2019). the european union also contributes significantly to global supply with spain as a leading producer (ctifl, 2022). in lebanon lettuce is particularly popular in greenhouse cultivation (faostat, 2017). however, increasing global demand for food coupled with climate change poses challenges to agricultural productivity and food security (al-karaki et al., 2023). soilless cultivation systems like nutrient film technique (nft) offer promising solutions for sustainable crop production (veronique, 2021; kumar et al., 2023). by optimizing nutrient solutions, these systems can enhance both yield and quality (yaseen and takacs-hajos, 2022). bio-stimulants derived from natural sources have gained increasing attention as environmentally friendly tools for improving plant growth and yield (colla et al., 2019; desoky et al., 2021; zhang et al., 2024). they enhance nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and root development (colla et al., 2017; muhammad et al., 2023). the global bio-stimulants market was valued at $2.19 billion in 2018 and is projected to grow significantly, with a compound annual growth rate of 12.5% from 2019 to 2024. europe currently holds the largest market share for bio-stimulants (albrecht, 2019). the objectives of our study are to investigate the impact of three different doses of a bio-stimulant on lettuce yield and quality in an nft system, to identify the ideal concentration of it, and to evaluate the efficiency and sustainability of using this bio-stimulant in order to enhance both lettuce yield and its quality on post-harvest days in refrigerated storage. 2. material and methods 2.1 work description the experiment was conducted from april 1st and 25th, 2024, at a lettuce farm in okaibeh, keserwan, lebanon. the greenhouse covered an area 25 square meters (5m x 5m), with three replications of nft systems each as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 2 published by ideas spread containing four rows of gutters with a slope of approximately 1%. the “locarno” variety of lolo type lettuce, and loose-leaf lettuce was cultivated under uniform conditions across all treatments. all conditions affecting the cultivation of locarno lettuce were the same. the four tanks were filled from a 1000 ml mother tank where the fertigation recipe was prepared at the beginning of our experiment. the irrigation system pump was activated for 12 hours daily, from 6 a.m. till 6 p.m. each 30 minutes interval, included a 2 minutes pumping period. 2.2 experimental design a randomized complete block design (rcbd) was employed for comparing the effects of three different doses of the bio-stimulant (p4p-vita) against a control treatment. this design involved in three replications (r1, r2, and r3) for each treatment as shown in the figure 1. r1 r2 r3 figure 1. randomized complete block design of the applied experiment with three blocks (r1, r2 and r3) and four treatments of used different consecutive doses (1, 2, and 3) of the p4p-vita bio-stimulant (d2 in yellow, d3 in green and d4 in red) and the control treatment with no bio-stimulant d1 (in blue). 2.3 growing lettuce in nft each tank used in the experiment contained the same fertilization recipe but differed in bio-stimulant dosage. a total of 144 lettuce plants were cultivated across three units. 2.4 fertigation the four tanks were filled from a 1000 ml mother tank, where the nutrient solution was prepared at the start of the experiment and acid was added to prevent clogging (wang et al., 2022). the nutrient solution was prepared at the start using a recipe based on farm recommendations. the exact fertigation program and types of applied fertilizers are shown in table 1. table 1. fertigation recipe of lettuce in nft system. fertilizers formulation total grams needed per 4 weeks calcium-magnesium 13% n, 6% mg, 13% ca 1000 potassium nitrate 13/00/46 300 iron 6% chelated eddha 50 potassium sulfate 00/00/51 150 mono potassium phosphate 00/52/34 150 trace elements cu, fe, mn, zn, mgo, na, mo, as, cd, cr, pb, hg, cl 50 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 3 published by ideas spread 2.5 ph and ec measurement the ph and electrical conductivity (ec) of the four tanks were measured every two days using a ph/ec meter combined in one simple device (bluelab combo meter), in order to control them as best as possible to ensure the best ph range for maximum nutrient absorption. the ph was maintained between 5.5 and 6.8 while electrical conductivity ranged from 490 to 620 ppm (dharti et al., 2021). the device was calibrated weekly using buffer solutions. 2.6 bio-stimulant manipulation and composition doses were administered weekly using a syringe. the doses differ from tank to tank and are shown in table 2. table 2. the different bio-stimulant doses according to the tanks. tank bs recommended dose in l/ha dose in l/ 36 lettuce dose in l/ lettuce dose/week in ml d1 0 0 0 0 d2 6 0.0027 0.000075 0.675 d3 30 0.0135 0.000375 3.375 d4 120 0.054 0.0015 13.5 the table provides details on the application of recommended bio-stimulant (bs) doses for four different tanks, labeled d1, d2, d3, and d4. it includes information on the recommended dose per hectare (l/ha) equivalent to dose applied to 8000 lettuces, the corresponding dose for 36 lettuce plants, the dose per individual lettuce plant, and the weekly dose in milliliters (ml). tank d1: no bio-stimulant is applied in this tank. tank d2: the recommended dose for this tank is 6 l/ha. tank d3: in this case, the recommended bio-stimulant dose is 30 l/ha. for 36 lettuce plants. tank d4: the highest recommended dose is 120 l/ha. this table highlights the increasing bio-stimulant doses from d1 to d4, with the amount applied to both individual lettuce plants and the total for 36 lettuce plants increasing in a stepwise fashion. additionally, the weekly dose applied to each tank also rises correspondingly, which could impact the growth and development of the lettuce plants. p4p-vita bio-stimulant, is a 100% natural dark red color liquid that will optimize water supply ensuring better performance throughout the season, allowing for higher yield and crop quality. having an organic certification approved by ecocert inputs, the composition of this product is shown in the table 3. table 3. p4p-vita’s composition. (%w/w: % weight per weight) components (%w/w) potassium oxide 1.2 flavonoids 1 organic acids 20 organic matter 43 dry matter 54 2.7 harvesting and sampling lettuces were harvested after four weeks at 8 a.m., with samples transported under controlled conditions for analysis. from the 144 samples, 36 plants were selected randomly for productivity analysis (9 from each treatment) on the day of harvest and were stored at 5°c and 85-90% relative humidity (frança et al., 2018). 2.8 measured parameters parameters were divided into productivity measurements at harvest and quality variation during post-harvest storage. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 4 published by ideas spread 2.8.1 productivity measurements of lettuce the productivity parameters were measured on day 0 corresponding to the day of harvest for all four treatments. fresh weight on day 0, immediately after harvest, the fresh weight of the aerial part of the lettuce was separated from the root volume of each plant by cross-sectioning of the plant crown and weighing it on a precision balance (ae adam, pgw 603e, max 600g d=0.001g). number of leaves on day 0, right after harvest, the number of leaves of lettuce was manually counted. leaf length and width of the 5 outer leaves on day 0, immediately after the harvest, the length and width of the 5 outer leaves were measured using a measuring tape, from the two largest ends of each leaf, vertically and horizontally. root system volume on the day of harvest, the root system volume was measured using the water displacement method. the root system was rinsed and then immersed in a 16 oz philips cylinder (with a known volume of 44.18 cm³), and the water displacement was measured. the root volume was calculated using the formula: root system volume (cm3) = cylinder air (cm2) x water displacement (cm) 2.8.2 quality variation of lettuce during the post-harvest life of lettuce, the quality parameters were measured at the laboratories on day 0; 4; 7 and 14 respectively. weight loss the weight loss (%) was calculated using the formula: weight loss (%) = 𝑥 100 total soluble solids or brix degree: measurements were conducted using a refractometer (boeco germany, pc-324), at room temperature (23-25°c) in direct sunlight (aoac, 2002). ph: measurements were conducted using a ph meter (eutech instruments, ph 700). lettuce leaves were blended with distilled water to create a homogeneous mixture. 2.9 statistical analysis data analysis used general linear model (glm) and sigmastat software with one-way anova for productivity parameters: fresh weight, number of leaves, leaf length, leaf width, and root system volume. and two-way anova for quality parameters. duncan test was operated to identify the significant differences between the means whenever it was shown at 0.05% in a descending way. 3. results and discussion 3.1 productivity measurements the influence of bio-stimulant doses on fresh mass is summarized below: fresh mass of the aerial part the dose effect responses of the different bio-stimulant doses on the fresh mass of the aerial part of each treatment in every replication r of the lettuces on the day of harvest appeared in table 4. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 5 published by ideas spread table 4. the dose effect responses of the different bio-stimulant concentrations on the fresh mass of the aerial part of each treatment in every replication r, of lettuce on the day of harvest fresh aerial part mass (g) p-value d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 r1 187 245.2 197.5 186 r2 150.6 231.9 178.5 181.3 r3 120 171 182.8 166. 1 mean 129.6 b 216.9 a 188 a 162.2 b 0.011 *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.05. the d2 and d3 groups showed a significant increase in fresh aerial mass compared to d1 and d4 (p<0.05). this suggests that the bs positively affected plant growth. this finding aligns with ertani et al., (2018) and chaski et al., (2022), who also reported increased fresh weight in lettuce treated with bs. this increase may be attributed to the bio-stimulant's ability to mitigate stress, optimize water use efficiency, and enhance photosynthesis. furthermore, the fresh aerial mass of the d2 treatment was clearly the highest among all treatments with a value of 216.9g compared to the other groups d3, d4 and d1 with values of 188g, 162.2g and 129.6g respectively. this suggests that a moderate bs dose (d2) optimized plant growth, while a higher dose (d4) had a similar effect to the control (d1). indeed, in our case, an increase in fresh weight by 67.35% was observed in d2 when compared to the control and in parallel an increase of 65% in fresh weight was reported with another bio-stimulant when tested by bulgari et al., in 2019. in addition, many studies revealed that lower bio-stimulant doses often yielded better fresh aerial mass results especially that fresh weight is a crucial factor in the commercial value of lettuce. (kunicki et al., 2012; bulgari et al., 2019; chebil et al., 2019; santos et al., 2009). number of leaves the dose response effects obtained with different dilutions of the bio-stimulant on the number of leaves of lettuce of each treatment in every replication r, on the day of harvest appear in table 5. table 5. the dose response effects obtained with the different bio-stimulant dilutions on the number of leaves of lettuce of each treatment in every replication r, on the day of harvest number of leaves p-value d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 r1 21 25.3 23.3 23.3 r2 24.7 23.3 22.7 24 r3 20.7 21.3 24.3 24.3 mean 22 23 23 24 0.011 *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.05. d4 exhibited the highest average number but showed no significant difference from other treatments with values of 23, 23 and 22 respectively, with a slight difference (p > 0.05). this suggests that the bio-stimulant had a minimal impact on leaf number, contrary to the findings of francesca et al., (2020), who reported an increase in fruit and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 6 published by ideas spread leaf number in tomato plants treated with a bio-stimulant. this suggests that while bio-stimulants can positively impact various plant development traits, their effect on leaf number may be influenced by specific environmental conditions, bio-stimulant formulations or targeted plants. chaski et al., (2022) demonstrated an increase in lettuce leaf number with a silica-based bio-stimulant. this aligns with khan et al., (2009), who reported that silica can promote cell division and elongation by altering plant water relations. while there was no statistically significant difference between treatments, the bio-stimulant-treated plants, particularly d4, showed a slight increase (9%) in leaf number compared to the control. this suggests that higher bio-stimulant concentrations may positively influence leaf number, contrary to the findings of chebil et al., (2019), who reported better results with lower concentrations. according to araujo et al., (2016), a higher leaf number can lead to increased leaf area, fresh weight, and yield. even though, there was no significant difference between treatments, the bio-stimulant-treated plants, especially d4, showed a slight increase in leaf number. this suggests that the bs may have a positive impact on leaf number, potentially leading to increased plant growth and yield. leaf length and width the effects of different doses of the bio-stimulant on leaf length of each treatment in every replication r, on the average length and width of 5 outer lettuce leaves are shown in table 6. table 6. effects of the different bio-stimulant concentrations of each treatment in every replication r, on the average length of 5 outer lettuce leaves on the day of harvest average length of the 5 outer lettuce leaves (cm) p-value d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 r1 12.1 16.3 15.93 14.73 r2 14.2 15.87 16.73 15.6 r3 14.2 16.93 16.3 17.3 mean 13.5 b 16.37 a 16.32 a 15.88 a 0.018 *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.05. with values of 16.37, 16.32, 15.88, and 13.5 correspondingly, the average length of the five outer lettuce leaves in groups d2, d3, and d4 was significantly different from that of the d1 group (p<0.05). it is evident that plants that have been given the bio-stimulant are far more developed than those that have not, demonstrating that the application of bio-stimulant has a beneficial impact on plant physiology, including leaf length. this aligns with gu et al., (2014) and albrecht, (2019). this could be explained by the bio-stimulant ability to enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stress and water use efficiency, promoting photosynthesis and leaf growth. however, as sibomana et al., (2020) and monireh et al., (2022) suggest, the impact on leaf length can vary. and this could also be explained by the bio-stimulant’s ability to enhance nutrient uptake, particularly potassium. potassium deficiency can lead to poor leaf quality (soltaniband et al., 2022). the 5 outer leaves in d2 and d3 had approximately similar lengths, with d2 slightly longer but not significantly (p>0.05). this suggests that minimal bio-stimulant doses are optimal for leaf length, aligning with kunicki et al., (2010) and chebil et al., (2019). d2 treated lettuces showed a 21.25% increase in leaf length compared to the control. d2 treatment yielded the longest 5 outer leaves. concerning the leaf width, the effects of variations in different doses of the bio-stimulant of each treatment in every replication r, on leaf width on the average width of 5 outer lettuce leaves results in the table below (table 7). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 7 published by ideas spread table 7. dose response effects of the different bio-stimulant concentrations of each treatment in every replication r, on the average width of 5 outer lettuce leaves on the day of harvest average width of the 5 outer lettuce leaves (cm) p-value d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 r1 15. 13 20.27 18.93 18.53 r2 16.2 19.53 19.93 17.93 r3 16. 13 19 18. 13 19.13 mean 15.82 b 19.6 a 18.99 a 18.53 a <0.001 *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.05. the average width of the 5 outer leaves in d2, d3, and d4 was significantly higher (p<0.05) than d1, with values of 19.6, 18.99, 18.53, and 15.82 respectively. this indicates that the application of bio-stimulant has a positive impact on plant physiology, including leaf width. these findings are consistent with abdelgalil et al., (2021), who also observed a positive effect of bio-stimulants on growth parameters such as leaf width. this improvement can be attributed to enhanced water use efficiency y (sibomana et al., 2020) and increased nutrient uptake, particularly potassium (soltaniband et al., 2022). d2 and d3 treatments showed the highest leaf widths, with d2 being slightly wider but not significantly different (p>0.05). this suggests that lower doses of bio-stimulant may be optimal for increasing leaf width, which is in line with the findings of kunicki et al., (2010) and chebil et al., (2019). leaf length and width are important criteria in vegetable selection (santos et al., 2009). lettuces treated with d2 exhibited a 23.9% increase in leaf width compared to the control. the d2 treatment resulted in the widest 5 outer leaves. root system volume the table 8 presents the effects of different doses of the bio-stimulant on the root system volume of each treatment in every replication r. table 8. effects of different bio-stimulant doses of each treatment in every replication r, on the root system volume, on the day of harvest. root system volume (cm3) p-value d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 r1 1.43 2.17 1.77 1.9 r2 1.1 2 1.87 1.83 r3 1.37 1.53 1.47 1.4 mean 1.3 1.9 1.7 1.71 0.092 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 8 published by ideas spread the average root system volume of the treatments did not show a significant difference between all four groups (p>0.05) but a slight superiority was noticed in groups d2, d3 and d4 comparing to d1 with values of 1.9, 1.7, 1.71, and 1.3 respectively. bio-stimulants likely positively impact root system volume, and this may be due to their natural substances that mimic or supplement plant hormones. these hormones promote root hair development and density, enhancing nutrient absorption (gu et al., 2014; colla et al., 2017; monireh et al., 2022; li et al., 2023). a robust root system is crucial for lettuce quality, which is a key factor in market selection (santos et al., 2009). while not statistically significant, d2 exhibited the highest root system volume among the bio-stimulant treatments. this suggests that even minimal concentrations of the bio-stimulants can yield positive results, aligning with chebil et al., (2019), who found optimal results with lower bio-stimulant concentrations. d2-treated lettuces exhibited a 46.15% increase in root system volume compared to the control. the d2 treatment yielded the largest root systems. 3.2 quality variation of lettuce this phase describes the influence of the different bio-stimulant doses on the quality variations of lettuce during its post-harvest lifespan. weight loss the effects of different doses of the bio-stimulant on the total percentage of weight loss of lettuces during their post-harvest lifespan in refrigerated storage, appear in table 9. table 9. the effects of different doses of the bio-stimulant on the total percentage weight loss of lettuces during its post-harvest lifespan, on refrigerated storage. weight loss (%) p-value number of days d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 0 0 0 0 0 day 4 4.739 1.235 2.670 2.836 0.582 day 7 2.316 1.271 2.015 5.147 0.471 day 14 0.488 1.296 1.528 2.145 0.141 p-value 0.214 0.993 0.855 0.571 while there were no statistically significant differences in total weight loss between treatments (p >0.05), it's evident that d1 and d4 exhibited more variable weight loss patterns during post-harvest storage compared to the more stable trends observed in d2 and d3, particularly d2. weight loss, a common post-harvest phenomenon, is associated with water loss and increased respiration rates (chitarra and chitarra, 2005; martinez et al., 2007). this leads to wilting, wrinkling, and accelerated deterioration (schvambach et al., 2020). many factors influence water loss in vegetables, but the most significant one is the percentage of moisture lost, which, as noted by manolopoulou and varzakas (2011), causes a loss of freshness, look, and texture. financial problems are directly linked to weight loss and typically lower the market value of vegetables by more than 5%; it is a very significant factor (brown and bourne, 2002). to optimize marketability, it's crucial to minimize post-harvest weight loss. d2 and d3 treatments, particularly d2, exhibited more stable weight loss patterns. this may be due to the bs ability to mitigate oxidative stress, even post-harvest, leading to reduced water loss and a more consistent weight. the moderate bs dose appears to be most effective in this regard. the best weight loss results were in favor of the use of a moderate amount of bs, especially the d2 treatment. total soluble solids or brix degree (°brix) the dose response effects of different doses of the bio-stimulant within the same day on total soluble solids (tss) or brix level during the post-harvest lifespan of lettuce, on refrigerated storage, appear in table 10. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 9 published by ideas spread table 10. the dose response effects of different doses within the same day of the bio-stimulant on total soluble solids (tss) or brix degree during the post-harvest lifespan of lettuce, in refrigerated storage. total soluble solids (tss) ° brix p-value number of days d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 1.27 0.97 1.26 1.03 b 0.792 day 4 1.99 1.53 1.77 2.16 a 0.064 day 7 2.12 a 1.46 ab 1.64 ab 1.94 aa 0.036* day 14 1.52 1.3 1.49 1.69 a 0.606 p-value 0.176 0.147 0.07 0.021* *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.05. small letters represent similarities between doses within the days and capital letters are the similarities between the days within doses. on day 7, the total soluble solids (tss) of d2 and d3 treatments showed a significant difference (p<0.05) and were lower compared to d1 and d4 treatments, with values of 1.46, 1.64, 2.12, and 1.94 respectively. there was no significant difference between the treatments on days 0, 4, and 14 (p>0.05). this difference can be explained by the moderate amount of bio-stimulant used in the d2 and d3 treatments; during refrigerated storage, resulting in a moderate amount of organic acids present in them. in contrast, the high amount of bio-stimulant in the d4 treatment did not show any significant difference with the control group. according to amorim et al., (2010) the bitterness of lettuce is influenced by the ratio of tss to organic acid content, and a balance between sweetness and acidity is required for a more pleasing flavor. additionally, tss is influenced by environmental factors such as light and temperature, as demonstrated by andriolo et al., (2005). in lettuce the taste is primarily determined by bitterness, which is influenced by organic acids, lipids and phenols, and sweetness, which is determined by glucose, fructose, sucrose and fibers. although lettuce is naturally low in sugar and rich in phenolic compounds, its tss content is not considered a significant quality indicator. however, tss is directly correlated with preserving a sweet taste over time (martinez, 2010). tss values decreased over time in all treatments, and which is consistent with rashidi et al., (2015). however, this contradicts cândido et al., (2015), who observed increased tss with bs. this discrepancy may be due to the different lettuce variety used, highlighting the complex and not always positive impact of bs on post-harvest tss. a significant difference was also noticed in d4 treatment, with the moderate value on day 0, and the highest on day 4, followed by a decline. factors such as senescence, starch, and organic acid depletion may contribute to this reduction, as suggested by kaewklin et al., (2018). tss peaked on day 4 for all treatments indicating mature lettuce. as noted by balaguera-lópez et al., (2016), tss content often increases during fruit and vegetable ripening processes. however, over-maturity can lead to bitterness and reduced marketability (alemu & kim, 2024). nevertheless, d2 treatment maintained the lowest tss values throughout the refrigerated storage period. this could be attributed to a slower metabolic activity in the post-harvest days, resulting in higher quality after storage compared to the control. according to shezi et al., (2024), higher metabolic activity in leafy vegetables accelerates the loss of their quality. the best tss results were observed in the d2 treatment. ph the effects of different bio-stimulant doses on the ph of lettuce during and after refrigerated storage are shown in table 11. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 10 published by ideas spread table 11. the effects of different bio-stimulant doses on the ph of lettuce during and after refrigerated storage. ph p-value number of days d1 d2 d3 d4 day 0 5.97 5.97 b 5.99 5.99 0.955 day 4 5.96 5.91 b 5.94 5.91 0.845 day 7 6.04 6.14 a 6.03 5.99 0.161 day 14 6.02 a 6.2 aa 5.93ab 5.95 ab 0.043* p-value 0.623 0.005* 0.464 0.389 *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.05. small letters represent similarities between doses within the days and capital letters are the similarities between the days within doses. d3 and d4 treatments exhibited significantly lower ph on day 14 (p < 0.05) compared to d1 and d2, with values of 5.93, 5.95, 6.02, and 6.20 respectively. meanwhile there was no significant difference between the treatments on days 0, 4, and 7 (p >0.05). this suggests that higher bio-stimulant doses may influence ph over time, possibly due to the bs's ability to help plants tolerate abiotic stresses, which can impact metabolic processes and ph. ascorbic acid, the primary form of vitamin c in lettuce, constitutes 55-65% of the total vitamin c content (patil et al., 2017). increased storage duration and respiration can contribute to ascorbic acid reduction, as reported by sharma et al., (2011). the acidity of ascorbic acid significantly impacts lettuce flavor (aroucha et al., 2015). as the total acid content decreases, ph increases, and vice versa, influencing the overall taste profile. the d2 treatment showed a significant difference in ph between days 0 and 4 compared to days 7 and 14 (p < 0.05). the highest ph values were observed on days 7 and 14, indicating a potential increase in sweetness during post-harvest storage. the d2 treatment exhibited lower ascorbic acid content and higher ph levels during post-harvest storage, potentially leading to a sweeter taste. this suggests that a minimal bs dose can improve taste, even post-harvest. however, these findings contradict slavica et al., (2016), who observed a ph decrease with bs application. the best results that give a sweeter taste after storage were in favor of the d2 treatment, after 7 days of refrigerated storage. 4. conclusion and perspectives our study demonstrates that regarding the phase of lettuce productivity, moderate doses of bio-stimulants can significantly enhance both yield and post-harvest quality in lettuce cultivated under nft systems. the d2 treatment, led to a 67.35% increase in fresh mass, 21.25% longer leaves, 23.9% wider leaves, and 46.15% larger root systems compared to the control. while the number of leaves wasn't significantly different, the d4 treatment (highest dose consisting of 13.5ml/week) still yielded 9% more leaves. the best results of fresh aerial mass, leaf length, width, and root volume were all in favor of d2 treatment (lowest dose consisting of 0.675ml/week). this suggests that a moderate application of p4p-vita has a positive impact on lettuce productivity, outperforming other treatment groups (d1, d3, and d4). in the post-harvest phase of lettuce shelf life in cold storage, p4p-vita biostimulant significantly improved lettuce quality, especially at moderate doses. lettuces treated with d2 experienced minimal weight loss and maintained relatively low tss levels, indicating better quality during postharvest refrigerated storage at 5°c and 85-90% relative humidity. additionally, d2 treatment resulted in higher ph levels after 7 days of storage, suggesting a potential improvement in taste. these findings suggest that a moderate application of p4p-vita especially d2 treatment can extend the shelf life of lettuce. in summary, we can conclude that d2 treatment was the best among all treatments, playing a positive role in the productivity and various quality aspects of lettuces grown in a hydroponic system. d2, at a most moderate and economical dose, yielded the best and higher results. these results suggest potential benefits for hydroponic lettuce production in similar agricultural contexts, warranting further field-scale validation. the effectiveness of bio-stimulants in enhancing crop quality and yield varies significantly based on the lettuce variety, crop species, and environmental conditions. lettuce cultivars exhibit diverse physiological responses to bio-stimulants, influenced by traits like root structure and nutrient absorption capacity. these variations require careful cultivar selection to ensure reliable and applicable findings, as generalizing results across varieties can lead to inaccuracies. additionally, biostimulants interact uniquely with different crops due to distinct physiological and biochemical pathways, highlighting the importance of crop-specific research. 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(2011). effect of storage conditions on the sensory quality, colour, and texture of fresh-cut minimally processed cabbage with the addition of ascorbic acid, citric acid, and calcium chloride. food and nutrition sciences, 02(09), 956–963. https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2011.29130 martinez, a. (2010). cambios en las propiedades fisicoquímicas de cuatro variedades de lechuga (lactuca sativa l.) durante el almacenamiento. retrieved december 8, 2024, from dntb.gov.ua website: https://ouci.dntb.gov.ua/en/works/lxaj1j09/ martinez, i., ares, g., & lema, p. (2007). influence of cut and packaging film on sensory quality of fresh-cut butterhead lettuce (lactuca sativa l., cv. wang). journal of food quality, 31, 48–66. mohammed, m., zoltan, p., ahmed, h. m., & quilong, l. (2023). effects of brt® ever green and aqua perla as substrate improvement agents on vegetative growth, yield, and nutrient of lettuce (lactuca sativa l.). journal of king saud university science, 35(5), 102718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2023.102718 monireh, m. s., zahra dehghanian, khosro balilashaki, & astatkie, t. (2022, july 8). application of biostimulants to improve agronomic and physiological responses of plants: a review. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 6, no. 1; 2024 13 published by ideas spread 85581-5.00012-4 patil, s. s., dhumal, s. s., patgaonkar, d. r., garande, v. k., & kaur, m. 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(2022). compounding with humic acid improved nutrient uniformity in drip fertigation systems using brackish water: the perspective of emitter clogging. agricultural water management, 269, 107670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107670 yaseen, a. a., & takacs-hajos, m. (2022). the effect of plant biostimulants on the macronutrient content and ion ratio of several lettuce (lactuca sativa l.) cultivars grown in a plastic house. south african journal of botany, 147, 223–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2022.01.001 zhang, x., yin, j., ma, y., peng, y., fenton, o., wang, w., & chen, q. (2024). unlocking the potential of biostimulants derived from organic waste and by-product sources: improving plant growth and tolerance to abiotic stresses in agriculture. environmental technology & innovation, 34, 103571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2024.103571 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p133 133 published by ideas spread rural livelihood diversification in bangladesh: effect on household poverty and inequality shakila salam1 1 associate professor, institute of agribusiness and development studies, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh correspondence: shakila salam, associate professor, institute of agribusiness and development studies, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh. e-mail: shampa.bau@gmail.com received: april 1, 2020 accepted: april 18, 2020 online published: april 26, 2020 abstract the pervasiveness of poverty continues to be a daunting challenge for bangladesh. this study attempts to examine the effect of different livelihood diversification on rural household poverty and income inequality. a panel dataset, which is used in this study, was collected in the three different years (1988, 2000 and 2008) from 62 villages across 57 districts of bangladesh. besides, 153 households from three districts of bangladesh were also randomly selected as primary data. multidimensional poverty index (mpi) was used to measure poverty whereas gini coefficients and decomposition of gini coefficients were used to measure inequality and to identify marginal effects of certain livelihood income source on total inequality. the results reveal that diversifying livelihood through income source changes has an impact on the poverty level and inequality among rural households. following these changes, the overall poverty situation has been improving and income distribution has been worsening over the years. households drastically reduce their poverty by diversifying their livelihood from only agriculture to part-time farming. among different non-farm income sources, only self-employment has a positive contribution in decreasing income inequality since 2000. incomes from migration and wage-employment widen income inequality in rural bangladesh. therefore, policy options should strive to expand rural industry and scope of self-employment in the rural areas along with agricultural sector development. keywords: livelihood diversification, poverty, inequality, multidimensional poverty index (mpi), gini coefficient, bangladesh 1. introduction the pervasiveness of poverty continues to be a stubborn problem in bangladesh, where about 22 million people still living below the poverty line (world bank, 2018). though the country has made significant progress in decreasing poverty levels over the past two decades, it still has a sizeable proportion of its population living in poverty or extreme poverty. the situation going to worst as levels of inequality continues to rise steadily. poverty rate has been reduced by 1.2% during 2010 to 2016 which was 1.7% during 2005 to 2010 (alam, 2019). in the last report of hies (hies, 2019), the headcount poverty rates under the upper and lower poverty line have been found 24.3% and 12.9% respectively in 2016. these rates have further decreased to 21.0% and 10.4% in 2018 (alam, 2019). however, in the meantime, the income gini coefficient has been increased from 0.45 to 0.48, which implies deteriorating condition of income inequality in the country. poverty in rural areas is more severe than in urban areas. according to the hies (2019) estimation, about 18.90 percent of urban poverty rate in comparison to 26.40 percent of rural indicates the existence of a wide gap within these areas. moreover, a strong negative correlation between land ownership and incidence of poverty was also found where landless, marginal (cultivating less than 0.20ha) and small farm households (cultivating 0.21-1ha) are the main victims of poverty. in 2016, about 34.4 percent marginal and 23.8 percent small landholders lived under the poverty line. so, small-scale landholder’s survival and improvement of their economic condition play an important role for poverty reduction, living conditions and overall welfare of the society (salam et al., 2019). government also prioritized the poverty reduction of these extremely poor households by considering it as one of the goals to achieve within next five years (fyp, 2015). moreover, poverty and inequality mostly relates to the income of the households, which they receive from a diverse portfolio of activities. hence, the economic situation and the standard of living of the households cannot be fully described by only on-farm income (castagnini et al., 2004). therefore, rural households are diversified their livelihood from single occupation (farming) to multiple occupation. rural non-farm sector is one of the major sources of these multiple occupation. participation in rural non-farm activities has two different as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 134 published by ideas spread directions, namely demand-pull and distress-push processes (barrett et al., 2001; reardon et al., 2007). in demandpull process, agricultural labors participate in the most lucrative employment opportunities of the rural non-farm sector. according to distress-push process, insufficient agricultural income and other factors push agricultural labors into the low paid rural non-farm sector. according to möllers & buchenrieder (2005), based on theory, both of these processes have the potentiality to reduce poverty. participation in different rural non-farm activities exerts a positive impact on rural poverty if return per labor unit from the non-farm sector is higher than those in agriculture (chuta & liedholm, 1979). in bangladesh, about 40 percent of poverty reduction between 2000 and 2005 was due to rural non-farm income growth, whereas only 21 percent in the same period was accounted for by farm income growth (world bank, 2013). however, the poverty-decreasing effect of the non-farm sector is found in many research works, but the effect of a combination of farm and non-farm sector on poverty and income-inequality is still unclear. malek & usami (2009b) found participation in the non-farm sector in bangladesh has an income poverty reducing effect but not educational poverty. in china, non-farm employment was found as a solution of reducing poverty, its depth and income inequality as well (dejanvry et al., 2005). likewise, inequality-decreasing effects of non-farm employment was also found in pakistan, as it can provide an opportunity to the landless or marginal farmers to earn more and thus reducing the gap of the income distribution (adams, 1995). contrarily, rahman (1999) found non-farm income as a major contributor to increasing of overall income-inequality. rich literatures drawing on a number of developing countries concluded that the overall impact of non-farm earning on income distribution is mixed (haggleblade et al., 2009; lanjouw & lanjouw, 2001). in the context of bangladesh, the relevant previous studies identified rural non-farm income as a key force behind uneven income distribution (hossain et al., 2000; malek & usami, 2009a). but these analyses do not consider different livelihood diversification, and even income from remittance or other transfers, which is one of the important sources of nonfarm income. besides, the effect of a combination of farm and non-farm sector on poverty especially using a modern method like mpi is still unavailable in the existing literatures. for policy purposes, it is more worthy to know which type of livelihood diversification has a greater contribution to poverty reduction. therefore, considering these importance, the present study attempts to explore the role of livelihood diversification on poverty and income distribution in bangladesh. 2. materials and methods 2.1 data sources both primary and secondary data were used in this research. as a secondary source, an eight years panel data set was used which was collected in 1987-1988 by the institute of development studies (bids) from 62 villages across 57 districts. the data set was further revised by international rice research institute (irri) in 2000-2001 and bangladesh rural advancement committee (brac) in 2008 in the same households to collect relevant information. this whole data set was collected from research and evaluation division (red) of brac in 2014. the total numbers of used observations in this research are 510, which were collected and balanced from three years panel data set (1988, 2000 and 2008). though this dataset is quite out dated, during research this was the latest data set of that panel. for updating information, a cross-sectional primary data set was collected through a field survey of 153 households located in 3 districts during july to november 2014. following panel data set, same villages and households from the corresponding districts were chosen as sample. moreover, other required secondary information for this study was obtained through reviewing literatures such as publications, research articles, working paper etc. besides, some important information gathered from different authentic websites (fao, ophi, vdsa, etc.) and experts of the relevant field through email communication. 2.2 analytical techniques 2.2.1 multidimensional poverty index (mpi) traditionally, poverty can be measured by two methods: (1) direct method and (2) indirect method. a set of selected basic needs and rights, whether satisfied or not is indicated by the direct approach. on the other hand, people’s income drop below the basic needs identified poverty line or not is determined by the indirect approach. although both methods have been largely applied in different aspects, but direct method is popularly used nowadays due to some limitations of income approach. for example, as the consumption pattern is not always same, earning specified money for moving over the poverty line does not guarantee that he or she can fulfil basic needs (sen, 1981). moreover, considering only one factor like income or expenditure may not necessarily explain the real full situation of poverty. a lot of factors like education level, health or nutrition situation, living standard can affect simultaneously a person or household’s poverty situation. considering all of these and for implementing direct approach, multidimensional poverty index (mpi) was developed by alkire & foster (2007). in the mpi, adjusted headcount ratio (mo) is measured instead of simple headcount ratio for estimating poverty. actually, adjusted as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 135 published by ideas spread head count ratio, mo is an approach that combines the incidence of poverty measurement and the intensity of poverty measurement. table 1. dimensions, indicators and cut-offs used in mpi calculation dimension indicator deprived if… education (0.33) years of schooling (0.33) at least 1 household member aged more than 14 years has not completed 5 years of schooling health (0.33) per capita per day calorie intake (0.33) per capita per day food calorie intake of aeu in kcal< 2122 (note 1) living standard (0.33) house condition (0.11) house has mud floor and tin or straw roof electricity (0.11) household has no electricity service or solar energy or battery land asset (0.11) household owns less than 0.20ha of land note: aeu = adult equivalent unit; figures in the parentheses indicate respective weights. source: own compilation after modification of alkire & santos (2013) only five indicators were used in this measurement due to limitation of data. in a particular dataset, if it has less than ten indicators, same weighting principle can be applied (alkire & santos 2013). thus as detailed in table 1, natural weights, adopting equal importance of the dimensions and indicators (within dimensions) are used. that means each indicator within one dimension is equally weighted like as equal weight of dimensions. according to mpi, sample households are classified into poor and non-poor groups based on selected indicators in this study. deprivation cut-offs are selected in this way so that it assures the sufficiency to be non-deprived in each indicator and dimension, and vice versa. then, the sum of each deprivation multiplied by its respective weight indicates the multidimensional deprivation score, c. finally, following alkire & santos (2013) mpi calculation procedure, a poverty cut-off of 33.3 percent is used to differentiate between poor and non-poor households based on multidimensional indicators. this implies that, a household having more than 33.3 percent deprivation score is a poor household, whereas holding less than or equal to 33.3 percent deprivation score is a non-poor household. adjusted head count ratio or mpi (mo) represents the product of two measures: (1) the incidence of poverty or multidimensional headcount ratio (h) and (2) the intensity of poverty (a). the proportion of the poor in the total population is calculated by the multidimensional headcount ratio, h. this percentage also indicates the incidence of multidimensional poverty. thus, head count ratio (h) was calculated by the following ratio: 𝐻 = (1) where, ‘q’ denotes multidimensional poor households and ‘n’ indicates the sample population. moreover, average proportion of poor households weighted indicators is called the intensity of multidimensional poverty (a). this intensity is computed in two steps. at first, adding up all the weighted deprivation scores of the poor. then dividing this score by the total number of poor households. therefore, intensity of poverty (a) is computed by: q c a q i  == 1 (2) where, c represents the deprivation score of poor households from ith to qth. 2.2.2 gini coefficient and gini decomposition in case of the inequality measurement, this study focuses on income distribution instead of consumption. the main reason behind this is that income inequality can clearly visualize the change in overall distribution rather than consumption inequality. gini ratio for income inequality would provide policy guidance that the ratio for consumption components would not provide (khan, 2005). according to möllers & buchenrieder (2011), there as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 136 published by ideas spread are two ways to measure a specific income source’s impact on total income distribution. the first and most wellknown way is to compare the values of gini coefficient for total incomes and gini coefficients for excluding the income sources of interest. if gini based on excluded income’s value, is greater (smaller) than the gini based on total income, that excluded income source positively (negatively) contribute to the income inequality reduction. the decomposition of gini coefficient is the second method to identify marginal effects of certain sources on total inequality. among different instrument to measure inequality, the gini coefficient is the most popular and frequently used measure of statistical distribution. the range of the gini coefficient lies between 0 and 1. the value of the coefficient 1 indicates maximal inequality while 0 indicates perfect equal state. gini coefficient can be measured by a number of indexes or methods such as robin hood index, hoover index, atkinson’s index, theil index etc. in this study, gini coefficient is measured by:  −= = ++ +−−= 1 1 11 ))((1 nk k kkkk yyxxg (3) where g, x and y denote the gini value, percentage of households and percentage of their corresponding income respectively. computation of gini index as a ratio of two areas in the lorenz curve is easy to understand and apply. there are also some limitations of the gini index to measure inequality as the same gini index can hold two very different distributions of income. though this situation is not a common case, it is difficult to understand the actual situation of inequalities between two groups. decomposing inequality needs overall inequality to be subdivided into its all components or sources. by assessing the contribution of each component to total inequality, policy makers can make effective policies and design tools that can reduce divergence in the distribution of their interested sectors. therefore, decomposition of the gini coefficient of total income can easily be used for identifying the equalizing or dis-equalizing effect of different sources of income. if household income is categorized into k sources and y1 … y2… yk indicate those sources of income, its overall income (y) is  = = k i iyy 1 (4) following pyatt et al. (1980) and stark et al. (1986), the decomposed gini coefficient for total income (g) can be represented as follows:  = = k k kkk sgrg 1 (5) where, sk = the share of kth income source in total income, which ultimately implies the importance of kth income source regarding total income gk = the gini coefficient of kth income source, that indicates the degree of equal or unequal distribution of that income source rk = the correlation between kth income source and the total income distribution following l´opez-feldman (2006), marginal effect of income change can be estimated using this gini decomposition technique. that means, find out how much total income inequality will change for 1 percent change in the kth source of income, holding income from all other sources constant. if change of kth income source is indicated by ek, the partial derivative of the gini-coefficient with respect to ek is equal to: )( grgs e g kkk k −= ∂ ∂ (6) where, g implies the gini coefficient of total income inequality before making any change to the income. marginal effect relative to the overall gini is calculated by dividing equation (6) by g: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 137 published by ideas spread k kkkk s g rgs g eg −=∂∂ (7) 3. results and discussion 3.1 multidimensional poverty status over time a household is identified as poor if it is deprived in at least one third of the weighted multidimensional indicators that are described in table 1. multidimensional poverty rate (mpi) and its two components (incidence of poverty and average intensity of deprivation) are presented in table 2. based on the household’s involvement in livelihood earning activities over the years, households are categorized into two groups: stable households and diversified households (note 2). the result shows that overall, both incidence of poverty (h) and average intensity across the poor (a) are declining over the years. the multidimensional poverty rate decreased from 0.43 in 2000 to 0.30 in 2008. cross-sectional data (collected in 2014) also indicate that the poverty rate follows the decreasing trend in bangladesh, as mpi is found 0.26 in 2014 (note 3). ophi (2011) and ophi (2015) reported that mpi values for bangladesh were 0.29 in 2007 and 0.25 in 2011. this type of small difference in result is not surprising, as the sampled households are not same. moreover, estimated intensity of poverty in 2008 implies that households are deprived in 67.92 percent of the weighted indicators, which is smaller than the deprivation value of 2000 (71.35 percent). the next concern of this study is to look deeper into the changing pattern of poverty among different diversified groups. as in the overall poverty situation, poverty rates of stable households also decreased during the period 2000-2008. but their poverty reduction rate depends on which types of activities the households are involved in. for instance, household involvement in only agricultural activities reduces 27.54 percent poverty (mpi), whereas non-farm households reduce 32.89 percent poverty by doing only non-farm activities during 2000-2008. however, the highest reduction of poverty (43.33 percent) is observed in part-time farming households involved in a combination of agricultural activities and some sort of non-farm activities during this period. the poverty rate of part-time farming households is also found to be smaller than the agricultural households in 2014 (table 2). in the case of diversified households, households drastically reduced their poverty by shifting to part-time farming from only agricultural work during 2000-2008. specifically, diversifying into a combination of non-farm and agricultural activities contribute to a decrease of 41.19 percent poverty value of only agriculture based households. even a diversification to part-time farming from a pure non-farm group is found to be a more poverty reducing measure than leaving farming activities and fully joining the non-farm sector. salam & bauer (2018) also found that a very small percentage of households are shifted to the only agriculture group from nonfarm or part-time farming groups during this time. comparatively, lower effect on poverty may be one of the reasons for their indolence in agricultural activities. therefore, movements from only agriculture to part-time farming and the non-farm sector are more welfare generating strategies (by reducing poverty) for rural households in bangladesh. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 138 published by ideas spread 20 14 m pi (h x a ) 0. 36 0. 30 0. 27 0. 26 in te ns ity o f po ve rty , a (% ) 72 .3 3 70 .3 3 76 .6 7 69 .0 1 h ea d co un t ra tio , h (% ) 50 .0 0 42 .3 7 35 .7 6 37 .8 5 ta bl e 2. c ha ng es o f m ul tid im en sio na l p ov er ty le ve l o f d iff er en t e co no m ic a ct iv ity a do pt ed h ou se ho ld s ( 20 00 -2 00 8) ch an ge of m pi (% ) -2 7. 54 -3 2. 89 -4 3. 33 -2 7. 67 -4 1. 19 -1 5. 30 -2 9. 64 -8 .1 1 -2 2. 59 -2 8. 91 so ur ce : a ut ho r’ s c al cu la tio n ba se d on p an el d at a (2 00 020 08 ) a nd fi el d su rv ey (2 01 4) 20 08 m pi (h x a ) 0. 40 0. 26 0. 17 0. 38 0. 24 0. 33 0. 25 0. 37 0. 27 0. 30 in te ns ity o f po ve rty , a (% ) 66 .6 7 68 .0 0 66 .6 7 66 .6 7 66 .6 7 70 .0 0 66 .6 7 70 .3 7 69 .5 6 67 .9 2 h ea d co un t ra tio , h (% ) 59 .5 2 38 .1 7 24 .8 7 56 .6 7 35 .7 1 47 .6 1 38 .0 0 51 .9 2 38 .9 8 44 .6 8 20 00 m pi (h x a ) 0. 55 0. 39 0. 29 0. 52 0. 40 0. 39 0. 36 0. 40 0. 35 0. 43 in te ns ity o f po ve rty , a (% ) 71 .8 7 70 .3 7 68 .8 8 74 .6 0 68 .6 8 79 .4 8 72 .0 0 69 .3 8 71 .2 6 71 .3 5 h ea d co un t ra tio , h (% ) 76 .1 9 54 .9 6 42 .4 5 70 .0 0 58 .9 2 49 .5 0 50 .0 0 57 .3 1 49 .1 5 59 .8 3 ca te go ry st ab le h ou se ho ld s o nl y ag ric ul tu re n on -fa rm p ar t-t im e fa rm in g d iv er sif ie d h ou se ho ld s o nl y ag ri. to n on -fa rm o nl y ag ri. to p ar t-t im e fa rm in g n on -fa rm to o nl y ag ri. n on -fa rm to p ar t-t im e fa rm in g p ar t-t im e fa rm in g to o nl y ag ri. p ar t-t im e fa rm in g to n on -fa rm a ll ho us eh ol ds as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 139 published by ideas spread figure 1. percentage of the mpi poor household in different years (2000-2008-2014) source: author’s own computation. the proportions of the households that are poor and deprived in each indicator over time are presented by a pentagon shaped radar diagram (figure 1). deprivation of the non-poor households is not included in this calculation. figure 1 shows that patterns of deprivation across indicators vary from time to time in rural areas. in the case of panel data interpretation, housing conditions and electricity facilities greatly improved during the period 2000 to 2008. it is found that deprivation of the poor in calorie intake and years of schooling also decreased, while land deprivation increased. as farm size decreased day by day in bangladesh, the increasing trend of land deprivation is expected in the case of rural-poor. on the other hand, cross-sectional data shows that the incidence for each deprivation is reduced in 2014 from the previous periods except land deprivation. 3.2 income inequality over time using panel and cross-sectional data, gini coefficients from 1988 to 2014 are calculated and shown in table 3. this distribution of income is also calculated by excluding total non-farm income and different sources of nonfarm incomes from total income. the value of the gini coefficient for the selected sample increased from 0.48 in 1988 to 0.51 in 2000, which slightly decreased to 0.50 in 2008. these figures indicate the existence of large income inequality in the country. compared to the result of previous years, the gini coefficient value for the year 2014 (0.36) indicates that income distribution is markedly less unequal. as this value is calculated using crosssectional data (not the previous same sampled households), it does not show the actual change of previous households but it can show a general trend of change. though similar pattern of change is also found in inequality estimation at national level, but rural income gini slightly increased to 0.431 in 2010 from 0.428 in 2005 (hies, 2010). for identifying the effect of income generation from different sources, at first total income is categorized into agricultural income and non-farm income. gini coefficients are calculated by excluding total non-farm income, even different forms of non-farm income separately over time for understanding their impact on income inequality. in the case of total non-farm income, overall slightly smaller values of the gini coefficients are found in 1988 and 2008. this implies that in those periods, non-farm income had more unequal distribution in rural areas. this similar finding is also found in some other developing countries like ghana, uganda and jordan (canagarajah et al., 2001; senadza, 2011). however, income from self-employment activities has a positive contribution for equalizing income distribution from 2000 to 2014. this result is also affirmed by the partial coefficients analysis using decomposition of gini coefficients. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 140 published by ideas spread table 3. gini coefficients of rural income based on income sources income gini coefficients 1988 2000 2008 2014 total income 0.48 0.51 0.50 0.36 income from total non-farm excluded 0.46 0.53 0.48 0.38 income from wage employment excluded 0.47 0.51 0.48 0.40 income from migration excluded 0.43 0.48 0.47 0.32 income from self-employment excluded 0.38 0.56 0.55 0.40 source: author’s calculation based on panel data (1988-2008) and field survey (2014) the contribution of different sources of income on inequality of rural households depends largely on which type of income source the households are involved in. each income source’s contribution to total inequality is calculated using gini decomposition technique following the methodology explained in previous section. these contributions of different income sources for four specified years are shown in table 4. in this study, marginal contribution of agricultural income to total income inequality is found negative for all selected years and self-employment income is found negative since 2000. that means, self-employment activities have helped to reduce income inequality gap since 2000. this negative sign implies a positive contribution to income inequality, which is also expressed by decreasing gini coefficient value (gk). in 2000, by holding other source’s income as constant, a 1 percent increase in agricultural and self-employment income reduce about 0.11 percent and 0.03 percent of total income inequality of rural households respectively. table 4. inequality decomposition by income source for rural households (1988-2014) ye ar income source income share (sk) gini coefficient (gk) gini correlation with total income (rk) relative share of income inequality marginal effect (% change) 19 88 agriculture 0.56 0.47 0.77 0.42 -0.14 wage employment 0.12 0.87 0.62 0.14 0.01 remittance 0.10 0.97 0.94 0.20 0.10 self-employment 0.21 0.70 0.70 0.24 0.03 20 00 agriculture 0.43 0.53 0.71 0.32 -0.11 wage employment 0.16 0.88 0.81 0.14 0.10 remittance 0.15 0.79 0.56 0.19 0.04 self-employment 0.25 0.69 0.53 0.35 -0.03 20 08 agriculture 0.40 0.55 0.72 0.36 -0.09 wage employment 0.15 0.86 0.68 0.13 0.02 remittance 0.23 0.89 0.88 0.32 0.09 self-employment 0.21 0.66 0.55 0.19 -0.02 20 14 agriculture 0.60 0.41 0.63 0.48 -0.13 wage employment 0.10 0.83 0.43 0.08 0.02 remittance 0.17 0.86 0.78 0.31 0.13 self-employment 0.13 0.67 0.31 0.14 -0.02 source: author’s calculation based on panel data (1988-2008) and field survey (2014) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 141 published by ideas spread another point is that the calculated gini coefficients for different income sources are higher than the coefficient for total income. as all households did not earn income from each of the income sources, the value of calculated gini coefficient is comparatively higher. during last 3 decades, minimum gini coefficient value is found in case of agricultural income in 2014 (0.41) and maximum value is found for remittance in 1988 (0.97). agricultural income, as might be expected, provides the highest share of total income and also highly contributes to the overall inequality during the study period. for instance, agricultural income accounted for 56 percent of total income and was responsible for 42 percent of income inequality in 1988. the share of remittances has been increasing steadily, while it is mostly unequally distributed (0.89 in 2008). even the gini correlation between remittance and total income is higher compared to other income sources. this implies that remittances make rich people richer. however expectedly, wage income influences income inequality positively. that means a small group of households earn higher income from this source, except all households in the rural area. this result confirms the findings of canagarajah et al. (2001) and senadza, (2011), where wage employment and self-employment were also identified as income inequality increasing and decreasing sources respectively. as wage employments, namely high-return activities require higher education, special skills and knowledge; all rural poor people cannot participate in these activities due to these barriers. comparatively richer households can afford to overcome these barriers and enjoy higher income from that sector. some poor households participate in low-return wage-employment activities but this generated income is not sufficiently high to reduce overall income inequality. on the other hand, self-employment may not have strict requirements like wage-employment, which resulted more participation of poor households in these activities and ultimately reduce income inequality. in general, it is clear from this decomposition of income sources that agriculture and self-employment contribute positively to reduce overall income inequality in rural areas. on the other hand, migration increases this income inequality gap in rural bangladesh. 4. conclusions and policy recommendation the rural economy of bangladesh shows indications of growing inequality between resource-poor and rich households, in spite of progress in poverty reduction. the poverty reduction rate of household depends on which types of activities households are involved in. however, the highest reduction of poverty is observed in part-time farming households (43.33 percent) and following non-farm households (32.89 percent) during 2000-2008. households drastically reduce their poverty by diversifying their economic activity from only agricultural work to part-time farming. it is often assumed that participation in non-farm employment would worsen income and asset distribution. this existing concept is somewhat confirmed by the results of this study. agricultural activities and only self-employment (in different form of non-farm activities) have positive contribution to income equality. incomes from migration and wage-employment widen income inequality in rural bangladesh. importance of non-farm activities like self-employment and wage based activities cannot be denied in the rural economic growth of bangladesh. these activities not only absorb excess rural labor but also reduce poverty and improve agricultural status through earning cash income. therefore, policy options should strive to combine development of the agricultural sector, and the expansion of industry and other sectors. establishment of small and medium industries by both public and private entrepreneur should be promoted. on the other hand, easy accessibility of short-term and long-term cheap credit schemes will be made available which will motivate households to become involved in self-employment based activities. besides, it is required to make rural people more eligible to participate in the non-farm sector by providing higher education in the rural areas. acknowledgement authors acknowledged her thanks to the german academic exchange service (daad) for providing logistic and financial support to conduct this study. references adams, r. h., & he, j. j. 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(2013). bangladesh poverty assessment, world bank, washington dc. notes note 1. the conversion factor was used for converting consumed food to calorie content, which was found in the study of shaheen et al. (2013) and nahar et al. (2013) cited in akhter (2015). for calculating per capita calorie intake, at first all members of households of different ages were converted into adult male equivalent scales using calorie based adult equivalent ratio scales. this scale was adopted from bermudez et al. (2012) cited in akhter (2015). note 2. those households involved in the same type of livelihood activities in 2008 as 2000 are termed as a stable households group. on the other hand, those households that shifted from one activity group to another within the 2000-2008 periods are treated as diversified households. note 3. about 40 percent of the sample of the field survey (2014) was drawn from the samples of the panel survey (2000-2008). copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v1n1p47 47 published by ideas spread influence of establishment methods on yield and yield parameters of finger millet (eleusine coracana l. gaertn) in ward 24, zaka district nyasha sakadzo1, gift bvekwa1 & kasirayi makaza1 1 department of soil and plant sciences, faculty of agricultural and natural sciences, great zimbabwe university, zimbabwe correspondence: nyasha sakadzo, department of soil and plant sciences. faculty of agricultural and natural sciences, great zimbabwe university, p.o. box 1235 masvingo. zimbabwe. tel: 263-775-985-724. e-mail: nsakadzo87@gmail.com received: december 7, 2019 accepted: december 27, 2019 online published: january 1, 2020 abstract finger millet is a climate compliant crop; its production remains low due to poor establishment methods. a field experiment was conducted during the rainy season of 2018/19 at dorcas charare plot in ward 24, zaka district to investigate the effects of establishment methods on yield and yield parameters of finger millet (eleusine coracana l. gaertn). the experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (rcbd) with three treatments namely broadcasting, hand drilling and transplanting replicated three times. results on grain yield showed that transplanting method had the highest yield of 0.51t/ha whilst drilling and broadcasting scored 0.40t/ha and 0.35t/ha respectively. transplanting method significantly (p<0.05) influenced higher number of tillers (7.13) per hill followed by drilling (2.40) and lastly broadcasting (2.13). significant differences (p<0.05) were noted on panicle number with transplanting scoring the highest (8.13) and broadcasting the lowest (3.13). it can be concluded from the study that transplanting method realized a higher panicle number, tiller number and grain yield. farmers must adopt transplanting as an establishment method in finger millet production. keywords: finger millet, panicle number, hill, climate, compliant, yield, broadcasting, drilling 1. introduction and background finger millet (eleusine coracana l. gaertn) belongs to family poaceae (nepal agricultural research council, 2014). it is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas of africa and asia. it is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species probably evolved from its wild relative eleusine africana l. (adunga et al., 2011). finger millet is a tufted annual cereal crop growing 40-150 cm tall, taking between 2.5 and 6 months to mature. it is a short-day plant with a growing optimum 12 hours of daylight for most varieties (adunga et al., 2011). . it has narrow, grass like leaves and many tillers and branches. the head consists of a group of digitately arranged spikes. finger millet is grown for its edible seeds. the seeds, which may be white, light brown, or dark brown, are consumed in a variety of forms including as unleavened bread made from milled flour. various types of porridge and alcoholic beverages are also prepared from the seeds (alumira and rusike, 2005). finger millet originated in east africa (ethiopian and ugandan highlands) and was introduced in india around 2000 bce. it was claimed to have been found in an indian archaeological site dated to 1800 bce (late iron age) (bayala et al., 2002). according to bayala et al. (2002), the oldest record of it from an archaeological site is from africa 8th century ad. interesting crop characteristics of finger millet are the ability to withstand cultivation at altitudes over 2000 m above sea level, its high drought tolerance, and the long storage time of the grain. it is an important food cereal crop of semi-arid tropics particularly by communal small scale and subsistence farmers under dry-land production. the main growing area of finger millet ranges from 20°n to 20°s, meaning mainly the semiarid to arid tropics. nevertheless, finger millet is found to be grown at 30°n in the himalaya region (india and nepal) (bayala et al., 2002). according to beddington (2010a), the majority of worldwide finger millet farmers grew it under rain fed conditions, although yields often can be significantly improved when irrigation is applied. heat tolerance of finger millet is high. for most finger millet varieties, the optimal average growth temperature is about 27 °c, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 48 published by ideas spread while the minimal temperatures should not be lower than 18 °c (beddington, 2010a). relative to other species (pearl millet and sorghum), finger millet has a higher tolerance to cool temperatures (beddington, 2010b). devi and sathyabama (2014) postulates that finger millet is important for its nutritional value in the diet of people. the grain is high in dietary fiber and calcium. it also has medicinal attributes and used by diverse communities for making special foods for diabetics, gluten free food for people suffering from celiac disease and weaning food for infants (cgiar, 2011). finger millet contain nutritionally important starch fraction, which are slowly digested, absorbed and favourable in diet pattern for metabolic disorders such as diabetes, hypertension, and obesity (devi and sathyabama, 2014). the grain by proportion contains 9.2% proteins, 1.29% fats, 76.32% carbohydrates, 2.2% mineral, 3.90% ash, 0.33% calcium (beddington, 2010b). vitamin a, b and phosphorous are also present in smaller quantities. iodine content in finger millet is reported to be the highest among food grain (carletto and banerjee, 2014). finger millet taste better than most other cereals (cgiar, 2011). it has no major pest problem and so can be stored cheaply for a long time (bayala et al., 2002). the straw has an immense utility as fodder for both draught and milk animals. it makes good fodder and contain up to 61% of total digestible nutrients (cgiar, 2011). according to devi and sathyabama (2014), finger millet is a lost crop. it is an orphan crop because very little research has been done towards its production in zimbabwe. those who try to grow finger millet usually obtain low yields possibly due to lack of certified seeds and poor agronomic practices (beddington, 2010b). a notable agronomic practice responsible for low yield of finger millet is lack of suitable establishment method under dry-land conditions (chandan, 2018). while broadcasting is the widely adopted planting method of finger millet production in zimbabwe including zaka district, information on the other methods like transplanting and hand drilling is scant. therefore, the study seeks to assess the influence of different establishment methods (broadcasting, drilling and transplanting) on grain yield and yield parameters of finger millet. 2. materials and methods 2.1 study site the experiment was carried out at dorcas charare’s demonstration plot in ward 24 of zaka district with the gps coordinates: latitude: 20.466723; longitude: 31.4736366. the site is located 5km east of jerera growth point. the area receives a total of 561.7mm rainfall per annum that was unimodal from november 2018 to april 2019. rainfall in this area is usually poorly distributed and thus naturally falls under natural region iv which is frequented by mid-season dry spell and droughts. temperature ranges from minimum 16oc to maximum 28oc under normal conditions, with some chances of dropping to less than 10oc in the coldest month of july and rising to above 35oc especially in october month. it has light sandy loam soils with a moderate depth approximately 1m with some pockets of sodicity in surrounding areas. the soil is inherently infertile with a gentle sloping and good drainage to support crop production. in order to realise good harvest farmers, nourish the soil with adequate manure and fertilizer. the land has been under cultivation of food crops with fertilizer and manure use. crops grown include maize, groundnuts, cow peas, sesame and sweat potatoes entirely on dry land conditions (zimvac, 2019). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 49 published by ideas spread figure 1. study site 2.2 experimental design a randomized complete block design (rcbd) replicated three times was used. three treatments namely broadcasting, drilling and transplanting establishment methods were used giving a total of nine plots covering an area of 128m2. slope was the blocking factor. each of the three replications had three plots measuring 5m by 2m each which is the same as that by dida et al. (2008) in an experiment conducted to determine population structure and diversity in finger millet (eleusine coracana l. gaertn) germplasm. the finger millet variety used in the experiment was fmv1the distance between blocks was 1m and a 0.5m between the individual plots within a block. the experiment gross plot area was 128m2 and a net plot area of 27m2. show a table with treatment combinations table 1. treatment description treatment t1 t2 t3 broadcasting drilling transplanting 2.3 plot management/ agronomic practices land preparation the land was prepared early in may 2018 by ploughing using an ox-drawn mouldboard plough. this was done to burry trash and allow for decomposition. a second ploughing was done in november 2018 when a total rainfall of 20mm was received. some 0.1tonnes of well rotten farmyard manure was applied before second ploughing to improve soil fertility. in smallholder and subsistent farming practices, ploughing is usually done using an ox-drawn plough (mcdonald, 2015). a fine tilth in the seedbed was achieved by light harrowing to improve soil seed contact and ensure good germination of the small finger millet grains. planting dry planting was adopted as recommended by stacey et al. (2012). the seed was mixed with fine river sand before planting. this was recommended by alumira and rusike (2005) so as to reduce wastage due to over application since the grains are too small. according to fao (2015), a seed rate of 5kg/ha is recommended for dry land small as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 50 published by ideas spread grain production. in this study, 100g of fmv1 seed was planted by hand on all broadcasting and drilling plots. the nursery bed was also planted on the same day as drilling and broadcasting plots. drill lines were spaced at 40cm to get a maximum of five lines per plot as used by alumira and rusike (2005). the seed was covered by dragging a branch of tree across the planted area to allow a thin film of soil on the planted seeds. the first effective rains were received in december with a total of 94.8mm. transplanting and thinning transplanting was done after three weeks from crop emergence when the plants had attained four leaves of growth. seedlings from the nursery bed were planted on the transplanting treatment plots at 40cm inter-row and 10cm in-row spacings on the same day when there was adequate moisture in the soil. on the same day, thinning of plants from the broadcasting and drilling plots was accomplished to attain a plant population of 250 plants per plot which corresponds to the recommended finger millet plant population of 250 000 plants per hectare by agricultural research (2012) and chandan (2018). plant population from individual plots was the same for all treatments; with broadcasting adopting a scattered spacing format. weed management weeds can seriously affect yields if not controlled and therefore first weeding should be done 2-3 weeks after emergence and second weeding 2 weeks after the first weeding (agricultural research, 2012). in this experiment, mechanical and hand pulling weeding was done to control weeds. a total of four weeding regimes were undertaken. the first weeding was done 2 weeks after crop emergence to destroy early weeds while the second and third weeding at peak vegetative growth stage and at flowering respectively. the fourth weeding was a cleaning exercise at physiological maturity stage to destroy late weeds and allow weed free plots for easy harvesting. the common weeds found were richadia scabra, eleusine indica, bidens pillosa and galinsoga parviflora. fertilizer application the field was fallowed for one season which means, it was last cultivated in 2016 for groundnut crop production. some 0.1tonnes of farmyard manure was applied uniformly on the experiment plots at a rate of 8 tons/ha as recommended by fao (2015) in order to improve the soil organic matter content, moisture retention ability and soil structure. as recommended by fetene et al. (2011), 3kg fertilizer compound d fertiliser (7:14:7) was used as basal dressing before planting. this amount translates to an acceptable rate of 200kg/ha also recommended by ebanyat et al. (2010). the recommended rate of fertilizer ammonium nitrate (an) for top dressing is 150kg/ha according to ebanyat et al. (2010). according to this rate, 2kg an fertilizer was split applied on this experiment since the soil was sandy loam with some high chances of leaching caused by cyclone idai excessive rains experienced mid-season. the 1st half amount of an application was done at the 5-6 leaf stage and the other half at flowering. the same type and amount of fertilizers was applied in all the treatments in the experiment. pest and disease management the common pests encountered were aphids and some caterpillars of the species helianthus. these were noticed during scouting at vegetative and flowering stages. control was done by means of spraying carbaryl 85 wp and dimethoate 40 ec at recommended label rates. some ladybird beetles were also noticed but were beneficial in the biological control of aphids. proper management of weeds also helped to reduce pest incidences. pest control was uniform across all the treatments to reduce bias of results as supported by cgiar (2011) and fao (2016). data collection the following data was collected and recorded to the required format by the hired and trained lead farmer; plant height, number of tillers formed, panicle length, panicle number grain yield. 1. plant height data on plant height was taken from the five randomly selected plants in the net plots and measured using a transparent meter ruler from 14 days after emergence and /or transplanting followed by subsequent two weeks intervals until the plants matured at 98 days. at this period there was no more increase in plant height. the measurements were taken from ground level up to the plant tip. 2. number of tillers formed the number of tillers per plant of the selected plants per treatment was counted after an initial thinning of the broadcasting and drilling plots to the required plant population. the number of tillers was counted at intervals of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 51 published by ideas spread two weeks until when there was no more increase in tillers formed. 3. length of heads formed (panicle length) the length of panicles for the randomly selected plants were measured at 2 weeks from head emergence until the panicles reached physiological maturity when there was no more elongation of the panicles. 4. number of heads formed (panicle number) number of heads formed was counted once after the plants reached physiological maturity at 90 days. 5. grain yield grain yield was measured at the end of the study period where all heads were harvested from the net plots of all the treatments when the crop reached physiological maturity. selected plots of each treatment (broadcasting, drilling and transplanting) were individually harvested to obtain the actual yield per each treatment plot. after threshing and winnowing, the grain from each of the three individual treatments was weighed. again, grain from all broadcasting plots, all drilling plots and all transplanting plots was weighed using an electronic scale. average yield in tonnes per hectare for the three treatments under study was obtained and the data was taken for analysis. statistical data analysis the collected data was subjected to analysis of variance (anova) using genstat 14.1, copyright 2011; vns, international ltd. mean separation was done by using fisher’s protected least significance test at 5% significance level. 3. results table 2. results of yield and yield components parameter treatment plant height @ 14wks (cm) no. of tillers per plant no. of panicle per plant panicle length (cm) grain yield (tha-1) broadcasting 80.73a 2.13a 3.13a 9.47a 0.35a drilling 85.80b 2.40a 3.40a 10.15a 0.40b transplanting 88.60bc 7.13b 8.13b 11.46b 0.51c grand mean 85.04 3.89 4.89 10.36 3.967 lsd 4.12 0.639 0.639 0.931 0.275 p-value 0.009 <0.001 <0.001 0.005 <0.001 cv % 2.4 8.2 6.5 4.5 3.5 effects of finger millet establishment methods on mean plant height the mean plant height for drilled plants was significantly higher (p=0.009) than that for broadcasted plants though not significantly different from the mean plant height for transplanted plants. transplanting method recorded the highest plant height (88.6cm) whilst broadcasting recorded the lowest (80.73cm) plant height. figure 2. effects of establishment methods on finger millet plant height as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 52 published by ideas spread effects of finger millet establishment methods on tiller number per plant. there were significant differences (p<0.05) in mean number of tillers per plant amongst the three treatments. transplanted plants recorded the highest mean number of tillers per plant (7.13) than both drilling and broadcasting which recorded 2.4 and 2.13 respectively. however, the mean number of tillers per plant for broadcasting and drilling were not significantly different (p<0.05). figure 3. effects of establishment methods on tiller number per plant of finger millet. effects of establishment methods on panicle number per plant of finger millet. the results showed that there were significant differences (p<0.05) between transplanting and broadcasting on mean number of panicles formed per hill. transplanting method recorded the highest (8.13) number of panicles per plant as compared to broadcasting method with the lowest (3.13) panicles per plant. figure 4. effects of establishment methods on panicle number per plant of finger millet effects of establishment methods on panicle length of finger millet significant differences (p<0.05) on finger millet panicle length were recorded between transplanting and broadcasting methods. transplanting method recorded the highest panicle length (11.46cm) whilst broadcasting method recorded the lowest (9.47cm) panicle length. there were no significant differences (p>0.05) on mean panicle length between drilling and broadcasting establishment methods. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 53 published by ideas spread figure 5. effects of establishment methods on panicle length of finger millet effects of establishment methods on finger millet grain yield results showed that the mean grain yield of finger millet was significantly (p<0.05) affected by establishment methods. the mean grain yield for drilled plants (0.4tha-1) and transplanted plants (0.51tha-1) were significantly higher than that of the control (broadcasted plants) with 0.35tha-1. the mean grain yield for the transplanted plants was significantly higher (p<0.05) than both drilled and broadcasted plants. figure 6. effects of establishment methods on finger millet grain yield 4. discussion effects of establishment methods on finger millet plant height in situ methods of planting finger millet such as drilling and broadcasting recorded no significant differences on plant height. these results were in consonance with those of maobe et al. (2014) and fao (2016) in a similar experiment on effect of plant density, growth and grain yield of finger millet under high potential conditions in kenya. bhatta et al. (2017) reported contrasting results showing drilling being superior on plant height than transplanting but this was under high rainfall of 700mm per annum. transplanting recorded the highest plant height possibly because of vigorous growth attained when new roots developed after the transplanting shock. bitew and asargew (2014) states that vigorous root development induces plant growth and increased height. the increase in height on transplanted plants might be due to roots of finger millet plants having least competition under wider spacing so that growth is stimulated by sunlight and space for the canopy expansion. according to dereji et al. (2016), plant height of finger millet was significantly influenced by spacing and it was maximum (92.97 cm) with 50 cm row spacing and followed by 40 cm row spacing (91.84 cm) in an experiment on influence of row spacing and seed rate on yield components of finger millet at assosa zone in benshagul gumuze region of ethiopia. effects of finger millet establishment methods on tiller number per plant as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 54 published by ideas spread the study revealed that transplanting method of planting was significantly (p<0.001) superior over both drilling and broadcasting on tiller number. this can be attributed to more space between plants in transplanting method which gave a greater number of tillers per plant at all the growth stages as compared to drilled and broadcasted plants. the individual transplanted plants could have effectively utilized the available resources such as space, foraging area for root system, light utilization and thus enhanced the tiller production at wider spaced treatments. this can be attributed to more space between plants in transplanting method as compared to broadcasted and drilled plants. sarawale et al. (2016) assets that tillering in cereal small grains can be induced by transplanting shock as well as wide spacing between individual plants. drilling and broadcasting establishment methods did not differ significantly on tillering because the plants were planted in-situ and there was competition for growth in the first two weeks before thinning. this is supported by maobe et al. (2014) in an experiment conducted under high potential conditions of kisii highlands, southwest kenya (kari) which reported that transplanting in finger millet production induces tiller formation which also influences panicle number and grain yield. awan et al. (2007), kalaraju et al. (2011) and dahal and khadka (2012) recorded similar findings of increased number of tillers on transplanting method. effects of establishment methods on panicle number per plant of finger millet transplanted plants of finger millet resulted in significantly higher (p<0.001) mean number of panicles per hill than the drilled and broadcasted plants. increase in panicle number from broadcasted plants, drilled to transplanted plants was 86, 139 and 159 per cent respectively. this showed that transplanting establishment method of finger millet was superior on number of panicles compared to the drilling and broadcasting methods. the results showed that there were no significant differences on panicle number per hill between broadcasting (3.13a) and drilling (3.40a). this means tillering has a direct correlation on panicle number. the more the tillering the more the number of panicles. similar findings were also reported by gavit et al. (2017) in an experiment conducted to evaluate the effect of establishment techniques and sowing time on yield and yield attributes of proso millet. this is also in conformity with herbal et al. (2018) in his experiment on comparing finger millet yield on different establishment method and fertilizer amounts in india showed that transplanted plants recorded highest number of panicles than broadcasted and drilled plants. effects of establishment methods on panicle length of finger millet panicle length is one of the important yield attributing parameters, which influenced the grain yield directly. the length of ear has a positive correlation with the number of grains per plant and ultimately on the grain yield of the crop (chandan, 2018). the length of panicle was significantly different (p<0.05) amongst the treatments. this might be due to higher moisture availability for transplanted plants owing to better moisture conservation and due to more vegetative growth resulting from efficient use of nutrients, water, radiation and increased metabolic activities. this is supported by michaelraj and shahmugam (2013) who asserts that length of panicles was found to be highest (8.8 cm) with transplanted plants and lowest (6.5cm) with broadcasted plants. the results were also in conformity with those obtained by suresh (2013) in an experiment on integrated nitrogen management under different crop establishment methods in summer pearl millet (pennisetum glaucum l.) under middle gujarat conditions in india. effect of establishment method on finger millet grain yield there was an increase in grain yield recorded under transplanting over that of broadcasting of seeds by 45.7 per cent. also, increase in grain yield recorded in transplanting over drilling of seeds was 27.5 per cent. similarly, increase in grain yield recorded in drilling over broadcasting of seeds was 14.3 per cent. these results were in conformity with sarawale et al. (2016) in an experiment on effects of different varieties and establishment methods on growth and yield of finger millet under konkan conditions in india. the increased yield attributes in transplanting establishment method might be due to increased growth and plant development resulting in increased yield attributes (gavit et al., 2017). in addition, bekele et al. (2016) reported similar findings for different spacing (40cm x 10cm, 30cm x 10cm and 20cm x 10cm) on grain yield in an experiment conducted in gumuz region of ethiopia. bekele et al. (2016) found that increasing the spacing led to increased tillering, panicle number and grain yield. this may have been attributed to more space between plants that resulted in higher number of tillers, panicle number and more grains from the wider spacing in transplanting compared to the closer spacing and scattered stands in broadcasting establishment method. the adverse effect of competition between plants associated with closer spacing and scattered stand may have been significant positively affecting yield in broadcasting establishment method. 5. conclusion from the results of this study, it can be concluded that the establishment methods that were tested does not have as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 1, no. 1; 2019 55 published by ideas spread a significant effect on plant height. however, establishment method significantly influenced the number of tillers with broadcasting recording the least as compared to transplanting and drilling methods. furthermore, grain yield was a function of tiller number, number of panicles and panicle length. recommendations the researcher recommends farmers to adopt the transplanting method for finger millet production in zaka district so as to realise high yield. however, further research is recommended to establish the correct plant population for optimum production as the current level of 250 000 plants per hectare was inadequate for a conclusive determination of the exact plant population desirable for the finger millet variety fmv1. conflicts of interest authors do not declare any conflicts of interest. references adunga, a., tesso, t., degu, e., tadesse, t., merg, f., lgesse, w., tirfessa, a., kidane, h., wole, a., & dada, c. 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(2010b). food security: contributions from science to a new and greener revolution. philos trans. r. soc. b.biol.sci., 365, 61-71. https://doi.org/10.1098/ rstb. 2009.0201 [pmc free article] [pub med] [cross ref]. bekele, a. f., getahun, d. w., & dereje a. b. (2016). determination of optimum rates of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization for finger millet (eleusine coracana l. gaertn). production at assosa zone, in benishangul – gumuz region of ethiopia. advances in sciences and humanities, 2(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ash.20160201.11. bhatta, l. r., subedi, r., joshi, p., & gurung, s.b. (2017). effect of crop establishment methods and varieties on tillering habit, growth rate and yield of finger millet. agriculture research and technology: open access journal, 11(5), 555826. https://doi.org/10. 19080/artdaj 2017. bitew, y., & asargew, f. 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(2019). rural livelihoods assessment report. food and nutrition council housed at sirdc:1574 alpes road, hatcliffe, harare. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p59 59 published by ideas spread bio-rational management of maize weevil, sitophilus zeamais in maize (zea mays) seeds m. m. mahabub alam1, masum ahmad2, md. sohanur rahman3, fakhar uddin talukder3, md. israfil jahan1 & r. hossain4 1 department of seed science and technology, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh 2 professor, department of entomology, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh, bangladesh 3 scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, dhaka, bangladesh 4 scientific officer, bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture, bangladesh correspondence: md. sohanur rahman, scientific officer, pest management division, bangladesh jute research institute, bangladesh. e-mail: sohanbau2010@gmail.com received: june 6, 2020 accepted: july 16, 2020 online published: july 22, 2020 abstract bangladesh is a sub-tropical and humid country. that is why, the infestation of insects during storage is very common here. the maize weevil, sitophilus zeamais motschulsky (coleoptera: curculionidae), locally known as “katta poka”, is one of the most serious cosmopolitan pest of stored cereal grain, especially of maize (zea mays l.), in tropical and subtropical regions including bangladesh. considering the issue, the study was conducted in the laboratory of department of entomology, bangladesh agricultural university (bau) following completely randomized design (crd) with three replications to evaluate the efficacy of four locally available botanicals and chemicals. the botanicals used were: neem (azadirachta indica) leaf, datura (datura stramonium) leaf, nishinda (vitex negundo l) leaf and garlic (allium sativum l.) tablet powders at three different doses (3, 4 and 5gm)/100g of grain seed against maize weevil. the results revealed that all test materials at 5g doses exhibited higher mortality action against maize weevil while at 3g doses it gave the lowest percentage efficacy. powdered leaves of neem and datura at 4 and 5gm were showed statistical significant (p<0.01) differences while powdered leaves of nishinda at the similar rates were observed with moderately effectiveness and powdered tablet of garlic gave the lowest mortality rate within 28 days of exposure in all tested doses. these findings suggest that botanical treatments exerted better mortality of maize weevil and reduced maize seed weight loss with higher germination capacity compared to the untreated control. it was also observed that the highest mortality percentage, lowest seed weight loss and highest germination capacity in the seeds which were treated with sevin 85sp at the rate of 0.25g/100g maize seeds. maize grains treated with botanicals, indicated that insect reproduction and development were impaired in all botanical pesticides. it is suggested that datura leaf, neem leaf powder can be used as good alternatives to chemical insecticides against s. zeamays due to their higher mortality, lower seed weight losses and higher germination capacity. keywords: neem, datura, nishinda, garlic, sevin 85 sp, mortality, seed weight, germination 1. introduction maize (zea mays) is under the family of poaceae. maize is the third most important cereal crop. it is one of the most popular crop plants grown in over 140 million hectares (zaidi, singh 2005) it is used as a staple human food, feed livestock and a raw material for many industrial products (purseglove, 1975). the products include corn starch, maltodextrins, corn oil, corn syrup and products of fermentation. it is also used as bio-fuel. the importance of export and import of maize is an important issue of the world trade. the united states, china, brazil and mexico account for 70% of global production. india contributes 2% of world production. maize usage varies in different countries. in the developed countries of the world like the usa, canada, australia, russia, the countries of the european union (eu) and so on, maize is used mainly to feed animal directly and as raw material for extractive fermentation industries to produce alcohol and bio-fuel. in developing countries use of maize is variable. in latin america and africa the main use of maize is for food while in asia for food and animal feed. it is the basic staple food and important ingredient in the diets of people for many countries. worldwide, approximately 21% of the total grain produced is consumed as food (shaw, 1988; dowswell et. al., 1996). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 60 published by ideas spread the third most important cereal crop of bangladesh is maize. in bangladesh it is mainly used for poultry and livestock feed and also for human food in the form of various edible items. maize production in bangladesh is popularizing for its multifarious use for food, feed and edible oil preparation (ahad, 2003). the cultivation of maize is increasing day by day due to its diversified use, where the total area coverage and productions were 8.04 lakh acres with a production of 22.72 lakh metric tons in 2014-2015 (bbs, 2015), 8.27 lakh acres with a production of 24.46 lakh metric tons in 2015-2016 (bbs, 2016) and 9.63 lakh acres with a production of 30.26 lakh metric tons in 2016-2017 (bbs, 2017). the maize is richer in nutrition than rice and wheat, where it contains 11% protein including higher amount of essential amino acid, tryptophan and lysine. besides these, it contains 90 mg carotene or vitamin a per 100g grains (hossain et al., 2005). in developing countries, as a result of post-harvest losses due to storage pests and other spoilage agents, production and consumption of maize often falls below demand (udo, 2005) resulting in economic losses and threatens food security (ivbijaro et al. 1979). developing countries face severe problems due to unfavorable storage conditions and poor storage structures (bekele et al. 1997). high moisture predisposes grain to attack by bacteria, fungi, insects and other microbes (golob, 2000). bangladesh is a sub-tropical and humid country. that is why; the infestation of insects during storage is very common here. the maize weevil, sitophilus zeamais motschulsky (coleoptera: curculionidae), locally known as “katta poka”, is one of the dangerous pest of stored cereal grain, especially of maize (zea mays l.), in tropical and subtropical regions (throne, 1994) including bangladesh. the weevil has been stated to cause up to 80% grain damage during storage in cameroon, where maize constitutes the most important food crop (nukenine et al., 2002). due to damaged grain, nutritional value, low percentage germination, reduced weight and lowered market value has been reduced (demissie et al., 2008). to reduce s. zeamais damage cheap and effective methods are needed in food insecurity. control of s. zeamais populations primarily depends upon constant application of synthetic insecticides, which are often the most effective treatments for the disinfestations of stored food, feedstuffs and other agricultural commodities from insect infestation. their repeated use for decades has destroyed biological control by natural enemies and led to outbreaks of other insect species and sometimes resulted in resistant capacity (park et al., 2003). there are also serious concerns about environmental degradation and human health. the majority of farmers in bangladesh are poor and neither have the means nor the skills to obtain and handle pesticides appropriately. safe and eco-friendly weevil control practice needs to be available. plant materials create a scope for small farmers for pest control (talukder & howse, 1995). however, very few research work has been done on organic pesticides which offer same control levels as synthetics to weevils (cosmas et al., 2012). botanical pesticides are generally safe to human beings and environment than synthetic pesticides. that’s why; it is used for millions of years without any adverse effects on ecosystem. these botanical materials can be used as an alternative to chemical pesticides. this study will provide useful information in minimizing the undesirable side effects of synthetic pesticides. the present study was, therefore, undertaken to evaluate the toxic effects of four available plant products such as neem, datura, garlic tablet and nishinda leaf powder and a chemical i.e. sevin 85sp in controlling maize weevil considering mortality of maize weevil, seed weight loss and germination of maize seeds. 2. materials and methods the study was done to find out the effect of four plant products and a chemical insecticide such as neem leaf powder, datura leaf powder, nishinda leaf powder, garlic tablet powder and sevin 85sp against maize weevil, sitophilus zeamais motschulsky in the laboratory of the department of seed science and technology, bangladesh agricultural university (bau), mymensingh, during the period from august to october 2018. this place receives an average rainfall of 1295mm/annum. temperature in the laboratory ranged from 25-31°c and the relative humidity also varied from 68-75% during the experimenting period. the laboratory was kept well aerated throughout the study. 2.1 collection and de-infestation of maize seeds an open pollinated maize variety “khai bhutta” sourced from agronomy farm, bangladesh agricultural university (bau), mymensingh) was used because it has stable yields in adverse conditions such as drought due to its heterogeneity and commonly grown by most resource poor small holder farmers (ref). dirt from the maize was removed through winnowing as suggested by masiiwa (2004) and the grain cleaned using a 1mm sieve mesh screen so as to remain with intact kernels. moisture content of the maize seed was maintained 11-12% following procedures described at the manual of seed quality control (2006). the maize grain was graded manually and cleaned of broken kernels and debris (fekadu et al., 2012). before artificial infestation of maize seeds with maize weevil, the maize seeds were dried in the sun for few days. islam et al. (2000) reported that solar heat treatment as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 61 published by ideas spread of grains destroys the initial insect infestation in the grains before storage. the maize seed was kept in a plastic jar in cool dry room to avoid accumulation of moisture. 2.2 botanical species tested as biopesticides three different rates of four biopesticides (3, 4 and 5 gm/100g seeds) were used for the experiment, namely, neem (azadirachta indica – meliaceae), datura (datura stramonium – solanaceae), garlic (allium sativum l.liliaceae), nishinda (vitex negundo l. – verbenaceae). sevin 85sp, a chemical pesticide was also used as a treatment. what was the source of the biopesticides. 2.3 test insect the present study was conducted with major stored grain pest of maize named maize weevil, sitophilus zeamais motschulsky under curculionidae family of coleoptera order. 2.4 collection and rearing of insect maize weevils, s. zeamais were collected from a store room of a poultry feed wholesaler at muktagacha upazilla of mymensingh district. the insects were brought to the laboratory of the department of entomology, bangladesh agricultural university (bau), mymensingh. the insects were maintained in the growth chamber at 27-30°c and 70-75% rh. the insects were reared on fresh maize seeds in rectangular jars of size 14×10×30 cm. each jar was set up with 20 pairs of adult beetles. maize seeds were kept in an oven overnight at 300c temperature to avoid pre infestation. the moisture content of maize grain was adjusted to 12-13%. then maize seeds were used as food for maize weevil. the jars were covered with a piece of cloth fastened with rubber band to prevent contamination and insect escape. after allowing free oviposition for a period of 14 days, all the adults of maize weevils were removed from each jar. then the jars were put back into growth chamber for completing the generation of insects. the f1 generation was used for the experiment. 2.5 collection and preparation of tested botanical products neem, datura and nishinda leaves were collected from bangladesh agricultural university (bau) premises and dried under the shed for 14 days. then they were grinded by hand grinder in the integrated pest management (ipm) laboratory, department of entomology, bau. before grinding, leaves were dried in the oven at 700 c for 24 hours to make the leaves crispy which allowed them to fine grinding. then the grinded materials were sieved with 1mm sieve to fine powders of botanical materials. 2.5.1 garlic tablet the garlic tablets were prepared at the plant pathology laboratory on the department of plant pathology, bau, mymensingh. for the preparation of garlic tablets, at first garlic was collected from the k.r. market bau campus, mymensingh. after that the garlic cloves were separated from each garlic bulb and washed in the clean water. then these cloves were blended in the blender machine. from the blended materials, tablets were prepared and kept in open air for drying for three days. after that the tablets were preserved in an air tied bottle. plate 1. prepared botanical materials (a) neem leaf powder, (b) garlic tablet, (c) nishinda leaf powder, (d) datura leaf powder, (e) garlic tablet in broken form as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 62 published by ideas spread 2.6 test chemical material (sevin 85sp) sevin 85sp is a contact and slightly systemic organo carbamate insecticide in powder formulation. it was purchased from a local insecticide store situated at notun bazar of mymensingh sadar packed in a 50g pack manufactured by bayer crop science, bangladesh limited. plate 2. sevin 85sp 2.7 tested rates of botanical products and chemical in the experiment prepared neem, datura, nishinda leaf powder and garlic tablet powder were used at three different rates (w/w) as 3, 4 and 5g per 100g maize seeds ), while in control treatment there was no any botanicals added and in the standard check sevin 85sp dust was added in 0.25g/100g of maize seed. 2.8 treatment application twenty pairs of s. zeamais were introduced into the plastic jar containing 100g grain maize in 0.5 liter plastic jars at 3, 4 and 5g% (w/w). four botanicals and sevin 85sp with their recommended dosage were weighed and added to the maize grain in each jar containing 100g grain maize in 0.5 liter plastic jars at 3, 4 and 5g% (w/w) and kept for 28 days and mortality rate were counted daily every 1, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after application of treatments. plate 3. experimental set up of maize seeds with treatments 2.9 mortality test of maize weevil mortality rate determination periods selected based on an earlier report by dobie, (1974) & girma et al. (2008) and calculated by the following formula: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 63 published by ideas spread number of dead insects % weevil mortality = x 100 total number of insects released 2.10 seed weight loss assessment of maize seeds percent insect damage of maize seeds in storage was computed according to the methods described in haines (1991) as follows: percent of weight loss = 100× + nu) u(nd dnu-und where u = weight of undamaged seeds, d = weight of insectdamaged seeds, nu = number of undamaged seeds and nd = number of insectdamaged seeds plate 4. infested maize seeds with hole plate 5. healthy maize seeds 2.11 seed germination the percent germination was computed according to the following formula: germination (%) = 100× tg ng where, ng = number of seeds that germinated tg = total number of test seeds. 2.12 statistical analyses the experimental data were analysed by statistix 10 software. the mean values were separated by duncans multiple range test (dmrt) (duncan, 1951). 3. results and discussion the results of the effect of different botanical products such as neem leaf powder, datura leaf powder, nishinda leaf powder and garlic tablet powder and a chemical such as sevin 85 sp were evaluated against maize weevil. the results of the experiments conducted during the study period are presented below: 3.1 effect of botanicals and chemical on mortality of maize weevil the efficacy of different botanical products viz. neem leaf powder, datura leaf powder, nishinda leaf powder and garlic tablet powder and a chemical (sevin 85sp) were evaluated as seed protectants against maize weevil are presented in figure 1. the rates used for neem leaf powder, datura leaf powder, nishinda leaf powder and garlic tablet powder were 3, 4 and 5 g per 100g maize seeds and for sevin 85sp was 0.25g per 100g maize seeds. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 64 published by ideas spread figure 1. effect of all treatments on mortality of maize weevil figure 1 represents the interaction between treatments and mortality of maize weevil at different dat which showed significant difference. it was observed that with the progress of time the mortality percentage was increased. the effects of treatments at different rates and time of application showed significant difference on insect mortality. it was found that when sevin 85 sp was used at the rate of 0.25g/100g maize seeds, exerted highest mortality (100%) of maize weevil from 1 dat which was significantly different from all other treatments. at 28 dat, sevin85 sp showed 100% mortality which was statistically similar to neem and datura leaf powder at the rate of 4g and 5g/100g respectively ( fig. 1) however, the lowest mortality of maize weevil was observed in the untreated check. on the other hand, all botanical materials showed higher mortality of maize weevil at the rate of 5g/100g maize seeds than of 4g/100g maize seeds while 3g/100g maize seeds showed the lowest mortality of maize weevil. among the botanical treatments, datura leaf powder showed the highest mortality (100%) of maize weevil followed by neem leaf powder, nishinda leaf powder and garlic tablet powder at all rates in different time intervals. this result supports the findings of shiberu and negeri (2014) who stated that powdered leaves and seeds of neem at 4 and 5 g were showed statistical significant (p<0.01) differences with the other botanical materials within 28 days of exposure in all tested rates. endersby and morgan (1991) observed that a. indica derivatives are most effective as feeding deterents for nymphs or larvae of phytophagous insects. hall (1990) observed that leaf powder of datura have a repellent effect on olfactory and gustatory system of s. zeamais. moreover, mulungu et al. (2007) reported that the crushed dry datura leaves have been observed to have their repellent smell which can be utilized for effective control of stored maize grain pests like s. zeamais. marilei et al.,(2010) also reported that 40g of corn treated with 6g of the extracts from leaves and seeds extracts from neem can be considered as a viable alternative for controlling the s. zeamais in stored maize. it is also supported the findings of maribet & aurea (2008) who found that lower mortality of adult maize weevils from corn grains treated with allium sativum l. within 24 days after insect introduction. jilani and saxena (1990) observed that neem, turmeric and sweet flag had repellent action on stored grain pests. nazli et al. (2008) reported that the garlic oil, in the laboratory studies, as an insect repellent against red flour beetle. they observed repellence of the beetles up to 52.25%, in response to the garlic oil, obtained from hyderabad. rajendran and sriranjini (2008) reported that garlic a rich source of bioactive metabolites which show antifeedant, repellent and toxic effects in a wide range of insects. de d e c b a e d b f d c f f f f f e a g e d a de c b h h g h g f a i b a a b a a f f c e e d a g c a a b a a e d c g g f a h 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 c um ul at iv e m or ta lit y % treatments 1 dat 7 dat 14 dat 21 dat 28 dat as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 65 published by ideas spread 3.2 effect of botanicals and chemical on seed weight loss of maize seeds table 1. effect of botanical and chemical treatments on percent seed weight loss of maize treatments rate/100g weight losses (%) neem leaf powder 3g 0.70 bc 4g 0.68 bc 5g 0.20 de datura leaf powder 3g 0.11 e 4g 0.07 e 5g 0.04 e nishinda leaf powder 3g 0.80 b 4g 0.65 bc 5g 0.50 c garlic tablet 3g 0.66 bc 4g 0.60 bc 5g 0.47 cd sevin 85sp 0.25g 0.00 e untreated check 5.45 a lsd 0.272 mse 0.04 level of significance ** cv (%) 15.42 ** = significant at 1% level of probability, note: means with the same letter are not significantly different all the botanical and chemical treatments at different rates showed significant difference in seed weight loss of maize seeds with the untreated check. lowest seed weight loss (0.00 %) was found ar sevin 85 sp treated seeds and highest (5.45%) was found at control/untreated seeds (table 1) among the botanical treatments, lowest grain weight loss was experienced in the maize seeds treated with datura leaf powder over the 28 days exposure to the treatment at the rate of 3g, 4g and 5g per 100g of maize seeds while the seeds treated with nishinda leaf powder had highest seed weight loss. datura leaf powder showed 0.11, 0.07 and 0.04% weight loss of maize seeds at the rate of 3g, 4g and 5g per 100g maize seeds respectively and showed significant difference with the other botanical treatments and the untreated check. however, no significant difference in seed weight loss was observed by the datura leaf powder with the chemical sevin 85sp. on the other hand, seed weight loss in the nishinda leaf powder treated maize seeds were 0.80, 0.65 and 0.50% at the rate of 3g, 4g and 5g per 100g maize seeds respectively which showed significant difference with the seed weight loss occurred in the untreated check. neem leaf powder showed seed weight loss of 0.70, 0.68 and 0.20% at the rate of 3g, 4g and 5g per 100g maize seeds respectively and showed significant difference with the seed weight loss occurred in the untreated check. seed weight loss was lower in the seeds treated with botanical and chemical treatments than the seeds which were treated with no controls can be attributed to the higher weevil mortality and lower weevil survival which resulted in lower seed damage hence lower seed weight loss. the findings are in agreement with chiu (1989) who observed that synthetic dusts like cypermethrin 1% dust is effective in protecting stored grain thereby reducing loss of grain weight. hall (1990) and parwada et al. (2012) reported that ground plant extracts act by dehydrating and suffocating the weevil and also by reducing weevil movements thereby resulting in reduced grain damage and weight loss. the leaf powders of datura stramonium, azadirachta indica, allium sativum l. and vitex negundo l could also have reduced grain weight loss due to the fact that they reduce the relative humidity on the surface of the grain thereby inhibiting egg laying and larval development of the weevils. this concurs with the findings by aslam and suleman (1999). the findings are also in agreement with singh et al. (1996). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 66 published by ideas spread 3.3 efect of botanicals and chemical on germination of maize seeds table 2. effect of botanical and chemical treatments on germination of maize seeds treatments rate/100g germination (%) neem leaf powder 3g 83.00 bcdef 4g 84.33 bcde 5g 85.00 abc datura leaf powder 3g 84.67 bcd 4g 85.33 abc 5g 85.67 ab nishinda leaf powder 3g 82.33 cdef 4g 83.67 bcdef 5g 84.00 bcdef garlic tablet 3g 81.33 ef 4g 81.00 f 5g 81.67 def sevin 85sp 0.25g 88.00 a untreated check 74.33 g lsd 3.19 mse 2.00 level of significance ** cv (%) 1.70 ** = significant at 1% level of probability, note: means with the same letter are not significantly different all the seeds treated with botanical and chemical treatments at different rates showed significant difference with seeds which were not treated with any control on germination of maize seeds. it indicated that all the botanical and chemical treatments did not adversely affect the germination of maize seeds over the 28 days exposure period to the different treatments. highest germination (88.00%) was found at sevin 85sp treated seeds (table 2). among the botanical treatments, it was recorded that the seeds treated with datura leaf powder at the rate of 3g, 4g and 5g per 100g maize seeds possessed highest germination percentages. this result supports the findings of musundire et al. (2015) stated that d. stramonium and t. minuta successfully reduced the insect infestation and showed no adverse effect on seed germination. this result also supports the findings of fekadu et al. (2012). 4. conclusion among the botanical treatments, datura leaf powder showed highest mortality of maize weevil, lowest weight loss of maize seeds and highest germination capacity followed by neem leaf powder. it is recommended that datura leaf powder and neem leaf powder can be effective against maize weevil when used as at 4g powder/100g of maize seed. it is also economically feasible and environmentally safe. further investigation is needed to identify the specific or actual compounds in botanical materials which are responsible for toxic action. acknowledgement the author takes an opportunity to express his gratefulness to ministry of science and technology for financial support to conduct research work. conflict of interest: no conflict of interest to report. references ahad, m. a. 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(2005). evaluation of the potential of some local spices as stored grain protectants against the maize weevil, sitophilus zeamais motsch (coleoptera: curculionidae). journal of applied sciences and environmental management, 9(1), 165-168. zaidi, g., & singh, s. k. f. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p178 178 published by ideas spread effect of curcumin (curcuma longa) and red ginger (zingiber officinale) on hematology values of broilers maksudi maksudi1, fahmida manin1, sri wigati1, anie insulistyawati1, nurbani aziz1 & pudji rahayu1 1 department of animal health, faculty of animal husbandry, jambi university, indonesia correspondence: maksudi maksudi, department of animal health, faculty of animal husbandry, jambi university, indonesia. tel: 62-822-8407-3448/62-877-2073-7557. e-mail: maksudi.unja@gmail.com received: june 2, 2020 accepted: july 7, 2020 online published: december 4, 2020 abstract the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of supplemented curcumin (curcuma longa) and red ginger (zingiber officinale) on hematological values of broilers. three hundred twenty one-day-old broilers were randomly distributed into 8 treatment groups with 4 replicates (pens) of 10 chicks each. the treatment diets were control groups (t01=basal diet and t02=basal diet + bacitracin), and treatment diets supplemented with curcumin (c1, c2, and c3), and supplanted with ginger (z1, z2 and z3). results showed that pvcs and hemoglobin level of the chickens fed treatment diets increased significantly (p<0.05) compare to the control diets, and the erythrocytes of the chickens fed diet supplemented with ginger increased significantly (p<0.05) compared to the control in period i (21 days of age) but no significant differences in period ii (34 days of age). furthermore, treatment diets had no effect on erythrocyte indices of mchc and mcv (p>0.05). however, dietary inclusion of the addition of ginger significantly decreased mch in period i (p<0.05), but no significant differences were observed in period ii. furthermore, the treatment diets had significantly lower leucocytes and heterophils/lymphocytes ratios (p<0.05) than the control diets, but no significant differences were investigated in the percentage of differential leucocytes of eosinophils and basophils. in conclusion, the use of curcumin and ginger up to the level of 1.5% indicated the potentcy of improving the general health status of broilers. they have been able to improve the hematological values, and reduce the stress level of the chickens. keywords: curcumin, ginger, hematology, erythrocytes, erythrocyte indices, leukocytes, differential leukocytes 1. introduction prohibition of the use of synthetic antibiotics as growth promoters in the livestock industry has been imposed in indonesia since 2018, although this ban has not been fully enforced. the indonesian government's ban on the use of synthetic antibiotics is limited to their use in supplementation to animal feed. the synthetic antibiotics can still be used for therapeutic purposes with a maximum of 7 days use by prescription and veterinarian supervision (rahmawati, 2018). this policy appears as a reaction to the potential for antibiotic resistance in livestock that was stimulated with agp (antibiotics growth promoter). some empirical evidences have been found, namely with the emergence of resistance of several types of pathogenic microorganisms and antibiotic residues in livestock due to the use of agp that is not/less controlled. in comparison with other countries, the european union in 2001 banned the use of several antibiotics as growth promoters in the livestock industry to increase its production, and then banned it totally in 2004. furthermore, in 2010, the ban on the use of most types of synthetic antibiotics expanded to asian countries, such as south korea and japan that prohibit the use of most synthetic antibiotics in livestock (smith et al., 2011). substitutes after a limited ban on the use of agp are medicinal plants as natural agp. in indonesia, medicinal plants are traditionally processed into herbs for humans and livestock. some medicinal plants, such as temu ireng (curcuma aeruginosa), kencur (kaempferia galanga), mengkudu (morinda citrifolia), meniran (phyllanthus niruri), temu lawak (curcuma zanthorrhiza), sambiloto (andrographis paniculata) and many more, including curcumin and ginger are often used to make these herbs. these medicinal plants contain active compounds as antiviral, antibacterial, anti-parasitic, and antioxidant or as immunomodulatory. utilizing medicinal plants as livestock herbal medicine is an alternative medicine in livestock, if consumed regularly can improve the immune system of both livestock and humans, and do not leave residues (saefudin et al., 1916). this fact shows that traditional medicinal plants can actually be used for health programs in livestock for maximum production purposes because of their abundant availabilities and low prices in markets. ironically, some drugs or supplements made from medicinal plant ingredients have been widely available in pharmacies or drug stores, and they are usually for humans and rarely for animals. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 179 published by ideas spread therefore, the main problem is that although the beneficial effects of ginger and turmeric and others have been widely exploited in human nutrition, not much research has been done on their activities in livestock and in their use in livestock business. some studies using medicinal plants in animals have actually been available, including research conducted by godbole et al. (2018). the research found that curcumin at dose 400 mg/kg diet had ameliorative effect on altered hemato-biochemical profile in escherichia coli induced broilers, and a research conducted by liu et al. (2020) found that supplemental 150 mg/kg of curcumin improved immune function in lying hens under heat stress condition. however, ginger powder at the used levels of up to 0.6% in another experiment did not yet show potency to be used as a growth promoter in broiler chicks (hassan et al., 2019). the results of this study reinforce previous studies that supplementation of curcumin powder as much as 0.2% at hot ambient temperatures has been able to increase erythrocytes, pcv and life weight gain (kusnadi and rachmat, 2010). for this reason, the purpose of this study is to affect the use of curcumin (curcuma longa) and red ginger (zingiber officinale) in broiler chicken blood by looking at its hematological values. for this reason, the research that has been carried out was expected to be one of the basic considerations for more attention to the use of medicinal plants, especially ginger and curcumin as a substitute for agp, especially for preventing diseases, instead for therapies. 2. materials and methods the trial protocol was approved by the ethical clearance committee, and it was performed following the guidelines of animal use of the faculty of animal husbandry, jambi university, jambi, indonesia. three hundred twenty one-day-old cobb broilers were randomly distributed into 8 groups of treatments with 4 replicates (pens) of 10 chicks each. all chicks were reared on wire flooring pens (1.0 m × 1.0 m) provided a 24-h light program for the first week, and the rest of study study, daylight was used and replaced with 12-h lighting at night from incandescent bulbs. curcumin (curcuma longa) and red ginger (zingiber officinale) used in this study were purchased from traditional markets and prepared by being washed, sliced, dried, and grounded into powder using a flour machine. they were mixed with the basal diet with appropriate amount of each treatment, namely: t01 = control of the basal diet; t02 = control of basal diet + 0.5 mg bacitracin/kg diet; c1 = basal diet + 0.75% curcumin; c2 = basal diet + 1.0% curcumin; c3 = basal diet + 1.5% curcumin; z1 = basal diet + 0.75% ginger; z2 = basal diet + 1.0%; z3 = basal diet + 1.5% ginger. the basal diet was formulated to meet the energy and protein requirements for broiler chicken growth, containing 3,200 kcal me and 23% cp/kg feed for period i (21 days of age), and 3,200 kcal me and 20% cp/kg feed for period ii (34 days of age; nrc, 1994). the diets and water were given ad libitum to the chickens during the trials in periods i and ii. blood samples were obtained from chickens taken randomly from each unit/pen of the experiment through the slaughtering procedure that was carried out at the age of 21 days for period i and age 34 days for period ii. blood samples are collected using glass tubes that have been added by anti-coagulant edta, and then the blood samples were stored in a cooler box and transported to a laboratory for hematology examination. testing of packed cell volume (pcv) was carried out by inserting blood samples to be tested into the capillary tube in 4/5 parts while the tip of the micro capillary tube was blocked with crest seal. the capillary tube was then centrifuged for ± 5 minutes at a speed of 12,000 rpm to form a layer of blood plasma, a gray-white layer (platelets and wbcs) and a red layer (rbcs). the value of pcv was determined by measuring the percentage of pcv volume using a micro hematocrit reader expressed as a percentage of the volume of the whole blood (samour, 2015). testing of blood hemoglobin levels was done by adding a solution containing potassium cyanide and potassium ferisianide (drabkin’s reagent) into the blood to be measured. ferisianida will change the iron from hemoglobin, which has valence two (ferro) to valence three (ferri) to form methemoglobin. the intensity of the color of the mixture was measured using a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 540 nm, and transmittance reading expressed as hb g/dl (samour, 2015). the calculation of the total number of red blood cells was used to calculate the average volume of blood cells (mcv) and the average hemoglobin of white blood cells (mch). calculation of total red blood cells (erythrocytes) was performed using a hemocytometer of improved neubauer counting chamber (samour, 2015). blood was sucked up to 0.5 using an aspirator on an erythrocyte pipette then rees & ecker solutions up to number 101 are listed on the pipette. the mixture was homogeneous with movement number 8 while covering both ends of the pipette with thumb and forefinger. a drop of liquid was put into the improved neubauer counting chamber. the red blood cell counts were carried out in 5 out of 25 boxes (each of which has 16 small boxes in it), namely in four boxes in the corners and one box in the centre. the total number of red blood cells was n x 10,000/mm3; n = number of cells counted in five boxes. the next analysis was the total white blood cell count (wbcs), and to determine the differential white blood cell count; eosinophils, heterophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes and platelets. to calculate the total leukocyte count was done similar to for the calculation for the total red blood cell as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 180 published by ideas spread count, the difference being the micropipette, the solvent, and the position of the box counter in the improved neubauer hemocytometer. calculation of the total number of white blood cells was done by counting the number of cells contained in four groups of boxes in the corner of the room. the total number of red blood cells was n x 50/mm3; n = number of cells counted in four groups of boxes in the corner of the room (samour, 2015). calculations of erythrocyte indices consist of mean corpuscular volume (mcv), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (mch), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (mchc). mean corpuscular volume is an expression of the average volume of individual erythrocytes calculated by the formula: mcv = (pcv x 10)/rbcs = mcv femto liters (fl). mean corpuscular hemoglobin is an expression of the average hemoglobin content of a single erythrocyte calculated by the formula: mch = (hb x 10)/rbcs = mch picogram (pg). mean corpuscle hemoglobin concentration is the expression of the volume in erythrocytes occupied by hemoglobin, and it is calculated by the formula: mchc = (hb x 100)/pcv = mchc (g/l). after the calculation of total white blood cells (wbcs) used improved neubauer hemocytometer, the next step was followed by leukocyte differential counts from observations of stained blood films made from blood film preparations that were fixed and stained with giemsa-wright stain (samour, 2015). all tested parameters were analyzed as a completely randomized design by one-way anova using the glm procedure (sas, 2009), and differences among treatment means were determined using the duncan’s multiple range test. 3. results the results of some hematological parameters are illustrated in figure 1, 2, and 3 for the chickens in period i and ii. figure 1 shows the value of pcv and total count of red blood cells (rbcs = erythrocytes) in period i (pvc i = pcv in period i and erythrocytes i = erythrocites in period i) and in period ii (pvc i = pcv in period ii and erythrocytes ii = erythrocites in period ii). in period i, pvc of the chickens fed diet supplemented with 0.75 % curcumin (c1=38.63) was significantly higher (p<0.05) than the chickens fed the control diets (t01=34.38% and t02=34.75%), but no significant differences of pvc ware observed for the other treatments. in period ii, the pcv was significantly increased (p<0.05) in the chickens fed diet supplemented with 1.50% curcumin (c3=37.88%) compared to the chickens fed the control diet (t01=34.64%), but no significant differences of pvc ware observed for other treatments. furthermore, the rbcs of the chickens fed diet supplemented with 0.75% of ginger (z1=3.42 x 106/μl) was significantly higher (p<0.05) than the chickens fed the control diet (t01=2.52 x 106/μl). however, no significant differences (p>0.05) on rbc counts were observed among the treatments in period ii. figure 1. pcv and rbcs (erythrocytes) in period i and ii the results illustrated in figure 2 show that no significant differences of hb concentration were observed in period i, with a range of 12.34-10.39 g/dl. however, hb concentration of c3 (12.10 g/dl) increased significantly (p<0.05) in chickens supplanted with 1.0% curcumin compared with the hb level of t01 control group (t01=10.28 g/dl) 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 t01 t02 c1 c2 c3 z1 z2 z3 106/µl pcv i pcv ii erythrocytes i erythrocytes ii % as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 181 published by ideas spread in period ii. the results show that the treatments had no effect on mchc in both period i and ii, and the interval mchc in period i was 34.83-28.75 g/dl, and in period ii was 32.34-28-31 g/dl. figure 2. hemoglobin (hb) and mchc in period i and ii figure 3. mch and mchc in period i and ii figure 3 shows the parameters of mean corpuscular volume (mcv) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (mch). in the period ii and i, no significant differences on mcvs were observed among treatments (p>0.05), and the interval value of mcv in period i was 146.90-109.79 fl, and in period ii was 135.01-113.54 fl. in contrast to the mcv, dietary inclusion of the addition 1.5% (c3=34.61 pg) and 0.75% (c1=34.16 pg) ginger significantly decreased (p<0.05) mch compared to control group (t01=49.94) in period i, but no significant differences on mch (p>0.05) ware observed in period ii. 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 t01 t02 c1 c2 c3 z1 z2 z3 g/dl hb i hb ii mchc i mchc ii 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 t01 t02 c1 c2 c3 z1 z2 z3 fl mcv i mcv ii mch i mch ii pg as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 182 published by ideas spread the wbc counts and differential leukocyte count in period ii are presented in table 1. results revealed that the chickens fed diet containing 1.5% curcumin (c3=17.82) had significantly lower wbcs compared with control group (t01=25.97 x 103/µl). however, no significant differences were investigated in the percentage of eosinophil and basophil (p>0.05). the highest percentage of heterophils was observed for c3 (29.90%) and significantly increased (p<0.05) compare to control of t02 (27.42%), but the heterophil decreased significantly (p<0.05) in chickens of z3 (24.85%) compare with control of t01 (28.21%). furthermore, the percentage of lymphocytes of broilers was increased (p<0.05) by z3 treatment (64.26%) compare to t02 control (57.90%), and treatment with 1.0% of ginger (9.95%) decreased monocyte counts (p<0.05) compared to the t02 control 9.44%). finally, results revealed that birds fed diet containing 1.5% of ginger had significantly lower heterophils: lymphocytes (h/l) ratio compared with t02 control (p<0.05). although there were differences among the leukocyte differential counts, they are still in the interval reference values (thrall et al., 2012; table 1). table 1. the total wbc count and the total differential leukocyte count of the chickens at the end of period ii) treatment wbcs (x 103/µl) eosinophils % heterophils % basophils % lymphocytes % monocytes % heterophils/ lymphocytes t01 25.97 a 3.29 28.21 ab 0.49 62.68 abc 5.32 c 0.45 abc t02 23.54 ab 4.02 27.42 bc 1.23 57.90 d 9.44 a 0.47 ab c1 18.26 ab 2.85 26.42 bc 0.84 63.00 ab 6.89 bc 0.42 bc c2 23.34 ab 3.71 26.24 bc 0.55 62.69 abc 6.81 bc 0.42 bc c3 17.82 b 3.01 29.90 a 0.70 58.84 cd 7.55 abc 0.51 a z1 22.46 ab 4.01 26.71 abc 0.74 61.83 abc 6.72 bc 0.43 bc z2 24.07 ab 4.50 26.06 bc 0.51 62.98 ab 5.95 c 0.41 bc z3 21.20 ab 3.89 24.85 c 0.68 64.26 a 6.33 bc 0.39 c reference interval d 0-16 15-50 0-8 29-84 0-7 0.52-0.60 a-c means not sharing the same superscript letter within each column differ at p<0.05. d thrall et al. (2012) 2. discussion the results of this study indicated that supplementations of ginger and curcumin up to a dose of 1.5%/kg of diets have improved in several hematological parameters, such as pvc, rbcs, and hb. the results showed that the intervals of pcv were 38.63-33.5% in period i, and 37.88-34.5% in period ii. when compared with the interval reference value (23-55%) from campbell and grant (2010), the packed cell volume of the chickens was in the interval reference. therefore, the diets supplemented with curcumin and ginger of this study may be considered useful as a preventive measure against ascites, since the packed cell volume is an indicator for ascites as a natural physiological response in birds. moreover, the interval of the total red blood cell counts in period i and ii was (2.52-3.38 x 106 µl), with an average rbcs of 2.95 x 106/µl. thus, the interval of erythrocyte counts was still in the reference interval of 2.50-3.50 x 106 µl (weiss & wardrop, 2010), and the overall hb levels were still in the normal interval of 7-13 g/dl. moreover, the interval value of mchc (31.92-28.31 g/dl) and the interval value of mcv (109.79-46.90 fl) were still in the interval references of 35-26 g/dl and 140-90 fl, respectively. however, the mch intervals in period i (49.95-34.16 pg) and in period ii (56.83-41.83 pg) were higher compared with mch interval reference (47.00-33.00 pg; 2010). the results of the study were in line with several previous studies. research by administering ginger by oral infusion at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight for 6 weeks showed a significant increase (p<0.05) in hemoglobin and pcv concentrations compared with controls (al-moramadhi, 2010). other studies have also shown that administration of ginger in doses of 200 mg/kg of feed provides hematological data that has implications for significant increases in pcv and hemoglobin, and the total number of total leukocyte count and percent heterophils in doses of 100 mg/kg of feed have also shown an increase. this means that immunologically, there was a significant increase in phagocytic activity of heterophils and antibody titers against several types of viral diseases at a dose of 100 mg/kg of feed (saleh et al., 2014). the results of research conducted by zomrawi et al. (2012) have proven that the addition of ginger powder at the level of 0.5% and 1.0% in feed can improve its performance and hematology parameters, and chicken can still tolerate the addition of up to 1.5% without affecting the measured parameters. however, treatment with the addition of ginger flour at a dose of 2.0% in broiler feed by zomrawi et al. (2012) showed differences in hb, pcv, total rbcs, percentage of mchc, and a decrease in mch compared as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 183 published by ideas spread with the control treatment. the results of previous studies also showed that the 0.5% dose of curcumin addition had shown an increase in hb, total rbcs, and pvc, but on further addition to a dose of 1.0% curcumin there was an increase in the number of white blood cells (al-noori et al., 2011). furthermore, the study of belal et al. (2018) showed that chickens receiving 1.5%/kg feed of ginger in powder form in feed showed significant increases in hb (7.33 to 8.66 g/dl) and mchc (27.67 to 29.45%). however, studies with a dose of 0.6% ginger powder did not have the potential to be used as growth promoters in broiler chicks. the results of this study showed that there were no significant differences in the hematological values and serum biochemical parameters between the treatment groups (hassan et al., 2019). in contrast to the results of previous studies, the results of amaduruonye et al. (2020) showed that the addition of ginger at doses up to 3.0% did not give a difference in effect on all haematological parameters observed, but did not have a detrimental effect on these haematological parameters. however, the results of this study indicate that supplementation of ginger root flour above 1.5% in the poultry diet can adversely affect the histopathological examination of the internal organs of broilers. an experiment using high doses of ginger by ebegbulem (2018) was carried out to determine the effect of feeding ginger levels up to 8.0% on hematology and serum biochemical indices in broilers. the results showed that all hematological indices of birds were not significantly affected by these treatments. this study concludes that ginger can be added up to 6% in broiler chicken food without reducing its physiological status. on the contrary, supplementation of feed with ginger up to 1% has been able to increase body weight and hematological parameters as well as the chemical components of chicken blood (isidahomen, 2016). the values of h/l from blood analysis can be used as an indicator of stress (al-daraji and salih, 2012) and can be used as reliable biomarkers that indicate any inflammations stimulated by feed-induced stress (disetlhe et al., 2018). the normal interval of h/l ratio according to thrall et al. (2012) is 0.52-0.6, but h/l value of the research done by al-daradji and salih (2012) was in the interval of 0.6-1.2. the high value within the range shows that animal are under stress, which if it lasts long means the animal has experienced an acute condition and h/l above 1.3 the chicken has turned into sick. therefore, the ratio of h/l can be used as an indicator of the long-term reaction of livestock to the environment. however, another study showed that application of the h/l method alone is inadequate (cotter, 2015). measurement of h/l could be combined with measurement of blood corticoid hormone as a form of short-term reaction of livestock to the environment. in this, study the value of the h/l ratio was in the interval of 0.39-0.51, including the treatment control, so the chickens were said to be in a non-stress condition. in general, hematology indices usually indicate the health status of animals. although, there was a decrease in the count of white blood cells in the treatment with addition of curcumin, compared to the wbc counts based on weiss and windrop (2010) being in the interval of 12.0-30.0 x 103/µl, the results of this study were still in the interval of the references. moreover, diet supplemented with 1.5% ginger (z3=0.39) decreased h/l ratio of the chickens (p<0.05) compared to the control group (t02=0.47). these results indicated that diets supplemented with curcumin and ginger up to 1.5% had potencials in improving the general health status of broilers. 3. conclusion and recommendation conclusion: the use of curcumin and zingiber medicinal plants has been proven to improve hematological parameters from the results of this study, and some previous studies showed not only improving on hematological value but also on immune system. these improvements are supported by heterophils/lymphocyte ratio data on the addition of herbal plants curcumin and zingiber that have decreased significantly. these conditions indicate that the addition of medicinal plants of curcumin and ginger in broiler chicken diets can improve the hematological values and reduce stress levels of the chicken. recommendation: the indonesian government should be able to improve policies that have been taken to prohibit the total use of synthetic antibiotics. the recommendation aims to be able to encourage the use of medicinal plants in farmers as supplemented feed for especially preventing diseases. furthermore, the use of medicinal plants will avoid cases of residue and resistance due to the use of uncontrolled synthetic antibiotics and will produce an environmentally friendly livestock system because the plants can utilize abundant natural products and low prices because they are easily cultivated. finally, we urge the government to prohibit strictly the use of synthetic antibiotics completely and instead the government should use medicinal plants primarily for preventing disease. acknowledgment the authors gratefully acknowledge the supporting fund of indonesian institute of science (lipi), ministry of research and technology for this research conducted. the helful students and animal keepers of the fapet farm, jambi university are acknowledged for their assistance in performing the study. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 184 published by ideas spread references al-daraji h., & salih, m. 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(2012). the effects of ginger root powder (zingiber officinale) supplementation on broiler chick performance, blood and serum constituents. online journal of animal and feed research, 1(6), 457-460. retrieved from http://41.67.20.41/bitstream/handle/123456789/22871/8.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 3, no. 4; 2021 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v3n4p1 1 published by ideas spread the association of calcium profiles at calving with health and performance of holstein cows and their calves constantin găvan1 & mihaela riza1 1agriculture research and development station simnic – craiova, dolj, romania correspondence: constantin găvan, agriculture research and development station simnic – craiova, șoseaua bălcești, 54, dolj, romania. tel: 40-025-141-7534. e-mail: scda_simnic@yahoo.com received: october 5, 2021 accepted: october 20, 2021 online published: november 1, 2021 the research is financed by agriculture research and development station simnic – craiova. abstract the aim of this study was to assess the association of hypocalcemia at calving with health and performance of holstein cows and their calves. data were collected january 1st 2017 to december 31st 2020. a total of 431 lactating holstein friesian cows (118 primiparous and 313 multiparous) from a research of hypocalcemia was 2 groups (hypo and non-hypo). the overall prevalence of hypocalcemia was 3.4% for first-lactation cows and 18% for multiparous cows. lactating dairy cows with hypocalcemia had greater proportion of cows with retained fetal membranes (rfm) metritis and culling within 60 days in milk (dim), compared with non-hypocalcemia respectively. for the first 2 official milk tests milk yield and components (% fat, % protein on scc) did not differ between hypo and non-hypo cows. the days in milk at first service, mastitis, dystocia and pregnancy at first service were not different between hypo and non-hypo groups. the proportion of stillbirth, survival at 60 days of age in calves did not differ between calves born from hypo or non-hypo cows. calves born from hypo cows had greater incidence of diarrhea (38.3%) than calves born (22.3%) from non-hypo cows. the results of this study show that hypocalcemia in calving has significant health implications for both dams and their calves. keywords: hypocalcemia, retained fetal membranes, metritis, diarrhea 1. introduction the dairy cow undergoes a transition from non-lactating to lactating at calving. the animal is tremendously challenged to maintain calcium homeostasis. those that fail can develop hypocalcemia, a common metabolic disorder in dairy cows that leads to an increased risk of detrimental health. physiologically, serum calcium concentration in adult cow is maintained above 2.0 mmol/l (martin-tereso and verstegen, 2011). before calving, the cow has a calcium requirement for maintenance and an added requirement for fetal growth. after calving, the condition for pregnancy is exchanged for an addition for the colostrum and milk production. this increases the total need of calcium by approximately 100% (ferneberg, 2010). due to the start of colostrum production and consequently increasing calcium demand the nadir of serum concentration occurs 12 to 24 hours after parturition (goff, 2008). calcium ions play a very important role in many fundamental biological processes in the cow body, such as muscle concentration, blood coagulation and hormone release, and are structural components of the skeleton. most of the calcium (99%) in the body is stored in bone, and a minor part (0.1%) is present in the extracellular fluid. the remainder is in plasma membrane and in the endoplasmic reticulum. in cow’s colostrum the concentration of total calcium is approximately 42-58 mmol/l (goff et al. 2000), and milk is lower, approximately 30 mmol/l (sjaostad et al., 2003). the total concentration of calcium in blood plasma is maintained between 2.1 and 2.5 mmol/l (goff, 2008) in the adult cows. to maintain calcium homeostasis after calving at the start of lactation, the cow will increase reabsorption in the kidneys, increase absorption in the intestine and withdraw calcium from bone (goff, 2008). bone calcium mobilization and renal reabsorption are induced by secretion of parathyroid hormone (pth). the increased intestinal absorption is induced by 1.25-dihydroxyvitamin d, which is produced in the kidneys in response to increase pth levels. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 4; 2021 2 published by ideas spread practical animal nutrition often considers nutrient absorption to be a constant competence; however, ca absorption is constantly changing due to endogenous signals and external from the diet. ramberg et al., 1970, described ca homeostasis as a system with „controlled signals, disturbing signals and controlling signals‟. this approach suggests that the cause of hypocalcemia could be delay in adaptive mechanisms („controlling signals‟) that cannot provide timely responses to the sudden changes in ca clearance from the blood (martin-tereso and verstegen, 2011). the adaptive mechanisms involve renal reabsorption, gastrointestinal absorption and bone turnover. renal reabsorption and intestinal absorption are both regulated processes of transepithelial ca transport. bone turnover is a tissue modification process that is regulated in such a way that it can respond anabolically or catabolically to sustain ca homeostasis while maintaining the structural function of bone (martin-tereson and verstegen, 2011). ca reabsorption in the kidney and active gastro epithelial absorption are transcellular processes that coordinated by the hormonal ca homeostatic system and that transports ca into the blood. this transcellular transport of ca consists of three steps: entry into epithelial cells, intracellular diffusion mediated by binding protein and active transport from the cell into the next extracellular compartment (hoenderop et al., 2005). ca enters the epithelial cells through two transient receptor potential vanillaid (trpv) channels (trpv5 and trpv6), and this ca entry represents the limiting key regulatory step of the process, and is strongly regulated by calcitriol (boulin et al., 2003) and extracellular ca concentration (nilius et al., 2002). inside the epithelial cell, ca diffuses through the cytoplasm mediated by two cytosolic ca-binding proteins, calbindin – d9k and calbindin – 28k (hoenderop et al., 2005). this second step can limit transport across the cell because the lack of calbindin proteins impedes ca transport (bronner, 2003). the third step in transcellular transport is ca export out of the cell into the bloodstream, and this process is mediated by atp via ca2+ atpase protein, and the na+/ca2+ exchanger. this step is also regulated by calcitriol. calcitriol is the active form of vitamin d, also known as 1.25-dihydroxycholecalciferol. there are molecular differences between renal and intestinal transcellular ca transport. the ca entry channel in the intestine is trpv6 (suzuki; et al., 2008) whereas trpv5 is in the kidney (khanal and nemere, 2008). the predominant intracellular ca-binding protein in the kidney is calbindin-d28k and calbindin-d9k in the intestine (bouillon et al., 2003). a characteristic of trpv5 is its ph sensitivity. during metabolic acidosis trpv5 has approximately half of its normal activity (suzuki et al., 2008). this inhibition result in hypercalciuria, a condition in cows fed low-dietary cation-anion differences diets (schonewille et al. 1994; roche et al., 2003). bone remodeling is an important adaptive mechanism of ca homeostatic control. bone ca represents a quantitatively large source that sustain blood ca levels in periods of ca deficit in early cow lactation. the hormone affecting bone remodeling is pth and its action is coordinated with calcitriol (parfitt, 1976). the pth initiates bone resorption to compensate for decreases in blood ca, and in the same time, it induces the synthesis of calcitriol, which activates intestinal ca absorption. if blood ca is normalized by intestinal input, pth ceases and consequently induces renal excretion of the surplus. in conclusion intestinal absorption and bone resorption present a delay of approximately 1 or 2 days when adapting to an increased ca clearance from the blood. this time coincides with the period at calving when cows suffer from hypocalcemia. for many years, dairy nutritionists have searched for a dietary strategy to prevent hypocalcemia. dietary preventive strategies and nutritional risk factors have been reviewed (bauman and bruce currie, 1980). implementation of low-ca diets as a specific strategy for hypocalcemia has practical difficulties (is a difficult to formulate a dry cow ration below 1.5 g ca per kg dm). supplying anionic salts is a preventive dietary intervention. the effect of the dcad (dietary cation-anion differences) levels on hypocalcemia has been evaluated (lean et al., 2006). the objectives of feeding prepartum cows acidogenic diets is to induce a compensated metabolic acidosis. the transient hypocalcemia at calving is associated with increased risk of uterine and metabolic disorders (martinez et al., 2012). subclinical hypocalcemia affected reproductive performance such as estrus cyclicity (ribeiro et al., caixeta et al., 2017) and pregnancy rate to first ai (chapinal et al. 2012). calves born from hypocalcemia cows have been reported to be at greater risk of developing diarrhea and respiratory events during neonatal period, compared with calves born from non-hypo calcemic cows (planski and abrashev, 1987). wilhelm et al. (2017) reported that calves born from hypo calcemic cows had greater incidence of diarrhea (49%) than calves born (33.3%) from non-hypo calcemic cow under certified organic management. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 4; 2021 3 published by ideas spread the objective of this study was to assess the association of hypocalcemia (hypo) of cows at calving with survival, health and performance of lactating dairy cows and their calves in a research dairy herd. 2. method 2.1 animals feeding and facilities in the research farm dairy cows and heifers are housed in barns with access to dry-lot, prepartum and postpartum. all cows are milked twice daily in approximately 12 h interval. cows and heifers were fed in the morning and afternoon with diets formulated to meet or to exceed nutritional requirements for dry and lactating dairy cows. additionally, all cows and heifers have access to pasture (alfalfa or ryegrass). prepartum and postpartum diets were presented in table 1. table 1. prepartum and postpartum dairy cow diets (dm basis). item prepartum % postpartum % a. ingredient: alfalfa hay 26 29 grass hay 45 5.5 corn silage 10 16 grain mix 16 47 mineral mix 3 2.5 total 100 100 nutrient profile: net energy lactation 1.28 1.60 crude protein 12 19 neutral detergent fiber 46 28 acid detergent fiber 40 20 starch 14 27 calcium 1.4 1.3 phosphorus 0.3 0.4 magnesium 0.4 0.4 kalium 1.5 1.3 natrium 0.3 0.4 chloride 1.1 0.4 sulfa 0.4 0.2 dcad meq/100g of dm* -5 26.9 * calculated as dcad = (meq of na + meq of k) – (meq of s + meq of cl). pregnant cows were dried-off 60 ± 10 days before the expected calving date and were moved in a dry pen after last milking. at 21 ± 3 days before the expected calving date the pregnant cows were moved to prepartum pens. in the prepartum pens all cows closely monitored by on farm personnel for signs of parturition every 1 hour. calving ease of cows is recorded using a 4–point scale (1= no assistance; 2 = assistance by 1 person without the use of mechanical traction; 3 = mechanical extraction; and 4 = sever dystocia – surgery or fetology needed). calving date and time and stillbirth are recorded. after calving all cows has their bcs assessed using a 5–point scale by a person from research team. stillbirth is defined as a calf born dead or died within 24 hours after birth. fresh colostrum is harvested within 2 hours after calving, and all calves receive 4 l of quality colostrum ≥ 50 mg of 1gg/dl from their dams or not from their dams, within 3 hours after birth. two days after colostrum administration, blood samples are collected from jugular vein of female calves to assess failure of passive immune transfer (brix refractometer; brix value ≥ 22% for colostrum quality and brix value ≥ 8.4% for adequate immune transfer). in the first day calves are moved to the calf raising facility and are housed individually. the calves are fed 8 l of milk twice daily in the morning (4 l) and afternoon (4l). 2.2 assessment of urine ph in cows testing urine ph gives a strong indication of the effectiveness of dcad balancing in the ration. all the cows in the prepartum transition group that have been consuming the transition diet for at least 3 days and are more than 3 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 4; 2021 4 published by ideas spread days away from expected calving are selected once per week for urine ph test. urine samples are collected between 2 and 4 hours after feeding the diet, by perineal stimulation and free catch of the urine (not at start urinating, because alkaline components in the vagina can cause erroneous results). a portable ph meter is used that is cleaned, calibrated correctly and rinsed between measurements. target urine ph levels in holstein cows are between 6.0 and 6.8. if 80% of the samples are within target, the diet is not adjusting for dcad. the outlying 20% is likely caused by improper sampling or one or more of the following factors: eating behavior; feed preferences; adequate amount of feed; forage variability in k and cl, overcrowding. usually a dcad of – 5 to – 15 milliequivalents per 100 g dry matter is used. if the dcad is not within this range, calcium sulfate or ammonium sulfate is added until sulfur is 0.4-0.5% of dm or calcium chloride and/or ammonium chloride until dcad is -5 to -15 meq/100 g of dm (ammonium salts should always be checked for non protein nitrogen levels to avoid ammonia toxicity). 2.3 assessment of calcium status of cows blood samples (8 ml) for determination of serum calcium concentration is collected monthly from 4-5 cows within 2 hours after parturition by jugular venipuncture (vacutainer system). after collection blood samples are centrifuged for 20 minutes. serum sample are stored at -20° c until analyzed, for a longer storage or at 2-8°c for 10 days storage. total serum concentration of calcium is determined in duplicates, using calorimetric method (calcium occ – linear chemicals, s.l.u. spain). this method is based on the specific binding of cresolftalein complexone (occ), a metalochromic indicator and calcium at alkaline ph with the resulting shift in the absorption wavelength of the complex. the intensity of the chromophore formed is proportional to the concentration of total calcium in the sample. 2.4 health events and milk production all postpartum cows were screened for retained fetal membranes (rfm), metritis, and mastitis. retained fetal membranes is defined as a failure to expel the fetal membranes by 24 hours after parturition (leblanc et al., 2002). metritis is defined as a foul-smelling, brown red, watery vaginal discharge within the first 20 days in milk (dim) with or without fever (≥ 39.5°c). clinical mastitis was defined as an inflammation of the udder with visible changes of milk within 20 dim. milk production and somatic cell count (scc), for the first 2 postpartum official milk test were collected from farm records. survival of lactating dairy cows (died are culled within 60 dim) was assessed by calcium status at calving. the incidence of diarrhea in calves was associated with calcium status of the dams of calving. diarrhea is defined as the presence of fluid or bloody feces (score 2-3 on a 0-3 scale and either >5%) dehydration (score 3, on a 1-3 scale) or fever (≥ 39.5°c). within 10 days of age (goodell et al., 2012). also survival at 60 days of age was assessed. 2.5 breeding practices for all lactating dairy cows the voluntary waiting period (vwp) is 50 to 60 days. the breeding program is based on estrus detection and artificial insemination (ai). estrus detection is made by daily visual observation and using tail chalk. all cows presenting signs of standing estrus behavior receive ai. the cows that did not display estrus behavior or are not pregnant after 5 consecutive ai are enrolled in a program of induction of estrus and inseminations at an appointed time. pregnancy diagnosis is performed at 40 ± 3 days, post ai via trans rectal palpation. the days in milk at first service and the proportion of pregnancy per ai at first service are recorded. 2.6 statistical analyses data were collected from january 1st 2017 to december 31st 2020. for this retrospective longitudinal study, data from individual lactating dairy cows were analyzed using microsoft office excel. the association of cows with hypocalcemia at calving with dystocia, rfm, metritis, culling within 60 dim and pregnancy at first a, were analyzed using statistical procedures of sas (sas institute, 2009). also, association of cows with hypocalcemia at calving with days in milk at first service, milk weights (kg) components (scc and percent fat and protein were analyzed using mixed procedure of sas). the effect of parity bcs at calving were also included. association of cows with hypocalcemia status at calving with stillbirth, diarrhea within 10 days of age and adequate immune transfer in calves were analyzed. 3. results in total 431 lactating holstein friesian cows (118 primiparous and 313 multiparous) from research farm of ards simnic-craiova were included in the analyses (table 2). all 431 cows were divided in two groups: hypo group and non-hypo group (table 2). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 4; 2021 5 published by ideas spread table 2. calving calcium profiles and cows health and reproductive parameters performance of dairy cows in hypo and non-hypo groups item hypo n=60 non-hypo n=371 p – value calving related events and survival (%): dystocia (%) 8.3 6 0.51 rfm (%) 12.8 5.8 0.03 metritis (%) 21.6 14 0.02 mastitis (%) 11.6 8.2 0.10 culled within 60 dim (%) 16.6 10.2 0.04 reproductive performances: days in milk at first service (d) 86.6 ± 3.41 82.2 ± 2.53 0.62 pregnancy at first service (%) 51.6 53 0.18 in total 60 cows (13.92%) had hypocalcemia, using a cut-off value for serum total calcium of 2 mmol/l (< 8.0 mg/dl; reinhardt et al. 2011). the overall prevalence of hypocalcemia was 3.4% for first lactation cows and 18% for multiparous cows. 3.1 health, culling and performances of lactating cows lactating dairy cows with hypocalcemia had greater proportion of cows with rfm (p = 0.03), metritis (p = 0.02) and culling within 60 dim (p = 0.04; table 2). the proportion of cows with dystocia (p = 0.51), and mastitis (p = 0.10) was not different between hypo and non-hypo groups of cows (table 2). also days in milk at first service (p = 0.62) and pregnancy at first service (p = 0.18) were not different between hypo and non-hypo cows (table 2). milk yield (p = 0.40), percent milk fat (p = 0.57), percent milk protein (p = 0.43), and scc (p = 0.62) were not different between hypo and non-hypo cows for the first 2 milk control tests relative to calving (table 3). table 3. association of calcium status at calving with milk yield and percent fat and protein, and scc of holstein friesian dairy cows in the first 3 milk control tests relative to calving 1. item hypo (n = 60) non-hypo (n = 371) p – value control 1 control 2 control 1 control 2 d.i.m. at control test 28.2 ± 1 56.6 ± 2 28.5 ± 0.9 56.3 ± 0.4 0.40 milk yield (kg) 28.4 ± 3.1 31.2 ± 2.8 28.9 ± 1.2 33.6 ± 1.0 0.40 fat (%) 3.4 ± 0.2 3.5 ± 0.3 3.3 ± 0.2 3.5 ± 0.3 0.57 protein (%) 3.0 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.1 3.1 ± 0.1 3.2 ± 0.1 0.43 scc x 103 cells/ml of milk 249 ± 110 200 ± 98 256 ± 108 188 ± 90 0.62 1 least squares means are presented ± sem; hypo: cows with ≤ 8.0 mg ca/dl; non-hypo: cows ≥ 8.1 mg ca/dl. 3.2 calf diarrhea within 10 days of age and survival within 60 days of age in calves the proportion of stillborn calves (p = 0.38) and survival within 60 days of age (p = 0.41), did not differ between hypo and non-hypo cows (table 4). calves born by hypo cows had a significantly greater (p = 0.04) incidence of diarrhea compared with non-hypo cows (table 4). table 4. association of calcium status at calving with stillbirth, diarrhea 10 days of age and survival within 60 days of age in calves. item1 hypo (n = 60) non-hypo (n = 371) p – value stillbirth2 (%) 3.3 2.6 0.38 diarrhea (%) 38.3 22.3 0.04 survival (%) 92 95 0.41 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 3, no. 4; 2021 6 published by ideas spread in the present study the overall prevalence of hypocalcemia clinical and subclinical combined was 3.4% for primiparous and 18% for multiparous cows. for vital bodily functions is necessary ionized calcium. kimura et al., 2006 reported that the extracellular calcium status is the primary determinant of intracellular calcium status. the immunosuppression observed in postpartum dairy cows is likely due to the decreased storage of intracellular ionized ca (martinez et al., 2012). the depletion of intracellular calcium stores starts several days before parturition and development of hypocalcemia in early postpartum dairy cows. calcium concentrations are reported to reach a nadir within 12 to 24 hours after parturition (goff, 2008) thus, the prevalence of hypocalcemia in cows by 24 hours after calving may be higher than reported in this study. martinez et al., 2012, reported that cows with subclinical hypocalcemia (total serum calcium ≤ 8.59 mg/dl) for at least one day, between 0 and 3 dim had less neutrophils in their blood with reduced functions, and increased risk for metritis. in the present study, hypo cows had significantly increased risk for rfm, metritis and culling within 60 dim as compared to non-hypo cows. jawor et al., 2012, reported that cows with hypo (< 7.2 mg/dl) produced 5.7 kg/day more milk. martinez et al., 2012, reported that milk production did not differ between hypo (≤ 8.59 mg/dl) and non-hypo cows. in this study milk yield and components as well as scc for the first 2 official milk control tests were not different in hypo and non-hypo cows. an interesting finding was that calves born from hypo cows had a greater proportion of diarrhea within 10 days of age compared to those born from non-hypo cows. the most efficient and effective management of the newborn health is achieved by feeding adequate quantity (4 l) of quality colostrum (≥ 50 g/l igg) and minimal bacterial contamination within first 3 hours after birth (mee, 2008). immediately after birth calf require proper navel disinfection, removal from the dam and movement to a clean and dry environment. in this study hypo cows tended to yield colostrum of inferior concentration of igg compared with non-hypo cows which in turn could compromise, in past, neonatal calf health within 10 days of age. further studies are needed to assess the association between calcium and energy status at calving of dam and neonatal calf health, accounting for effect of colostrum components (igg, vitamins and nutrients). 4. conclusions overall the present study indicates that hypocalcemia is a metabolic disorder in the dairy farm analyzed, as 3.4% of first lactation cows and 18% of multiparous cows suffered from this metabolic disorder. findings from this study show that hypocalcemia of dairy cows at calving has significant health implications for both dams and their calves. references martin-tereso, j., & holger martens, v. m. d. 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(2002). the effect of prepartum injection of vitamin e on health in transition dairy cows. j. dairy sci., 85, 1416-1426. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(02)74209-4 goodell g. m., campbell, l. j., hoejvang-nielsen, stansen, w., & constable, p. d. (2012). an alkalinizing oral rehydration solution contained lecithin-coated citrus fiber is superior to a nonalkalinizing solution in treating 360 calves with naturally acquired diarrhea. j. dairy sci., 95, 6677-6686. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.20125605 reinhardt t. a., j. d. lippolis, b. j. mccluskey, goff, j. p., & horst, r. l. (2011). prevalence of subclinical hypocalcemia in dairy herds. vet. j., 188, 122-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.03.025 kimura k., reinhardt, t. a., & goff, j. p. 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(2008). prevalence and risk factors for dystocia in dairy cattle: a review. the veterinary, 17, 93-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.12.032 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p282 282 published by ideas spread combined effects of nutrient management on nutrient content and uptake of transplant aus rice (brri dhan48) nahid kaisar1, abu zofar md. moslehuddin2, md. mahbubul alam tarafder3 & md. sohanur rahman4 1 department of soil science, bangladesh agricultural university, bangladesh 2 professor, department of soil science, bangladesh agricultural university, bangladesh 3 senior scientific officer, soil science division, bangladesh institute of nuclear agriculture, bangladesh 4 scientific officer, department of entomology, bangladesh jute research institute, bangladesh correspondence: md. sohanur rahman, scientific officer, department of entomology, bangladesh jute research institute, bangladesh. e-mail: sohanbau2010@gmail.com received: may 21, 2020 accepted: june 7, 2020 online published: june 12, 2020 abstract a field experiment was conducted at sutiakhali, mymensingh for crop production and chemical analysis was performed at department of soil science, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh to see the combined effect of nutrient management on nutrient content and uptake of transplant aus rice (brri dhan48) during march to july 2015 following randomized complete block design with four replications. the treatments were t1: rd (n75 p12 k45 s9), t2: stb (n74 p11 k36 s7), t3: inm (n54 p5 k27 s5+ cd @ 5.0 t ha−1), t4: farmer’s practice (n69 p30 k37), and t5: control (no fertilizer). the npks content and uptake by brri dhan48 were also influenced significantly due to combined use of manure and fertilizers. the maximum n, p, k and s uptake by grain (35.55, 6.99, 15.20 and 3.38 kg/ha respectively) were obtained from the application of integrated nutrient management. the minimum n, p, k and s uptake by grain (20.08, 3.64, 8.35 and 1.74 kg/ha respectively) were found from t5: control. similarly, the maximum n, p, k and s uptake by straw (3.38, 5.43, 99.25 and 7.37 kg/ha respectively) were found from t3: inm. the minimum n, p, k and s uptake by straw (1.74, 2.67, 49.70 and 3.87 kg/ha respectively) were obtained from t5 (control). the performance of the treatment t3 was better than t1, t2, t4 and t5 in nutrient content and uptake of brri dhan48. considering nutrient content and uptake, the application of chemical fertilizers in combination with manure based on inm could be recommended for brri dhan48 production in aus season. keywords: nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, sulphur, grain, straw, fertilizer, brri dhan48, soil 1. introduction rice is the staple food crop in bangladesh. plant nutrients are essential for proper crop development, plant growth and also of their internal metabolism. soil with low organic matter, inappropriate use of chemical fertilizers, low use of organic manures made the situation difficult (karim et al. 1994). uneven use of fertilizers has a adverse effect on crop production (rijpma and jahiruddin, 2004). crop production is not totally maintained only chemical fertilizers and not possible to obtain higher crop yield by using organic manures alone (bair, 1990). nambiar (1991) reviewed that, combined use of organic manure and chemical fertilizers would be important in providing greater stability in production and maintaining soil fertility status. combined nutrient management (cnm) is a technique where organic, inorganic, and biofertilizer can be combindly applied to soils for crop growth and get good yield. the object of inm is to optimize crop nutrition, the functioning of the soil health, and minimize nutrient losses or avoiding adverse effect on the environment. application of manures and different doses of chemical fertilizers significantly increased the yield components and grain and straw yields of bina dhan7 (malika et al. 2011). combined nutrient application leads to higher yield. (lin et al. 2009 and qian et al.2011). application of manures and different doses of urea-n fertilizers significantly increased the yield contributing attributes of brri dhan29 (rahman et al. 2009). a proper combination of nutrients is important for sustainable agriculture for providing food with good quality. cowdung, poultry manure and compost supply the macro and micronutrients for crop production. cowdung is a good source of nutrients that can be mixed into most fertilizer schedules. considering value, manure is most important sources. manure application in association with recommended fertilizer dose plays important role in rice as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 283 published by ideas spread production. therefore, the present research work was undertaken to know the nutrient content and uptake of transplant aus rice (brri dhan48) in combined nutrient management. 2. materials and methods 2.1 site and weather description the field experiment was done at sutiakhali, a village of mymensingh sadar upazila and laboratory analysis was done at the department of soil science, bangladesh agricultural university district during january-july 2015.the experimental site is situated at latitude n: 24040.982ʹ and longitude e: 90027.391ʹ24°n at a height of 8.3 m above the mean sea level under old brahmaputra floodplain agro-ecological zone. physical characteristics of soil were sand 27.06%, silt 63.40% and clay 9.54%. textural class was silt loam. drainage system was moderate. chemical characteristics of soil were ph (6.53), organic matter (1.35%), total n (0.10%), available p (6.0 mg kg-1), exchangeable k (0.097cmol+ kg-1), available s (9.3 mg kg-1) and available zn (0.41mg kg-1). the weather information ranged temperature (max. 23.90c 35.40c & min. 11.30c 26.70c) rainfall (nil -??299.9 mm) and humidity (76-86.6%) prevailed at the experimental site during the cropping season of conducting the experiment (source: department of irrigation and water management, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh). 0-15 cm depth soil collected for samples. the samples were then stored in clean plastic bags for subsequent chemical and mechanical analysis. the planting material used for the experiment was transplanted aus rice. the variety was brri dhan48. 2.2 experimental design and treatments the experiment was done by randomized complete block design (rcbd) where the experimental area was divided into 4 blocks and each block was subdivided into 5 plots. treatments distributed randomly to the unit plots in each block. total unit plot was 20 and plot size was 4.5 m x 3.15 m and the spacing among the plots was 20 cm. there were five treatments as follows: t1: rd (recommended dose (n75 p12 k45 s9)), t2: stb (soil test basis (n74 p11 k36 s7)), t3: n54 p5 k27 s5 (combined nutrient management (cnm) + cd ( cowdung) @ 5.0 t ha−1, t4: farmer’s practice (n69 p30 k37) and t5: control (no fertilizer). 2.3 name, rates and sources of nutrients application table 1. name, rates and sources of nutrients applied as follows name of fertilizer treatments nutrient rate (kg / ha) fertilizer rate (kg / ha) fertilizer rate (g / plot) urea t1 75 163.04 232 t2 74 160.51 228 t3 54 117.03 166 t4 69 149.81 213 tsp t1 12 60.00 85 t2 11 56.25 80 t3 5 26.25 37 t4 30 149.81 213 mop t1 45 90.00 128 t2 36 71.87 102 t3 27 53.47 76 t4 37 74.90 106 gypsum t1 9 50.00 71 t2 7 40.74 58 t3 5 26.30 37 cd t3 ?? 5000 7100 2.4 application of manures and fertilizers the amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and sulphur fertilizers required per plot were calculated as per the treatments. cowdung was applied before one week of transplanting (9 april 2015). the full dose of tsp, mop and gypsum were applied one day before transplanting (15 april 2015). nitrogen from urea was applied in 3 equal splits. the first split of urea was applied after 15 days of transplanting (1 may 2015). second split was applied as as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 284 published by ideas spread top dressing after 30 days of transplanting (16 may 2015) and the third split of urea after 45 days of transplanting (31 may 2015) i.e. at panicle initiation stage. 2.5 harvesting and data recording the crop was harvested at full maturity on 20 july 2015. the harvested crop from each plot was bundled separately and brought to the threshing floor and threshed plot-wise. grain and straw yields were recorded plot-wise and expressed as t ha-1 on the basis of 14% moisture content. 2.6 chemical analyses of plant samples preparation of plant samples the representative grain and straw samples were dried in an oven at 650 c for about 24 hours before they were ground by a grinding machine and stored in paper bags and finally kept into a desiccator until analysis. digestion of plant samples for total nitrogen determination an amount of 0.1g of oven dry ground plant sample (both grain and straw separately) was taken in a micro-kjeldahl flask for nitrogen determination. 1.1 g catalyst mixture (k2so4: cuso4. 5h2o: se = 100: 10:1), 2 ml 30% h2o2 and 3 ml h2so4 were added into the flask. it was swirled and allowed to stand for 30 minutes. then heating was continued until the digest was clear and colorless. after cooling, the content was taken into a 100 ml volumetric flask and the volume was made up to the mark with distilled water. a reagent blank was prepared in a similar manner. the digest was used for nitrogen determination. digestion of plant samples for p, k and s determination plant sample of 0.5g (grain or straw) was transferred into dry clean 100 ml kjeldahl flask. 10ml of di-acid mixture (hno3: hc1o4= 2:1) was added into the flask. after leaving for a while, the flasks were heated at a temperature of 2000 c. when the flask became sufficiently clear and colorless, it boiled. after cooling, the digests was transferred into a 100 ml volumetric flask and the volume was made up to the mark with distilled water. this digest was used for the determination of p, k and s. 2.7 determination of n, p, k and s from plant samples nitrogen nitrogen content digests were determined by micro-kjeldahl method. 40% naoh was added for distillation after digestion complete. the evolved ammonia was trapped into 4% h3bo3 solution and 5 drops of mixed indicator of bromocressol green (c21h14o5br4s) and methyl red (c10h10n3o3) solution. finally the distillate was titrated with standard 0.01 n h2so4 until the color changed from green to pink. phosphorus phosphorus was determined following the procedure of using 1ml digest for grain sample and 2 ml digest for straw sample from 100 ml extract. then the sample was shaking with 0.5 m nahco3 solution at ph 8.5 following olsen method. the extracted phosphorus was determined by developing blue color by sncl2 reduction of phosphomolybdate complex and measuring the intensity of color spectrophotometrically at 660 nm wavelength. the readings were calibrated to the standard p curve. potassium 5 ml of digest for the grain and 10 ml for the straw was taken with 1.0 n nh4oac (ph 7) and diluted to 50 ml volume to make desired concentration. k was determined from the extract by using flame photometer and calibrated with a standard curve. sulphur sulphur was determined by using 10 ml of digest (both for grain and straw) from 100 ml extract with cacl2 solution (0.15%). the s content in the extract was estimated turbidimetrically and readings were taken by spectrophotometer at 420 nm. 2.8 determination of nutrient uptake after chemical analysis of grain and straw samples, the nutrient content were calculated and from the value of nutrient concentration. nutrient uptakes were also calculated by the following formula: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 285 published by ideas spread nutrient content(%) x yield (kg/ha) nutrient uptake = 100 statistical analysis the analysis of variance for nutrient content of the plant samples were done following the anova technique and the mean results in case of significant f-value were adjudged by the duncan's multiple range test (dmrt). 3. results 3.1 nutrient content in rice grain and straw of brri dhan48 the results of n, p, k and s contents of grain and straw have discussed under the following sub-sections. all data were statistically significant. table 2. n, p, k and s content in grain and straw of brri dhan48 as influenced by combined nutrient management treatment n (%) p (%) k (%) s (%) grain straw grain straw grain straw grain straw t1 0.734a 0.441c 0.138ab 0.073b 0.293b 1.423b 0.067a 0.113a t2 0.698b 0.469b 0.141a 0.082a 0.315ab 1.519a 0.068a 0.111a t3 0.737a 0.540a 0.145a 0.084a 0.315a 1.535a 0.070a 0.114a t4 0.700b 0.443c 0.125bc 0.073b 0.301b 1.420b 0.059b 0.105b t5 0.657c 0.413d 0.119c 0.071b 0.273c 1.324c 0.057b 0.103b lsd0.05 0.019 0.026 0.014 0.007 0.013 0.041 0.007 0.005 se (±) 0.063 0.008 0.004 0.002 0.004 0.013 0.002 0.001 level of significance 0.0424 ** 0.0933 ** 0.0049 ** 0.0014 ** 0.0101 ** 0.3033 ** 0.0013 ** 0.0010 ** cv (%) 1.79 3.65 6.51 5.18 2.74 1.83 7.29 2.19 ** = significant at 1% level of probability, lsd= least significant difference, se (±) = standard error of means, cv (%) = co-efficient of variation nitrogen content the highest n content of 0.737% was observed in t3: cnm and the lowest n content of 0.657% noted in t5: control (table 2). application of cowdung with chemical fertilizers increased the n content in rice grain markedly in t3: cnm. in the straw of brri dhan48, the n content varied significantly due to different treatments (table 4). the n content in the straw ranged from 0.413% in t1 to 0.54% in t3. akhter, s. (2011), parvez et al. (2008) and chandel et al. (2003) reported that application of nitrogen from manures and fertilizers increased the n content both in grain and straw of rice. phosphorus content results in table 1 indicated that phosphorus content in the grain of brri dhan48 varied significantly due to different treatments. phosphorus content in grain ranged from 0.119 to 0.145%. the highest p content (0.145%) in grain was found in t3: cnm and the lowest value (0.119 %) noted in t5: control. phosphorus content in rice straw was influenced significantly due to use of cowdung and fertilizers as shown in table 3. khan et al. (2007) observed that the combined application of npk and organic manures (gm or fym) significantly increased the paddy and straw yields of rice crop. the highest p content in straw (0.084%) was observed in t3: cnm and the lowest value (0.071%) recorded in t5: control. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 286 published by ideas spread potassium content the potassium content both in grain and straw of brri dhan48 varied significantly due to application of cowdung and fertilizers. the k content ranged from 0.273 to 0.315% in rice grain and 1.324 to 1.535% in straw (table 2). the highest k content in rice grain (0.315%) and straw (1.535%) was recorded in t3: cnm. this is supported by saleque et al. (1998). the lowest k content in grain (0.273%) and straw (1.324%) was observed in t5: control. sulphur content the sulphur content both in grain and straw of brri dhan48 was influenced significantly by the combined use of cowdung and fertilizers (table 2).the highest s content of 0.07% in grain was obtained in t3: cnm and the lowest value of 0.057% noted in t5: control. all the treatments caused an increasing effect on the s content of rice grain and the effect of cnm was better compared to fertilizer doses. in case of straw, s content ranging was from 0.103 to 0.114%. the highest s content in straw (0.114%) was recorded in t3: cnm and the lowest s content in straw (0.103%) observed in t5: control and supported by chandel et al. (2003). 3.2 nutrient uptake by grain and straw of brri dhan48 the results of n, p, k and s uptake of brri dhan48 have been presented and discussed below: table 3. effect of combined nutrient management on n and p uptake by brri dhan48 treatment n uptake (kg) p uptake (kg) grain straw total grain straw total t1 28.05b 2.560c 52.63c 5.27bc 4.07b 9.34c t2 28.62b 2.790b 58.43b 5.78b 5.21a 10.99b t3 35.55a 3.380a 70.47a 6.99a 5.43a 12.43a t4 25.62c 2.160d 48.53d 4.57c 3.78b 8.35d t5 20.08d 1.74e 35.58e 3.64d 2.67c 6.31 e lsd0.05 1.54 0.223 3.31 0.748 0.592 0.742 se (±) 0.500 0.072 1.08 0.242 0.192 0.240 level of significance 124.91** 214.670** 657.82** 6.363** 5.062** 22.344** cv (%) 3.63 4.98 4.05 9.25 9.09 5.08 ** = significant at 1% level of probability, lsd= least significant difference, se (±) = standard error of means, cv (%) = co-efficient of variation nitrogen uptake results indicate that, the n uptake both by grain and straw of brri dhan48 varied significantly due to application of manure and fertilizers (table 3). the n uptake by grain ranging was from 20.08 to 35.55 kg ha-1 and straw from 1.74 to 3.38 kg ha-1. the highest n uptake by grain and straw was recorded 35.55 and 3.38 kg ha-1 in t3: cnm, respectively. duhan and singh (2002) reported that the rice yield and uptake of nutrients increased significantly with increasing n levels. the lowest n uptake by grain (20.08 kg ha-1) and by straw (1.74 kg ha-1) found in t5: control. the highest total n uptake (70.47 kg ha-1) was observed in t3: inm and the lowest value (35.58 kg ha-1) found in t5: control. this result is an agreement with the findings of nakashgir et al. (2000). phosphorus uptake the results presented shows that, the p uptake both by grain and straw of brri dhan48 was influenced significantly by the application of cowdung and fertilizers (table 3). the p uptake by grain ranging was from 3.64 to 6.99 kg ha-1 and that by straw 2.67 to 5.43 kg ha-1. the maximum p uptake by grain (6.99 kg ha-1) and straw (5.43 kg ha-1) was found in t3: cnm. the minimum p uptake by grain (3.64 kg ha-1) and straw (2.67 kg ha-1) was found in t5: control. combined use of cowdung and chemical fertilizers is better than only use of chemical fertilizers. the application of cowdung and fertilizers showed significant effect on the uptake of total p by brri dhan48 (table 2). the highest total p uptake (12.43 kg ha-1) was obtained in t3: cnm and the lowest total p uptake (6.307 kg ha-1) observed in t5: control and supported by akhter, s. (2011). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 287 published by ideas spread table 4. uptake of k and s by brri dhan48 as influenced by the application of combined nutrient management treatment k uptake (kg) s uptake (kg) grain straw total grain straw total t1 11.00c 79.30c 90.50c 2.56c 6.30b 8.86c t2 12.92b 96.54b 109.50b 2.79b 7.05a 9.84b t3 15.20a 99.25a 114.4a 3.38a 7.37a 10.75a t4 11.02c 73.44d 84.46d 2.16d 5.43c 7.59d t5 8.35d 49.70e 58.05e 1.74e 3.87d 5.61e lsd0.05 0.999 2.69 3.20 2.23 0.367 0.424 se (±) 0.324 0.874 1.04 0.072 0.119 0.137 level of significance 25.913** 1605.12** 2018.72** 1.552** 7.931** 16.163** cv (%) 5.55 2.20 2.28 5.74 3.96 3.24 ** = significant at 1% level of probability, lsd= least significant difference, se (±) = standard error of means, cv (%) = co-efficient of variation potassium uptake the results indicate that the k uptake by grain and straw of brri dhan48 varied significantly by different treatments (table 4). the k uptake by grain increase from 8.35 in t5: control to 15.20 kg ha-1 in t3: cnm. the k uptake by straw ranging was from 49.70 in t5: control to 99.25 kg ha-1 in t3: cnm, respectively. the total k uptake by grain and straw was also affected significantly by different treatments. the highest total k uptake (114.4) was obtained in t3: cnm and the lowest value (58.05) in t5: control. this result is strongly supported by nakashgir et al. (2000). the results are also in agreement with meena et al. (2003) sulphur uptake sulphur uptake by grain and straw was influenced significantly due to application of different treatments (table 4). the s uptake by grain and straw ranging was from 1.74 to 3.38 and 3.87 to 7.37 kg ha-1, respectively. the highest s uptake by grain (3.38 kg ha-1) and straw (7.37 kg ha-1) was found in t3: cnm. the lowest s uptake by grain (1.74) and straw (3.87) was found in t5 (control). the total s uptake by grain and straw was also influenced significantly by different treatments (table 4). the highest total s uptake (10.75) was found in t3: cnm and the lowest value (5.61) in t5: control. this result is similar to sarfaraz et al. (2002). 4. conclusion it can be concluded that combined use of manure and fertilizers significantly increased nutrient content and uptake by brri dhan48. the treatment t3: cnm revealed the highest npks uptake while the lowest value was recorded over the control. integrated nutrient management practice keeps soil healthy with higher yield of brri dhan48. so, farmer’s should follow this technique to minimize soil pollution and get economically benefitted for rice cultivation. further research should be recommended for more confirmation of the result. acknowledgement authors gave gratitude towards the ministry of science and technology of bangladesh for providing financial support to conduct the research work. conflict of interest the authors have no conflict of interest to report. authors' contributions nahid kaisar conducted the experiment and analyzed the data. abu zofar md. moslehuddin and mahbubul alam tarafder provided help for the experimental design and supervised in the whole experiment. md. sohanur rahman contributed in data presentation, analysing data, searching journal for publication and finally manuscript processing and writing of this article. this article was read and approved by all authors for final publication. references akhter, s. (2011). effects of nitrogen supplied from manures and fertilizers on the growth and yield of brri dhan29. ms thesis, department of soil science, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh. pages? arif, m., tasneem, m., fiaz, b., yaseen, g., & iqbal, r. m. (2014). effect of combined use of organic manures as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 288 published by ideas spread and inorganic fertilizers on yield and yield components of rice. journal of research, 52(2), 197-206 bair, w. (1990). characterization of environment of sustainable agriculture in semi arid tropics. in: proc. sustainable agriculture. issues, perspectives and prospects semi arid tropics (ed. singh, r.p.) hydrabad, india. indian society agronomy, 1, pp: 90-124. https://doi.org/10.19103/as.2017.0023.33 chandel, r. s., singh, k., singh, a. k., & sudhakar, p. c. 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(1998). response of wetland rice to potassium in farmers field of the barind tract. bangladesh journal of plant nutrition, 21, 39-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904169809365381 sarfaraz, m., mehdi, s. m., sadiq, m., & hassan, g. (2002). effect of sulphur on yield and chemical composition of rice. sarhad journal of agriculture, 18, 411-414. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p70-76.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p70 70 published by ideas spread effects of two different feeds on the growth of australian freshwater lobster li yongbo1, li guijuan1 & lu minfeng1 1 college of biological sciences and agriculture, qiannan normal university for nationalities, guizhou duyun, china correspondence: lu minfeng, college of biological sciences and agriculture, qiannan normal university for nationalities, guizhou duyun 558000, china. received: february 20, 2025 accepted: march 20, 2025 online published: march 25, 2025 this study was supported by the project "facility-based cultivation technology research of australian freshwater lobster (qnsy (sn)2023010)" from the modern industry college, qiannan normal university for nationalities. abstract the main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of two different feeds on the growth of australian freshwater lobster. the experimental data clearly showed that the different feeds had significant effects on the growth rate and weight gain of freshwater lobsters. in particular, feeds rich in microorganisms had the most obvious effect on the growth of lobsters and could effectively promote the rapid increase of their weight. the selection of appropriate feed types and formulations is crucial in freshwater lobster culture. this study not only revealed the effects of two different feeds on the growth of australian freshwater lobster, but also provided a strong theoretical guidance for freshwater lobster culture practice. in order to improve the breeding efficiency and promote the sustainable development of the industry, we can improve freshwater lobster culture continue. keywords: australian freshwater lobster, types of feed, growth 1. introduction australian freshwater lobster (cheraxquadricarinatus), a valuable aquatic resource, plays an important role in the high-end aquaculture industry due to its unique cultured potential and market value, showcasing broad prospects for cultivation. renowned for its special taste and high nutritional value, the freshwater lobster has become a significant export aquatic product favored by international markets [1]. currently, the australian freshwater lobster aquaculture industry has gradually developed into an industry with considerable scale and potential. this not only promotes local economic development but also provides numerous opportunities for employment [2]. the breeding of australian freshwater lobsters is primarily concentrated in inland regions, particularly western australia, new south wales, and victoria. these regions, as prime aquaculture zones, are endowed with advantaged breeding conditions that provide an optimal environmental foundation for lobster cultivation. meanwhile, to promote industry development, local governments have formulated a series of supportive policies and regulations to ensure the stable growth of aquaculture. with advancements in breeding technologies and rising market demand, the industry will have a promising future [3]. in china, the introduction of australian freshwater lobsters dates back to 1992, with hubei province pioneering its cultivation through types such as intensive pond breeding and rice paddy breeding. in recent years, the lobster aquaculture industry has rapidly expanded in the pearl river delta region of guangdong. building on existing techniques, northern guangdong mountainous areas have innovatively explored an eco-friendly aquaculture model of "lotus-lobster co-cultivation," while zhongshan city has created a "rice paddy-lobster breeding model" based on symbiotic relationships between organisms. this approach not only maintains normal production of australian freshwater lobsters but also yields high-quality rice [4]. the selection and quality of feed directly affect the growth and breeding efficiency of australian freshwater lobsters (cheraxquadricarinatus). rational utilization of nutrient-rich feed can enhance growth rates, improve immune capacity, reduce mortality, and ultimately improve yield and quality [5]. prioritizing feed quantity over quality not only leads to resource waste, environmental problem, but also impairs the disease resistance and growth performance of lobsters. careful selection of feed types and components, regarding nutrient balance and formulation integrity, can significantly enhance growth efficiency and utilization rates [6]. studies have shown as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 71 published by ideas spread that different types and compositions of feed have varying effects on lobster growth, with some feeds even enhancing stress resistance and improving reproductive success rates. therefore, feed quality and feeding strategies should be prioritized in australian freshwater lobster farming. this will be of great importance to improving aquaculture efficiency, reducing production costs, and maintaining the sustainable development of the aquaculture industry. by strengthening feed-related scientific research, optimizing feed formulations, and enhancing feed utilization efficiency, we can contribute to the advancement of the australian freshwater lobster aquaculture industry [7-8]. the continuous development of modern biotechnology and animal nutrition technologies has facilitated the widespread use of microbial feeds in aquaculture. microbial feeds, as a new eco-friendly feed, can enhance animal propagation and health [9]. however, there is still controversy over which kind of microbial feed has the optimal efficacy for different animal species. therefore, research findings on the addition of two distinct microbial feeds still need to be further popularized, particularly for aquatic organisms such as australian freshwater lobsters. previous studies have demonstrated that microbial feeds can enhance animal growth by improving gut microbial diversity and digestive enzyme activity [10]. however, existing research findings also have certain limitations, such as small sample sizes and significant interference from bioenvironmental factors. therefore, it is necessary to conduct more comprehensive and in-depth studies to identify which microbial feed is more beneficial for the growth of australian freshwater lobsters. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental site the experiment was conducted in canvas-lined experimental ponds within the greenhouse facility of the college of modern agriculture and industry, school of biological sciences and agriculture, qiannan normal university for nationalities. the water quality was pure and pollution-free. 2.1.1 base feed the base feed consisted of a formulated feed specifically designed for australian freshwater lobsters [11], with detailed feed composition provided in table 1. table 1. ingredient composition of australian freshwater lobster baits ingredient content /% fish meal 14 wheat flour 20 wheat bran 4 rice bran 5 shrimp meal 11 soybean meal 19 peanut meal 10 continuation of table 1 ingredient content /% brewer’s yeast 5 fish oil 2 soybean oil 1 soybean lecithin 1 bentonite 1 choline chloride 1 calcium lactate 2 premix (vitamins/minerals) 3.5 binder 0.5 total 100 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 72 published by ideas spread 2.1.2 microbial fermented feed the primary components of the microbial fermented feed included fermented soybean meal, fermented rapeseed meal, and fermented mixed fish meal. the fermentation strains (laboratory-prepared yeast, lactic acid bacteria, and bacillus) were used for mixed fermentation. the fermentation method followed yang shuhao [12], with specific procedures as follows: fermentation procedure: 1) ingredients (soybean meal, rapeseed meal, mixed fish meal, and wheat bran) were fully blended according to the ratios specified in table 2. 2) the mixture was homogenized with water at a raw material-to-water ratio of 1:2.5 (w/v). 3) after steaming and cooling, the blended substrate was inoculated with the strains. fermentation conditions: • temperature: 25–30°c • duration: 72 h • termination criteria: distinct sauce flavor and ph < 4.8 • storage: fermented material was stored in a cool, light-protected environment for later use. table 2. microbial fermented feeds and main ingredient contents ingredient proportion (%) soybean meal 45 rapeseed meal 30 mixed fish meal 10 wheat bran 15 2.1.3 yeast extract feed the main ingredient is brewer's yeast. the yeast extract originates from brewing by-products of jianjiang liquor industry development co., ltd. in duyun city, guizhou province. preparation method: • prepare yeast mud with an appropriate amount of water to form a thick consistency. • add hydrochloric acid to adjust the ph to 2.6. • maintain the mixture in a 60°c water bath for 4-6 hours. • add naoh to adjust the ph to 6.4-6.5. • dry the product for storage and future use. detailed nutritional parameters of the yeast extract feed are provided in table 3. table 3. main parameters of yeast paste feeds ingredient proportion (%) crude protein ≥40 crude fiber ≤5 crude ash ≤16 crude fat ≥5 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 73 published by ideas spread 2.2 experimental methods 2.2.1 experimental setup twenty-seven shrimp cages were placed in aquaculture ponds with an average water depth of 0.25 m. • the yeast extract feed trial was divided into 4 groups: groups a, b, c, and d. • the fermented feed trial was divided into 4 groups: groups e, f, g, and h. • each experimental group was paired with one control group and further subdivided into three parallel groups. • data collection continued for 60 days. • the control groups were fed a specialized formula feed for australian freshwater lobsters, with detailed composition provided in table 1. 2.2.2 experimental design a comparative experimental design was employed. under consistent environmental conditions: • control groups be fed with the same amount of basic feed. • treatments for the two experimental feeds are detailed in table 4. • the feed ration during the trial was determined as 5% of the weight of the lobster. table 4. experimental feed placement feed type group dietary composition yeast paste feed trial a 90%formulated feed + 10% yeast paste trial b 80% formulated feed + 20% yeast paste microbial feed trial c 70% formulated feed + 30% yeast paste trial d 60% formulated feed + 40% yeast paste trial e 90% formulated feed + 10% fermented feed trial f 80% formulated feed + 20% fermented feed trial g 70% formulated feed + 30% fermented feed trial h 60% formulated feed + 40% fermented feed 2.3 aquaculture management of australian freshwater lobsters before the trial: • the ponds and shrimp cages were thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. • experimental australian freshwater lobsters were temporarily put in aquariums for one week for acclimatization before the formal trial. during the trial: • environmental water parameters were regularly monitored, with ph maintained at 7.0-8.0 [5] to enhance calcium absorption and facilitate molting. • uneaten feed was periodically cleaned. • approximately one-third of the water was replaced weekly. 2.4 measurement of experimental indicators during data collection, lobsters from each group were captured, individually weighed, and recorded. growth rate and weight gain rate of each experimental group were calculated relative to the control group. growth parameter measurement: lobsters were fasted for 24 hours after the feeding trial to minimize the impact of gastrointestinal contents on measurements, ensuring accurate and reliable growth data. data collection: • the number of surviving lobsters per group was recorded. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 74 published by ideas spread • three lobsters per group were selected for measurement of total length and body weight. measurement methods: • total length: straight-line distance from the tip of the extended cheliped to the center of the tail fan. • body weight: measured after blotting surface moisture with absorbent paper. calculation formulas: • growth rate (%) = [(final length − initial length) / initial length] × 100% • weight gain rate (%) = [(final weight − initial weight) / initial weight] × 100% 2.4 experimental data analysis the recorded length and weight data of australian freshwater lobsters were categorized and counted using excel spreadsheets. statistical analysis was performed using spss 23.0 software, with p<0.05 indicating statistically significant differences and p<0.01 indicating highly statistically significant differences. 3. result and analysis table 5. effects of yeast paste diet on the growth of australian freshwater lobster group initial body length/cm final body length/cm growth rate/% initial body weight/g final body weight/g weight gain rate/% control group 14 19.4±0.4c 39% 55 60.8±0.2b 11% a 14 20.4±0.1b 46% 55 61.7±0.3b 12% b 14 21.0±0.3a 50% 55 61.7±0.3b 12% c 14 21.4±0.4a 53% 55 64.8±0.2a 19% d 14 19.3±0.4c 38% 55 59.9±0.2c 9% note: different letters (a, b, c) indicate significant differences (p < 0.05), while the same letters denote no significant differences (p > 0.05). the same applies to the following tables. the results of the yeast extract feed experiment in table 5 showed that one-way anova indicated: body length: experimental groups a, b, and c captured shrimp with significantly greater length than the control group, while group d showed lower values than the control. groups b and c exhibited significantly greater shrimp length than group a, though group b was significantly lower than group a. body weight: group c demonstrated significantly higher shrimp weight compared to the control group, whereas group d showed significantly lower weight than the control. the shrimp weight in group c was significantly greater than that in group d. no significant differences were observed in shrimp weight between groups a, b, and the control group. in conclusion, the yeast extract feed dosage used in experimental group c could effectively promote both body length and weight growth in australian freshwater lobsters. table 6. effects of microbial diets on the growth of australian freshwater lobster group initial body length/cm final body length/cm growth rate/% initial body weight/g final body weight/g weight gain rate/% control group 14 19.4±0.4bc 39% 55 60.8±0.2b 11% e 14 19.7±0.2b 40% 55 61.1±0.1b 11% as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 75 published by ideas spread f 14 19.5±0.2b 39% 55 62.5±0.2a 14% g 14 22.5±0.1a 60% 55 63.7±0.1a 16% h 14 19.1±0.1c 36% 55 59.4±0.3c 8% in table 6, "effects of microbial feed experimental groups on the growth potential of australian freshwater lobsters," one-way anova results demonstrated the following: body length: experimental groups e, f, and g exhibited significantly higher shrimp lengths compared to the control group (p<0.05), whereas group h showed a significantly lower length than the control (p<0.05). group g surpassed both groups e and f in shrimp length (p<0.05), while the difference between groups e and f did not reach statistical significance. body weight: groups f and g had significantly higher shrimp weights than the control group (p<0.05), whereas group h was significantly lower than the control (p<0.05). group h showed significantly lower weights compared to groups f and g (p<0.05), but no significant difference was observed between groups f and g. conclusion the microbial feed used in group g significantly promoted both body length and weight growth in australian freshwater lobsters. 4. discussion microbial feed utilizes the metabolic activity of microorganisms to ferment fibers that are difficult for animals to absorb into more digestible, absorbable, and utilizable feed. consequently, microbial-treated feed can enhance the growth of animals. this approach also reduces costs in china’s graziery and improves meat quality [14]. microbial feed is a kind of fermented organic feed containing biofertilizers. from an economic perspective, high quality aquaculture animals should grow up healthily without excessive financial burdens, thereby maximizing economic benefits. recent studies indicate that antinutritional factors in feed can be effectively decomposed through microbial fermentation. during this process, proteins are hydrolyzed into small peptides and amino acids that are readily absorbed by animals. the fermented biological feed is rich in chelated compounds, minerals, and growthpromoting factors. its special aroma also stimulates animal appetite, optimizing nutritional value and fostering growth [15]. according to wang yajun [16], feeding 15 percent of fermented soybean meal significantly increased their final body weight while reducing the feed coefficient, demonstrating statistically significant effects. (p<0.05) in this experiment, groups c and g showed significantly greater harvested body length and weight in australian freshwater lobsters compared to the control and other experimental groups (p<0.05). in contrast, groups d and h showed the least improvement in growth metrics. the results revealed a increase in harvested length and weight across groups a, b, c, e, f, and g. this suggested that moderate supplementation of yeast extract feed and microbial feed can improve lobster growth. however, excessive amounts of yeast extract or fermented feed (as seen in groups d and h) limited growth rates. due to water eutrophication, yeast proliferates in large quantities in water, which reduces dissolved oxygen levels and subsequently impairs lobster growth. furthermore, the experimental results show that both insufficient and excessive usage amount of yeast extract or fermented feed adversely affects the growth of australian freshwater lobsters. these findings emphasize the importance of balanced feed formulation in breeding lobster. references [1] zhang, p., & zhu, w. (2020). research progress on the application of bio-fermented feed in freshwater crayfish aquaculture. hunan feed, (05), 30–33. [2] yang, h., liu, x., sun, z., et al. (2023). effects of microbial additives on intestinal microbiota structure of freshwater crayfish. feed research, 46(01), 80–84. https://doi.org/10.13557/j.cnki.issn10022813.2023.01.017 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 76 published by ideas spread [3] cui, m., wang, z., zhang, j., et al. (2021). efficient pond ecological aquaculture techniques for australian freshwater lobsters. fishery guide to be rich, (12), 47–50. [4] gao, g., xie, z., & bi, x. (2022). comparative experiment on two different feeds for australian freshwater lobster farming. scientific fish farming, (08), 70–71. [5] xia, s., zhang, w., tian, h., et al. (2023). research progress on feed and feeding techniques for procambarus clarkii (part i). scientific fish farming, (08), 13–14. [6] hong, p. 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[12] yang, s. (2017). effects of bio-fermented feed on growth performance, digestive enzymes, and immune enzyme activities of macrobrachium rosenbergii [doctoral dissertation, foshan university]. [13] dong, y., & huang, m. (2008). application of compound feed in freshwater crayfish farming. beijing aquaculture, (04), 68–70. [14] zhang, p., & zhu, w. (2020). research progress on the application of bio-fermented feed in freshwater crayfish aquaculture. hunan feed, (05), 30–33. [15] zhang, d., hou, j., & ye, x. (2020). methods and recommendations for reducing ammonia nitrogen in aquaculture water. hebei fisheries, (07), 57–60. [16] wang, y., lin, w., yang, z., et al. (2013). effects of partial replacement of fish meal with fermented soybean meal on growth performance and mineral elements in japanese eel (anguilla japonica). south china fisheries science, 9(3), 39–43. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n1p9 9 published by ideas spread differentials in the cassava seed system among entrepreneurs in southern nigeria: a gender situation analyses madu, t. u.1, okoye, b. c.1, ewuziem, j. e.1 & onyeka, t.1 1 national root crops research institute, umudike, abia state, nigeria correspondence: madu tessy, planning, monitoring and evaluation (pm&e) department, nrcri, umudike abia state, nigeria. tel: 234-803-364-3484. e-mail: tessmadu@gmail.com received: march 7, 2022 accepted: march 25, 2022 online published: june 30, 2022 this research is funded by basics (building an economically sustainable and integrated cassava seed system). abstract the study analysed gender differentials in the cassava seed system among entrepreneurs in southern nigeria to proffer policies for growth and sustainable cassava seed systems. a multi-stage and purposive sampling technique was used to select respondents for the study. village seed entrepreneurs (vses) and cassava farmers in the cassava seed network of the basics project in 4 states were sampled in the first stage. data were collected with interview schedules for individual interviews and focus group discussions (fgd). the results show that the different gender groups compliment each other in the roles they play. among the most important drivers of seed demand include; big roots size/ yield (67.56%) and (60.97%) for the male and female cassava farmers respectively), among the male was income generation (17.14%) and yield good gari quality for the female (31.70%), followed by high starch content (17.14%) for male and female (22.85). the profitability analyses show that for every n1.00 spent in cassava seed production, about n0.92 (male) and n0.90 (female) were generated, while n1.50 (male) and n1.32 (female) were generated for root production. the seed flow system shows that both male and female cassava farmers receive seed from various channels but at varying levels. the results call for policy issues targeted at increasing cassava production by advocating for more involvement of the women in seed production and increased access to and control of finance. there is also need to mitigate important constraints militating against cassava seed production for increased participation and production of cassava seed. keywords: cassava, gender roles, seed drivers, seed flow, profitability, constraints 1. introduction nigeria is the largest producer of cassava with an annual estimated production of 60mt (fao, 2020). cassava (manihot esculenta crantz) is considered the most important tropical root crops providing food and income to over 30 million farmers, processors and traders (apata, 2019). it is cultivated in almost all agro-ecological zones in nigeria. however the production is very much characterized by small scale producers who use old and local varieties and traditional production technologies which largely accounts for low yield. oyebanji et al. (2003) noted that these small-holders account for over 80% of cassava production in nigeria. over 90% of cassava produced in the country is consumed locally with less than 10% utilized for industrial purpose. earlier research in cassava value chain most especially in nigeria tried to identify some factors that may affect how and to what extent women and men are able to participate in, and to benefit from participation in cassava value chains. most research concentrated efforts at production, processing, marketing value chain and gender in the value chain (teeken et al., 2018; ahmadu and idisi, 2014; awotide et al., 2015; anderson et al., 2016; sewando et al., 2011; ifad, 1994). the important role of seed systems can hardly be overestimated, because seed is key to food security being the first link in the food value chain. seed systems are governed by both formal and informal rules that impact on the level of influence and participation for both men and women and their ability to benefit from the system (galie, 2013). there is dearth of knowledge on gender gaps that may exist in the cassava seed systems, preferred traits and effects on producers and processors in the value chain, constraints in cassava seed production and the profitability of cassava seed production. in view of this gap, this study targeted preferred producers and processors in cassava seed value chain. the outcome of this research will bring to light the traits that are preferred by both as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 10 published by ideas spread men and women, and invariably facilitate demand for certified cassava seed by farmers. this is expected to increase the rate of adoption in the cultivation of improved and clean seeds, increased productivity and improved standard of living of the actors with a positive effect on socio-economic activities and create a platform for equity and equality in the cassava seed value chain. to achieve a sustainable cassava seed revolution in nigeria, not only is it necessary to identify the appropriate technologies and institutions needed to increase productivity and access to clean and certified seeds, but it is critical to understand the social systems supporting cassava seed production to position interventions that enhance economic and development goals at household and national levels. specifically, there is need to understand the roles and responsibilities of women and men in production and marketing of the crop and in making decisions about resource allocation, consumption and marketing. very little documentation exists on gender issues in commercial cassava seed production and agricultural projects in the country ignore gender dimensions. for development problems, several socio-economic factors play a contributing role. gender analysis will help for a better understanding of the needs and priorities of different people, both men and women, by clarifying how gender intersects with class, age, religion, ethnicity and other social factors. gender situation will help predict which producers are likely to benefit from the introduction of a new project such as basics, especially when market demand increases which is likely to lead to large-scale, more intensive production systems. such analysis can identify interventions to ensure that women, who tend to be disadvantaged by socioeconomic and cultural factors, are not marginalized or displaced by increased commercialized of cassava seed system. 2. methodology the study was conducted in southern nigeria (fig. 1) and adopted a multi-stage sampling technique to select the respondents. in the first stage, four states were purposively selected for the study. the selection was based on the already established presence of village seed entrepreneurs (vses) in the cassava seed network of the basics project in the states. these states include: abia, imo (south east), akwa ibom and cross river (south south). secondly, two agricultural zones were selected from each state based on the distribution of the vses. further selection was anchored around an active vse in the communities where they exist. to achieve this, one community was selected in each of the 8 agricultural zones. at the community level, about 21 to 31 cassava farmers of different categories in terms of gender, farming capacity and position in the community participated in the study. data were collected with interview schedules for individual interviews and focus group discussions (fgd). in each community, cassava farmers (males and females) were interviewed and 2 fgds conducted for male and female groups each. table 1 describes the study locations and number of farmers interviewed. the research team, consisting of a gender specialist, three agricultural economists working with local interpreters’ only in akwa ibom and cross river states. fieldwork was conducted between november 2018 and dec 2018. the cost-return analyses of seed production among the male and female cassava farmers in the study area was analysed with net income analysis thus; ni = tr – tc where; ni = net income tr = total returns tc = total cost tc = tvc + tfc tvc= total variable cost tfc= total fixed cost a 5 point likert rating scale was used to measure the level of constraints militating against cassava seed production in the study area using strongly agree (5), agree (4), undecided (3) disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1). respondents with mean score of 3.00 and above imply the constraints were important while respondents with mean score of less than 3.0 are not important. to determine the mean likert level = xs = σx. xs of each item was computed by multiplying the frequency of each response pattern with its appropriate nominal value and dividing the sum with the number of respondent to the items. this can be summarized with equation below. xs = σfn/n where, xs =mean score, σ = summation, f= frequency, n = likert nominal value, n= number of the respondents as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 11 published by ideas spread xs=1+2+3+4+5/5= 15/5 =3.00 group interviews were carried out with a total of 32 women and 32 men and with 39 male and 51 female key informants. information was elicited from farmers gathered on a range of items summarized in table 2. figure 1. map of nigeria showing the southern region where study was conducted table 1. description of study locations and gender composition of groups interviewed location l.g.a adp zone agro ecological zone gender composition (individual) gender composition (focus grp) abia male female total male female total ubakala umuahia south umuahia rainforest 4 6 13 9 9 18 ahaba imenyi isuikwuato ohafia rainforest 4 4 12 7 7 14 imo ihiagwa owerri west owerri rainforest 4 7 12 7 8 15 awomamma oru east orlu rainforest 4 8 13 7 8 15 akwa ibom uyo uyo uyo rainforest 4 5 7 7 7 14 ikono ikono ikot ekpene rainforest 5 6 9 7 8 15 cross river yakuur yakuur ugep rainforest 5 8 12 9 8 17 biase akpe central ikom rainforest 5 6 12 8 8 16 map of nigeria longitude la tit ud e 4 6 8 10 12 14 4 6 8 10 12 14 akwa ibom imo cross river abia as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 12 published by ideas spread 3. results 3.1 socio-economic characteristics of the respondents the results in table 2 show the average statistics of the respondents in the study area. the results show that many (55.56%) of the respondents were females while 54.54% were males. this result implies that men and women were both involved in cassava production in the study area, although the females were slightly more involved than men. this agrees with the findings of esiobu et al. (2014) who noted that agribusiness especially in sub-saharan africa is turning out to be more of a female activity. the implication of females ‘greater proportion may be that technical efficiency and productivity is expected to be higher because females have the tendency to be more labour efficient (ohen et al., 2014 and onumadu et al., 2014). majority of the farmers were still in their productive years, although the males (48yrs) were older than their female (43.4yrs) counterparts. the implication is that these younger farmers are likely to adopt new innovation faster than the older ones in cassava production. this finding is in agreement with moyib et al. (2013); girei et al. (2014); ohen et al. (2014) and onumadu et al (2014) that majority of farmers within the age range of 41 to 50 years are still in their active age, more receptive to innovation more technically efficient, effective and could with stand the stress and strain involved in cassava production. majority of the farmers had long years of farming experience with an average of 17.32 (male) and 18.28 (female) years. experience in agribusiness enhances output performance (onyeneke and iruo, 2011 and onubuogu and onyeneke, 2012). this finding follows nweke et al. (2004); ogundari and brümmer (2010); onubuogu and onyeneke (2012); amos (2013) and onubuogu (2013) who reported that farmers’ with more experience would be more efficient, have better knowledge of climatic conditions, better knowledge of efficient allocation of resources and market situation and are thus, expected to run a more efficient and profitable enterprise. it also supports the findings of onubuogu et al. (2013) and esiobu et al. (2014) who noted that previous experience in agribusiness management enables farmers to set realistic time and cost targets, allocate, combine and utilize resources efficiently and identify production constraints. majority were married, native of their communities with large household sizes. this shows that cassava production in the area is an enterprise of married individuals, who are seen to be responsible according to societal standards (ewaonicha, 2005; ohen et al., 2014 and onumadu et al., 2014). this finding follows the result of udoh (2005); oluwatayo et al. (2008); onubuogu and onyeneke (2012) and onubuogu et al. (2013) that married farmers tend to have access to production variables such as land and large family size which are traditionally owned and provided by household heads (husbands) to compliment family labour. these enhance production; reduce the cost of hired labour and resource use efficiency of the farmers. results also show that majority do not have access to credit, although the males (22.50%) had more access credit than their female (14.00%) counterparts. large household size ensures availability of labour and expansion of farm size (mbanasor and kalu, 2008; ninso, 2012 and nurudeen, 2012). this finding supports the result of ewaonicha, (2005); onubuogu and onyeneke (2012) and onubuogu et al., (2013) and esiobu et al. (2014) who noted that large household size compliment labour, enhance production and reduce the cost of hired labour. traders were mostly native from the region where they trade. however, family or tribal links between seller and buyer are important. in terms of native of community, the seller seems to go to his own region since he has an advantage of knowing the language, the geography, and the agricultural systems of the area (minten and kyle, 1999). many of the farmers do not belong to cooperatives while majority had access to communication facilities. membership of cooperative societies affords farmers the opportunity of accessing information on modern production techniques, purchase of inputs in bulk and labour exchange (ewaonicha, 2005; onubuogu and onyeneke, 2012; simonyan et al., 2012 and onubuogu et al., 2013). results show that more males (66.67%) had personal means of transportation compared to their female (28.57%) counterparts. deplorable road conditions also subsist in the study area with an average of 15.91% for road conditions that are good. the average cost of transportation from house to the farm was aboutn480.45 with distance from the farm to the market and house to the farm at 4.9km each. this might also partly explain the longer travel and assembly time during the wet season. it also illustrates the von thunen hypothesis. the more perishable and the higher value the products the less distance they are transported (minten and kyle, 1999). however, the main reason for the longer time was probably the fact that roads were worse and often impassable in the rainy season. the farmers had little or no extension contacts annually with an average of one contact for males (1.15) and less than one for females (0.48). the female farmers had more annual farm income and non-farm income and expended less than their male counterparts monthly. the average distance to source of information was 3.85km. table 2. average statistics of the respondents as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 13 published by ideas spread s/no variable male female pooled 1 gender (%) 54.54 55.56 100.00 2 age (yrs) 48.00 43.40 45.44 3 farming experience (yrs) 17.32 18.28 17.85 4 native of community (%) 82.50 84.00 83.33 5 marital status (%married) 87.50 66.00 75.56 6 household size 7.02 6.60 6.79 7 access to credit (%) 22.50 14.00 16.00 8 membership of cooperatives (%) 50.00 31.00 56.82 9 access to communication facilities (%) 100.00 91.84 84.00 10 have personal means of transportation (%) 66.67 28.57 45.45 11 road condition is good 10.26 20.41 15.91 12 average cost of transportation from house to farm (n) 432.80 518.26 480.45 13 distance from farm to market (km) 4.71 5.13 4.94 14 distance from house to farm (km) 3.94 5.72 4.93 15 number of extension contacts in a year 1.15 0.48 0.78 16 annual farm income (n) 418,948.70 535,714.30 483,965.90 17 annual non-farm income (n) 193,871.8 199,551.00 197,034.10 18 monthly expenditure on food 47,000.00 32,836.73 39,113.01 19 distance to source of information (km) 4.05 3.69 3.85 field survey, 2018. 3.2 gender roles in cassava production in southern nigeria recent events in cassava production revealed that all gender groups play important roles in the production of both the stems and roots of cassava. results from this study indicated that men, women and the youths are involved in the production of cassava. the level and method of involvement depends largely on interest and commitment of individuals. some are involved because they own the farm or are related to the owner. in other scenarios, some are involved because they were hired for a pay or exchange labour or that the type of work to be done also determines who gets involved. in what ever conditon of involvement, all the activities are important. table 4 show the roles each gender group performs. the results presented in table 3, show that the different gender groups compliment each other in the roles they play. table 3. gender roles in cassava production activity men women children male youth female youth hml hfl site selection 87.06 12.94 land clearing 36.92 1.54 1.54 12.31 47.69 12.96 gathering 66.67 92.59 35.18 14.81 18.51 7.41 29.85 planting 36.00 83.58 40.29 16.42 13.43 19.40 59.65 weeding 29.82 80.70 10.53 7.02 10.52 31.57 harbicide application 40.42 8.51 6.38 2.13 42.55 22.08 harvesting 72.73 85.71 42.85 16.88 20.78 20.78 movement of roots to house 26.92 21.15 3.85 5.77 42.30 movement of roots to market 15.94 60.86 1.45 21.74 prepare food and buy water 7.22 89.69 1.03 2.06 selling at the farm gate 18.29 79.27 1.22 1.22 sale at the market 9.75 87.80 1.22 1.22 who holds money from sales 26.58 70.89 1.27 1.27 acces to money from sales 32.28 67.18 control of money from sales 36.36 61.64 access to inputs 35.85 62.26 1.89 control of inputs 50.82 49.18 acces to credit 44.83 55.17 control of finance 61.97 52.11 field survey, 2018. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 14 published by ideas spread the results show that men select the sites for cassava production in the study area. the men select over 87% of the lands used in cassava production while the women contribute only 13%. this might be because in most parts of southern nigeria, men are the traditonal custodians of lands, therefore they know the area that will be used for farming during each cropping season. in some cases, men share communial lands to women for farming. however, in female headed households, women decides only after the men declare the location of farming for the season, although, in communities where people are free to farm wherever they chose, women who are heading households may decide the site for cassava farming. for land clearing activity, the men, their male youth and the hired male youths do the bulk of the work. they perform over 85% of the land claring activity in the study area. land clearing requires strength so women are not disposed to performing such duties and so rely on their husbands, male youth and in cases where they have to hire labour, they go for the energetic youths who will do work worth the pay. women can only clear farm lands if they could not find a man or male youth to do the work . gathering of wood in the cassava farm is done mainly by women, but men also assist; especially in communities where the fallow period is longer, up to 5 years. the woods will require additional effort such that men will be involved in gathering, although this activity is not generally considered important, it makes other farm activities easier. planting is a major activity in cassava farming. results show that all the gender groups are involved in planting cassava but women play a dominant role. women involvement in planting is more critical when the traditional methods of planting (planting on flat) cassava is practiced. planting on ridges is easier, therefore, men will likely be involved in planting. manual weeding is another activity that is mostly performed by women. this activity is a major constraint to women participation in farming generally. for large scale cassava farm owners (over 1ha), weeding is a major constraint to women. weeding is however complimented with herbicide application which is usually done by male youths. over 83% of this activity is performed by men, but women fetch water that is used in the operation. this activity requires some level of physical ability to perform because the knapsack tank has to be carried at the back of the operator. women may not find this activity an easy task to perform, they therefore rely on the men and male youths. harvesting appear to be an activity that is performed by all the gender groups. men, women and youths are involved in harvesting cassava either for sale or home consumption. this might be because money or food will come after this activiy. movement of cassava; either to the home or market is performed by men, women and youth, with women dominating in this activity. a critical look at the result shows that men are more interested in havesting if it is for the market, because it is profitable. movements of cassava at any point is done principally by women, although they get assistance from both men and youths. most times if the women may require assistance to move either stems or root to the home or market, such assistance usually come from hired male youth especially if the distance is far. traditionally, women prepare food for the household, and for the farm workers either hired or members of her family. in recent times, preparing food for farm workers is recognized as an integral activity in studies of gender roles in crop production, even though some men argue against it. but food is always a necessary condition for accepting to do work, and without food, labour productivity is negatively affected. therefore, time and energy used in cooking food could as well be compared to time used in doing farm work. it is therefore justified that preparing food for workers be counted as a role. women also dominate all forms of selling of root and stems. they take charge of sales both at the farm gate and market with men playing compimentary roles in both cases. men are rarely seen in the market selling root or stems. the situation is the same when it comes to holding money from sales, access and control of such monies, access to inputs and credit. this may appear different from gender study reports for a crop like yam where men restrict women’s access to money from sales, and credit etc. this shows that in the study area, cassava is percieved to be a woman’s crop and that is why men allow them access and control of money, input and other resources. however, for access to credit and finance, men came up stronger to share access and control with women probably because they are heads of households. 3.3 drivers of cassava seed use among smallholder farmers in southern nigeria the results in table 4 show the drivers of cassava seed use in the study area. the study elicited 12 variables mentioned by the cassava farmers as what drives their use of cassava seed. the most important variable stated by cassava farmers were big roots size/ yield (67.56%) and (60.97%) of male and female cassava farmers respectively). the 2nd most important driver for cassava seed use among the males was income generation (17.14%) and yield good gari quality for the females (31.70%), followed by high starch content (17.14%) for males and females (22.85) which ranked 3rd. results also show that yield good gari quality ranked 4th for the females (14.20%) and early maturity and high fufu yield (12.19% each) for the females. for the male respondents, early maturity (11.42%) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 15 published by ideas spread ranked 5th and for stem yield (10.81%) among the males. numerous roots ranked 6th for the males (9.75%) and was of no importance to the females while stem yield also ranked 6th for the males (10.81%). high fufu yield was the 7th most important driver for males (8.57%) and nutritious value of vitamin a for the females. among the drivers of cassava seed use of least importance include; stay green ability for the males (2.44%) and females (2.85%), in ground storability (0% for males and 2.85% for females), and good canopy formation for males (2.85%). the low percentage value for in ground storability might be because the respondents were mainly entrepreneurs who are market oriented. teeken et al. (2021) identified the key traits that farmer–processors used to evaluate gari quality: darkening/browning, swelling power, bulk density, solubility, dispersibility and water absorption capacity. higher water absorption capacity was identified as non-preferred for gari to make eba. ndjouenkeu et al. (2020) noted that choice of cassava varieties for farming is mainly determined by the multiple end uses of the roots, their agricultural yield and the processing determinants of roots that support their major highquality characteristics: size, density, low water content, maturity, colour and safety. these results reinforce the importance of recognizing social difference and the heterogeneity among men and women, and how individual and household characteristics interact to reveal trait preference variability. this information can inform trait prioritization and guide development of breeding products that have higher social impact, which may ultimately serve the more vulnerable and align with development goals (teeken, et al., 2021). table 4. description of drivers of cassava seed use among farmers in the study area s/no descriptors male % female % 1. big root yield size 67.56 60.97 2. nutritious value vit a 7.3 8.57 3. stem yield 7.32 10.81 4. stay green 2.44 2.85 5. yield good gari quality 14.20 31.70 6. income generation 17.14 2.43 7. early maturity 11.42 12.19 8. good canopy formation 2.85 7.31 9. high fufu yield 8.57 12.19 10. high starch content 17.07 22.85 11. in ground storability 0 2.85 12. numerous roots 9.75 0.0 field survey, 2018. 3.4 costs and returns analyses of cassava seed production in the study area the results in the table 5 show the profitability analyses of cassava seed production among the male and female farmers in the study area. the results show a revenue of about n180,185 and n226,378 generated from cassava seed for the male and female farmers respectively. this represents about 38.27% and 40.67% of total revenue from roots and seed for the male and female farmers respectively. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 16 published by ideas spread table 5. profitability analyses of cassava seed production per ha variable male female revenue value (n) value(n) roots (a) 290,621 330,211 seeds (b) 180,185 226,378 total revenue (a+b) 470806.1 556589 total variable costs (tvc) 180,846 240,591 total fixed costs (tfc) 13,001.42 9,812.10 total costs (tc) 193,847 250403 gross margin (tr-tvc) 289,960 315,998 net profit (tr-tc) 276,959 306186 %contribution to profit by revenue from seed 38.271594 40.6724 bcr (for total revenue) n2.43:n1.00 n2.22:n1.00 bcr (for seed production) n0.92:n1.00 n0.90:n1.00 bcr (for root production) n1.50:n1.00 n1.32:n1.00 field survey, 2018. the results also show a total cost outlay of n193, 847 for the male and n250, 403 for the female farmers with a gross margin of n289, 960 and n315, 998 respectively. the estimated total net profit was n276, 959 and n306, 186 for the male and female farmers respectively, indicating that the enterprise was profitable. results also show that with seed production, the total cost of cassava production can be defrayed with a benefit cost ratio of n0.92 (male) and 0.90 (female). this implies that for every n1.00 spent in cassava seed production, about n0.92 (male) and n0.90 (female) were generated, while n1.50 (male) and n1.32 (female) were generated for root production. 3.5 cassava seed flow in the study area the results in figure 2 show the cassava seed flow among the farmers in the study area. figure 2. cassava seed flow as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 17 published by ideas spread the diagram (figure 2) depicts that the major flows of seed to both male and female cassava farmers, contact agents and extension agents (where they are operational) were from the research institutions. there are two way flows between research institutions and contact farmers as well as between extension agents and contact farmers. in these scenarios, the volume of flows for both males and females are the same. however, males and female farmer get major flows from extension agents. in the other scenarios, minor flows exist between friends and relatives for male cassava farmers in the study area while the females receive minor flows from their fellow farmers and relatives. the implication of this result is that both male and female cassava farmers receive seed from organized seed agents at the same levels but the unorganized seed agents like friends, relatives and some fellow farmers, the distribution volume varies between males and females. 3.6 constraints militating against cassava seed production in the study area the study identified various constraints militating against the production of cassava seed among farmers in the study area (table 6). table 6. constraints militating against cassava seed production in the study area s/no constraints male female 1 drought 2.47 2.69 2 flood 2.41 2.55 3 wind/storm 2.48 2.52 4 disease/pest 3.07 3.22 5 theft of produce 2.90 2.84 6 bush fire 2.95 3.28 7 communal/religious conflicts, etc. 2.14 3.04 8 invasion of farms by cows/grazing animals 3.14 3.28 9 producer price fluctuation 3.17 2.8 10 insufficient supply of cassava cuttings and other inputs 3.12 2.26 11 poor soils 3.27 3.16 12 lack of spraying equipment 3.83 2.6 13 lack of or inadequate supply of chemicals 2.84 2.75 14 lack of or inadequate fertilizer supply 2.60 2.82 15 scarce labour 2.65 3.14 16 insufficient credit facilities 3.31 3.04 17 insufficient processing facilities 2.65 2.62 18 unstable government policy 2.80 2.94 19 cost of technology 2.5 2.76 20 access to credit 3.07 2.54 21 access to land 3.24 3.21 22 cultural inhibitions 2.97 2.88 23 disagreements 2.78 3.23 24 high cost of labour 3.78 3.63 25 others (specify) 3.36 3.90 field survey, 2018. a five point likert scale rating of strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree was used. the table revealed that all these constraints were important constraints that militate against cassava seed production by both gender groups which includes; high cost of labour with mean of 3.78 for male and 3.63 for female respondents. access to land had mean of 3.24 for male and 3.21 for female, insufficient credit facilities with mean of 3.31 for male and 3.04 for females and poor soils (3.27 for male and 3.16 for female respondents). all these constraints identified were seen as important constraints to both gender groups but were more important to the male group in contrast to their female counterparts. high cost of labour is usually identified as a major problem in cassava production because during the farming season, most labourers are usually busy with some other people’s farm work, making it difficult to get labour, the available labourers therefore will increase their wage rate. both male and female respondents considered insufficient credit facilities as a major constraint. this might be because credit is important to enhance access to inputs and marketing costs like stallage fees and transportation. also, most farmers are poor; they cannot secure the necessary collateral for loans or access credit facilities. this result is in as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 1; 2022 18 published by ideas spread agreement with the findings of ojo et al. (2013) and itam et al. (2018) who reported high labour cost and insufficient credit facilities as major constraints to cassava production. invasion of farms by cows/grazing animals constituted with a mean of 3.14 for male and 3.28 for female respondents; diseases/pests had mean of 3.07 for male and 3.22 for female respondents. these constraints are also seen as important constraints to both gender groups but are more important to the female group. this result conforms to the findings of akinnagbe (2010) who reported high incidence of pest and diseases, poor soil and credit facilities as major constraints militating against cassava production. invasion of farms by cows or grazing animals is a major constraints that affects both gender groups because the activities of fulani herdsmen and their cattle is very destructive, if they invade a farm, they will eat up the plants, roots and nothing will be left for the farmer and his family. furthermore, majority of the respondents, (3.83), (3.17), (3.12) and (3.07) indicated lack of spraying equipment, produce price fluctuation, insufficient supply of cassava cuttings/inputs and access to credit respectively as important constraints militating against male cassava farmers. farmers still rely on the use of crude implements like hoes, cutlass, rake, shovel etc for their activities instead of ploughs, cultivators and knapsack sprayers, etc. and this leads to drudgery of farm work, time wasting, low yield and low farm income. improved cassava cuttings were not readily available and the price of their produce often fluctuates. this result agrees with the findings of ezeibe et al. (2015) who reported that lack of improved planting materials, and crude implements also affected both gender groups in cassava production. the women groups do not see it as important constraint, their mean is below 3.0. majority of the female respondents (3.28), (3.23), (3.14) and (3.04) indicated bush fire, disagreement, scarce labour and communal/religious conflict respectively as important constraints militating against female farmers’ participation in cassava seed production. women experience scarcity of labour as constraint because of rural-urban migration of able bodied youths in search of white-collar jobs and other menial jobs creating labour shortage, especially at the peak period when labour is required for farming activities like land preparation, planting, weeding, harvesting etc. also, hired labour shortage has driven up the cost of labour making production unprofitable to the farmers. the women are faced with the challenges of doing most of the labour themselves. communal conflict is another constraint that militates against cassava production among women farmers, because often times, if two neighboring communities are at war, women and children are mostly affected because they are weaker groups and may not be able to fight for their inherited lands, their lands most times are forcefully taken away from them and they are displaced from their farmland. this result is in agreement with the study of lamidi, (2005) who noted that conflict within the country also may be part of the constraint militating against cassava production. the male group does not see these constraints as important ones because their means were not up to 3.0. 4. conclusion women are generally more involved and committed in cassava production. this makes them more willing and interested in cassava production in the study area. among the most important drivers of seed use were big root size/yield, income generation, yield good gari quality and high starch content. seed production also had the ability to pay for the total cost of production incurred in the cassava production enterprise. the farmers were at the breakeven stage with seed revenue. the disaggregation of the sample into gender groups emerged different factors indicating that the decision to use cassava seed by male and female farmers are influenced by different set of factors. the study has confirmed the value of gender disaggregated analysis as a method of gaining more insight into cassava seed use in the study area. the results therefore call for policies aimed at bridging gender gaps in cassava seed production in the study area. in order to address these gaps, male and female cassava farmers in the study area should be allowed unrestricted access to productive resources as a way of exploiting their potentials in cassava production through the establishment of gender based cassava development programmes. policy issues targeted at increasing cassava production should advocate for more involvement of the women in seed production and increased access to and control of finance. there is also need to mitigate important constraints militating against cassava seed production such as high cost of labour, diseases and pests and invasion of farms by grazing animals for increased participation and production of cassava seed. references ahmadu, j., & idisi, p. o. 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(2005). application of stochastic production frontier in the estimation of cassava based farms in akwa ibom state. nigerian. agric.j., 2(6), 731-735. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p129 129 published by ideas spread human endoparasites present in the digestive tracts of two species of cichlidae fish: oreochromis niloticus (linnaeus, 1758) and tilapia tholloni (sauvage, 1884) caught in the malebo pool (congo river), d.r. congo victor pwema kiamfu1,2, jeff nakweti k.2, willy lusasi swana1,2, santos kavumbu mutanda1,2, clement munganga kilingwa1,2, theo mondo mapasi3,4, john tembeni m.1,2 & mbomba bekeli n‘seu1,2 1 laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture, department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 2 department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), democratic republic of congo 3 laboratory technology section, higher institute of medical techniques of kinshasa (istm/kin), democratic republic of congo 4 department of environmental sciences, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa, democratic republic of congo correspondence: willy lusasi swana, laboratory of limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture, department of biology, faculty of sciences, university of kinshasa (unikin), p.o box 190 kinshasa xi, democratic republic of congo. tel: 243-813-662-026. e-mail: willy.lusasi@unikin.ac.cd received: june 3, 2020 accepted: july 8, 2020 online published: august 11, 2020 abstract parasitic diseases of fish are very rarely highlighted in comparison with certain parasitic diseases transmitted to humans through animals or plants such as echinococcosis, bilharziasis or fasciolosis. the aim of this study is to provide knowledge on endoparasites of the human digestive tract that also infest the digestive tracts of two species of cichlidae fish: oreochromis niloticus linnaeus, 1758 and tilapia tholloni sauvage, 1884 caught in the congo river (malebo pool). microscopic observations were made on 42 specimens of o. niloticus fish and 42 of t. tholloni. the results obtained showed that the digestive tracts of fish oreochromis niloticus host 8 species of parasites grouped in 6 genera, 6 families, 4 classes and 2 branches. the species belonging to the phylum nemathelminths branch were more abundant (58.8%) than plathelminths (41.2%). species trichurus trichiura (23.5%), ascaris lumbricoides (20.6%), strongyloides stercoralis (14.7%), schistosoma haematobium and schistosoma intercarlantum (11.8%) were the most frequently observed. on the other hand, microscopic analyses of the digestive tract of tilapia tholloni revealed the presence of five species of parasites belonging to 3 branches, 4 classes, 4 families and 4 genera. nemathelminthes (58.3%) and plathelminthes (25%) are the most represented phylum than amoebians (16.7%). enterobius vermicularis (33.3%), trichocephalus trichuris (25%), schistosoma haematobium (20.8%) and entemoeba hystolica (16.7%) were frequently observed. these results confirm the presence of endoparasites in congolese freshwater fish. this information is important in setting up a strategy to protect fish and consumers against these pathogens. keywords: endoparasites, freshwater, oreochromis niloticus, tilapia tholloni, congo river, malebo pool, kinshasa 1. introduction aquatic ecosystems provide many goods and services that are often not fully appreciated (brummett et al., 2008). water pollution from a variety of natural, domestic, agricultural and industrial causes is the source of many diseases related to infectious or toxic factors (delolme et al., 1992). generally, fish from these polluted environments are infested, their consumption could transmit the parasitosis to humans, from which fecal parasites can probably be observed from humans to fish and from fish to humans whose reservoir is the water. according to thillement (2015), more than 100 pathogens are likely to parasitize humans, but only a small number represent a public health problem. in water, pathogens are easily transmitted from one fish to another through the skin and gills. fish are sensitive to stress, can be disturbed by poor water quality, poor diet, rough handling or a disturbed as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 130 published by ideas spread environment. this can result in a decrease in immune system activity, which can lead to the sudden onset of disease. fry and juveniles are the most vulnerable; they need to develop their immunity (edéa et al., 2019). there is a multitude of possible diseases (parasitic, bacterial, viral, etc.). stressed fish can often be identified by abnormal behaviour such as decreased appetite, nervous or waddling swimming, upright position at the surface, or by clinical symptoms or pathologies such as morphological abnormalities (barbels or damaged fins, large belly, blocked mouth, goiters, etc.), eye disorders (protruding eyes, glassy eye, loss of eye, etc.) or by the presence of a large number of other diseases. ), gill disorders (degeneration, whiteheads, etc.), internal organ disorders (dark spots on the liver, heart, spleen, inflammation of the intestine; etc.), skin disorders (foamy lips, blackish tumours, etc.), behavioural disorders (fish piping air on the surface, uncoordinated swimming movements, etc.), undesirable hosts (algae, hydrous, chlorinated water, etc.). nevertheless, these symptoms are not specific, therefore, precise laboratory techniques are required to diagnose the disease (lacroix, 2004). in kinshasa, in the democratic republic of congo, watercourses are considered to be the drain through which all waste is evacuated (faeces, urban, industrial and domestic waste). one third of the fresh fish consumed by the people living along the congo river in the pool malebo comes from artisanal fisheries. offering consumers fresh fish free of parasites and other types of pollutants is a real challenge, especially since the congo river is considered a dumping ground by the same population. this situation constitutes a real threat to the human health of kinshasa's population (masua et al., 2020; munganga et al., 2020). fish consumption is increasingly important on a global scale: it was 9.9 kg per capita per year in 1960 and 20.1 kg per capita per year in 2014 (fao, 2016). despite its economic and dietary importance, this food is a biotope that is very favourable to the development of a large number of parasites (nchoutpouen & fomena, 2011; falaise, 2017). given that fishing is the main activity of the riparian populations of the malebo pool (congo river), this situation is a problem for the maintenance of fish in their ecosystem but also for human health. this study aims to identify human endoparasites in the digestive tracts of two species of freshwater fishes of the family cichlidae (oreochromis niloticus linnaeus, 1758 and tilapia tholloni sauvage, 1884) caught in the malebo pool (congo river) in the democratic republic of congo. the results of this study will make it possible to warn the population about the risks incurred following the consumption of fishery products from polluted environments but also to fill the gaps in knowledge of pathogens harmful to human health through the consumption of fish. 2. material and methods 2.1 study environment this study took place in the malebo pool (congo river) at the kinkole fishing station (figure 1). the malebo pool, formerly known as the stanley pool, is the widening of the congo river located at the border between the democratic republic of congo (kinshasa city province) and the people's republic of congo (brazzaville prefecture) (pwema et al., 2019). it is located between 04° 05' 04° 20' south and 15° 19' 15° 33' east, at an altitude of 275 m. this part of the river is about 35 km long and 25 km wide. its average depth is 3 m with a maximum of 20 m and a surface area of 500 km2 (burgis & symoens, 1987; muzigwa et al., 1994). the malebo pool enjoys a hot and humid tropical climate of aw4 type according to the köppen classification, characterised by two types of seasons: the long rainy season (between september and mid-may) and the dry season (between mid-may and august). the average temperature varies between 22.5 °c and 25 °c. the hydrography of pool malebo includes the congo river and mainly the n'sele and n'djili rivers which are its tributaries (mbadu, 2001; munganga et al., 2020). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 131 published by ideas spread figure 1. map of the malebo pool (congo river) showing the fishing sites at the kinkole station 2.2 methodology 2.2.1 fish data collection and laboratory handling the fish specimens oreochromis niloticus linnaeus, 1758 and tilapia tholloni sauvage, 1884 were caught in the malebo pool (congo river) at the kinkole station (04°18′,26″ s, 15° 30′,33″ e) located in the commune of n'sele. specimens were collected monthly for 6 months between january and june 2017. the catches were obtained by artisanal fisheries while using hawks nets of 2 cm mesh size and 5 m in diameter. one hundred and six (106) specimens (juveniles and adults) of cichlidae fish, consisting of 42 individuals oreochromis niloticus linnaeus, 1758 and 64 tilapia tholloni sauvage, 1884. these fish were caught during artisanal fishing campaigns using a hawksbill net with a mesh size of 2 cm and 5 m in diameter. after fishing, the specimens were kept in 10 kg plastic bags and then placed in a glacier to facilitate their transport to the laboratory. the date of sample collection was marked on each batch of specimens and kept cold in a freezer. the fish caught were identified using identification keys proposed by boulenger (1911); poll (1939a & b, 1959); poll & gosse (1995a et b) available at the limnology, hydrobiology and aquaculture laboratory of the biology department of the faculty of sciences of the university of kinshasa. the fish were measured (with an electronic ichthyometer, digital caliper 200 mm-8 mark) according to lévêque et al., (1990 & 1992) and weighed (with an electronic balance, salter mark) to the nearest millimetre and gram respectively. for size accuracy of the specimens of oreochromis niloticus and tilapia tholloni studied, the size class of the fish was calculated according to sturge's rule (pwema, 2014). 2.2.2 measurement of environmental parameters measurements of the environmental variables (temperature (°c), conductivity (μs/cm), turbidity (ntu: nephelometric turbidity unit) and ph) were carried out at each sampling site with the hanna ph/orp/ec/do no. hi 9828 multiparameter combo ph meter probe. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 132 published by ideas spread 2.2.3 investigation and identification of intestinal endoparasites the fish were dissected to isolate the intestines, which were first examined with the naked eye and then with a binocular magnifying glass (olympus brand tokyo 323693). each digestive tract thus isolated was placed in a pre-numbered glass vial containing 4 drops of physiological water. fresh smears of fragments of these stomach contents were observed with a euromex photomicroscope at the laboratory of the mont-amba hospital center. the endoparasites observed were identified using the identification guide for intestinal parasites proposed by who (1994). this identification was done at the species level. 2.2.4 statistical analysis and data processing the various data were analysed and encoded on the excel 2010 spreadsheet. the results obtained after treatment were expressed in the form of tables, graphs and figures to facilitate their interpretation. origin 6.1 software was used to generate the graphs. 3. results 3.1 physico-chemical parameters of water table 1. physico-chemical parameters of the waters of the congo river at kinkole sites température (°c) conductivity (µs/cm) turbidity (ppm) ph i 29,3±0,13 27,9±0,97 13,73±0,1 6,27±0,11 ii 28,9±0,18 27,5±0,83 14,21±0,38 6,62±0,28 mean 29,1±0,2 27,7±0,2 13,97±0,24 6,44±0,17 the results of the environmental parameters shown in table 1 above show that the surface water of the congo river in the malebo pool has an average temperature of 29.1±0.2 °c and is low in mineral salts (average conductivity equal to 27.7±0.2 µs/cm). this water is slightly turbid at the sampling sites and has an average turbidity of 13.97±0.24 ppm. the hydrogen potential shows that this water is slightly acidic (ph: 6.44±0.17). 3.2 fish size classes table 2. different size classes of fish specimens studied species of fish size classes size range (mm) number of fish oreochromis niloticus i [64,3 98,3 [ 6 ii [99 – 133 [ 5 iii [134 – 168 [ 6 iv [169 – 203 [ 10 v [204 – 238 [ 9 vi [239 – 273 [ 15 vii [274 308,1 [ 13 total 64 tilapia tholloni i [66,4 – 104,4 [ 5 ii [105 – 143 [ 7 iii [144 – 182 [ 4 iv [183 – 221 [ 9 v [222 – 260 [ 7 vi [261 298,3 [ 10 total 42 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 133 published by ideas spread the size classes of the different specimens of oreochromis niloticus and tilapia tholloni studied were established according to sturge's rule. a total of 64 specimens of o. niloticus fish were grouped into 7 size classes. the sixth class (size range: 239mm to 273 mm) is the one with a large number of individuals (i.e. 15 fish) and the second class (size range: 99 mm to 133 mm) has fewer specimens (i.e. 5 individuals). the fish tilapia tholloni has 42 specimens grouped in six size classes, of which the sixth class (size between 261 mm and 298.3 mm) has the majority of fish (i.e. 10 specimens) and the third class (size range: 144 mm to 182 mm) has fewer fish (i.e. 4 individuals). 3.3 parasites observed in the stomach contents of the fish studied 3.3.1 oreochromis niloticus linnaeus, 1758 table 3. endoparasites identified in the digestive tract of fish oreochromis niloticus phylum class family genus species adenophorea trichuridae trichocephalus trichocephalus trichiurus némathelminthes secernetea ascarididae ascaris ascaris lumbricoides stronglodidae strongloides strongloides stercoralis plathelminthes cestode taenidae taenidae spp taenidae spp trématode schistosomidae schistosoma schistosoma mensoni s. intercalantum s. haematobium tronglomatidae paragonimus paragonimus westermani 2 4 6 6 8 microscopic observations made on 42 digestive tracts of oreochromis niloticus fish reveal the presence of 8 species of endoparasites that have infested these poisons. these parasites are divided into 6 genera, 6 families, 4 classes and 2 branches. of the 42 digestive tracts of fish analysed, only 32 are positive and 10 others are not infested. 3.3.1.1 relative abundance of branches of the identified endoparasites the majority of the oreochromis niloticus fish analysed are infested by endoparasites of the nemathelminthes phylum (58.8%) than the plathelminthes phylum (41.2%) (figure 2). figure 2. relative abundance of the orders of parasites identified in the digestive tract of fish oreochromis niloticus 41.2% 58.8% némathelminthes plathelminthes as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 134 published by ideas spread 3.3.1.2 relative abundance of the genera of the identified pests of all the genera of endoparasites identified in the digestive tract of fish oreochromis niloticus, those of the genus schistosoma are in the majority (with 37.5%) and those of the genera ascaris, strongloides, taenia spp and pragonimus are in the minority (representing 12.5% respectively) (figure 3). figure 3. relative abundance of the genera of parasites identified in the digestive tract of fish oreochromis niloticus 3.3.1.3 relative abundance of identified endoparasite species trichurus trichiura (23.5%) is the most common endoparasite found in the digestive tracts of fish analysed. ascaris lumbricoides (20.6%) came second followed by strongyloides stercoralis (14.7%), schistosoma haematobium and schistosoma intercarlantum (with 11.8% respectively). schistosoma mensoni accounts for 9% while taenia spp was analysed at 5.9% and paragonimus westermani at 2.9% (figure 4). figure 4. relative abundance of species of parasites identified in the digestive tract of fish oreochromis niloticus 12.5% 12.5% 12.5% 37.5% 12.5% 12.5% trichocephalus ascaris schistosoma strongloides taenidae spp paragonimus 9% 20.4% 11.8% 5.9% 11.8% 14.7% 2.9% 23.5% trichurus trichiura paragonimus westermani strongyloides stercoralis schistosoma haematobium taenia spp schistosoma intercarlantum ascaris lumbricoides schistosoma mensoni as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 135 published by ideas spread 3.3.2 tilapia tholloni sauvage, 1884 table 4. parasites identified in the digestive tract of fish tilapia tholloni phylum class family genus species amoebiens lobosea amiboidae entamoeba entamoeba histolyca adenophorea trichuridae trichocephalus trichocephalus trichiurus némathelminthes secernetea oxyuridae enterobius enterobius vermicumlaris plathelminthes trématode schistosomidae schistosoma schistosoma haematobium s. intercalantum 3 4 4 4 5 microscopic analyses of the stomach contents of tilapia tholloni fish reveal that their digestive tracts are infested with 3 branches, 4 classes, 4 families, 4 genera and 5 species of endoparasites. of the 42 fish specimens analysed, the digestive tracts of 23 were positive and 9 others showed no evidence of endoparasites. 3.3.2.1 relative abundance of branches of the identified parasites figure 5 below shows that the digestive tracts of tilapia tholloni fish are mostly infested by nemathelminths (58.3%), followed by plathelminths (25%) and amoebians are less abundant (16.7%). figure 5. relative abundance of branches of the parasites identified in the stomach contents of fish tilapia tholloni 3.3.2.2 relative abundance of the genera of the identified pests endoparasites of the genus schistosoma infest the majority of the tilapia tholloni fish analysed (i.e. 40%), followed by those of the genera entamoeba, trichocephalus and enterobius (with 20% respectively) (figure 6). 16.7% 58.3% 25% plathelminthes némathelminthes amoebiens as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 136 published by ideas spread figure 6. relative abundance of the genera of parasites identified in the stomach contents of fish tilapia tholloni 3.3.2.3 relative abundance of species of identified parasites in the digestive tract of tilapia tholloni fish, enterobius vermicularis is the most common species (33.3%), followed by trichocephalus trichuris (25%), schistosoma haematobium (20.8%), entamoeba hystolica (16.7%) and schistosoma intercalantum (4.2%) (figure 7). figure 7. relative abundance of species of parasites identified in the stomach contents of fish tilapia tholloni 4. discussion the results obtained on environmental variables of the fishing sites showed that the water of the congo river has an average temperature of 29.1±0.2 °c, with a low amount of dissolved mineral salts. this water is slightly cloudy and had a low content of suspended matter. hydrogen potential analysis showed that this water is slightly acidic. these observations meet those made by several authors who have exploited this part of the congo river (mbadu, 2011; pwema, 2014; tembeni et al., 2019). climate has a definite impact on infestation in temperate or tropical 40%20% 20% 20% entamoeba trichocephalus enterobius schistosoma 16.7% 20.8% 25% 4.2% 33.3% enterobius vermicularis schistosoma intercalantum trichocephalus trichuris schistosoma haematobium entamoeba hystolica as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 137 published by ideas spread zones since the intermediate hosts are ectothermal (van cam, 2009; falaise, 2017). however, thermal comfort zones are sometimes minimal and depend on the species. petney et al., (2013) state that the rate of infestation of fish by metacercariae of opisthorchiidae varies from year to year depending on the season, age and species of the fish, geographical area, aquatic habitat and climatic factors (intensity of rainfall). results of research conducted by madsen et al., (2015) in vietnam showed that the peak of transmission of endoparasites to fish was during the summer (may to november), particularly during the period of heavy rainfall. the prevalence and intensity of infection then decreases in winter (december-january) due to lower water levels and colder temperatures. snails are infected but the release of cercariae into the water is slowed down. thailand is a tropical country, the peak of faecal contamination in aquatic environments and the peak of contamination of snails by opisthorchis viverrini occurs at the time of flooding. the peak of human transmission occurs just after the monsoon (october to february), when intermediate host fish are abundant and heavily parasitized. in countries with a marked cold season, peak transmission occurs during the warmer months. indeed, the accommodation of cercariae in snails is dependent on water temperature (falaise, 2017). in china, a study has shown that the risk of human infestation by clonorchis sinensis would be greater in case of high temperatures and rainfall, but too high ambient humidity would reduce this risk (li et al., 2014). thus, the different values of physico-chemical parameters recorded in the congo river favour the maintenance of endoparasites in this aquatic ecosystem. microscopic observations of the digestive tracts of fish specimens oreochromis niloticus and tilapia tholloni revealed the presence of several species of intestinal endoparasites capable of infesting humans. the digestive tracts of fish o. niloticus were infested with eight species of endoparasites in six genera, six families, four classes and two phyla (nemathelminths and plathelminths). in terms of frequency of occurrence of endoparasitic species, trichurus trichiura (23.5%), ascaris lumbricoides (20.6%), strongyloides stercoralis (14.7%), schistosoma haematobium and schistosoma intercarlantum (11.8%) were the most common. on the other hand, microscopic analyses carried out on the digestive tracts of tilapia tholloni specimens revealed the presence of 3 branches (nemathelminthes, plathelminthes and amoebians), 4 classes, 4 families, 4 genera and 5 species of endoparasites that had infested the digestive tracts of these fish. it was found that, enterobius vermicularis (with 33.3%), trichocephalus trichuris (with 25%), schistosoma haematobium (with 20.8%) and entamoeba hystolica (with 16.7%) were frequently observed. these results are close to those obtained by kulenduka (2015); mondombi (2015) during research on endoparasites of the digestive tracts of certain fish in the malebo pool (congo river). kulenduka (2015) examined the endoparasites of the fish oreochromis niloticus in the malebo pool by reporting 6 species, 6 genera, 6 families, 5 classes and 3 branches of endoparasites. in addition, mondombi (2015) analysed 5 species, 6 genera, 5 families, 3 classes and 2 branches of parasites in the digestive tracts of brycinus imberi fish caught at the maluku station in the malebo pool (congo river). in contrast to the latter, the high proportion of parasite species observed during our analyses can be explained by the poor hygienic conditions at the kinkole fishing station. we noticed that at the fishermen's boat sites where the fish harvesters buy, clean, gut and sell fresh fish and other fishery products, some other human activities such as washing, swimming, dumping household waste and even human and farm animal excreta are carried out. the massive presence of travellers in this fishing site waiting to reach the provinces of mai-ndombe, kwilu, equateur, mongala, northern ubangi and so many others by sea is remarkable. while waiting for their departure, the latter contribute to the pollution of the river waters by the discharge of all kinds of waste (liquid and solid) and consider the congo river as a septic tank by depositing faecal matter there during their stay and journey. these activities and behaviours cause secondary contamination of the congo river. durand and lévêque (1980) consider that most of the anthropic activities carried out along the countries' aquatic ecosystems constitute a real threat to aquatic resources, including fish. the presence of trichocephalus trichuris, entamoeba hystolica and enterobius vermicularis is linked to faecal matter and that of species of the schistomidae family is due to water contamination by the discharge of various household wastes. the presence of the different species of endoparasites identified in the digestive tract of fish oreochromis niloticus and tilapia tholloni is explained by the ingestion of water and food contaminated by different types of the parasites in the fish food chain (edéa et al., 2019). fish are intermediate hosts for most endoparasites (nchoutpouen & fomena, 2011; koné, 2015; falaise, 2017). following the development cycle of endoparasites, humans are in the majority of cases the final host where these pathogens develop and multiply. in humans, trichurus trichiura is responsible for trichocephalosis, ascaris lumbricoides is the basis of ascariasis and strongyloides stercoralis is responsible for anguillulose or strongyloidosis. on the other hand, intestinal amoebiasis is caused by entamoeba hystolica, pinworm is caused by enterobius vermicularis, trichocephalus trichuris is responsible for trichocephalosis and endoparasites of the genus schistosoma are at the base of bilharziosis. these results confirm as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 138 published by ideas spread the claims made by gambari (2013); mondombi (2015) on the prevalence of parasitic diseases in sub-saharan africa in general and in the democratic republic of congo in particular (kulenduka, 2015). 5. conclusion this study showed that the fish oreochromis niloticus linnaeus, 1758 and tilapia tholloni sauvage, 1884 caught at kinkole in the malebo pool (congo river) are carriers of endoparasites. these organisms belong to several branches, classes, families, genera and species. the accumulation of trichurus trichiura, ascaris lumbricoides, strongyloides stercoralis, entamoeba hystolica, enterobius vermicularis, trichocephalus trichuris and schistosoma sp in fish constitutes a health hazard for consumers since fish, like other fishery products, are capable of transmitting microbial and parasitic infections to humans. in order to decrease the parasite load and reduce the risk of infestation by humans and aquatic ecosystems, the authorities of the country are called upon to take adequate measures to protect fish species. we advise the population of kinshasa bordering the congo river in the malebo pool to clean (eviscerate) 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(2015). la contamination parasitaire liée à la consommation des viandes, poissons et végétaux dans elles pays industrialisés. thèse, université de loraine, france, 129 p. thumitho, u. j. p., mambo, t. m., urom, c. c., ngab’u, c. j., kankonda, b. a., ulyel, a. p. j., ngemale, g. m., & ngbolua, k. n. (2016). ecologie alimentaire de ichtyoborus besse congolensis giltay, 1930b (teleostei: distichodontidae) de rivière biaro et son affluent yoko dans la réserve forestière de yoko (r.d congo). international journal of innovation and scientific research, 21(2), 330-341. van cam a. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p252 252 published by ideas spread environmental conditions and genotype influence upon some correlations value to few lines of winter wheat ovidiu păniță1, paula iancu1 & marin soare1 1 faculty of agronomy, university of craiova, romania correspondence: paula iancu, faculty of agronomy, university of craiova, libertatii street, no. 19, romania. email: paula.iancu76@gmail.com received: march 26, 2020 accepted: april 28, 2020 online published: may 25, 2020 abstract twenty-five mutant/recombinant lines and the two parental forms of winter wheat were taken into study to assess the correlations between grain yield and some quality traits. this investigation was carried out at ards caracal of university of craiova, during 2015-2018 cropping seasons in randomized blocks design with 3 replications. it included two factors: a– influence of climatic conditions (2016-2017 favorable conditions (a1); 2017-2018 less favorable (a2) and 2018-2019 abnormal conditions (a3) and b – genotype. observations were recorded after harvest for grain yield and some quality traits every year after harvest. all the analyzed traits such as proteins, starch, tkw, seeds number/ear, seeds weight/100, seeds weight/ear indicate the experimented material combine well high level of yield and superior quality percent in the grains. keywords: winter wheat, pca, correlation, yield, quality traits 1. introduction globally, demand for wheat by 2050 is predicted to increase by 50 percent from present’s levels, so identification of better genotypes with desirable traits is an important objective in every breeding programms. agriculture plays a central role in the economy of the southern region of romania. here, modern crop technologies have come to provide record harvests on some farms, but sometimes agricultural production is highly dependent on weather conditions. in 2015, romania was the 12th largest world grain exporter and ranked 3rd in the eu member states (28), and in 2017 it became the main cereal exporter in the european union (https://uefiscdi.gov.ro). innovative plant improvement techniques respond in part to current challenges. so, improving the quality of the plants has been and is still a significant objective in the activity of breeders, who must create new varieties, which will yield higher yields of useful substances per hectare, with a better nutritional or commercial value. a basic factor in improving the quality of cultivated plants is the value and diversity of biological material, which must be rich in quality genes or genotypes. the quality traits of the plants are genetic, determined monogenic or polygenic. wheat quality is as important as production capacity. the attention paid to improving the quality is highlighted by the numerous meetings and the large volume of research undertaken. they established that both protein and gluten content are heritable traits caused by quantitative physiological differences or as a result of processes of internal elements directed by a particular gene or combination of genes. considerable research in the past decade has been devoted to novel techniques and methodologies in wheat biotechnology. the integration of novel techniques and methods into wheat breeding programs is necessary to facilitate continued and accelerated progress in producing new wheat lines. in the past two decades, developments of in vitro culture techniques have enabled the production of large numbers of haploid plants, especially in cereals. of these techniques, anthers culture and chromosome elimination in inter-generic crosses have been the most widely used. the production of dhs has been an important development in wheat breeding, because, after chromosome doubling to recover fertility, the recovery of homozygous lines can be achieved in a single generation. this can significantly reduce the time taken before advanced comparative trials can be made and new commercial cultivars identified. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 253 published by ideas spread induction of mutations is another possibility to improve quality traits and a useful method to generate new wheat lines. mutation breeding induces mutations, usually in the seed and includes exposure of seeds to ionizing radiation, ultraviolet radiation or chemical mutagens. the yield and quality of a wheat crop is determined by the complex interaction of water availability, nutrition, environment, pest and disease and genetic make-up (nuttall, j.g. et all., 2017). the establishment of yield performance and their correlation with some quality characteristics in some mutant/recombinant wheat lines was the purpose of this study. 2. material and method field experiments were conducted in the ards caracal (44"7' north latitude and 24"21' east longitude) placed in south romania over three growing seasons (2016-2019) on a chernozem soil. 10 mutant/recombinant lines of wheat were sown in october at a seeding rate of 400 seeds m2. every year, before planting, phosphate was added into the soil at an amount of 70 kg p/ha and nitrogen fertilizer as ammonium nitrate was incorporated also at a rate of 65 kg n/ha. most of the experimented lines are mutant/recombinant of izvor variety which was created at nardi fundulea, through sexual hybridization, followed by repeated individual selection; it is precocious and has good resistance to fall and winter frost. it is resistant to drought (it has the ormo-regulatory gene) and is recommended for production expansion in the south and east areas of the country while other lines become from breeding line f00628-24 (http://www.madr.ro/docs/cercetare/rezultate_activitate_de_cercetare/incda_fundulea.pdf). the analyzed characters were: yield, protein content, starch content, one thousand kernel weight (tkw), seeds no./ear, seeds weight/100 l, seeds weight/ear. protein and starch concentration was determined using a perten infrared analyzer. tkw and seeds weight was measured by an electronic caliper (100 randomly grains of each wheat line). data were statistically analyzed and means were compared by least significant differences (lsd), p=0.05%. correlation analysis and coefficients were compared after pearson significance values and principal component analysis (pca) was performed based on the analyzed indices. both correlation and pca were performed by ibm spss version 2011 and ms office excel 2016. the experiment included two factors: a factor the environment, with 3 graduations (a1, a2 and a3) and b factor, genotype, with 10 genotypes (g1-g10). the graduations of a factor, a1 a2, a3, were considered the vegetation years 2016-2017, 2017-2018 and 20182019, the environment influencing decisively the crops behavior. in the case of temperature analysis, in the 10 months of multi-annual vegetation the average is 9.850c. the closest value is recorded in 2016-2017, with an average of 9.490c, with 0.360c below the multiannual value, while in the other two years of experimentation there were registered higher values of 10.70c in 2017-2018 and a positive deviation of 0.850c and 10.690c respectively in the year 2018-2019 and a positive deviation of 0.840c. regarding the analysis of the temperatures according to the vegetation phases of the plants, in the first part respectively from the sowing and until the exit of winter of the plants (the period of october-february), it should be noted that in comparison with the multiannual average, the first year of experimentation is noted through an extremely low period in january (average temperature -6.10c and a deviation of -70c), otherwise the monthly deviations from the multiannual monthly averages have no exaggerated values (table 1). the same situation is found in the interval in which the plants accumulate the thickness of vegetative mass (marchjuly), the monthly deviations from the multiannual monthly averages being rather within limits that can be considered normal. table 1. the variation of the temperatures recorded in the years of experimentation and the calculation of deviations from the multiannual values month year oct. nov. dec. jan. feb. march. apr. may june july average 2016-2017 value 10.7 5.5 0.7 -6.1 0.00 8.8 10.6 16.9 23.5 24.3 9.49 deviation -0.5 0.2 0.5 -7 -1.4 2.8 -0.9 -0.6 2.2 1.1 -0.36 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 254 published by ideas spread 2017-2018 value 12.1 6.5 3.1 0.8 1.00 3.8 16.1 19.6 22.1 21.9 10.70 deviation 0.9 1.2 2.9 -0.1 -0.4 -2.2 4.6 2.1 0.8 -1.3 0.85 2018-2019 value 13.8 5.1 0.2 0.5 3.20 9.1 12 17.1 22.8 23.1 10.69 deviation 2.6 -0.2 0 -0.4 1.8 3.1 0.5 -0.4 1.5 -0.1 0.84 multianual 11.2 5.3 0.2 0.9 1.40 6 11.5 17.5 21.3 23.2 9.85 in the case of precipitation analysis, the multiannual average amount was 429 mm, the highest value being recorded in 2016-2017 with an amount of 604.4 mm and a positive deviation of 175.1 mm. in the second year of experimentation, a precipitation amount of 448 mm was recorded, with a positive deviation from the average multiannual amount of 18 mm (table 2). the lowest value is recorded in the case of 2018-2019 with a value of 387.5 mm/year and a negative deviation compared to the multiannual of 41.8 mm. in the analysis of the monthly values, in the first part of vegetation period, the first year of experimentation is noted by higher levels of precipitation compared to the multiannual average, both at arise and tillering, the winter period bringing in quantitative significant precipitations. in the period of intense growth in the spring (march-april) were also recorded higher values well above the multiannual average, which favored the intense development of the plants. the month was poorer in precipitation, but the negative deviation was reduced in value (-8.1 mm), being supplemented by the precipitations that occurred in march and april. regarding the experimentation year 2017-2018, although at dawn there was sufficient rainfall to allow germination and planting, in winter the accumulated rainfall was modest in value, with negative deviations from the average multiannual values, as in small quantities of water were accumulated, which did not allow a good development of the plants in the first part of the spring. only towards the end of march, when the plants had entered well into the vegetation and on a drought background in the soil, there were consistent precipitations. april came much closer to the normal values recorded, while the month of may came with consistent rainfall, but in this same period the plants had finished their period of growth and accumulation of vegetative mass. regarding the year 2018-2019, october was a very poor one in precipitation, only towards the end of november, significant quantities of precipitation were recorded, so that the plants had major difficulties in the germination and sprouting process. subsequently, during the winter, in the background of the drought in the autumn, the water supplies from the soil were not restored, which was accentuated in the first part of the spring, so that the plants suffered from water stress. only in may it was recorded precipitations close to normal, but their development cycle had been seriously affected. table 2. the variation of precipitation recorded during the years of experimentation and the calculation of deviations from the multiannual values month year oct. nov. dec. jan. feb. march apr. may june july sum 2016-2017 value 46 63.8 103 38.8 56.4 86.4 104.6 55.6 10.2 39.6 604.40 deviation 5.6 11.4 56.3 0.7 18.5 45.6 52.7 -8.1 7.3 -14.9 175.10 2017-2018 value 56 48 14 6.8 12.4 53 54 84.8 17.6 101.4 448.00 deviation 15.6 -4.4 -32.7 -31.3 -25.5 12.2 2.1 21.1 14.7 46.9 18.70 2018-2019 value 7.4 46.8 53.4 38.6 14.2 25.2 44.4 69 28.5 60 387.50 deviation -33 -5.6 6.7 0.5 -23.7 -15.6 -7.5 5.3 25.6 5.5 -41.80 multianual 40.4 52.4 46.7 38.1 37.9 40.8 51.9 63.7 2.9 54.5 429.30 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 255 published by ideas spread 3. results and discussions quality characteristics (content of proteins and starch,) are strongly influenced by environment conditions and fertilization. proteins are stable constituents in dry grains. proteins content from wheat grains may vary from less than 6 % to more than 20% and are distributed over the whole grain. the applying of fertilization during growing is essential for optimal plant development. nitrogen (n) fertilization is, in particular, important for common wheat, because a high n supply provides high protein content. it seems that for the experimented areal, the lines presented superior genetic potential, both for yield and some productivity elements and for quality. 3.1 influence of a factor as concern yield analysis, tkw, no. of seeds/ear and seeds weight/ear, the highest value is registered at the a1 graduation, which recorded significant differences compared to the values recorded by the other two graduations and between these there is a significant difference. in the case of protein content, the highest value was registered at the a3 graduation, which records significant differences compared to the values recorded by the other two graduations and between these, there is also a significant difference. regarding the starch content, the highest value is registered at the a2 graduation, with significant differences compared to the values recorded by the other two and between these, there is a significant difference. in the case of seeds weight/100 l, the highest value was registered at the a1 graduation with significant differences compared to the values recorded by the other two and between the latter not registering a significant difference (table 3). aslani, f. et all., 2013 stated that water stress and high temperature are the principle environmental parameters affecting wheat grain quality under mediterranean conditions. also, drought stress environments are generally in relation to a rise in protein content (pompa, m. et al., 2009). it can be seen from these results that abiotic stress influences yield and quality and it is difficult to calculate exactly how it will affect crops. in the future, the productivity of major crops is expected to decline in many countries of the world due to global warming, lack of water and other environmental impacts (ali raza et all., 2019). analysis of variance revealed significant differences among a category of amphidiploids and mutant/recombinant genotypes for many morphological characters of wheat, due mostly to the influence of the climatic conditions of the region (iancu paula et all., 2019 a). table 3. influence of a factor upon studied characters’ variability character a graduations yield (kg/ha) protein (%) starch (%) tkw (g) seeds no./ear seeds weight/100 l seeds weight/ear a1 6998.2a 12.36b 74a 49.20a 65.81a 78.18a 2.97a a2 5467.6b 11.69c 72.32b 45.39b 49.86c 77.73ab 2.88b a3 3846.9c 12.92a 71.33c 43.48c 58.23b 76.81b 2.74c average 5437.5 12.32 72.55 46.02 57.97 77.57 2.86 lsd 109.38 0.321 0.379 1.056 1.248 1.014 0.107 3.2 influence of b factor in the case of yield analysis the first five genotypes differ significantly from all the others and between them there are no statistical differences. for protein content, the highest value was recorded by genotype b8, this differing significantly compared to the last 5 classified genotypes. in the case of starch content, the most productive genotype b1 records the highest content, differing significantly from all other genotypes, except with the exception of the second classified genotype. as concern tkw analysis, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 256 published by ideas spread the most valuable result was recorded by genotype b2, which differs significantly from all other analyzed genotypes (table 4). regarding the seeds no./ear, the first classified genotype differs significantly compared to the last 7 classified, this being the most productive. for seeds weight/100 l, the best results are recorded by genotypes b5 and b6, which differ significantly compared to the last 4 classified genotypes. concerning seeds weight/ear, the first 3 classified genotypes, which are also the most productive, register significant differences compared to all the other genotypes analyzed. table 4. influence of b factor upon studied characters’ variability literature ensures greater variation in protein content. it has been reported wider germplasm screens with the comparison of 212.600 lines in the world wheat collection showing a range from about 7 to 22% protein on a dry weight basis (vogel, k.p. et all., 1976). lines with higher grain protein contents presented lower starch percent. iancu paula et all., 2018 a, also reported some amphidiploids lines which presented high quality characteristics in combination with other agronomic desirable characters and represent valuable genes sources which can be incorporated into future wheat breeding programs and other genetic studies. as concern protein content of the whole grains flour of some mutant/recombinant lines, highly significant differences were detected and some of them could be grown as a new and suitable release for the experimented region (iancu paula et all., 2018 b). starch is the major storage carbohydrate of cereals and an important part of human nutrition and lately became also an important feedstock for bioethanol or biogas production. the result for starch percent for the mutant/recombinant lines ranged from 70.87% (b10) to 74.07% (b1). shewry, p.r., 2013 sustained that the increases in starch content are largely responsible for the increases in grain size achieved by breeding programs in order to produce high-yielding wheat varieties (table 5). table 5. influence of a and b factors interaction upon studied characters’ variability character b graduations yield (kg/ha) protein (%) starch (%) tkw (g) seeds no./ear seeds weight/100 l seeds weight/ear b1 5945.00a 11.67e 74.07a 45.47b-e 62.07a 78.30ab 3.30a b2 5958.33a 11.97de 73.40ab 52.28a 61.67ab 78.12ab 3.26a b3 5858.67a 12.07c-e 73.13b 46.64bc 60.73ab 77.73ab 3.23a b4 5773.33a 12.27b-d 73.03b 45.53b-d 59.53bc 78.17ab 2.92b b5 5785.00a 12.23b-e 72.87bc 44.96c-e 58.20cd 79.03a 2.89b b6 5156.33b 12.47a-d 72.27cd 47.02b 56.87d 78.98a 2.88b b7 5253.33b 12.37a-d 72.20cd 44.94c-e 56.53d 77.12b 2.65c b8 4934.00c 12.90a 71.97d 43.67de 56.27de 76.93b 2.59c b9 4780.67c 12.70ab 71.70d 46.18bc 54.07ef 76.60bc 2.56c b10 4930.33c 12.60a-c 70.87e 43.55de 53.73f 74.73c 2.34d average 5437.50 12.32 72.55 46.02 57.97 77.57 2.86 lsd 5% 199.70 0.586 0.692 1.929 2.279 1.851 0.196 character aibi variant yield (kg/ha) protein (%) starch (%) tkw (g) seeds no./ear seeds weight/ 100 l seeds weight/ear a1b1 7900.00a 12.00d-i 75.30a 48.55b-f 70.20a 79.10a-d 3.47a a1b2 7840.00a 12.10d-h 74.90ab 57.20a 69.60a 79.00a-d 3.36ab a1b3 7827.00a 12.40b-g 74.30a-c 49.50b-e 67.60ab 78.60a-d 3.32a-c as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 257 published by ideas spread pca analysis indicates that the first two components account for 78.78% of the total version, of which the first component registers 60.8% and the second component 17.93% (table 6). table 6. total variance explained component initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings total % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1. 4.256 60.807 60.807 4.256 60.807 60.807 2. 1.255 17.932 78.739 1.255 17.932 78.739 3. 0.671 9.581 88.319 4. 0.405 5.791 94.110 5. 0.274 3.908 98.018 6. 0.082 1.164 99.183 7. 0.057 0.817 100.000 a1b4 7760.00a 12.10d-h 74.20a-d 48.28b-f 66.40a-c 77.00a-e 3.02c-h a1b5 7735.00a 12.00d-i 73.90b-e 47.65c-g 65.10b-d 79.80a 3.01c-h a1b6 6320.00b 12.60b-f 73.80b-e 50.08bc 64.80b-d 79.75ab 2.98d-h a1b7 6320.00b 12.10d-h 73.70b-f 50.00b-d 64.60b-d 77.85a-e 2.77g-k a1b8 6170.00bc 12.60b-f 73.50c-g 46.67d-h 64.00b-d 77.65a-e 2.70h-l a1b9 6092.00bc 12.80b-e 73.30c-h 49.46b-e 63.20cd 77.00a-e 2.69h-m a1b10 6016.00b-d 12.90bd 73.10d-h 44.63g-k 62.60c-e 76.05d-f 2.37m-o a2b1 5750.00de 11.00i 74.40ab 46.44e-i 53.60hi 78.40a-d 3.32a-c a2b2 5864.00c-e 11.30hi 72.90e-i 51.09b 53.40hi 78.25a-e 3.31a-d a2b3 5642.00d-f 11.40gi 72.80e-i 42.98j-n 53.00h-j 77.50a-e 3.30a-d a2b4 5635.00ef 11.60f-i 72.60f-i 47.50c-g 52.00i-k 79.30a-c 2.90e-i a2b5 5520.00ef 11.70f-i 72.40g-j 44.16h-l 50.40i-k 79.20a-d 2.87f-i a2b6 5312.00fg 11.80e-i 72.30h-j 45.61f-j 49.20jk 79.20a-d 2.87f-i a2b7 5628.00ef 12.00d-i 72.30h-j 44.87g-j 48.80kl 77.00a-e 2.68h-m a2b8 5075.00g 12.00d-i 71.80i-k 43.21i-n 48.60k-m 76.80a-e 2.60i-o a2b9 5125.00g 12.00d-i 71.30j-l 44.50g-k 45.00lm 76.50b-e 2.58i-o a2b10 5125.00g 12.10c-h 70.40mn 43.57h-m 44.60m 75.10ef 2.34no a3b1 4185.00h 12.00d-i 72.50g-i 41.42k-n 62.40c-e 77.40a-e 3.11b-f a3b2 4171.00h 12.50b-f 72.40g-j 44.55g-k 62.00de 77.10a-e 3.10b-g a3b3 4107.00hg 12.40b-g 72.30h-j 43.44h-m 61.60de 77.10a-e 3.07b-g a3b4 3925.00h-i 13.10a-c 72.30h-j 40.80mn 60.20d-f 78.20a-e 2.83f-j a3b5 4100.00hg 13.00b-d 72.30h-j 43.08j-n 59.10e-g 78.10a-e 2.78f-k a3b6 3837.00h-j 13.00b-d 70.70k-m 45.38f-j 56.60f-h 78.00a-e 2.78f-k a3b7 3812.00g-j 13.00b-d 70.60l-n 39.96n 56.20gh 76.50b-e 2.50j-o a3b8 3557.00j 14.10a 70.60l-n 41.12l-n 56.20gh 76.35c-e 2.47k-o a3b9 3125.00k 13.30ab 70.50mn 44.57g-k 54.00hi 76.30c-e 2.42l-o a3b10 3650.00ij 12.80b-e 69.10n 42.44j-n 54.00hi 73.05f 2.31o lsd 345.88 1.015 1.199 3.341 3.948 3.206 0.340 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 258 published by ideas spread extraction method: principal component analysis. in a similar experience, but in groundnuts, pca analysis accounted 95.57% with the first pc of 74.38 % whereas the second pc of 21.19% (iancu paula et all., 2019 b). analysis of the first component indicate positive values for all analyzed characters except the protein content, so this component can be considered as an identifier for the variants with high production results, with good starch content and high value yield elements. for the second component, positive values for protein and seeds no./ear are recorded, so it is an identifier for high-protein variants with high values for tkw and seeds no./ear (table 7). table 7. character component score method: principal component analysis 2 components extracted the first group consists of 9 variants that have both positive components, these variants being: a1b1, a1b2, a1b3, a1b4, a1b5, a1b6, a1b7, a1b8 and a1b9. this group is characterized by the fact that almost all genotypes are present at a1 graduation. in other words, a1 graduation determines for all genotypes the highest production values, high protein and starch content and very high values of the production elements (chart 1). the second group consists of 6 variants respectively a2b1, a2b2, a2b3, a2b4, a2b5, and a2b6, variants having the first positive and the second negative. characteristic for this group is the fact that it was identify the first 6 genotypes as yield potential under the conditions offered by the a2 graduation, this resulting in lower yields compared to the first graduation, the lowest protein content, high starch content and yield elements with highest values for seeds weight/100 l and respectively for seeds weight/ear. the third group consists of 5 variants respectively a2b7, a2b8, a2b9, a2b10 and respectively, a3b1, variants that have both negative components, being genotypes less productive under the conditions offered by a2 graduation or b1 genotype under a3 graduation conditions. a2 graduation provides for these genotypes poor production results and low protein and starch content, with low production elements. the fourth group consists of 10 respective variants a1b10, a3b2 a3b3, a3b4, a3b5, a3b6, a3b7, a3b8, a3b9 and a3b10, variants having the first negative component and the second positive. characteristic for these groups is the fact that it is represented by all genotypes in the conditions offered by the a3 graduation, which determines the poorest production results, the highest content of protein, the lowest content of starch and production elements with modest values. character component yield (kg/ha) protein (%) starch (%) tkw (g) seeds no./ear seeds weight/100 l seeds weight/ear 1 0.870 -0.542 0.954 0.803 0.607 0.765 0.836 2 0.028 0.798 0.100 0.112 0.744 -0.112 -0.170 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 259 published by ideas spread chart 1. distribution of the analyzed variants by groups according to pca analysis analysis of cereal productivity data for the last few decades reveals considerable increase in yield, but it appears that negative impact of climate change have large influence in vegetation period. drought conditions are a frequent impediment to maximized production. plants are sensitive to short-term changes in weather and to seasonal, annual and longer-term variations in climate. for every degree increase in mean temperature, grain yield decreased by 428 kg/ha (khan, s.a., et all., 2009). climate change proved to have negative effect on yield and productivity of agricultural crops. genetic variability and character association is a pre-request for improvement of any crop and for selection of superior genotypes and improvement of any trait (krishnaveni, b. et al., 2006). in this study, the correlation coefficients between the studied characters were calculated according to each group resulting from the pca analysis (table 6). the correlation between yield and protein is very strong in productive genotypes both under favorable conditions (a1) and less favorable (a2) and weak at low productive genotypes or under abnormal conditions (a3), irrespective of the biological production potential of genotypes. the correlation between yield and starch is strong for all genotypes under favorable conditions (a1) or abnormal conditions (a3) and becomes insignificant for genotypes with lower biological potential under a2 conditions. also, the correlation between yield and tkw is very strong in genotypes with lower biological potential under a2 conditions. regardless of conditions or biological potential between yield and seeds no./ear there is a very strong correlation. seeds weight/100 l influence production only on genotypes with high biological potential and under a2 conditions. under favorable conditions (a1) or less favorable (a2), regardless of the biological potential seeds weight/ear strongly influences yield. the relationship between protein and starch is strong and indirect under favorable conditions (a1) and normal conditions (a2) regardless of biological potential. no relationship between protein and tkw was identified regardless of biological potential or experimental conditions. the relationship between protein and seeds no./ear is strong and inverse under normal conditions (a2) to genotypes with high biological potential. the correlation between protein and seeds weight/100 l is strong and inverse under normal conditions for genotypes with low biological potential. the relationship between protein and seeds weight/ear is strong and a1b1 a1b2 a1b3 a1b4 a1b5 a1b6 a1b7 a1b8 a1b9 a1b10 a2b1 a2b2 a2b3 a2b4 a2b5 a2b6 a2b7 a2b8 a2b9a2b10 a3b1 a3b2 a3b3 a3b4 a3b5 a3b6 a3b7 a3b8 a3b9 a3b10 yield protein starch tkw seeds no./ear seeds weight/100l seeds weight/ear -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 -2.25 -1.75 -1.25 -0.75 -0.25 0.25 0.75 1.25 1.75 2.25 co m po ne nt 2 component 1 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 260 published by ideas spread inverse, regardless of biological potential or experimental conditions. only under favorable conditions (a1) can a relationship between starch and tkw be identified. the relationship correlation between starch and seeds no./ear is strong and inverse regardless of the biological potential or conditions of experimentation. there is a strong direct relationship between starch and seeds weight/100 l in abnormal conditions (a3) regardless of biological potential. the correlation between starch and seeds weight/ear is strong and direct regardless of the biological potential. the relationship between tkw and seeds no./ear is strong and inverse under normal conditions (a2) genotypes with low biological potential. the relationship between tkw and seeds weight/100 l was not identified, regardless of the biological potential and experimental conditions. a strong inverse relationship between tkw and seeds weight/ear normal conditions (a2) can be identified in genotypes with low biological potential. the correlation between seeds no./ear and seeds weight/100 l is very strong under normal conditions regardless of the biological potential. the correlation between seeds no./ear and seeds weight/ear is very strong and direct regardless of the biological potential and conditions of experimentation. the correlation between seeds weight/100 l and seeds weight/ear is very strong and direct, regardless of the biological potential under favorable conditions (a1) or abnormal (a3) and inverse less favorable conditions (a2) (table 8). table 8. variation of correlation coefficients between studied characters depending on variant groups resulted after pca analysis crt. no. r values correlation relationship pca groups according to components co m p. 1 co m p. 2 co m p. 1 co m p. 2 co m p. 1 co m p. 2 co m p. 1 co m p. 2 + + + + 1. yield/protein -0.733*** -0.808*** 0.104ns -0.324ns 2. yield/starch 0.807*** 0.576* -0.269 0.687*** 3. yield/tkw 0.235ns 0.574* 0.945*** 0.281ns 4. yield/seeds no./ear 0.815*** 0.937*** -0.807*** 0.733*** 5. yield/seeds weight/100 l 0.355ns -0.541* -0.316ns 0.043ns 6. yield/seeds weight/ear 0.853*** 0.782*** -0.697** -0.018ns 7. protein/starch -0.660*** -0.927*** -0.834*** -0.342ns 8. protein/tkw -0.170ns -0.289ns 0.023ns -0.370ns 9. protein/seeds no./ear -0.615ns -0.897*** -0.406ns -0.495** 10. protein/seeds weight/100 l -0.325ns 0.624** -0.928*** 0.001ns 11. protein/seeds weight/ear -0.551** -0.885*** -0.641** -0.522** 12. starch/tkw 0.418* 0.152ns -0.298ns 0.235ns 13. starch/seeds no./ear 0.989*** 0.697** 0.736** 0.941*** 14. starch/seeds weight/100 l 0.409* -0.384 0.971*** 0.622*** 15. starch/seeds weight/ear 0.944*** 0.682** 0.859*** 0.555** 16. tkw/seeds no./ear 0.483* 0.353ns -0.826*** 0.219ns 17. tkw/seeds weight/100 l 0.218ns 0.107ns -0.290ns 0.093ns 18. tkw/seeds weight/ear 0.421* 0.234ns -0.656** 0.203ns 19. seeds no./ear/seeds weight/100 l 0.378ns -0.709*** 0.694*** 0.461* 20. seeds no./ear/seeds weight/ear 0.958*** 0.885*** 0.952*** 0.619*** 21. seeds weight/100 l/seeds weight/ear 0.533** -0.891*** 0.855*** 0.668*** 22. r significance p 5% 0.380 0.468 0.514 0.361 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 261 published by ideas spread 23. levels p1% 0.486 0.589 0.641 0.462 24. p 0.1% 0.597 0.708 0.760 0.570 two tailed significance levels of the pearson correlation coefficient 4. conclusions the first graduation of factor a is decisive regarding the expression of the yield potential for all genotypes, while the a3 graduation is decisive regarding the protein content. concerning the b factor influence, the genotype, on yield potential, it is decisive in the a1 graduation conditions, where even the least productive genotypes obtain superior results compared with the results obtained by the best genotypes under a2 and a3 graduations conditions. under the conditions offered by a3 graduation, almost all genotypes obtain the highest protein content and record the lowest production results. the first two graduations of factor a are decisive regarding the first two groups of variants. thus, the variants in the first group are almost all genotypes on a1 graduation, while the variants in the second group are the first 6 genotypes as biological potential under the conditions offered by the a2 graduation. in relation to the analysis of the correlations between the studied characters, certain correlations are universally valid regardless of the group of variables analyzed, among them we mention: yield and seeds no./ear, starch and seeds weight/ear, seeds no./ear and seeds weight/ear, seeds weight/100 l if seeds weight/ear. only one relationship was found to be insignificant regardless of the analyzed group, the one between tkw and seeds weight/100 l, otherwise said regardless of genotype and environment for the analyzed genotypes, there is no relationship between the two characters. the relationship between yield and protein is strongly indirect only in favorable conditions that allow the expression of a high biological potential, in unfavorable conditions, the drastic decrease of the yield no longer 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p104.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p104 104 published by ideas spread a typical case study of investment in agricultural projects the case of mokumoku farms tingting qu1 1 school of economics and management, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china correspondence: tingting qu, school of economics and management, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china. received: april 5, 2025 accepted: may 12, 2025 online published: may 15, 2025 abstract in recent years, the scale of investment in agricultural infrastructure construction projects in china has shown a continuous expansion trend, a large amount of social capital into the agricultural sector at the same time, the inefficiency of resource allocation, investment efficiency does not meet expectations and other issues are becoming increasingly prominent. particularly noteworthy is that some agricultural investment projects due to the lack of risk management mechanism leading to serious losses, exposing the agricultural project investment decisionmaking system needs to be improved theoretical and practical dilemma. this study adopts the typical case study method, selects mokumoku farm in japan as the research object, and through systematic deconstruction of its development mode, deeply analyzes the coupling mechanism among the core elements, such as project planning, industry integration, risk control and value co-creation. it provides a new analytical framework for agricultural project investment risk management, and also provides a practical path for optimizing china's agricultural investment decision-making mechanism and enhancing the comprehensive benefits of agricultural projects, with a view to providing reference for agricultural project investment management. keywords: agricultural project investment, risks, countermeasures, mokumoku farms 1. introduction as a large agricultural country, the issues of agriculture, rural areas and farmers have always been fundamental to the well-being of the nation, as well as to the stability of society, the wealth of the country and the rejuvenation of the nation. the key to facing the three rural issues, improving the living standards of farmers and developing agricultural production is to develop comprehensive agricultural production capacity and increase support for investment in agricultural projects. as the country's financial strength continues to grow, national policies are beginning to favour the countryside, adhering to the priority development of agriculture and rural areas and accelerating the modernization of agriculture. in order to vigorously promote the modernization of agriculture and rural areas, efforts must be made to strengthen the construction of agricultural projects and increase investment in agricultural project construction. as the scale of investment in agricultural project construction is expanding, it plays an important role in the development of rural economy and the construction of new countryside, but there are some problems in the process of management and use of the project, which affects the effect of project investment and does not enable the agricultural construction project to play the maximum benefit, therefore, the article takes mokumoku farm as an example as a reference for agricultural project investment. 2. case background mokumoku farm, with the theme of “nature, agriculture, and pigs,” is a new type of agricultural-themed idyllic complex that combines agricultural sightseeing programs, agricultural knowledge education, agricultural product demonstrations, gourmet food, agricultural product shopping, and resorts. in 2016, it won the “special prize of regional innovation competition” in japan. mokumoku farm, as a world-wide demonstration of the integrated development of rural culture and tourism industry, has become a model for other countries to study and learn from. through the in-depth analysis of mokumoku farm, the article provides a reference for the investment and development of agricultural projects and rural revitalization in china. 2.1 seize on policy in the 1990s, under the support of japan's rural policy, japan's regions vigorously develop the tourism industry. 1992, japan's ministry of forestry and fisheries began to implement the green tourism program. subsequently, a as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 105 published by ideas spread variety of agricultural leisure activities have been launched, so that green tourism agriculture has become a new industry in japan's national economy. at the end of the 1990s, japan introduced relevant laws and regulations for this purpose, and under the support and protection of the law, all kinds of green agricultural activities have been carried out one after another, bringing new economic growth points for local governments in japan. shu kimura sensitively grasped the relevant national policies and invested in the establishment of the mokumoku farm project in conjunction with local manufacturers[1]. 2.2 demand insight after the 1950s, driven by industrialization, the development of urbanization in japan entered the fast lane, and the population, enterprises, universities and other resources continued to flow to the big cities, forming what is widely known as japan's three major metropolitan areas. until 2017, japan's urbanization rate was as high as 93.02%, ranking the highest in the world, and only the three major metropolitan areas gathered more than 70% of japan's population.with such a high rate of urbanization, more and more city dwellers aspire to an idyllic life in the countryside and want to be in close contact with nature, and mokumoku farms has seized on this demand orientation to establish idyllic farms [2]. 2.3 market-oriented family tourism has always been the mainstay of holiday travel. when leisure agriculture is superimposed on parent-child and family tours, “back-to-nature” tourism products are especially popular, and mokumoku farm has seized this market demand, leading the upgrading of the industry with creativity, and guaranteeing detailed and comprehensive services and precise marketing, so that it can personally interact with people without losing the fun of the countryside, and realize the transformation and upgrading of the agriculture industry. realizes the transformation and upgrading of agriculture[3]. 2.4 functional partition mokumoku farm has set up four functional zones with different themes according to the characteristics of different natural landscapes in the area, which can provide a full range of services for tourists. while most farms in the past adopted a continuous layout design, the layout design of this farm does not adopt this form, but rather a point-like layout, with one functional area in the center of the project and the remaining functional areas on the outside of the core area, forming a tour route that takes into account both directionality and randomness. this layout design approach is characterized by certain features, placing the main body of operation in the leisure experience business. the operation mode of the farm adopts the form of multi-form business point, which can promote the integration of purposeful and random consumption, and also create good conditions for the realization of multiple consumption and obtaining greater economic returns. in the core experience area, mokumoku farm focuses on activities such as handicrafts and animal feeding experiences. visitors can use the farm's own ingredients to make handmade products. in addition to this, the farm also offers tours of all the local beer workshops, ham and sausage workshops, and so on, where visitors can watch the entire production process. on top of that, there are also venues with different themes and a wealth of activities and experience programs, such as the creative pavilion with the theme of pigs, barbecued pork, sausages and so on. in the recreation area, there is an accommodation area, piggy training park and so on. the design of the houses in the accommodation area is very childish, and the overall style is of fairy tale type. the interior decoration of the houses is very cute and colorful. meanwhile, the name of each house and its unique shape are related to the products or ecology of the farm. the whole dormitory area emphasizes the friendly relationship between human and nature and conveys the concept of ecological protection through the construction of small scenes and the participation of children. in the piggy training park, the keepers drive the piggies to the park at a fixed time every day, so visitors can have close contact with the piggies, and the keepers will also organize various piggy performances from time to time, which is closer to the theme of the farm's harmonious coexistence between human beings and nature. in the food area, there are specialty farm restaurants, barbecues, cafes and more. all food ingredients and raw materials are obtained from farms or local farmers' homes. in the food zone, city dwellers can taste a variety of authentic flavors of the countryside, satisfying people's appetites for rustic and all-natural cuisine. in the commercial shopping area, the entrance to the farm has a comprehensive commercial shopping area such as a vegetable market and a small farm commodity store. vegetable market is one of the hot spots in the commercial area, which provides fresh fruits and vegetables for the farm restaurants and local restaurants and promotes the development of the local economy due to the co-management and operation of the vegetable market by the farmers around the farm and the vegetable market. all products in the vegetable market are labeled with the name and photo of the grower, so that consumers can fully grasp the cultivation of vegetables[4]. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 106 published by ideas spread 2.5 innovative models the sixth industry is a concept put forward by experts from the university of tokyo in the 1990s in response to the dilemma faced by japanese agricultural development. “1+2+3” is equal to 6, and “1×2×3” is also equal to 6, which is the connotation of the sixth industry, i.e., to realize the integration of the primary, secondary and tertiary industries, enhance the added value of agricultural products, and increase the income of farmers by encouraging farmers to engage in multiple businesses, not only in crop cultivation, but also in the processing of agricultural and sideline products and the sale of diversified services. and tertiary industries, enhancing the added value of agricultural products, raising farmers' incomes, and gradually promoting the transformation of the primary industry into a comprehensive industry, thus opening up space for the sustainable development of agriculture and the countryside. the business model of mokumoku farm in the article is to combine planting, processing, sales and rural tourism services, constructing a complete industrial chain integrating planting, processing and sales, and leisure experience, and is positioned by the japanese academia as the birthplace of the sixth industrialization in japan[5]. 3. development experiences 3.1 industrial integration mokumoku farm in the “no scenery, no antiquities, no history” of the “three no” conditions, to create a complete integration of agriculture, culture and tourism industry chain, out of a differentiated development path. the development of field complex project should follow the basic principles of time, place, and person, combine with the regional industrial base and natural and human resources endowment, and choose the development path suitable for itself. at the same time, we should accurately consider and judge our own “advantage points”, ‘differences’ with others and the “needs” of the community. only by “three points in one” can we create characteristic brand products, and then realize the “three steps” of production, life and ecology, the “three industries” of primary, secondary and tertiary industries, and the “three industries” of agriculture, culture and tourism. agriculture, culture and tourism are “three in one”. 3.2 geographic location although mokumoku farm is not strategically located, it is backed by the osaka metropolitan area, which gives it a large locational advantage and market potential. compared to the micro-level topography and geomorphology, the larger geographic location is more important. many examples of trying to create similar idyllic farms have focused too much on topography and geomorphology, often failing to consider the larger location conditions when choosing a site, and lacking a clear judgment of the potential market, making it difficult to develop sustainably. along with the reverse urbanization of consumption and the suburbanization of industry, the location and development of idyllic complex projects need to focus on playing the role of city clusters and metropolitan areas. 3.3 featured experiences mokumoku farm features parent-child and family tours, with families with children under the age of 12 as the main customer group, emphasizing children's participation and sense of experience, and placing great importance on the detailed design of purchasing and experiencing scenarios to create a good and comfortable atmosphere for children to experience. while building an idyllic complex, it digs deep into every key node of scenario and leisure in agricultural production and manufacturing, fully combines tourists' sightseeing experience with production, processing and sales, and creates a series of special projects for tourists' sightseeing, participation and experience, so as to realize tourists' immersive consumption. 3.4 clarified management the design of mokumoku farm includes a nursing room for mothers and babies, a unique product packaging design, a variety of activities, and an environmentally friendly philosophy, all of which reflect the farm's meticulous management and attention to detail. in addition, the farm also has vending machines, so there are no toys or rich nightlife in the city, but only a simple idyllic life, and all of these details reflect mokumoku farm's “craftsmanship” in striving for excellence. the focus of an idyllic complex is on the multiple-consumption customer market, and the operational details fully determine the project's reputation and revisit rate. 3.5 cooperation with farmers mokumoku farm works with local farmers, using the farm as a gateway to consumption, and to a certain extent, this has led to the active participation of local farmers and the promotion of coordinated regional development. mokumoku farm's themed restaurants and lodgings all have the participation of local farmers, and some of the ingredients used in the restaurants come from fruits, vegetables and livestock grown by local farmers, and many as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 107 published by ideas spread of the “farm dishes” are also made by local farmers, while the lodgings are decorated in a style similar to that of local farmers' homes. in terms of accommodation, the farm's accommodation is also decorated in a style similar to that of local farmers, and many of the lifestyles and habits are based on local folkways and customs. while creating an idyllic complex, the interests of local farmers are fully taken into account, and farmers are supported and encouraged to participate in the construction and operation of farms in a variety of ways, so that farmers can become one of the main bodies of the farms, and industrial co-promotion, brand co-construction, environmental co-management, and dividend-sharing are promoted, so as to maximize the promotion of the changes in the way of daily life of the farmers, the way of agricultural development, the way of rural governance, as well as the way of increasing the farmers' incomes. 3.6 sales transparency compared to other farms, mokumoku farm is not so much a themed specialty store as it is a platform for displaying healthy and specialty agricultural products. it not only allows visitors who have experienced the farm to purchase the products of their choice through its direct sales stores and online store, but also provides opportunities for displaying healthy specialty agricultural products in the surrounding area, allowing customers to “see and feel” and dispel all kinds of concerns, and at the same time, word-of-mouth publicity through the membership system creates a positive effect of “one by one, ten by ten”. at the same time, word-of-mouth publicity of the membership system creates a positive effect of “one to ten, ten to a hundred”. 4. existing issues investment in agricultural construction projects in china has improved basic agricultural production and living conditions, enhanced the comprehensive production capacity of agriculture and provided strong support for the sustainable development of agriculture. however, the current level of management of investment in agricultural construction projects in china is not yet able to adapt to the needs of building modern agriculture and realizing sustainable agricultural development, or to meet the needs of building a new socialist countryside, and has become one of the important factors restricting the effectiveness of investment in agricultural construction projects. 4.1 underinvestment the importance of agriculture and its special characteristics dictate that the government must support and protect it. the construction of agricultural projects in china, especially the construction of agricultural infrastructure, is particularly weak, and the government invests a large amount of money every year in the construction of agricultural facilities, but because of the asymmetry between the amount of money invested in agricultural construction projects and the actual needs of agricultural economic development and construction, financial investment in agriculture is still insufficient in terms of the total amount of investment, the structure of the investment is unreasonable and unstable, and it is difficult to guarantee local matching funds. especially in the relatively poor areas of economic development project investment is insufficient, resulting in a lot of agricultural project facilities aging, deterioration of agricultural production conditions, the ability to withstand natural disasters decreased, it is difficult to provide sustainable security for agricultural production[6]. 4.2 poor quality the construction of agricultural facilities plays a driving and supporting role in agricultural and rural economic and social development, and is an important element of new rural construction and rural revitalization strategies. at present, the construction of agricultural and rural infrastructure is generally characterized by the lack of a relatively sound management system and operating system. this has led to problems such as poor project construction quality and low utilization efficiency, making it difficult for the project to play its role. after the completion of the project construction on the project's later operation and management work lacks sufficient attention, the lack of operation and management measures, lagging behind, resulting in the completion of the construction of the project in the use of the process of all kinds of problems, a serious impact on the service life of the project, reducing the use of the project's efficiency[7]. 4.3 insufficient investment in science and technology china's financial investment in agricultural science and technology is one of the important factors to promote the development of china's agricultural and rural economy[8]. at present, china's agricultural science and technology investment is mainly by the government financial support, although the government financial investment in agricultural science and technology is growing, but the growth rate of agricultural science and technology investment is less than the growth rate of gross agricultural output value, agricultural science and technology investment in general presents the lack of investment, which restricts the enhancement of agricultural science and technology innovation capacity and the transformation of agricultural scientific and technological achievements[9]. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 108 published by ideas spread 5. suggestions 5.1 building long-term investment mechanisms in agriculture the no. 1 document of the central government in 2021 pointed out that “by 2025, the modernization of agriculture and rural areas will have made important progress, the modernization of agricultural infrastructure will have reached a new level, the convenience of rural living facilities will have been initially realized, and the level of equalization of basic public services in urban and rural areas will have been significantly improved”[10]. to achieve this planning goal, the key lies in the construction of a long-term agricultural capital investment mechanism, from the national level to scientifically design the long-term planning of investment in agricultural projects, from the grass-roots level to put forward the specific needs of investment in the construction of agricultural projects, to carry out a scientific division of labor for the project, to clarify the functions of the central government and the local authorities, and to implement a scientific and transparent project management process. at present, some rural areas are relatively economically backward, and in the light of local conditions, the state's financial expenditure policy should be adjusted according to local conditions, and county and sub-county support should be gradually reduced or eliminated. strengthening the management of agricultural inputs, improving the corresponding fund supervision and management mechanisms, ensuring the effective operation of agricultural project construction, improving the efficiency of agricultural and rural project construction and enhancing the effectiveness of fund utilization. 5.2 strengthening quality management and improving efficiency agricultural project construction investment is a large-scale agricultural infrastructure projects, should establish an effective coordination mechanism and sound organizational leadership system, improve the project management process and management system, improve the supervision system of agricultural project investment, to promote the healthy and orderly operation of agricultural projects in the project design, construction, facilities management and other phases, to improve the quality of the completion of the agricultural capital projects, and to improve the investment efficiency and effectiveness of the agricultural project construction. investment efficiency and effectiveness[11]. 5.3 strengthening the science and technology service system with the deepening of agricultural modernization, china's agricultural development is facing the problem of agricultural science and technology innovation more prominent, the way out of agriculture in the modernization, agricultural modernization is the key to scientific and technological progress. we must pay more attention to and rely on the progress of agricultural science and technology than ever before, and take the road of connotative development[12]. the basic, public welfare and long-term nature of agricultural science and technology determines that governments at all levels should assume the responsibility of being the main investor. therefore, governments at all levels should strengthen their investment in agricultural science and technology, ensure that the growth rate of financial investment in agricultural research is not lower than the growth rate of financial expenditures in the same period, focus on supporting public welfare agricultural research institutes and colleges and universities to carry out basic, cutting-edge research, promote agricultural science and technology innovation activities, focus on strengthening scientific and technological innovation and popularization, strengthen the construction of the agricultural science and technology service system, and accelerate the promotion of agricultural science and technology research and development and application. popularization and application. 6. conclusion in 2017, the central document no. 1 for the first time put forward the concept of field and garden complex, support the construction of rural villages with conditions to farmers' professional cooperatives as the main carrier, so that farmers can fully participate in and benefit from the set of recycling agriculture, creative agriculture, agricultural experience and the topic of the field and garden complex, through the comprehensive development of agriculture, comprehensive reform of rural areas, transfer payments and other channels, to carry out the pilot specification. “agriculture + culture and tourism + community” this new type of complex development, has become an important way to promote the development of rural industry. projects such as the mokumoku farm can not only promote the development of the local agricultural industry and the employment of farmers, but also effectively promote the integration of local industries, forming a sixth industry in the form of an idyllic complex. the government and investors should give strong support to such projects, so that urban residents can really experience the idyllic life and enjoy the pleasure of family tourism, optimize the structure of the agricultural industry, ease the employment of rural laborers, and promote the income of farmers in the process of cultural and tourism integration. based on customer demand, actively update the way of business as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 109 published by ideas spread philosophy to meet the customer's personalized service needs. whether it is from the perspective of urban tourism development, or the structural adjustment of the agricultural industry and rural revitalization, have a very positive role for china's rural revitalization, integration of the three industries, the structural adjustment of agricultural products have valuable experience can be learned. agricultural project investment is exactly what needs to be invested into the project, so that the limited funds invested in useful projects, so that useful projects to drive the revitalization of china's agriculture, and then lay a solid foundation for the cause of rural revitalization in china. references [1] chulkova, g. v., semchenkova, s. v., & zarankina, o. m. (2019). agricultural investment opportunities within the region: risks and development strategies. international agricultural journal, (1), 44–49. [2] mao, l., & xia, j. (2021). research on the impact of tourism development on regional economic growth. journal of hehai university (philosophy and social science edition), 23(3), 71–79. [3] tang, x., & xia, q. (2021). empirical analysis of the impact of tourism innovation on economic growth. statistics and decision making, 20(3), 117–119. [4] zhang, h., fang, f., zhu, w., et al. (2020). coordination relationship between tourism development efficiency and economic growth level in coastal areas. journal of huaqiao university (philosophy and social science edition), (6), 56–68. [5] liu, j. (2021). the impact of rural financial development on farmers’ income growth—taking anhui province as an example. journal of hebei engineering university (philosophy and social science edition), 38(4), 37–45. [6] jin, s. (2021). vigorously implementing rural construction actions, accelerating modernization of agriculture and rural areas. china development observation, (z1), 22–24. [7] huang, x., & cai, l. (2023). nutrition-oriented agricultural investment planning and project management. agricultural resources and zoning in china, 44(5), 225+237. [8] bao, k. (2022). analysis of investment management problems of agricultural capital projects. agricultural economy, (4), 117–118. [9] zheng, x., & wang, f. (2021). a case study on the performance efficiency of incomplete contracts—based on the practical logic of agricultural circular economy program. agricultural economic issues, (10), 64–77. [10] wu, y., chen, c., wu, h., et al. (2019). research on performance evaluation and budget allocation of public investment projects—taking agricultural capital construction projects in jiangsu province as an example. jiangsu agricultural science, 47(9), 326–328. [11] zhao, j., guo, h., & cheng, g. (2018). research on the investment efficiency of china’s comprehensive agricultural development funds. agricultural economic problems, (11), 49–60. [12] li, j., li, j., niu, y., et al. (2016). evaluation of economic effect of investment growth in comprehensive agricultural development—an empirical analysis based on panel data model of provinces. agricultural technology and economy, (11), 87–94. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p77-83.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p77 77 published by ideas spread analysis of the main factors inducing mortality in artificial ponds for australian freshwater lobsters li yongbo1, shi changhong1 & zhan jie1 1 college of biosciences and agriculture, qiannan nationalities normal university, duyun, guizhou, china correspondence: zhan jie, college of biosciences and agriculture, qiannan nationalities normal university, duyun, guizhou 558000, china. received: march 2, 2025 accepted: march 29, 2025 online published: april 3, 2025 this study was supported by the modern industry college of qiannan nationalities normal university under the project “research on facility cultivation technology for australian freshwater lobsters qnsy (sn)2023010.” abstract with rising demand for cherax quadricarinatus due to advancing aquaculture technology and consumer preference, this imported species faces strict environmental needs and technical challenges. poor water quality and temperature extremes during breeding often cause mortality and yield losses, impacting farmers economically. this study analyzes primary mortality causes in artificial ponds through breeding experiments, collecting data on temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and vibrio infection. key factors identified include temperatures ≤10°c or ≥31°c, dissolved oxygen ≤1.0 mg/l, and ammonia nitrogen or nitrate nitrogen ≥0.5 mg/l. these findings enhance understanding of artificial pond conditions affecting c. quadricarinatus, offering a reference for improving aquaculture practices. keywords: cherax quadricarinatus, artificial pond, vibrio, breeding experiment 1. introduction cherax quadricarinatus, commonly known as the australian freshwater lobster or red-clawed crayfish, is a popular delicacy native to australia, now cultivated globally. farmers initially grew it to 100–200 g within a year using artificial ponds, but its rising demand has spurred diverse techniques, from extensive lake cultures to intensive greenhouse systems. as an aquaculture species, it offers high nutritional value and economic potential, yet its sensitivity to environmental conditions poses challenges. this study investigates mortality factors in artificial ponds to support sustainable farming practices. the australian freshwater lobster that was first introduced in 1992[5]by china, hubei was the first province to start its breeding and to this day, it has amassed a wealth of farming skills in the cultivation of these lobsters. the primary culture techniques in china for the australian freshwater lobster are pond culture and rice field culture. nevertheless, aquaculture of freshwater lobster in guangdong is sparkled up the existence of the larval nursery in the pearl river delta. additionally, the huazhou city has employed a modern method of lobster raising which is the use of greenhouses and the plastic net cages act as “independent delivery rooms” for the gravid lobsters; meanwhile, in chengtou village in northern guangdong, what is now a conventional single-species culture model was anciently changed to an environmentally friendly co-culture system with lotus shrimp, thus their lobsters becoming widely known[6] not only is zhongshan city introducing a “rice-fish co-culture” system which has its rice fields managed without the use of chemical fertilizers or pesticides, and so the fields are able to produce high-quality, healthy and green australian freshwater lobsters and rice within the “double-green” cultivation system[7]. the australian freshwater lobster is an aquatic animal fed on fresh water that, though of great nutritional value and a high proportion of environmental potential for aquaculture, is critically endangered in the waters of its natural environment. naturally, so many problems occur, even the most reminiscent ones, such as numerous diseases and high mortality rates, when dealing with artificial breeding[8]. one of the primary causes of death in the cultivation process, according to the information obtained from previously existing practices, is the low level of dissolved oxygen in the water, the intensity of the temperature, as well as nitrate nitrogen and ammonia poisoning, along with the vibrio infections. this research on australian freshwater lobsters will scrutinize such variables as water oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, temperature, and vibrio infection in the production of artificial ponds. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 78 published by ideas spread the aims are the identification of corresponding countermeasures, ensuring that the technique becomes a reliable reference and guide for farmers, and boosting the healthy development of the lobster aquaculture industry[9]. 2. materials and methods 2.1 construction of the experimental cultivation pond the australian freshwater lobster culturing pond was set inside a greenhouse to make the environment quieter and cleaner from harmful pests. a canvas pond of 12m² area and with 1.2 m height was chosen. the canvas was placed flat on the ground and zip ties were used to fasten it to a stainless steel frame by passing them through the holes in the canvas. great care was taken to ensure that the canvas edges were smooth so that the leaking was minimized. the suitable amount of water was added then to the canvas pond which gave a water depth of about 0.25-0.3 m neither too shallow nor too deep. the water initially added should not be directly used for the lobster culture. it needs to be disinfected first by adding saturated lime in the pond and the water’s ph must be adjusted in the range of 7 to 8. precautions must be taken to disinfect all the items (experimental setup) using a saturated lime water solution, and then these must be rinsed with clean water before they are introduced into the pond to prevent the contamination by microorganisms. furthermore, every biological material used for introduction purposes (e.g., elodea, potamogeton crispus, duckweed) should be washed with water before putting it into the water. 2.2 materials and reagents australian freshwater lobster seedlings, provided by huazhong agricultural university.ph precision test paper (range 5.5–9.0), from hangzhou shisan technology co., ltd.water quality monitoring reagent kits (including reagents for detecting dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, and nitrite), from guangdong huankai biotechnology co., ltd.ixpbs buffer solution, purchased from beijing solaibao co., ltd.quicklime, from sichuan jinghe tai agricultural technology co., ltd.potassium ferrate, from shandong wuchuang yufeng bio co., ltd.yeast sediment, from jianjiang distillery development co., ltd., duyun city, guizhou province.tsb liquid culture medium, tcbs agar, and a gram staining reagent kit, from qingdao haibo biotechnology co., ltd.sand and red duckweed from jianjiang river in duyun city, guizhou province; azolla imbricata (roxb.) nakai; elodea nuttallii; and potamogeton crispus l. 2.3 instruments and equipment autoclave: gr110dr, from zhiwei (xiamen) instruments co., ltd.electronic balance: yp5002, from shanghai youke instrument & apparatus co., ltd.vacuum filtration apparatus: shb-iiis, from zhengzhou great wall science and technology trade co., ltd.water pump: dlxph6594, from hangzhou delixi group co., ltd.drying oven: model, from shanghai boxun industrial co., ltd. medical equipment factory.alcohol thermometer: wny11, from changzhou xinwang instrument co., ltd.clean workbench: sw-cj-2fd, from suzhou antai air technology co., ltd.constant temperature incubator: zdp-9902, from shanghai zhetu scientific instrument co., ltd. 2.4 experimental methods 180 of the healthiest australian freshwater seed lobsters were narrowed down. three ponds with 60 lobsters each were used for a 60-day testing period in each of the ponds whose growth conditions differed:pond condition 1: the pond, with duckweed (chiefly for the removal of nitrogen compounds and without adding oxygen), is also adorned with elodea and potamogeton crispus(planted at the bottom to respire).pond condition 2: the pond, with only the cover of duckweed (for the removal of ammonia and nitrate nitrogen only), exists in this case.pond condition 3: the pond contained elodea and potamogeton crispus only (planted at the bottom to supply oxygen). 2.4.1 effect of temperature on lobster mortality in the greenhouse, temperature rises quickly and drops slowly; therefore, the highest water temperature recorded during the day was used. 2.4.2 determination of dissolved oxygen: method and principle dissolved oxygen was determined using the iodometric method (gb/t7489—87)[10-13] in combination with colorimetry[13]. the procedure involves adding a specified amount of mnso₄ and naoh-ki to the water sample. dissolved oxygen oxidizes mnso₄ to form mn(oh)₄ precipitate. after acidifying with h₂so₄, the precipitate dissolves, and mn⁴⁺ oxidizes ki to generate i₂. the released i₂ is then titrated with a standard na₂s₂o₃ solution, allowing for the calculation of the dissolved oxygen concentration within a range of 0.5–20 mg/ml. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 79 published by ideas spread 2.4.3 determination of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen: method and principle ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen poisoning in lobsters are indicated by which the animals float on the water surface, they react sluggishly, and the dead ones have empty intestines. ammonia nitrogen: determined using the nessler reagent colorimetric method (hj533-2009)[14]. in this technique, a mixture of mercuric iodide and potassium iodide with a small amount of ammonia/ammonium ions is added. the mixture then turns a pale reddishbrown color. this solution of mercury iodide is characterized by intense absorption at a wide spectrum of wavelengths, of which 410–425 nm is the most frequent with the response range of 0.01–1.0 mg/ml.nitrate nitrogen: determined using the diazotization-coupling spectrophotometric method (gb/t8538-2008)[15]. in this method, water with nitrite content reacts with p-aminobenzenesulfonamide to become a diazo compound that later couples with n-(1-naphthyl) ethylenediamine resulting in the purplish-red azo dye[15]. the nitrite concentration is directly proportional to the intensity of the color, which is mostly detected at 540 nm with a response range of 0.01–0.5 mg/ml. 2.4.4 vibrio detection method according to research[16], the tcbs agar plate method was the one chosen to be used. samples were taken from australian freshwater lobsters which had died during rearing. at first, the surface of the lobsters was wiped with 75% alcohol and was dried using a clean paper towel. unserkaren bedingungen in a clean bench, the hard part of the lobsters at the head was opened (the hepatopancreas, which is situated next to the ovaries and looks like a yellow, antler-like structure, was exposed), and 0.5 g of hepatopancreas tissue was taken. this tissue was then homogenized with 0.5 ml of sterile pbs and ground with a mortar. later, 0.1 ml of the homogenate was evenly spread onto tcbs agar medium[17]. the plates were kept upside down and were put into a climatic chamber at 37°c for 16 hours. continuously, the crystals were watched to see the size, the way they were, and the color to decide as a result if the vibrios were present. (certain pathogens are vibrio vulnificus, vibrio parahaemolyticus, vibrio cholerae, vibrio alginolyticus, and vibrio fluvialis.) on tcbs agar, these vibrios are typically recognizable as below: green colonies indicate vibrio vulnificus and vibrio parahaemolyticus. yellow colonies indicate vibrio cholerae, vibrio alginolyticus, and vibrio fluvialis. the colonies, in general, have a diameter of 2-3 mm, and the bacterial cells are round, transparent, and smooth. after the colony's growth, the same size, and the same shape of the colonies are choose for further purification and culture. gram staining is done next, and the bacteria are exactly observed under the oil immersion lens to see their morphology and staining properties[17]. 2.4.5 data statistical analysis data were processed using microsoft excel 2019, and statistical analyses were performed with origin 2021 and spss 24.0. one-way analysis of variance (anova) and duncan’s multiple range test were used for multiple comparisons. results are expressed as “mean ± standard deviation,” with differences considered statistically significant at p < 0.05. 3. results and analysis 3.1 effect of temperature on lobster mortality temperature significantly affects the mortality of australian freshwater lobsters. when the temperature is below 13°c or above 31°c, mortality increases. in particular, when the temperature drops below 10°c or rises above 34°c, mortality rates reach 30% and 26.7% of the total lobsters, respectively. in contrast, a temperature range between 16°c and 28°c is most favorable for their survival. therefore, temperature is one of the primary factors contributing to the mortality of one-year-old lobsters (see figure 1). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 80 published by ideas spread figure 1. temperature and mortality 3.2 effect of dissolved oxygen on lobster mortality dissolved oxygen (do) levels have a significant impact on lobster survival. when the do level is ≤2.0 mg/ml, the mortality of australian freshwater lobsters increases considerably, with the most severe impact observed when do is ≤1.0 mg/ml. conversely, a do level of ≥3.0 mg/ml is optimal for their growth. thus, dissolved oxygen is also a major factor influencing lobster mortality (see figure 2). figure 2. dissolved oxygen and mortality 3.3 effect of ammonia and nitrate nitrogen on lobster mortality the mortality of australian freshwater lobsters is greatly affected when the levels of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen are ≥0.4 mg/ml, with the highest mortality observed at levels ≥0.6 mg/ml. only when the levels are controlled at ≤0.1 mg/ml is the impact on the lobsters minimized. therefore, the concentrations of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen are among the primary factors affecting the mortality of these lobsters (see figure 3). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 81 published by ideas spread figure 3. ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen content and mortality 3.4 effect of vibrio infection on lobster mortality the source of the dead australian freshwater lobsters was killed and analyzed on tcbs agar, the same as when they were alive. the plates were turned upside down, incubated at 37°c for 16 hours, and vibrio colonies happened on the tcbs medium (see figures 4–6). nevertheless, there were not many colonies of vibrio found in the brood, which told us that the death of the lobsters was hardly due to the vibrio infection. in other words, the vibrio infection was not a significant factor among other causes for the freshwater lobsters die-off[18]. figure 4. dead australian freshwater lobster figure 5. tcbs medium with vibr 4. conclusions and discussion 4.1 effect of temperature on lobster mortality studies show that the ideal temperature band for the life of australian freshwater lobsters is 22°c to 28°c. initially, at the critical temperature level of even 18°c, the lobsters are significantly small and the temperature of 12°c or less makes them die. freshwater lobsters can naturally spawn in the temperatures above 25°c; broodstock, however, is a prerequisite[19]. in fact, the experimental culture we carried out pointed out the best suitable temperature is rather from 19°c up to 30°c with the growth of lobsters almost not being possible at those below 16°c as well as the mortality of them initiating when the temperature falls below 13°c, and deaths in excess of 10°c. the inconsistency in the findings from the experimental and past data might be due to the differences in the methods, such as the ponds with an artificial water body which have a smaller volume and thus, offer little buffering capacity to the lobsters, thus making the temperature range for the lobsters more narrow. 4.2 impact of ammonia nitrogen and dissolved oxygen on lobster survival according to existing research, when the levels of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen are ≤0.1 mg/ml, the survival rate of australian freshwater lobsters can reach 100%, and a dissolved oxygen concentration (ρ) of 4.0– 6.0 mg/l is optimal for their growth. this experiment showed that when the ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen levels were controlled at ≤0.1 mg/ml, virtually no lobster mortality occurred; similarly, when ρ (dissolved oxygen) was maintained at ≥4.0 mg/ml, the mortality rate was zero. these results are consistent with the findings in the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 82 published by ideas spread literature[20]. it can thus be concluded that for the successful cultivation of australian freshwater lobsters, the water must maintain ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen levels below 0.1 mg/ml and a dissolved oxygen level of at least 4.0 mg/ml. 4.3 impact of vibrio on lobster survival according to these findings, in the dead australian freshwater lobsters, that is, previbrio detection, the number of colonies of vibrio on tcbs plates was less than 10^3–10^4 cfu/cm², that is in line with the yu studies from yu et al. this then means that vibrio was not found to be the main cause of death in this examination and freshwater lobsters were thus safe to use for experiments. 5. conclusions this experiment identifies temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen as the primary factors driving mortality in australian freshwater lobsters reared in artificial ponds. extreme temperatures (≤10°c or ≥31°c), low dissolved oxygen (≤1.0 mg/l), and elevated ammonia or nitrate nitrogen (≥0.5 mg/l) significantly increase death rates. although vibrio was detected in dead lobsters, its low prevalence suggests a negligible role in mortality. these insights guide optimal pond management for sustainable aquaculture. references [1] wu, z., chen, x., & lin, j. 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(2022). shrimp bacterial and parasitic disease listed in the oie: a review. microbial pathogenesis, 166, article 105545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105545 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p289 289 published by ideas spread genetic variability and characters association of hot pepper (capsicum annuum l.) genotypes tested under irrigation in northern ethiopia fasikaw belay1, berhanu abate2 & yemane tsehaye3 1 horticulture department, axum agricultural research center, axum, ethiopia 2 hawassa university, school of plant and horticultural sciences, hawassa, ethiopia 3 department of crop and horticultural science, mekelle university, mekelle, ethiopia correspondence: fasikaw belay, horticulture department, axum agricultural research center, p.o. box 230, axum, ethiopia. e-mail: fasikawbelay79@gmail.com received: may 20, 2020 accepted: june 9, 2020 online published: june 17, 2020 abstract hot pepper production in most areas of ethiopia especially in tigray region is constrained by shortage of varieties, the prevalence of fungal and bacterial as well as viral diseases. sixty-four hot pepper genotypes were evaluated to obtain the extent of genetic variability, association among characters. the experiment was laid out using 8x8 simple lattice design at axum agricultural research center in 2017/18. data were collected for 19 agronomic characters and analysis of variance revealed significant differences (p<0.01) among the genotypes for all characters. fruit yield ranged from 0.8 to 4.5 t ha-1 with a mean of 2.7 t ha-1. the genotypic coefficient of variation (gcv) and phenotypic coefficient of variation (pcv) ranged from 3.57and 3.84 for days to maturity to 42.4 and 42.9% for average single fruit weight. all the traits had moderate to very high broad sense heritability while genetic advance as percent of mean (gam) ranged from 8.34 for days to maturity to 85% for average single fruit weigh. high heritability coupled with high gam was obtained for average single fruit weight, fruit length, dry fruit yield per plant, fruit diameter and thousand seed weight reflecting the presence of additive gene action for the expression of these traits and improvement of these characters could be done through selection. fruit yield per hectare had positive and highly significant phenotypic and genotypic correlations with dry fruit yield per plant, average single fruit weight, fruit pericarp thickness, thousand seed weight, fruit diameter and fruit length, but it had negative and highly significant genotypic and phenotypic correlations with days to maturity. estimates of genotypic and phenotypic direct and indirect effects of various characters on fruit yield showed that dry fruit yield per plant, fruit pericarp thickness had the highest positive direct contribution to fruit yield indicating that selection based on these characters will improve fruit yield. in conclusion, the research results showed the presence of significant variations among genotypes for agro-morphology traits. therefore, it is recommended further evaluation of genotypes or hybrids that exhibited highest yield, quality and disease resistance in subsequent breeding programs to improve the productivity of the crop. keywords: vegetable crop, genetic correlation, additive gene, direct effect, genetic advance, heritability 1. introduction the genus capsicum belongs to the family solanaceace and it includes 30 species, including five domesticated and commercially cultivated species (c. annuum l., c. baccatum l., c. chinensis jacq., c. frutescence l. and c. pubescence ) (dagnoko et al., 2013). however, from the five-domesticated species of the genus c. annuum l. is the most widely cultivated species worldwide (pickersgill, 1997). it is the world’s most important vegetable after tomato and used as fresh, dried or processed products, as vegetables and spices or condiments (berhanu et al., 2011). nutritionally, hot pepper like any other capsicum species is rich in vitamin a and c, calcium, phosphorus and potassium. it has been reported that peppers are highly appreciated for their spicy flavor and nutritional value. currently, it is produced in many parts of the country, because food is tasteless without hot pepper for most ethiopians. the crop is also one of the important vegetables that serve as the source of income particularly for smallholder producers in many parts of rural ethiopia (berhanu et al., 2011; shimeles, 2018). moreover, hot pepper contributes 40 60% to the household income (shimeles, 2018). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 290 published by ideas spread according to csa (2017) the national average yields of hot pepper are 6.3 t ha-1 for green pod and 1.8 t ha-1 for the dry pod, which is far below the dry pod yield (2.5-3.7 t ha-1) of improved varieties harvested at research fields of ethiopia (moanr, 2016) and world average yield of 3 4 t ha-1 (fao, 2015). the productivity of the crop is low due to many limiting factors such as shortage of adapted high yielding varieties, using unknown seed sources and poor-quality seeds, poor irrigation system, lack of information on soil fertility, the prevalence of fungal and bacterial as well as viral diseases, lack of awareness on existing improved technologies and poor marketing system. in the past decades, diverse pepper genotypes (>300) were introduced from different regions of the world (fekadu et al., 2008) adding to the diversity of the crop in ethiopia. however, ethiopia has less benefited from research activities although some research centers are working on hot pepper variety development, which mainly focused on adaptation and release of locally adapted varieties. for efficient and effective breeding work investigation and better understanding of the variability of existing genotypes is essential. very few studies have been conducted on hot pepper genetic variability using morphological traits (berhanu et al., 2011; shimeles et al., 2016; abrham et al., 2017 and birhanu, 2017). effectiveness of selection depends on the amount of variability, heritability and genetic advance, interrelations among themselves and genetic divergence present in the genetic material for yield and yield related characters. hence, developing of varieties with the desired traits has a significant contribution to increase the yield of hot pepper in the region. therefore, the first step in the development of varieties is assessing the genetic variability of available genotypes for the characters of interest. similarly, information on the extent and nature of interrelationship among plant characters’ help formulating efficient index selection and the relative contribution of various components traits to yield (singh, 1993). besides, knowledge of the naturally occurring diversity in a population helps identify diverse groups of genotypes that can be useful for the breeding program. greater the variability in a population, greater the chance for an effective selection of desirable types (vavilov, 1951). therefore, assessment of variability, association and heritability of traits in hot pepper genotypes in case of central zone of tigray agro-ecology is essential for planning an appropriate breeding strategy for genetic improvement of the crop. hence, the present study was undertaken with the objectives to estimate phenotypic and genotypic variations, heritability and expected genetic advance of agronomically important traits in the hot pepper genotypes, to assess the extent of associations among yield and yield related traits and to identify the most yield predicting traits. 2. materials and methods experimental site: the study was conducted under irrigation at axum agricultural research center (axarc) experimental field, mereb lekhe district, in the central zone of tigray, northern ethiopia during 2017/18 cropping season. the site is located at about 1041 kms away from addis ababa and 67 km to the north of aksum town, at 14o 25’26” and 14o18’48” n latitude, and 38o 42’15” and 38o48’30” e longitude with an altitude of 1390 m.a.s.l. (figure 1). the site is found in semi-arid tropical belt of ethiopia with “kola” agro climatic zone and the rainy season is mono modal concentrated in one season from late july to early september and receives from 400 600 mm of rain fall per annum. the mean minimum and maximum temperatures ranged from 13.3 0c to 33.7 0c, respectively. the soil texture of the specific site of the study area is sandy clay loam textural class with bulk density of 1.7 g cm-3, very low in organic carbon (0.7%) with an alkaline ph of 8.2. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 291 published by ideas spread figure 1. geographical location of the study area showing ethiopia, tigray region, mereb leke district and specific location of the experimental site experimental materials: sixty-three local hot pepper ethiopian landraces along with one released variety mareko fana as a check were used in this study. the landraces were collected from different agro-ecologies of varying altitude, rainfall, temperature, and soil type by the ethiopian biodiversity institute (ebi), shire maitsebri agricultural research center (smarc) and melkassa agricultural research center (marc). the accession numbers and source of the genotypes are shown in table 1. experimental design: the experiment was laid out in 8x8 simple lattice design with two replications. the experimental materials were planted at axum agricultural research center main research site during 2017/2018 cropping season under irrigation. seeds of each hot pepper genotypes were sown in seed bed of 0.6 m2 (3 rows, 0.2 m spacing between rows, 1m row length) during october 2017 to raise seedlings. seedlings were transplanted to main field 48 days after seed sowing i.e. when the seedlings attained 15 cm height. each genotype was planted in the main field in a plot size of 8.4m2 (2.8 m x 3 m). each plot consisted of four rows of 3m length with inter and intra-row spacing of 0.7m and 0.3m, respectively, containing a total of 40 plants. each incomplete block and replication was spaced 1 and 1.5 meters, respectively. the middle two rows were used for data collection leaving the two rows as borders. fertilizer, di-ammonium phosphate (dap) as a source of phosphorus was applied at the rate of 200 kg ha-1 during planting and nitrogen fertilizer was applied in the form of urea at the rate of 150 kg ha1 in splits, half during transplanting and the rest as side dressing at 45 days after transplanting. watering was made following furrow irrigation at 7days interval (axarc, 2016) was used. weeding, hoeing and other field management and crop protection activities were done as required. table 1. hot pepper accessions tested under furrow irrigation in northern ethiopia, their local name, area of collection, origin and sources no. accession name local name site of collection sources no. accession name local name site of collection sources 1 acc-1 berebere hormat raya kobo amhara 33 acc229701 hulet ejenese misrak gojam amhara 2 acc-2 berbere aberegelle tanqua abergelle tigray 34 acc237528 enticho ahferom tigray 3 acc-3 berebere birisheleko bure amhara 35 acc-9102 achefer mirab gojam amhara 4 acc-4 felege da’ero mekelle tigray 36 acc-9094 gooda mirab gojam amhara 5 acc-5 berebere agew ofla(zata) tigray 37 acc-9098 achefer mirab gojam amhara as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 292 published by ideas spread 6 acc-6 berebere dibdibo ahferom tigray 38 acc-9104 merwi mirab gojam amhara 7 acc-7 shamba berbereadi welkait tigray 39 acc-9099 amestya mirab gojam amhara 8 acc-8 berebere korir kilte awulalo tigray 40 acc-9082 meacha mirab gojam amhara 9 acc-9 berebere tsalaiet kola temben tigray 41 acc-9101 achefer mirab gojam amhara 10 acc-10 berebere agbe abergelle tigray 42 acc-9086 kudmie mirab gojam amhara 11 acc-11 laelay dayu alamata tigray 43 acc229696 dibata metekel b/gumz 12 acc-12 berebere hewane walkait tigray 44 acc-9106 bure wemberma mirab gojam amhara 13 acc-13 abat berebere walkait tigray 45 acc-9007 galioch buare town mirab gojam amhara 14 acc-14 bora(gemelo) embalaje tigray 46 acc-9107 guzamn misrak gojam amhara 15 acc-15 abat berebere welkait tigray 47 acc-28334 abdigudina illubabor oromiya 16 acc-16 berbere rama mereb leke tigray 48 acc-48 berbere alaba alaba snnprs 17 acc-28336 durame illubabor oromiya 49 acc-49 tedele guragae snnprs 18 acc230800 bedeno misrak harerge oromiya 50 acc229694 mentawuha metekel b/gumz 19 acc-28337 elammo illubabor oromiya 51 acc-51 abeshigie guragie snnprs 20 acc229699 adet misrak gojam amhara 52 acc-52 wegedadi mirab gojam amhara 21 acc212912 kedida gameala kembata alaba snnprs 53 acc-9093 solmeda mirab gojam amhara 22 acc-9097 achefer/durbate mirab gojam amhara 54 acc229692 dinkara agew awi amhara 23 acc-9084 merawi mirab gojam amhara 55 acc-55 debremarkos misrak gojam amhara 24 acc229697 wonbera metekel b/gumz 56 acc-56 finote selam mirab gojam amhara 25 acc212913 humbo semen omo snnprs 57 acc-57 guragie berebere butajira snnprs 26 acc229700 bibugn (astero m.) misrak gojam amhara 58 acc-58 berebere merb mereb leke tigray 27 acc-9085 merawi mirab gojam amhara 59 acc-59 adiha local abi adi tigray 28 acc230798 dogo midi jara misrake harerge oromiya 60 acc-23880 meskele kirstos semien gonder amhara 29 acc230799 girawa misrake harerge oromiya 61 acc-61 myweni mereb leke tigray 30 acc236436 bako tibe mirab shewa oromiya 62 acc-62 berebere hesea mereb leke tigray 31 acc229698 dibate metekel b/gumz 63 acc-63 yeyeju bereberie woldia amhara 32 acc229698 dibate metekel b/gumz 64 acc-64 mareko fana (st. check) melkassa oromiya snnprs = southern nation, nationalities and people’s regional state, b/gumz = benishangul-gumz regional state, acc = accession data collected: seventeen quantitative characters were recorded on five randomly selected plants from the two middle rows of each plot by adopting descriptors list for hot pepper (ipgri, 1995). data analysis: data for quantitative characters were subjected to analysis of variances (anova) for simple lattice design following procedures of sas version 9.2(sas institute inc., 2010) to test the presence of significant differences among genotypes. mean separations were estimated using duncan multiple range test (dmrt) at 5% probability levels. variability among accessions was estimated using genotypic variances and coefficients of variations as suggested by burton and de vane (1953) as: genotypic variance (σ2g) = phenotypic variance (σ2p) = [σ2g + (σ2e/r)], phenotypic coefficient of variation (pcv) = 𝒙 ∗ 100 , genotypic coefficient of variation (gcv) =  𝒙 ∗ 100, where, r = number of replication; msg = mean square due to as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 293 published by ideas spread genotypes and mse = mean square of error, σ2p = phenotypic variance, σ2g = genotypic variance and �̅� = grand mean of the character under consideration. both phenotypic coefficients of variation (pcv) and genotypic coefficients of variation (gcv) was categorized depending up on cut points suggested by deshmukh et al. (1986) as low (<10%), moderate (10-20%) and high (>20%). broad sense heritability (h2) of the all traits were calculated according to the formula as described by allard (1960) as follow: h2 bs= [(σ2g) / (σ2p)] × 100, where: h2 bs= heritability in broad sense; σ2g = genotypic variance; σ2p = phenotypic variance. according to singh (2001) that heritability values ≥80% were very high, values from 60-79% were moderately high, values from 4059% were medium and values less than 40% were low. genetic advance (ga) for selection intensity (k) at 5%was computed according to allard (1960) as given here: ga = k*σp*h2 where, ga = expected genetic advance, k = the standardized selection differential at 5% selection intensity (k = 2.063), σp = is phenotypic standard deviation on mean basis and h2 = heritability in the broad sense. the genetic advance as percentage of population means (gam) was also estimated with the methods described by johnson et al. (1955). genetic advance as % of mean (gam) was computed as: gam = ̅ ∗ 100 where, ga = genetic advance under selection and �̅� = mean of the population. according to johson et al. (1955) genetic advance as percent of mean was classified as low (<10%), moderate (10-20%) and high (>20%). characters associations at genotypic and phenotypic levels were calculated from the genotypic and phenotypic and environmental covariance according to singh and chaundhary (1985). in path analysis, total yield per hectare was taken as the resultant (dependent) variable while the rest of the characters were considered as casual (independent) variables. the direct and indirect effects of the independent characters on fruit yield per hectare were estimated by the simultaneous solution of the formula suggested by dewey and lu (1959). 3. results and discussion analysis of variance (anova) there were highly significant differences (p<0.01) among the tested genotypes for all characters studied indicating presence of adequate variability among genotypes (table 2). this significant genetic variation among genotypes suggested that the genotypes were genetically diverse and it could be a good opportunity for breeders to select genotypes for trait of interest for variety development. this finding was in agreement with the findings of berhanu et al. (2011), nsabiyera et al. (2013), birhanu (2017) and shimeles (2018). mean performance of genotypes: genotypes had 57.5 to 76.5 days to flowering, 67.5 to 84.5 days to fruiting and 113.5 to133 days to maturity with a mean of 62.27, 75.78 and 122.6 days, respectively. the result showed a wide range of variations for days to flowering, fruiting and maturity. similarly, shimeles (2018) and berhanu et al. (2011) reported the existence of wide genetic variation for those phenological characters on 49 and 20 hot pepper genotypes respectively. acc-1 (113.5 days), acc-49 (114.5 days) and acc-57 (114 days) had significantly shorter days to maturity while acc-5 (133 days), acc-9 (130.5days) and acc-59 (130.5days) had significantly delayed maturity. about 54.7% of the genotypes exhibited shorter number of days to maturity than the genotypes mean (122.6). moreover, 25 genotypes were significantly earlier in maturity than the check variety (mareko fana) that had the earliest days to maturity (appendix table 1). most of the genotypes have also yield advantage over the early maturing check variety. hence, there is an opportunity to select early maturing and high yielder genotypes better than the check variety (mareko fana). the magnitude of genetic variability for plant height ranged from 37.1 (acc-9097) to 66.5 cm (acc-3) with average value of 53.29 cm. genotypes codded as acc-63, acc-9007, acc-8, acc-212912, acc-1, acc-9, acc-59, acc-5 and acc-9102 had tall plant stature (59.4 65 cm), so can be used as parents in developing varieties with maximum plant height, as it may contribute to fruit yield. the minimum and maximum canopy diameter was exhibited by genotypes acc-229697 and acc-59, respectively. genotypes acc-59, acc-15 and acc-9101 have also yield advantage and can be used as parents in developing varieties with high canopy diameter over the check variety. however, shimeles (2018) reported a wide range of 40.9 76.6 cm for canopy diameter. this wide range of variability may be attributed to differences in the materials test and /or may be due to the differences of in the testing environments. the fruit pericarp thickness of genotypes also ranged from 1.7 to 2.7 mm with an overall mean of 2.1 mm. the genotypes acc-212912, acc-212913, acc-230798, acc-236436, acc-229698, acc-16, acc-11, acc-48, and accas.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 294 published by ideas spread 51 had thicker pericarp than the check variety. the highest fruit pericarp thickness was acc-212912 (2.7 mm) which indicated that acc-212912 should be given consideration for selection designed for the improvement of this trait. this is in agreement with the finding of nsabiyera et al. (2013) and shimeles (2018) who reported a wide range of variation for fruit pedicel length, fruit length and fruit diameter. average single fruit weight varied from 1.55 to 7.1 gm with a mean of 3.6 g. acc-49, acc-212912, acc-61, acc-1, acc-11, acc-212913 and acc-229694 depicted highest fruit weight per plant comparing to the check variety in that order. the genotypes exhibited significant variability in fruit number per plant which ranged from 14.75 to 55.5 with a mean of 31. the lowest number of fruits per plant was depicted by genotypes acc-57, acc-56, acc-229698 and acc-49, whereas the highest number of fruits per plant by genotypes acc-5, acc-2, acc-59, acc-229700, acc212913, acc-8 and acc-229697. on the other hand, number of seeds per fruit ranged between 93 and 231 with a mean value of 139.1. the lowest number of seeds per fruit was counted for acc-229697 and acc-14, whereas the highest seeds per fruit for acc-212912, acc-3, acc-48 and acc-4 respectively. accordingly, in the current study 42 genotypes scored greater than 65% number of fruits per plant and 33 genotypes scored greater than 51% number of seeds per fruit as compared with the best performing check variety (mareko fana) (table 5). similar results for number fruits per plant were reported by kadwey et al. (2015), birhanu (2017), kumari (2017) and shimeles (2018). a wide range of variation was observed for 1000 seed weight among genotypes which ranged from 4 to 7.2g with a mean of 5.6g. genotypes acc-212913, acc-58, acc-229694, acc-212912 and acc-11 had high seed weight of 7.2, 6.9, 6.9, 6.8 and 6.6 g while acc-9085, acc-9101, acc-9099 and acc-9086 had low 1000 seed weight of 4g each as compared to the check variety. average dry fruit yield per plant ranged from 54 to 172.5g with an overall mean of 107.3g. the highest yield per plant was recorded from acc-212913 (172.5g) and acc-4 (168g) while acc-13 (54.5 g), acc-237528 (56 g) and acc-9102 (64 g) produced lowest yield per plant as compared to the check variety. similar results for dry fruit yield per plant were reported by kadwey et al. (2015), rosmaina et al. (2016) and shimeles (2018). table 2. mean squares of variance for 19 characters of 64 hot pepper genotypes evaluated at mereb lekhe in, 2017/18 mean squares error characters replication(1) treatments adji (63) blocks with in replication (adj)(14) intra block(49) rcbd(63) r2 (%) re to rcbd (%) cv (%) dfl 8.508 27.51** 13.936 6.528 8.175 86.9 112.1 3.8 dfr 0.008 30.17** 8.820 6.347 6.897 87.2 102.3 3.3 dm 3.445 44.26** 6.222 5.856 5.937 91.2 100.1 2.0 ph 526.500 62.76** 15.390 17.487 17.021 84.7 97.3 7.8 cd 7.703 14.69** 3.318 3.550 3.499 86.9 98.6 5.0 npb 0.797 13.45** 1.100 1.117 1.113 94.6 99.7 15.0 sd 1.144 3.37** 1.241 0.963 1.025 84.0 101.4 7.7 fpl 0.054 0.79** 0.119 0.074 0.084 94.3 104.7 7.8 fl 0.002 22.28** 0.426 0.407 0.411 98.7 100.0 7.8 fd 1.533 49.14** 2.355 1.638 1.797 97.7 102.8 7.1 fpt 0.918 0.13** 0.026 0.029 0.028 87.9 97.3 8.3 fw 0.463 4.82** 0.144 0.187 0.177 97.3 95.0 11.9 nfp 2.820 294.20** 8.135 4.555 5.351 98.9 107.0 6.9 nsf 17.331 1453.86** 80.555 18.524 32.309 99.1 148.9 3.1 tsw 0.538 1.50** 0.213 0.189 0.194 91.8 100.3 7.8 dfyp 12.500 1741.51** 37.670 20.676 24.452 99.2 107.5 4.2 mfy 1.304 0.81** 0.069 0.131 0.117 90.5 89.6 14.6 unmfy 0.008 0.01** 0.001 0.001 0.001 92.1 91.4 19.7 tfy 1.533 0.82** 0.065 0.135 0.120 90.5 88.5 13.8 *and** = significant at 5% and 1% probability level, respectively. number in parenthesis represented degree of freedom adj = adjusted treatment mean squares, rcbd = randomized completed block design, re to rcbd = as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 295 published by ideas spread relative efficiency to randomized completed block design cv = coefficient of variation, r2 (%) = coefficient of determination, dfl = days to 50% flowering, dfr = days to 50% fruiting, dm = days to maturity, ph = plant height (cm), cd = canopy diameter (cm), number of primary branches per plant, sd = stem diameter (mm), fpl = fruit pedicel length (cm), fl = fruit length (cm), fd = fruit diameter (mm), fpt = fruit pericarp thickness (mm), fw = average single fruit weight (g), nfp = number of fruits per plant, nsf = number of seeds per fruit, tsw = thousand seed weight(g), dfyp = dry fruit yield per plant (g), mfy = marketable fruit yield (t ha-1), unmfy = unmarketable fruit yield (t ha-1) and tfy = total fruit yield (t ha-1). marketable fruit yield per hectare ranged from 0.74.3 t with an overall mean of 2.5 t ha-1. the highest marketable fruit yield per hectare was recorded for acc-4, acc-212913, acc-212912, acc-1, acc-49, and acc-50 while acc9102, acc-52, acc-9099, acc-9098, acc-230798 and acc-230799 gave the lowest yield as compared to the check variety (appendix table 2). hence, there is an opportunity to select high yielding genotypes better than the check variety. total fruit yield per hectare ranged from 0.83 to 4.6 t ha-1 which showed wide variation with a mean value of 2.7 t ha-1. the maximum yield was obtained from acc-4 (4.6 t ha-1) followed by acc-212912 (4.5 t ha-1), acc212913 (4.3 t ha-1) and acc-3 (4.3 t ha-1) (appendix table 2). nearly, 43.8 % of the tested genotypes had fruit yields above the grand mean of genotypes. as compared with the best performing check variety (mareko fana), 54.6% of the genotypes had yield advantages. most of these high yielding genotypes were also earlier in maturity than the check variety (appendix table 2). this wide range of variability of genotypes for most traits in the study indicated the high possibility for genetic improvement of traits under consideration. phenotypic and genotypic variations: for all characters studied, the magnitude of environmental variance was lower than the corresponding genotypic variance (table 3). this indicates that the genotypic component of variation was the major contributor to the total variation in the studied characters. genetic variance ranged from 0.05 for fruit pericarp thickness to 860.42 for dry fruit yield per plant while phenotypic variance values ranged from 0.07 to 870.76 for fruit pericarp thickness. the gcv ranged from 3.6% for days to maturity to 42% for average fruit weight. similarly, pcv ranges from 3.8% for days to maturity to 42.9% for average fruit weight per plant. in general, the phenotypic coefficient of variation (pcv) was relatively higher than the corresponding genotypic coefficient of variation (gcv). the difference between pcv and gcv was narrow indicating little influence of environment on the expression of these characters and considerable amount of variation was observed for all the characters. the gcv and pcv values are normally categorized as low (<10%), moderate (10-20%) and high (>20%) as indicated by deshmukh et al. (1986). high values of pcv and gcv indicated the existence of substantial variability for such characters and selection may be effective based on these characters. average fruit weight had the highest gcv and pcv (42and 42.9%) followed by fruit length (40.3 and 40.7%), number of fruits per plant (38.9 and 39.2%), number of primary branches per plant (35.2% and 36.7%), dry fruit yield per plant (27.3 and 38.9%), fruit diameter (24.6 and 27.5%), total fruit yield (22 and 24.1%), number of fruits per plant (38.9 and 39.2%). medium gcv and high pcv were observed for fruit pericarp thickness (11 and 12.4%), fruit pedicel length (17.2 and 18.1%), number of seeds per fruit (19.3 and 19.4%) and thousand seed weight (14.5 and 15.6%). gcv and pcv were low for days to 50% flowering (7.3 and 7.8), days to 50% fruiting (6.9 and 7.3%) and days to maturity (5.2 and 5.4%), plant height (8.9 and 10.5%) and canopy diameter (6.3 and 7.2%). similarly, pujar et al. (2017) reported a relatively low gcv and pcv for days to flowering in 63 chilli genotypes. the high pcv and gcv are evident for the high variability that in turn offers good scope for selection. similar finding was reported by berhanu et al. (2011) indicating that days to flowering and days to maturity had low gcv and pcv values, while fruit weight, number fruits per plant, number of primary branches per plant had high gcv and pcv. datta and das (2013) reported high gcv and pcv with high heritability and gam for fruit number per plant and fruit yield per plant. razzaq et al. (2016) reported high values of gcv and pcv for weight of red fruit (110 and 112%) and number of fruits per plant (85 and 86%). shimeles et al. (2016) also reported high estimates of gcv and pcv for fruit weight, number of branches per plant and number of fruits per plant. in addition, similar findings were also reported by (sharma et al., 2010; janaki et al., 2015; rosmaina et al., 2016; sahu et al., 2016). estimates of heritability (h2) in broad sense: in this study all the traits had moderate high to very high broad sense heritability in the range of 71.4 to 98.8% (table 3) indicating that the traits studied were more influenced by genetic factors (rosmaina et al., 2016). according to singh (2001) heritability values greater than 80% considered as a very high, values from 60-79% as moderately high, values from 40-59% as medium and values less than 40% as low. accordingly, the estimates of heritability of all traits in the current study were moderate to very high. the characters having very high heritability indicated relatively small contribution of the environmental factors to the phenotype and selection for such characters could be fairly easy due to high additive effect. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 296 published by ideas spread heritability alone provides no indication of the amount of genetic improvement that would result from selection of individual genotype. hence, knowledge on heritability coupled with genetic advance is more useful. genetic advance as percent of the mean (gam) in this study ranged from 6.9% to 85% for days to maturity and average single fruit weight respectively (table 6). according to jonhson et al. (1955) the value of gam is categorized as low (< 10%), moderate (10-20%) and high (> 20%). the highest gam was recorded for average single fruit weight (85%), followed by fruit length (82.4%), number of fruits per plant (79.5%) and number of primary branches per plant (69.5%) indicating that these characters are governed by additive genes and selection will be rewarding for improvement of hot pepper for these traits. the least gam was recorded for days to maturity (6.9 %), days to 50% fruiting (8.4%) and days to 50% flowering (8.7%). in the current result, moderately high heritability coupled with moderate gam was observed for plant height (15.6%), canopy diameter (11.3%), stem diameter (15.1%) and fruit pericarp thickness (19.9%). these results agreed with the findings of earlier researchers (janaki et al., 2015; rosmaina et al., 2016; birhanu, 2017; kumari, 2017) who found high genetic advance as percent of mean for number of fruits per plant, average fruit weight, and number of primary branches per plant. shimeles et al. (2016) also obtained high genetic advance as percent of mean for number of branches per plant. similar findings were reported by earlier workers for some characters with moderate to high gcv, pcv, heritability and gam estimates, for fruit yield per plant, fruit diameter, fruit length, average fruit weight, number of seeds per fruit and number of fruits per plant (sharma et al., 2010; sahu et al., 2016; razzaq et al., 2016; pujar et al., 2017). generally, for characters like dry fruits yield per plant, number of fruits per plant, number of seeds per fruit, average single fruit weight, fruit diameter, fruit length and thousand seed weight with high gcv, heritability and gam should be considered as reliable selection criteria for crop improvement in terms of yield and its components in hot pepper. association of characters: in most cases, the genotypic correlation coefficients were higher than the phenotypic correlation coefficient which indicates that the inherent association among various characters independent of environmental influence (table 4). total fruit yield per hectare showed positive and highly significant (p<0.01) genotypic and phenotypic correlations with dry fruit yield per plant (rg = 0.75 and rp = 0.70), average single fruits weight (rg = 0.52 and rp = 0.49), thousand seed weight (rg = 0.47 and rp = 0.41), fruit pericarp thickness (rg = 0.44 and rp = 0.42), number of seeds per fruit (rg = 0.42 and rp = 0.39) and fruit diameter (rg = 0.37 and rp = 0.33). total fruit yield also exhibited positive and significant (p<0.05) genotypic and phenotypic correlations with canopy diameter, stem diameter and fruit length (table 4). the results imply that improvement of the characters could improve capacity to synthesize and translocate photosynthesis to the organ of economic value. this suggested that, improvement of those characters would result in a substantial increment on fruit yield that could be used in selection of genotypes for high fruit yield. similarly, abrham et al. (2017) and shimeles (2018) reported higher genotypic correlation coefficients than the phenotypic ones, implying the inherent associations between various characters in ethiopian capsicums. dry fruit yield per plant had a highly significant association at both genotypic and phenotypic level with average single fruit weight (rg = 0.50, rp = 0.56), number of seeds per fruit (rg = 0.46, rp = 0.45) and thousand seed weight (rg = 0.43, rp = 0.40). these results agreed with the findings of earlier researchers (kadwey et al., 2015; chakrabarty and aminul , 2017; kumari et.al, 2017) indicating genotypic and phenotypic correlations between plant height, number of primary branches per plant, fruit length, fruit diameter, fruit pericarp thickness, fruit yield per plant, average fruit weight, number of fruit per plant, number of seeds per fruit and thousand seed weight. table 3. estimates of range, mean, genotypic, environmental and phenotypic variances and coefficient of variations, heritability in broad sense, genetic advance and genetic advance as percentage of mean for 17 characters of 64 hot pepper genotypes at mereb lekhe in, 2017/18 characters ranges mean ± sem σ2g σ2e σ2p gcv (%) pcv (%) h2 (%) ga gam (%) dfl 57.5-75.9 67.3±1.8 10.5 6.53 13.76 4.8 5.5 76.3 5.84 8.7 dfr 67.5-84.5 75.7±1.8 11.9 6.35 15.09 4.6 5.1 79.1 6.33 8.4 dm 113.5-133 122.6±1.7 19.2 5.86 22.13 3.6 3.8 86.8 8.42 6.9 ph 37.1-66.5 53.3±3 22.6 17.49 31.38 8.9 10.5 72.1 8.34 15.6 cd 32.4-43.4 37.4±1.3 5.6 3.55 7.34 6.3 7.3 75.8 4.24 11.3 npb 3.4-11.8 7.1±0.8 6.2 1.12 6.72 35.2 36.7 91.7 4.9 69.5 sd 9.8-16.1 12.7±0.7 1.2 0.96 1.68 8.6 10.2 71.4 1.91 15.1 fpl 2.3-4.7 3.5±0.2 0.4 0.07 0.39 17.2 18.1 90.6 1.17 33.9 fl 4-2.8 8.2±0.5 10.9 0.40 11.14 40.3 40.7 98.2 6.76 82.4 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 297 published by ideas spread fd 11.21-31 18±0.9 23.7 1.64 24.57 27.0 27.5 96.7 9.89 54.8 fpt 1.7-2.7 2.1±0.1 0.1 0.03 0.07 10.9 12.4 77.7 0.41 19.9 dfyp 53.96-173.6 107.3±3.2 860.4 20.68 870.76 27.3 27.5 98.8 60.15 56.0 fw 1.55-7.1 3.6±0.3 2.3 0.19 2.41 42.0 42.9 96.1 3.08 85.0 nfp 14.3-55.7 30.9±1.5 144.8 4.56 147.1 38.9 39.7 98.5 24.63 79.5 nsf 90.66-233.6 139.1±3.1 717.7 18.52 726.93 19.7 19.4 98.7 54.91 39.5 tsw 4-7.2 5.56±0.3 0.7 0.19 0.75 14.5 15.6 87.4 1.56 28.1 tfy 0.8-4.5 2.7±0.3 0.3 0.14 0.41 22.1 24.1 83.6 1.11 41.5 dfl = days to 50% flowering, dfr = days to 50% fruiting, dm = days to maturity, ph = plant height, cd = canopy diameter , npb = number of primary branches per plant, sd = stem diameter, fpl= fruit pedicel length , fl = fruit length , fd = fruit diameter, fpt = fruit pericarp thickness, dfyp = dry red fruit yield per plant, fw = average fruit weight, nfp = number of fruits per plant, nsf = number of seeds per fruit, tsw = thousand seed weight and tfy = total fruit yield, sem = standard error of the mean, σ2g = genotypic variance, σ2e = error variance, σ2p = phenotypic variance, pcv = phenotypic coefficient of variance, gcv = genotypic coefficient of variance, h2 = broad sense heritability, ga = genetic advance, gam = genetic advance as percent of mean. genotypic path coefficient analysis: in this study, the result of genotypic path coefficient analysis showed that dry red fruit yield per plant (0.46) had the highest positive direct effect on total fruit yield per hectare followed by fruit pericarp thickness (0.37), number of primary branches per plant (0.31), canopy diameter (0.2), thousand seed weight (0.18), average single fruit weight (0.16), fruit pedicel length and stem diameter (0.11), while negative direct effect was observed for days to maturity (-0.21), fruit length (-0.2), fruit diameter (-0.15) and days to 50% flowering (0.08) while, days to 50% fruiting, plant height and number of seeds per fruit had very little positive direct effect on fruit yield per hectare though it exhibited significant and positive association with fruit yield (table 5).this indicates the true relationship between these characters as a good contributor to fruit yield. similarly, shimeles (2018) reported that direct influence of pericarp thickness on fruit yield was very high and positive and its indirect influence through fruit diameter was also positive. however, pericarp thickness showed high negative indirect effect on number of fruits per plant. generally, based on the genotypic path analysis of agronomic characters which showed positive direct effects on fruit yield per hectare were: dry fruit yield per plant, fruit pericarp thickness, average single fruit weight, number of primary branches per plant, canopy diameter and number of seeds per fruit. this result agrees with that of kumari (2017). in conclusion, the present study confirmed the existence of enormous genetic variability among the hot pepper germplasm for various important morphological traits. hence there is an opportunity to exploit these traits in order to develop genotypes that perform better than the existing varieties for the future pepper improvement program. table 4. estimates of genotypic (above diagonal) and phenotypic (below diagonal) correlation coefficient for 17 characters of 64 hot pepper genotypes tested under irrigation in northern ethiopia traits dfl dfr dm ph cd npb sd fpl fl fd fpt dfyp fw nfp nsf tsw tfy dfl 1.00 0.79** 0.58** 0.48* * 0.26* 0.40* 0.49** -0.25* -0.30* -0.26* -0.31* 0.12ns -0.29* 0.31* -0.11ns 0.22ns 0.08ns dfr 0.72** 1.00 0.72** 0.41* * 0.22ns 0.54** 0.47** -0.34* 0.45** 0.44** 0.44** 0.18ns 0.46** 0.43** 0.24ns 0.33** 0.13ns dm 0.54** 0.62** 1.00 0.29* 0.32** 0.66** 0.39** 0.45** 0.69** 0.60** 0.60** 0.33** 0.65** 0.55** 0.33** 0.47** -0.28* ph 0.37** 0.31** 0.26** 1.00 0.18ns 0.11ns 0.73** 0.07ns 0.04ns 0.03ns 0.00ns 0.06ns 0.09ns 0.13ns 0.14ns 0.09ns 0.20ns cd 0.25** 0.18** 0.31** 0.20* 1.00 0.39** 0.41** 0.23ns -0.27* 0.24ns 0.23ns 0.07ns 0.16ns 0.35** 0.04ns 0.01ns 0.28* npb 0.34** 0.47** 0.61** 0.12n s 0.37** 1.00 0.31* 0.58** 0.73** 0.62** 0.60** -0.11ns 0.63** 0.70** -0.26* 0.48** 0.02ns sd 0.38** 0.37** 0.31** 0.61* * 0.36** 0.27** 1.00 0.08ns 0.06ns -0.11ns 0.16ns 0.10ns 0.07ns 0.38** 0.07ns 0.09ns 0.26* fpl 0.24** 0.32** 0.39** 0.06n s -0.19* 0.52** 0.09ns 1.00 0.59** 0.60** 0.52** 0.15ns 0.51** 0.51** 0.35** 0.26* 0.19ns fl 0.27** 0.41** 0.64** 0.03n s 0.25** 0.69** 0.05ns 0.56** 1.00 0.72** 0.67** 0.27* 0.80** 0.66** 0.30* 0.62** 0.25* fd 0.24** 0.40** 0.56** 0.02n s -0.22* 0.59** 0.09ns 0.57** 0.70** 1.00 0.84** 0.37** 0.79** 0.70** 0.60** 0.47** 0.37** fpt 0.26** 0.36** 0.50** 0.11ns -0.19* 0.52** 0.07ns 0.40** 0.58** 0.74** 1.00 0.38** 0.74** 0.56** 0.49** 0.49** 0.44** as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 298 published by ideas spread dfy p -0.12 0.17** 0.32** 0.05n s 0.07ns 0.10ns 0.09s 0.15ns 0.26** 0.37** 0.34** 1.00 0.57** 0.06ns 0.46** 0.43** 0.75** fw 0.26** 0.42** 0.61** 0.08n s 0.15ns 0.60** 0.05ns 0.49** 0.77** 0.77** 0.64** 0.56** 1.00 0.60** 0.54** 0.63** 0.52** nfp 0.27** 0.37** 0.52** 0.12n s 0.31** 0.67** 0.34** 0.48** 0.65** 0.68** 0.49** 0.06ns 0.58** 1.00 0.40** -0.30* 0.04ns nsf -0.09 0.22** 0.31** 0.14n s 0.03ns 0.25** 0.08ns 0.33** 0.30** 0.59** 0.43** 0.45** 0.52** 0.40** 1.00 0.19ns 0.42** tsw -0.22* 0.32** 0.40** 0.09n s 0.03ns 0.41** 0.06ns 0.23** 0.58** 0.46** 0.46** 0.40** 0.59** 0.28** 0.17ns 1.00 0.47** tfy 0.06ns 0.15ns 0.25** 0.23* * 0.23* 0.02ns 0.25** 0.18* 0.23** 0.33** 0.42** 0.70** 0.49** 0.06ns 0.39** 0.41** 1.00 note: ns= non significance *and **=significant at 5% and 1% probability levels, respectively. dfl=days to 50 percent flowering, dfr= days to 50 percent fruiting, dm = days to maturity, ph = plant height, cd = canopy diameter, npb= number of primary branches per plant, sd= stem diameter, fpl= fruit pedicel length, fl= fruit length, fd= fruit diameter, fpt = fruit pericarp thickness, dfyp= dry fruit yield per plant, fw= average single fruit weight, nfp=number of fruit per plant, nsf= number of seeds per fruit, tsw= thousand seed weight, tfy= total fruit yield. table 5. estimates of direct (bold and diagonal) and indirect effect (off diagonal) of different characters on fruit yield of 64 hot pepper genotypes at genotypic level at mereb lekhe (northern ethiopia) in, 2017/18. characters dfl dfr dm ph cd npb sd fpl fl fd fpt dfyp fw nfp nsf tsw rg dfl -0.08 0.06 -0.12 0.031 0.053 0.12 0.05 -0.03 0.06 0.04 -0.11 -0.06 -0.05 -0.006 -0.001 -0.04 -0.08 dfr -0.06 0.08 -0.15 0.027 0.045 0.16 0.05 -0.05 0.09 0.07 -0.16 -0.08 -0.07 -0.008 -0.002 -0.06 -0.13 dm -0.05 0.06 -0.21 0.019 0.066 0.20 0.04 -0.06 0.14 0.09 -0.22 -0.15 -0.10 -0.010 -0.003 -0.09 -0.28* ph -0.04 0.03 -0.06 0.065 0.037 0.03 0.08 0.01 -0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 -0.002 0.001 0.02 0.20 cd -0.02 0.02 -0.07 0.012 0.205 0.12 0.04 -0.03 0.05 0.04 -0.09 0.03 -0.03 -0.006 0.000 0.00 0.28* npb -0.03 0.04 -0.14 0.007 0.080 0.31 0.03 -0.08 0.14 0.09 -0.22 -0.05 -0.10 -0.013 -0.002 -0.09 -0.02 sd -0.04 0.04 -0.08 0.047 0.085 0.10 0.11 -0.01 0.01 0.02 -0.06 0.05 -0.01 -0.007 0.001 0.02 0.26* fpl 0.02 -0.03 0.10 0.005 -0.047 -0.18 -0.01 0.13 -0.12 -0.09 0.19 0.07 0.08 0.009 0.003 0.05 0.19 fl 0.02 -0.04 0.15 0.003 -0.056 -0.22 -0.01 0.08 -0.20 -0.11 0.25 0.12 0.13 0.012 0.003 0.11 0.25* fd 0.02 -0.04 0.13 0.002 -0.049 -0.19 -0.01 0.08 -0.14 -0.15 0.31 0.17 0.13 0.013 0.006 0.09 0.37 fpt 0.02 -0.04 0.13 0.000 -0.048 -0.18 -0.02 0.07 -0.13 -0.13 0.37 0.18 0.12 0.010 0.005 0.09 0.44** dfyp 0.01 -0.01 0.07 0.004 0.014 -0.03 0.01 0.02 -0.05 -0.06 0.14 0.46 0.09 -0.001 0.004 0.08 0.75** fw 0.02 -0.04 0.14 0.006 -0.034 -0.19 -0.01 0.07 -0.16 -0.12 0.27 0.26 0.16 0.011 0.005 0.12 0.52** nfp -0.02 0.03 -0.12 0.009 0.072 0.21 0.04 -0.07 0.13 0.10 -0.21 0.03 -0.10 -0.018 -0.004 -0.06 0.04 nsf 0.01 -0.02 0.07 0.009 -0.008 -0.08 0.01 0.05 -0.06 -0.09 0.18 0.21 0.09 0.007 0.010 0.04 0.42** tsw 0.02 -0.03 0.10 0.006 -0.001 -0.15 0.01 0.04 -0.12 -0.07 0.18 0.20 0.10 0.006 0.002 0.18 0.47** residual effect = 0.50 *and ** = significant at 5% and 1% probability levels, respectively. dfl = days to 50% flowering, dfl = days to 50%fruiting, dm = days to maturity, ph = plant height, cd = canopy diameter, npb = number of primary branches per plant, sd = stem diameter, fpl = fruit pedicel length, fl = fruit length, fd = fruit diameter, fpt = fruit pericarp thickness, dfyp = dry fruit yield per plant, fw = average single fruit weight, nfp = number of fruit per plant, nsf = number of seeds per fruit, tsw = thousand seed weight and rg = genotypic coefficient of correlation. conflict of interests the authors have not declared any conflict of interests. acknowledgements the authors grateful appreciate the tigray agricultural research institute (tari) and axum agricultural research center (axarc) for funding the project. it is also time to thank the staff of horticulture case team in core process of horticulture and plant sciences for the execution of the experiment. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 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(1951). origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants. chronol botany, 13, 4-364. appendix 1. mean values for phenological and morphological characters of 64 hot pepper genotypes evaluated under irrigation at mereb lekhe (northern ethiopia) in 2017/18. no. genotypes dfl dfr dm ph cd npb sd 1 acc-1 65g-m 72i-p 113.5p 60a-e 39.5a-j 5.75n-s 16ab 2 acc-2 68c-k 79a-g 126b-g 52.8c-m 41.1a-g 11a-d 13.2c-j 3 acc-3 70.5a-h 79.5a-f 122.5d-l 66.5a 40.5a-h 6.3k-p 14.9a-e 4 acc-4 64i-n 74e-o 116m-p 46.3j-o 40.2a-i 11a-d 12.65d-m 5 acc-5 74a-c 81a-d 133a 59.5a-f 40.4a-h 11.75ab 14.4a-f 6 acc-6 71a-g 82.5ab 128.5a-c 54.3c-m 34.9j-o 9.8a-g 13.5c-h 7 acc-7 65g-m 77.5b-j 126.5b-f 53.3c-m 38.3b-l 7.2h-o 13c-l 8 acc-8 68.5c-k 77.5b-j 127.5a-d 60.7a-d 42.9ab 10a-f 15.25a-c 9 acc-9 75.5ab 80a-e 130.5ab 60a-e 37.7c-m 11.6ab 13.85a-g 10 acc-10 69.5b-j 81a-d 123.5d-k 55.4b-l 37.6d-m 10.9a-e 14.4a-f 11 acc-11 69.5b-j 76.5b-l 113.5p 54.8b-m 33.1m-o 5.6n-s 13.05c-k 12 acc-12 67d-m 78b-i 127b-e 57.3a-h 42a-d 11.8a 11.1h-o 13 acc-13 65g-m 74.5e-n 117.5l-p 51.5d-m 33.85l-o 5.4n-s 11.7g-o 14 acc-14 73a-d 78b-i 129a-c 53.5c-m 42.3a-c 11.5a-c 15a-d 15 acc-15 70.5a-h 77.5b-j 126b-g 54.1c-m 43.3a 6.3k-p 13.3c-j as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 301 published by ideas spread 16 acc-16 65.5f-n 74.5e-n 121.5e-m 56.2b-j 36.45g-o 4.8o-s 12.9c-m 17 acc-28336 70b-i 79a-g 127b-e 58.4a-g 39.3a-j 9.2b-i 12.8d-n 18 acc-230800 68.5c-k 77b-k 121.5e-m 56.1b-k 39.2a-j 9c-j 12.25f-o 19 acc-28337 66f-n 77b-k 120.5g-m 54.3c-m 35.6i-o 3.6rs 12.75d-n 20 acc-229699 65.5f-n 75.5c-m 124.5c-i 54.6c-m 36.9f-o 11.8a 12.75d-n 21 acc-212912 70.5a-h 78.5a-h 120h-n 60.1a-e 41a-g 8.4e-m 14.9a-e 22 acc-9097 61m-o 72i-p 123.5c-k 37.1o 39a-k 6.3k-p 11i-o 23 acc-9084 57.5o 68op 122.5d-l 53.5c-m 36h-o 8.8d-k 12.65d-m 24 acc-229697 68c-k 77b-k 124c-j 50.1e-m 32.4o 9.7a-h 11.75g-o 25 acc-212913 64i-n 71.5j-p 119.5i-o 55.8b-k 41.5a-e 3.9q-s 13.9a-g 26 acc-229700 66.5e-m 78.5a-h 125.5b-h 50.9d-m 33.5m-o 8.7d-l 13.35c-i 27 acc-8995 70.5a-h 77b-k 128.5a-c 52.8c-m 39.1a-j 11a-d 12.6d-n 28 acc-9085 67.5d-l 75d-m 120h-n 46.3j-o 35.1j-o 6.6j-p 10.75k-o 29 acc-230798 64i-n 71.5i-p 116.5l-p 47.6h-m 35.1k-o 3.7rs 11i-o 30 acc-230799 72.5a-e 79a-g 126b-g 52.7c-m 38.9a-k 7.8f-n 11.8g-o 31 acc-236436 67d-m 77.5b-j 125.5b-h 55.5b-l 33.2m-o 5.25n-s 12.2f-o 32 acc-229698 62.5k-o 70.5l-p 118k-p 49.5f-m 35j-o 3.6rs 12.25f-o 33 acc-229701 63.5j-o 71k-p 117l-p 37.5no 37.5d-n 9.7a-h 10.4no 34 acc-237528 71a-g 80a-e 127.5a-d 47.1h-m 35.2j-o 9.7a-h 10.9j-o 35 acc-9102 64.5h-m 72.5h-p 124.5c-i 59.4a-g 35j-o 6.7i-p 13.65b-g 36 acc-9094 71.5a-f 76.5b-l 122.5d-l 50.4d-m 34.4k-o 7.05i-p 12.25f-o 37 acc-9098 63.5j-o 78b-i 127.5a-d 54c-m 37.6d-m 8.6d-l 12.9c-m 38 acc-9104 63.5j-o 77.5b-j 127b-e 45.7k-o 41.6a-e 10.5a-e 12.25f-o 39 acc-9099 70.5a-h 79a-g 128.5a-c 46.8i-o 35.1j-o 8.7d-l 12.75d-n 40 acc-9082 67d-m 74e-o 119i-p 52c-m 36.1h-o 5.25n-s 12.5e-n 41 acc-9101 67d-m 71.5j-p 122d-l 57.3a-h 43.1a 7.7f-n 13.35c-i 42 acc-9086 70b-i 80a-e 129a-c 52.7c-m 42.5ab 7.3g-o 13.2c-j 43 acc-229696 73a-d 82.5ab 127.5a-d 55.3b-m 36.6g-o 7.7f-n 13.6c-g 44 acc-9106 66f-n 80a-e 122.5d-l 51.8d-m 35.55i-o 8.7d-l 12.35f-n 45 acc-9007 70b-i 77.5b-j 129a-c 60.8a-c 35.9h-o 8.6d-l 14a-g 46 acc-9107 71.5a-f 76.5b-l 126b-g 52.7c-m 37e-o 5o-s 12.05f-n 47 acc-28334 64.5h-m 70.5l-p 122.5d-l 50.7d-m 33.9l-o 4.6p-s 13.2c-j 48 acc-48 61.5l-o 67.5p 117l-p 47.7h-m 37.25e-n 3.6rs 10.55m-o 49 acc-49 63.5j-o 67.5p 114.5n-p 45.3l-o 39a-k 3.5s 10.75k-o 50 acc-229694 65.5f-n 74.5e-n 117l-p 56.2b-j 37.5d-n 3.5s 13.55c-g 51 acc-51 68c-k 74.5e-n 119.5i-o 57.5a-g 33.3m-o 3.6rs 12.75d-n 52 acc-52 66.5e-m 77b-k 121.5e-m 47.3h-m 37.5d-n 3.4s 11.85g-o 53 acc-9093 62.5k-o 68.5n-p 119i-p 54.1c-m 32.95no 6.4l-q 11.6g-o 54 acc-229692 67d-m 73.5f-p 118.5j-p 51.6d-m 36.2h-o 3.9q-s 12.3f-n 55 acc-55 65g-m 69.5m-p 117l-p 52.5c-m 37e-o 4q-s 12.3f-n 56 acc-56 68.5c-k 71.5j-p 116.5l-p 56.1b-k 35.55i-o 5.5n-s 11.6g-o 57 acc-57 64i-n 72.5h-p 114p 47.2h-m 36h-o 3.5s 10.6l-o 58 acc-58 69c-j 73g-p 119.5i-o 51.6d-m 37.5d-n 3.5s 12.3f-n 59 acc-59 75.5ab 81.5a-c 130.5ab 59.6a-f 43.4a 10.1a-f 16.05a 60 acc-23880 63.5j-o 72.5h-p 120h-n 49g-m 35.6i-o 5.9m-s 10.9j-o 61 acc-61 60.5no 70.5l-p 118k-p 44.9m-o 36h-o 3.6rs 9.85o 62 acc-62 62.5k-o 74e-o 120h-n 56.8a-i 33.3m-o 3.95q-s 11.95g-n 63 acc-63 76.5a 84.5a 126b-g 65ab 37.4d-n 6.2l-r 13.7a-g 64 acc-64 66f-n 76.5b-l 121f-m 62.3a-c 35j-o 3.6rs 13.7a-g mean 62.27 75.68 122.6 53.29 37.38 7.1 12.7 cv (%) 3.8 3.3 2 7.8 5 15 7.7 means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different. cv (%) = coefficient of variation, dfl = days to 50% flowering, dfr = days to 50% fruiting dm = days to maturity, ph = plant height, cd = canopy diameter, npb = number of primary branches per plant, sd = stem diameter. appendix 2. mean performance for fruit yield and fruit characteristics of 64 hot pepper genotypes evaluated at mereb lekhe (northern ethiopia) in, 2017/18 no. genotypes fpl fl fd fpt fw nfp nsf tsw dfyp mfy unmy tfy 1 acc-1 4.05a-g 16.75a 23.25d-f 2.3a-g 6.6a-c 26j-m 136.5n-p 6.55a-d 128.5e 3.25c-d 0.125qr 3.38bc 2 acc-2 2.67o-t 6.2o-u 11.21x 1.7k 2.41p-u 53.15ab 105.3wx 5.8c-j 106i-l 2.67c-j 0.24e-m 2.91c-j 3 acc-3 4.1a-f 11e-j 29.4ab 2.3a-g 6.3a-d 19.25o-r 221b 6.45a-e 167.5ab 3.855ab 0.41a 4.27a 4 acc-4 2.8n-t 7.52no 18.72k-m 2.3a-g 2.95k-r 34.6e 188d 5.8c-j 168ab 4.34a 0.21i-r 4.55a 5 acc-5 3.4g-n 4.56v-x 15.14p-v 1.85h-k 2.185q-u 55.5a 111u-w 5.7d-j 105.5i-l 2.85c-h 0.29c-i 3.14c-f as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 302 published by ideas spread 6 acc-6 2.32t 5.08s-x 15.11o-v 1.7k 3.7h-m 44.3c 147.4j-m 6.5a-d 143cd 2.465c-m 0.16l-r 2.63c-n 7 acc-7 3.73d-j 11.2d-i 15.36o-t 1.82i-k 2.92k-r 29.3f-k 118.8s-v 6b-i 83.5o-q 1.9i-o 0.13p-r 2j-o 8 acc-8 3.05k-r 4.39wx 12.01v-x 1.95f-k 2.235q-u 50.9ab 138.5m-o 5.9b-j 102.5j-l 2.88c-h 0.2i-r 3.1c-g 9 acc-9 2.65o-t 6.49o-t 14.06p-x 1.85h-k 2.205q-u 31.5e-h 116.5t-v 4.6l-p 63.5t-v 2.02h-n 0.25e-l 2.27f-o 10 acc-10 3.25i-o 10.25h-l 12.4t-x 1.9g-k 1.55u 52.9ab 110u-w 5.1h-n 118.5e-h 2.56c-l 0.14o-r 2.7c-m 11 acc-11 4.25a-e 14.5b 23.1d-f 2.25b-h 6.325a-d 23.4l-p 145.5k-n 6.6a-d 126.5e 2.64c-j 0.12r 2.8c-l 12 acc-12 2.67o-t 4.41wx 12.89s-x 1.85h-k 2.21q-u 31.25e-i 109.5vw 4.2n-p 87o-q 2.37d-m 0.22h-n 2.59c-n 13 acc-13 2.75n-t 8.23mn 16.03o-r 1.94f-k 2.75l-s 26.3i-m 110.2u-w 5.35f-m 54.5v 1.63m-o 0.16l-r 1.78n-p 14 acc-14 2.52r-t 5.25t-x 12.94s-x 1.75jk 2.51n-u 43.15cd 94y 5.4e-l 86o-q 2.56d-l 0.24f-n 2.79c-k 15 acc-15 3l-s 7n-p 12.6t-x 1.8i-k 2.38p-u 42.6cd 105.3wx 6.7a-d 82p-s 1.865j-o 0.23f-n 2.095i-o 16 acc-16 4.2a-f 9.15lm 19.72g-l 2.45a-d 4.82fg 32.6e-g 158.1g-i 6.1b-h 150c 3.84ab 0.225f-p 4.1ab 17 acc-28336 4.2a-f 4.4wx 13r-x 1.7k 3.175k-r 41.1cd 143k-n 4.7k-p 128e 2.415d-m 0.16l-r 2.58c-n 18 acc-230800 2.75n-t 6.55o-s 11.94wx 1.9c-k 3.395j-p 24.3l-n 118.7s-v 6b-i 78.5q-s 2.49c-m 0.175j-r 2.7c-n 19 acc-28337 3.73d-j 7.03n-p 18.9j-n 2.13c-j 3.75h-l 19o-r 173.9e 4.9j-p 83.5o-q 2.42d-m 0.15m-r 2.57c-n 20 acc229699 3.25i-o 4.165wx 23.8de 2.36a-f 3.58h-m 42.9cd 149.9i-l 4.1op 159.5b 3.07b-f 0.125qr 3.19c-e 21 acc212912 4.25a-e 9.56j-m 31a 2.7a 6.82ab 19.6n-r 231a 6.8a-c 163ab 4.16a 0.33a-e 4.49a 22 acc-9097 4.5a-c 6.38o-u 16.8l-q 1.9g-k 1.815s-u 17.9qr 101.1w-y 5.7d-j 61.5uv 2.125g-n 0.125qr 2.25f-o 23 acc-9084 2.53q-t 5.25s-x 11.91wx 1.75jk 1.61tu 42cd 125.2rs 5.1h-n 82.5o-r 1.9i-o 0.23f-n 2.13h-o 24 acc-229697 3.8d-j 4.95v-x 14.91o-w 2e-k 1.82s-u 52ab 93y 4p 83.5o-q 2.125g-n 0.315b-f 2.44d-o 25 acc-212913 3l-s 9.5k-m 18.63k-n 2.35a-f 5.98b-d 49.9b 118.3s-v 7.2a 172.5a 4.18a 0.14n-r 4.32a 26 acc-229700 3.57f-m 5.45q-x 11.855wx 1.7k 2.23q-u 54.9a 128.1p-s 5.4e-l 160b 2.425c-m 0.22g-q 2.7c-n 27 acc-8995 2.55p-t 4x 12.82t-x 1.85h-k 2.45p-u 43.65cd 176e 5.2g-m 99l-n 2.14g-n 0.38a-c 2.52c-o 28 acc-9085 3.2j-p 4.5wx 11.86wx 1.75jk 2.31q-u 45.3c 120r-u 4.9j-p 127.5e 1.825j-o 0.115r 1.94k-p 29 acc230798 3.94b-h 10.73f-k 27.75bc 2.35a-f 3.935g-k 18.5p-r 142.35k-n 6.3a-f 72.5r-t 1.73k-o 0.115r 1.845l-p 30 acc-230799 2.95m-t 5.3r-x 14.93o-w 1.95f-k 2.24q-u 31.6e-h 95.5y 5.2g-m 100k-n 1.675l-o 0.16l-r 1.79m-p 31 acc-236436 3.02l-r 6.45o-u 17.64k-o 2.69a 2.61m-u 33.8ef 99.3xy 6.3a-f 87o-q 2.29f-m 0.16l-r 2.45e-o 32 acc-229698 3.35h-n 12.2d-f 23.25d-f 2.35a-f 4.35f-j 15.1r 142.5k-n 6.3a-f 138d 2.78c-i 0.115r 2.9c-j 33 acc-229701 3.05k-r 4.05wx 12.1u-x 1.85h-k 2.125r-u 52.25ab 126.7q-s 4.9j-p 126e 2.56c-l 0.21h-r 2.77c-k 34 acc-237528 2.29t 4.93u-x 15.12o-u 2.05d-k 2.36p-u 30.3e-j 144.5k-n 4.4l-p 56v 1.7l-o 0.35a-d 2.04j-p 35 acc-9102 3.9c-i 6.1o-v 16.96l-p 1.95f-k 2.435p-u 26.9h-m 151.2i-k 4.3m-p 64t-v 0.7p 0.13p-r 0.83q 36 acc-9094 2.3t 6.9n-q 19.23i-m 1.8i-k 2.63m-t 24.5k-n 150.3i-l 4.7k-p 98l-n 2.08h-m 0.165l-r 2.25f-o 37 acc-9098 3l-s 5.3r-x 11.84wx 1.85h-k 2.22q-u 39d 123.5r-t 5.4e-l 80.5q-s 1.71k-o 0.35a-d 2.1i-p 38 acc-9104 2.75n-t 5.2s-x 15.19o-u 1.8i-k 2.31q-u 28.2g-l 110.8u-w 4.9j-p 79q-s 2.065h-n 0.265d-j 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4.47f-i 18.3p-r 161.4f-h 6.9ab 138.5d 2.83c-h 0.14n-r 2.97c-i 59 acc-59 2.42r-t 5.62r-w 13.7q-x 1.8i-k 2.61m-u 53.5ab 139m-o 6.2a-g 125ef 2.49c-m 0.3c-h 2.78c-k 60 acc-23880 3.86c-i 11.18d-i 22.2d-h 2.15b-j 4.58f-h 15.2r 135.3n-q 6.6a-d 112.5g-j 2.515c-m 0.125qr 2.64c-n 61 acc-61 2.9n-t 11.85d-g 22.68d-g 2.3a-g 6.7a-c 16.2r 145.4k-n 5.7d-j 161b 2.995c-g 0.16l-r 3.16c-f as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 1; 2020 303 published by ideas spread 62 acc-62 4.5a-c 12.05d-f 18.48k-n 2.2b-i 6.1b-d 19.6n-r 140.5l-n 6.6a-d 105i-l 3.245b-e 0.165l-r 3.41bc 63 acc-63 4a-h 10.4g-l 13.27r-x 2.05d-k 3.46j-o 30.6e-j 128.4p-s 4.4l-p 110h-k 2.43c-m 0.125qr 2.56c-o 64 acc-64 3.94b-h 10.28h-l 19.71g-l 1.95f-k 3.5i-n 19.25o-r 137.9m-p 5.7d-j 80q-s 2.35e-m 0.185j-r 2.54c-o mean 3.5 8 18 2.1 3.6 31 139.1 5.6 107.3 2.48 0.19 2.67 cv (%) 7.8 7.8 7.1 8.3 11.9 6.9 3.1 7.8 4.2 14.6 19.7 13.8 means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different. cv (%) = coefficient 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v5n2p1 1 published by ideas spread effects of different soil moisture contents on photosynthesis of lettuce xiao kong1, zhen liu1 & weiguo fu1 1 school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china correspondence: weiguo fu, school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china. tel: 86-13775552938. e-mail: fuweiguo@ujs.edu.cn received: july 10, 2023 accepted: july 20, 2023 online published: july 22, 2023 the research is financed by major project of natural science research in colleges and universities of jiangsu province(15kja210001) abstract in order to explore the photosynthetic physiological response characteristics of lettuce under different soil moisture conditions, the photosynthetic indexes and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of lettuce under different soil moisture gradients were determined by pot water control experiment. the results showed that with the decrease of soil moisture content, pn, tr, gs, ci, fv/fm, φpsii and qp of lettuce leaves all showed a downward trend, while npq increased with the decrease of soil moisture content. among them, the water holding capacity in the field was 55~60%, and the net photosynthetic rate of lettuce was the highest, indicating that mild drought promoted photosynthesis of lettuce. keywords: lettuce, soil moisture gradients, photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence 1. introduction water is an indispensable environmental factor in plant growth and development, and in recent years, with the increase of ecological problems such as climate warming, drought has become one of the important factors restricting global agricultural production (wang et al. 2018; yang et al. 2021). drought stress inhibits plant physiological metabolism, which in turn leads to slow plant growth, wilt and even death (wang et al. 2021; allen et al. 2010). it is well documented that one of the primary physiological impacts of drought is on photosynthesis (flexas et al. 2004). under drought stress, plants generally reduce water loss from transpiration by reducing stomatal opening or closing stomata. further drought will lead to damage to plant mesophyll cells, decrease the activity of photosynthase, and damage to the structure of chloroplasts, resulting in a decrease in chlorophyll content, which in turn affects the absorption and utilization of light energy by plants (lawlor et al. 2010; bartels et al. 2005). lettuce, scientific name leaf lettuce (lactuca sativa l.), belongs to the leafy vegetables in the genus asteraceae lettuce, and occupies an important position in the annual production and supply of vegetables (yavuz et al. 2021). lettuce is not only a water-demanding crop, but also a drought-sensitive species, and an adequate supply of water is critical to lettuce yield and quality (kizil et al. 2012). therefore, it is of great significance to study the water demand law of lettuce and the photosynthetic physiological changes under drought stress to achieve its efficient production. in this study, lettuce seedlings were treated with different degrees of water, and the effects of different soil moisture content on the photosynthetic characteristics of lettuce were studied, which provided a theoretical basis for drought-resistant and water-saving cultivation of lettuce. 2. method 2.1 test materials and growth environment all trials were conducted in the climate chamber of jiangsu university, china. the lettuce (lactvca sativa l.) variety is green collar (nanjing green collar seed industry co., ltd.). this variety is currently widely cultivated throughout china. on september 11, after soaking and germination, seedlings were sown. on october 3, lettuce seedlings with 4 leaves and 1 heart and basically the same growth were transplanted into plastic pots (upper diameter 23cm, lower diameter 12.5cm and height 14cm), and planted one seedling per pot. the cultivated soil was collected from jiangsu university, and the soil nutrients were 15.57g/kg in c, 2.66g/kg in n and 0.45g/kg in as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no.2; 2023 2 published by ideas spread p. each pot is filled with 2.5kg of dry soil. three days later, the lettuce that grew into slow seedlings was moved into the artificial climate chamber, and the environmental control parameters of the artificial climate chamber were as follows: temperature 25/20°c (day/night), light period of 10/14h (light/dark), light intensity of 400μmol·m-2·s -1, and relative humidity of air of 70%. 2.2 experimental design the experiment used the potted water control method, manually simulated different water environmental conditions, and set up 8 water gradient treatments (table 1), each treatment was repeated 4 times, for a total of 32 pots. during the water control treatment, the soil volume water content was determined by trime-tdr soil moisture meter produced by imko every day from 18:00 to 19:00, and then converted into the amount of watering required, so that the soil moisture content of each water treatment group was maintained at the required gradient. table 1. different soil moisture content treatment soil relative water content range/(%) absolute soil water content range/(%) a 60~65 21~23 b 55~60 19~21 c 50~55 17~19 d 45~50 16~17 e 40~45 14~16 f 35~40 12~14 g 30~35 10~12 h 25~30 9~10 2.3 measurement method and data processing on december 10 (about 60 days after water control treatment), in the period of 9:00-11:00, the light intensity was set to 500 μmol· m-2·s-1, the net photosynthetic rate pn (μmol co2 m-2 s-1), stomatal conductance gs (mol h2o m2 s-1), intercellular carbon dioxide concentration ci (μmol co2 mol-1) and transpiration rate tn (mmol h2o m-2 s1) were determined in lettuce leaves. measure the middle of the fully expanded leaf and repeat the assay 3 times per pot. subsequently, different photosynthetically effective radiation intensities (par) are set: 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 0 μmol· m-2·s-1, the system automatically record the corresponding net photosynthetic rate to measure the photosynthetic-light response curve. using imaging-pam chlorophyll fluorescence imager (heinz walz gmbh, effeltrich, germany), chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were determined from 9:00 to 11:00, and the leaf selection criteria were the same as above, and the determination was repeated 3 times per pot. after dark treatment of lettuce for 20 min, the maximum photoquantum yield (fv/fm), actual photochemical efficiency of psii (φpsii), photochemical quenching coefficient (qp) and non-photochemical quenching coefficient (npq) were determined. the leaf temperature is 25 °c ± 0.5 °c at the time of measurement, and if there are water droplets on the leaf, it needs to be blotted with clean absorbent paper and determined. excel 2010 was used for data statistics, and spss 26.0 was used for anova and multiple comparison of data (duncans method). draw with origin 2022. 3. results 3.1 effects of different soil moisture content on photosynthetic parameters of lettuce the photosynthetic gas exchange parameters of plants reflect the energy conversion and water metabolism of plants during photosynthesis, and these parameters are closely related to drought stress (subrahmanyam et al. 2006; yuan et al. 2016). net photosynthetic rate (pn) is an important indicator to measure the photosynthesis efficiency of plants, and when plants are subjected to drought stress, their photosynthetic rate is significantly affected (flexas et al. 2010; han et al. 2015). the net photosynthetic rate of lettuce under different soil moisture content is shown in figure 1. with the decrease of soil moisture content, the net photosynthetic rate of lettuce showed a downward trend, which increased slightly under b treatment, and then gradually decreased. b treatment increased by 0.06% compared with a, c treatment began to decrease, and each treatment decreased by 7.06%, 11.42%, 15.57%, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no.2; 2023 3 published by ideas spread 17.88%, 21.16% and 21.86% respectively, among which the significance level was reached at c. transpiration is the process of water loss in the plant body in a gas state, and the strength of transpiration is an important indicator reflecting the water metabolism of plants (morison et al. 1984). when subjected to drought stress, plants need to maintain water balance in the body by reducing transpiration (irvine et al. 1998). the transpiration rate (tr) of lettuce under different soil moisture content is shown in figure 1. with the decrease of soil moisture content, the transpiration rate of lettuce showed a downward trend, rising slightly under b treatment, and then gradually decreasing. b treatment increased by 0.34% compared with a, and c treatment began to decrease, and each treatment decreased by 2.17%, 6.75%, 15.08%, 18.86%, 22.60% and 23.98% respectively, among which the significance level was reached at d. stomatal conductance (gs) is an important indicator reflecting the degree of stomatal opening and closing, and the value of stomatal conductance not only determines the rate of transpiration and water consumption of plants, but also reflects the degree of stress of plants such as drought (cai et al. 2021). the stomatal conductance of lettuce under different soil moisture content is shown in figure 1. with the decrease of soil moisture content, the stomatal conductance (gs) of lettuce showed a downward trend, which increased slightly under b treatment and then gradually decreased. b treatment increased by 1.81% compared with a, and c treatment began to decrease, and each treatment decreased by 4.23%, 11.98%, 25.75%, 33.25%, 42.58% and 45.84% respectively, among which the significant level was reached at c. intercellular co2 concentration (ci) is one of the factors affecting photosynthetic rate. the intercellular co2 concentration of lettuce at different soil moisture content is shown in figure 1. with the decrease of moisture content in the growth medium, the intercellular co2 concentration of lettuce was presented.out of the overall downward trend. b, c, d, and e treatments decreased by 1.04%, 6.08%, 8.58% and compared with a 11.48%, which has reached a significant level at b. this is followed by a gradual rise, with f, g, and h treatments rising compared to e 1.15%, 2.85% and 6.48%, which have reached significant levels at f. figure 1. effects of different soil moisture content on photosynthetic characteristic parameters of lettuce as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no.2; 2023 4 published by ideas spread the photoresponse curve of plants reflects the change of net photosynthetic rate (pn) of plant leaves with the change of photosynthetically effective radiation (par). the light response curves of lettuce under different soil moisture contents are shown in figure 2. when par is at 0~100 μmol·m-2·s-1, the pn of lettuce increased linearly with the rapid growth of par under the soil moisture content, and par was the only factor limiting photosynthesis of lettuce. as par continued to increase, pn continued to increase at different rates under the moisture content of each soil, and when par increased to 500 μmol·m-2·s-1, the pn value of lettuce reached the highest under f, g and h treatment, while pn continued to rise slowly under a~e treatment. when par>600 μmol·m-2·s-1, the pn of lettuce decreased under the soil moisture content, indicating that the light energy utilization rate of lettuce decreased with the decrease of soil moisture content. figure 2. effects of different soil moisture content on the photoresponse curve of lettuce 3.2 effects of different soil moisture content on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of lettuce chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics is a probe to study the mechanism of photosynthesis and the influence of environmental conditions on photosynthesis, which can quickly, sensitively and non-destructively detect and analyze the effects of drought and other adversities on plant photosynthesis (he et al. 2021; dong et al. 2006; wang et al. 2014). fv/fm refers to the maximum photoquantum yield of psii, reflecting the maximum photochemical efficiency of the active center of psii in the dark, and the larger the value of fv/fm, the higher the potential efficiency of plants using light energy. the fv/fm of lettuce under different soil moisture content is shown in figure 3. with the decrease of soil moisture content, lettuce fv/fm showed a decreasing trend, which increased slightly under b treatment, and then gradually decreased. b treatment increased by 0.03% compared with a, c treatment began to decrease, and each treatment decreased by 0.29%, 1.19%, 2.88%, 5.41%, 7.44% and 8.18% compared with a, respectively, and reached a significant level at e. photochemical energy conversion effective quantum yield φpsii is the actual photochemical efficiency of psii, which reflects the actual psii light energy capture efficiency when the psii reaction center is partially closed. the φpsii of lettuce at different soil moisture content is shown in figure 2. with the decrease of soil moisture content, φpsii showed a decreasing trend, which increased slightly under b treatment, and then gradually decreased. b treatment increased by 0.38% compared with a, c treatment began to decrease, and each treatment decreased by 3.71%, 11.51%, 23.24%, 29.45%, 34.90% and 38.00% respectively, among which the significance level was reached at e. it can be seen that the decrease of soil moisture content inhibits the photosynthetic system of lettuce and reduces the photosynthetic activity. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no.2; 2023 5 published by ideas spread there are three main ways to obtain energy from plant photosynthesis: one is effective photoelectron transport, the other is non-photochemical consumption, and the third is fluorescence release (centy et al. 1989). the photochemical quenching coefficient qp reflects the share of light energy absorbed by the pigment of the psii antenna for photochemical electron transport, and to some extent reflects the openness of the psii reaction center. non-photochemical quenching coefficient npq reflects the part of the excess light energy absorbed by the psii. antenna pigment that cannot be used for photosynthetic electron transport and dissipates excess light energy in the form of heat dissipation. the qp and npq of lettuce under different soil moisture content are shown in figure 3, and with the decrease of soil moisture content, qp showed a downward trend, increased slightly under b treatment, and then gradually decreased. b treatment increased by 0.27% compared with a, and c treatment began to decrease, and each treatment decreased by 9.34%, 18.18%, 26.43%, 33.15%, 37.06% and 41.36% respectively, among which the significance level was reached at f. in contrast to qp, npq showed an upward trend as soil moisture content decreased, decreasing slightly under b treatment and then gradually rising. b treatment decreased by 0.30% compared with a, and c treatment began to rise, and each treatment increased by 3.92%, 7.68%, 13.78%, 17.51%, 22.25% and 24.98% respectively, among which the significance level was reached at e. figure 3. effects of different soil moisture content on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of lettuce 4. discussion it is well known that water stress can inhibit gas exchange characteristics, and as a result affect the photosynthetic capacity of plants (subrahmanyam et al. 2006). the results of this experiment showed that the photosynthesis of lettuce was promoted under mild drought stress, indicating that mild drought may stimulate the growth and adaptive response of lettuce and increase its photosynthesis rate, which is consistent with the results of bruna et al. that found that mild drought stress improves the yield and quality of lettuce (paim et al. 2020). with the decrease of soil moisture content, the photosynthetic physiology of lettuce was significantly affected. the inhibition of plant photosynthesis by drought stress includes stomatal and non-stomatal restriction, drought stress leads to cell water as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no.2; 2023 6 published by ideas spread loss, plants reduce water loss by adjusting stomatal opening, inhibit transpiration, and save water, but this also affects the entry and exit of co2 and inhibits photosynthesis. when the net photosynthetic rate decreases, if the stomatal conductance and intercellular co2 concentration decrease at the same time, it indicates that the net photosynthetic rate decreases mainly due to stomatal limitation. the results of this study showed that with the decrease of soil moisture content, the transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, net photosynthetic rate and intercellular co2 concentration of lettuce all showed a downward trend, indicating that the gradual decrease of the net photosynthetic rate of lettuce under drought stress conditions was mainly caused by stomatal restriction, which was consistent with the effect of different soil moisture content on the photosynthetic physiology of lettuce in pei yun et al (pei et al. 2015). fluorescence quenching refers to a decrease in chlorophyll fluorescence production, which can be caused by increased photosynthesis or by increased heat dissipation.fluorescence quenching caused by enhanced photosynthesis is called photochemical quenching, which is the proportion of light energy absorbed by psii for photochemical reactions, which reflects the openness of the psii reaction center to a certain extent. the results of this experiment showed that with the decrease of soil moisture content, the fv/fm, φpsii and qp of lettuce showed a downward trend, while npq showed an upward trend. the decrease of fv/fm and φpsii indicated that the active center of psii. of the leaf was damaged, the primary reaction process of photosynthesis was inhibited, and the actual photochemical efficiency of psii was reduced. the decrease in qp and npq in lettuce indicate that lettuce prevents the damage of excess light energy to the photosystem, thereby protecting the photosynthetic mechanism. acknowledgments the research is financed by major project of natural science research in colleges and universities of jiangsu province(15kja210001) references allen, c. d., macalady, a. k., chenchouni, h., bachelet, d., mcdowell, n., & vennetier, m., et al. 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(2015). effects of different levels of water stress on leaf photosynthetic characteristics and antioxidant enzyme activities of greenhouse tomato. photosynthetica. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11099-015-0122-5 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p15 15 published by ideas spread can panax ginseng aqueous extract improve chilled and cryopreserved bull spermatozoa? falah baiee1,2, abd wahid haron2, murtadha a. al-mudhafr 4, innocent damudu peter 2,3 & nurhusien yimer2 1 department of clinical science, faculty of veterinary medicine, university of kufa, najaf, iraq 2 department of veterinary clinical studies, faculty of veterinary medicine, universiti putra malaysia, upm serdang, selangor, malaysia 3 faculty of veterinary medicine, university of maiduguri, maiduguri, nigeria 4 department of microbiology, faculty of veterinary medicine, university of kufa, najaf, iraq correspondence: falah baiee, department of clinical science, faculty of veterinary medicine, university of kufa, 54003, najaf, iraq. tel: 964-773-808-9998. e-mail: falahhali@uokufa.edu.iq received: may 29, 2020 accepted: june 28, 2020 online published: july 14, 2020 the research is financed by (university putra malaysia, upm researching grant; gpips/2016/9492800) abstract this study was to evaluate the influence of panax ginseng aqueous extract on chilled and frozen-thawed bull sperm quality. samples of semen were acquired from four bulls through the use of an electro-ejaculator. extension of the semen was done with tris-egg yolk diluent which was augmented with 0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 mg/ml panax ginseng aqueous extract. diluted chilled portions of the semen were chilled for 6 days at 5 ̊c whereas the frozen semen was cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen. results revealed that in chilled and frozen-thawed semen, the control group, t1 and t2 recorded higher percentages in terms of sperm motility and viability in all three groups evaluated compared to others, while the high dose of panax ginseng aqueous extract in t6 and t5 recorded the lowest percentage. moreover, the values of sperm morphology for chilled and frozen-thawed semen were not significant among the groups. the results of chromatin stability of the present study showed that t2 and control were higher than for other groups. in conclusion, the low dosage groups (t1, t2 and t3) which were received (0.25 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/ml and 1 mg/ml, respectively) from panax ginseng aqueous extract were not significant as compared with the control group while high-dosage groups (t4, t5 and t6) which were received (2.5 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml and 7.5 mg/ml, respectively) from panax ginseng aqueous extract were highly decreased spermatozoa characteristics. keywords: bull, semen cryopreservation, chilled semen, panax ginseng, chromatin stability 1. introduction 1.1 introduce the problem bovine insemination using the artificial insemination (ai) technique is among the main difficulties in the livestock industry. semen preserved in liquid or frozen form are common procedures in inseminating cows; roughly 95% of ai dosages are in the form of frozen semen straws (amann and waberski, 2014). nevertheless, freezing-thawing practices of prolonged semen are accountable for a substantial decrease in motility, viability, membrane integrity and morphology of sperm (amirat-briand et al., 2010; yimer et al., 2014; baiee et al., 2018a) resulting in decreased rate of fertility of the frozen semen (büyükleblebici et al., 2014). in actual fact, chilled semen possesses a high rate of fertility in comparison to frozen semen (medeiros et al., 2002; galarza 2019); nonetheless, chilled semen can be kept for a few days only (papa et al., 2015). consequently, the use of chilled semen in the ai technique is restricted (borges-silva et al., 2016). therefore, one purpose of this study was to determine the ability of a natural material in promoting chilled seminal quality for long-time storage and usage. many studies have been done to improve frozen-thawed seminal quality through addition of some additives to the extended semen quality, for example, anti-oxidant (amirat-briand et al., 2010; khumran et al., 2015; eidan, 2016), or amino acids (holt et al., 2015; kumar et al., 2015) and unsaturated fatty acid (kaka et al., 2015; khoshvaght et al., 2015; tarig et al., 2017). furthermore, certain extracts of plants have been revealed as anti-oxidant additives which are used to add to semen or as a semen diluent (chen et al., 1998; baghshahi et al., 2014; sapanidou et al., 2015), and to examine the toxic as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 16 published by ideas spread consequence of plant extract on sperm (kaefer et al., 2013). plant extracts are also used in diluting semen (abul rashid and nurin, 2015). based on our understanding, there are no studies that use panax ginseng aqueous extract (pge) in the tris-egg yolk diluent as enhancement for chilled and freezing semen. sperm present with chromatin deficiencies, largely due to imperfect spermatogenesis, faulty apoptosis before ejaculation (baiee et al., 2018b), extreme reactive oxygen species (ros) production in the ejaculate (moustafa et al., 2004), in vitro handling (bollwein et al., 2008), and also the stress of the freezing-thawing processes (khalifa et al., 2008; lymberopoulos and khalifa, 2010). in fact, frozen-thawed semen processes lead to chromatin damage (métayer, et al., 2002; gadea et al., 2008; büyükleblebici et al., 2014). however, the mechanisms accountable for freezing-induced chromatin damage are unidentified. data suggests that this could be the consequence of lipid peroxidation (lpo) in injurious sperm chromatin (kasimanickam et al., 2007). moreover, sperm nuclei exposure to high ionic strength in the course of freezing-thawing of semen instigates deterioration of chromatin assembly and sequentially, makes post-thawing nuclear dna available to the oxidative occurrence through extraor intracellular ros (gadea et al., 2008). additionally, perhaps, the unrestrained post-thawing influx of wandering calcium ions in frozen sperm (büyükleblebici et al., 2014) may possibly encourage additional splitting of nucleoprotein and chromatin through endogenous protease and nuclease stimulation (métayer et al., 2002). panax ginseng meyer, from the family araliaceae, is one of the most widely used traditional herbal medicines in eastern and western countries. panax ginseng meyer has been used in traditional medicine for over 2000 years to restore and enhance normal well-being, sexuality, promotion of vitality, erectile dysfunction, control of hypertension, and increase of resistance to stress and ageing (attele et al., 1999; kopalli et al., 2016). active compounds in panax ginseng include saponin (ginsenosides), acidic polysaccharides, peptides, polyacetylenes, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds (attele et al., 1999). ginsenosides of saponins are regarded as the main active components responsible for the pharmacological activities of panax ginseng and approximately 40 kinds of saponin have been isolated from it. most of these are protopanaxdiol and protopanaxtriol, which are aglycones of dammarane-type triterpenoids (patel and rauf 2017). recently, physicochemical and spectroscopic data were acquired from four major diol-saponins: ginsenosides rb1, rb2, rc, re, ro, and rd (cho et al., 2010). thus, the main aim of this study was to determine and evaluate the effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on the quality of frozen-thawed bull semen. furthermore, it was to determine the effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on chromatin stability of frozen-thawed bull semen. 2. method 2.1 animals this work experiment was approved by the institutional animal care and use committee, faculty of veterinary medicine, upm (ro73/2015). twenty-four ejaculates were obtained through the use of the electro-ejaculator (ee; ideal® instruments; neogen corporation, lansing, michigan; usa) from four fertile crossbred (simmentalbrangus) bulls from the universiti putra malaysia (upm) in serdang, selangor (2◦9-18.36-n; 101◦43-49.61-e) farm. bulls were 4.8 ± 0.8 years old measuring 551.2 ± 41.5 kg in weight. the entire four bulls were under the same feeding; the animals were fed with brachiaria decumbens grass and also commercial palm kernel cake at 3 kg/body weight rate. additionally, mineral blocks and water were given to the animals ad libitum. 2.2 chemicals panax ginseng aqueous extract (gn06032014) was obtained from ljack (m)® sdn. bhd. semenyih, selangor, malaysia with certification of the analysis. tris, citric acid, sodium citrate, fructose, nigrosin, glycerol and eosiny were acquired from sigma aldrich co. (sigma, st. louis, mo, usa). penicillin-streptomycin was procured from gibco® (15140122, gibco® usa). acridine orange stain was bought from invitrogen® (ar7601000) eugene; oregon, usa; the straws were acquired from minitube® (13407/0010; slovakia). lastly, methanol and glacial acetic acid were obtained from merck (e, merck d6100 darmstadt, and f. r. germany). 2.3 preparation of semen diluent preparation of tris-egg yolk diluent was as earlier described by amirat-briand et al. (2010) with a slight adjustment (baiee et al., 2017). tris-egg yolk diluent was divided into two portions; the first portion (p1) contained tris: 2.24 g, citric acid: 1.48 g, fructose: 1 g, 50000 iu penicillin-streptomycin, and 20% egg yolk in 100 ml distilled water. the second portion (p2) had similar constituents to the initial but with 12.8% glycerol, the double amount of glycerol being to create the concluding concentration of glycerol after mixing with p1 6.4%. each portion was divided into seven parts in test tubes to give diverse concentrations of the extract of panax ginseng. furthermore, the diluents were weekly preparations and were kept at -20 ̊c. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 17 published by ideas spread 2.4 semen collection the collection of semen samples was done weekly very early in the morning through the use of auto mode of the ee. bulls were directed to a chute. prepuce hairs of the bulls were shaved; the preputial orifice was cleaned using water and dried with a clean tissue towel. before insertion of rectal probe, rectal evacuation was done, and the ee device was switched on; a minimum of three individuals worked together to achieve semen sample collection. after sample collection, samples were conveyed to the theriogenology and cytogenetics lab at 37 ̊c. computer assisted sperm analysis (casa; hamilton thorne bioscience; usa) was used to evaluate the concentration of semen and the proportion of sperm motility for fresh semen in addition to the universal sperm motility of chilled and cryopreserved semen. semen samples with general sperm motility ≥ 70%, sperm viability and normal sperm morphology ≥ 85% and concentration of ≥ 600 ×106 sperm/ml (kaka et al., 2015) were acknowledged to be chilled and cryopreserved 2.5 experimental design the dosages of pge were determined into six groups for all chilled and frozen-thawed experiments. three groups with low concentrations were t1 0.25 mg/ml, t2 0.5 mg/ml, t3 1 mg/ml, and three groups with high concentrations were t4 2.5 mg/ml, t5 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml. moreover, one group without addition of pge was kept to be a control group. the extract was dissolved into tris-egg yolk diluent by shaking and incubation in water path at 37 ºc for 10 min. the successfully collected semen sample was divided into two equal aliquots, the 1st aliquot was for the chilled semen experiment, and the 2nd aliquot was for the cryopreserved experiment. 2.5.1 effect of panax ginseng on chilled bull seminal quality the first aliquot of fresh semen was equally divided into seven groups which contained diverse concentrations of pge which were dissolved in tris-egg yolk diluent (p1, deprived of glycerol). extended semen groups were store in a refrigerator for six days at 5 ̊c. sperm morphology, viability and motility were assessed after 1, 3 and 6 days for cooling. furthermore, sperm membrane integrity was assessed at day three of chilling in the entire groups. the final concentration of semen in chilled experiments was about 80 × 106 sperm / ml. 2.5.2 effect of panax ginseng on frozen-thawed bull seminal quality the second aliquot of the fresh semen was also equally divided into seven groups which contained tris-egg yolk diluent augmented with diverse concentrations of pge (p1), they were chilled in a refrigerator at 5 ̊c for three hours. the second portion of diluent which contained glycerol (p2) was added to the entire treatment groups; it was later packaged in 0.25 ml french straws. the end concentration of glycerol in the diluent was 6.4% while the end concentration of spermatozoa was 20 × 106 sperm / straw. the entire groups of straws were frozen at liquid nitrogen for future investigation. motility of sperm, morphology and viability values were recorded in 2, 7 and 14 days after freezing. sperm membrane integrity was recorded after 7 days, and sperm dna integrity was also recorded after 20 days of freezing. 2.6 evaluation of sperm motility, morphology and viability sperm viability and normal morphology proportions were investigated through the use of eosin-nigrosin stain (en) as was earlier described by felipe-pérez et al. (2008). briefly, a 10 μl droplet of freshly chilled or cryopreserved semen was added with 20 μl of en stain; the mixture was smeared on a microscope slide and kept to dry at 45 ºc on a slide warmer. subsequently the slides were viewed under a phase-contrast microscope (nikon japan, eclipse e200) at × 400 for viability of the sperm. sperm that were stained with pink colour were considered to be dead while the unstained sperm were deemed to be alive. additionally, in the usual sperm morphology, only sperm with normal sperm head, midpiece and tail are referred to as normal irrespective of the colour at × 1000 with oil emersion, and for each test 200 sperm were counted. 2.7 evaluation of sperm membrane reliability the hypo-osmotic swelling test (host) was done to investigate the sperm membrane reliability in chilled and cryopreserved sperm. essentially, host was prepared as was earlier described by revell and mrode (1994). briefly, 0.9 g fructose and 0.49 g tri-sodium citrate were dissolved in distilled water; additional distilled water was added to make up the volume to 100 ml. ten microliters of chilled or cryopreserved sperm were incubated with 90 μl of hypo-osmotic solution for 30 min at 37 ̊c. subsequently 10 μl of incubated solution was positioned on a glass slide and covered using a cover slip and observed under the phase-contrast microscope at × 400. sperm possessing twisted tails under hypo-osmotic conditions were considered to possess complete membranes. 2.8 evaluation of sperm chromatin stability acridine orange test (aot) was performed in determining sperm chromatin stability in cryopreserved sperm as as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 18 published by ideas spread was described by tejada et al. (1984). a metachromatic dye, acridine orange (ao) stain interpolates the dna of sperm cells to release colours fluctuating between green, green yellow, yellow, orange, and red. sperm cells with intact chromatin radiated green fluorescence, whereas those possessing altered chromatin radiated green yellow, yellow, orange, and red (figure 1) dependent on the bulk of fragmented chromatin. consequently, the outcomes were divided into five groupings based on the percentage of chromatin destroyed. a thick semen smear was made on a glass slide and kept to dry. carnoy’s solution was daily prepared for the smear fixing for 3 hours at a chilled temperature. the slides were allowed to dry once more and stained with ao staining solution for 5 minutes; the slides were then washed gently using distilled water. slides were allowed to dry and were covered using cover slips and observed under a fluorescence microscope (nikon eclipse, ti-s japan) within 30 minutes. this is because this test ought to be done within 30 a minimum of three microscopic fielded positions were taken from each slide for each group and saved in the computer for further evaluation. figure 1. v, w, x, y, and z. examples of spermatozoa are from bulls stained with acridine orange stain and examined under fluorescence microscope (nikon eclipse, ti-s japan). acridine orange stain emits green colour under blue fluorescence laser meaning to normal chromatin; but, it releases green-yellow, yellow, orange, and red meaning to chromatin impairment. v: shows a green sperm that had relatively intact chromatin w: green-yellow sperm that has 75% intact chromatin x: yellow sperm that has 50% intact chromatin y: orange sperm that has 25% intact chromatin z: red sperm head that has relatively total chromatin impairment 2.9 statistical analysis data obtained were tested for normal distribution through the use of the shapiro-wilk test. two-way anova was utilized in comparing sperm motility, viability and morphology amongst different groups and different evaluation times while one-way anova was used in comparing sperm membrane integrity and chromatin integrity among groups. two-way and one-way anova were followed by the lsd test in comparing the significances among groups through the use of the spss programme version 22 for windows (spss inc., chicago, il; the usa). 3. results the values of chilled semen for sperm motility (table 1), morphology (table 2) and viability (table 3) were evaluated at three different times. control, t1 and t2 groups recorded the highest percentage in terms of sperm motility and viability in all three evaluations as compared among groups for each time of evaluation, while the high dose of pge in t5 and t6 recorded the lowest percentage. moreover, the mean percentages of sperm morphology for chilled semen were not significant among groups. on the other hand, there are significant differences in terms of time of evaluation, since the values were significantly different for the first evaluation as compared to the third chilled semen evaluation. sperm morphology values were also decreased during time of preservation in chilled form, but it was not significantly different among periods. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 19 published by ideas spread table 1. effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on chilled semen motility in three different times of evaluation parameters groups mean ± sem 1st evaluation 1 d 2nd evaluation 3 d 3rd evaluation 6 d sperm motility (%) t1 75.69 ± 1.84ax 61.62 ± 3.27ay 28.19 ± 2.04az t2 79.94 ± 1.16ax 64.87 ± 2.35ay 28.88 ± 2.02az t3 66.44 ± 1.77bx 52.25 ± 2.97bx 17.13 ± 1.62by t4 44.19 ± 3.13cx 22.62 ± 3.49cy 3.25 ± 1.02cz t5 13.13 ± 1.67cdx 3.94 ± 0.91dxy 0.70 ± 0.32cy t6 4.94 ± 0.71d 0.41 ± 0.11d 0.00 ± 0.00c control 75.00 ± 2.06ax 59.56 ± 2.31ay 27.12 ± 2.45az t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 a, b,c, & d superscripts mean between groups were significantly different at (p˂ 0.05; within column between groups). x,y & z superscripts mean between times of evaluation were significantly different at (p˂ 0.01; between columns for the same group). table 2. effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on chilled semen normal morphology in three different times of evaluation parameters groups mean ± sem 1st evaluation 1 d 2nd evaluation 3 d 3rd evaluation 6 d sperm morphology (%) t1 89.44 ± 0.66 88.47 ± 0.77 86.94 ± 1.07 t2 89.66 ± 0.79 88.12 ± 0.89 87.19 ± 0.93 t3 87.47 ± 0.83 86.59 ± 0.99 86.28 ± 0.86 t4 88.44 ± 0.97 88.03 ± 0.91 86.06 ± 1.10 t5 87.69 ± 0.93 86.75 ± 0.64 86.13 ± 1.01 t6 88.06 ± 0.96 87.03 ± 0.92 86.19 ± 1.11 control 89.19 ± 1.00 88.25 ± 0.93 87.31 ± 1.22 t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 table 3. effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on chilled semen viability in three different times of evaluation parameters groups mean ± sem 1st evaluation 1 d 2nd evaluation 3 d 3rd evaluation 6 d sperm viability (%) t1 78.72 ± 1.45ax 70.41 ± 1.74ax 52.10 ± 2.21aby t2 80.72 ± 1.25ax 71.78 ± 1.60ax 56.47 ± 1.89ay t3 67.75 ± 2.39bx 60.31 ± 2.18bx 49.06 ± 2.42by t4 48.56 ± 5.24cx 41.15 ± 4.58cxy 33.41 ± 3.69cy t5 26.03 ± 4.04cdx 17.75 ± 2.18cdxy 12.00 ± 1.79cdy t6 16.25 ± 2.68dx 9.22 ± 1.14dxy 4.50 ± 0.77dy control 78.16 ± 1.14ax 67.22 ± 1.21ax 52.66 ± 1.35aby t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 a, b,c, & d superscripts mean between groups were significantly different at (p˂ 0.05; within column between groups). x,y & z superscripts mean between times of evaluation were significantly different at (p˂ 0.01; between columns for the same group). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 20 published by ideas spread frozen-thawed semen was also evaluated into three different times in terms of sperm motility (table 4), morphology (table 5) and viability (table 6). control, t1 and t2 groups were significantly higher than other groups in terms of sperm motility and viability values for 1st, 2nd and 3rd evaluations. the low percentage of sperm motility was recorded in high dose of pge t6 = 7.5 mg/ml (0.00 ± 0.00%) in all the three different periods, followed by t5 = 5 mg/ml (0.31 ± 0.10, 0.25 ± 0.10, 0.28 ± 0.09, respectively). moreover, sperm morphology values of frozen-thawed semen did not differ among groups which had different concentrations of pge in all the three times of evaluations. on the other hand, there were no significant differences among 1st, 2nd and 3rd evaluations in terms of sperm motility, morphology and viability (p > 0.05). table 4. effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on frozen-thawed semen motility in three different times of evaluation parameters groups mean ± sem 1st evaluation 2 days 2nd evaluation 7 days 3rd evaluation 14 days sperm motility (%) t1 46.81 ± 2.98a 46.00 ± 3.15a 49.13 ± 3.05a t2 43.31 ± 3.37a 39.50 ± 2.24a 40.00 ± 2.42a t3 15.38 ± 1.05b 16.06 ± 2.09b 16.68 ± 2.05b t4 5.06 ± 1.07c 3.44 ± 0.88c 3.44 ± 0.65c t5 0.31 ± 0.10c 0.25 ± 0.10c 0.28 ± 0.09c t6 0.00 ± 0.00c 0.00 ± 0.00c 0.00 ± 0.00c control 46.94 ± 2.19a 48.87 ± 3.41a 51.25 ± 2.76a t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 a, b & c superscripts mean between groups were significantly different at (p˂ 0.05; within column between groups). table 5. effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on frozen-thawed semen morphology in three different times of evaluation parameters groups mean ± sem 1st evaluation 2 days 2nd evaluation 7 days 3rd evaluation 14 days sperm morphology (%) t1 90.91 ± 0.67 90.11 ± 0.71 90.25 ± 0.63 t2 90.69 ± 0.56 90.69 ± 0.59 90.59 ± 0.45 t3 89.22 ± 0.81 89.47 ± 0.73 88.85 ± 0.70 t4 88.91 ± 0.80 89.00 ± 0.79 89.13 ± 0.75 t5 87.97 ± 0.80 88.25 ± 0.86 88.41 ± 0.69 t6 88.19 ± 0.74 88.06 ± 0.88 87.69 ± 0.77 control 91.47 ± 0.75 91.19 ± 0.66 91.31 ± 0.54 t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 21 published by ideas spread table 6. effect of panax ginseng aqueous extract on frozen-thawed semen viability in three different times of evaluation parameters groups mean ± sem 1st evaluation 2 days 2nd evaluation 7 days 3rd evaluation 14 days sperm viability (%) t1 65.03 ± 2.50a 65.13 ± 2.54a 65.84 ± 2.65a t2 58.44 ± 3.12a 57.28 ± 2.95a 57.28 ± 2.97a t3 31.97 ± 2.72b 32.56 ± 2.75b 33.28 ± 0.95b t4 13.94 ± 1.92c 13.69 ± 2.14c 13.66 ± 1.64c t5 6.91 ± 0.90c 6.09 ± 0.73c 6.13 ± 0.72c t6 3.47 ± 0.53c 3.04 ± 0.38c 3.25 ± 0.48c control 66.03 ± 1.71a 66.06 ± 1.79a 66.34 ± 1.74a t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 a, b & c superscripts mean between groups were significantly different at (p˂ 0.05; within column between groups) sperm membrane reliability of chilled and frozen-thawed spermatozoa was evaluated using host. the collected data of chilled semen referred to as t1 (66.03 ± 2.05%), t2 (66.84 ± 2.75%) and control (65.03 ± 1.52%) groups were higher significantly at (p < 0.01) as compared to t3 (53.62 ± 3.89%), t4 (36.84 ± 4.89%), t5 (14.78 ± 2.58%), and t6 (7.25 ± 1.39%) in chilled semen (figure 2). moreover, the collected data of frozen-thawed semen revealed that control (58.28 ± 2.13%), was higher than t1 (57.44 ± 1.96%; p = 0.73), t2 (52.56 ± 2.15%; p < 0.05), t3 (29.31 ± 2.17%), t4 (13.12 ± 1.54%), t5 (5.97 ± 0.92%), and t6 (3.31 ± 0.54%; p < 0.01) in terms of sperm membrane reliability (figure 3). there was no significant difference between t1 and t2 (p = 0.06). in fact, the percentage of sperm membrane reliability decreased as the dosages increased in chilled and frozen-thawed bull semen. figure 2. effect of panax ginseng extract on sperm membrane integrity of chilled bull sperm (%; mean±sem). t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 a, b, c and d superscripts mean between groups were significantly different as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 22 published by ideas spread figure 3. effect of panax ginseng extract on sperm membrane integrity of frozen-thawed bull sperm (%; mean±sem) t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml n= 24 a, b, c, d, and e superscripts mean between groups were significantly different. sperm chromatin integrity was evaluated using acridine orange stain that was examined under a fluorescence microscope during 30 min after staining. because the ao stain emits colour shifting from green to red, the calculated spermatozoa were distributed into five categories depending on the colour that emitted from them. in fact, only the green head of spermatozoa were considered to be entirely chromatin. the results of the present study showed that t2 (75.40 ± 5.27) and control (75.02 ± 5.10) groups were significantly higher than other groups except t1 (71.15 ± 4.93) which was not significant (table 7). on the other hand, the chromatin impairment which situated under red was higher in t3 followed by t4, t6 and t5 (15.09 ± 2.33, 13.95 ± 1.26, 12.26 ± 3.51 and 11.71 ± 2.87; respectively). table 7. effect of panax ginseng extract on chromatin stability of frozen-thawed bull sperm (%; mean±sem) groups green* green-yellow yellow orange red t1 71.15 ± 4.93ab 4.14 ± 0.98 8.82 ± 1.96 12.25 ± 1.96 5.79 ± 2.22a t2 75.40 ± 5.27a 3.69 ± 0.99 7.43 ± 1.88 9.20 ± 2.40 5.97 ± 1.36a t3 70.19 ± 2.83 3,41 ± 0.94 6.05 ± 1.14 6.67 ± 2.12 15.09 ± 2.33b t4 64.29 ± 3.59b 4.20 ± 0.73 5.01 ± 1.58 13.75 ± 3.68 13.95 ± 1.26b t5 59.48 ± 2.90c 5.73 ± 1.05 11.65 ± 1.91 14.16 ± 3.34 11.71 ± 2.87b t6 63.53 ± 4.66c 4.08 ± 1.14 9.40 ± 1.57 12.82 ± 1.74 12.26 ± 3.51b control 75.02 ± 5.10a 3.77 ± 0.91 7.85 ± 2.19 10.05 ± 4.06 5.08 ± 1.69a * green: sperm had totally intact dna green-yellow: sperm had 75% intact dna yellow: sperm had 50% intact dna orange: sperm had 25% intact dna red: sperm that had totally damaged. t1 = 0.25 mg/ml, t2 = 0.5 mg/ml, t3 = 1 mg/ml, t4 = 2.5 mg/ml, t5 = 5 mg/ml, t6 7.5 mg/ml, and control = 0.0 mg/ml. n= 24 different superscripts a, b and c in the same column demonstrates statistical different among groups at (p˂0.05) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 23 published by ideas spread 4. discussion studies have shown that addition of plant origin additives such as clove bud (baghshahi et al., 2014), curcumin (tvrdá et al., 2016), soy-bean lecithin (chelucci et al., 2015), virgin coconut oil (tarig et al., 2017), and corcin (sapanidou et al., 2015) might improve some characteristics of the chilled or frozen-thawed seminal quality. panax ginseng is well demonstrated in literature to remove the harmful effect of ros, to restore and enhance normal wellbeing, to promote vitality, and to increase resistance to stress (attele et al., 1999; kopalli et al., 2016a;b). to our knowledge, no study has been conducted to evaluate the effect of pge on tris-egg yolk diluent to improve the quality of chilled and frozen-thawed bull semen. therefore, one purpose of this study was to determine the ability of natural material in promoting chilled seminal quality for long-time storage and usage. moreover, this study was to determine the effect of pge supplemented in bull semen diluent that had been stored in frozen form. in the present study, six doses of pge have been distributed into six groups; three were low-dose and three were highdose. in fact, there are many variables which might affect the actual effect of the additive such as the quality of fresh semen sample, so we managed the quality of semen as mentioned in materials and methods that depended on previous experts of our lab (kaka et al., 2015; khumran et al., 2015), handling of semen sample after collection until dilution and also any change in freezing temperature during the freezing process which might lead to false results. thus, to overcome these issues, two criteria had been used; firstly, after cryopreservation we checked the viability value of one straw from the control group and the frozen sample was accepted if the control group had 50% and more viable sperms (universal standard acceptance) otherwise the sample was cancelled. the second criterion was we repeated the conventional parameters in terms of sperm motility, morphology and viability for three different times to be more precise. based on our findings, in chilled form, the sperm motility (table 1), morphology (table 2) and viability (table 3) values of t1, t2, and control groups were higher than t3, t4, t5 and t6 in all evaluation periods. these findings were in contrast with our hypothesis and pge appeared to have a negative effect on chilled semen. sperm membrane reliability (figure 2) had also decreased at the same manner of sperm motility (%). thus, these finding indicated that pge had a detrimental effect on chilled semen, and the low concentration of pge did not have a beneficial effect for chilled semen. in the present study the sperm motility values in groups t1, t2 and control were in line with nair et al. (nair et al., 2006) who reported (71.00 ± 3.24) at 0 h. however, our finding of the sperm motility (%) was higher with that study as they reported the motility value decrease to be (19.33 ± 1.95) at day 3 of chilling in cattle bull, while in the present study the sperm motility was (64.87 ± 2.35) at day 3 in t2 group. regardless of the effect of pge, the total sperm motility, morphology, viability, and sperm membrane reliability were significantly decreased after six days of chilling in all groups. these findings were in agreement with previous studies (murphy et al., 2013; nair et al., 2006). the frozen-thawed semen showed a similar manner as in chilled semen. since, the sperm motility (table 4), morphology (table 5) and viability (table 6) values were significantly decreased in high doses of pge groups as compared to control, t1 and t2 groups. furthermore, pge had a detrimental effect on sperm morphology, particularly sperm taillessness, dag-defect and decapitated-head (data not shown). in accordance to the time of evaluation of frozen-thawed semen, there were no significant differences among periods of evaluations in all groups of frozen-thawed semen. in 1998 chen et al. (1998) were found that, the motility of human sperm was improved when incubated with 1 and 2 mg/ml of panax notoginseng. our study is in agreement with a study by gray et al. (2016) who found that, the total progressive and kinetic motilities of boar semen which was incubated with pge 2 mg/ml did not differ from control and other groups; they attributed this to the fact that semen samples may receive insufficient amounts from ginsenosides rc and rb2 that is responsible for improving sperm motility (chen et al., 1998). this was unlike yun et al. (2016) who found that the motility of sperm treated with pge at 2 mg/ml, was greater in comparison to the control group and in line with anti-oxidative enzyme groups. they concluded that, pge exhibited an overall positive effect on the male reproductive system of guinea pigs. however, in the present study the quality of frozenthawed bull semen was diminished in dosage of 1 mg/ml and above. this contrary finding needs further investigations to understand the mechanism of action of pge. the sperm plasma membranes are the main spot of destruction prompted through cryopreservation (abavisani et al., 2013). in addition, sperm plasma membranes play an important part in the fertilization capability and sperm– oocyte relations (abayasekara and wathes, 1999). unfortunately, sperm membrane reliability were not improved in most treatment groups and the highest value was (58.28 ± 2.13%) in the control group (figure 3). based on the results of the present study, the high dose of pge had a negative effect on frozen-thawed bull semen, i.e. findings indicated that with an increase in pge (t3, t4, t5, and t6) resulted in poor quality of chilled and frozen-thawed as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 2, no. 2; 2020 24 published by ideas spread semen. on the other hand, the low doses of pge groups (t1, and t2) were in line with the control group in most parameters that were evaluated in this study. our findings are further strengthened with kaka et al. (2016) who used tris-egg yolk diluent and abavisani et al. (2013) and kandelousi et al. (2013) who used citrate based diluent supplemented with poly-unsaturated fatty acids (pufas). these studies found that the high dose of pufas could reduce the quality of frozen-thawed bull semen such as in terms of sperm motility, morphology, viability, and membrane reliability. however, findings of the present study were in contrast with tvrdá et al. (2016) in which they revealed that curcumin had protective effects on the functional activities and structural integrity of spermatozoa even when the oxidative stress increased. the present study is also in contrast with sapanidou et al. (2015) who demonstrated that addition of 1 mm of curcumin (active component of saffron plant) could improve the sperm motility, viability and dna integrity of frozen-thawed bull semen. sperm exposure to traumatic situations of freezing-thawing may compromise the mechanism resulting in inhibited fertilization or embryonic growth (kasimanickam et al., 2007; khalifa et al., 2008). kasimanickam et al. (2007) and lymberopoulos and khalifa (2010) showed that rising proportions of dna-damaged sperm was related to declining field fertility of frozen–thawed bull semen. similarly, khalifa et al. (2008) show that, a substantial negative association exists between the occurrence of dna-damaged sperm in frozen-thawed semen and the developing capability of bovine embryos in vitro. on the other hand, one of the main objectives of the present study was to improve the quality of sperm chromatin stability of cryopreserved bull semen. however, pge negatively affected sperm chromatin stability (table 7). the low dosage groups (t1, t2 and t3) which were received (0.25 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/ml and 1 mg/ml, respectively) from pge were not significant as compared with the control group while high-dosage groups (t4, t5 and t6) which were received (2.5 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml and 7.5 mg/ml, respectively) from pge were highly decreased spermatozoa characteristics. 5. conclusion in conclusion, addition of panax ginseng aqueous extract into tris-egg yolk diluent did not improve chilled and frozen-thawed bull semen processes in dosages that were used in this study. furthermore, the high doses of pge have a negative effect on fresh, chilled and frozen-thawed bull semen. furthermore, this study was a good opportunity to investigate this medicinal plant extract’s effect directly on cell biology and function. acknowledgments the authors wish to acknowledge the management and staff of university putra malaysia farm (tpu) and theriogenology and cytogenetics laboratory of the faculty of veterinary medicine, upm for their cooperation during this study. the authors also would like to thank the company l jack (m)® for providing the extract of panax ginseng with certification. conflict of interests the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. references abavisani, a., arshami, j., naserian, a. a., kandelousi, m. a. s., & azizzadeh, m. 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(2016). antioxidant effects of cultured wild ginseng root extracts on the male reproductive function of boars and guinea pigs. anim reprod sci, 170, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2016.04.002 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p60 60 published by ideas spread sexual propagation of cashew (anacardium occidentale l.) varieties in bataan, philippines is affected by different combination of growing media christian m. balba1, editha a. ganado1 & cherrilyn e. ventura1 1 college of agriculture and fisheries, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines correspondence: cherrilyn e. ventura, college of agriculture and fisheries, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines. e-mail: ceventura@bpsu.edu.ph received: november 16, 2022 accepted: november 16, 2022 online published: december 9, 2022 the research is financed by bataan peninsula state university research development office. abstract the study was conducted to evaluate the effect of different combinations of growing media on the different varieties of cashew grown in bataan, philippines. it aimed to evaluate the number of days to germination, percentage germination, seedling height, number of leaves, leaf area index, and diameter of the stem for the duration of sixty days. it is a two-factor experiment arranged in completely randomized design (crd) consisting of three bataan cashew varieties as the factor a and five combinations of growing media as factor b with three replications. the experimental treatments were as follow: factor a (varieties of cashew): v1-bataan variety 1, v2-bataan variety 2, v3-bataan variety 3; and factor b (soil media): sm1-1 part garden soil, 1 part compost, 1 part sand, sm2-1 part garden soil, 1 part compost, ½ part sand, ½ part carbonized rice hull, sm3-1 part garden soil, 1 part compost, ½ part sand, ½ part coco coir dust, sm4-1 part garden soil, 1 part compost, 1 part carbonized rice hull, and sm5-1 part garden soil, 1 part compost, 1 part coco coir dust. results revealed that bataan variety 1 and bataan variety 3 were significantly the earliest to germinate while bataan variety 1 significantly had the highest success percentage of 92%, highest number of leaves produced (9.81), and the highest recorded leaf area (50.26 mm2). for growing media, 1 part garden soil, 1 part compost, 1 part coco coir dust significantly had the tallest plants (30.92 cm) and the most number of leaves. furthermore, the interaction between varieties and growing media showed no significant difference in all parameters stated. these findings will be useful for the cashew growers, producers, nursery propagators in selecting the best growing media to enhanced their sexual propagation. keywords: bataan, growing media, cashew seedlings, cashew varieties 1. introduction cashew (anacardium occidentale l.), with a local name of 'kasoy’, is one of the many fruit species that are gaining importance in agriculture and commerce in the philippines, with several economic uses in the food sector as food and feed. it is high in nutrients, and its commercial production can provide a significant source of income for many filipino farmers in rural areas. it is basically grown all throughout the country and has a great potential for export. many developing countries regard cashew nut farming and processing to be a vital sector, not only for boosting local economies but also for long-term environmental improvement. in 2019, the philippines ranked as 5th largest cashew nut producing country in the world which accounts for 6.11% of total world cashew nut production (fao, 2019). in the philippines, total cashew production reached 242,329.32 mt in 2019, with a total planted/harvested area of 28,688.26 hectares (psa, 2020). palawan and mindoro occidental are the most important cashew-growing areas in the country, accounting for 92% of total production. it is also grown to a lesser extent in central luzon (bataan, nueva ecija, and zambales) and northern luzon (pangasinan and ilocos norte), accounting for around 6% and 1% of total production, respectively. cashews reproduce both sexually and asexually through seed and vegetative propagation. it is usually propagated through seeds, which results in a great degree of variability. the vast majority of existing cashew farms were established using seed from high-performing mother plants. due to the substantial income from the variety of products it can produce from nut alone, the production sector's problems must be addressed. these include a limited as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 61 published by ideas spread supply of plants due to soil problems, and integrated or alternative growing media are being widely considered in many parts of the world as a way to improve total production. the use of suitable growing media is essential for the production of high-quality seedlings. this has an impact on the development of the extensive functioning roots system and its subsequent maintenance. a proper growing medium anchor the plant, serves as a reservoir for nutrients and water, and allows oxygen diffusion to the roots as well as gaseous exchange between the roots and atmosphere outside the root substrate. in cashew production, the seedling establishment is one of the most important aspects of seedling growth (hammed & adeyemi, 2005) wherein in most cases, the crop's field establishment starts in the nursery. the chemical and physical qualities of the growing media play a big role in nursery production of container-grown plants. seedling performance in the nursery translates to good and encouraging crop establishment in the field. whereas a lack of understanding of the crop seedlings' growth pattern in the nursery (hammed et al., 2008) and the nursery's poor growth conditions may have translated into poor field establishment of the crop after transplanting into the field. there are many different combinations of soil media available for nursery nowadays, but more study is needed to determine which is ideal for nursery management or for growing healthy seedlings for fruit crops like cashew. the foundation of a healthy root system is a good growing medium, which is essential to good nursery management. the different growing media are observed with its influence to seed germination or plant growth for the successful production of the cashew crop and to find the best combinations of growing media for nursery management of fruit crops. with this, the study is conducted to evaluate the growth response of cashew varieties in different combination of growing media in terms of days of germination, success germination, plant height, number of leaves, leaf area and diameter of the stem. 2. method 2.1 experimental area the study was conducted in the nursery of the bataan peninsula state university-abucay campus which is located in bangkal, abucay, bataan, philippines with a latitude of 14.74°n, longitude of 120.45°e and an elevation of 342.559 meters above sea level. 2.2 experimental design and treatments the study is a two factor experiment arranged in completely randomized design (crd) with cashew variety as factor a and growing media as the factor b. the study was replicated three times with 30 nuts per replication. the experimental treatments were as follows cashew varieties (factor a): bataan variety 1 (v1), bataan variety 2 (v2), and bataan variety 3 (v3) while for the soil media (factor b): 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part sand (sm1), 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ part carbonized rice hull (sm2), 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ part coco coir dust (sm3), 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part carbonized rice hull (sm4), and 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part coco coir dust (sm5). 2.3 cultural management and practices these includes the following: 2.3.1. collection of seeds. cashew seeds with different varieties were collected and purchased from the department of agriculture (da) identified cashew farms in mariveles, bataan, philippines. seeds were collected through picking directly from the mother tree and immediately separated from its matured pseudo-fruit. at the same time, some seeds were gathered from fallen fruits. they were fully matured and of high density (heavy) grade to ensure good germination and vigorous seedlings. 2.3.2. drying and storage of seeds. as per recommended, cashew nuts were sun-dried for 2 days to attain moisture level of 8-9%. well dried nuts were stored in sacks tightly to avoid spillage and prevent pest damage. it was then placed in a clean dried storage. 2.3.3. testing of viable seeds. cashew seeds were water tested; those that sink were chosen since they had higher viability and germinate quickly. 2.3.4. sowing seeds. seeds were sown in individual polyethylene bags containing different combination of growing media. seeds were sown 5-10 cm deep with stalk end facing upward in a slanting position. these prevented the emerging of cotyledons at the soil surface from being destroyed by pests. 2.4 data gathered 2.4.1. average days of germination. it is counting the days it takes a seed to sprout after sowing. this was given in a range to know when to expect to see seedlings. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 62 published by ideas spread 2.4.2. success percentage (%). it is an estimate of the viability of a population of seeds. the equation to calculate germination percentage formula is gp = seeds germinated/total seeds x 100. 2.4.3. average plant height. the height (cm) of the plants were determined by measuring the plant from the base up to the tip of the longest leaf at 60 days after sowing. 2.4.4. average number of leaves. these were the number of functional leaves produced on plant that were counted at 60 days after sowing. 2.4.5. average leaf area index. the length and width of each leaf produced at the longest point were measured. leaf area was calculated by adopting a formula as suggested for cashew nut by murthy et al., (1985): a = 0.21 + 0.69 p (where, a = area of the leaf, p = length x width of leaf at longest point). the data were collected and calculated at 60 days after sowing. 2.4.6. average diameter of the stem. this was measured at the midpoint of the plants at 60 days after sowing through the use of vernier calipers. 2.5 statistical analysis all the data gathered from the study were analyzed and tabulated following the analysis of variance (anova) for a two-factor experiment in complete randomized design (crd). comparison among means was done using least significant difference (lsd). statistical analyses were performed using a statistical package software, statistical tool for agriculture research (star). 3. results and discussion the growth response of three varieties of cashew applied with different combination of growing media is presented in table 1. the growth parameters gathered in the study includes the days of germination, success percentage, plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index, and diameter of stem. results revealed a highly significant difference among varieties in terms of days of germination, success percentage, leaf area index while significant difference was recorded in number of leaves. on the other hand, there was no significant difference among varieties in terms of the recorded plant height and diameter of the stem. table 1. growth response of the three varieties of cashew seedlings applied with different growing media variety days of germination success percentage (%) plant height (cm) number of leaves leaf area index (mm2) diameter of the stem (cm) bataan variety 1 (v1) 10.62a 92.00a 29.60a 9.81a 50.26a 6.01a bataan variety 2 (v2) 16.17b 69.67b 29.27a 8.98b 42.05b 6.42a bataan variety 3 (v3) 11.09a 53.67c 29.31a 9.26b 39.78b 6.34a f-test ** ** ns * ** ns cv (%) 15.06 23.45 11.61 7.39 15.04 12.91 means with the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by lsd in terms of days of germination, bataan variety 1 (v1) and bataan variety 3 (v3) were significantly the earliest to germinate while bataan variety 2 (v2) significantly the longest to propagate. for the success percentage, bataan variety 1 significantly had the highest success percentage of 92% as compared to the two varieties (bataan variety 2 and variety 3) with 69.67% and 53.67% success percentage, respectively. in number of leaves, it was also the bataan variety 1 which produced the most number of leaves (9.81) as well as the highest leaf area index of 50.26 mm2 which is significantly higher as compared to bataan variety 2 and variety 3 in the two parameters mentioned. no significant difference in plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index, and diameter of bataan variety 2 and variety 3 in this result is possibly due to the morphological characteristics of the two cashew varieties, wherein it can be observed that the physical appearances of bataan variety 2 and bataan variety 3 are similar with each other as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 63 published by ideas spread making them comparable with each other in most of the growth parameters. on the other hand, although statistically not significant, it can be observed that bataan variety 1 had the tallest plant height of 29.60 cm while in terms of diameter of the stem, bataan variety 2 had the widest diameter of stem of 6.42 cm. meanwhile, another factor used in this study is the combination of different growing media which is presented in table 2. the growth parameters gathered in the study includes the days of germination, success percentage, plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index, and diameter of stem. results revealed a significant difference among growing media in terms of plant height, and number of leaves wherein 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part coco coir dust (sm5) significantly had the tallest plants of 30.92 cm which was comparable to other growing media except for 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part sand (sm1). in terms of number of leaves, it was also the plants applied with 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part coco coir dust which had the most number of leaves (9.85) which is significantly higher to 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part sand, and 1-part garden soil,1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ part carbonized rice hull (sm2) but comparable only with 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ coco coir dust (sm3), and 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part carbonized rice hull (sm4). the result of this study corresponds with the study of usman et al. in 2014, that addition of coco coir to the growing media increased the growth of plant by three times as evident in the result of plant height of plants grown in 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part coco coir dust and plants applied with 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ coco coir dust which both have coco coir dust as growing media. in the results of the study conducted by shetty & melanta (1990), all media containing coir dust resulted in higher survival rate as compared with other media. table 2. effects of different combination of growing media on the growth of cashew seedlings as reflected in table 2, there was no significant difference among growing media in terms of days of germination, success percentage, leaf area index, and diameter of the stem. however, it can be observed that the growing media with 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part carbonized rice hull had the shortest days of germination which germinate as early as 10.99 days. in terms of success percentage, it was the plants with 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ coco coir dust which obtained the highest success percentage of 84.44% which coincides with the study of bharathi (1997) and mamatha (1998) wherein they reported that a medium consisting of sand, coir dust, soil and compost has the maximum graft union success, highest plant height and maximum number of leaves in cashew as mentioned in the study of sriya et al. (2022). on the other hand, the combination of 1-part growing media days of germination success percentage (%) plant height (cm) number of leaves leaf area index (mm2) diameter of the stem (cm) 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part sand (sm1) 13.20a 70.55a 27.16b 8.86c 46.54a 6.07a 1-part garden soil,1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ part carbonized rice hull (sm2) 13.29a 70.00a 28.86ab 8.88bc 43.50a 6.55a 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ coco coir dust (sm3) 12.62a 84.44a 29.65a 9.57abc 43.11a 6.34a 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part carbonized rice hull (sm4) 10.99a 66.67a 30.38a 9.59ab 44.31a 6.24a 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part coco coir dust (sm5) 13.05a 67.22a 30.92a 9.85a 42.69a 6.08a f-test ns ns * * ns ns cv (5%) 15.06 23.45 11.61 7.39 15.04 12.91 means with the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by lsd as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 64 published by ideas spread growing media tested in the study. however, although statistically not significant, it can be noted that the earliest days to germinate was revealed in v3sm4 with 10.22 days. treatments v2sm3 and v1sm3 had the highest success percentage of 100%. also, v2sm3 had the tallest plant height of 31.36 cm, the most number of leaves with 10.38 was shown in v1sm4, the highest leaf area index was shown in v1sm1 with 52.70 mm2. and lastly, the widest diameter of the stem was attained in v2sm2 with 7.37 cm. 4. conclusion and recommendations based on the result of the study, bataan variety 1 was notable as the leading variety among the acquired data in regards to growth parameters given except in average plant height and diameter of the stem. moreover, the result showed that among different combination of growing media, 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part coco coir dust was the best growing media used to improve plant height and number of leaves and 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ coco coir dust with the highest success percentage although it is not significantly different with other soil media. in addition, no significant difference between the interaction of varieties and growing media had been observed in the entire growth parameters. this study recommends to use bataan variety 1 since this variety has the highest success percentage and earliest days to germinate and as observed for the physical characteristics it has the biggest pseudo stem and nuts compared to two varieties. on the other hand, the use of 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, 1-part coco coir dust growing media combination for greater number of leaves and height of the plants and 1-part garden soil, 1-part compost, ½ part sand, ½ coco coir dust for the highest success percentage despite the fact that it is statistically not significant to other parameters based on the value obtained. this findings suggested the use of appropriate variety and growing media which is be beneficial for cashew growers, producers and nursery propagators for their successful seed propagation. acknowledgments the authors are grateful for the funding support given by the bataan peninsula state university research development office (bpsu-rdo); to the bsa students who assisted during the conduct of the experiment; and to the reviewers who provided valuable comments and suggestion for the improvement of the research paper. references bharathi, t. s. 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(2014). media steaming and coco-coir enhance growth of rough lemon (citrus jambhiri l.) stock. pak. j. agri. sci., 51(3), 617-625. retrieved from https://pakjas.com.pk/papers/2318.pdf copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p21-28 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p21 21 published by ideas spread maize and pearl millet production in hot semi-arid north eastern namibia under conventional tillage and conservation agriculture practices l. p. kudumo1, f. itanna2 & c. thierfelder3 1 ministry of agriculture, water and land reform (mawlr), directorate of agricultural production, extension and engineering services (dapees), windhoek, namibia 2 school of interdisciplinary research and graduate studies (sirgs),college of graduate studies, university of south africa (unisa), pretoria, south africa 3 international maize and wheat improvement centre, (cimmyt) zimbabwe, harare, zimbabwe correspondence: ladislaus kudumo, ministry of agriculture, water and land reform (mawlr), directorate of agricultural production, extension and engineering services (dapees), namibia, private bag 13184, windhoek, namibia. e-mail: kladialaus gmail. com received: february 1, 2025 accepted: february 27, 2025 online published: march 3, 2025 abstract this article focuses on the results from experiments conducted to test and compare the effects of selected agricultural practices and principles on maize and pearl millet production of the major cropping systems in northeastern regions of namibia. conventional tillage (ct), minimum tillage (mt), minimum tillage with mulch (mt-m), minimum tillage with rotation (mt-r) and minimum tillage with mulch and rotation (mt-mr) were the primary treatments tested. significant differences were observed on pearl millet grain in the first season (p=0.0496) and for maize grain in the second season (p=0.0206). for pearl millet, ct yielded the highest with 1783.0 kg ha-1and mt (1520.8 kg ha-1) had the lowest pearl millet grain yield at se 240.35. for maize, ct-mr yielded the highest maize grain, 3852.3 kg ha-1, standard error of mean 240.35. results suggest that ca has the potential to increase or maintain maize production while noting projected declines in crop production of at least 50% or more through the influence of climate change according to namibia’s country climate smart agriculture programme (2015 – 2030). keywords: conservation agriculture, conventional tillage, grain yield 1. introduction according to fourie et al. (2007) good maintenance and improvement of soil quality are critical for sustainable and booming agricultural crop productivity. the agricultural sector of namibia is particularly affected by climate change, in the form of droughts, erratic rains and floods, all major threats leading to failed harvests, affecting food, water security and general livelihoods. soil degradation and desertification are also increasing threats to the productivity of namibia’s agricultural sector. besides impacts of erratic weather conditions as a result of climate change, the widespread use of outdated traditional farming practices has also been identified as a significant driver of low agricultural outputs (fao, 2009). purcell et al. (2007) highlighted that soil moisture stress resulting from drought, dry spells and high moisture loss through evaporation is one of the primary limiting factors in crop production as it affects many plant biochemical and physiological processes. pearl millet, locally better known as mahangu is the staple food crop, grown largely for home consumption predominantly in the north-central and parts of the north-eastern regions of namibia, while maize (zea mays) is the staple food crop of the north eastern regions of the country, particularly in the zambezi region. according to the 2009 report by the food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao), the average annual pearl millet (pennisetum glaucum) and maize production in communal areas in 2008 in namibia was about 250-400 kg ha-1 and 500-550 kg ha-1, respectively. according to namibia’s country climate smart agriculture programme, jointly implemented by ministry of agriculture water and forestry (mawf) and ministry of environment and tourism (met) (2015 – 2030). it is projected that through the influence of climate change crop production is expected to decrease by at least 50% or more. maize in particular is expected to experience a 0.5 t/ha yield decline based on the above mentioned projections. due to climate change (rowswell and fairhurst 2011) and need for as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 22 published by ideas spread increased crop productivity, it is critical that mitigation, good maintenance and improvement of soil quality is undertaken (fourie et al. 2007), especially as erratic weather patterns are projected to become increasingly worse. tillage is the preparation of the soil for the production of crops for human consumption, animal feed and/or for the improvement of the soil. it is known to influence soil physical properties such as soil hydraulic properties, change flow path, rate of water infiltration and percolation and the stability of the biotic factors (dexter 1988). tillage methods (fuentes et al. 2003) and climatic factors, especially rainfall distribution and reliability (fowler and rockstrom 2001) influence available soil moisture, key for plant growth, development and soil physical properties. conventional tillage (ct) is the most common practice used among small holder farmers and has been practiced for a long time (chen, liu et al. 2011). in namibia, tillage is largely done using the hand hoe and animal drawn moldboard plough introduced in the early 20th century from europe usually referred to as conventional tillage (ct). ct is reported to be unsustainable over the long term in more intensive production setup as it contributes to inefficient natural resource use, poor soil water retention, soil degradation and global warming (ferna´ndez, quiroga et al. 2009). conservation agriculture (ca), on the other hand is a crop management system that involves a combination of soil management practices to reduce soil disruption, compaction whilst enhancing natural biodiversity and is based on three principles namely (1) minimal soil disturbance, (2) crop rotation and (3) permanent soil cover with crop residues or growing plants (kassam, friedrich, shaxson, & jules, 2009; fao, 2009; & friedrich, derpsch, & kassam, 2012). ca is a less energy intensive system as compared to ct and has been known to improve crop yields whilst conserving water/moisture, reduce erosion and eliminate organic matter loss among others (dumanski et al. 2006). the influence of tillage on crop growth and development is reported to however depend on a number of factors, including the type of tillage practice used to prepare the land (martinez et al., 2008). tillage methods (fuentes,flury, huggins & bezdicek, 2003), climatic factors especially rainfall distribution and reliability (fowler & rockstrom, 2001) influence available soil moisture, which is a key factor for plant growth and development and stability of soil physical properties. tillage and mulch/residue retention have been reported to have beneficial effects on the retention of soil moisture (gicheru, gachene, mbuvi & mare, 2004; benites, 2008; landers, 2008). reduced tillage practices such as ripping and sub-soiling have the potential to mitigate the effects of dry spells and moisture stress and contribute to improved soil moisture retention (ahmed and suliman, 2010). soil moisture stress is one of the primary limiting factors in crop production as it affects a host of plant physiological and biochemical processes (purcell et al., 2007). however, jalota khera & chahal, (2001), acknowledged that the success of a crop depends upon the nature of the soil and the amount of moisture stored in it. kl-kaisi & broner (2012) stated that, in most legumes, when moisture stress occurs at critical growth stages such as flowering, podding and pod/seed filling, high grain yield loss is all too often the final outcome. dry spells, water scarcity, unreliable rain pattern and agricultural systems play a large role in the amount of moisture available in the soil. namibia is classified as the driest country in southern africa, where 10–25% of rainwater is lost to runoff, and another 30–50% is lost through evaporation from unprotected soil surfaces. conventional tillage is widely practiced in namibia and is associated with increased soil erosion, loss of soil organic matter and destruction of soil structure. in namibia, conventional agriculture has for decades existed as the major agricultural system up to the year 2005, in which the government through mawf introducing another agricultural system namely ca. unfortunately due to variable findings little documented knowledge of the influence of conventional and ca tillage systems and principles on soil moisture content and water infiltration in namibia exist. therefore, this necessitated the research on suitable tillage methods for two agro-ecological north eastern regions of namibia. the main objective was to document and compare the effects of different tillage systems (conventional and ca) and the influence of the individual ca principles on soil moisture and infiltration. specific objectives included determination of the effects of different reduced tillage options on soil moisture dynamics and water infiltration under maize, millet on a sandy soil and to determine the effects of minimum tillage and mulch/rotation on soil moisture and grain yields of maize and pearl millet. the hypothesis of the study was that there were no significant differences in soil water infiltration between ca and conventional plots and that no significant differences existed between the effect of no mulch, mulch only, rotation only and mulch plus rotation on the soil moisture content and crop grain yields for both ca and conventional plots. taking into account namibia’s dry climatic condition, findings would significantly contribute towards water conservation endeavors and good crop production practices for small holder and commercial farmers and influencing further adoption of ca systems in liselo, mashare, kavango east region, zambezi region and namibia at large. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 23 published by ideas spread 2. methods 2.1 site characteristics mashare irrigation training center (17.889300 °s; 20.170258 °e), 50km east of rundu town in kavango east region, and the liselo research station (17.524745 °s; 24.238707 °e) located 7 km west of katima mulilo town in the zambezi region of namibia were the sites chosen for the experiments. both are situated in the hot, subhumid north eastern parts of the country (table 1). the sites were predominantly having slightly acidic soils with ph of 5.3-6.1 (table 2). table 1. site characteristics for liselo research station and mashare irrigation, training center site elevation (m asl) climate annual mean temperature annual mean rainfall soil texture class liselo research station 964 hot, semiarid 21.3 °c 600-700 mm loamy sand to sand mashare irrigation training center 1050 hot, semiarid 22.3 °c 450-650 mm sandy loam to loamy sand 2.2 experimental design the experiment consisted of eight (8) treatments in a randomized complete block design (rcbd) set-up with four (4) replications on a 2,419.2 m2 trial plot (50.4 m x 48 m). treatments tested were; conventional tillage (cp), convectional tillage with mulch (cp-m), conventional tillage with rotation (cp-r), conventional tillage with mulch and rotation (cp-mr), minimum tillage (mt), minimum tillage with mulch (mt-m), minimum tillage with rotation (mt-r) and minimum tillage with mulch and rotation (mt-mr). each plot was composed of 7 rows (90 cm row spacing & 35 cm within row) by 12 m and plots with rotation were split into subplots each with 7 rows by 6 m. ct plots were tilled with an animal drawn moldboard plough, while ca/minimum-tillage plots were tilled with an animal drawn magoye ripper, opening narrow furrows about 5-10 cm deep. 2.3 seeding and weed management maize (zea mays, commercial hybrid maize variety zamseed 606) and commercial pearl millet variety okashana 2 were the principal crops and cowpea (vigna unguiculata l. walp.) an important secondary crop used in rotation with maize or pearl millet. maize, pearl millet and cowpea crop varieties were manually seeded, maize (90cm x 35cm) with 31 746 plants/ha target population while, pearl millet (75cm x 25cm) with a target population of 53 333 plants/ha. rotational crop, commercial cowpea variety bira was manually seeded in rows spaced 45 cm apart and inter row spaced 25 cm. basal fertilizer, npk (2:3:2) was applied at a rate of 150 kg/ha to cereal only plots and a split application of urea at a rate of (150 kg ha-1) was applied as top dressing to the same plots. treatments with cowpea rotation were mulched with 2.5-3 t/ha of grass at the onset and all crop residues retained on the soil surface in the subsequent seasons after harvesting. weed control was achieved by disturbing only the top soil using a hoe at 30-day intervals and when necessary. at harvest, cobs were removed from the plots and crop residues (stover) were retained on the respective ca and ct treatments. 2.4 data collection 2.4.1 soil fertility test prior to plot establishment, the liselo research station had natural vegetation of mixed subtropical woodland containing copalwood (guibourtia coleosperma), terminalia serecea, zambezi teak (baikiaea plurijuga), and acacia eriolaba trees, shrubs and grasses. mashare irrigation training center on the other hand was used as part of the irrigation training center for pearl millet production. soil samples were taken from the sites at the onset of the study and levels of nitrogen and phosphorous, organic c, estimated som and ph were tested, for comparison against suggested nutrient ranges suitable for grains. 2.4.2 harvest data collection maize, pearl millet and cowpea grain were harvested at physiological maturity and total above-ground biomass and grain yield of each plot were determined. sub-samples of 20 cobs/heads were taken from each plot as samples and used to determine maize grain moisture. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 24 published by ideas spread 2.5 statistical data analysis linear model, analysis of variance (anova) using statistical analysis software ‘statistix 9’ for personal computers was used to test for normality and test for any significant difference in moisture content and grain yield. probability levels of 0.05 were used to determine the level of significance among the means. lsd all-pair wise comparisons test was used to compare soil moisture and grain yield for treatment effect. 3. results 3.1 soil nutrient levels soil from research sites were evaluated for soil fertility levels (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium), organic c, soil organic matter (som) and ph. at both study sites, the levels of nitrogen and phosphorous, organic c, and som were far below the suggested range for grains. only potassium and soil ph fell within the suggested range for grains at both sites (table 2). table 2. site characteristics of liselo research station and mashare irrigation, training center characteristics suggested range for grains lrs mitc n (g kg-1) 1.0– 2.0 0.48 0.28 p (g kg-1) 0.2 – 0.6 <0.1 <0.1 k (g kg-1) 1.5 – 3.0 2.2 2.8 organic c (g kg-1) 17 – 50 6.9 2.9 som (%)* 2.9 – 8.6 1.2 <1 ph 4.9 – 6.4 5.3 6.1 soil cares (2007,www.soilcares.com) provided the suggested range for grains which is based on soil analysis. n = nitrogen; p = phosphorus; k = potassium; c= carbon; som = soil organic matter. n= 24 at liselo research station. *soil organic matter is estimated based on a conversion factor of 1.72 [soil organic matter=58%c] 3.2 rainfall rainfall at both lrs and mitc for the 2016/17cropping season was erratic with a short rainy season especially at lrs (figure 1). at lrs, total seasonal rainfall recorded was 499.9 mm for the first cropping season 2016/17, while at mitc it was 715.2 mm. rainfall at both lrs and mitc for the second season, 2017/18 was again erratic with especially low rain incidences at the early stages of the season (figure 1). at lrs and mitc, 521 mm and 530.4 mm of rainfall was recorded for the 2017/18 cropping season, respectively. in january 2018, lrs received 44 mm, while 233 mm of total rain fell in february 2018. rainfall amount of 1.3 mm at mitc, from 31 december 2017 to 21 january 2018, was insufficient for crop growth and development. rainfall eventually increased as the season advanced, particularly in march, during which the site received 214 mm of the total 521mm (see figure 1). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 25 published by ideas spread figure 1. rainfall measurements at lrs for the first and second season figure 2. rainfall measurements at mitc for the first and second season 3.3 maize grain yields maize grain yield at lrs for the first season was not significantly affected by tillage and principles. however, during the second season maize grain yield was significantly affected (p=0.0206) (table 3), during which ct-mr yielded the highest with 3852.3 kg ha-1of maize, followed by mt-mr (3550.8 kg ha-1) and ct-m (3371.8 kg ha1). table 3. average maize grain yield at liselo research station as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 26 published by ideas spread minimum tillage with selective incorporation of ca principles yielded increased maize grain yields [mtm (2920.0 kg ha-1), mt-r (3225.0 kg ha-1) and mt-mr with 3550.8 kg ha-1]. mt however produced the lowest maize grain yield of 2524.0kg ha-1, but was found to have yielded higher than all the treatments in the first season. conventional tillage in both seasons yielded higher maize yield than minimum tillage (table 3). maize grain yields were found to follow no particular order over the two seasons. most minimum tillage treatments averaged less than 1500 kg ha-1 maize grain yield in the first season and more than 2500 kg ha-1 in the second season (table 3). although no significant difference (p=0.0884) was observed in the first season, conventional tillage treatments were found to have yielded more maize grain than minimum tillage treatments, indicating the benefit of ct in the first season. maize grain yield followed the order ct-mr > mt-mr >ct-m > mt-r >ctr > mt-m >ct>mt in the second season (table 3). 3.4 pearl millet grain yield pearl millet grain yield at mitc was significantly affected by the various treatments in the first cropping season (p =0.0496) and not significantly affected in the second season. in the first season, ct produced the highest average pearl millet grain yield of 1783.0 kg ha-1, followed by mt-m and mt which produced pearl millet grain yield of 1562.0 kg ha-1 and 1520.8 kg ha-1, respectively. minimum tillage treatments produced varied average pearl millet grain yields [mt-m produced 1562 kg ha-1, mt-mr produced1439.8 kg ha-1 and mt-r plots had the least yield, at 1044.8 kg ha-1] (table 4). table 4. average pearl millet grain yield (kg ha-1) at mashare irrigation training centre 4. discussion in the first season (2016/17), ct (conventional tillage) treatments yielded an average of 477.5kg ha-1 and 50.85 kg ha-1 more maize and pearl millet than ca (minimum tillage) treatments, respectively. maize grain yield followed the order ct-m>ct>mt>ct-mr>ct-r>mt-r>mt-m>mt-mr, highlighting the lack of influence of conservation tillage in the first season whilst, pearl millet grain yield for the same season followed the order, ct>mt-m>mt>mt-mr>ct-mr>ct-m>ct-r>mt-r, contrary to finding on maize. in the subsequent season 2017/18, with a 4.2% (21.1mm) increase in rainfall at lrs and a 25.8% (184.8mm) decrease at mitc respectively, maize grain yields experienced an average increase of 1500.1 kg ha-1, whilst pearl millet decreased by 426.1 kg ha-1. the decline in pearl millet yield was primarily the result of drastic decline of 25.8% in rainfall over the two year period. on the basis of average group yields, ct (conventional tillage) treatments again out performed mt treatments with averages of 213.0 kg ha-1 and 69.78 kg ha-1, more maize and pearl millet than ca (minimum tillage) treatments, respectively. maize yields followed the order ct-mr > mt-mr >ct-m > mt-r >ct-r > mt-m >ct>mt and pearl millet ct-mr > mt-mr >ct-m > mt-m >ct>ct-r >mt-r >mt with ct-mr yielding the highest and mt least productive. mulch coupled with crop rotation appeared to have positive influence, by providing a physical barrier that reduced soil movement, allowed organic matter accumulation as similarly observed by mutema, et al., (2013), and ultimately led to increased crop yield particularly in maize as found by mchugh et al., (2007), pansak, (2008) and govaerts et al., (2009). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 27 published by ideas spread 5. conclusion the results indicated that minimum/ca tillage methods can improve maize grain yield. application of mulch and crop rotation appeared to positively influence maize grain yield over the study period compared to no mulching and, not practicing rotation. yield outcomes clearly showed mulch’s influence on crop yield and solidified its status as a great contributor towards increased crop production. implementation of ca in namibia is at different stages, driven significantly by non-governmental organizations (ngo’s) in collaboration with government and with recent policy adoption and implementation in some parts of the country and indifferent in other parts. in namibia, the government adopted the climate smart agriculture programme, jointly implemented by the ministry of agriculture water and forestry (mawf) and the ministry of environment and tourism (met) (2015 – 2030). the adoption of such sustainable technologies is believed to increase productivity and production. namibia also developed a namibia specific conservation tillage (nsct) technique, as a method that advocates for use of rippers, mulch, improved seeds, constant monitoring, new planting and fertilizing methods and techniques. ca is not exclusively practiced at local level and with the finding of this study, in part showing that reduced soil disturbance and mulching together with crop rotation enhance maize performance and production and can influence fast tracking and encourage its widespread practice in in the hot sub-humid north-eastern regions of namibia and similar areas. acknowledgements our sincere gratitude goes to the deutsche gesellschaft für internationale zusammenarbeit gmbh (giz), the sponsors of the study, the directorate of agricultural production, extension and engineering services (dapees) of the ministry of agriculture, water and land reform, implementer of the project and the university of namibia, through which the programme was done. we would also like to thank the international maize and wheat improvement center (cimmyt) for backstopping the research project. our thanks are extended to dr. alexander schoening, magret bartels, dr. stephanie chessman, former staff members of deutsche gesellschaft für internationale zusammenarbeit gmbh (giz) and dr. ibo zimmerman and mr. theofilus shiimi (from namibia university of science and technology) for their generous assistance, constant support, guidance and encouragement over the study period. last but not least, we shall remain eternally grateful to family and friends for their support during the entire period of study. references chen, y., liu, s., li, h., li, x. f., song, c. y., cruse, r. m., & zhang, x. y. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v5n1p8 8 published by ideas spread investigation on combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation for horticultural crop frost protection cheng shi1, yongguang hu1, yongzong lu1, qingmin pan1, kuang jin1 & jialiang zheng1 1 school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china correspondence: yongguang hu, school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china. tel: 86-13815151176. e-mail: deerhu@ujs.edu.cn. yongzong lu, school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china. tel: 86-18361810255. e-mail: luyongzong@126.com received: march 15, 2023 accepted: april 20, 2023 online published: june 13, 2023 the research is financed by the china and jiangsu postdoctoral science foundation (2022m711396 and 2021k614c), the natural science foundation of the jiangsu higher education institutions of china (21kjb210019), and the priority academic program development of jiangsu higher education institutions (papd-2018-87), and synergistic extension program of major agricultural technologies in jiangsu (2021zyxt-06). abstract frost tends to be detrimental to the growth and development of horticultural crops, leading to yield or quality reduction with sizable economic losses. therefore, it is very important to develop frost protection technology for horticultural crops. in this study, the development of frost protection technology is reviewed, and the research of mechanized frost protection technology in recent years is analyzed. in view of the poor frost protection effect of some single mechanized frost protection technology, the combination frost protection technology is put forward. the combination frost protection technology with airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation is discussed and analyzed. keywords: frost protection, airflow disturbance, sprinkler irrigation, horticultural crop, combination frost protection 1. introduction frost is a common agrometeorological disaster that can cause significant damage to crops by reducing yields, lowering quality, and even resulting in crop failure. there are two types of frost: stratospheric frost and radiation frost. radiation frost is the most common type worldwide and occurs when heat is lost near the ground in the form of radiation, causing the energy lost to be greater than the energy received and resulting in frost. this type of frost typically occurs on clear, windless, cold nights in mid-winter and spring. since spring is a crucial growth period for most horticultural crops, frosts that occur during this time can have a particularly severe impact on these crops. in recent years, inversions have occurred more frequently because of global warming, causing varying degrees of frost damage to horticultural crops during the budding period and resulting in economic losses worldwide. therefore, protecting horticultural crops against frost damage is a necessary task in agricultural production. principle diagram of radiation frost formation as shown in figure 1. the traditional agricultural frost protection measures include irrigation, smoking and mulching, but these measures have poor effect and cause serious environmental pollution (yongguang hu 2011). in order to reduce the pollution caused by frost protection, mechanized frost protection technology such as heating furnace, airflow disturbance, sprinkler irrigation and helicopter frost protection have been gradually developed in recent years. however, the single mechanized frost protection technology still has poor frost protection effect. in order to solve this problem, combination frost protection technology has been mentioned, including the combination of heating furnace and airflow disturbance, the combination of sprinkler irrigation and airflow disturbance, and the combination of heating furnace and sprinkler irrigation. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 9 published by ideas spread figure 1. principle diagram of radiation frost formation 2. mechanization technology for frost protection in recent years, with the rise of large agricultural enterprises, the cultivation of horticultural crops has also begun to be large-scale and centralized. in order to reduce the consumption of human resources, it is urgent to develop mechanized frost protection technology. the most commonly used technologies for frost protection are the airflow disturbance, sprinkler irrigation, and combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation. mechanization technology provide efficient and effective solutions to combat the negative effects of frost on crops. 2.1 airflow disturbance technology the main devices used in the airflow disturbance include overhead wind machine, suction-exhaust wind machine and helicopter. the principle of this technology is to disturb the air near the ground using the frost protection device, which causes the high-temperature air above the plant canopy to the canopy height. as a result, the air temperature at the canopy height gradually increases, and it becomes higher than the critical frost temperature of the plant, effectively protecting frost damage. one advantage of the airflow disturbance technology is its ability to use the unique inverse temperature phenomenon of radiation frost nights, which reduces material consumption, minimizes environmental pollution, and facilitates the mechanization and automation of frost control equipment. however, the technology has some limitations, such as its effectiveness being restricted to strong frost night inversion temperatures. in cases where the inversion temperature is weak, the technology may not provide adequate frost protection due to the weak intensity of the near-ground inversion temperature. as shown in figure 2. figure 2. schematic diagram of the airflow disturbance the airflow disturbance technology is currently the most widely studied mechanical frost protection technology globally. reese first applied the elevated fan in orchards for frost protection experiments and found that the temperature increase effect of the elevated fan is positively correlated with the strength of the inversion on the frost night(reese, r.l. & gerber, j.f. 1969) . doesken et al. used the minimum air temperature at the surface of fruit trees and the strength of the inversion on the night as the timing for the fan to start, and successfully conducted frost protection experiments in orchards using the airflow disturbance technology (doseken, n.j. et al. 1989). ribeiro et al. found that the air temperature increase at the canopy of fruit trees after the fan starts depends on the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 10 published by ideas spread strength of the inversion(ribeiro, et. al. 2006). battany conducted comparative experiments on the frost protection effect of suction and exhaust fans and traditional tower fans during 12 spring frost nights in 2010 and 2011, and the experimental results surface that the frost protection effect of traditional tower fans is significantly better than that of suction and exhaust fans, and the experiments also tracked the airflow of suction and exhaust fans through smoke, and found that suction and exhaust fans will suck the cold air to 25m in the frost protection process then the cold air will slowly sink to the ground, and the cold air sucked out in the frost protection process will again sink to the plant canopy height, causing secondary frost damage to crops. this can cause secondary frost damage to crops(battany, et al. 2012). with the continuous research on airflow disturbance technology, kimura et al. conducted an experimental study on the thermal effects on frost protection fans in tea fields through the spatial and temporal analysis of leaf heat balance. the time and space distribution of the thermal effect of the fan was visualized by numerical calculation, and the experimental results showed that the thermal effect of the frost protection area showed a dynamically changing distribution in space and time under the variation of the blade boundary conductance and the blade-air temperature difference, but the periodic oscillation of the wind machine led to different intervals and durations of airflow, which made the thermal effect uneven throughout the tea field and increased the risk of frost damage(kimura, et al. 2017). in recent years, with the rapid improvement of domestic mechanization level, the air disturbance technology has been experimented several times in china, and mature products have been developed. hu analyzed the spatial and temporal distribution of near-ground air temperature, and developed the first domestically produced elevated wind machine, which has been successfully tested in tea fields with significant effect(hu et al. 2018). hong zhang designed and developed a new type of suction and discharge device, which has also been successfully used in tea fields, but with weaker effect than the elevated wind machine( zhang 2012). based on the overall design of the frost protection machine, yang conducted simulation of the biconvex impeller, analyzed its surface pressure distribution characteristics, and designed and developed a biconvex wing type tea field frost protection machine, which successfully protected frost in the tea field, and the frost protection area was significantly increased compared with the traditional frost protection fan, and the frost protection cost per unit area was significantly reduced ( yang 2014). zhu studied the operation timing of the frost protection machine and its frost protection effect under different time scales and frost damage levels, and then established a prediction model for the occurrence of early spring late frost damage based on historical meteorological data, on the basis of which a decision system for the operation of the tea field frost protection machine was initially developed( zhu 2014). liu studied the helicopter flight process using computational fluid dynamics, and found that when the flight speed was constant, the wind speed in the crown decreased with increasing flight height( liu 2015).wu analyzed the distribution characteristics of the airflow disturbance of the wind machine in the canopy height of the frost protection object under the typical installation conditions of the wind machine with circular arc plate and wingshaped blades, and found that the airflow disturbance characteristics are closely related to the blade shape( wu 2015). huang built a 3d physical model of wind machine and selected the sst k-ω turbulence model to study the airflow characteristics and temperature changes at the canopy of tea trees, and found that the airflow speed at the canopy of tea trees was proportional to the rotational speed, while the temperature in some areas increased and then decreased with the increase of rotational speed, but the average temperature of the whole canopy increased with the increase of rotational speed ( huang et al. 2016). sun established the airflow disturbance model of the wind machine, and found that moderately reducing the installation height and installation pitch angle can increase the frost protection area, but as the installation pitch angle decreases, however, as the installation pitch angle decreases, the blind area increases; as the installation height becomes smaller, the value of the right endpoint of the frost protection range does not change much. the value of the right endpoint of the frost protection range does not change much with smaller installation height( sun 2020). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 11 published by ideas spread figure 3. overhead wind machine figure 4. suction-exhaust wind machine figure 5. helicopter 2.2 sprinkler irrigation technology the main equipment of the sprinkler irrigation is the sprinkler head, pump and pipe, which has been successfully applied in the united states, japan and other countries, used for tea plantations, strawberry orchards and orange groves( zhao 2015). the working principle of the sprinkler irrigation is: under the low temperature of frost night, by sprinkling the surface of crops, water is continuously sprayed on the surface of crops, and the water releases latent heat by solidifying into ice, thus raising the temperature at the surface of crops above the critical frost temperature of the crops. the sprinkler irrigation can achieve good frost protection with sufficient water and low wind speed. the main disadvantages of the sprinkler irrigation are: when the spraying water is insufficient, it will aggravate the frost damage of crops, and when the spraying water is too much, it will cause the waste of water and flooding. as shown in figure 6. figure 6. diagram of sprinkler irrigation for frost protection sprinkler irrigation has been applied to orchards in europe and the usa since its inception. various studies have been conducted to optimize the system's performance. rieger conducted frost protection experiments in apple orchards in the southeast of england and found that a sprinkler intensity of 2.5 mm/h can protect buds from frost damage at -4 °c air temperature during spring radiation frost(rieger, et al. 1986). stefano studied the influence of different sprinkler head combinations and different water spray amounts on the air temperature of the fruit tree canopy in italian orchards, optimized the sprinkler head combination in the sprinkler irrigation system, and reduced the water spray amount (stefano, et. al. 2002). in 2009, ghaemi designed and developed an automatic tree sprinkler irrigation system in peach and orange orchards in southern iran, and the peach trees reached a temperature rise of 4.5°c during the frost night, while the orange trees also reached a temperature rise of 2.5°c, and both were above the critical low temperature(ghaemi, et. al. 2009). issa studied the freezing of water droplets sprayed on a single orange tree during the sprinkler irrigation process through numerical simulation, providing a basis for the sprinkler water volume of orange tree frost protection systems (issa, et. al. 2012). in china, sprinkler irrigation for frost protection has been applied to forestry nurseries and grape vineyards with good results (chen hua & ge peizhen 2011; lu et al. 2018). chen zhao considered the effect of water source water temperature on sprinkler intensity and modified the barfield frost protection sprinkler intensity calculation model to arrive at a model of sprinkler intensity required for tea tree sprinkler irrigation frost protection, according to which the sprinkler system provides suitable sprinkler intensity under different meteorological conditions to as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 12 published by ideas spread avoid over or under sprinkler intensity and successfully maintains the tea field canopy temperature above -1°c during a frost night to achieve a good frost protection effect while avoiding causing water wastage (barfield, et al. 1981). 2.3 combination frost protection technology with the global warming, frost disasters are becoming more and more frequent and serious. under the influence of heavy frost, single mechanized frost protection technology cannot provide effective protection for horticultural crops. some scholars have proposed combination technology to deal with the poor effect of single mechanized technology, including the combination of heaters and wind machines, the combination of sprinklers and wind machines, and the combination of sprinklers and heaters. 2.3.1 combination of heaters and airflow disturbance the combination of heaters and airflow disturbance can improve the frost protection effect. since heaters and wind machines tend to inhale cold air near the ground at the outer edge of the reserve, placing more heaters on the outer edge will warm the inflow of cold air. it is recommended to have a heater for every two trees on the outer edge and inside of the first row of crops. in practical application，the wind machine should be started first, and if the temperature continues to drop, ignite the heater. 2.3.2 combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation the combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation has been widely used in some parts of the united states, especially in citrus orchards. when frost comes, farmers usually turn on the sprinkler irrigation first, and then turn on the wind machine when the sprinkler irrigation does not provide enough protection. 2.3.3 combination of sprinklers and heaters combination of sprinklers and heaters is rarely mentioned. generally, a metal baffle is installed on top of the heating furnace to protect the sprinkler irrigation from extinguishing the heating furnace. the heating furnace is generally turned on first, and then the sprinkler irrigation is turned on when the protection provided by the heating furnace is not enough. 3. investigation on control combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation in the combination frost protection technology, most of the heaters are combustion furnaces, which are easy to cause air pollution, but now they are seldom used, wind machine and water spraying systems may also lead to the extinguishment of heating furnaces. therefore, combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation will become an important research direction to deal with crop frost. in this study, the combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation is discussed and analyzed. 3.1 composition of combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation the combination frost protection system is mainly composed of wind machine and sprinkler irrigation system. the principle of combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation is to force the high-temperature air above the plant to height through the airflow disturbance device, increase the air temperature at the plant canopy, and spray water on the plant canopy through the irrigation system. the water undergoes sensible heat exchange in the surface of crops, and the latent heat is released after the water solidifies and freezes, increasing the temperature of the surface of crops to above the critical freezing temperature and combining the heat generated by the airflow disturbance with the heat generated by the sprinkler irrigation to achieve a frost protection effect greater than the sum of the individual technology. the main disadvantage is that the frost protection strategy is not clear and can lead to water waste. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 13 published by ideas spread as early as 2000, evens proposed that combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation could achieve twice the frost protection effect, but no experimental research or analysis was conducted. it was not until 2020 that the first theoretical analysis and experimental verification of combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation was carried out in china by lu from jiangsu university(lu 2020). they constructed a tea field open path eddy covariance system and estimated the latent and sensible heat based on the atmospheric-tea tree-soil system energy transfer model using eddy covariance theory. frost protection experiments conducted in tea fields showed that the composite frost protection technology had a significant temperature rise effect. see figure 7 for details. figure 7. schematic diagram of combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation a composite frost control system generally consists of wind machine and a sprinkler irrigation system. the sprinkler irrigation system is composed of nozzles, pipes, pumps, and water valves. to reduce costs, upvc plastic pipes are usually selected for the sprinkler irrigation system. the overall design of the compound frost prevention system is shown in figure 8. figure 8. overall schematic diagram of compound frost prevention system 3.2 control strategy for combination technology when the water spray frost prevention system and the frost prevention fan are started simultaneously and the sprayed water has not frozen, the airflow disturbance will increase the evaporation of the sprayed water, thereby causing an initial temperature drop in the composite frost prevention system. considering the shortage of water resources, the composite frost control system should prioritize reducing water resource losses. the control strategy is to first open the frost prevention fan. when the frost prevention fan cannot provide sufficient protection, the water spray system is then activated. when the sprayed water freezes, the latent heat released by the system and the sensible heat caused by the airflow disturbance will increase the temperature of crops crown layer. when the temperature rises to 1°c, the sprayed water will no longer freeze(lu et al. 2017, 2019). at this time, if the composite frost control system is not turned as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 1; 2023 14 published by ideas spread off, the airflow disturbance will increase the evaporation of the newly sprayed water, and the new sprayed water will no longer freeze and release latent heat, causing the temperature to drop again. the start time of the composite frost control system is set to when the air temperature at the crown layer is less than or equal to 0°c. when the composite frost control system is started, the frost prevention fan is first activated. when the temperature of crops crown layer is still less than or equal to 0°c after ten minutes of starting the frost prevention fan, the water spray frost prevention system is activated. when the temperature of crops crown layer is greater than 1°c, the water spray frost prevention system and the frost prevention fan are turned off. after the airflow disturbance stops, the ice on crops crown layer can slow down the rapid temperature rise caused by the sunrise, avoiding damage to the tea caused by rapid temperature rise. 3.3 issues of combination technology in the process of combination frost protection, convective air can not only bring sensible heat, increase the air temperature of crop canopy, but also increase the evaporation of spraying water, resulting in heat loss. if the effect of water-air coupling in the process of combination frost protection can be clearly analyzed, it is possible to minimize the heat loss and maximize the frost protection effect of the combination frost protection. 4. summary it is obvious that mechanized frost prevention technology can protect horticultural crops from frost, but under heavy frost, single mechanized frost prevention technology cannot provide enough protection for horticultural crops. therefore, it is necessary to study the combined frost prevention technology. considering the protection of the environment and the loss of resources, we should consider is the combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation first. in this study, through the comparison test of the defrosting effect of air disturbance, sprinkler irrigation and combination of airflow disturbance and sprinkler irrigation, it was found that combination frost protection can provide more protection for horticultural crops in frost night. however, in the process of combination frost protection, the interaction between irrigation and airflow disturbance is still unclear, which is the difficulty of future research. meanwhile, the control strategy of combination frost protection is also worth paying attention to. acknowledgments this research was funded by the china and jiangsu postdoctoral science foundation (2022m711396 and 2021k614c), the natural science foundation of the jiangsu higher education institutions of china (21kjb210019), and the priority academic program development of jiangsu higher education institutions (papd-2018-87), and synergistic extension program of major agricultural technologies in jiangsu (2021zyxt-06). references barfield, b. j., walton, l. r., & lacey, r. e. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p66 66 published by ideas spread design and experiment of axial air-suction drum seed-metering device yuqian zhang1, chengyao zhang1, yuwei hu1, long chen1, wencai yang1 & haidong zhang1 1 faculty of mechanical and electrical engineering, yunnan agricultural university, kunming, yunnan, p. r. china correspondence: haidong zhang, faculty of mechanical and electrical engineering, yunnan agricultural university, kunming, yunnan, p. r. china. e-mail: zhd74@126.com received: november 30, 2022 accepted: december 15, 2022 online published: december 16, 2022 the research is financed by (major science and technology projects in yunnan province (grant number 202102ae090042-06) and major science and technology projects in yunnan province (grant number 2018zc0014). abstract this study developed an axial air-suction drum seed-metering device without a special vacuum pump and associated pipeline facilities, greatly simplifying the structure of the air-suction drum seed-metering device, which aimed to solve the problems of complex structure and difficult maintenance of traditional air suction drum seedmetering device. the geometric model of the seed-metering device was established by solidworks. in addition, numerical simulation tests were carried out on the seed-metering device based on cfd to verify the feasibility of the theoretical operation of the seed-metering device. the seed-metering device was processed and a test bench was built for physical testing, which verified the feasibility of the actual operation of the seed-metering device. the bench test results showed that when the fan speed reached 2100 rpm, the adsorption rate of the seed-metering device on tomato seeds, pepper seeds, and eggplant seeds reached more than 86.39%,87.22%, and 93.06%, respectively. besides, when the fan speed reached 2400 rpm, the adsorption rate of the seed-metering device on tomato seeds, hot pepper seeds, and eggplant seeds all reached more than 95%, which demonstrated that the seedmetering device has good seed suction performance despite its straightforward design. keywords: axial air-suction, drum, seed-metering device, computational fluid dynamics(cfd), numerica l simulation, experiment 1. introduction china is the world's greatest producer and consumer of vegetables, and in recent years, the proportion of vegetables in crops has surpassed that of grains to take the top spot. (wang, l. h., 2016) cabbage, tomato, hot pepper, eggplant, etc. are all vegetable crops. at present, there are a variety of planting methods for vegetable crops in china, among which manual sowing and precision planter seeding in facilities account for the vast majority. traditional hand sowing is labor-intensive in the field and inefficient. (li, z. g., 2022) also, it seriously wastes seeds, leading to an increase in production costs and the inability to ensure the sowing quality. on the contrary, the use of precision seeders equipped with facilities can improve land utilization, alleviate seasonal conflicts, improve seedling conditions, and increase yield and income. (yang, c. m., 2022) however, the vegetable precision seeder suitable for facility seedling cultivation in china has few models and poor seeding effect, which can not meet the operation requirements well. therefore, it is of great significance to develop vegetable sowing equipment with high efficiency and quality for improving the level of vegetable sowing mechanization in china, reducing labor costs, saving seeds, promoting vegetable farmers' income, increasing production, and ensuring sustainable development of china's vegetable industry. (zhao, r., 2022) the seed-metering device is the core component that determines the sowing performance of the precision seeder. it has a direct impact on the seeder's energy consumption, sowing efficiency, uniformity, seed damage rate, and other performance indicators, which in turn has a direct impact on crop production, quality, and cost. (zhu lt, 2022) according to its working principle, the seed-metering device can be divided into the mechanical type and pneumatic type. currently, mechanical seed-metering equipment is still widely used in china, largely due to its straightforward construction and affordable manufacturing and maintenance. (zhang, x. l., 2020). however, the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 67 published by ideas spread mechanical seed-metering device has strict requirements on the shape and quality of the seeds. vegetable seeds should be pelleted before being sown using a mechanical seed-metering system. otherwise, the seeds will be harmed and the efficiency of vegetable production will be compromised. with the continuous development of large-scale production, vegetable farmers have put forward higher requirements for the sowing quality and sowing speed of vegetable seeders, prompting vegetable seeder developers to further explore a new type of pneumatic sowing form. pneumatic seeder has small damage to seeds, good versatility, low requirements for seed size and quality, high sowing precision, good quality, high efficiency, reliable work, and is suitable for high-speed operation. (d. karayel,2009). therefore, it has gradually become the research object of many experts and scholars in recent years. ding et al. (ding l, 2018) designed a high-speed precision seed-metering device with air suction for corn with the function of assisting seed filling, which disturbed the seeds in the seed filling area by using the shaped hole boss, and could achieve uniform seed-metering in the seed unloading area, greatly improving the qualification index. zhang et al. (zhang, x. h., 2018) studied the mechanism of pneumatic centralized wheat seed-metering and distribution and designed a pneumatic centralized wheat seed-metering and distribution system, which effectively solved the problem of uneven sowing during wheat sowing, and provided a reference for wide sowing. the precision seed-metering device designed by yin et al. (yin, w. q., 2019) used a two-stage seed-metering method. the first stage used a small structure grooved wheel seed-metering device for seed-metering, and the second stage used a pneumatic seed-metering device with negative pressure suction and positive pressure injection for seedmetering. the 3d dimensions of pakchoi, radishes, and eggplants were measured by 3d laser scanning and 3d point cloud computing methods, and based on this, a variety of nozzle types such as straight holes, tapered holes, and cylindrical holes were designed. through the single-factor experiment, it was concluded that the suitable sucking nozzle holes for seed arrangement of pakchoi, radish and eggplant were cone holes, round waist holes, and straight holes, respectively. yang et al. (yang cm,2020)designed a kind of pneumatic cylinder precision seeder similar to a small precision seeding assembly line by using the vacuum adsorption principle, which could complete the whole process from the seedling tray to the foundation covering. the pneumatic cylinder was used to realize continuous seeding, which improved the seeding efficiency. the stepping motor and synchronous belt drive were used to ensure the seeding accuracy. xu et al. (xu sy,2020) designed a pneumatic disc-type precision metering device for carrots, which absorbed seeds by negative pressure, and used a seed filling device, a seed cleaning device, the gravity and collision principle, and a blockage removal device to carry out the process of auxiliary seed filling, seed cleaning, seed dropping and positive pressure blockage removal in turn. ji et al. (ji, y., 2021) designed an air-suction double-layer drum precision metering device, which adopts the combination of the double-layer drum and independent air passage technology to reduce the pneumatic parameter requirements of rice seeds on the metering device. zhang et al. (zhang. h., 2019) put forward a new idea of printing a split-type negative pressure seed suction drum with 3d rapid prototyping technology, and innovatively designed a double chamber seedmetering drum. with tomato seeds as the experimental object, the orthogonal regression experiment was carried out with the rotating speed of the drum, the negative pressure of the drum and the positive pressure of the air chamber in the seed feeding chamber as the experimental factors, and the variance analysis and regression fitting of the experimental data were carried out using design expert. the significance of the negative pressure of the drum, the rotating speed of the drum, and the positive pressure of the air chamber in the seed feeding chamber that affected the seed-metering performance indexes was analyzed, and the better structural parameters and working parameters that affected the seed-metering performance indexes were determined. chen et al. (chen, h. t., 2020) designed a three-leaf type automatic seed cleaning and changing air suction seed-metering device for soybean breeding, used edem virtual simulation to analyze the auxiliary seed filling process, and determined the leaf inclination angle when achieving the best auxiliary seed filling effect. according to the agronomic requirements of plot breeding, with the operation speed, vacuum degree, seed clearing and changing time as the experimental factors, and the qualification index, replanting index, missed seeding index, and seed clearing and changing distance as the experimental indicators, the three-factor five-level quadratic orthogonal rotation center combination experiment was conducted, and the best working parameter combination of the seed-metering device was obtained. in summary, although experts and scholars have made a lot of research and improvement on the structure of the seed-metering device, which has improved the seeding efficiency and the seeding qualification index of the precision seeder, there are still some shortcomings such as the complex structure and difficult maintenance. (liu, y., 2022) in particular, the air suction drum seed-metering device used in some vegetable plug seedling production lines needs to be equipped with a pressure zone and a negative pressure zone in the cylindrical drum (sun, h., 2021) and fix multiple pipes (holes). the processing, assembly, and maintenance are very complicated and the cost is very high. therefore, it is necessary to carry out innovative design and research on the air suction seedmetering device and explore new air suction methods and principles to overcome the defects of the existing air suction seed-metering device. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 68 published by ideas spread 2. structure and working principle of the seed-metering device figure 1 depicts the general construction of the new type (axial flow) air suction drum seed-metering device developed in this article. its components included the drum retaining ring, drum, seed box, transmission shaft, fan blade, fan leaf retaining ring, etc. the drum retainer ring was connected to the drum through screws, and its main function was to connect the induction reducer motor to drive the seed-metering drum to rotate. to support the transmission shaft, which was rotated by the puss reducer motor, a bearing was put in place at the center of the drum retainer ring and the fan retainer ring. the bottom of the seed box served as a seed scraper. a b figure 1. structure diagram of seed-metering device: (a) exploded view. (b) assembly diagram. 1. drum retaining ring 2. bearing; 3. drum 4. annular partition 5. fan blade air chamber 6. seed box 7. transmission shaft 8. fan blade 9. fan blade retainer the working process of the seed-metering device was mainly divided into three stages: seed suction i, seed carrying ii, and seed feeding iii, of which the seed suction stage was the most critical, and was also the focus of this paper. the first thing that happened during the operation was for the fan to rotate to exhaust the gas from the fan air chamber's right side. to absorb the seeds at this point, negative pressure was created at the molded hole. the seeds then rotated together as the drum carries them. the seed-metering procedure was finished when the seed flowed along the drum to its lowest point and was scraped off by the seed scraper at the base of the seed box. the working process as shown in figure 2. figure 2. operating principle of seed metering device: i seed sucking area; ii. seed carrying area; ⅲ. seed feeding area 3. parameter design of key components of the seed-metering device the seed suction performance of the axial air-suction drum seed-metering device is closely related to the structural parameters, such as the shape and size of the shaped hole, the diameter of the drum, the structural distribution, etc. to ensure the seed suction efficiency of the seed metering device, the structure and parameters of the above key components should be determined. 3.1 design of shaped hole the holes on the circumference of the drum directly determine the effect of seed adsorption. the diameter of the shaped hole entrance is closely related to the three-dimensional size of the seed. therefore, this paper took tomato, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 69 published by ideas spread hot pepper, and eggplant seeds as the research object, and measured the three-dimensional size of three kinds of seeds. test seeds were obtained from legal online sources. table 1 shows the average triaxial size measured in the experiment, and figure 3 shows the seed size distribution. table 1. seed triaxial size parameter seed type tomato hot pepper eggplant average length /mm 3.46 3.72 3.11 average width /mm 2.38 3.04 2.58 average thickness /mm 0.66 0.76 0.79 a b c figure 3. triaxial size distribution of seeds: (a) length distribution (b) width distribution (c) thickness distribution table 1 shows that the three kinds of seeds had large differences in three-dimensional dimensions, and the thickness was far less than the length and width. they are flat seeds, so the size of the hole entrance should be designed according to the width of the seeds. figure 4 shows that the three seed sizes all obeyed the approximately normal distribution, indicating that the seed size data were true and reliable. to ensure that no seed was sucked into the hole inlet, the tomato seed with the smallest width must be used as a reference, according to formula (1)(jiang yz,2019) 0.64 0.66d b= ～ (1) it can be obtained that the inlet diameter of the molded hole d ≈ 1.52~1.57mm, taking d=1.57mm. according to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the fluid system in any flow field remains unchanged in the process of moving. assuming that the fluid is homogeneous and incompressible, the flow continuity equation can be obtained, as shown in formula (2). 1 1 2 2v a v a= (2) where v1 is the speed of section 1 (m/s), v2 is the speed of section 2 (m/s), a1 is the area of section 1 (m2), and a2 is the area of section 1 (m2). according to newton's law of mechanics, assuming that the fluid flows under incompressible, inviscid, nonvolume force (without considering gravity) and constant flow, the bernoulli equation of the flow process is： 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 22 2 p v p vz z g g g gρ ρ + + = + + (3) where p1 is the pressure of section 1 (pa), p2 is the pressure of section 2 (pa), z1 is the height of section 1 (millimeter), z2 is the height of section 1 (millimeter), and 𝜌 is the fluid density (kg/m ³), g is the acceleration of gravity (m/s2). since the length of the molded hole is only 2.5mm, it can be approximately considered that the height of the molded hole inlet and the bottom of the molded hole are equal, that is, z1=z2, then the formula can be obtained: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 70 published by ideas spread 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 v a v a v g p v p g ggρ ρ = + =     + (4) it can be seen from formula 3 that the velocity increases with the decrease of the section, and the pressure decreases at this time. in other words, the negative pressure will increase with the increase of the flow rate. therefore, to obtain a better negative pressure effect at the molded hole, a molded hole with a variable section shape should be designed, and the diameter of the molded hole inlet should be smaller than the diameter of the bottom outlet of the molded hole. the molded hole structure is shown in figure 4. figure 4. schematic diagram of shaped hole structure 3.2 drum design the seed metering drum is crucial for ensuring that the seed is sown precisely by the seed metering mechanism. according to pertinent statistics, the diameter of the current air suction seed metering drums ranges from 140 to 260 mm. considering comprehensively, the drum diameter d was 205mm. the standard specification for tomato, hot pepper, and eggplant seedling trays were 72 holes (6 holes/row 12 rows), 530 mm in length, 270 mm in width, and 45 mm in height, respectively. the hole spacing was 40 mm. according to the specification requirements of the seedling tray, the number of axial holes of the seed metering drum was determined to be 6, and the hole spacing lk was 40mm, so the length lz of the left air chamber (shaped hole air chamber) was more than 200mm, which was taken as 220mm. the length of the right air chamber (the air chamber for the fan blade) was chosen at 130mm taking into account the passage and fan blade lengths. the total length of the drum was l=350mm. considering the airflow disturbance generated by the fan blade, the air chamber was divided into two parts through the annular partition: the shaped hole air chamber and the fan blade air chamber. the geometric model of the drum is shown in figure 5. figure 5. geometric model of drum 4. simulation experiment as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 71 published by ideas spread in the above, the hole entrance size and shape as well as the drum diameter and structure distribution were designed. the simulation verification and feasibility analysis of the hole and drum construction of the seed metering device were carried out with the appropriate cfd software since they are the important structures that influenced the seed suction efficiency of the device. 4.1 governing equation and turbulence model to obtain the flow field pressure and velocity at the metering drum and the molded hole, the navier-stokes equation must be used to solve it, which describes the fluid motion under a given set of boundary conditions. these equations and turbulence models are solved at each node of the grid. realizable k ε turbulence model was used here. (lhan ztürk, 2019) the continuity equation is as follows: ( ) 0i i u = t x ρ ρ∂ ∂+ ∂ ∂ (5) the equation for the conservation of momentum is as follows: ( ) ( ) ' 'i i i j i j i i i i i upu u u u u s t x x x x ρ ρ μ ρ  ∂∂ ∂ ∂ ∂+ = − + − + ∂ ∂ ∂  (6) the turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate equations of the realizable kε turbulence model are as follows: ( ) ( )i t k i k k ku u k g t x xj xj ρ ρ μ ρ σ  ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂+ = + + −  ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂    (7) ( ) ( ) 2 1 2 i t i u u c e c t x xj xj k vε ρε ρε ε εμ ρ ρ σε ε ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ + = + + −  ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ +   (8) where, 𝜇 represents the eddy viscosity. σk and σε are the turbulent prandtl numbers for k and ε, respectively. c1 = max[0.43, (η/η + 5)], where η = (2eij•eij) 1/2•k/ε., eij=1/2(𝜕𝜇 /𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝜇 /𝜕𝑥 ), c2 = 1.9. 4.2 mesh generation the unstructured grid was used to mesh the simulation model, which has high adaptability and arbitrary structure. in this paper, the multiple reference frame (mrf) method was used, and the model was divided into two regions: dynamic region i and static region ii.to ensure the accuracy of the subsequent solution calculation, a boundary layer was added to the fan blade wall and the cylinder boundary. according to the requirements of the wall function, y+ was controlled between 30 and 300. (di zhu,2020)the mesh independence check was done to eliminate the influence of mesh size on the accuracy of the numerical simulation.as shown in figure 6, where the error was less than 0.5% for 1.9 million or more grids. based on the grid independence test, 2.0 million grids were generated in total, and the grid division is shown in figure 7. figure 6. grid independence as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 72 published by ideas spread figure. 7 grid division 5. simulation results and analysis fluent was used to run numerical simulation tests. when the calculation residual is less than 1 × 10-4, it is considered that the calculation results have converged. when the calculation result converged, the pressure and velocity nephogram of the molded hole inlet and the middle section were added as shown in figures 8 and 9. a b figure. 8 hole inlet: (a) pressure nephogram (b) velocity nephogram a b figure 9. middle section of hole: (a) pressure cloud chart (b) velocity cloud chart as shown in figure 8a, the edge color of the molded hole inlet surface was blue-green, while the middle color was orange-red, which meant that the negative pressure in the middle of the molded hole inlet was not equal to the edge, that is, the distribution of the negative pressure at the inlet was uneven, and it could be seen from the figure that the negative pressure at the inlet was between 118.31 and 149.46pa, with a large fluctuation range. therefore, it was necessary to use the surface area method to solve the surface weighted average value of the negative pressure at the inlet, and the result is 129.85pa. according to the previous research, the negative pressure required for seed adsorption must be greater than 50pa, so the negative pressure effect at the inlet of this type of hole met the requirements. figure 8b showed that the velocity at the orifice inlet center is 15.31 m/s, and the color of the orifice inlet edge was the same as that of the middle (considering viscosity, the velocity at the most edge was ignored). this demonstrated that the velocity at the inlet was evenly distributed, which was helpful for seed adsorption. the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 73 published by ideas spread above findings demonstrated that the fluid flow was uniform and the pore structure might achieve negative pressure at the inlet, which initially satisfied the requirements of seed adsorption. figure 9a showed that the color of the air chamber from the mold hole inlet to the mold hole gradually changed from blue-green to orange-yellow, indicating that the negative pressure value gradually decreased, that is, the negative pressure value at the inlet was greater than that in the air chamber, so the mold hole had a good negative pressure effect. figure 9b demonstrated how the color of the air chamber progressively changed from orange-red to turquoise from the orifice inlet to the orifice, showing that the velocity value gradually lowered and a higher air velocity was present at the orifice. the results above showed that the shaped hole's structural properties caused the inlet gas flow to be accelerated, which increased the negative pressure value without causing any loss and results in a superior adsorption effect. in conclusion, the situation of negative pressure generated by this pore structure was consistent with the theoretical results derived from the flow continuity equation and bernoulli equation above and has a good effect in generating a negative pressure, basically meeting the requirements of adsorption seeds. as the axial spacing between the shaped holes was too large, the negative pressure in the holes might be uneven, which would lead to a significant reduction in the seed suction effect of the seed metering device. therefore, it was necessary to study the uniformity of the negative pressure of the molded hole. there were 12 rows of molded holes on the seed metering drum, each row had 6 holes, a total of 72 holes, which were evenly distributed along the circumference of the seed metering drum. the surface integral method was used to calculate the weighted average of the negative pressure at the inlet of each type of hole. the results are shown in figure 10. figure 10. distribution of negative pressure at the hole inlet figure 10 showed that the negative pressure values at the entrance of 72 molded holes were concentrated between 128.75 and 130.75 pa, which was an approximately normal distribution, indicating that this data was true and reliable, which preliminarily proved that the negative pressure at the entrance of molded holes was relatively uniform. a one-way anova was carried out for the axial spacing of the orifice to investigate the uniformity of negative pressure at the orifice inlet further. tables 2 and 4 display the outcomes of the data summary and analysis. table 2. data summary group observations sum average variance 1 12 1559.06 129.922 0.095 2 12 1555.84 129.653 0.139 3 12 1555.49 129.624 0.140 4 12 1555.87 129.656 0.035 5 12 1555.57 129.631 0.265 6 12 1557.46 129.788 0.076 table 3 analysis of variance source of variance ss df ms f p-value f crit within group 0.848 5 0.170 1.355 0.253 2.354 between groups 8.264 66 0.125 sum 9.112 71 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 74 published by ideas spread table 2 showed that the average value range of the six groups of data was 129.624 to 129.922, and the variance range was 0.035 to 0.265. if the value fluctuation was small, the difference between the groups of data was not significant; table 3 showed that f=1.355<fcrit=2.354, p=0.253>0.05, which meant that the difference between the data of each group was very small, that is, the axial spacing had no significant impact on the negative pressure at the entrance of the mold hole, so the negative pressure at the entrance between the holes of this structure was uniform. as shown in figure 11, added a vector and track map to the drum's inside and changed the scale factor and line size. figure 11. vector and trace diagram inside the drum: (a) vector diagram (b) trace diagram figure 11a showed that the vector color at the orifice inlet gradually changed from blue to yellow-green, indicating that the velocity at the inlet tended to increase, which could be attributed to the acceleration of the incoming air flow due to the structural characteristics of the shaped hole. the color of the air chamber of the right fan blade was green, and the color was relatively uniform, indicating that the airflow velocity in the air chamber of the fan blade was relatively stable, which can be explained as that the airflow velocity is fast due to the rotation of the fan blade. figure 11b showed that the trace color changed from light blue to dark blue from the molded hole inlet to the inside of the gas chamber, indicating that the flow rate of gas from the inlet to the gas chamber decreased gradually, which can be explained as the change of gas flow velocity caused by structural change when the gas entered the gas chamber from the molded hole. the trace colors of the left-side perforated air chamber and the right-side fan blade air chamber were different, which proved the effectiveness of the annular baffle to block airflow disturbance. the color of the middle trace of the air chamber of the right fan blade was different from the edge trace, which can be explained by the structural characteristics of the fan blade, resulting in the airflow speed at the edge of the cylinder being faster than that in the middle of the air chamber, and the gas was discharged along the edge of the cylinder. to sum up, according to the internal vector and track of the drum, the annular baffle blocked the airflow disturbance so that the airflow in the shaped hole air chamber was not affected, which was consistent with the original intention of the drum structure design above. however, the air velocity at the inlet of the shaped hole was higher than that in the air chamber of the shaped hole, which was consistent with the analysis conclusion at the shaped hole above. as shown in figure 12, added a pressure nephogram to the drum and adjusted the display range of the values was. figure 12. cloud chart of drum pressure wall figure 12 showed that the wall pressure was divided into two parts: the pressure wall of the left orifice air chamber was green, indicating that the pressure here was negative and the value was very uniform. the wall color of the right fan blade air chamber was orange, indicating that the pressure here was positive and the value fluctuated slightly but was close. this result once again proved the effectiveness of annular baffles in preventing airflow disturbances. since the airflow in the shaped hole air chamber was not disturbed by the airflow in the fan blade air as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 75 published by ideas spread chamber, the internal negative pressure was uniform, providing a good air chamber environment for the seed metering device to adsorb seeds. created the xy section of the drum and added the pressure and speed nephogram, as shown in figure 13. a b figure 13. cloud chart of xy section: (a) pressure cloud chart (b) velocity cloud chart figure 13a showed that the pressure in the xy segment ranged from -134.30 to 20.46 pa. the edge of the fan blade air chamber and the air outlet were under positive pressure, while the left-shaped hole air chamber and the middle of the right fan blade air chamber were under uniform negative pressure. this may be explained by the fact that the annular partition blocked the air flow disturbance generated by the rotation of the fan blade, which caused the negative pressure in the shaped hole air chamber not to be disturbed. in figure 13b, it is depicted that the xy section's velocity ranged from 0 to 14.81 m/s.the velocity at the left-shaped hole air chamber was higher than that at the center of the air chamber, which was consistent with the results of the previous analysis on the shaped hole. in conclusion, the annular baffle had a good effect in blocking the airflow disturbance, and due to the structural characteristics of the molded hole, the incoming airflow was accelerated, which further improved the negative pressure effect at the entrance and further improved the theoretical effect of seed adsorption. therefore, the structure of the seed metering device designed in this study was reasonable, with high theoretical feasibility and reliability. 6. bench experiment the seed metering performance was evaluated to confirm the viability and dependability of the real functioning of the axial air suction drum seed metering mechanism. tomato, pod pepper, and eggplant seeds were employed in this study as sowing items. relevant components of the seed measuring system were processed with 3d printing technology using white abs resin as the material. the test bench was constructed of aluminum alloy profiles, as shown in figure 14. fan blades and seed metering drum were driven by a puss speed regulating motor and induction speed motor (4ik25gn-c) respectively. figure 14. test bench of axial air suction drum seed metering device: 1. puss speed regulating motor 2. coupling 3. seed metering device 4. seat bearing 5. induction speed motor the seed metering drum designed in this paper had 72 holes. combined with the structure size of the drum and the productivity of 600 plates/h of the seeder, the drum speed could be calculated as 8.6 r/min. the speed of the seedas.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 76 published by ideas spread metering device was taken as a fixed parameter, and the speed of the fan blade was taken as a variable working parameter. the test results are shown in table 4. table 4. relationship between fan speed and seed adsorption rate speed/rpm seed adsorption rate of tomato /% seed adsorption rate of pod pepper /% seed adsorption rate of eggplant/% 1500 65.56 67.50 76.67 1800 76.39 76.67 85.28 2100 86.39 87.22 93.06 2400 95.56 96.11 98.06 as can be seen from the above table, the adsorption rate of the seed metering device on tomato seeds, jalapeno seeds, and eggplant seeds reached 86.39,87.22, and 93.06%, respectively, when the rotating speed reached 2100 rpm. when the rotating speed was 2400 rpm, the adsorption rate of the planter on tomato, hot pepper, and eggplant seeds reached more than 95%, which was higher than 90.83% of the qualified rate of sowing of other seed metering devices such as li's pneumatic cylinder precision seeder (li m, 2013) and 86% of the accuracy rate of sowing of small grain vegetable electric seeder developed by du. (du z,2017) therefore, the seed metering device designed in this paper had good seed suction performance. 7. conclusions in this paper, based on the principle of axial flow fan, flow continuity equation, and bernoulli equation, an axial suction drum type seed metering device was designed. its geometric model was established using 3d modeling software. the model pre-processing, mesh generation, and numerical simulation was carried out using cfd-related software, which verified the feasibility of the theoretical operation of the seed metering device. the feasibility and reliability of the actual operation of the seed metering device were verified by bench tests. the following conclusions are drawn based on the aforementioned analyses: 1) the mesh independence check was done to eliminate the influence of mesh size on the accuracy of the numerical simulation. the results showed that: for 1.9 million or more grids, the error was less than 0.5% thus, based on the grid independence test，2.0 million grids were generated in total. 2) the numerical simulation results showed that the airflow at the inlet was accelerated due to the structural characteristics of the shaped hole, and the negative pressure effect at the inlet was therefore improved. according to the surface integration method, the average negative pressure at the orifice inlet was 129.85pa. according to the previous research, the negative pressure required for seed adsorption was>50pa, so it met the design requirements. the single factor variance analysis of the axial spacing of the molded holes showed that the axial spacing had no significant effect on the negative pressure at the entrance of the molded holes, so the uniformity of the negative pressure at the entrance between the various molded holes of the structure was good. the annular baffle in the drum effectively blocked the airflow disturbance, making the negative pressure effect in the shaped hole air chamber not affected by the fan blade air chamber. 3) the bench test results showed that when the fan blade speed reached 2100 rpm, the adsorption rates of the seed metering device on tomato pepper and chaotian seed were more than 85%, and the adsorption rate on eggplant seed was more than 93.06%. when the fan blade speed reached 2400 rpm, the seed metering device could adsorb more than 95% of tomato, hot pepper, and eggplant seeds, indicating that the seed metering device had good seed adsorption performance. 4) the air-suction drum seed-metering device might be constructed much more simply since it did not require a particular vacuum pump and associated pipeline facilities, which greatly simplified the structure of the airsuction drum seed-metering device, and provided a reference for optimizing and improving the key components of the facility seedling precision seeder. acknowledgments this study was funded by major science and technology projects in yunnan province (grant number 202102ae090042-06) and major science and technology projects in yunnan province (grant number 2018zc0014) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 77 published by ideas spread the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. compliance with ethical standards funding this study was funded by major science and technology projects in yunnan province (grant number 202102ae090042-06) and major science and technology projects in yunnan province (grant number 2018zc0014) conflicts of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. references chen, h. t., wang, h. f., & wang, y. c. 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p1 1 published by ideas spread economic analysis of the controlled drainage system: a case study of a vegetable farm in ontario, canada mariela marmillo1 & suren kulshreshtha1 1 department of agricultural and resource economics, university of saskatchewan, saskatoon, sk, canada correspondence: suren kulshreshtha, department of agricultural and resource economics, university of saskatchewan, saskatoon, sk, s7n 5a8, canada. tel: 306-966-4014. e-mail: suren.kulshreshtha@usask.ca received: february 16, 2022 accepted: february 28, 2022 online published: august 2, 2022 the research was financed by the agricultural greenhouse gas program of the agriculture and agri-food canada. abstract water availability for crop production in many parts of the world, including eastern canada, is important, including availability to the root zone of the crops. water table management is suggested to overcome these issues, if adopted by producers. but such adoption decisions often depend on the financial returns to producers. in this study, financial returns of a controlled drainage system were estimated over a subsurface drainage system using a private accounting stance. the bmp provided an additional return to producer of cad $10,287 per ha over the life of the project, associated with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.6, making it financially desirable on economic grounds. keywords: vegetable production, eastern canada, controlled drainage system, financial analysis, net present value 1. introduction 1.1 farmers’ adoption decision making water resources world over are coming under increased pressure. two factors that have exacerbated this situation include increased competition from other water users, and future changes in climate affecting water availability. situation in eastern canada, including the province of quebec, is going to be no different particularly under climate change. in this province, irrigation and drainage practices are necessary to produce high value horticultural crops, such as fruits and vegetables. with an increasing population, decrease in water resources brought forward by climate change and competing uses from other sectors, the concern is that water for irrigation purposes might be less readily available in the future. this situation can pose serious economic risks to agricultural producers and environmental risks to habitats and ecosystems. to sustain both livelihoods and ecosystems, changes in the current agricultural practices, particularly in on-farm water management, are needed. in eastern canada, and in whole of canada, need for improving water use efficiency cannot be overemphasized. the government of canada, through agriculture and agri-food canada (aafc) has developed the agriculture greenhouse gas program (aggp), with four priority areas of research: livestock systems, cropping systems, agricultural water use efficiency and agro-forestry (aafc, 2017). the producers are key players in deciding the success of technological progress, since their interests often differ from those of the governments, and their choices may also be different. however, farmers’ decision to adopt new agricultural (including water management) technologies represents a complex series of options weighing several factors regarding economic and social nature (kulshreshtha & brown, 1993). studies have suggested that a producer will invest in a new technology as long as the economic returns are greater than the returns received in the pre-investment situation (shekhawat, 2007; reimer et al., 2012; oecd, 2012). prokopy et al. (2008) have suggested that farmers’ income levels are hypothesized to have a positive relationship with their willingness to adopt new technologies or innovations. this is because, since most new technologies require relatively high initial investments, farmers with high incomes are more likely to make such investment and ultimately adopt such technologies. moreover, producers with high incomes are more likely to benefit from tax incentives than low-income producers, and therefore they are more likely to adopt new technologies. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 2 published by ideas spread 1.2 water management practices the water management practices are developed for improving water use efficiency, which include application of water to crops and the elimination of water from the crop field, a part of the water table management (wtm) system. improved practices, also called best (or beneficial) management practices (bmp), try to be improve situations such as that the plant is provided water at all times with the amount necessary for its growth, but that it is sufficient so that there is no loss of water due to evaporation or runoff. also, these practices have the capability to control the levels of the water table according to the stage of the growing season, control the efficient application of fertilizer, among others (omafra, 2003). these bmps lead to significant increases in crop yields, improve the quality of the marketable product and the soil, as well as prevent soil erosion (allerhand et al., 2013; nistor and lowenberg-deboer, 2007). vegetable producers have a choice of two technologies: they can continue using the sub-surface drainage or adopt a new bmp of sub-surface drainage with sub-irrigation. in order for these producers to adopt the new technology, more information is needed on the economic change it would bring. information on whether the bmp would improve their profitability for vegetable production is not available at present. this study was undertaken to fill this void. 1.3 objectives of the study the objective of this study was to estimate the economic desirability of adopting the selected bmp technology on a farm in ontario, by calculating the benefits and direct costs associated with the new practice that may affect the producer’s decision to adopt it. in addition, to examine the robustness of the economic results of desirability of the selected bmp through the simulation of changes in factors that could affect the performance of the new technology. this economic desirability analysis was carried out in the framework of a benefit – cost analysis (private accounting perspective), also called financial analysis, as it was based on the incremental net benefits of the bmp technology using the “with and without” criterion. in that sense, the benefits and costs associated with bmp technology were compared with those generated when the new practice has not been adopted, a situation called base technology. 2. method 2.1 study site description the study site selected for this study was called holland marsh, one of the most important region for vegetable production, not only in ontario but also in canada (planscape, 2009; omafra, 2019). the soils in this region are muck soil type, classified as a terric humisol, which have a humic texture, with an organic matter content of about 70-80%, and drain poorly (de sena, 2017, planscape, 2009). in the region, some 7,000 acres are devoted to more than 60 vegetables, including carrots, onions, celery, garlic, mixed greens, beets, cabbage, and other asian vegetables, with a variety of cultivars each. however, the most predominant crop rotation is carrot-onion, whose crop areas together represent more than 70% of the total area for vegetable production in the region (planscape, 2009; tesfaendrias et al., 2010). ontario has a considerable horticultural production. in 2018, it accounted for approximately 44% of total vegetable production in canada, which was 2.4 billion tonnes with a farm gate value of cad $1.2 billion (statistics canada, 2019a; 2019b). in the same year, the most produced vegetable in the country was carrot, generating a farm gate value of cad $129.9 million and ontario contributing with cad $43.5 million. dry onion was the next most-produced vegetable nationwide, after tomato, generating a farm gate value of cad $94.6 million, with ontario accounting for cad $34.8 million (statistics canada, 2019a). in 2019, the harvested area of carrots in ontario was 48,660 ha, which accounted for about 48.2% of the total carrot harvested area in canada (agriculture and agri-food canada, 2020). carrot production is mostly concentrated in southern ontario, where chatam-kent county produces around 50% of the total every year. the other half of the production comes from the holland marsh area, which includes 40% of york region and 60% of simcoe county, in central-west ontario (omafra, 2018a). in the same year, ontario reported a production of 101,885 tonnes of dry onions (marketable) in 2,291 ha, which represented about 42% of the total dry onion harvested area in canada (statistics canada, 2019a). between 65 and 75% of the total onion production in ontario come from the holland marsh (tesfaendrias et al., 2010). the crops in the holland marsh region are mostly rainfed, but since a few years ago, occasional irrigation during the growing season is also provided, particularly during the period of extreme drying of the field. onions need watering during the time of formation and filling of the bulb, while carrots during the spring to as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 3 published by ideas spread help germination of the seed (tesfaendrias et al., 2010). in fact, the optimum soil water content is 54.6% for carrot production (white, 1992). however, due to the characteristics of soil type of these fields, draining is usually required (planscape, 2009). many crop fields in the region have the subsurface (tile) drainage system installed. in fact, approximately 32% of the arable land in ontario is tile-drained (kitchen and kitchen, 2017). the two research fields were located in the holland marsh region, consisting of two commercial farms of 4.05 ha (or about 10 acres) and 6.07 ha (or about 15 acres) each. both farms had a subsurface drainage system, typically consisting of 100 mm diameter perforated plastic pipes that form the lateral tile lines, connected in parallel to a main tile drain which consists of a 150 mm diameter plastic pipe. the soil water enters by infiltration to the laterals and these transfer the water to the main tile (b. singh, personal communication, october 24, 2018). this main tile at both farms transfers water to a well, from where it is pumped into a municipal surface ditch, and subsequently to the holland river which finally flows into cook´s bay of lake simcoe (de sena, 2017; planscape, 2009). 2.2 study scenarios one of these farms (farm i) maintained the subsurface drainage (as noted above the base technology). the main tile drain was 397.5 m long and the lateral tile lines were spaced at 16 m apart. the length of the lateral drainage perforated pipe was estimated at 601.75 m/ha by interpolating the value from the guide on drainage system´s installation provided by simundsson et al. (2016). in addition to the conventional drainage system, the other commercial farm (farm ii) had a control structure for the management of the water table. this structure was installed at the end of the main tile line, just before the well from which water was usually pumped to control the flowing out of the farm. the control structure consisted of a 300 mm diameter highdensity polyethylene (hdpe) shaft, with 150 mm diameter pipe extensions at the bottom. one end of the extension was connected to the (150 mm diameter) main tile and the other led to the well. the structure had two guides, opposite each other on the walls of the structure, in which several stackable gates (stoplogs) can be accommodated within the structure. the gates acted as a blockage to prevent water from free-flowing out of the farm and their established height regulated the water table within the field (de sena, 2017; b. singh, personal communication, october 24, 2018). therefore, the installation of the water level control structure converted the base system into a controlled drainage system (denominated as the bmp technology). farm ii is smaller than farm i. its main tile drain was 265 m long and had nineteen lateral tile lines which were spaced at 9 m apart (b. singh, personal communication, october 24, 2018). the estimated length of the lateral pipe needed was 1090 m/ha, using simundsson et al. (2016), requiring almost 495 m more pipe per ha on the farm ii. regarding crop production, both study farms grew various types of vegetables, but the crop rotation pattern of each farm in recent years was carrot-onion in different cycles (g. grenon, personal communication, february 25, 2019). this analysis assumed that carrots and onions are produced in a three-year cycle rotation (two consecutive years of carrot followed by one of onion) in farm i (under the base technology), while in farm ii (bmp technology) it is a four-year cycle (three consecutive years of carrots and followed by one year of onions). 2.3 sources of data and analysis of the beneficial management practice data needed for the financial analysis were obtained from several sources. details for other components in the design of the two systems were obtained from essien (2016). in fact, the costs of installing both the base and bmp technologies are very similar, except for the water level control structure and its installation. the price quoted by agri drain corporation (2019 price list) for the control structure, suitable for an area of 4 ha, was us$1,094.34, included as canadian funds using an exchange rate of 1.296 cad/usd (bank of canada, 2019). the installation and transportation costs of the control structure were obtained from kitchen and kitchen (2017), which included 2 hours of labor (including materials and equipment) necessary to connect the structure to the drainage system that already exists, plus the float fee based on ontario contractor quotes. the prices of all piping were obtained from the 2019 retail price list through a quote to soleno inc. -a drainage tile contractor listed in the ontario ministry of agriculture, food and rural affairs (omafra). the total price of the accessories (the joints, tees, tapes, etc.) was calculated as 3% of the piping cost, suggested by the technical guideline publication by the quebec reference center for agriculture (craaq, 2010), as well as the cost of the land preparation, which was updated to 2018 prices using the machinery and equipment for crop and animal production price index (statistics canada, 2019c). this price index was also used to update the costs of the well and the water pump at 2018 prices based on the information given in essien (2016). the well was adequate for about 20 hectares of farmland and the pump could serve as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 4 published by ideas spread approximately 4 hectares. investment costs associated with both the technologies totaled cad $6,137 and cad $6,628 per ha for the base technology and bmp technology, respectively (table 1). thus, to install a controlled tile drainage system on an existing subsurface tile drainage system cost cad $490.47 per ha more. table 1. cost of investment for base technology and bmp technology (cad $/acre) item total cost of base technology (cad $/ha) total cost of bmp technology (cad $/ha) cost of the components: 4,742.76 5,093.12 piping: 100 mm diameter lateral tile 1,989.45 1,989.45 150 mm diameter main tile 922.30 922.30 200 mm diameter non-perforated pipe 29.75 29.75 split couplings, tees, tapes, etc. 88.24 88.24 outlet (250 mm) 172.23 172.23 water table control: control structure 0.00 350.36 well 339.52 339.52 pump 1,201.08 1,201.08 cost of installation: 1,271.30 1,271.30 100 mm diameter lateral tile 1,031.20 1,031.20 150 mm diameter main tile 235.19 235.19 200 mm diameter non-perforated pipe 4.92 4.92 control structure (inc. transport) 0.00 56.69 cost of land preparation: 123.20 140.08 total investment cost 6,137.25 6,627.72 source: detail of the components involved in the technologies from essien (2016), unit costs of pipe from soleno.inc (2019), accessories and land preparation from craaq (2010), installation and transportation costs from kitchen and kitchen (2017) and unit costs for components of the water table control system from essien (2016). prices were updated to 2018 prices using the machinery and equipment for crop and animal production price index (statistics canada, 2019c). for the estimation of revenues, data on carrot yield for the growing season 2015 and 2016 for both technologies and both study farms were obtained from de sena (2017). carrot prices for those years were obtained from the annual average price of the horticultural crops report in ontario (omafra, 2018a). the average provincial onion yields and prices were used in this study, obtained from the horticulture report by omafra (2018b). due to a lack of evidence regarding the performance of onion productivity when switching from conventional drainage systems to controlled drainage, this study assumed that there was no difference in yield between onions grown under the base technology or the bmp technology. these yields are shown in table 2. table 2. carrot revenues with base technology and bmp technology year price ($/kg) base technology bmp technology yield (kg/ha) gross revenue (cad $/ha) yield (kg/ha) gross revenue (cad $/ha) 2015 0.2316 85,131 19,716.32 70,582 16,346.41 2016 0.2281 59,165 13,495.68 61,417 14,009.53 sources: carrot yield from de sena (2017) and carrot prices from omafra (2018a). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 5 published by ideas spread among the fixed costs considered were the cost for maintenance and repair of both systems´ components, and the depreciation of existing machinery and equipment on the farm. the maintenance and repair costs of the pipe system and the pump were estimated as a fixed percentage, 0.25% and 1% respectively, of their initial investment cost (evans et al., 1996). no cost was assumed for the well as suggested by evans et al. (1996). agri drain corporation (2019) recommends the lubrication of the stoplogs as the only maintenance of the control structure. following (crabbé et al., 2012), this cost was estimated assuming two lubrications of the stoplogs per year (one when the height is raised in the growing season and the other when it falls after harvesting), which meant two hours of work at cad $18.50 per hour, calculated as the average agricultural work wage in ontario obtained from esdc (2019), plus the lube that costs us$9.41 (cad $12.20) per tube for each application. depreciation of existing capital assets were estimated in accordance with the operating budget developed by the quebec reference center for agriculture, for a farm producing carrots and onions, with good technical and economic efficiency (craaq, 2008). these included a shed, a warehouse with refrigeration, and machinery and equipment of the farm, with depreciation rates of 3% (of $656.67/acre), 3.6% (of $1,440.28/acre), and 7% (cad $5,199.29/acre), respectively. they were updated to 2018 prices using the farm input price index (statistics canada, 2019d) for depreciation on machinery and equipment in ontario. therefore, the total annual fixed cost of the base technology was estimated at cad $1,585 per ha while that for the bmp technology at cad $1,600 per ha, the difference between the two systems was the cost of the control structure maintenance (table 3). table 3. fixed costs under base technology and bmp technology ($/ha) item base technology (cad $) bmp technology (cad $) repair and maintenance: piping 8.01 8.01 well 0.00 0.00 pump 12.01 12.01 control structure 0.00 15.17 depreciation on existing capital: shed of machinery and equipment (3%) 70.70 70.70 warehouse with refrigerated section for carrot (3.6%) 186.39 186.39 machinery and equipment (7%) 1,308.25 1,308.25 total fixed costs 1,585.32 1,600.49 source: repair and maintenance costs from evans et al. (1996), crabbé at al. (2012), agri drain corporation (2019), depreciation data from craaq (2008) and wage rates from esdc (2019). operating costs were estimated using data obtained from different sources due to a lack of budgets for production costs of horticultural products for ontario. for the two technologies, costs were very similar, except for fertilizer cost, which was lower under the controlled drainage system because the control structure was effective to retain the nutrients in the field and avoid additional application of fertilizer throughout the growing season (de sena, 2017). carrot and onion seeds included were those that had the best marketable performance in the holland marsh (tesfaendrias et al., 2010; zandstra et al., 1986a; zandstra et al., 1986b). the quantities used and their prices were obtained (2019 price list) from stokes seeds inc. (2019). details on fertilizers and micronutrients used for carrots were obtained from the on-site study (de sena, 2017), while suggestions of mcdonald et al. (2018) and zandstra et al. (1986b) for muck soils were followed for onions. the input prices were obtained from the survey of farm supply stores conducted by the university of guelph in ontario in order to collect retail prices (u of g, 2018). the quantity used of pesticides for carrot and onion production and their market prices were obtained from the guideline provided by the quebec reference center for agriculture (craaq, 2008), given that the majority of carrot and onion production occurs in ontario and quebec, so they also share the issues regarding pests (aafc, 2018a). all costs were updated to 2018 prices using the farm input index price for pesticides (statistics canada, 2019d). the hours of labor required for farming operations were taken from the publication for vegetable farms in quebec (craaq, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 6 published by ideas spread 2008). then, costs charged per hour for other operation activities (chiseling, sowing, application of fertilizer and spraying of agrochemicals, weed control, miscellaneous as snow removal, etc.), were obtained from the ontario´s custom farm work rates survey (omafra, 2018c). although these costs were for general activities, they were considered a good approximation for the production of horticultural crops. the largest cost items in both carrot and onion production was that for seed (table 4). cost on per ha basis were slightly lower for the bmp technology compared to the base technology for both carrots and onions. 2.4 financial analysis the evaluation of the financial desirability of the controlled drainage system (bmp technology) was conducted by developing a simulation model. the benefits and costs associated with both technologies were estimated using a budgeting technique, since the incremental net benefits of the bmp technology were calculated subtracting the net benefits under the base technology from the net benefits under the bmp technology. the salvage value of the systems´ components (piping, pump, well and control structure), calculated at the end of the useful life, was included as a negative cost in the last year of the cost stream (assuming that the asset was installed in the year that the project began). the performance of the investment was evaluated over the useful life of the bmp technology, assumed in 20 years based on the useful life estimated for the control structure (agri drain corporation, 2019; kitchen and kitchen, 2017; crabbé et al., 2012; evans et al., 1996). table 4. operating costs under base technology and bmp technology item carrot onion base technology (cad $/ha) bmp technology (cad $/ha) base technology (cad $/ha) bmp technology (cad $/ha) inputs seed 1,911.02 1,911.02 1,945.52 1,945.52 fertilizer 705.69 407.25 407.25 235.02 insecticides 124.54 124.54 128.42 128.42 herbicides 247.20 247.20 254.86 254.86 fungicides 145.67 145.67 150.16 150.16 cover crop 24.41 24.41 0.44 0.44 sub-total inputs 3,158.53 2,860.09 2,886.65 2,714.42 farming operations chisel plow 22.09 22.09 22.09 22.09 rotary disc 34.12 34.12 20.04 20.04 seeding of cover crops 5.21 5.21 5.21 5.21 fertilizer application 3.24 3.24 6.47 6.47 seeding 77.02 77.02 77.02 77.02 agrochemical spraying 36.92 36.92 61.53 61.53 irrigation 6.99 6.99 10.50 10.50 weed control 150.06 150.06 7.09 7.09 harvesting 368.92 368.92 368.92 368.92 miscellaneous 301.46 301.46 301.46 301.46 hired labor 411.42 411.42 411.42 411.42 sub-total farming expenses 1,417.44 1,417.44 1,291.74 1,291.74 total operating costs 4,575.97 4,277.53 4,178.39 4,006.16 source: carrot and onion seeds from stokes seeds.inc, (2019), required quantities and prices of fertilizers and micronutrients from de sena (2017), mcdonald et al. (2018) and zandstra et al. (1986b) and u of g (2018), required quantities and prices of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides from craaq (2008), labor required from craaq (2008) and other operating costs from (omafra, 2018c). three indicators were used to evaluate financial desirability in this study: net present value (npv), benefitcost ratio (bcr), and pay-back period (pbp). details on their calculation are shown in table 5. under the net present value analysis, the time value of future benefits and costs are taken into account. in other words, they were expressed in present-day values by discounting, and compared to the investment initial cost of each as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 7 published by ideas spread technology. the inflation rate was not included in the analysis since it affects equally to both inputs and output prices (singh and christen, 2000). the discount rate was estimated at 8.78% using the weighted average cost of capital suggested by boehlje and eidman (1984), which consists of assigning weights to the costs of debt and equity (equation 1), which leads to return on investment after-tax. 𝑟 = 𝐾 𝑊 + 𝐾 (1 − 𝑡)𝑊 (1) where, r is the discount rate, ke is the rate of return on equity capital, we is the proportion of equity capital, kd is the interest rate on debt, t is the income tax rate, and wd is the proportion of debt. the return on equity used was 10.2% based on estimations developed by farm credit canada of the canadian farming sector return on equity (roe) for the 2018-2019 fiscal year (fcc, 2018). the interest rate used was 3.64% based on the monthly average of the prime business loan rate in 2018 (x. zhang, personal communication, june 6, 2019). the proportions of equity capital and debt used were established in 80.5% and 19.5%, respectively, as the 10-year average (20082017) of the equity/asset and debt/asset ratios calculated for ontario (statistics canada, 2019b). the income tax rate used was 20%, as a reasonable rate of taxable income in the province (cra, 2018). table 5. desirability indicators used for financial evaluation. desirability indicator formula decision criteria unit net present value (npv) ∑ 𝐵𝑡(1+𝑖)𝑡𝑛𝑡=0 − ∑ 𝐶𝑡(1+𝑖)𝑡𝑛𝑡=0 npv > 0 $/acre benefit-cost ratio (bcr) ∑ 𝐵𝑡(1+𝑖)𝑡𝑛𝑡=0 ∑ 𝐶𝑡(1+𝑖)𝑡𝑛𝑡=0 bcr > 1 $ gained for every $1 spend pay-back period 𝑃𝐵𝑃 = 𝑝 p is no of years the revenue and production cost data for the 20 years of the project´s life span (2019-2038), were projected based on a stochastic simulation using the random number generation tool of the r-project program. a skewnormal distribution to forecast prices and crop yields was assumed, based on the reviewed literature that found marked skewness and kurtosis in statistical distribution of commodity prices and crop yields (trautman et al., 2012; ramírez et al., 2003; atwood et al., 2003). the coefficients: mean, standard deviation, and skewness (positive or negative) of these variables were calculated for the historical data available. market prices for the period 1979-2018 were obtained from omafra (2018a; 2019b). since carrots yields were limited to 2 years in this site (2015 and 2016), the average yield data reported by the province were used to estimate the standard deviation and skewness coefficients. for onions yield data instead, the three coefficients were calculated from the average annual yield data reported by the province (omafra 2018a; 2019b). on the other hand, the operating costs were forecasted using a normal distribution, based on results of risk analysis (for agricultural insurances) studies (jacques, 2014; sossou et al., 2014). foremost, 10 years of data (from 2018 to 2027) were estimated using the farm input price index projections provided by aafc (2018b), from which were obtained the mean and standard deviation for forecasting the rest of the years until 2038. 2.5 sensitivity analysis the financial performance of the bmp technology may be affected by variations in certain economic and non-economic factors due to uncertainties associated with future events. the evaluation of the robustness of desirability indicators involved four factors for both base and bmp technology: crop price, crop yield, investment cost, and discount rate, and the estimation of the break-even point in each one. 2.5.1 change in crop prices the medium-term outlook developed by aafc has foreseen an increase of 1.8% for vegetable prices by 2027, which constitutes a slow recovery to the fall in the fruit and vegetable market in 2017 when prices decreased by 1.9% (aafc, 2018b). on the other hand, there are some reasons why the production of vegetables is increasing during the last few years, among them is the creation of new and more reliable horticultural production practices, such as tests and trials on varieties according to the characteristics of the farm (wilton et al., 2018; tesfaendrias et al., 2010) and pest control programs (canadian horticultural as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 8 published by ideas spread council, 2019). these improved farming practices are positive for productivity; however, the increase in supply and large stocks could bring prices down in the future. thus, a price increase of 1.8% was assumed in an optimistic scenario; while reductions of 1.9%, 5% and an extreme value of 50% in the price of carrot and onion each were assumed as pessimistic scenarios for the sensitivity analysis prices for the period ending 2038. 2.5.2 change in crop yields this study assumed that carrot and onion yield variations will be mainly because of changes in future climate patterns. according to statistics, in the period 1948-2016, the temperatures in ontario have increased by up to 1.3°c annually on average (cohen et al. 2019), and rainfall occurrences have become more variable since 1950, especially in the region southwest of the province (chiotti and lavender, 2008). by 2050, temperatures increase of up to 3.3°c are projected over the 1981-2010 base period. for rainfall, results ae mixed (morand et al., 2017; qian et al. 2019). studies have suggested that horticultural crops are more sensitive to periods of hot days and the number of days during the growing season with precipitation (mckeown et al., 2005). mckeown et al. (2005) reported yield losses in many vegetables when they were exposed to temperatures above 30°c coupled with fewer days with rainfall. a review of the literature revealed that the growth, maturity and marketable yield of carrots and onions are highly influenced by weather conditions. adequate water availability (especially for the development of the bulb) and fertile soils are critical factors for the growth of onions (rekila et al. 2014). hussain et al. (2008) found that the optimum good-quality carrots grow with a temperature not greater than 21°c, while de ruiter (1986) concluded that for the best onions production, no higher than 26°c is ideal. based on the above information, it is expected vegetable yields would decrease in a future climate change scenario. sorensen et al. (1997) reported a reduction of up to 28% in marketable carrot yields during drought periods in research conducted in sandy loam soils. that percent variation was used in this sensitivity analysis for carrot and onion yield variation, along with simulated reductions of 7%, 14%, while for an optimistic scenario, a 7% yield increase was considered. 2.5.3 change in discount rate since the choice of the discount rate takes into account the potential relative risk of the investment (selvavinayagam, 1991), previous studies used different discount rates when undertaking financial or economic analysis of agricultural projects. this sensitivity analysis has analyzed the impact on the desirability indicators of adopting the bmp technology using other discount rates: 3.75% (essien 2016; tyndall and roesch-mcnally 2014), 5% (bogdan 2019) and 10% (trautman et al., 2012). 3. results 3.1 financial evaluation the financial viability of both subsurface drainage system (base technology) and controlled drainage system (bmp technology) was undertaken over 20 years of project life (2019-2038) and using a discount rate of 8.78%. both technologies were found to be financially desirable since their npv indicators are positive (table 6). however, the bmp technology was the most attractive alternative, with an incremental net benefit of cad $10,287 (about 34.7%) per ha over the net returns under the base technology, over the project´s life. this means that the controlled drainage system provides 34.7% higher profits relative to the conventional subsurface drainage system. the bcr indicators are greater than 1, following the decision rule, which means that the producer earns for his investment about 60 cents for every cad $1 spent per acre. furthermore, the time required to earn back the investment is less than a year. therefore, the results on financial analysis suggest that producing carrots and onions in a rotation system using the controlled drainage technology is economically more attractive than a system without the control drainage. table 6. financial indicators of the desirability of base technology and bmp technology indicator base technology (subsurface drainage) bmp (controlled drainage) net present value r=8.78% (cad $/ha) 29,612 39,899 benefit-cost ratio (gain for every cad $1 spent/ha) 1.5 1.6 pay-back period (year) 0.9 0.7 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 9 published by ideas spread 3.2 results of sensitivity analysis the conclusions on the financial desirability of the bmp technology over the baseline scenario do not change if the carrot and onion prices increase by 1.8% (suggested by the forecasts) as shown in table 7. likewise, if prices were to decrease by 1.9 or 5%, the bmp technology continues being the most financially desirable option. under these scenarios, the other indicators (bcr and pay-back period) remain without significant changes. however, in the hypothetical scenario that carrots and onions prices decline by 50%, then both technologies are no longer viable. the results also revealed that crop prices have to decline in more than 31% for the npv of the base technology to become zero, whereas that for the bmp technology, the prices decrease would have to be in about 38.8% with respect to the baseline scenario. table 8 shows the change in financial indicators if the carrot and onion yields changes under likely future climatic adverse effects on crop yields. as expected, an increase in yields of both crops by 7% maintains the bmp technology as the most desirable option compare to the base technology. however, yield reductions decrease the financial attractiveness of the technologies. in the scenario of a yield reduction of 14%, for example, the npv indicators decrease by around 83% and 67% with the base technology and bmp technology, respectively. however, in both cases, the controlled drainage has a better financial performance than the subsurface drainage. if the crop yields were to be reduced by 28%, both the technologies would become unattractive on financial grounds. the break-even yield level for this site indicates that the controlled drainage technology (bmp) would continue to be worthwhile even if there is a reduction in the yields of both carrot and onion by 17.2%, but the base technology would no longer be a viable alternative. on the other hand, when the percentage of decrease in yields is as low as 21.8%, the bmp would produce losses as well. table 7. sensitivity of financial indicators of the base technology and bmp technology to change in carrot and onion prices financial indicator system % change in crop prices* +1.8% 0%** -1.9% -5% -50% break-even prices -31.4% -38.824% npv1 base tech. 31,310 29,612 27,821 24,898 -17,539 0 -7,000 bmp tech. 41,750 39,899 37,947 34,762 -11,485 7,630 0 bcr2 base tech. 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 0.7 1.0 0.9 bmp tech. 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 0.8 1.1 1.0 pay-back period3 base tech. 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 26.3 10.9 28.3 bmp tech. 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 23.8 3.1 20.0 * percent change from the base simulation ** results of base simulation 1 net present value at r=8.78% (cad $/ha), 2 benefit-cost ratio (gain for every $1 spent/ha), 3 no. of years. table 8. sensitivity of financial indicators of the base technology and bmp technology to change in carrot and onion yields financial indicator system % change in crop yield* +7% 0%** -7% -14% -28% break-even yield -17.175% -21.784% npv1 base tech. 43,277 29,613 16,872 5,056 -15,805 0 -6,998 bmp tech. 54,792 39,899 25,348 13,138 -9,595 7,630 0 bcr2 base tech. 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.8 1.0 0.9 bmp tech. 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.2 0.8 1.1 1.0 pay-back period3 base tech. 0.7 0.9 4.3 8.5 48.8 20.0 43.4 bmp tech. 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.4 40.7 8.2 20.0 * percent change from the base simulation ** results of base simulation 1 net present value at r=8.78% (cad $/ha), 2 benefit-cost ratio (gain for every $1 spent/ha), 3 no. of years. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 10 published by ideas spread the discount rate sensitivity analysis (see table 9) shows that the npv indicators of technologies increase as the discount decreases. with the lower discount rate of 3.75%, the npv values in both cases are higher, increasing up to 60% with the base technology, and up to 56% with the bmp technology. with the controlled drainage system (bmp) being the most attractive alternative at all times. furthermore, increasing the discount rate from 8.78% to 10% results in a decrease of npv values by 9.9% and 9%, respectively, for the base and bmp technologies. however, the bcr and pay-back period indicators remain the same under any scenario. therefore, regardless of the discount rate scenario analyzed, the controlled drainage system (bmp) maintains its better financial attractiveness compared with the conventional subsurface drainage system. the break-even discount rates, referred to as the internal rate of return (irr), indicate that the discount rate would have to be greater than 76.9% for the base technology to cease to be financially viable. on the other hand, a discount rate of more than 125% would be necessary for the npv indicator in the bmp technology to be zero. this implies that the investment in both technologies would be highly profitable and in the bmp technology even more. discount rates would have to increase by a very large magnitude before these technologies become economically unattractive. table 9. sensitivity of financial indicators of the base technology and bmp technology to change in discount rate value financial indicator system level of discount rate 10% 8.78%* 5% 3.75% break-even (irr) 76.89% 125.6% npv1 base tech. 26,684 29,612 41,916 47,446 0 -1,838 bmp tech. 36,301 39,899 55,217 62,195 3,017 0 bcr2 base tech. 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.8 bmp tech. 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.2 1.0 pay-back period3 base tech. 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 18.8 47.8 bmp tech. 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.3 10.3 * rate used for the base simulation 1 net present value at r=8.78% (cad $/ha), 2 benefit-cost ratio (gain for every $1 spent/ha), 3 no. of years. 4. discussion this study was undertaken using data available on the relevant characteristics of the study farm, such as cultural practices (most commonly rotation patterns, fertilizer application, labor, etc.), as well as the design and characteristics of the baseline system (subsurface drainage) and the experimental beneficial water management system (controlled drainage). the budgets used for the analysis where developed based on average costs estimated according to data available for a profitable farm with good performance in the region where the greatest production of vegetables is concentrated. the farm-level economic evaluation concluded that the controlled drainage system is a more desirable alternative when compared to the conventional subsurface (tile) drainage system. controlled drainage system improves yield of carrots and onions. the incremental costs of installation are only cad $15 per ha, which constitute less than one percent of the total cost of installation. furthermore, the bmp technology performance is robust to changes in some economic and non-economic factors. the prices of crops in the market (for carrots and onions) could vary (decrease) without affecting immediately the financial attractiveness of the bmp technology. even climate change, that is expected to play an important role in the variability of horticultural crop yields, does not have very severe results on the desirability indicators that can quickly put at risk the attractiveness of the controlled drainage system. this study has undertaken the farm-level economic analysis in two commercial vegetable producing farms in ontario. the study involved a comparison of the controlled drainage system as the bmp technology and the conventional subsurface drainage system as the base technology. moreover, it was assumed that onions and carrots are grown in a three-year cycle rotation (two consecutive years of carrot followed by one of onion) under the base technology, and four-year cycle (three consecutive years of carrot and followed by one year of onion) under the bmp. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 11 published by ideas spread this would imply that producers from ontario, who are involved in vegetable production and whose farms have the characteristics of this case study, may be interested in adopting the improved water management practice since it is an alternative that will allow them to generate higher net returns than those generated by the current drainage technology. the technology is even more attractive because the time to recover the investment is very short. 5. data availability some data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. all data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the submitted article. some data, models, or code used during the study were provided by a third party. direct requests for these materials may be made to the provider as indicated in the acknowledgements. acknowledgments funding received from agriculture and agri-food canada under the agriculture greenhouse gas program is gratefully acknowledged. we are also thankful to professor chandra madramootoo of the mcgill university, for his advice and support of this work. assistance provided by b. singh, g. grenom and x. zhang for providing information is also gratefully acknowledged. references aac (agricultural adaptation council). 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(1986b). commercial vegetable recommendations: onions. extension bulletin e-1307. cooperative extension service of the michigan state university. retrieved from https://www.canr.msu.edu/resources/onions_commercial_vegetable_recommendations_e1307 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p9-20 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p9 9 published by ideas spread effect of different nutrient solutions and multiple bio-stimulant dosages on yield and growth of capsicum annuum in soilless system edouard tabet1, lynn samia1, suzy rouphael1, chadi hosri2, elie awad3 & dalida darazy4 1 faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 2 faculty of agriculture, department of animal production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 3 faculty of agriculture, department of basic sciences, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 4 faculty of agriculture, department of plant protection, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon correspondence: edouard tabet, faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon. tel: 61-365-5178. e-mail: received: january 21, 2025 accepted: february 10, 2025 online published: february 11, 2025 abstract this study evaluates the impact of two nutrient solutions (f1 and f2) and varying dosages of the plant bio-stimulant atomes f.d.inc. bio sciences php®, (d1 = 50 ml, d2 = 100 ml, d3 = 150 ml, and d0 = control) on the growth and yield of capsicum annuum in a hydroponic system. the results demonstrate that f2 significantly enhanced overall plant growth and yield compared to f1, with notable increases in fruit count (25±10 vs. 24±9), average fruit width (8.31±1.02 cm vs. 8.03±1.00 cm), average fruit length (11.79±1.19 cm vs. 11.55±0.89 cm), and total yield weight (2.85±0.89 kg vs. 2.68±0.91 kg). plants treated with d3 exhibited the highest yield, with a total fruit weight of 3.90 kg, compared to 1.69 kg in the control group (d0). d3-treated plants also produced an average of 37 fruits, while d0 produced only 13. conversely, d0-treated plants resulted in larger individual fruit sizes, with an average fruit width of 8.98 cm and a length of 13.20 cm, compared to 7.89 cm and 10.91 cm in d3-treated plants. these findings underscore the importance of precise nutrient management and bio-stimulant applications in optimizing hydroponic bell pepper production. future research should focus on long-term economic feasibility and large-scale implementation strategies. keywords: capsicum annuum, hydroponics, nutrient solutions, bio-stimulants, soilless agriculture 1. introduction capsicum annuum l., widely recognized as bell pepper, is a crop of global significance due to its high nutritional value and economic importance. in addition to its prominent role in culinary applications, bell peppers are rich in antioxidants and vitamins, offering numerous health benefits (swamy, 2023; kelley et al., 2009). global demand for capsicum annuum has led to an expansion in its cultivation area, with a harvested area of 2.055 million hectares reported in 2021 (faostat, 2023). hydroponics has emerged as an efficient and sustainable cultivation method, allowing precise control of nutrient supply, reduced water usage, and year-round production (sardare & admane, 2013). however, optimizing hydroponic systems for capsicum annuum requires the integration of suitable nutrient solutions and bio-stimulants. bio-stimulants, such as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (pgpr) and other natural extracts, enhance nutrient absorption, root biomass, and crop yield (rouphael & colla, 2020). despite its advantages, hydroponics adoption in lebanon faces barriers such as technical challenges and financial constraints (tabet et al., 2020). this study investigates the effects of different nutrient formulations and bio-stimulant dosages on the growth and productivity of capsicum annuum, providing actionable insights into optimizing hydroponic pepper cultivation. 2. materials and methods 2.1 description of the work the experiment took place between april and august 2024 at the lebanese university's agricultural research and training center (crfa) in ghazir, keserwan district, situated 550 meters above sea level. the greenhouse covered 224 m² and contained 48 substrate bags, each planted with three capsicum annuum seedlings. the plants underwent seven harvests, with the first on july 2, 2024, and the final on august 13, 2024. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 10 published by ideas spread 2.2 meteorological data according to an online resource (timeanddate.com), the temperature during the production phases ranged from 15 to 34 degrees celsius, with an average maximum humidity of 66 to 72%. 2.3 variety of bell pepper, type of substrate and bio-stimulant the experiment used sweet pepper sultan f1, a bell pepper variety from the united states, for its robust development and significant green fruits. it was recommended to plant after the final frost in april, ensuring nighttime temperatures exceed 13 degrees celsius. three-plant coco peat bags were purchased from hawa agri, and biosciences php®, a rhizobacterial-based bio-stimulant from atomes f.d. inc. company, was used to promote root growth and overall plant growth. 2.4 substrate bags and planting the coco peat bags were submerged in water for over 24 hours to expand the substrate. after being removed, they were placed in a greenhouse to install an irrigation system, complete with spaghetti and main pipes, and bell pepper seedlings were planted in the bags. 2.5 fertigation the fertigation of capsicum annuum was executed using a dosatron at the irrigation station of the center, with drippers at a 12 l/h flow rate. fertilizers were made independently and weighed using a precision balance. fertilizers were mixed with consideration of element compatibility to prevent precipitation and ensure nutrient availability. one tank contained calcium nitrate and iron chelate, while the other housed phosphates and sulfates. the production cycle included two phases: vegetative development (0-6 weeks) and blooming and fruiting (6-16 weeks). the ingredients for the two fertilization recipes are listed in table 1. table 1. components of f1 and f2 nutrient recipes during the two phases of the production cycle in ppm components of fertilization formulas phase i 0-6 weeks phase ii 6 – 12+ weeks f1 f2 f1 f2 nitrogen (n) 237.50 224.00 376.18 189.00 phosphorus (p) 140.70 47.00 125.00 47.00 potassium (k) 216.60 281.00 434.00 351.00 calcium (ca) 57.00 212.00 171.00 190.00 magnesium (mg) 39.72 65.00 75.85 60.00 iron (fe) 12.53 2.00 13.95 2.00 manganese (mn) 4.97 0.55 4.46 0.55 zinc (zn) 1.02 0.33 5.84 0.33 boron (b) 2.44 0.28 2.20 0.28 copper (cu) 0.13 0.05 0.85 0.05 molybdenum (mo) 0.11 0.05 0.10 0.05 2.6 bio-stimulant the bio-stimulant was administered in three doses: 50 ml, 100 ml, and 150 ml, applied to two bags using the same fertilization recipe within the same block. it was applied once a week for the first month and twice every two weeks for the rest of the experiment. the bio-stimulant was mixed in water and rested for 30 minutes before application. the solution was manually administered to the seedlings, ensuring uniform distribution of the biostimulant to each seedling. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 11 published by ideas spread 2.7 experimental design the experiment involved 48 bags divided into two groups based on fertilization recipes (f1 and f2) and dosages (d1, d2, d3, and d0). the setup followed a split-split plot design with three repetitions. each block had two fertilization recipes and three dosages, with two bags acting as the control group (d0). the harvest period was also considered as a sub-factor. the temperature recorded from the first day of harvest to the last day is shown in the graph. daily measurements of electrical conductivity (ec) and ph were taken throughout the experiment, as shown in table 2. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 2ju l24 9ju l24 16 -j ul -2 4 23 -j ul -2 4 30 -j ul -2 4 6a ug -2 4 13 -a ug -2 4 t em pe ra tu re in ° c harvest dates average high average low graph 1. forecast chart showing average high and low temperatures from the 1st harvest till the 7th harvest 48 bags block 1 f1 (6 bags) 2 bags d1 2 bags d2 2 bags d3 2 bags d0 f2 (6 bags) 2 bags d3 2 bags d0 2 bags d2 2 bags d1 block 2 f1 (6 bags) 2 bags d0 2 bags d3 2 bags d1 2 bags d2 f2 (6 bags) 2 bags d1 2 bags d2 2 bags d3 2 bags d0 block 3 f1 (6 bags) 2 bags d3 2 bags d0 2 bags d2 2 bags d1 f2 (6 bags) 2 bags d0 2 bags d3 2 bags d1 2 bags d2 figure 1.the experimental design used as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 12 published by ideas spread table 2. daily measurements of ec and ph fertilization recipe production phase ec ph f1 phase i (0-6 weeks) 1.69 6.5 phase ii (6-12+ weeks) 2.2 6.76 f2 phase i (0-6 weeks) 2.33 6.54 phase ii (6-12+ weeks) 2.49 6.99 2.8 measured parameters the parameters were categorized into two groups: those related to fruits at each harvest and those related to the plant at the end of the experiment. data collection included number of fruits, average fruit length (cm) and width (cm), total yield weight (kg), dry root weight (g) and stem length (cm). measurements were taken using a measuring tape, and yield and roots were weighed using a precision balance. 2.9 statistical analysis the study used general linear model and sigma stat software to analyze data. three-way anova with repeated measures was applied to compare the effects of harvesting, fertilization, and dosage on capsicum annuum fruits, considering a split-split plot design. the analysis included relative parameters like fruit number, relative average width (cm), relative average length (cm), and total yield weight (kg). two-way rm anova was used to compare fertilization and dosage effects on dry root weight (g) and stem length (cm). the duncan test was used to differentiate significant differences between treatments at 0.05%. 3. results and discussion 3.1 effect of variations in harvests on parameters taken at each harvest graph 2. effect of variations in harvests on number of fruits, average width and average length of fruits (cm), and total yield weight (kg) in graph 2, results showed that the first harvest h1 yielded the best results regarding number of fruits, average width and average length of fruits, and total yield weight. data analysis showed that harvesting had a significant effect on all parameters (p-values < 0.001). the average number of fruits dropped from 28 in the first harvest (h1) to 23 in the final. increased temperatures in july and august most likely caused flower and fruit abortions, which is why this drop occurred. erickson and markhart (2001) and díaz-pérez (2010) both reported similar findings. similarly, the average fruit width decreased from 8.49 cm (h1) to 8 cm during the last harvest, presumably due to high temperatures throughout the harvest time. thuy and kenji (2015) discovered that high temperatures greatly alter morphological features such as fruit width. regarding the average length, it declined from 12.13 cm (h1) to 11.46 cm, most likely due to temperature fluctuations in july and august. saha et al. (2010) found that high temperatures severely restrict fruit growth and length. the overall yield weight also reduced considerably, corresponding with research demonstrating that heat 28.00 8.49 12.13 3.15 23.00 8.00 11.46 2.50 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 number of fruits average width of fruits (cm) average length of fruits (cm) total yield weight (kg) h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 13 published by ideas spread stress causes fruit physiological difficulties and flower and fruit abortion, resulting in losses (olle, 2009; angmo et al., 2022). across all parameters, h1 produced the best results. 3.2 effect of variations in nutrient recipes on parameters taken at each harvest in table 3, results showed that f2 produced the best results in terms of number of fruits, average width and average length of fruits, and total yield weight. table 3. effect of variations in nutrient recipes on number of fruits, average width and average length of fruits (cm), and total yield weight (kg) the anova findings showed that nutritional recipes had a substantial impact on all examined parameters (pvalues < 0.001). f2 produced more fruits (25±10) than f1 (24±9), probably due to f1's lower potassium levels in phase i (216.60 ppm < 281.00 ppm), which is crucial throughout the blooming and fruiting stages. potassium has been shown to have a significant impact on plant growth, quality, and yield (imas and bansal, 1999; lester et al., 2006; el-bassiony et al., 2010), with research showing that bell peppers' parameters are improved by higher potassium fertilization (fawzy et al., 2005; sabli and zamri, 2012). a wider average width (8.31±1.02 cm) was also seen in f2 fruits compared to f1 fruits (8.03±1.00 cm), which may have been caused by f1's lower calcium levels in phases i and ii (57 ppm and 171 ppm < 212 ppm and 190 ppm, respectively). fruit size and mass are impacted by calcium's effects on cell division and growth (jing et al., 2024; norton, 2013; ali et al., 2021). the average fruit lengths of f2 were longer (11.79±1.19 cm compared to 11.55±0.89 cm), most likely because phase i had higher potassium levels. potassium has been shown to have significant effects on the length of fruits and plant development traits (kusumiyati et al., 2008), and it is essential for crop yield and quality (pettigrew, 2008), and studies have confirmed its considerable impact on fruit length and plant development characteristics (kusumiyati et al., 2022; somapala et al., 2015). finally, f2 had a larger overall yield weight (2.85±0.89 kg) than f1 (2.68±0.91 kg), which might be attributed to its lower nitrogen levels in phases i and ii (224.00 ppm and 189.00 ppm < 237.50 ppm and 376.18 ppm). according to research, too much nitrogen does not always boost yields or water use efficiency (ayankojo, 2020), and a balanced nitrogen application is crucial for productivity (fao, 2002; aluko, 2015). overall, f2 had better performance across all parameters. 3.3 effect of variations in bio-stimulant dosages on parameters taken at each harvest: in graph 3, results showed that d3 (150 ml) produced the best results in number of fruits and total yield weight. while d0 (control) outperformed the other options in average width and average length of fruits. mean ± standard deviation of: source of variation: f1 f2 number of fruits 24±9 25±10 average width of fruits (cm) 8.03±1.00 8.31±1.02 average length of fruits (cm) 11.55±0.89 11.79±1.19 total yield weight (kg) 2.68±0.91 2.85±0.89 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 14 published by ideas spread graph 3. effect of variations in bio-stimulant dosages on number of fruits, average width and average length of fruits (cm), and total yield weight (kg) data analysis showed that the bio-stimulant doses had significant effects on all tested parameters (p-values < 0.001). in terms of number of fruits, d3 (150 ml) produced the most, its efficiency in enhancing the fruit set, whereas the control group (d0) had the fewest. this is consistent with previous studies demonstrating the involvement of bio-stimulants' in improving blooming, growth, fruit set, and nutrient efficiency (colla and rouphael, 2015; ricci et al., 2019). ertani et al. (2015) found that bio-stimulants considerably boosted the fruit yield in c. annuum. conversely, the control group (d0) had the largest average fruit width, with d3 generating the smallest fruits. higher bio-stimulant doses may produce excessive vegetative growth, limiting the resources available for the fruit development and increasing shading under the canopy (cmanneri, 2010). according to research, pruning can prevent excessive vegetative growth while also improving fruit size and quality. similarly, the average fruit length was highest in the control group d0 (12.6 cm) and lowest in d3 (10.91 cm), indicating that vigorous plant development might result in smaller fruits (kumar et al., 2019). however, pgpr has been shown to increase fruit size, including length and diameter, in many studies (zapata-sifuentes et al., 2022; camacho-rodríguez et al., 2022). in terms of total yield weight, d3 (150 ml) had the greatest yield (3.90 kg), whereas the control group (d0) had the lowest yield (1.69 kg), most likely owing to the larger number of fruits produced with appropriate bio-stimulant administration. this conclusion aligns with previous studies where a greater fruit count is a primary driver of higher production (ombódi et al., 2019; zapata-sifuentes et al., 2022). despite the limitations in fruit size parameters, d3 was shown to be the most effective dose for increasing fruit output. 3.4 effects of interactions between different nutrient recipes, harvests, and bio-stimulant dosages on parameters taken at each harvest in table 4, the results show that the f2d3 yielded the best results in terms of the number of fruits and total yield weight, while f2d0 produced the greatest results regarding the average width and length of fruits. 13.0 8.8 12.6 1.7 20.0 8.5 12.3 2.7 28.0 7.9 11.1 2.9 37.0 7.7 10.9 3.9 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 number of fruits average width of fruits (cm) average length of fruits (cm) total yield weight (kg) d0 d1 d2 d3 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 15 published by ideas spread table 4. effect of interactions between nutrient recipes and bio-stimulant dosages on number of fruits, average width and average length of fruits (cm), and total yield weight (kg) the anova table revealed that only the recipe × dosage treatment interaction was significant for all assessed parameters. f2d3 (37.67±4.93) produced the most fruits, while f1d0 (control) had much lower fruit counts. this emphasizes the significance of coupling optimum nutrient formulations with bio-stimulant doses, as fertilizers alone are insufficient to maximize efficiency (anton-herrero et al., 2023). these findings are in accordance with a study proving that bio-stimulant treatment increased fruit numbers and overall yield (golian et al., 2024). regarding the average fruit width, f2d0 generated the largest average fruit width (8.98±1.78 cm), while f1d2 resulted in smaller fruits (7.69±0.24 cm). this may be linked to plant size and the balance of fruit load and photosynthetic resources (raharris, 2023). ding et al. (2017) highlighted the need of maintaining a sustainable crop load for consistent production and quality. however, the control group's greater width contradicts a previous study that pgpr treatment often improves fruit size (zapata-sifuentes et al., 2022). for average fruit length, f2d0 yielded the longest fruits (13.20±1.32 cm), while f1d2 produced shorter fruits (10.87±0.28 cm). the decline in fruit size observed with greater bio-stimulant dosages might be attributed to resource competition caused by excessive fruit production (cmanneri, 2010). a similar experiment on c. annuum found longer fruits in the control group with reduced fruit yield (chaitra et al., 2024). finally, for the total yield weight, f2d3 had the largest yield (4.05±0.49 kg), while f1d0 had the lowest (1.52±0.24 kg). this is in accordance with studies confirming the efficacy of pgpr in increasing fruit yield and nutritional value (de andrade et al., 2023; ertani et al., 2014; pereira et al., 2016). across all parameters, other interactions showed minor but statistically insignificant differences. the interaction between the recipe and the dosage treatment had a significant effect on the fruit production parameters. f2d3 consistently outperformed in most measurements, whereas f2d0 excelled in fruit size. this emphasizes the significance of balancing fertilizer content and bio-stimulant treatments to improve hydroponic bell pepper development. 3.5 effect of variations in nutrient recipes on parameters taken at the end of the experiment in table 5, results showed that f2 outperformed f1 in both dry root weight and stem length. table 5. effect of variations in nutrient recipes on dry root weight (g) and stem length (cm) mean ± standard deviation of: source of variation: f1 f2 dry root weight (g) 194.33±117.42 205.33±127.33 stem length (cm) 135.08 ± 9.90 136.79±10.07 the anova results revealed that the different nutrient recipes did not significantly influence the dry root weight and stem length (p-value > 0.05). despite a lack of statistical significance, f2 performed slightly better than f1, with average dry root weights of 205.33±127.33 g compared to 194.33±117.42 g. similar experiments on c. annuum l. found no significant influence of the npk fertilizer on the root dry weight (ichwan et al., 2023). for stem length, f2 had a small edge in stem length with no statistically significant effect, measuring 136.79±10.07 cm compared to 135.08±9.90 cm in f1. however, the lack of statistical significance might be attributed to source of variation: mean ± standard deviation number of fruits: average width of fruits (cm): average length of fruits (cm): total yield weight (kg): f1d1 20.33±2.50 8.45±0.34 12.32±0.54 2.68±0.43 f1d2 27.19±3.12 7.69±0.24 10.87±0.28 2.80±0.39 f1d3 34.95±3.75 7.96±0.24 11.17±0.25 3.74±0.64 f1d0 13.24±2.34 8.01±1.90 11.86±1.22 1.52±0.24 f2d1 19.19±2.40 8.59±0.24 12.14±0.41 2.68±0.29 f2d2 28.33±2.94 7.77±0.22 10.91±0.25 2.90±0.32 f2d3 37.67±4.93 7.89±0.19 10.91±0.24 4.05±0.49 f2d0 13.57±2.06 8.98±1.78 13.20±1.32 1.79±0.32 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 16 published by ideas spread nutritional imbalances or a high plant load, which could hinder stem development (kaarsemaker, 2018). furthermore, a study of increasing npk levels in bell pepper development discovered no significant influence on stem length (toungos, 2017). f2 had a marginal advantage in both parameters, although the differences were not statistically significant, emphasizing the necessity of balanced nutrient treatments and the possibility of biostimulants to improve plant growth. 3.6 effect of variations in bio-stimulant dosages on parameters taken at the end of the experiment in graph 4, results showed that d3 outscored the other options in terms of dry root weight and stem length. the data analysis revealed a significant effect of bio-stimulant dosages on both dry root weight and stem length (p-value < 0.001). among the treatments, d3 (150 ml) generated the highest dry root weight at 386.33 g, whereas d0, the control group, produced the lightest roots, averaging 83.33 g. this result can be related to the effect of biosciences php in transferring helpful bacteria into the root zone (atomes f.d. inc., 2023). such bacteria, particularly plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium (pgpr), have been found to change the root architecture, increasing the total surface area accessible for nutrient and water absorption, resulting in improved plant growth and health (barnawal et al., 2019). grover et al. (2021) demonstrated that several pgpr species alter the root architecture by creating phytohormones, volatile organic compounds, and secondary metabolites, which improve the rhizosphere's nutrition exchange capacity. similarly, d3 (150 ml) produced the longest stems, measuring 148.12 cm compared with 123.03 cm in the control group (d0). pgpr stimulates plant growth and development by secreting regulatory compounds into the rhizosphere (nehra and choudhary, 2015). bai et al. (2007) found that bio-stimulants had a significant impact on plant height and other physical features. furthermore, mahmood (2017) found that the beneficial effects of bio-stimulants are proportional to their concentration, with higher concentrations resulting in increased plant height and leaf area. in every parameter, d3 (150 ml) outperformed the other doses, highlighting the importance of bio-stimulants in optimizing plant development by improving root architecture and plant height. 3.7 effects of interactions between different nutrient recipes and bio-stimulant dosages on parameters taken at the end of experiment in table 6, results showed that f2d3 outperformed the other options, having the greatest numbers regarding dry root weight and stem length. 83.00 123.03129.00 131.77 200.00 140.83 386.00 148.12 0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00 400.00 450.00 dry root weight (g) stem length (cm) d0 d1 d2 d3 graph 4. effect of variations in bio-stimulant dosages on dry root weight (g) and stem length (cm) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 17 published by ideas spread table 6. effect of interactions between nutrient recipes and bio-stimulant dosages on dry root weight (g) and stem length (cm) source of variation: mean ± standard deviation dry root weight (g): stem length (cm): f1d1 128.00±6.93 130.13±0.67 f1d2 192.67±4.16 139.57±0.42 f1d3 374.67±37.17 147.77±1.91 f1d0 82.00±8.72 122.87±1.72 f2d1 130.00±10.39 133.40±1.65 f2d2 208.67±18.58 142.10±2.38 f2d3 398.00±50.24 148.47±1.50 f2d0 84.67±12.06 123.20±2.55 the anova results revealed that the interaction between different nutrient recipes and bio-stimulant dosages had no significant effect on dry root weight and stem length (p-value > 0.05). despite the lack of statistical significance, there was a notable difference between the highest and lowest averages, with f2d3 generating the greatest dry root weight (398.00±50.24 g) and f1d0 producing the lowest (82.00±8.72 g). a comparative study on capsicum annuum l. indicated that the combination of pgpr and npk fertilizers had no significant effect on root dry weight, but varied pgpr concentrations did (ichwan et al., 2023). furthermore, it is well acknowledged that the use of adequate mineral fertilizers is critical for improving soil conditions, increasing fertility, and increasing crop yield (uzakbaevna, 2022). regarding stem length, f2d3 surpassed f1d0, with averages of 148.47±1.50 cm and 122.87±1.72 cm, respectively. pgpr alters plant physiology, increasing nutrient absorption and root activity efficiency (khoso et al., 2023). although the interaction did not reach statistical significance, the combination of bio-stimulants and fertilizers has been proven to improve crop output and overall plant growth (biernacik et al., 2018). a previous study has shown that the benefits of bio-stimulants vary depending on the combination with various fertilizers. for example, bio-stimulants mixed with phosphorus and potassium increase yields and stimulate overall plant development (biernacik et al., 2018). although the interaction effect was not significant, f2d3 consistently outperformed the other treatments in both dry root weight and stem length, suggesting its better efficacy in improving plant growth characteristics. 4. conclusion this research demonstrates that tailored nutrient solutions and appropriate bio-stimulant dosages can significantly improve the growth and yield of capsicum annuum in hydroponic systems. nutrient solution f2, with greater potassium levels, and bio-stimulant dose d3 (150 ml), were the most successful in increasing fruit count, yield, and vegetative growth. notably, d0 (control) increased fruit size, and the interaction between nutrient recipes and bio-stimulant dosages had a significant effect on important parameters, with f2d3 generating the best total yield. future studies should explore the long-term effects of these treatments and their economic viability in commercial production settings. furthermore, using advanced agricultural technology such as precision fertigation systems and climate-controlled greenhouses has the potential to increase hydroponic capsicum annuum crop productivity and resource efficiency. references aluko, m. 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(2022). plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria improve growth and fruit quality of cucumber under greenhouse conditions. plants, 11(12), 1612. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11121612. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p29 29 published by ideas spread effects of bagging of the panicles of philippine carabao mango (mangifera indica l.) using waxed paper bags cherrilyn e. ventura1, leslie r. jorge-acain2, rina q. paguia1 & hermogenes m. paguia3 1 college of agriculture and fisheries, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines 2 college of business and accountancy, bataan peninsula state university, capitol compound, balanga city, bataan, philippines 3 vice president for research, extension and training services, bataan peninsula state university, capitol compound, balanga city, bataan, philippines correspondence: cherrilyn e. ventura, college of agriculture and fisheries, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines. e-mail: ceventura@bpsu.edu.ph received: september 26, 2022 accepted: october 11, 2022 online published: october 19, 2022 the research is financed by bataan peninsula state university research development office. abstract the present study was conducted in brgy. dangcol, balanga city, bataan to evaluate the effect of bagging the whole panicle (cluster) of carabao mango fruit with waxed paper bag as compared to traditional method of bagging and without bagging in terms of fruit yield and quality as well as in cost-benefit analysis. results revealed that fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper (t3) obtained the highest number of marketable fruits (130.60) and highest total weight of 34.21 kg while the number and weight of xl fruits with no bag (t1) were significantly higher as compared to those bagged in cluster using waxed paper (t3). insect damage was observed in fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) while there is a scab in fruit with no bag (t1). meanwhile, there is a wind scar observed in the two bagging methods (conventional bagging method and fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag). all bagging treatments were comparable in terms of physical and chemical characteristics except for peel color which is lighter green in bagged fruits. in terms of income, mango fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) had the highest gross income of php 3,056.27 while the highest net income and roi was recorded in fruits bagged in conventional method (t2) earning php 616.09 per tree with 27.23% roi. the conventional method (t2) also obtained the lowest cost per tree (php 2,262.36) while the lowest cost per kilogram (php 73.05) and cost per fruit (php 19.14) was recorded in mango trees bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3). keywords: bagging, bataan, carabao mango, panicle bagging, conventional bagging, waxed paper bag 1. introduction in the report of the department of agriculture (2018), the philippines, which had earned a reputation for innovation in the mango industry has now lagged behind in the world market despite the claim for having the best mango variety. the local yield of 4.1 mt/ha is way below the world average of 7.65 mt/ha and is not even half that of thailand with almost 8.20 mt/ha. meanwhile, out of the seven provinces in central luzon, bataan is second to the last in terms of volume of production which only has 3.0 thousand metric tons (psa, 2020). obviously, there is a lot of work to doing order to catch up with other leading mango producers. this is an indicator that yield must sustainably increase and the quality of both fresh and processed products be improved in order to be competitive in the international markets. in view of the current trend in mango industry, the bataan peninsula state university conducted a project under ched dare to project which aims to educate, train and encourage the farmers to adopt and practice the correct s&t interventions to improve the quality and quantity of the harvested fruits as well as to protect the environment and the consumer. in the study conducted by jorge et al. in 2021, results revealed that there was an increase in yield in the adoption of the sustainable farming technology introduced in the program but the problems in the farmers fight against pests was a cause for failure to achieve the farms’ maximum potential to profit. pest like cecid fly, fruit flies, scale insects, hoppers mealy bugs and thrips are still one of the major cause of lower as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 30 published by ideas spread yield and quality of the mango fruits and usually addressed using chemical mixes with multiple active ingredients in varying levels. to reduce the pesticide spray, bagging of mango fruit is one of the practices that provide physical protection against pest and believed to have a long term effects in the environment and to the consumer. evaluation of some other bagging materials and techniques need to be consider as an alternative bagging method. hence, this study was conducted as an offshoot of observed practices from the completed studies under the ched dare to project of bataan peninsula state university on innovative mango farming technologies extended to participating farm across the province of bataan. this study conducted was an experimental study on the use of two interventions namely the use of waxed brown bag as the fruit bagging material and in the method of bagging covering the whole panicle (cluster) as opposed to the traditional bagging where the bags are specifically used directly on the fruit that requires protection. data were collected as to the effect of the material and process mentioned in the equality and quantity of the harvest within one fruiting season. the result of the study may be used as a baseline data in crafting a modified package of technology in mango farming that would promote higher quality yield and profit. the result could also address the sustainable development goal of responsible consumption and production through utilization of technology that is environment friendly and safe for human consumption. as a matter of fact, as stated in the works of sharma & sanikommu (2017), fruit bagging has gained popularity in several countries as a number of studies on fruit bagging results in the reduction of disease and insect-pest incidence, mechanical damage, sunburn, fruit cracking, agrochemical residues, and damage by birds in various fruit crops. 2. method 2.1 experimental area one participating mango farm (orchard) at brgy. dangcol, city of balanga, bataan, philippines was the study locale; which is owned and managed by one of the farm cooperators of bataan. the fifteen (15) experimental carabao mango trees were randomly selected and considered in the experiment. the application of the bags was supervised with constant monitoring was all throughout the fruiting season to observe other possible elements/ factors that may arise and be on guard to mitigate and manage to control other variables. 2.2 experimental design and treatments the study is a single factor experiment arranged in completely randomized design (crd). the pre-determined farm is located in the province of bataan where three (3) sets of observable clusters of mango trees were marked. the fifteen (15) experimental trees was randomly distributed with three (3) major treatments consisted of five (5) replications per treatment with one (1) tree per replicate. the experimental treatments were as follows t1 (control): no bagging of mango fruits, t2 (conventional bagging method): traditional fruit bagging methods in which each developing mango fruits at 35-55 days after flower induction (dafi) will be wrapped manually using triangular/marsman style brown paper bag by the skilled bagger, and t3 (waxed paper bagging of mango fruit clusters or panicles): bagging of the mango fruit clusters or panicles during the early fruit development stage using the brown waxed paper bag sized 12”x15” #60 with 90 gsm thickness. 2.3 data gathered 2.3.1 farm profile this include the farm location, farm size, number of mango trees, distance in between trees, age of trees, crops under the trees, agents/ chemicals applied, last date of application of agents/ chemicals, type of bag used for bagging, size of bag used, paste/ sealer used in bagging, size/age of mango fruit when bagging is implemented, date of bagging, date of harvest, method of harvest procedure/ system applied. 2.3.2 yield quantity to determine the effect of bagging in terms of quantity of yield, the total number of fruits, total weight of fruits, percentage of fruit drop as well the number and weight of marketable fruits per sizes (extra small-160-199 g, small200-249 g, medium-250-299 g, large-300-349 g, and extra large-350 g and above) were gathered in the experiment. 2.3.3 yield quality to determine the effect of bagging in terms of quality of the fruit, the physical characteristics (presence of insect damage, scab and winds car, and color) and chemical properties (firmness, ph, total soluble solid, titratable acidity, and total soluble solid over titratable acidity) were determined and analyzed in the study. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 31 published by ideas spread 2.3.4 cost-benefit analysis this is analyzed and computed by getting the production cost per tree, gross income, net income, return on investment, cost per kilogram and cost per fruit. 2.4 statistical analyses all data gathered from the experiment were analyze using analysis of variance (anova) for single factor experiment in completely randomized design (crd). treatment means were compared using least significant difference (lsd) at 5% level of significance. statistical analyses were performed using a statistical package software, statistical tool for agriculture research (star). 3. results and discussion 3.1 farm profile the experimental farm is located at brgy. dangcol, city of balanga, bataan, an upland area with a total farm size of 4.0 hectares. out of the 200 total number of mango trees in the farm, fifteen (15) participating trees were randomly selected for the experiment with 10 x 10 m planting distance in between trees with age ranging from 20 to 25 years old. there is no crops planted in between trees (no intercrop) . the prime objective of the study is to observe the difference in the fruit quality and yield of mango from nonbagging of fruit to the use of conventional brown paper bag and the experimental waxed paper bag. the bag specifications and significant dates were as follow: table 1. bag specification and significant dates during the conduct of the experiment method of bagging type of bag size paste/ sealer used age of mango fruit when bagging was implemented date of bagging date of harvest method of harvest procedure/ system applied conventional bagging method triangular/ marsman style brown paper bag 15 cm x 20 cm stapler wire 48-52 dafi march 6-7, 2022 may 5, 2022 manual harvesting experimental bagging covering the whole panicles (cluster) brown paper bag 12”x15” (20 cm x 30 cm) #60 with 90 gsm thickness stapler wire 48-52 dafi march 6-7, 2022 may 5, 2022 manual harvesting 3.2 effects of fruit bagging to determine the effects of the fruit bags used in the experiment, the harvests were collected. each of the mango fruit harvested were sorted and classified according to size and quality. in terms of the effect of bagging on the quantity of yield, it can be observed in table 2 that there was no significant difference among bagging treatments in terms of total number of harvested marketable fruits, total weight and in percentage of fruit drops. however, although statistically not significant, we can note that the highest number of marketable fruits was recorded in fruits bagged per panicle (cluster) using waxed paper (t3) with 130.60 fruits followed by fruits individually bagged which is the conventional bagging method (t2) with 112.40 fruits while the lowest number of fruits was observed in fruits with no bag with only 90.40 fruits. in terms of total weight, it is also the fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper (t3) which obtained the highest weight of 34.21 kg followed by fruits individually bagged which is the conventional bagging method (t2) with 30.91 kg while the lowest yield was observed in fruits with no bag with only 26.52 kg. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 32 published by ideas spread table 2. number of marketable fruit harvested, total weight of marketable fruit harvested and percentage of fruit drop bagging methods total number of marketable fruit harvested total weight of marketable fruit harvested percentage of fruit drops t1no bagging 90.40a 26.52a 30a t2-conventional bagging method 112.40a 30.91a 30a t3-bagging of fruits per panicle (cluster) using waxed paper bagging method 130.60a 34.21a 30a means with the same letter within the same column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance for the percentage of fruit drop, all the bagging treatments have 30% fruit drop which is inflicted by harsh weather condition and series of tropical depression, tropical storm and very strong typhoon during the duration of the conduct of the study which also resulted to dropping of bagged fruits, removal of covered bags and much lower yield. table 3. total number and weight of mango fruits according to size harvested fruits per treatment were also sorted and classified according to size and weight. as presented in table 3, in terms of total number of fruit classified as extra large (xl), the fruits with no bag (t1) significantly had the highest number of fruits (24.60) as compared to trees with waxed paper bagged in cluster (t3) with 14.60 fruits. this result implies that the fruits are much bigger when there is no bagging material use as fruit covering or protection.on the other hand, the number of xl fruits of trees bagged in conventional method was comparable with the number of xl fruits of trees with waxed paper and without bag. meanwhile in terms total number of fruits in sizes large (l), medium (m), small (s), and extra small (xs), it can be noted that there were no significant differences observed among the three bagging methods, although we can observe that the highest number of fruits produced in sizes large to extra small was recorded in trees bagged in cluster using waxed paper bag (t3). presented also in table 3 is the total weight of harvested marketable fruits in various sizes. there is a significant difference among bagging treatments in terms of total weight of fruits classified as extra large (xl) wherein the fruits with no bag (t1) significantly had the heaviest weight of xl fruits having 8.78 kg as compared to trees with waxed paper bagged in cluster (t3) with only 5.21 kg of fruits. meanwhile in sizes large (l), medium (m), small (s), and extra small (xs), the highest weight was all recorded in trees bagged in cluster using waxed paper bag (t3), although statistically all the bagging treatments were just comparable with each other. bagging methods total fruits per size total weight (in kg) per size xl l m s xs xl l m s xs t1 no bagging 24.60a 24.60a 24.60a 9.60a 7.00a 8.78a 7.94a 6.52a 2.06a 1.22a t2conventional bagging method 18.80ab 24.00a 39.60a 17.80a 12.20a 6.71ab 7.75a 10.50a 3.83a 2.12a t3-bagging of fruits per panicle (cluster) using waxed paper bagging method 14.60b 26.80a 40.40a 27.60a 21.20a 5.21b 8.66a 10.71a 5.94a 3.69a means with the same letter within the same column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 33 published by ideas spread in terms of the effect of bagging on the presence of disease, scar and physical damage, the harvested fruits were examined carefully to check the presence or absence of damage. as presented in table 4, there is an insect damage in the collected sample harvest in fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) with 0.20 while there is no observed insect damage in fruits with no bag (t1) and in the conventional bagging method (t2). on the other hand, there was a presence of scab in collected fruits with no bag (t1) while there is none observed in the two bagging methods (conventional bagging method and fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag). similar result on scab was reported on the study of buganic et al. (1997) wherein the rejection in unbagged fruits was due to scab. meanwhile there is a presence of wind scar observed in the two bagging methods (conventional bagging method and fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag) while no wind scar was detected in fruits with no bag. color, firmness and chemical parameters such as ph, total soluble solid, percentage of titratable acidity and tss/ta were determined using the sample harvest and was submitted in the regional laboratory for analysis. as observed in the table 4, in terms of color, the fruits bagged in the conventional bagging method (t2) had much lighter green color and has a much appealing visual appearance as compared to the fruits with no bag which has a darker green color. similar result was reported in the study of wu et al. (2013) that bagged fruits has higher peel lightness due to reduced content of chlorophyll. this result also supports the study of muhammad et al. (2021) which revealed that bagging resulted to improved fruiting color as also mention in the result of the study of xu et al. (2010) which revealed that fruit weight decreased but the fruit appearance improved with bagging. the color of fruit bagged in conventional method also had much lighter green color as compared to the fruits bagged in waxed paper bag. on the other hand, for the rest of the other chemical parameters, all the bagging methods (t1, t2, t3) were comparable with each other. this result support the study of hofman et al. (1997) which revealed that tss and ta were not generally affected by bagging. similar study on bagging were conducted by allran et al. (2019), islam et al. (2019), and campbell et al. (2021) which all revealed no significant difference between the bagged and control fruit (no bag) in terms of brix degree (tss). however, although statistically insignificant, it can be observed that fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) have much firmer fruits (1.32 kg-f) while fruits bagged in conventional method had higher ph of 4.38, and highest titratable acidity of 0.44%. meanwhile, the fruits having no bag obtained the highest tss of 18.24, as well as the highest tss/ta of 47.18. 3.3 costbenefit analysis per tree bagging methods insect damage scab wind scar color firmness (kg-f) ph total soluble solid (tss) % brix titratable acidity (ta), % tss/ta t1 no bagging 0.00a 0.20a 0.00a darker green 1.19a 4.36a 18.24a 0.39a 47.18a t2conventional bagging method 0.00a 0.00a 0.20a light green/pale green 0.83a 4.38a 17.28a 0.44a 42.02a t3-bagging of fruits per panicle (cluster) using waxed paper bagging method 0.20a 0.00a 0.20a green 1.32a 4.28a 18.00a 0.42a 44.50a scale used for insect damage, scab, and wind scar: 0=absent; 1=present means with the same letter within the same column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 34 published by ideas spread particulars no bagging (t1) conventional bagging (t2) bagging of fruit per panicle (cluster) using waxed paper bag (t3) l. cost of agricultural supplies bagging materials 100.00 320.00 fertilizers 100.00 100.00 100.00 pesticides 933.60 549.16 549.16 flower inducer 36.00 36.00 36.00 growth regulators 300.00 300.00 300.00 litter materials 100.00 100.00 100.00 kaing 40.00 60.00 60.00 manila paper 7.76 130.00 130.00 gasoline and oil 70.00 70.00 70.00 sub-total 1,587.36 1,445.16 1,665.16 ll. labor cost pruning 126.00 126.00 126.00 bagging 223.20 240.00 fertilizing 18.00 18.00 18.00 flower induction 54.00 54.00 54.00 spraying 432.00 270.00 270.00 harvesting 126.00 126.00 126.00 sub-total 756.00 817.20 834.00 total 2,343.36 2,262.36 2,499.16 gross income (in php) 2,056.94a 2,878.45a 3,056.27a net income (in php) (-286.42)a 616.09a 557.11a roi (%) -12.22a 27.23a 22.29a cost per tree (in php) 2343.36a 2262.36a 2499.16a cost per kg (in php) 88.36a 73.19a 73.05a cost per fruit (in php) 25.92a 20.13a 19.14a means with the same letter within the same column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance 1$ = 55.63 php the gross and net income as well as the return on investment were also gathered in the unbagged treatment and in the two bagging methods. statistically, there were no significant difference observed among treatments in these parameters. based on the gathered data, in terms gross income, it can be noted that mango fruits bagged per panicle (cluster) using waxed paper bag (t3) had the highest gross income of php 3,056.27 followed by fruits bagged in conventional method (t2) with php 2,878.45 income while the lowest income was recorded in trees with no bag having php 2,056.94 gross income. meanwhile, in terms of net income, the highest income was recorded in fruits bagged in conventional method (t2) earning php 616.09 per tree followed by fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) php 557.11 while the lowest net income was recorded in trees with no bag having a negative income (loss) of php 286.42. the loss recorded in fruits with no bag is primarily due to higher cost of production with eight sprays of pesticide but lowest in yield among treatments. on the other hand, in terms of return on investment (roi), the highest roi was recorded in conventional bagging method (t2) of 27.23% followed by mango fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) with 22.29% roi while a negative roi was observed in trees with no bag (t1) with -12.22%. based on gathered data, in terms of cost per tree, it can be observed that mango fruits bagged in conventional method (t2) had the lowest cost (php 2,162.36) of production per tree while fruits bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) had the highest cost of production of php 2,499.16 which is primarily attributed to the added cost as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 35 published by ideas spread in price of the waxed paper bag and the labor of bagging the panicles/clusters. as stated in the works of orden et al. (2005), the use of bagging and pruning entails more cost however, it has the potential to have a long term effects in the environment and to the consuming public as less chemical sprays me be lessen as fruit bag provide physical protection against insects and pests. meanwhile, in terms of cost per kilogram of produce, the lowest cost was recorded in mango trees bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) with php 73.05 while the highest cost was recorded in mango trees with no bag having php 88.36 as cost per kilogram. lastly, in terms of cost per fruit, the lowest cost was also observed in mango trees bagged per cluster using waxed paper bag (t3) with php 19.14 while the highest cost per fruit was recorded in mango trees with no bag (t1) having php 25.92. however, statistically, all treatments were comparable with each other in terms of the mentioned cost parameters. 4. conclusion and recommendations based on the results of the study, it can be concluded the trees with no bag significantly produced more extra large size of mango fruits as compared with trees with bag because there is no physical barrier that hinder is growth as reflected in the result of the study. on the other hand, the physical and chemical quality of the mango fruit were not significantly affected by bagging except for the color which is much appealing and lighter in conventional bagging method of individual bagging of fruits. the conventional bagging method revealed to be the most cost efficient among the treatments for having the highest net income, roi, and lowest cost per tree while bagging the whole panicle (cluster) of fruit using waxed paper bag has a promising effect in the quality and quantity of the produce. although statistically insignificant with the other treatments, it can be noted the highest number and highest weight of marketable fruits was observed in this bagging method. in addition, it also obtained the highest gross income, lowest cost per kilogram and lowest cost per fruit. based on the research results and conclusions, it can be stated that to produce much larger fruits, it is not recommended to bag the mango fruit while the conventional bagging method is recommended for much improved color and appearance, highest net income, roi, and lowest cost per tree. further study and improvement on bagging the whole panicle (cluster) using waxed paper bag is also recommended for validation of its effect on fruit quality and quantity. although initial data revealed that it has the highest yield but the expenses incurred in this method also increased due to additional bagging material which is much larger and much expensive, thus, added to the cost of production. on the other hand, further study and establishment in another farm setting, season and different kinds of paper bags is also recommended. acknowledgments the authors are grateful for the funding support given by the bpsu research development office; to the farmer co-operator for allowing the project team to use his mango trees; and to the reviewers who provided valuable comments and suggestion for the improvement of the research paper. references allran, j., schnabel, g., & melgar, j. c. 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(1997). bagging of mango (mangifera indica cv. `keitt') fruit influences fruit quality and mineral composition. postharvest biology and technology, 12(1), 1997, 83-91, issn 0925-5214. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0925-5214(97)00039-2 islam, m. t., shamsuzzoha, m., rahman, m. s., bari, m. a., akter, m. m., khatun, a., huque, r., & uddin, m. s. (2019). effect of bagging time on fruit quality and shelf life of mango (mangifera indica l.) cv..langra in bangladesh. international journal of agriculture environment and bioresearch. https://doi.org/10.35410/ijaeb.2019.4424 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 36 published by ideas spread jorge, l., paguia, h., & roldan, l. (2021). embracing the new: factors influencing the adoption of sustainable farming technology in mango farm cooperators of bataan, philippines. bu r&d journal. retrieved from https://journal.bicol-u.edu.ph/index.php/rnd/article/view/104/95 muhammed, n. k., naima, d., & muhammed, b. 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(2010). effect of different light transmittance paper bags on fruit quality and antioxidant capacity in loquat. j. sci. food agric., 90, 1783–1788. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4012 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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/pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p110-117.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p110 110 published by ideas spread demographic factors and their association with cultivation of dry beans (phaseolus vulgaris) in smallholder irrigation schemes at vhembe district municipality, limpopo province of south africa t. j. mavhungu1,2, a. e. nesamvuni2, k. a. tshikolomo1,2, n. s. mpandeli3 & j. a. van niekerk2 1 department of sustainable food systems and development, university of the free state, bloemfontein, south africa 2 limpopo department of agriculture and rural development, polokwane, south africa 3 water research commission of south africa, gezina, south africa correspondence: mavhungu t j, department of sustainable food systems and development, university of the free state, bloemfontein, south africa. tel: 072-342-5201. e-mail: jutasmavhungu@gmail.com received: march 20, 2025 accepted: april 10, 2025 online published: may 25, 2025 abstract the study was conducted at upper mutale valley and madimbo corridor irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprise. the purpose of the study was to investigate a demographic impact on the cultivation of dry beans (phaseolus vulgaris) in irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprise. the questionnaire was developed to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. a semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data at these two smallholder irrigation schemes, and administered on face-to-face interviews which embrace both openand close-ended questions. a representative sample was based on the number of plot holders as per irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprise led by women and youth (ishae-wy). at least 294 women and youth plot holders were sampled for interviews and prompt responses on the investigate a demographic impact on the cultivation of dry beans (phaseolus vulgaris) in smallholder irrigation schemes. chi-square test was used as descriptive analysis method through application of fischer exact test. the study showed weak association between gender (φ = 0.097, p = 0.096), age (φ = 0.152, p = 0.033), education (φ = 0.182, p = 0.022), and income (φ = 0.081, p = 0.163) with the planting of dry beans in ishae-wy. in conclusion, trends based on participation to plant dry beans shows the potential for youth to middle aged, <60 years ishae-wy with no primary education and obtaining less than r5 000 through dry beans production. the study also suggests empowerment programs for women and youth through literacy support and training in dry bean production practices at ishae-wy. keywords: irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprise, madimbo corridor, smallholder irrigation schemes, upper mutale valley 1. introduction for many decades, irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprise led by women and youth (ishae-wy) have been considered to have the potential to generate economic development of the poor and under-developed rural areas (wrc, 2009). pittock, et al., (2017) further indicated that most ishae-wy produce traditional food crops for the local market, compared to growing improved varieties of vegetable and field crops. the dry bean was identified as one of the most important field crops in vhembe district on account of its high protein content and dietary benefits. south africa produces only 75 % of the dry beans consumed in the country, with 25% being imported (daff, 2010). the average yield increased from the 0.6 tons per ha obtained in the early seventies to approximately 1.2 tons per ha in the eighties (daff, 2010). at a commercial level, farm gate value for good grades of dry beans is between r12 000 and r14 000 per ton if sold to merchants when cleaned, packed and branded. farmers can usually get on average between 1.8 tons per ha and 2.2 tons per ha of saleable seed with good dryland production practices (grain sa, (2019). the economic implication is that farmers can achieve a gross income of about r26 000 per hectare, which compares very well with the income from other dryland crop production options (grain sa, 2019). a continuous effort is being made to obtain higher production yield in irrigated smallholder agricultural production areas to increase profitability and to meet the ever-increasing demand for food. on average the ishae-wy produce dry beans on 1.61 ha and produce about 1.2 tons per ha; they fetch a lower price of r9 000 at the informal markets (about r7.50 per as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 111 published by ideas spread kilogram). the value could increase to r14 400 at the formal market due to a good price of about r12.00 per kilogram. in 2019/2020, dry beans production in south africa amounted to 73 thousand metric tons. the province free state was the major producer, with 32.4 thousand metric tons, roughly 44 percent of the total production. limpopo and north west followed with 16.8 thousand metric tons and 9.1 thousand metric tons, respectively. moreover, northern, eastern, and western cape were the lowest contributors to the production (statista, 2020). in june 2023, the retail price of dry bean range at r38.86 per kilogram on average. this shows that dry bean is r38 860 per ton (selina wamuchi agriculture, 2023). it has, however, become increasingly difficult for the ishae-wy in this production area to provide enough dry beans within production villages. socio-economic factors continue to play a critical role in determining the levels of production undertaken and the type of crops planted. this was corroborated by von braun, et al., (2015) who stated that the production levels are not the only areas affected, but also the way business enterprises are managed—which brought the socio-economic characteristics of ishae-wy into focus. there are several farmers demographic impact on the cultivation of dry beans (phaseolus vulgaris) in irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprise. these include gender, age, education, and level of income. according to nakaz, et al., (2017), dry beans can be clearly identified as a women’s crop by looking at the proportions of men and women participation intensities of its production. in their study, nakaz, et al., (2017). further showed that women have significant participation in bean production activities of planting, weeding, harvesting, transporting from the garden, threshing, winnowing, sorting and post-harvest handling as compared to men. un, (2015), shows that investing in the quality of education and ensuring a sustainable source of funding are also essential to improved levels of crop production. the relationship between ishae-wy demography and the participation in the production of dry beans will be assessed in this study, to produce appropriate policy information for agricultural stakeholders and the government. 2. methodology 2.1 site description the study was conducted at upper mutale valley and madimbo corridor smallholder irrigation schemes where the agro-ecological situations are significantly different. the conditions at upper mutale valley are sub-humid and madimbo corridor smallholder irrigation scheme is semi-arid. this confirms that the variables of smallholder irrigation schemes are affected by diversity and similarities attributed to different livelihood needs. the madimbo corridor irrigated smallholder agricultural area is situated north-east of the soutpansberg mountains. it is located between 22°26'45.34"s latitude and 30°31'18.47"e longitude. the upper mutale valley area is located north of thohoyandou in the vhembe district of limpopo. this irrigated smallholder agricultural area lies between 22°47'53.36"s latitude and 30°28'13.21"e longitude. 2.2 sampling procedure stratified random sampling was used to obtain a representative sample of villages and households leedy and ormrod, (2005). a two-stage random sampling process was conducted using surveyselect procedure of sas. the proc sureveyselect allowed for probability-based random sampling where sampling in a category or class depended on the number of units within that class. the sampling was regarded as appropriate for handling selection bias. 2.3 data collection a semi-structured household questionnaire was used to survey with an emphasis on ishae-wy. the total number of ishae-wy interviewed were two hundred and ninety-four (n=294) with a response rate of 75 per cent. the sample comprised 71 youths aged 18 to 35 years old (56 females and 15 males) and 223 women, of whom 153 were adults (36-59 years) and 70 pensioners (≥60 years old). 2.4 data analysis the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) version 22 was used to analyze quantitative data. descriptive statistics included frequency tables and measures of central tendency. inferential statistics were in the form of chi-square analyses, which assessed the association between major demographic variables (gender, age, education, and income) and vegetable/field crop production, water resources and governance. fischer exact tests were interpreted in cases where the assumptions for chi-square analysis had been violated. a bonferroni adjustment was made to prevent a type i error; therefore, significance was considered when p <0.013. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 112 published by ideas spread 3. results and discussion it should be noted that the bonferroni correction was made due to multiple comparisons with the same dependent variable (cultivating beans); this correction decreases the possibility of making a type i error. therefore, the significant value of 0,05 was adjusted to 0,013 (0,05/4). this level of significance was too steep for the effects of the demographic traits to be significance. 3.1 the production potential of dry bean crop by smallholder agricultural women and youth enterprises. the average area of production under irrigation was 1.61 ha per farmer. the production potential was 1.2 ton per ha. the average income earned was r9 000 at an informal market, priced at r7.50 per kilogram. the potential for ishae-wy in the formal market would be projected at r14 000, with an improved price of r12 per kilogram. 3.2 association between gender and cultivation of dry beans in winter and summer a chi-square test was conducted for association between cultivating dry beans and gender in winter and summer is shown in table 1. fischer exact test was conducted when cell frequencies were found to be less than five. the fischer exact test showed that there was no statistically significant association between cultivating beans and gender, p = 0.156. it was determined that 13.3% males cultivated beans compared to 34.1% females. in line with the result not being statistically significant, the effect size showed a weak association (cohen, 1988). as measured by the phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.097, p = 0.096. similarly, in summer, the fischer exact test also showed that there was no statistically significant association between cultivating beans and gender, p = 0.100. it was determined that no males cultivated beans compared to 4.7% females. in line with the result not being statistically significant, the effect size showed a weak association (cohen, 1988)., as measured by the phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.05, p = 0.392. literature indicates that in most cases females tend to be side-lined in terms of land ownership due to cultural norms, though they are usually the ones who provide most of the farm labour (deribe, 2008). the prominence of the climate scourge to ishae-wy makes it necessary to establish the differences in the roles played by males and females in farm households. these gender differences are likely to influence their capacity to adapt to climate change, as well as their choices of climate change adaptation strategies (ifpri, 2009). the involvement of women’s participation in the smallholder irrigation farming practices can reduce the men’s burden of being the only source of income in the rural household. this also can alleviate poverty and grow the local economy of vhembe district. table 1. association between gender and cultivation of dry beans in winter and summer gender variable winter summer no yes no yes male count 13 2 15 0 expected count 10.1 4.9 14.3 7 % within gender of the respondent 86.7% 13.3% 100.0% 0.0%% % within season’s crop: dry beans 6.6% 2.1% 5.3% 0.0% % of total 4.4% 7% 5.1% 0.0% female count 184 95 266 13 expected count 186.9 92.1 266.7 12.3 % within gender of the respondent 65.9% 34.1% 95.3% 4.7% % within season’s crop: dry beans 93.4% 97.9% 94.7% 100.0% % of total 62.6% 32.3% 90.5% 4.4% total count 197 97 261 13 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 113 published by ideas spread expected count 197.0 97.0 281.0 13.0 % within gender of the respondent 67.0% 33.0% 95.6% 4.4% % within season’s crop: dry beans 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% % of total 67.0% 33.0% 95.6% 4.4% 3.3 association between age and cultivation of dry beans crop in winter and summer a chi-square test for association between cultivating dry beans and age in winter and summer is indicated in table 2. in conducting the chi-test, all the expected cell frequencies were greater than five, which complied with the assumption for the test. however, since multiple (n=4) analyses using the same dependent variable were conducted, a bonferroni correction was made to eliminate the chance of a type i error, resulting in an altered significant value of 0,013 (0,05/4). after a bonferroni adjustment, there was no statistically significant association between cultivating beans and age, χ2 = 6.826, p = 0.033. it was determined that 21.1% of 18–35-year participants cultivated beans compared to 38.7% and 32.4% of 36–59 participants and >60 year participants respectively. table 2. association between age of the respondent and cultivation of dry beans in winter and summer age (years) variable winter summer no yes no yes 18–35 count 56 15 67 4 expected count 47.6 23.4 67.9 3.1 % within gender of the respondent 78.9% 21.1% 94.4% 5.6% % within season’s crop: dry beans 28.4% 15.5% 23.8% 30.8% % of total 19.0% 5.1% 22.8% 1.4% 36–59 count 95 60 149 6 expected count 103.9 51.1 148.1 6.9 % within gender of the respondent 61.3% 38.7% 96.1% 3.9% % within season’s crop: dry beans 48.2% 61.9% 53.0% 46.2% % of total 32.3% 20,4% 50.7% 2.0% >60 count 46 22 65 3 expected count 45.6 22.4 65.0 3.0 % within gender of the respondent 67.6% 32.4% 95.6% 4.4% % within season crop: dry beans 23.4% 22.7% 23.1% 23.1% % of total 15.6% 7.6% 22.1% 1.0% total count 197 97 281 13 expected count 197.0 97.0 181.0 13.0 % within gender of the respondent 67.0% 33.0% 95.6% 4.4% % within season’s crop: dry beans 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% % of total 67.0% 33.0% 95.6% 4.4% in line with the result not being statistically significant, the effect size showed a weak association (cohen, 1998), as measured by the phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.152, p = 0.033. since this difference is not statistically significant, it is likely to be due only to chance, and not an actual difference between age. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 114 published by ideas spread for the summer season, the rows in table 2 indicate that less than 80% of the cells are greater than five. therefore, in summer production, chi-square test of association was not interpreted for these variables. however, table 2 does show that 5.6% of 18–35-year participants cultivated dry beans compared to 3.9% of 36–59-year participants and 4.4% of >60-year participants. the significance of age on the cultivation of crops has been corroborated by (nesamvuni, et al., 2014) who documented that head of household age has a strong effect on the family’s agricultural productivity; this could be a result of the influence of age on such variables as education and farming experience. in agreement of the above, its drawback is the inability of older people to adopt and take up new technologies and skills quickly, compared to those in a younger age group (ncube, 2014). as stated by mphinyane and terblanche, (2005), a highly significant correlation exists between different age categories and farming experience (r = 0.450; p = 0.001), and this means that older farmers are more experienced. 3.4 association between education and cultivation of dry beans in winter and summer a chi-square test for association between cultivating dry beans and household head education in winter and summer is shown in table 3. in conducting the test, it was evident that all the expected cell frequencies were greater than five complying with the assumptions of the test. after a bonferroni adjustment, there was no statistically significant association between cultivating beans and household head education, χ2 = 9,608, p = 0.022. it was determined that 42.6% of participants with household head had no/primary education, while 37.9% of participants with household head having secondary education, and 27,3% and 21,0% of participants with household heads having tertiary education and abet respectively. in line with the result not being statistically significant, the effect size showed a weak association (cohen, 1998), as measured by the phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.182, p = 0.022. according to ledwaba, (2013), the levels of education may be associated with improved adaptive capacity to adverse effects of climate change and variability. a farmer’s level of education has a direct impact on his/her ability to properly manage a given irrigation technology, but lack of formal training in agriculture for most farmers could pose a limitation to their productivity. table 3. association between education and cultivation of dry beans crop in winter and summer education variable winter summer no yes no yes primary count 35 26 59 2 expected count 40.9 20.1 58.3 2.7 % within gender of the respondent 57.4% 42.6% 96.7% 3.3% % within season’s crop: dry beans 17.9% 27.1% 21.2% 15.4% % of total 12.0% 8.9% 20.3% 7% secondary count 72 44 108 8 expected count 77.7 38.3 110.8 5.2 % within gender of the respondent 62.1% 37.9% 93.1% 6.9% % within season’s crop: dry beans 36.9% 45.8% 38.8% 61.5% % of total 24.7% 15.1% 37.1% 2.7% tertiary count 24 9 33 0 expected count 22.1 10.9 31.5 1.5 % within gender of the respondent 72.7% 27.3% 100.0% 0.0% % within season’s crop: dry beans 12.3% 9.4% 11.9% 0.0% % of total 8.2% 3.1% 11.3% 0.0% abet count 64 17 78 3 expected count 54.3 26.7 77.4 3.6 % within gender of the respondent 79.0% 21.0% 96.3% 3.7% % within season’s crop: dry beans 32.8% 17.7% 28.1% 23.1% % of total 22.0% 5.8% 26.8% 1.0% total count 195 96 278 13 expected count 195.0 96.0 278.0 13.0 % within gender of the respondent 67.0% 33.0% 95.5% 4,5% % within season’s crop: dry beans 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% % of total 67.0% 33.0% 95.5% 4.5% as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 115 published by ideas spread also, level of education has a strong influence on the extent to which a farmer can access new information and technology, not only through improved literacy that enables the farmers to access written information, but also through increased ability to search for information using modern information technologies. urassa, (2015, corroborates the same narrative that education levels can influence individuals' or households' choice of a livelihood strategy. mutambara and munodawafa, (2014), as quoted by moyo, et al., (2017) note that low levels of education limit access to information and understanding of commercial farming concepts, which are both critical to sustaining high production levels. for the summer season, the results of a chi-square test of association showed that less than 80% of the cells were greater than five. therefore, the chi-square test was not interpreted for these variables. table 3 does, however, show that 3.3% of participants with household head had no/primary education, while 6.9% of participants with household head had secondary education, no participants with household heads had tertiary education and 3.7% participants with household head had abet. the level of education determines the level of assimilation of technical skills required to maintain the system. moreover, these levels can also determine the ability to practice productive farming chidavaenzi, et al., (2021). according to diale, (2011), farmers with more years of schooling in the sekhukhune district of limpopo had more use of hybrid seed technology, and this resulted in increased crop yield. this affirmed the findings by ekoja, (2004) that the rate of adoption of new technology is positively related to the level of education. nesamvuni, et al., (2014) affirmed that educated farmers were able to read and understand the contents of the print media that is rich in technical information for the agricultural sector; hence, they used hybrid seed technology more than their less schooled counterparts. 3.5 association between level of income and cultivation of dry beans in winter a chi-square test for association between cultivating dry beans and income in winter and summer is shown in table 4. in the winter season the test showed that all the expected cell frequencies were greater than five; therefore, the assumption of the test was not violated. there was no statistically significant association between cultivating dry beans and monthly income, χ2 = 1,945, p = 0.163. it was determined that 35.1% of participants earning < r5 000 a month cultivated dry beans, compared to 26.1% of those earning > r5 000 a month. in line with the result not being statistically significant, the effect size showed a weak association (cohen, 1998), as measured by the phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.081, p = 0.163. while in summer, not all the expected cell frequencies were greater than five; therefore, the assumption was violated, and the fischer exact test conducted. the fischer exact test showed that there was no statistically significant association between cultivating dry beans and monthly income, p = 0.312. it was determined that 5.3% of participants with a monthly income < r5 000 cultivated beans compared to 1.4% of participants earning > r5 000 a month. table 4. association between level of income per month of the respondent and cultivation of dry beans in winter income variable winter summer no yes no yes < r5 000 count 146 79 213 12 expected count 150.8 74.2 215.1 9.9 % within gender of the respondent 64.9% 35.1% 94.7% 5.3% % within season’s crop: dry beans 74.1% 84.1% 75.8% 92.3% % of total 49.7% 26.9% 72.4% 4.1% >r5 000 count 51 18 68 1 expected count 46.2 22.8 65.9 3.1 % within gender of the respondent 73.9% 26.1% 98.6% 1.4% % within season’s crop: dry beans 25.9% 18.6% 24.2% 7.7% % of total 17.3% 6.1% 23.1% 3% total count 197 97 281 13 expected count 197.0 97.0 281.0 13.0 % within gender of the respondent 67.0% 33.0% 95.6% 4.4% % within season’s crop: dry beans 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% % of total 67.0% 33.0% 95.6% 4.4% in line with the result not being statistically significant, the effect size showed a weak association (cohen, 1998), as measured by the phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.08, p = 0.170. as affirmed by steiner and solem, (1988), a as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 116 published by ideas spread successful farmer is someone likely to have access to adequate financial services and competitive advantage. household income is a strong determinant of the access and use of agricultural resources (tshikolomo, et al., 2012) and subsequently of agricultural productivity (nesamvuni, et al., (2014). this could be because farmers who use small-scale irrigation farming can intensify and diversify their agricultural activities, which increases their production. smallholder agricultural enterprise households would afford technologies and production inputs and would likely become successful farming entrepreneurs—if they make profit. 4. conclusions the results of the study reflect some compelling conclusions about the demographic profile of the ishae-wy and their association with the production of dry beans. the study showed that gender, age, education, and income did not statistically influence the production of dry beans in the madimbo corridor in musina and mutale valley in thulamela. the study disclosed that the ishae-wy are characterised by small land areas under dry bean cultivation. policy efforts to promote youth should be enhanced—the participation of the age groups was 21.1% of 18–35-year participants compared to 38.7% and 32.4% of 36–59 years and >60-year participants respectively. farmer field schools and other partnership models should be promoted by the government for the transfer of skills from experienced farmers to youth. in return, youth farmers should help transfer technology and information to older farmers. the increased level (42.6%) of ishae-wy with no primary education emphasizes the need for enhanced skills training on-farm to complement the farmer's experience with the cultivation of dry beans. it was determined that 35.1% of participants earning < r5 000 a month cultivate dry beans, compared to 26.1% of those earning > r5 000 a month. market channels and access should be promoted for ishae-wys to enable them to earn their income through formal markets. references chidavaenzi, f. r., mazenda, a., & ndlovu, n. (2021). household survival and resilience to food insecurity through the drip irrigation scheme in dry rural areas. jàmbá: journal of disaster risk studies, 13(1), a985. https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v13i1.985 cohen, j. (1988). statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). lawrence erlbaum associates. department of agriculture, forestry and fisheries. (2010). dry bean production guideline. directorate agricultural information services. https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/portals/0/brochures%20and%20production%20guidelines/production%20guidel ines%20dry%20bean.pdf deribe, r. (2008). an institutional analysis of water management on communal irrigation systems in ethiopia: the case of atsbi wemberta, tigray region and ada’a woreda, oromiya region [unpublished master’s dissertation]. addis ababa university. diale, n. 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(2005). practical research: planning and design (8th ed.). prentice hall. moyo, m., van rooyen, a., moyo, m., chivenge, p., & bjornlund, h. (2017). irrigation development in zimbabwe: understanding productivity barriers and opportunities at mkoba and silalatshani irrigation schemes. international journal of water resources development, 33(5), 740–754. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2016.1175339 mphinyane, m. s., & terblanche, s. e. (2005). personal and socio-economic variables affecting the adoption of maize production intervention program by dryland farmers in the vuwani district, limpopo province. south african journal of agricultural extension, 35(2), 221–241. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 117 published by ideas spread mutambara, s., & munodawafa, a. (2014). production challenges and sustainability of smallholder irrigation schemes in zimbabwe. journal of biology, agriculture and healthcare, 4(15), 87–96. nakaz, f., njuki, j., ugen, m. a., aseete, p., katungi, e., birachi, e., kabanyoro, r., mugagga, i. j., & nanyonjo, g. (2017). is bean really a women’s crop? men and women’s participation in bean production in uganda. agriculture & food security, 6(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0102-z ncube, b. l. (2014). livelihoods and production in smallholder irrigation schemes: the case of new forest irrigation scheme in mpumalanga province [unpublished master’s thesis]. university of the western cape. nesamvuni, a. e., tshikolomo, k. a., belete, a., & motaung, m. z. (2014). characterization of farming households and assessment of economic viability of water users association at mafefe irrigation schemes in limpopo province of south africa. journal of agriculture and environmental sciences, 3(4), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.15640/jaes.v3n4a6 pittock, j., bjornlund, h., stirzaker, r., & van rooyen, a. (2017). communal irrigation systems in south-eastern africa: findings on productivity and profitability. international journal of water resources development, 33(5), 839–847. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2017.1324768 selina wamucii agriculture. (2023). south africa beans 2023 retail prices. https://www.selinawamucii.com/insights/prices/south-africa/beans/ statista. (2020). dry beans production by province in south africa. statista research department. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1135488/dry-bean-production-in-south-africa-by-province/ steiner, m. p., & solem, o. (1988). factors for success in small manufacturing firms. journal of small business management, 26(1), 51–56. tshikolomo, k. a., nesamvuni, a. e., stroebel, a., & walker, s. (2012). water supply and requirements of households in the luvuvhu-letaba water management area of south africa. international journal of business and social science, 3(3), 37–49. united nations. (2015). the millennium development goals report 2015. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_mdg_report/pdf/mdg%202015%20rev%20(july%201).pdf urassa, j. k. (2015). factors influencing maize crop production at household levels: a case of rukwa region in the southern highlands of tanzania. african journal of agricultural research, 10(10), 1097–1106. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajar2014.9266 von braun, j., & mirzabaev, a. (2015). small farms: changing structures and roles in economic development (zef-discussion papers on development policy no. 204). centre for development research. water research commission. (2009). small-scale irrigation farming: best management practices on selected irrigation schemes (technical report). republic of south africa. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p1-8 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n2p1 1 published by ideas spread status of mungbean production in central luzon, philippines rosemarie q. joson1, princess ann m. tayag2, carlo g. cunanan3, rafael p. pantoja3 & mary grace b. gatan3 1 department of agriculture – regional field office 03, city of san fernando, pampanga, philippines 2 municipal government of magalang, pampanga, philippines 3 pampanga state agricultural university, magalang, pampanga, philippines correspondence: rosemarie q. joson, department of agriculture – regional field office 03, regional government center, maimpis, city of san fernando, pampanga, central luzon, philippines. e-mail: rqjoson.cliarc@gmail.com received: october 1, 2025 accepted: october 21, 2025 online published: october 23, 2025 the research is financed by the authors during their course on advanced field legumes as part of the requirements for the degree program on doctor of philosophy in agricultural sciences major in crops science at pampanga state agricultural university. abstract mungbean is the major field legume produced by farmers in central luzon after harvesting rice in the wet season. it requires minimal to zero tillage and less irrigation so it is best planted in the rainfed rice areas during dry season. being the second top mungbean producer among all regions in the philippines, central luzon needs to address the challenges in its mungbean industry to identify relative interventions toward increasing the production volume. this paper analyzed the status of the region’s mungbean production through profiling of farms and farmers, examining cost and returns in the whole value chain and identification of market chains, constraints, interventions, and current research programs. the lack of available quality seeds, trainings, extension support and fund allocation for research limit the potential of mungbean industry to increase production areas and yield. the proximity of central luzon to greater manila area where most trading and processing occur, indicates a greater potential to expand market opportunities. the concerns of farmers on manual harvesting of mungbean pose a major challenge to the agricultural and mechanical engineers in designing machineries for small farm landholdings. keywords: mungbam production, cost and returns, marketing, legumes, central luzon 1. introduction mungbean is known as “poor man’s meat” due to its lower price and high protein content. it is usually planted after rice from january to may. it can fix nitrogen between 64% and 87%, which corresponds to 43-85 kg/ha (rosales et al., 1995). this lessens the cost of nitrogen fertilizer for rice in the wet season. the philippine mungbean production was estimated at 22,740 mt in the second quarter of 2023 with ilocos, central luzon and cagayan valley as the top-producing regions with 91.4% share to the country’s output (psa, 2024). from 2018 to 2022, the country’s performance on mungbean remained in terms of area planted, production volume and yield per hectare. price fluctuations ranged from p55/kg to p95/kg. in terms of area planted and volume of production in central luzon, the provinces of tarlac, pampanga and bataan are the top producers, which comprise around 83% of the total volume produced in 2023 (da-rfo3, 2024). there are 33 mungbean varieties in the philippines from 1975 to 2019 (nsic, 2024). the 12 varieties were bred by university of the philippines-institute of plant breeding (uplb-ipb) while the rest (21) were bred by the department of agriculturebureau of plant industry (da-bpi). the varieties of da-bpi luntian 1, 2 and 3 have high stickiness and resistant to cercospora leaf spot and rust. most of uplb-ipb’s varieties pagasa 1, 2, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21 have 58 to 65 days maturity, glossy green color and average yield of 1.2 mt/ha (nsic, 2024). the most planted variety of farmers in central luzon is kulabo, which is commonly called labo by farmers. it was developed by da-bpi in 2004 with dull green seed color, 80 days maturity and yields 1.09-1.17 mt/ha (gatan and gatan, 2019). since central luzon is the second largest mungbean producer in the country and with very few research studies conducted related to mungbean, the authors examined the status of the region’s mungbean production and identified policy recommendation and research for development program and projects to increase area and production volume. the status of mungbean production in central luzon was assessed through: characterization of the socio-demographic profile of mungbean as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 2 published by ideas spread stakeholders such as farmers, wholesalers, and retailers; cost and return analysis on farm production, wholesaling and retailing; identification of market chains; identification of constraints and recommended interventions of farmers; and identification of research for development program and projects conducted on mungbean. 2. method the study used a quantitative research design through survey interviews from the largest provincial and municipal mungbean producers in central luzon. the interviewees were purposively selected by the researchers based on their extensive experience in mungbean production. the researchers obtained informed consent from the interviewees and local government units (lgus) before conducting the interviews and gathering other pertinent documents like written records and reports. the structured survey forms for farmers, wholesalers and retailers were pre-tested and improved before the survey proper. 2.1 location and participants the total area harvested for mungbean in central luzon last 2023 was 1,587.67 has with 1,050 farmers (da-rfo3, 2024). the top provinces were bataan, pampanga and tarlac which comprised around 83% of the total area. among these provinces, the top five municipalities are hermosa in bataan, lubao and apalit in pampanga, and la paz and concepcion in tarlac. the researchers have chosen the top five municipalities to be the location of the study due to extensive experience of the mungbean farmers on production and in gathering adequate information. based on the survey studies conducted by other researchers like singh and masuku (2014) and torres et al. (2021), if the population is homogenous, any percentage would be enough to represent the population and if the data gathered are almost the same, the data are already valid due to data saturation and lesser variations. mungbean farmers in central luzon are homogenous since most of them are producing mungbean after rice, which is from january to may, for family consumption, and for income opportunity of adult women and teenagers specially during the second and third harvest. for this study, the researchers purposively interviewed five mungbean farmers for each municipality, three wholesalers and five retailers. due to busy schedule of other invited farmers in tarlac, only three farmers from la paz and four farmers from concepcion came for the interview. the researchers have interviewed a total of 22 mungbean farmers, which can already represent the central luzon because of their homogeneity with the rest of the mungbean farmers in terms of production season, seeds source and area used. 2.2 data gathering tools and procedure the researchers have prepared and finalized four types of survey questionnaires to each of the stakeholders in the mungbean industry like farmers, wholesalers, retailers and local government units. the questionnaire for the farmers composed of three parts – socio-demographic profile, farm profile and cost and returns. meanwhile, the questionnaire for retailers and wholesalers are focused on their mungbean sources, price agreement, types of consumers and market requirements. the researchers directly gathered the information from mungbean farmers, wholesalers and retailers. municipal agricultural office heads and extension workers were also interviewed on the lgu profile on mungbean. the survey was conducted in september 2024 using face-to-face interviews to all the identified participants. the interviews were conducted in the municipal agricultural offices and barangay halls. the researchers prioritized the market outlets of farmers such as wholesalers and retailers in the public markets for the gathering of information to represent the actors in the market channels. the researchers have personally administered the interviews with the farmers, sellers and lgus. 2.3 data analysis and interpretation the data entries on each questionnaire were validated to ensure accuracy, correctness and uniformity before coding them for tabulation. the data were coded using letters and numbers up to eight characters for ease of encoding in the table using the ms excel program. researchers have reviewed the data entries and run them to check for errors and fill up missing entries. the final data entries were analyzed using averages, frequencies and percentages to generate the profile summary of farmers and farms. analysis of cost and returns for mungbean production was measured in terms of return on cost, break-even price and break-even yield. return on cost was computed by dividing the net income by the production cost (table 2). break-even analysis is a financial assessment tool to determine where total revenue from sales equal costs in producing a product, resulting in no profit or loss (ebsco, 2021). the break-even point is the basis of analysis on how many units must be sold at certain prices in order to cover the costs incurred. this also helps the companies in projecting estimated profits in the succeeding operations. for this study, the break-even point for price and yield of mungbean was calculated by dividing each price and yield from the production cost. the value of mungbean along the market chain was analyzed based on the average price offered per market channel (table 3). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 3 published by ideas spread 3. results 3.1 socio-demographic profile of mungbean stakeholders a large majority of mungbean farmers are male, which comprised around 91% of the total sample. most of them are beyond 45 years old (81%) with an average age of 55.67 years. male usually dominates the farming sector and even mungbean production not only in the philippines but also in other countries (aung & lee, 2021; assefa, et al., 2022). mungbean farmers in myanmar (52.2), ethiopia (42.12) and bangladesh (<40) are younger compared with filipino farmers (aung & lee, 2021; assefa et al., 2022; hajong et al., 2021). these figures show that there are more young individuals in other countries that venture in mungbean farming compared in the philippines. most sons and daughters of filipino farmers do not want to pursue farming and other agriculture-related business ventures due to laborious farm activities. farmers have varied educational background. some have finished elementary, high school, vocational and even college degrees, which are not agriculture-related courses. education enables farmers to easily understand and adopt new practices learned from various media platform and co-farmers. their major source of income is farming business particularly rice and vegetable production. few farmers from tarlac source their major income from mungbean production. tarlac province is one of the largest mungbean producer in region 03. most of respondents are members of farmers’ associations, which help them access various support interventions like seeds, fertilizers and farm machineries from da and lgu programs. the average years of experience in mungbean farming is 9.68 years, which is comparable to the farmers in bangladesh with 9.31 years of experience (hajong et al., 2021). conversely, farmers in myanmar have 14 years of experience in mungbean farming (aung & lee, 2021). mungbean in myanmar is one of the most important major export-earning crops which creates many opportunities for small farmers and rainfed areas. most farmers have not attended any training on mungbean. based from the interviews, farmers have learned the techniques in mungbean production from their forefathers and co-farmers. majority of farmers sell their harvest to consolidators and public markets, which for them is the easiest way to dispose the volume harvested, convert it to cash and avoid storing large volume in their households. table 1 illustrates the farm profile of farmers in terms of area used, yield, distance to market, seed class and irrigation facilities. most farmers devote 1.0 to 2.0 has for mungbean production with an average of 1.32 has. the areas planted for mungbeans are part of their rice farm areas cultivated during the wet season, which falls between june and october. all farmers obtained yield using kulabo variety between 0.5 mt and 1.0 mt per ha while very few yielded below 0.5 mt and above 1.0 mt. the average yield is computed around 0.75 mt. this is below the potential yield of the variety which could reach up to 1.09 1.17 mt/ha. the average yield of mungbean farmers in cuyapo, nueva ecija was only 0.7 mt but it can give an average net income of p22,600 when sold for p70/kg or p70,000/mt (domingo, 2023). the average yields of mungbean in other countries like bangladesh (0.946 mt), cambodia (0.8-2.4 mt) and myanmar (1.29 mt) were higher (islam et al., 2011; martin et al., 2015; aung & lee, 2021). farmers from these countries use rhizobium inoculants to achieve the maximum potential yield while most filipino mungbean farmers are not yet aware about this technology. the national average yield for mungbean in 2023 was 881 kg/ha. the mungbean yield in central luzon can still be increased if the right quantity and quality of inputs and better cultural practices will be used by the farmers. farmers can also gain more profits if they have stable market network with prices beyond p60/kg or p60,000/mt. data shows that majority of farmers are sourcing good seeds from the public market. most of the areas cultivated for mungbean are owned by farmers and their relatives, which is a good indicator that they have the discretion to decide in practicing latest technologies. table 1. farm profile of mungbean farmers in central luzon, n=22 variable % mean area (ha) <1.0 1.0-2.0 2.1-4.0 18 68 14 1.32 average yield per hectare (mt) <0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0+ 27 59 14 0.75 distance to main road (km) <1.0 1.0 59 32 0.59 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 4 published by ideas spread 1.0+ 9 distance to market (km) 1.1-5.0 5.0+ 59 41 6.09 land ownership self-owned parents, relatives rented, tenanted 41 45 14 varieties used kulabo 100 seed class good certified 86 14 seed source lgu own public market 32 36 59 irrigation facilities national/ communal irrigation system shallow tube well deepwell small farm reservoir 13 77 4 4 farmers usually sell their mungbean harvest to wholesalers, which are also known as dealers and consolidators. wholesalers source mungbean directly from farms and trading posts. they regularly purchase 1.0-2.0 mt per week and pay p60,000/mt. they sell it to the public market at a retail price of around 65-p70/kg (1.0 mt = 1,000 kg) to farmers and household members. farmers do not commonly set aside mungbean seeds for the succeeding planting season due to unavailability of storage facilities. this compels them to source seeds from the public market every planting season. retailers also buy mungbeans from trading posts twice a month with a volume of 2.5 mt per purchase. they pay p68,000/mt and sell it to household members at p90/kg and p20/200g using simple plastics. there are no well-known mungbean processors in central luzon that buy large volume from farmers or public market. most women in the farming community process mungbean into sweet delicacies like buchi or sesame ball with mungbean paste, rice cakes toppings and use as flavoring for hopia (good pastry). most bakeries in the surveyed municipalities use mungbean paste that is usually sourced from manila as their ingredient for hopia production. mungbean is commonly prepared as viand and soup by most rural households in central luzon every friday and during occasions. 3.2 cost and return analysis the average yield of mungbean farmers was 750 kg or 0.75 mt per ha, which they sell at p60.00/kg and get around p45,000 gross income. labor cost is almost twice the input cost. this is consistent with the findings of pal et al. (2021) where human labor was the major component of cost in mungbean production. labor for harvesting had the highest cost followed by fertilizer and land preparation, which account for 25.34%, 13.82% and 10.75% of the total production cost, respectively. due to excessive farmwork and the tedious manual harvesting of mungbeans, most farmers opt to hire laborers to do the work (domingo, 2023). nevertheless, mungbean production represents an outstanding opportunity for farmers since the crop provides additional income while also enhancing soil fertility (rakhimov et al., 2022). mungbean farmers in central luzon had earned a net income of php12,444.90 within only three months of production with a 38.23% return on cost (table 2). to break-even or avoid losses, farmers must produce at least 542.58 kg (0.54 mt) per ha and sell it for a minimum price of p43.41/kg. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 5 published by ideas spread table 2. cost and returns on mungbean production in central luzon, 2024, 1.0 ha. item/ activity unit quantity amount/ unit (p) total amount (p) gross income 45,000.00 yield per ha kg 750* 60.00 a. farm inputs 10,555.10 mungbean seeds kg 25 75.00 1875.00 fertilizer, 14-14-14 bag 3 1,500.00 4,500.00 insecticide li 2 500.00 1,000.00 fungicide kg 1 950.00 950.00 fuel li 30 57.67 1,730.10 sacks pc 50 10.00 500.00 b. labor cost 22,000.00 land preparation mmd tractor rental 3,500.00 3,500.00 planting md 3 550.00 1,650.00 fertilizer application, 3 times md 1 550.00 1,650.00 fungicide application md 1 550.00 1,650.00 weeding, 2 times md 1 550.00 1,100.00 irrigation, 2 times md 1 550.00 1,100.00 harvesting, 3 priming, drying md 15 550.00 8,250.00 seed cleaning md 2 550.00 1,100.00 contingency, 10% of labor cost 2,000.00 production cost (a+b) 32,555.10 net income (gross income – production cost) 12,444.90 return on cost (%) (net income / production cost x 100%) 38.23 break-even price (p) (production cost / yield) 43.41 break-even yield (kg) (production cost / price per kg) 542.58* * 1,000 kg = 1.0 mt (750 kg=0.75 mt, 542.58 kg=0.543 mt) there are three forms of market chains for mungbean based from market observation and interviews conducted to different stakeholders (figure 1). the most common form of market chain is from farmer to wholesaler, then to retailer and household consumers. the wholesaler is also called dealer and consolidator. another chain is that farmer directly sells mungbeans to retailer then to household consumers. the third chain is that farmer directly sells it to the household consumers. this usually happens during the third or last harvesting time where volume obtained is very low. these market chains are not different with other agricultural commodities like rice, vegetables and fruits. the role of wholesalers is still dominant in agricultural marketing. figure 1. different market chains of mungbean in central luzon farmer wholesaler household retailer farmer household retailer farmer household as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 6 published by ideas spread using the most common market chain, which is from farmers to wholesalers, retailers and household consumers, the average markup per channel was computed. farmers receive the highest markup at p16.60/kg followed by the retailers at p15.00 while the wholesalers get the lowest markup of p5.00/kg. both farmers and retailers have limited volume of mungbeans in which disposal period takes longer days compared to wholesalers. these wholesalers have the capacity to buy large volume and can sell them in few days only. with these facts and figures, the study shows that all channels have fair share in the market. they can earn more profits if they will practice clustering and consolidation and have enough capital for storage and transportation facilities. table 3. value of mungbean along the market chain source/ channel cost incurred (p/kg) price sold (p/kg) average markup (p/kg) farm/ farmer 43.40 60.00 16.60 wholesaler 65.00 70.00 5.00 retailer 75.00 90.00 15.00 3.3 constraints on mungbean production and farmers’ recommended interventions mungbean has considerable importance in economic, food, fodder, and agricultural aspects because it is used as a green manure crop to improve soil fertility. however, despite the advantages, growing demand, and opportunities, farmers deal with various constraints limiting their overall production (dikir, 2023). harvest and postharvest losses constitute significant problems in mungbean production based from 15 farmers (68%) interviewed. farmers in central luzon nowadays are still harvesting and drying mungbean manually. this is relative with dikir (2023) findings that mungbean is highly vulnerable to shattering during harvesting. therefore, it is imperative to improve postharvest activities such as collection, storage, and handling to improve mungbean seed quality. moreover, pest infestation from borers and aphids is one of the challenges identified by farmers (52%) that contributes to yield losses. this is consistent to the findings of domingo (2023) wherein pest infestation was the most significant problem that limits farmers to obtain higher yields. farmers deal with these problems by applying pesticides to manage pests and prevent infestation in larger areas. in pakistan, pests and diseases are also significant constraints, particularly pod borers and caterpillars, which were perceived as major pests by the farmers (rani et al., 2018). moreover, limited access to high-quality seeds (16%), fluctuating farm gate prices (12%), problems with weed management (8%), and unexpected heavy rainfall during the dry season, also contribute to the lower production of mungbean seeds (8%). these results correspond to the study of sequeros et al. (2021), which revealed that production constraints generally included insect pests and plant diseases, unstable markets with low prices and low market demand, and the lack of quality seeds of suitable varieties. furthermore, haque et al. (2014) mentioned that although mungbean is a valuable crop, farmers deal with some challenges, including disease and pest infestation, an insufficient supply of high-quality seed, and a lack of information about technological advances. to cope with these pressing concerns, mungbean farmers recommended that they should be supported by the government agencies with free or subsidized inputs like quality seeds and fertilizers, financial assistance, market support, farm machineries and trainings. 3.4 current research for development program on mungbean breeders from the bureau of plant industry and uplb – institute of plant breeding have developed and registered 33 mungbean varieties from 1975 to 2019. most of these are glossy green color which are used for vermicelli production while dull green color are preferred for home consumption. breeders are still looking for best traits to improve the characteristics of existing varieties. da-rfo3 research station for lowland development in tarlac city has been conducting varietal trials since 2011 and other experimental studies on new varieties in partnership with bpi and sucs. these varieties include mg 14, 20 and 21. the station produces seeds and distribute it to the farmers in tarlac. the research agenda of da-rfo3 for mungbeans from 2022 to 2026 includes establishment of community seed system, field testing of improved varieties, and improvement of existing machines for harvesting. the high value commercial crops development program of da-rfo3 provides seeds to lgus for distribution to farmers. da-rfo3 has no fund allocation for conducting research for development projects for mungbean or other legumes. 4. conclusion overall, mungbean production in central luzon is generally produced by male farmers after rice from january to may in small-scale areas that is just enough to provide food for the households and additional income for pickers as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 7 published by ideas spread like women and youth in the communities. mungbean farmers in central luzon do not have access to quality seeds and they lack knowledge and practice on the proper cultivation and management. these are reflected by their average yield of 0.75 mt/ha and a net income of p12,444.90, which is far below than the average potential yield (yap, 2016; gutierrez, 2018) and net income in isabela (baccay, 2024). farmers do not see mungbean farming as a business enterprise but an augmentation to nitrogen fertilizer requirement of rice in the wet season. the labor cost in mungbean production is twice the amount of input cost. the average cost per kg of mungbean is p43.41. the major market chain is from farmers to wholesalers then to retailers and household consumers. these market channels play very important role in the distribution of mungbeans from production to consumption. wholesalers buy it at p60/kg and sell it for p70/kg while retailers offer it to individuals for p90/kg and beyond. all channels have fair share in the market and can earn more profits if there is enough capital, storage and transportation facilities. to address the constraints on mungbean production, farmers recommend to develop new varieties, improve cultural practices and design machineries towards a one-time harvesting for mungbeans. they also want to be trained and assisted in practicing integrated pest management. there is lack of fund allotment to support the research and development activities on mungbean production as reflected in various government program accomplishments. this led to the slow progress in the development of new varieties and improved cultural management like the use of rhizobium inoculant. the laborious harvesting, lack of available quality seeds and trainings does not encourage farmers to maximize their areas for mungbean production. acknowledgments the authors extend their sincere gratitude to the mungbean farmers, wholesalers, retailers, agricultural extension workers from bataan, pampanga and tarlac, and researchers who gave their consent and time in providing information to complete the study. the authors also deeply appreciate the reviewers of this paper for providing insights and recommendations to improve the final version of this manuscript. references assefa, z., dinku, a., & jemal, a. m. 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(2021). community communication and coffee farmers' adaptation to climate variability in amadeo, cavite, philippines [preprint]. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349279213_community_communication_and_coffee_farmers'_ adaptation_to_climate_variability_in_amadeo_cavite_philippines/citation/download yap, j. (2016, october). technology can boost mungbean production. agriculture magazine, manila bulletin. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p1-8 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p1 1 published by ideas spread the effect of the combination polymers – grape marc in the development of tomato growing in soilless edouard tabet1, sarah akiki1, suzy rouphael1, elie awad2, chadi hosri3 & dalida darazy4 1 faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 2 faculty of agriculture, department of basic sciences, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 3 faculty of agriculture, department of animal production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 4 faculty of agriculture, department of plant protection, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon correspondence: edouard tabet, faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon. tel: 961-365-5178. e-mail: edouard.tabet@ul.edu.lb received: january 10, 2025 accepted: january 20, 2025 online published: january 29, 2025 abstract this study examined the impact of two fertilizers (fi (crfa) and f2 (arizona university) and three substrates (s1(100% coconut fiber), s2 (50% coconut fiber, 50% grape marc, and 7g of polymers), and s3 (50% coconut fiber, 50% grape marc, and 13g of polymers)) on tomato growth in a soilless system. results showed that fertilizer f2 was the most effective overall. substrate s3 excelled in node count and flower bud spacing, likely due to improved moisture retention and nutrient availability. substrate s1 supported optimal stem length and node spacing. substrate s2 yielded the highest tomato production. these findings suggest that optimizing fertilization and substrate composition can significantly improve tomato yield and quality in soilless systems. this has implications for sustainable agriculture by reducing reliance on soil-based cultivation and potentially increasing crop productivity. further research in this area could lead to more efficient and environmentally friendly farming practices. keywords: fertilizer, soilless system, tomato, superabsorbent polymers, grape marc 1. introduction the tomato (solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most widespread crops globally, with a production exceeding 180 million tons in 2021. italy accounted for 53% of the total european production, while china, india, turkey, and the us were also among the top producers (eslami et al., et al., 2022). in lebanon, tomatoes are one of the most cultivated and consumed vegetable crops, with a production of 305,300 tons over an area of 5,000 hectares in 2020 (faostat, 2020). with a growing global population and rising living standards, traditional agricultural practices face immense pressure due to dwindling freshwater resources (fao, 2019). this necessitates a shift towards efficient and sustainable farming methods. hydroponics is emerging as a solution to meet increasing demands (velazquez-gonzalez et al., et al., 2022). the search for high-quality, low-cost substrates has led to exploring organic agro-industrial wastes like grape marc compost as alternatives to peat (abad et al., 2001; tabet et al., 2022). however, grape marc's high-water content presents challenges compared to coconut substrates grape marc, a byproduct of winemaking, presents a promising alternative to peat. its use as a growing medium can reduce waste and promote circularity in the agricultural sector. however, grape marc's high-water content can be a challenge. (iral, 2017). super-absorbents or hydrogels can enhance moisture availability in the root zone by absorbing significant amounts of water and helping plants to grow properly (malik et al., 2022). this study aims to develop a prototype grow bag technique for hydroponic tomato cultivation with substrate combinations, such as polymers-grape marc, to reduce production costs and increase water holding capacity. by optimizing this approach, we can explore a more sustainable and cost-effective method for tomato cultivation. 2. material and methods 2.1 work description the experiment was conducted from april to august 2024 at the agricultural research and training center (cfra) of the faculty of agronomy at the lebanese university in ghazir, keserwan district (mount lebanon) at an altitude of 550 m. it took place in a bi-chapel greenhouse covering 224 m², containing 36 substrate bags for as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 2 published by ideas spread tomato cultivation, with each bag containing three plants. flower buds first appeared on april 26, 2024, and the first harvest took place on june 23, 2024. 2.2 experimental design the tomato variety used in this experiment was the gh tomato delin f1 variety. the 36 bags were divided into groups for each fertilization recipe (f1 and f2) and substrates (s1, s2, and s3). the experimental setup followed split plot design with three repetitions: block 1, block 2, and block 3. each block included the two fertilization recipes (main factors) and the three substrates (sub-factors). (figure 1). 2.3 substrate and fertilization recipe three different substrate bags (20 liters each) were tested:  s1: 100% coconut fiber (control).  s2: 50% coconut fiber and 50% grape marc with 7g of polymers.  s3: 50% coconut fiber and 50% grape marc with 13g of polymers. table 1 provides a clearer overview of the substrate compositions. figure 1. experimental design as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 3 published by ideas spread table 1. physico-chemical analysis of substrates according to iral physico-chemical parameters unit grape marc coconut fiber rate water content % 32.17 11.32 dry matter % 67.83 88.68 ash content % 16.69 5.55 ph water (1:10) 1:10 7.45 5.19 electrical conductivity (ec) ms.cm-1 5.15 0.61 organic matter (combustion) %ms 83.31 94.45 carbon (combustion) %ms 46.28 52.47 kjeldahl nitrogen %ms 0.46 1 the components of the fertilization recipes f1 (crfa) and f2 (arizona university) are outlined in table 2. table 2. components of fertilization recipes f1 and f2 during the two phases of the production cycle in ppm components of fertilization recipes phase i 0-6 weeks phase ii 6 – 12+ weeks f1 f2 f1 f2 nitrogen (n) 237.50 224.00 376.18 189.00 phosphorus (p) 140.70 47.00 125.00 47.00 potassium (k) 216.60 281.00 434.00 351.00 calcium (ca) 57.00 212.00 171.00 190.00 magnesium (mg) 39.72 65.00 75.85 60.00 iron (fe) 12.53 2.00 13.95 2.00 manganese (mn) 4.97 0.55 4.46 0.55 zinc (zn) 1.02 0.33 5.84 0.33 boron (b) 2.44 0.28 2.20 0.28 copper (cu) 0.13 0.05 0.85 0.05 molybdenum (mo) 0.11 0.05 0.10 0.05 source: sunco, ltd., and university of arizona, controlled environment agriculture center, http://tinyurl.com/ljlj785/ the grape marc, obtained from a local winery, underwent a 6-week solarization process. this involved initial sundrying for 2 days followed by covering with nylon sheets to enhance the solarization effect. consequently, fertigation was applied via an irrigation station with a dosatron. 2.4 measured parameters data collection included stem length, number and distance of nodes, number and distance between flower buds, and yield. measurements were taken manually using a measuring tape, and fruits were weighed using a precision scale. 2.5 ec and ph measurements electrical conductivity (ec) and ph were measured daily using a multi-function water tester. the ec was maintained between 1.69 and 2.49 ms/cm, and the target ph was between 6.5 and 6.99 (adams, 2002). 2.6 statistical analysis statistical analyses were processed using glm (general linear model) via sigma stat software. as a split-plot design experiment was employed, repeated measures anova was used to compare the main factors f1 and f2 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 4 published by ideas spread along with sub-factors (s1, s2, s3) and their interactions at a significance level of 5% for all studied parameters (stem length, number of nodes, distance between nodes, number of flower buds, distance between flower buds, and yield). duncan's test was applied to indicate significantly different treatments . 3. results and discussion 3.1 effects of fertilization and substrate in table 3, results showed that fertilization recipe f2 yielded superior outcomes in flower bud number and yield compared to f1. substrate s3 exhibited enhanced moisture retention, promoting node count and flower bud spacing, while s2 achieved the highest yield due to its balance of water retention and nutrient availability. table 3. effects of fertilization and substrate on different parameters treatment f1 f2 s1 s2 s3 stem length (cm) 233.78 ± 29.40 217.33 ± 25.27 232.67 ± 24.65 227.67 ± 29.30 216.33 ± 26.50 number of nodes 24.22 ± 1.65 * 23.00 ± 2.05 21.67 ± 0.94 23.50 ± 1.12 25.67 ± 1.11* nodes distance (cm) 9.69 ± 1.33 9.57 ± 1.55 10.75 ± 1.04* 9.69 ± 1.08 8.46 ± 1.19 number of flower buds 41.77 ± 1.99 44.33 ± 3.46 43.5 ± 4.23 43 ± 2.38 42.66 ± 2.21 flower buds distance (cm) 21.39 ± 0.94 21.72 ± 0.55 21.24 ± 0.60 21.32 ± 0.47 22.1 ± 0.90 yield (kg) 141.58 173.75* 101.49 111.53 102.31 (*) indicates a p-value < 0.05 (statistically significant). 3.1.1 stem length the analysis shows that fertilization treatments f1 (233.78 cm) outperformed f2 (217.33 cm); however, this difference is not statistically significant (p > 0.05). similarly, the three substrates did not significantly impact stem length (p > 0.05); with s1 (control) showing the highest mean at 232.67 cm followed by s2 at 227.67 cm and s3 at 216.33 cm. according to ayankojo (2020), increased nitrogen application correlates with improved growth rates, although excessive nitrogen does not always lead to higher yields or greater water use efficiency. additionally, phosphorus is crucial for optimizing plant development; sobrinho et al., (2024) demonstrated that higher phosphorus doses significantly enhance tomato growth when irrigation is properly managed. kathi et al., (2021) affirmed that while polymers can help mitigate water stress, they do not necessarily enhance stem growth compared to balanced irrigation or fertilization alone. 3.1.2 number of nodes fertilization resulted in a higher mean number of nodes for f1 averaging 24.22 compared to f2's average 23.00; with p < 0.05 indicating that fertilization recipes significantly influence node development. almeida et al., (2020) demonstrate that fertilizers positively affect tomato growth and yield in soilless systems, promoting greater node counts. while singh et al., (2021) highlight that organic amendments like grape marc enhance growth parameters such as node development. among substrates, s3 had the highest average node count at 25.67 cm, followed by s2 at 23.50 cm, while s1 had an average count at 21.67 cm, showing a highly significant effect (p < 0.05). this suggests that substrate choice impacts node development due to factors like nutrient retention and water-holding capacity. studies indicate that superabsorbent polymers (saps) can significantly improve plant growth metrics when used at optimal doses (yang et al., 2020). the findings highlight the importance of proper polymer dosage for enhancing plant development, with s3's effective use of recommended polymer levels correlating with increased node production (yang et al., 2022; başak et al., 2020). 3.1.3 node distance analysis shows that fertilization treatments f1 enriched with higher nitrogen and phosphorus levels result in a mean distance between nodes of 9.69 cm while f2 yields 9.57 cm; however, p = 0.83 > 0.05 indicating no statistically significant difference, suggesting both treatments provide similar conditions for node spacing .this suggests both treatments provide similar conditions for node spacing. research by iqbal et al., (2022) supports the importance of nitrogen in promoting plant growth and spacing, while optimal plant spacing can reduce resource competition (whitehead & singh, 2000). among the substrates, s1 exhibits the highest mean distance between nodes at 10.75 cm, followed by s2 at 9.69 cm and s3 at 8.46 cm. the p-value of 0.03 < 0.05 indicates that the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 5 published by ideas spread differences are statistically significant, highlighting the crucial role of substrate composition in influencing plant growth patterns. iqbal et al., (2022) and altrão et al., (2022) suggest that substrates with optimal moisture retention enhance root development and node spacing. the lack of polymer application in s1 may allow for unrestricted root growth, resulting in greater node spacing compared to s2 and s3, where polymer applications may affect root expansion (chapman et al., 2012). overall, results favor s1 for distance between nodes. 3.1.4 number of flower buds the number of flower buds in tomato plants shows that treatment f2 yielded an average of 44.33 flower buds compared to f1's 41.77, although the p > 0.05, indicating no significant difference. the increased flower count in f2 may be attributed to its higher calcium content, which enhances pollen germination and tube growth and is essential for fertilization (yara international, 2023). additionally, f2's nutrient balance, with lower nitrogen and phosphorus but higher potassium levels, likely contributes to improved plant health and flowering potential (zhang et al., 2022). when comparing the substrates, flower bud production is quite similar across all types: s1 averages 43.5 buds, s2 produces 43 buds, and s3 shows 42.66 buds, indicating no significant differences among them (singh et al., 2021). 3.1.5 distance between flower buds the analysis of the distance between flower buds indicates that treatment f2 has a mean distance of 21.72 cm, slightly higher than f1's21.39 cm, however, with a p > 0.05, indicating no statistically significant difference. among substrates, s3 shows the highest mean distance at 22.1 cm, while s1 and s2 have means of 21.24 cm and 21.32 cm, respectively, with a p-value > 0.05, also suggesting no significant differences. these findings imply that both fertilization recipes and substrate choices do not strongly influence flower bud spacing (khan et al., 2021). this consistency could indicate that other environmental factors, such as light availability or water management, may play more crucial roles in influencing flower bud spacing than the fertilization recipes or substrates themselves (zhang et al., 2022). 3.1.6 plant yield at the end of the experiment, treatment f1 yielded a total harvest weight of 141.58 kg, while treatment f2 produced a significantly higher weight of 173.75 kg, with a p < 0.05 promoting plant growth. studies have shown that specific nutrient applications can substantially increase plant biomass and overall yield (li et al., 2023), with balanced fertilization being crucial for maximizing tomato yields (wageningen university, 2018; tabet et al., 2020). among substrates, control substrate s1 produced the lowest total weight at 101.49 kg while substrate s3 resulted in a total weight of 102.31 kg. however, substrate s2 yielded the highest total weight at 111.53 kg with p-value greater than 0.05, indicating no significant difference. research indicates that incorporating superabsorbent polymers can increase the water-holding capacity of the soil, allowing plants to access moisture during critical growth stages, particularly under drought conditions (fernando et al., 2013). however, the additional polymers in s3 did not lead to a significant improvement in performance over s2; a study demonstrated that using an optimal concentration of saps resulted in a notable increase in tomato yield, root growth, and overall plant health, highlighting the polymers' role in mitigating water stress (günes et al., 2007). overall, results favor treatments f2 and s2. 3.2 interactions between different fertilization recipes and substrates on all parameters the results of interactions between different fertilization recipes and substrates on all parameters are showed in table 4. table 4. interaction between different fertilization recipes and substrates on all parameters treatment f1s1 f1s2 f1s3 f2s1 f2s2 f2s3 stem length 231.00 ± 31.48 243.67 ± 40.92 226.67 ± 23.63 234.33 ± 22.81 211.67 ± 11.50 206.00 ± 35.04 number of nodes 22.33 ± 0.58 24.33 ± 0.58 26.00 ± 1.00 21.00 ± 1.00 22.67 ± 1.15 25.33 ± 1.53 nodes distance (cm) 10.35 ± 1.51 10.00 ± 1.53 8.73 ± 1.06 11.14 ± 0.69 9.37 ± 0.93 8.19 ± 1.70 number of flower buds 41.33 ± 2.49 42.33 ± 2.05 41.67 ± 0.94 45.67 ± 4.5 43.67 ± 2.49 43.67 ± 2.62 flower bud distance (cm) 20.93 ± 0.65 21.23 ± 0.35 22.01 ± 1.21 21.55 ± 0.31 21.43 ± 0.54 22.19 ± 0.40 yield (kg) 44.7 50.08 46.8 56.79 61.45 55.51 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 6 published by ideas spread during the different phases of production, the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates did not show any significant difference in all parameters. regarding the stem length, the variables did not exhibit strong collaboration or antagonism sufficient, however there are variations in the average lengths among combinations showing that f1s2 yields the highest value at 243.67 cm which aligns with findings from studies indicating that optimal substrate and fertilization combinations are crucial for maximizing tomato growth (gonzalez et al., 2023; zhou et al., 2022; singh et al., 2021). concerning the number of nodes, the most favorable results were in favor of f1s3 with the highest count of 26, having f1 rich in nitrogen phosphorus combined appropriate substrate such as s3 recommended dose polymersof 13g can improve crop yields and promote vigorous vegetative growth (vera-garcia et al., 2023; ewulo et al., 2015). on the other hand, f2s1 demonstrates superior growth compared to all other combinations, nodes distance 11.14 cm and number of flower buds of 45.67. research has shown that while node spacing is critical for optimizing light interception and air circulation, the lack of significant differences among these treatments indicates that other environmental factors, such as light availability and water management, may also play crucial roles in determining plant architecture (lópez-pereira et al., 2022). some studies suggest that consistent nutrient management and substrate selection can enhance overall plant health without necessarily affecting node spacing significantly (gonzalez et al., 2023). furthermore, the elevated calcium content and optimized nutrient ratios in f2 enhances the pollen germination, flower production and fruit set in tomato plants (yara international, 2023; li et al., 2023). the lack of significant difference among the distance between flower buds suggests that both fertilization strategies and substrate variations do not have a strong impact on the spacing of flower buds in tomato plants (du et al., 2021). despite this, the best results were in favor of f2s3 (22.19 cm). in addition, the highest total weight was observed in treatment f2s2 (61.45 kg). this aligns with findings that have shown that substrate composition significantly affects plant growth parameters, emphasizing the importance of selecting appropriate growing media to enhance yield potential (chowdhury et al., 2024). finally, the study's findings may be limited by environmental factors (climate, seasonality, pests), crop-specific responses, and region-specific factors (soil, water quality, management practices). key implications include the significant impact of polymer concentration on plant health. optimal polymer dosage is crucial for enhancing plant development, while excessive use can be detrimental. substrate composition, including organic amendments like grape marc, also influences plant growth. proper fertilization, particularly with nitrogen and phosphorus, is essential for yield optimization, but excessive nitrogen application might not always lead to higher yields or water use efficiency. 4. conclusion according to our study, it is evident that fertilization recipes and substrates employed in our experiment, significantly influence various growth and productivity parameters of tomato plants in soilless culture. the results show that fertilization recipe f2, rich in potassium and calcium, consistently outperformed f1 in terms of improving node and flower buds spacing, increasing the number of flower buds and yield. however, recipe f1 with its higher nitrogen and phosphorus content, demonstrated greater efficacy in promoting stem length and node development. while substrate s1 (100% cocopeat) excelled in promoting stem length, node development and number of flower buds due to its superior water retention and aeration properties. substrate s3 (50% coconut fiber and 50% grape marc with 13g of polymers) showed the best results for node count and flower bud spacing, benefiting from enhanced moisture retention and nutrient availability. in terms of plant yield, substrate s2 (50% coconut fiber and 50% grape marc with 7g of polymers) performed the best, striking an ideal balance between water retention and root support while addressing the minimal water retention capacity of grape marc. notably, the interactions between fertilization recipes and substrates did not significantly influence any of the measured parameters, suggesting that these factors operate independently. the study highlights the independent roles of fertilization recipes and substrates in optimizing tomato growth and yield in soilless systems. fertilization recipe f2 and substrates s2 and s3 played pivotal roles in improving tomato productivity, aligning with the study's goal of optimizing soilless cultivation techniques. grape marc, an agro-industrial by-product, and polymers offer several advantages in improving water use efficiency, reduced costs, enhanced sustainability, improved plant health and reducing costs in commercial hydroponic systems. further research and development are needed to optimize the use of these materials and maximize their benefits references abad, m., noguera, p., & bures, s. 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(2020). effects of super-absorbent polymer on soil remediation and crop growth in arid and semi-arid areas. sustainability, 12(18), 7825. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12187825 yang, y., zhang, s., wu, j., gao, c., lu, d., & tang, d. w. (2022). effect of long term application of super absorbent polymer on soil structure, soil enzyme activity, photosynthetic characteristics, water and nitrogen use of winter wheat. frontiers in plant science, 13, 998494. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.998494 yara. (2023). role of calcium in tomato production. retrieved from yara. zhang, m., xiao, n., li, y., li, y., zhang, d., xu, z., & zhang, z. (2022). growth and fruit yields of greenhouse tomato under the integrated water and fertilizer by moistube irrigation. agronomy, 12(7), 1630. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071630 zhou, y., li, x., & wang, j. (2022). the impact of node spacing on tomato yield and quality: a field study. field crops research, 272, 108362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108362 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p29-35.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p29 29 published by ideas spread climate perception and adaptation decision of apple growers in guanzhong plain region based on structural equation model zhou lei1 1 college of geography and environment, baoji university of arts and sciences, baoji, china correspondence: zhou lei, college of geography and environment, baoji university of arts and sciences, baoji, china. e-mail: received: february 15, 2025 accepted: march 6, 2025 online published: march 12, 2025 the research is financed by baoji university of arts and sciences graduate innovative research project (project number: yjscx23yb53). abstract it is important to clarify the influence path of farmers' climate change perception and adaptation behavior decisionmaking for the further effective implementation of rural revitalization strategy. based on structural equation model, spss and amos software were used to import survey data, and then the influence path of climate change perception and adaptation behavior of apple farmers in the study area was discussed. the results showed that: (1) the individual characteristics of farmers had a significant positive effect on their objective adaptation ability, but had a negative effect on their climate change perception ability and household economic characteristics. (2) the family characteristics of farmers had a negative and significant effect on objective adaptation. (3) farmers' climate perception had a significant positive effect on their objective adaptation ability. the indicators of each potential variable can reflect itself well and have significant representativeness. finally, according to the test results of structural equation model, some effective suggestions are put forward for individual, family and perception. keywords: structural equation model, guanzhong plain, apple farmers, climate perception, adaptive behavior 1. introduction climate change has had a profound impact on all walks of life. among them, farmers, as micro-subjects of agricultural production, have the strongest perception and sensitivity to climate change (ren et al., 2015). in order to reduce the adverse effects of climate change, farmers often take a series of measures to cope with it. perception is the premise of adaptive decision-making, and accurate perception can help people better adopt appropriate measures to deal with meteorological disasters and minimize losses. it is crucial for the agricultural sector to formulate effective policies on agriculture and agriculture and for farmers to adopt effective strategies to identify the influencing factors of climate change perception and identify the influencing paths of "perceptionadaptation"(luo et al., 2017). at present, the academic community has carried out a wealth of studies on climate change and adaptation behavior, mainly focusing on climate suitability assessment, climate perception, and influencing factors of adaptation behavior (song et al., 2024; song et al., 2022; wang et al., 2021). this provides experience for the study of this paper. this paper takes guanzhong plain as a research area and uses structural equation model to clarify the relationship between attribute, perception and adaptation based on questionnaire survey data of apple growers. 2. study area profiles and data sources 2.1 profile of the study area in this paper, guanzhong plain is selected as the research region, which is located in the middle of shaanxi province, starting from baoji in the west, tongguan in the winter solstice, reaching the loess plateau of northern shaanxi in the north and the qinling mountain system in the south. guanzhong plain is flat with fertile soil, formed by the alluvial action of weihe river and rich in water resources. the climate is a temperate monsoon climate with four distinct seasons. here, agricultural production conditions are superior, the land type is mainly cultivated land, mainly planting apple, wheat, corn and other crops. it is one of the important agricultural production areas in china. the agricultural development of guanzhong region is related to the economic and social development of shaanxi province, and its ecosystem service function plays a crucial role in the ecological environment and agricultural as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 30 published by ideas spread production of the whole weihe river basin(ren et al., 2015).according to its natural resource endowment advantages, the fruit industry in this region is very developed, especially the apple industry with excellent quality and high market recognition, forming a complete industrial chain.among them, qianyang apple has been sent into space four times, taking the lead in introducing foreign high-quality seedlings and working technology, and the unique qianyang model of dwarfization cultivation has become a national model. under the background of climate change, it is of urgent practical significance to study and analyze the influence path of the perception and adaptation behavior of apple growers to climate change in guanzhong plain for the improvement and upgrading of agricultural industry and the further implementation of the national rural revitalization strategy. 2.2 questionnaire survey and data sources the questionnaire survey in this paper adopts the investigation mode of online and offline integration, with offline as the main and online as the auxiliary. the offline survey is conducted by a combination of random sampling questionnaire and semi-structured interview, while the online survey is conducted by sending electronic questionnaires to the target subjects through computers, mobile phones and other devices.the survey was conducted in october and november 2024.the survey sites were fenggeling town in chencang district of baoji city and nanzhai town, zhangjiayuan town, caobi town, chengguan town, cuijiatou town and shuigou town in guanzhong area of shaanxi province. a number of villages in each town were randomly selected for questionnaire survey and case interview. as can be seen from table 1, the survey contents include: (1) household attribute data of growers. it is composed of demographic attribute data (gender, age, educational background) and socio-economic characteristic data (income, distance from town, planting area, crop type). (2) perceived data of climate change in recent 10 years, including temperature and precipitation (winter and summer), floods, pests and diseases, etc. (3) objective adaptation to climate change (technical behavior=1~7 kinds; economic behavior=1~4 kinds; migratory behavior=1~2 kinds). table 1. sample description statistics and variable description variate serial number assignment specification mean value standard deviation individual gender xb 1=male; 2=female 1.23 0.42 age nl 1=under 18 years old; 2=18 to 25 years old; 3=26 to 30 years old; 4=31 to 40 years old; 5=41 to 50 years old; 6=51 to 60; 7=over 61 years old 5.88 1.29 education background xl 1=junior high school and below; 2=high school/technical secondary school; 3=junior college; 4=undergraduate college; 5=postgraduate and above 1.51 0.71 number of farmers wnrs 1=1 or 2 people; 2=3 or 4 people; 3=5 people and above 1.31 0.61 family family income jtsr 1=10, 000 to 50, 000 yuan; 2=60, 000 to 100, 000 yuan; 3=more than 100, 000 yuan 2.15 0.41 distance from town jzjl 1=0~5km; 2=6~10km; 3=11~15km; 4=16~20km; 5=20km 以上 1.86 1.04 planting area zzmj 1=less than 5 acres; 2=6 to 10 acres; 3=11 to 15 acres; 4=16~20 acres; 5=over 21 acres 2.23 1.12 crop type zwzl 1=one kind; 2=two kinds; 3=three kinds; 4=four kinds 1.79 0.75 climate perception the average temperature (summer) qwxj 1=decrease a lot; 2=decrease some; 3=basically unchanged; 4=increase some; 5=increase a lot 3.65 1.39 the average temperature (winter) qwdj 1=decrease a lot; 2=decrease some; 3=basically unchanged; 4=increase some; 5=increase a lot 3.40 1.12 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 31 published by ideas spread precipitation (summer) jsxj 1=decrease a lot; 2=decrease some; 3=basically unchanged; 4=increase some; 5=increase a lot 3.67 1.38 precipitation (winter) jsdj 1=decrease a lot; 2=decrease some; 3=basically unchanged; 4=increase some; 5=increase a lot 3.49 1.07 flood hl 1=decrease a lot; 2=decrease some; 3=basically unchanged; 4=increase some; 5=increase a lot 3.51 1.02 diseases and insect pests bch 1=decrease a lot; 2=decrease some; 3=basically unchanged; 4=increase some; 5=increase a lot 3.49 0.96 objective adaptation climate access tqtj 1=one kind; 2=two kinds; 3=three kinds; 4=four kinds; 5=five kinds 3.75 0.70 reason for action cqyy 1=one kind; 2=two kinds; 3=three kinds; 4=four kinds; 5=five kinds 3.26 0.72 assumption problem cswt 1=one kind; 2=two kinds; 3=three kinds; 4=four kinds; 5=five kinds; 6=six kinds 3.66 0.91 decision influencing factors xsys 1=one kind; 2=two kinds; 3=three kinds; 4=four kinds; 5=five kinds;6=six kinds;7=seven kinds; 8=eight kinds 4.65 1.42 type of behavior cssl 1=one kind; 2=two kinds; 3=three kinds; and so on until 13= thirteen kinds 7.21 2.00 a total of 300 paper and electronic questionnaires were distributed this time. after eliminating invalid questionnaires such as those with incorrect or incomplete answers(zhang et al., 2018), 265 valid questionnaires were finally collected, with an effective rate of 88.33%. among the surveyed farmers, the proportion of males was the highest, at 76.60%, while that of females was only 23.40%. the age group of 51 to 60 years old had the largest proportion, at 41.13%, followed by those over 61 years old, accounting for 36.23%. the proportion of those with junior high school education was the highest, at 61.13%, followed by those with high school or technical secondary school education, accounting for 26.79%. regarding household income, the proportion of those with an income of 60, 000 to 100, 000 yuan was the largest, at 80.76%. in terms of distance from the town, the proportions of those within 0 to 5 kilometers and 6 to 10 kilometers were 45.28% and 36.60% respectively. the number of farmers with a planting area of 6 to 10 acres was the largest, accounting for 58.11%. besides growing apples, many farmers also grow crops such as wheat and corn. the types of crops grown are diverse, and the proportion of those growing two types of crops is 40.00%. according to a random sampling survey, over 80% of the farmers believe that the average temperatures in summer and winter have changed, but the extent of the change varies. 66.42% of the farmers think that the average temperature in summer has increased (including a slight increase and a significant increase, the same below), while 22.27% of the farmers hold the opposite view. as for the average temperature in winter, only 58.12% of the farmers believe that it has increased, and 25.29% think it has decreased (including a slight decrease and a significant decrease, the same below). in the farmers' view, the temperature in summer has generally increased, while in winter, there seems to be a trend of getting colder. regarding the perception of changes in precipitation, the proportions of farmers who think precipitation has increased, remained unchanged, and decreased in summer are 58.12%, 22.64%, and 19.24% respectively; in winter, the proportions are 53.21%, 32.08%, and 14.71% respectively. the perception of changes in precipitation is not significant, with the proportion of farmers who think precipitation has increased being the largest, and it is higher in summer than in winter. in terms of the perception of changes in natural disasters, the proportion of farmers who think that floods have increased is the highest, at 61.89%. the proportion of farmers who think that the occurrence of pests and diseases has slightly increased is the highest, at 60.00%. the farmers' ability to obtain information and objectively adapt needs to be improved. in terms of the choice of adaptation measures, the top three measures are all technical behaviors, indicating that farmers tend to use scientific and technological means to solve problems encountered in agricultural production. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 32 published by ideas spread economic behaviors have a lower proportion of adopters because when taking such measures, they need to consider the cost and effect of the measures as well as the family's economic conditions. however, the proportion is not low. few farmers choose to migrate, indicating that agricultural production holds an important position in the local development. 3. research hypothesis and research method 3.1 research hypothesis through literature search on topics such as "climate change", "perception", and "adaptation", it was found that the earliest research in this field in china appeared in 2002, which was later than that in foreign countries. since 2008, the number of studies has gradually increased. the early research was relatively simple, mainly focusing on climate perception and adaptation. later, it gradually diversified, covering aspects such as risk perception of climate change, influencing factors, and adaptation efficacy. (song et al., 2024; song et al., 2022; wang et al., 2021). existing studies have shown that farmers' adaptation decisions to climate change are the result of the joint effect of individual internal factors and external environmental factors, including gender, age, knowledge reserves, experience, information acquisition, weather changes, social economy, and policy systems, etc. in the theoretical model, these factors can be attributed to the personal characteristics of farmers, family economic characteristics, climate perception, and the objective adaptation ability of farmers, all of which play an important role in farmers' climate perception and adaptation perception. individual characteristics belong to the category of population characteristics, usually including gender, age, education level, etc. family economic characteristics have the dual characteristics of population characteristics and social economic characteristics, usually including family size, income, transportation distance, occupation category, etc. climate perception refers to the degree of cognition of climate change, including temperature and precipitation, various meteorological disasters, etc. objective adaptation ability can be defined as the adaptation ability composed of natural, information, economic, technical, management, and institutional resources, and is reasonably allocated in the adaptation decision-making process to achieve an effective response, manifested as the effectiveness of these resources for adaptation. based on this, this paper proposes the following hypotheses and constructs a path model of the effects of individual characteristics, family characteristics, and climate perception on the objective adaptation of farmers (see figure 1). the selection and assignment of variables are shown in the above table. due to the small degree of discrimination between indicators, the model fitting effect is poor. based on professional knowledge, the correlation relationships between variables are debugged and the direction of effect is selected to make the model fit the observed data, which is statistically significant and consistent with theoretical knowledge. assumption h1: the individual characteristics of farmers influence their perception ability regarding climate change. assumption h2: the individual characteristics of farmers affect their objective adaptability. assumption h3: the individual characteristics of farmers influence the changes in their family and socio-economic characteristics. assumption h4: the family characteristics of farmers affect their perception ability regarding climate change. assumption h5: the family characteristics of farmers influence their objective adaptability. assumption h6: the perception ability of farmers regarding climate change affects their objective adaptability. figure 1. model of the influence mechanism of farmers' climate perception and adaptation behavior (hypothetical model) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 33 published by ideas spread 3.2 research methods in order to clarify the above-mentioned action paths, this study established a sample database in spss software, and then imported it into amos software to construct a structural equation model (sem) for analysis. this model is based on factor analysis and linear regression methods, and is used to represent the relationships among complex variables. structural equation models can be divided into measurement models and structural models. the measurement model describes the relationship between indicators and latent variables, while the structural model describes the relationship between latent variables (li et al., 2019). indicators are observable variables, while latent variables cannot be directly observed and can only be inferred from indicators. its analytical formula is: x λ ε α (1) y λ η β (2) η α β ξ (3) equation (1) and (2) represent the measurement relationship, and equation (3) represents the structural relationship. x and y are exogenous and endogenous indicators, and α and β are errors in x and y measurements.λ is the factor load matrix of x index on ε latent variable.λ is the factor load matrix of y index on η latent variable.η is an endogenous latent variable.ξ is an exogenous latent variable.α is the relationship between endogenous latent variables.βis the influence of exogenous variables on endogenous variables (li et al., 2019).ξ is the error term in the model that fails to explain the part of the equation. 4. research results and analysis 4.1 reliability and validity test results this study employed spss software to conduct reliability tests on the scale data. the results indicated that the cronbach's α coefficient value was 0.704, suggesting that the reliability of this questionnaire was good and acceptable. due to the influence of the dimensional differences of the data variables, the standardized cronbach's α coefficient was slightly lower than the non-standardized value, at 0.684. however, the two values were close, which further confirmed the consistency and stability of the indicator data. for the validity test of the data, the kmo test results showed that the kmo value was 0.75, which was within the acceptable range and the numerical suitability was good. at the same time, the bartlett's sphericity test results indicated that the significance p value was 0.000***, which rejected the null hypothesis. this result further supported the rationality of factor analysis. 4.2 confirmatory factor analysis results this study employed amos software to conduct confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) on the indicator data to characterize the degree of association between test items and variable factors. it should be noted that during the measurement process, the first item of the same variable factor would be regarded as the reference item, and thus its significance (p-value) would not be displayed. in the individual characteristic factor, xb was not shown as the reference variable, while the standardized loading coefficient of nl was 0.743, indicating a significant positive contribution of this variable to individual characteristics, with a p-value < 0.01, and xl presented a significant negative loading, with a p-value < 0.01. in the family characteristic factor, wnrs was used as the reference variable, and it showed significance based on the levels of jtsr, jzjl, zzmj, and zwzl. the standardized loading coefficients ranged from 0.583 to 0.737, and the p-values were all less than 0.01, indicating that these variables had a strong and significant positive influence on the family characteristic factor. in the climate perception factor, qwxj was used as the reference, and qwdj, jsxj, jsdj, and bch variables all presented significant positive loading, with loading coefficients ranging from 0.681 to 0.918, and p-values all less than 0.01, indicating that these variables had a significant positive contribution to the climate perception factor in terms of statistics. in terms of objective adaptation, tqtj was used as the reference variable, and cqyy, cswt, xsys, and cssl variables had positive loading coefficients, but the standard loading coefficients were relatively low and had a large distinction (ranging from 0.489 to 0.822), with p-values all less than 0.01, indicating that their influence intensity was not as strong as the variables in the climate perception factor, but their contribution to the objective adaptation factor was still not negligible. based on these variables, it can be considered that each measurement indicator shows a reasonable and effective presentation on the corresponding factor. 4.3 structural equation model fitting results this study employed amos software to conduct the goodness-of-fit test for the structural equation model based on the questionnaire data. referring to relevant studies (li et al., 2015), the chi-square degree of freedom ratio, rmsea (root mean square error of approximation), and cfi (comparative fit index) were selected as the indicators for measuring the overall adaptability of the model. the chi-square degree of freedom ratio was 2.4, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 34 published by ideas spread which was less than 3, indicating a good fit. the rmsea was 0.073, which was less than 0.1, and the cfi was 0.917, meeting the general requirement of cfi ≥ 0.9. the model fit was good. the measurement indicators of latent variables were all significant at the 1% level, indicating that each indicator could well reflect the latent variables and had significant representativeness. 4.4 structural equation model hypothesis test results the test results of the structural model were obtained through amos software. the results showed that the path coefficient of the h4 hypothesis was not within the range of (-1, +1) and should be discarded. besides, the other paths (h1-h3, h5-h6) were all verified. individual characteristics have a negative impact on family characteristics (β = -0.021, p < 0.01***), and climate perception (β = -0.014, p < 0.01***), indicating that different individual characteristics may lead to significant differences in family economic characteristics and climate perception, and this difference is highly statistically significant. individual characteristics have a significant positive impact on objective adaptation (β = 0.68, p < 0.01***), meaning that factors such as age, gender, and education level of individuals can enhance their adaptability to climate change, emphasizing the importance of individual differences. family characteristics have a negative and significant impact on objective adaptation (β = -0.518, p < 0.029**), indicating that the adoption of adaptation behaviors is constrained by factors such as the number of family laborers, income, land resources, and geographical location. climate perception positively and significantly affects objective adaptation (β = 0.447, p < 0.032**), suggesting that growers have perceived climate change and this perception is likely to be transformed into positive adaptation behaviors. figure 2. schematic diagram of structural equation model note. *** and ** represent 1% and 5% significance levels respectively, and dotted lines indicate that this path is invalid. 5 conclusion and suggestion 5.1 conclusion this study applied the structural equation model to the investigation of apple growers' perception of climate change and their adaptation behaviors. this not only broadened the application scope of the structural equation model but also provided new ideas for the research on climate change perception and adaptation behaviors in the face of meteorological disasters. based on the test results, this paper found that demographic attributes, socio-economic attributes, personal cognitive ability, and perception of climate change all have varying degrees of positive or negative influences on adaptation behaviors. the specific influence paths and magnitudes of influence vary depending on the research subjects (as clarified in the previous part "research results and analysis", this will not be repeated here). this is both consistent with existing research and has innovative findings. for example, during the hypothesis testing of the model, the h4 hypothesis was not verified. this is because there is a possibility that family characteristics may indirectly affect climate cognition through social and cultural backgrounds, rather than directly acting on climate perception factors. in addition, during the process of converting climate perception into adaptation behaviors, it is subject to various factors, and the specific transformation process remains to be discussed. 5.2 suggestion climate change has had a profound impact on agricultural production. based on research results, personal characteristics and climate perception have significant influence on objective adaptation. strengthening comprehensive ability training for individuals and enhancing their overall knowledge level should not be limited as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 35 published by ideas spread to agronomy and seed industry. this should be done to enhance the ability to cope with climate change. continuing to strengthen the publicity of climate change forecasts, diversifying the channels for obtaining weather information, and effectively understanding climate change is the key to adaptation decisions. in agricultural production, more activities that benefit farmers should be carried out, providing technical guidance, financial subsidies, etc., to dispel families' concerns about engaging in agricultural planting. activities should be carried out in terms of crop varieties, human resources, facilities and equipment, and benefiting farmers and agriculture in the adaptation process. through structural equation models, the paths of the role of individuals, families and perception on adaptation were analyzed, and targeted suggestions were proposed based on this. however, in actual production, climate perception and adaptation decisions are often the result of multiple influences, involving psychology, disaster science and other aspects (cao et al., 2021;xiao, 2014). in future research, the research perspective should be broadened to further explore the interaction relationship between them. references cao, z., & shi, x. 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(2015). research on climate change and agricultural response characteristics in guanzhong region. journal of jiangxi agricultural sciences, 27(6), 118–124. song, c., yang, y., tan, x., et al. (2022). research progress on agricultural adaptation behaviors to climate change. journal of henan agricultural university, 56(6), 901–913. song, z., zhao, q., song, c., et al. (2024). research frontiers and future trends of farmers' adaptation behaviors to climate change: based on visualized quantitative analysis of literature in the past 20 years. journal of henan college of animal husbandry and veterinary medicine, 37(3), 16–25. wang, x., & shi, x. (2021). visualization quantitative analysis of climate change perception and adaptation behavior. advances in climate change research, 17(4), 466–475. xiao, l. (2014). analysis of the differences in farmers' perception and adaptation to climate change: based on empirical research in some areas of shandong province. journal of agricultural and forestry economics management, 13(2), 153–159. zhang, x., & wu, c. (2018). analysis of farmers' perception of climate change and adaptation behavior in xianyang city. journal of jiangxi agricultural sciences, 30(12), 76–82. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk 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<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> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents 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/pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p95-103.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p95 95 published by ideas spread peanut production in central luzon, philippines: an assessment of farmer practices, challenges, and profitability christian m. balba1, trizia p. baltazar2, ronnel c. dacones3, dan d. solis, jr.4 & mary grace b. gatan5 1 college of agriculture and fisheries, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines 2 municipal agricultural services office local government unit of porac, pampanga, philippines 3 department of agriculture regional field office iii research division, san fernando, pampanga, philippines 4 department of agriculture local government unit of zaragoza, nueva ecija, philippines 5 pampanga state agricultural university, magalang pampanga, philippines correspondence: christian m. balba, college of agriculture and fisheries, bataan peninsula state university, abucay, bataan, philippines. tel: 63-090-8875-9865. e-mail: cmbalba@bpsu.edu.ph received: april 20, 2025 accepted: may 3, 2025 online published: may 11, 2025 this research is finance by phd in agricultural sciences major in crop science students of pampanga state agricultural university. abstract peanut is a crucial leguminous crop grown by farmers in central luzon, acknowledged for its economic and ecological significance. peanuts function as a versatile rotation crop, thriving in warm regions with well-drained, sandy or loamy soils, and significantly contribute to sustainable farming methods by enhancing soil fertility. central luzon, recognized as a key peanut-producing area in the philippines, significantly contributes to fulfilling the demand for this crop. nonetheless, numerous challenges remain, obstructing the growth and productivity of the industry. farmers in the region encounter challenges including restricted access to premium seeds, dependence on conventional farming techniques, and vulnerability to pests and diseases. due to insufficient support for training, extension services, and research funding, the identified challenges result in decreased yields and variable production quality. mechanization, especially in the context of labor-intensive harvesting, is still not fully developed, resulting in smallholder farmers relying on inefficient and time-consuming methods. this paper presents a thorough evaluation of peanut production in central luzon, including an analysis of farms and farmers, an assessment of production costs and returns, identification of constraints, proposed interventions, and a review of current research and development initiatives. notable challenges encompass restricted access to high-quality seeds, inadequate training and extension support, and a deficiency in mechanized post-harvest equipment. the demanding processes of planting, weeding, and harvesting significantly constrain the growth of peanut production areas and overall yields. to effectively address these gaps, it is essential to foster collaboration among stakeholders. this includes the development of suitable machinery for small farm holdings, the implementation of training programs, and the enhancement of investment in peanut research and extension. keywords: peanut production, cost and returns, legumes, central luzon 1. introduction in the philippines, peanuts (arachis hypogaea) are one of the main food legumes that local farmers plant. they are very valuable commercially and significantly boost domestic income (bernabe & sugui, 2019; billen et al., 2015; gatan, 2015). it is frequently grown either early or late, depending on when the rotation's previous crops are harvested (ramos, 2020). peanuts are mostly grown in a number of provinces around the nation; the top ten producing provinces include, among others, ilocos sur, pangasinan, la union, and aurora. the average yields of these provinces vary; ilocos sur leads with 1.97 mt/ha, while cagayan has an average yield of 0.45 mt/ha (dabpi). despite this, peanut output in the country is still poor, with yields usually between 800 and 1,000 kg/ha, well below the potential yield of 3–4 mt/ha a (huelgas, 1990). the low-yielding "native" spanish-type cultivar is planted in around 95% of peanut regions in the philippines (department of agriculture-regional field unit 6, n.d.). traditional cultivars are still the most widely used as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 96 published by ideas spread because they are easily accessible, but a number of issues, including limited access to improved cultivars, pest and disease susceptibility, and poor agronomic practices, limit their output. international breeding programs, such as those run by the usda and icrisat, are responding by creating cultivars that are disease-resistant, high-yielding, and have desirable characteristics like big seeds and early maturation (university of florida, n.d.). but even with the availability of new types, few farmers are adopting them, and many still use antiquated farming practices. in the central luzon region, peanut cultivation is crucial to local livelihoods and regional economies, especially in the provinces of tarlac, nueva ecija, zambales, and pampanga. these provinces' rich soils and temperate climate make peanut farming possible. farmers in these regions, however, deal with issues like erratic weather patterns, antiquated farming methods, pest issues, and restricted access to contemporary inputs and technologies. these issues are the root of declining productivity and uneven yields. market-related issues, such as fluctuating prices and restricted access to lucrative markets, make peanut growing in the area even less sustainable. by characterizing the sociodemographic profile of peanut stakeholders, including farmers, and examining costs and returns on farm production, this study seeks to evaluate the present state of peanut production in central luzon. the goal of the study is to determine the variables that affect peanut productivity and investigate methods for raising yields and profits. this study aims to offer insightful suggestions for enhancing peanut output and bolstering the regional agricultural economy by investigating farming methods, obstacles, and opportunities in the area. 1.1 global peanut production status map and yield analysis the average peanut yield (in tons per hectare) for selected countries is depicted in figure 1. due to their sophisticated agronomic practices and high mechanization, the united states and china are the leading countries with yields exceeding 3.5 tons/ha. conversely, developing nations such as nigeria, india, and the philippines have yields that are approximately or below 1.3 tons per hectare. this is primarily due to the limitations in the adoption of technology, the lack of access to high-quality inputs, and the challenges associated with climate change. this discrepancy emphasizes the necessity of targeted interventions in low-yield regions to improve sustainability and productivity. figure 2 illustrates the top peanut-producing nations according to recent global data. china produces about 18 million metric tons annually, with india (7 mmt), nigeria (4.5 mmt), and the united states (3 mmt) coming in that order. the philippines is considerably behind with only around 0.03 mmt, while countries such as sudan, myanmar, and argentina also contribute significantly. these discrepancies are indicative of variations in agricultural research investment, mechanization, and scope (fao, 2023; usda, 2023). the production of peanuts in central luzon, philippines, is indicative of numerous fundamental obstacles encountered by smallholder producers in developing economies, such as low yields, restricted mechanization, and susceptibility to market fluctuations. the comparative yield graph, figure 1 confirms that the average peanut yield in the philippines is between 1.0 and 1.3 tons per hectare, a considerable decrease from the yields reported in highperforming countries such as the united states (4.2 tons/ha) and china (3.8 tons/ha). this information is based on recent regional assessments. according to the global peanut production map (fao, 2023) china, india, and nigeria are the primary producers, together accounting for more than 50% of the global output. conversely, the philippines contributes a negligible annual contribution of approximately 0.03 million metric tons, which underscores the pressing necessity for strategic interventions in central luzon. the results of the local assessment are in line with global trends, which show that higher yields are linked to mechanization, easy access to inputs, and strong links between research and extension. consequently, the central luzon instance serves as a reminder of the broader global disparities and presents an opportunity to align regional development strategies with successful international models. the region could experience a significant increase in productivity and profitability by incorporating innovations such as postharvest technologies, farmer training, and enhanced seed varieties as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 97 published by ideas spread 2. design and methods this study employed a mixed-method research design that combined quantitative and qualitative approaches to assess the status of peanut production in central luzon. data collection involved structured surveys with farmers and semi-structured interviews with key informants such as agricultural extension workers. field observations were also conducted to validate survey responses. prior to data collection, ethical clearance was obtained, and informed consent was secured from all participants. mixed-method research design that combined quantitative and qualitative approaches to assess the status of peanut production in central luzon. data collection involved structured surveys with farmers and semi-structured interviews with key informants such as agricultural extension workers. field observations were also conducted to validate the data obtained from surveys and interviews. before data collection, ethical approval was obtained from the relevant authorities. informed consent was secured from all participants, and they were assured of the confidentiality of their responses. 2.1 data collection and analysis the research focused on the four major peanut-producing provinces in central luzon—nueva ecija, tarlac, pampanga, and zambales—based on data from the department of agriculture–regional field office iii under the high-value crops development program. the peanut farmers were selected using stratified random sampling where 77 respondents were selected which represents 10% of the total population of peanut farmers, ensuring representation from both small-scale and commercial farms. in order to collect information regarding assistance programs and production initiatives, surveys were carried out through face-to-face interviews, which took place between the months of august and september 2024. conversations with agricultural officials who work for local government units (lgu) supplemented these interviews. their farming techniques, productivity metrics, associated expenses, obstacles they faced, and access to markets were all included in the primary data that was acquired from farmers. examining secondary information gathered from academic journals and governmentpublished papers helped to establish the context. all survey data was subjected to a meticulous process of validation, cleaning, and coding prior to the initiation of the analysis. the examination of quantitative data was carried out utilizing descriptive statistics, encompassing averages, frequencies, and percentages, to identify patterns and trends. an analysis of costs and returns was undertaken to assess the financial efficacy of peanut production. in the interim, qualitative data derived from interviews were subjected to thematic analysis to reveal significant issues and potential opportunities. the findings were analyzed in accordance with the study's objectives to yield practical insights aimed at enhancing both the productivity and sustainability of peanut farming within the region. 3. results and discussion 3.1 socio-demographic profile of peanut farmers the majority of peanut farmers are male, with 80.52% males compared to 19.48% females, aligning with the national trend reported by the philippine statistics authority (psa) in 2021, where 74.01% of the agricultural workforce is male. in terms of age, the largest group of peanut farmers falls within the 46-59 years’ category, comprising 44.16% of the respondents. subsequently, 27.27% are senior folks (aged 60 and above), 24.68% belong to the middle-aged group (ages 26-45), and 3.90% are classified as young individuals (aged 25 and below). the age distribution aligns with statistics from the department of agriculture-agricultural training institute (daati), which indicates that the average age of farmers in the philippines is 57. the household size mostly averages 70.13%, with 4-6 individuals, consistent with national statistics documented by psa and philrice (2016) for other filipino farmers. according to philrice (2016), rice farmers have a similar trend in terms of educational attainment, with 44.16% graduating from high school and 25.97% finishing primary education. ninety-three point five one percent of respondents identify farming as their principal source of income, while the remainder derives income from nonagricultural enterprises, employment, and pensions. the majority are members of registered farmer cooperatives and organizations (fcas), with 77.92% qualifying for department of agriculture interventions, which are essential for obtaining support such as agricultural inputs, irrigation, and machinery. nonetheless, 22.08% lack affiliation with any fca. regarding experience, 40.26% of peanut farmers have cultivated peanuts for 1-10 years, 22.08% for 11-20 years, 19.48% for 21-30 years, and the remaining 18.18% had over 31 years of experience. significantly, 94.81% of respondents lack formal training in peanut production, whereas 5.19% have participated in 1-5 training sessions. 61.90% of farmers mostly get knowledge from their peers, while 28.57% obtain it from their parents, with a minority engaging in self-research or consulting farm technicians. finally, 42% of peanut farmers distribute their as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 98 published by ideas spread products to dealers or consolidators, followed by wholesalers at 29% and public marketplaces at 6%, illustrating the varied distribution routes within the regional peanut farming sector. 3.2 farm profile of peanut farmers the farmers' farm size relative to peanut production: 53.25% had an area of 0.50 hectares or less, and 33.77% had an area of 0.51–1.00 hectares (ha). on the other hand, the latter has an area of 1.01-1.50 ha, 1.51-2.00 ha, and 2.513.00 ha, with 7.79%, 2.60%, and 2.60%, respectively. based on the data presented by philrice (2016), the average farm size of the rice farmers is 1.54 hectares. proximity of the farm to the nearest market is one of the factors to be considered in choosing an agricultural production site to minimize transportation costs in marketing the produce. respondents obtained yields using the arayat red/ pula and puti varieties above 1,000 kg (45.45%); the average yield is computed around 1,200 kg. it shows that 61.04% of the farmers' farms were located 5.00 or less kilometers from the closest market. conversely, 12.99% of respondents' fields were 20.01 km or more from the market, whereas 25.97% of farmers' areas were situated at 5.01–10.00 km from the market. according to the findings, 53.75% of the respondents owned their land; 27.50% of the farmers were tenants, and 10.00% of them had farms that were owned by their parents or relatives; the remaining 8.75% of the farmers rented the area. the farmer’s overhead cost is reduced if they own the land. based on the respondents, they pay ranging from php 10,000.00 to php 15,000.00 per year for the rental fee. the types of seeds used by the peanut farmers are 96.10% of the respondents were using good seeds, whereas the rest of the farmers, 3.90% utilized breeder seeds. interestingly, the majority of the farmers in pampanga utilized arayat red. while, tarlac province used their local varieties called namnama red and 160 (white). on the other hand, san antonio, zambales peanut farmers planted the locally called variety “sinamalagi” and arayat red. furthermore, nueva ecija peanut farmers used the arayat red variety. according to the respondents, they produced their own seeds because high cost and the source of good-quality seeds are their main concerns. according to moreno, et al. (2023) seed is one of the most expensive costs in peanut production, and the use of high-quality seed is important to provide the greatest yield potential. peanut farmers’ sources of seeds were 36.84% of the farmers produced their own seeds, whereas 27.37% were bought it to other farmers. the remaining of the seeds utilized were from the government centers, public markets, dealers, and agriculture supply stores with 20.00%,10.53%, 4.21%, and 1.05%, correspondingly. farmers said that they are opt to produce their owned seeds to lack of source of good quality seeds and high cost of seeds. as per declaration of the farmers the good seeds price ranges from php 2,000.00 to php 2,500.00. the sources of irrigation in peanut production of the respondents commonly were shallow tube well (stw) with 63.75%, this means that they incurred additional expenses for fuel, while the latter were relying on rainwater (rainfed), rivers, national irrigation system (nis), and solar power irrigation system (spis) with 31.25%, 2.50%,1.25%, and1.25%, consequently. table 1. farm profile of peanut farmers in central luzon variable frequency percentage (%) variable frequency percentage (%) area (hectare) peanut varieties used below 0.50 41 53.25% arayat red 38 40.86% 0.51-1.0 26 33.77% pula 28 30.11% 1.01-1.50 6 7.79% asha 15 16.13% 1.51-2.0 2 2.60% puti 12 12.90% 2.01-3.0 2 2.60% types of seeds used average yield per hectare (kg) good seeds 74 96.10% below 500 14 18.18% certified seeds 3 3.90% 500 – 1,000 28 36.36% seed source above 1000 35 45.45% lgu 19 24.68% distance to market (km) own 35 45.45% below 5.0 47 61.04% market 23 29.87% as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 99 published by ideas spread 5.01-10.00 10 12.99% irrigation facilities/ sources 10.01 and more 20 25.97% national irrigation system (nis) 1 1.25% land ownership shallow tube well (stw) 51 63.75% self-owned 43 55.84% others: rainfed 25 31.25% owned by parents, relatives 8 10.39% others: river 2 2.50% rented/ tenanted 7 9.09% others: solar powered irrigation system (spis) 1 1.25% tenanted 22 28.57% 3.3 problems encountered in peanut farming figure 3 highlights the challenges that the respondents faced in producing peanuts. as revealed, 25.20% of them had problems with the occurrence of pests and diseases majority were larval insects, and white grubs. some diseases they experienced were "bulutong" and leaf spot locally called as apaya (yellowing of peanut leaves), in pura, tarlac which are recognized locally in pura, tarlac. gordon (2022) reported that pests account for 20-40% of yield losses worldwide and crop protection crop protection constitutes about 5-8% of a farmer’s total production costs. on the other hand, 24.40% of the peanut farmers encountered weed outbreaks. the identified weeds were broadleaves and cyperus rotundus l. with local name: mutha, sudsud, and barsanga. according to donayre, dk., et.al., 2019 c. rotundus considered as the world’s worst weed due to its prolific behavior in the soil, persistence in harsh environments, and competitive ability. they added that weeds cause higher rice yield loss (5-90%). weed science society of america (2019) found out that 50% to 70% would be lost if weeds were left uncontrolled. in addition, the source of quality seeds and high cost of seeds were also issues of the respondents with 15.60% and 12.80%, respectively. whitty e.b. (2002) mentioned in his study that, seeds normally constitute a major cost of producing peanuts. labor intensive during harvesting, low production during the wet season, irrigation, farm-tomarket bridge/road, and high cost of fertilizer were also mentioned problems of the peanut farmers with 9.20%, 8.00%, 3.60%,0.40%, and 0.40%, respectively. low yields of peanut are mainly attributed to lack of high-yielding adaptive cultivars, damaged by diseases and pests, poor agronomic practices, unreliable rainfall patterns with frequent droughts, and limited use of inputs (saese et. al, 2006) figure 3. problems encountered in peanut farming (%) note: respondents can provide multiple answers. 3.4 interventions recommended the solutions that the peanut producers suggested to address the issues they had faced while growing peanuts are displayed in figure 4. regarding the weed outbreak, 15.42% conducted manual weeding, while 30 respondents 11.86% used herbicides. furthermore, 35 13.83% farmers advised using chemical control, whereas 0.79% farmers 24.4 8 0.4 15.6 12.8 0.4 9.2 25.2 3.6 0.4 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 weeds outbreak low production during wet season farm-to-market bridge/road source of quality seeds high cost of seeds high cost of fertilizer labor intensive during harvesting occurrence of insect pest and diseases irrigation (high cost of fuel) no problem encountered as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 100 published by ideas spread used biological control agents (bcas) to combat pests and illnesses. regarding the issues of high seed costs and source quality seeds, 24.51% respondents stated that they grow their seeds, while 18.58% respondents said they were hoping for a government subsidy on peanut seeds to help them with those issues. in addition, 28.58% respondents recommended harvesting and post-harvest machinery to alleviate the high manpower required during harvesting. 3.56% farmers, suggested that the government should provide fuel subsidies to alleviate irrigation issues. the remaining 1.58% respondents said they would change the planting schedule to prevent low output during the rainy season, while the government fertilizer subsidy and farm-to-market bridge/road development both received 0.40% response each. figure 4. intervention recommended (%) 3.5 cost and returns on peanut production the average yield of peanut farmers was 1,975.76kgs or 65.86 cavans (30kilos/cavan) of peanut, which they sold at php. 70.00 per kilogram. given these, a farmer may earn a gross income of php. 138,303.20 after selling all his peanut produce. among the operating expenses, the labor costs were recorded at php. 45,815.00, which included payments to hired labor who performed farm work like planting, spraying, weeding and harvesting. as a result, human labor is a major component of the cost of peanut production. in addition, the material expenses amounted to php. 25,683.50 for seeds, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and others. after deducting the operating expense from the gross income, a farmer earned average of php. 66,804.70 for almost four months of cultivating peanut. this amount is of great help to farmers in feeding their families, sending their children to school, and buying necessities. the return on investment is documented at 93.00%, indicating that producers may completely recoup the costs associated with peanut production. the data analysis reveals that peanut cultivation offers both financial gain and job prospects. nonetheless, this is not a certain result, as farmers' income is significantly dependent on their crop yield and market pricing. success frequently depends on advantageous weather conditions, the lack of pests, and consistent peanut prices during the harvest period. 11.86 15.42 1.58 0.4 24.51 18.58 0.4 9.09 13.83 0.79 3.56 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 herbicide application manual weeding adjust planting calendar construction of farm to market bridge/road produced own seeds government seeds subsidy government fertilizer subsidy harvesting & post-harvest mechanization chemical control biological control agent fuel subsidy as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 101 published by ideas spread table 2. cost and returns on peanut production in central luzon, 2024, 1.0 ha. item / activity unit quantity amount/unit (p) total amount (p) gross income yield per hectare kg 1,975.76 70.00 138,303.20 a. farm inputs peanut seeds kg 100 120.00 12,000.00 fertilizer bags 4 1,500.00 6,000.00 insecticide liter 2 850.00 1,700.00 fungicide liter 2 950.00 1,900.00 fuel liter 50 57.67 2,883.50 sacks pcs 100 12.00 1,200.00 sub-total 25,683.50 b. labor cost land preparation, 2 times md tractor rental 3,500.00 7,000.00 planting md 8 550.00 4,400.00 fertilizer/pesticides/herbicides application md 5 550.00 2,750.00 weeding, 2 times md 10 550.00 5,500.00 irrigation,2 times md 5 550.00 2,750.00 drying md 10 550.00 5,500.00 harvesting md 25 550.00 13,750.00 contingency, 10% of labor cost 4,165.00 sub-total 45,815.00 total expenses 71,498.50 net income 66,804.70 return on investment 93% 4. summary the analysis indicated that a significant majority of respondents were male (80.52%), with a considerable portion (44.16%) in the age bracket of 46-59 years. a significant number of farmers indicated that their household size varied between 4 to 6 members and that they had attained a high school education level. a notable percentage (68.83%) indicated that peanut production is their main source of income, whereas farm business emerges as the top income generator (93.51%). nonetheless, many farmers encountered a lack of alternative income sources, highlighting their economic vulnerability. a significant 94.81% of respondents indicated that they had not engaged in any training related to peanut production, underscoring a considerable knowledge gap that could affect productivity. farmers have identified a range of challenges, notably pest and disease management at 25.20%, weed outbreaks at 24.40%, and elevated seed costs at 15.60%. to tackle these challenges, the study suggests the implementation of thorough training programs, the establishment of financial support systems, the promotion of cooperative formations among farmers, investment in research and development, and enhancements to rural infrastructure. the study indicates that by focusing on these areas, there is potential for substantial enhancement in peanut production in central luzon, which could result in improved livelihoods for farmers and contribute to a more sustainable agricultural sector as a whole. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 102 published by ideas spread 5. conclusions comprehensive training in modern farming techniques and sustainable practices will empower farmers, improve their productivity, and promote better pest management. financial support initiatives, including subsidies for premium seeds and fertilizers, are crucial for mitigating the economic challenges encountered by farmers, thereby promoting investment in superior agricultural inputs. the establishment of farmer cooperatives can optimize resource allocation, augment price negotiation leverage, and improve access to governmental assistance, promoting a community-oriented agricultural model. ongoing investment in research to create pest-resistant peanut cultivars and customized agricultural practices is essential for enhancing resilience against pests and responding to local environmental conditions, hence resulting in increased yields. improving rural infrastructure, including roads and irrigation systems, will markedly enhance market access, lower production costs, and facilitate the efficient distribution of agricultural products. stressing the use of certified seeds and proper fertilizer management based on soil analysis can increase crop yields and ensure economic viability by making better use of nutrients. a synthesis of cultural, biological, and selective pesticide strategies would enhance sustainable pest management, minimizing environmental repercussions and agricultural expenses. upgrading to efficient agricultural machinery can reduce labor expenses and enhance operational efficiency, so rendering peanut growing more economically viable. effective methods in drying, storage, and transportation are essential for preserving peanut quality and minimizing loss, which can directly affect marketability and profitability. integrating peanuts into various crop rotations improves soil health, mitigates agricultural hazards, and increases overall farm yield. adopting these proposals may result in significant enhancements in peanut output in central luzon, directly helping farmers' livelihoods and fostering a more sustainable agricultural sector. acknowledgments the researchers extend their heartfelt gratitude to the peanut farmers, agricultural extension workers, and local government unit (lgu) officers of nueva ecija, tarlac, pampanga, and zambales for their invaluable cooperation and participation. their willingness to share their time, experiences, and insights during the surveys and interviews played a vital role in the success of this study. sincere appreciation is also extended to the reviewers whose comments and suggestions were instrumental in the improvement of this research paper. references bernabe, j. a., & sugui, c. c. 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(2006). evaluation of peanut (arachis hypogaea l.) varieties in the lower markham valley of papua new guinea. in improving yield and economic viability of peanut production in papua new guinea and australia (pp. 1–7). united states department of agriculture, foreign agricultural service. (2023). oilseeds: world markets and trade – peanuts section. https://www.fas.usda.gov university of florida. (n.d.). conservation tillage peanut production (edis publication no. ag187). university of florida, institute of food and agricultural sciences extension. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/ag/ag18700.pdf weed science society of america. (2019, july 3). researchers calculate yield loss from weeds. https://www.farmprogress.com/weeds/researchers-calculate-yield-loss-from-weeds whitty, e. b. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p53 53 published by ideas spread implementation selection to increase body weight fancy mice meireni cahyowati 1, endang baliarti1 & sumadi1 1 faculty of animal science, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia correspondence: endang baliarti, faculty of animal science, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia. tel: 62-811257-207. e-mail: bali_arti@ugm.ac.id” received: october 15, 2022 accepted: october 22, 2022 online published: november 11, 2022 abstract use laboratory animal for research purposes is often used especially in the fields of health research, food, agriculture, and livestock. the laboratory animal that is often used as research objects include rabbits, mice, guinea pigs, monkeys, and rats. research in the field of livestock in animal breeding requires a long time to research and a large number of animals so mice can be used to apply it. the goal of research is determine effect of the selection program on parameters of mice body weight including weaning weight and adult weight. the research was held with fancy mice keeping and selection implementation of weaning weight 21 days age (ww21) and 35 days age (aw35) which starts from 0 generation until 2nd generation. the data used in the selection of fancy mice on 0 generation until 2nd generation each of 327 tails, 330 tails, and 263 tails. the result of the selection of fancy mice to ww21 increased obtained ww21 g0 to g1 is 3.69 gram and ww21 g1 to g2 is 2.09 gram. selection of fancy mice to aw35 that result in aw35 g0 to g1 is 5.14 gram and aw35 g1 to g2 is 4.92 gram, which means selection is impacting increased ww21 and aw35 fancy mice. keywords: selection, weaning weight of mice, adult weight of mice, fancy mice 1. introduction to satisfy the necessary for protein consumption from animal, so be required the availability of the number of animal to satisfy the necessary (priyono and priyanti, 2018). important economic traits can affect long age, animal health, animal productivity as well as animal reproduction which owned is the method to measure animal breeding. (munywoki et al.,2021). implementation of selection with due observance appearance of animal from outside in the form of feather color or body posture is an implementation of selection based on qualitative characteristics. quantitative characteristics, such as weighing or body size are used to determine the animal selected through the selection method (irianto et al.,2020). activities to obtain selected animal based on high genetic quality with the aim of breeding selected males and females can be interpreted as an act of selection (sutisna et al.,2020). an advantage that is obtained from the selection can be predicted with the existence calculation of genetic parameter consisting of heritability estimation as well as genetic advancement estimation (bartaula et al.,2019).the calculation of genetic parameters that are not involved as the basis to implementing the selection will affect the advantages found in the elders because there is no certainty that the superiority elders will inherited on their offspring (sutisna et al., 2020). heritability is useful in estimating selection responses and measuring genomic study capability (berry et al., 2017). estimation of genetic correlation value has benefit to knowledge a trait which selected to other traits which unselected but has a genetic correlation to trait selected, as is consideration of positive or negative impact (sulastri et al.,2019). therefore, in this research, be required to calculate the genetic parameter are heritability and genetic correlation for implementation selection to body weight gain of fancy mice. based on these, researcher doing research about selection implementation to body weight improvement of fancy mice. 2. method fancy mice were reared from zero generation to second generation. the data taken include weaning weight data for fancy mice and adult weight data for fancy mice. weaning and adult weight data of fancy mice will be used for the selection process. 2.1 weighing ww21 and aw35 weaning weight of fancy mice was carried out at the age of 21 days. at the age of 21 days, the mice can be separated from their mother. the weighing of adult fancy mice was carried out at the age of 35 days. weaning weight and adult weight data of fancy mice were recorded and adjusted to the pedigree of fancy mice, sex, age of the mother, and birth type of fancy mice. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 54 published by ideas spread 2.2 calculation of factor correction the data on ww21 and aw35 that have been collected and recorded in the recording is then calculated according to the conditions and research location of fancy mice. 2.3 estimation of heritability the data on ww21 and aw35 that had been collected were then the estimation of heritability for each generation. sulastri et al (2019) state that method of statistic that used to estimating heritability value based halfsib correlation is one way lay out. the formula based on is as follows: h2 = " "" " 2.4 estimation of the genetic correlation the calculation of the genetic correlation value is carried out every generation, while the formula used for estimating the genetic correlation uses data from paternal half correlation according to the following formula by sulastri et al (2019) rg = " ( )"" ( ( )) ( ( ))" 2.5 estimation of breeding value selection of fancy mice is carried out based on breeding values on weaning and adult weight data. the selection was carried out using fancy mice weaning weight data based on breeding values taken from the best 50%. selection using adult weight data of fancy mice was taken 8 males and 32 females. the formula for calculating the breeding value using the formula based on hardjosubroto (1994) is: bv = “h2 (p-p)+p” 2.6 estimation of response to selection to find out the response to the implementation of the selection of ww21 and aw35 of fancy mice, calculation of direct selection responses and indirect selection responses was carried out. 3. results 3.1 weaning weight of fancy mice based on the research result, ww21 fancy mice obtained the results in table 1 and table 2 show the increase in ww21 from each generation. table 1. data of weaning weight fancy mice (gram) ww21 ww21 p0 ww21 g0 ww21 pg1 ww21 pg1 ww21 pg2 ww21 g2 mean 13.48 14.42 16.62 18.11 19.44 20.20 st. deviation 2.05 2.00 1.98 1.20 1.69 1.18 ww21 p0 = initial population of fancy mice on ww21; ww21 g0= fancy mice selected on ww21 of generation 0; ww21 pg1= population of ww21 on 1st generation, ww21 g1 = fancy mice selected on ww21 of 1st generation; ww21 pg2= population of ww21 on 2nd generation, ww21 g2 = fancy mice selected on ww21 of 2nd generation. table 2. data of increased weaning weight of the fancy mice increased weaning weight of the fancy mice generation g0 g1 g1 g2 weaning weight 14.42 gram 18.11 gram 18.11 20.20 increased weaning weight (gram) 3.69 gram 2.09 gram increased weaning weight (%) 25.59 % 11.54 % as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 55 published by ideas spread mice in weaning age has body weight 10 gram/tail until 12 gram/tail, 18 gram/tail until 20 gram/tail or 7,69 gram/tail (nugroho, 2018). dam candidates can be determined based on the height of weaning weight to find out increased genetic quality (kurniawan et al.,2021). birth weight high so will be obtained weaning weight higher than compared to those who have a birth weight lower. (bunok et al.,2020). one of environmental factor is feed that takes affects animal performance. that matter because the weight on weaning age will achieve the maximum if the feed given has a higher feed content. besides dam ability in milk production, offspring ability to obtain milk and growth experience is a parameter of weaning weight (sudrajat et al.,2021). based on the result of research using weaning weight of fancy mice through the selection process obtained result was to be found increased weaning weight of fancy mice that can be observed in table 1 and 2. increased ww21 g0 to ww21 g1 is 3.69 gram or 25.59% and increased ww21 g1 to ww21 g2 is 2.09 gram or 11.54%. tribudi et al., (2021) state that part of a breeding program is the implementation evaluation of the genetic potential that be found in sire candidates and dam candidates are the important thing in the selection of animal. genetic potential used to be the basis of selection implementation can affect the effectiveness of selection experience increased, then genetic progress also increased. the performance which can be used to find out the genetic potential of the sire candidate and dam candidate is measurable. being of birth weight and weaning weight can be an important factor to find out be in production potential that has. 3.2 adult weight of mice based on the result of research weighing results obtained on aw35 of fancy mice which can be found in table 3 and table 4 show increased aw35 each generation. table 3. data of adult weight of the fancy mice aw35 aw35 p0 aw35 g0 aw35 pg1 aw35 g1 aw35 pg2 aw35 g2 mean 21.83 23.44 26.49 28.58 31.64 33.50 st. deviation 2.00 1.67 1.99 1.41 1.87 1.39 aw35 p0 = initial population of fancy mice on aw35; aw35 g0= fancy mice selected on aw35 of generation 0; aw35 pg1= population of aw35 on 1st generation; aw35 g1 = fancy mice selected on aw35 of 1st generation; aw35 pg2= population of aw35 on 2nd generation; aw35 g2 = fancy mice selected on aw35 of 2nd generation. table 4. data of increased adult weight of the fancy mice increased adult weight of the fancy mice generation g0 g1 g1 g2 adult weight 23.44 28.58 28.58 33.50 increased adult weight (gram) 5.14 gram 4.92 gram increased adult weight (%) 21.93 % 17.21% adult body weight in female mice is 18 gram/tail until 35 gram/tail, adult body weight in male mice is 20 gram/tail until 40 gram/tail (nugroho, 2018). growth rate effect on adult rate (prayogo et al.,2017). based on the data adult weight of the research result which is found in table 3 and 4 can be concluded that can be found the increased adult weight of fancy mice after the implementation of the selection process from zero generation until the second generation. as for increased aw35 g0 to g1 is 5.14 gram or 21.93% and increased aw35 g1 to g2 is 4.92 gram or 17.21%. based it can be concluded that the selection of adult weight can be increasing the adult weight of fancy mice from zero generation until the second generation. adult weight is the trait that uses selection criteria in research to be expected to increase the performance of adult weight fancy mice. ashari et al (2021) added that hormones are affecting of growth in male and female animals, it is hormone affected hormones will have an impact on the speed of growth in males and females, is because hormones are affected growth. based on research results about bali cattle, the weight gain of bulls has a faster body weight gain than in dam. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 56 published by ideas spread 3.3 heritability of weaning and adult weight fancy mice calculation heritability estimation of ww21 and aw35 of the fancy mice using paternal half sib correlation method in table 5. table 5. estimation of heritability weaning weight of the fancy mice and adult weight of the fancy mice generation h2 ww21 h2 aw35 g0 0.68 ± 0.34 0.49 ± 0.33 g1 0.45 ± 0.26 0.45 ± 0.31 g2 0.33 ± 0.22 0.30 ± 0.27 poulsen et al (2020) state that difference existence of heritability value estimation be affected by parameters of a population that have differences, number of sampling variances, as well as be found different methodologies. tribudi et al (2019) add the heritability value to breeding program improvement as is selection required for the estimation of genetic advancement that is connected with response to selection. genetic parameter be affected by amount of population, location and estimation method. that matter can be found based on research that has been done using madura cattle that be found in every district throughout madura island to increase genetic quality through the estimation of the genetic parameter value. it is based on heritability value is affected by population variety of population but not affected by animal performance. sulastri et al (2019) state that a trait of heritability with classified low heritability in the range 0 until 0,1, classified intermediate heritability of in the range 0,1 until 0,3, and classified high heritability if the value is 0.3 until 1.0. based the research of fancy mice and compared with literature can be discovered that the h2 ww21 of value is included classified as high heritability and the h2 aw35 of value is included classified as intermediate until high so compatible to the selection process improvement. krisnamurti et al (2019) state that response to selection of high valuable if high heritability. tribudi et al (2019) state that selection is an effective effort genetic quality improvement if the heritability value has high or intermediate classified. however, if obtained heritability value is low classified so the suitable program is accompanying selection improvement. 3.4 genetic correlation weaning weight – adult weight of fancy mice based on the research obtained on g0 is 0.57 ± 0.38, g1 is 0.51 ± 0.38 and g2 is 0.47 ± 0.52. tiara et al (2019) state that there is a estimation of genetic correlation provide knowledge about genes that affect each other a trait, efectivity on selection as well as advancement will be used to evaluate when more than one trait is selected. genetic variance on two traits can be affected by there are related genes, that matter is reflection of genetic correlation. estimation of genetic correlation is very required to known correlation of response to selection. mahmud and tribudi (2020) added that high genetic correlation is affected by genes that have pleiotropy trait contained on both traits and have the additive effect which that matter inherited to offspring. genes that have a close relationship with the additive effect which has impacted two traits or more than two traits are genetic correlation overview. existence of genetic parameters become instruction to genetic quality improvement of the population. individual selection can be a suitable method to genetic quality improvement of a trait if the genetic correlation is a positive trait. that matter due to will obtains a bigger response to selection that expected if compared to a trait that has a low genetic correlation. 3.5 breeding value based on research results using ww21 and aw35 of fancy mice obtained breeding value as there is in table 6. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 57 published by ideas spread table 6. the breeding value of fancy mice breeding value (g) np ww21 g0 g1 g2 ♂ maximum 17.74 23.088 25.19 ♂ minimum 14.18 16.04 20.60 ♀ maximum 18.28 24.9505 22.29 ♀ minimum 14.18 16.05 21.20 np aw35 g0 g1 g2 ♂ maximum 32.22 31.30 40.95 ♂ minimum 28.65 30.63 39.90 ♀ maximum 30.45 35.702 41.83 ♀ minimum 27.00 30.9365 39.51 implementation of selection based on ww21 and aw35 of the fancy mice implemented based on breeding value ww21 and aw35 already ranked stars highest ranked until lowest. implementation of selection based on breeding value using data ww21 and aw35 of fancy mice is suitable with the opinion from tribudi et al.,(2021) state that estimation of individual breeding values can be used as a reference for improvement selection on breeding to know the evaluation of animal genetic quality. genetic potential from the average animal livestock population in a location can be known the superiority through the quantity of the estimated breeding value getting bigger. breeding values which be created as animal selection as elders better be based on the animal which has a higher breeding value than the population that is lower. this is because an animal individual can inherit genetic potential and have production ability that can be repeated. 3.6 response to selection based on research result obtained direct response to selection based on ww21 every generation as follows 1.09 gram/generation; 0.43 gram/generation and 0.31 gram/generation. direct response to selection value based on data aw35 is 1.12 gram/generation; 0.88 gram/generation and 0.53 gram/generation. indirect response to selection based on research result on fancy mice obtained result 0.76 gram/generation; 0.45 gram/generation. implementation of the selection will obtain more effective and more efficient results to improve a animal genetic quality if the heritability of a high value trait or intermediate value, it is because can give of great response. as is expected selection can result in offspring which have superior genetic performance be compared with the elder, because selection implementation is a method of animal selection which have superior performance based genetics (tribudi et al.,2019). steps to improve the population of genetic quality can be used genetic parameter genetic as a reference. the high value of heritability for a trait can be a suitable method to improve genetic quality through individual selection. this is because the expected selection response expectation has a greater value compared to heritability with low heritability values. (masili et al.,2018). there is a genetic correlation able to obtain knowledge about gen which can be the impact of one trait on another, therefore when selection implementation to more than one trait so can measure selection effectivity and genetic advancement (dakhlan et al.,2022). 4. conclusion selection can improve the weaning weight of fancy mice and adult weight of fancy mice. selection on weaning weight of fancy mice obtained increase result from g0 to g1 is 3.69 g and increase from g1 to g2 is 2.09 g. the increase of adult weight based selection result of fancy mice on g0 to g1 is 5.14 g and adult weight from g1 to g2 increased is 4.92 g. this research can provide opportunities for researcher who will apply a selection program to livestock on an industrial scale. references ashari, m., wirapribadi, l., suhardiani, r. a., poerwoto, h., & andriati, r. 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p118-132 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p118 118 published by ideas spread the impact of county-level government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity qilin sheng1 & qintian he2 1 chongqing normal university, chongqing, china 2 southwest university, chongqing, china correspondence: qilin sheng, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china. received: may 2, 2025 accepted: june 8, 2025 online published: june 11, 2025 abstract common prosperity, as a core value pursuit of the socialist theoretical system with chinese characteristics, profoundly reflects the essential attributes and distinctive features of chinese modernization. among these, effectively narrowing the urban-rural income gap is a critical pathway to achieving common prosperity. scientific and rational fiscal expenditure policies, serving as an important tool for adjusting national income distribution and promoting social equity and justice, play an indispensable role in advancing common prosperity. based on countylevel panel data from china between 2000 and 2023, this study constructs a two-way fixed-effects econometric model to empirically analyze the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity. the findings indicate that government fiscal expenditure significantly enhances rural common prosperity, a conclusion supported by robustness tests including alternative econometric methods, lagged treatment, and winsorization. heterogeneity analysis reveals that the fiscal expenditure elasticity in less-developed regions is significantly higher than in developed regions, and the fiscal expenditure coefficient in high-transfer regions is markedly greater than in low-transfer regions, aligning with the law of diminishing marginal utility and the lewis dual-sector model. mechanism analysis demonstrates that government fiscal expenditure boosts common prosperity by promoting capital deepening (i.e., stimulating fixed-asset investment) and by driving the primary and secondary industries, exhibiting partial mediating effects. keywords: government fiscal expenditure, rural common prosperity, income gap, fixed-effects model 1. introduction common prosperity is an essential requirement of socialism in china. to achieve common prosperity, governments at all levels must strictly implement the policy documents from the third plenary session of the 20th cpc central committee. precise optimization should be carried out in areas such as income distribution mechanisms to prevent excessive income disparities from deviating from the original intent of socialist development. additionally, against the backdrop of increasing macroeconomic pressures, the employment issues faced by young people require special attention. it is imperative to strengthen the employment-first strategy and improve the social security network system. over the past four decades of reform and opening-up, china's economic development has significantly improved, with national income levels experiencing leapfrog growth, and the sense of happiness and fulfillment among the people has greatly increased. however, imbalances and inadequacies in development remain prominent. research on advancing common prosperity is urgently needed. looking back, china once implemented a series of urban-biased policies to promote rapid economic development, resulting in a long-standing gap between urban and rural development, with the income disparity between urban and rural residents being particularly prominent. according to data from the national bureau of statistics, in 2011, the per capita disposable income of urban residents was 21,427 yuan, while that of rural residents was only 7,394 yuan. by 2020, although both figures had increased significantly to 43,834 yuan and 17,131 yuan respectively, the urban-rural income ratio remained at a relatively high level. this indicates that the current actual income gap between urban and rural areas is insufficient to support the essential requirements of common prosperity. research on rural common prosperity is therefore necessary, particularly focusing on identifying pathways to enhance the level of rural common prosperity, which represents a key direction in this field. from the perspective of socialist system development experience, an economic market dominated by public ownership has laid a solid foundation for achieving the goal of common prosperity. government intervention to improve income distribution mechanisms is one of the feasible approaches currently under study, with government fiscal expenditure being a as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 119 published by ideas spread noteworthy representative method. based on this, this paper intends to incorporate government fiscal expenditure into the study of rural common prosperity, delving into the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity. currently, there remains room for further expansion in domestic and international research on the impact of government fiscal expenditure on common prosperity. on one hand, existing studies predominantly focus on the direct effects of fiscal expenditure on common prosperity, lacking in-depth analysis of the underlying mechanisms through which fiscal expenditure influences common prosperity. on the other hand, within academic research on government fiscal expenditure and common prosperity, there is relatively little comprehensive analysis integrating both aspects, and the heterogeneous effects of government fiscal expenditure on common prosperity—particularly in terms of economic development levels and labor factor mobility—are seldom weighed or considered. this paper constructs a fixed-effects model based on county-level statistical data to empirically analyze the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity. it further conducts heterogeneity tests across economic development levels and labor factor mobility. building on this foundation, the study introduces mediating variables such as fixed asset investment and output values of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries to establish a mediation effect model. this approach delves deeper into the mechanisms through which government fiscal expenditure influences rural common prosperity, providing a new perspective for research on balancing economic and livelihood considerations in government policymaking. 2. literature review and research hypotheses 2.1 common prosperity in rural areas common prosperity emphasizes the organic unity of "common" and "prosperity." currently, research hotspots on common prosperity primarily encompass two dimensions: its connotation and realization pathways, with diversified research perspectives including income distribution, fairness and efficiency, and rural revitalization. regarding the concept of common prosperity, scholars emphasize that this philosophy takes consolidating poverty alleviation achievements and preventing poverty risks as its baseline, adjusting income distribution and mitigating wealth polarization as its core tasks, and optimizing public services and enhancing people's well-being as its implementation pathways [1]. common prosperity entails the whole population sharing development outcomes, a co-construction and sharing development process, and the organic integration of development efficiency and social fairness [2]. it is characterized by long-term, arduous, and complex attributes [3]. research teams such as liu peilin, from a political economy perspective, define common prosperity as a multidimensional social development goal, with its realization pathway reflecting the high unity of development subjects (the entire population) and development outcomes (a better life) [4]. common prosperity aligns closely with the "five-sphere integrated plan" overall layout, embodying the organic unity of political, economic, social, cultural, and ecological civilization construction [5]. this developmental state not only pursues material wealth but also emphasizes spiritual abundance, representing a comprehensive manifestation of coordinated and sustainable economic and social development [6]. common prosperity seeks the organic unity of "baseline fairness" and "differential incentives," ensuring universal and equitable basic livelihood security while stimulating market vitality through reasonable income disparities, ultimately achieving a new development paradigm of shared prosperity and co-construction [7]. it is an inclusive prosperity based on high-quality development, a process where universal prosperity, comprehensive prosperity, and gradual prosperity coordinate and reinforce each other, embodying developmental, sustainable, and equitable characteristics [8].in terms of pathways to achieve common prosperity, li shi's [9] research highlights that enhancing residents' prosperity levels requires dual drivers—synergistic efforts in technological innovation and institutional innovation. specifically, it is essential to inject contemporary economic development drivers and establish a more comprehensive distribution system. zhang minghao and zhao ziwen [10] emphasize that the point-wise diffusion of new quality productive forces can drive the organic renewal of traditional agricultural productivity, empowering high-quality agricultural development to propel common prosperity, which serves as a critical breakthrough in comprehensively advancing the rural revitalization strategy [11]. in primary distribution, attention should be paid to the unity of efficiency and fairness; in redistribution, the government's regulatory role should be strengthened; and through tertiary distribution, social forces should be guided to participate [9]. tang renwu [12] proposes a "trinity" mechanism for driving common prosperity: market mechanisms ensure resource allocation efficiency, government regulation safeguards fairness and justice, and social forces convey humanistic care. under this collaborative governance framework, economic development dividends are shared by all through a complete distribution system. huang zuhui and zhang shuping [6] point out that one of the key focuses of common prosperity development is raising the income levels of low-income groups. therefore, first, high-quality employment opportunities should be created through industrial upgrading to solidify income growth foundations; second, rural idle resources should be activated to expand property income channels; as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 120 published by ideas spread and finally, through dual approaches of capacity building (empowerment) and institutional safeguards (entitlement), the development capabilities of low-income groups can be fundamentally enhanced, representing one of the critical pathways to achieving common prosperity [13].the core objective of common prosperity lies in constructing a fairer social development framework. research by zhang laiming and li jianwei [14] indicates that optimizing income distribution mechanisms is foundational to achieving this goal. however, modern social development theory further reveals that true common prosperity requires multidimensional institutional design: while ensuring the rational distribution of material wealth, it is also necessary to build a public service system covering the entire population, establish fair competition opportunity mechanisms, improve universal health security networks, and promote balanced cultural resource allocation, ultimately achieving the coordinated enhancement of individual development capabilities and social progress levels [15]. equal access to basic public services, as a key pillar of common prosperity, plays an irreplaceable role in advancing both material and spiritual prosperity by optimizing income distribution patterns, expanding the middle-income group, stabilizing its development foundation, narrowing intra-group disparities, and strengthening social fairness recognition [16][17]. simultaneously, digitalization serves as a vital engine for promoting common prosperity, injecting new momentum into economic and social development through multiple dimensions: opening broader economic growth spaces, driving systemic upgrades in social productivity, improving modern market resource allocation functions, guiding industrial transformation toward sustainable development, and enhancing public service and social living standards [18]. consequently, scholars have also explored the impacts of factors such as digital rural construction [19][20], the digital economy [21][22], digital financial literacy [23][24], and circulation digitization [25] on farmers' common prosperity. it is evident that the academic community has conducted extensive research on the topic of farmers' common prosperity, forming a substantial body of work. 2.2 the impact of local financial support on rural common prosperity fiscal policy serves as a crucial measure for promoting rural ecological conservation, improving people's livelihoods, supporting industrial upgrading, and achieving poverty alleviation and prosperity. it also constitutes a fundamental institutional safeguard[26]. research on the impact of local fiscal expenditures on rural common prosperity is rooted in public finance theory, urban-rural integration theory, and the policy framework of the rural revitalization strategy. public finance theory emphasizes the government's role in addressing market failures through resource allocation and income distribution functions, particularly in the context of insufficient rural public goods provision. fiscal expenditures become a key instrument for narrowing the urban-rural gap[27]. urban-rural integration theory posits that breaking the urban-rural dual structure requires fiscal investments in infrastructure, public services, and industrial linkages to facilitate bidirectional factor flows and balanced resource allocation[28]. urban-rural separation is a historical phenomenon, while urban-rural coordination and integration represent the overarching historical trend in future urban-rural relations. meanwhile, the rural revitalization strategy, as a national top-level design, explicitly advocates optimizing rural industrial structures[29]and enhancing livelihood security[30][31]through fiscal policies, thereby providing institutional support for common prosperity. song yanqun and shang qi[32]further demonstrated through empirical analysis that livelihood expenditures and tax structure optimization positively contribute to rural common prosperity, validating the moderating role of fiscal policies. from a multidimensional analysis of the mechanism of government fiscal support, it can be divided into three aspects: first, the supply of public goods and the enhancement of human capital. local government fiscal expenditures directly promote the accumulation of rural human capital through investments in livelihood areas such as education and healthcare. education expenditures improve the skill levels of rural residents, unlocking their ability to participate in high-value-added industries [33][34]; healthcare expenditures reduce household precautionary savings, indirectly unleashing consumption potential [35], forming a virtuous cycle of "human capital—income growth." liu donghua and wang jihua [36] pointed out that fiscal investments in urban-rural functional zones (such as agricultural industrial parks and eco-tourism zones) can optimize the spatial structure between urban and rural areas, promoting functional complementarity and rational population flow. second, infrastructure investment and industrial synergy effects. specifically, fiscal investments in agricultural production infrastructure (such as water conservancy and transportation) significantly reduce agricultural production costs and increase rural collective economic income [37]. chen xiangguang and tang long [38] noted that fiscal funds for agriculture support the agglomeration of agricultural production services, driving rural digital transformation, lowering transaction costs, and improving the efficiency of factor allocation. additionally, fiscal subsidies have a stronger incentive effect on rural collective economies than tax incentives, particularly in less marketized central and western regions, where this effect is more pronounced [39].third, income redistribution and social equity assurance. fiscal transfers and social security expenditures narrow the urban-rural income gap as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 121 published by ideas spread through redistribution mechanisms. wu junpei and zhang haoze [40] found that for every 100 million yuan increase in livelihood expenditures, the urban-rural income gap narrowed by 0.021 percentage points. liu xiaoming [39] further revealed that under china's fiscal decentralization system, transfer payments can effectively alleviate vertical fiscal imbalances, promoting balanced urban-rural development through a combination of "blood transfusion" and "blood-making." the fiscal linkage mechanism between poverty alleviation and rural revitalization has also been proven as a crucial safeguard for consolidating poverty alleviation achievements and preventing relapse [41]. 2.3 relevant hypotheses in summary, local government fiscal expenditures promote rural common prosperity through three major pathways: public goods supply, industrial linkage, and income redistribution, providing an important reference for studying the impact of rural common prosperity. based on existing literature, most scholars' research results indicate that the direction of government fiscal expenditures' impact on common prosperity is positive—that is, government fiscal expenditures facilitate rural common prosperity. additionally, some scholars have conducted targeted research using fiscal expenditures at different levels, while others have explored the mechanisms through which government fiscal expenditures affect common prosperity, such as fixed asset investments and the effects of primary, secondary, and tertiary industries. based on this, this paper proposes the following hypothesis: hypothesis1: government fiscal expenditure has a promoting effect on common prosperity in rural areas. hypothesis2: the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity exhibits heterogeneity in terms of economic development levels and labor factor mobility. hypothesis3: government fiscal expenditure promotes common prosperity through the fixed asset investment channel. hypothesis4: government fiscal expenditure promotes common prosperity through the primary, secondary, and tertiary industry channels. 3. variable selection and model construction 3.1 variable selection the county-level economic characteristic data in this paper are primarily sourced from the china county statistical yearbook. missing values and outliers in the data were excluded, and variables with significant disparities were logarithmically transformed. the specific variable measurements are as follows: the core explanatory variable, local fiscal expenditure, is measured by general public budget expenditure and logarithmically transformed. the explained variable, rural common prosperity, is measured by the logarithm of the per capita disposable income of rural residents at the county level. the control variables encompass nine aspects: economic development, agricultural machinery power, proportion of the primary industry, proportion of the secondary industry, rural labor force, agricultural labor force, traditional financial index, information infrastructure, and the ratio of resident deposits. specifically economic development is measured by the logarithm of per capita gdp. agricultural machinery power is measured by the logarithm of total agricultural machinery power. the proportion of the primary industry is measured by the added value of the primary industry divided by the regional gdp. the proportion of the secondary industry is measured by the added value of the secondary industry divided by the regional gdp. the rural labor force is measured by the number of rural employed persons divided by the total number of employed persons. the agricultural labor force is measured by the number of persons employed in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery divided by the number of rural employed persons. the traditional financial index is measured by the year-end balance of loans from financial institutions divided by gdp. information infrastructure is measured by the logarithm of the number of fixed-line telephone subscribers. the ratio of resident deposits is measured by the ratio of deposits to gdp. the mediating variables are fixed asset investment and the output value of the three industries. fixed asset investment is logarithmically transformed, while the output values of the three industries—the primary industry, secondary industry, and tertiary industry—are each logarithmically transformed. 3.2 model building this study examines the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity, identifies the underlying mechanisms between them, and proposes targeted policy recommendations. based on an extensive review of literature, this section will focus on analyzing the specific effects of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity and investigate through which pathways government fiscal spending influences rural common prosperity. additionally, the fixed-effects model provides explicit estimates of individual effects, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 122 published by ideas spread clarifying differences among various entities, whereas the random-effects model may introduce estimation bias. since the fixed-effects model controls for time-invariant individual heterogeneity, its estimates are generally more reliable. therefore, the empirical analysis will employ a fixed-effects model to examine the relationship between government fiscal expenditure and rural common prosperity, conducting baseline regression analysis. in the baseline regression section, the specified baseline regression model is as follows: here, the dependent variable is rural common prosperity. following zhou yahong's [42] approach, we select the logarithm of per capita disposable income in county-level rural areas based on the perspective of income distribution changes. the data is sourced from the china county statistical yearbook, with missing values removed. the explanatory variable is government fiscal expenditure, measured using general public budget expenditure in line with the methodology of ye wenhui and zhang xiaobin [43] and other scholars. a set of control variables is employed, including nine aspects: economic development, agricultural machinery power, proportion of primary industry, proportion of secondary industry, rural labor force, agricultural labor force, traditional financial index, information infrastructure, and proportion of resident deposits. additionally, εi represents the error term. this paper focuses on the sign of coefficient β. if β>0, it indicates that government fiscal expenditure promotes rural common prosperity; conversely, if β<0, it exerts an inhibitory effect. to further examine the mechanism through which government fiscal expenditure affects rural common prosperity, this paper conducts a mediation effect test by introducing two mediating variables: fixed asset investment and output value of the three industries t 1 itprosperity financei it it itx     (4.2) 2 2 2middle financeit it itx       (4.3) t 3 4 3 3financeprosperity middlei it i itx       (4.4) here, represents the mediating variables of fixed asset investment and output value of the three industries, γ denotes the constant term, ε1, ε2, ε3 are random error terms, while the explanatory variables, explained variables, and control variables remain the same as in the baseline model. equation (4.2) represents the overall effect of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity, equation (4.3) indicates the effect of government fiscal expenditure on the mediating variables, and in equation (4.4) represents the direct effect of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity after controlling for the influence of the mediating variables. by combining equations (4.3) and (4.4), the mediating effect can be further derived, which reflects the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity through the two pathways of fixed asset investment and output value of the three industries. 4. empirical analysis 4.1 descriptive statistics the data in this paper primarily originates from the "china county statistical yearbook." to facilitate empirical analysis, outliers and missing values were removed during data processing. the specific content and indicators are shown in the descriptive statistics of table 4.1. table 4.1. descriptive statistics type of variable variable count mean standard min max. explained variable common prosperity in rural areas 17679 8.232 0.584 6.365 10.195 independent. variables government fiscal expenditure 17679 11.046 0.890 6.284 14.484 t 0 1 itprosperity financei it it itx       (4-1) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 123 published by ideas spread control variables economic progress 17679 9.337 0.843 6.805 12.804 agricultural machinery power 17679 3.137 0.929 0.030 5.707 agricultural machinery power 17679 0.261 0.138 0.004 0.889 the proportion of secondary industry 17679 0.408 0.162 0.017 0.939 rural labor force 17679 9.936 5.701 0.038 36.048 agricultural labor force 17679 0.641 0.173 0.079 1.935 traditional financial index 17679 0.499 0.318 0.001 4.725 information infrastructure 17679 10.779 1.046 3.091 13.722 resident deposits accounted for 17679 0.621 0.309 0.004 5.649 metavariable investment in the fixed assets 17679 12.185 1.344 7.123 15.945 output value of primary industry 17679 11.385 0.981 7.048 13.907 output value of the secondary industry 17679 11.927 1.463 5.011 16.607 output value of the tertiary industry 17679 11.768 1.136 7.502 16.185 observing the descriptive statistics table, the mean value of the logarithm of per capita disposable income in rural areas, which reflects common prosperity, is 8.232 with a standard deviation of 0.584. this indicates that while there are moderate disparities in income levels across china's rural counties, the degree of dispersion remains manageable. the range spans 3.83 logarithmic units between the minimum value of 6.365 and the maximum value of 10.195, corroborating the reality of uneven development in rural regions. the core explanatory variable, government fiscal expenditure, is measured from the perspective of general public budget expenditure. its logarithmic mean is 11.046 with a standard deviation of 0.89, and the distribution ranges from 6.284 to 14.484, revealing significant disparities in local government fiscal capacity. notably, among the control variables, the average proportion of primary industry is 26.1%, while secondary industry accounts for 40.8%, aligning with the characteristic that china's county economies remain dominated by secondary industry, with agricultural proportions significantly higher than the national average. the agricultural labor force proportion reaches as high as 64.1%, reflecting the urgency of transforming rural employment structures. the traditional financial index, represented by the mean ratio of loan balance to gdp at 0.499 and the proportion of resident deposits at 0.621, suggests room for improvement in the depth of financial development at the county level. 4.2 baseline regression results by performing ols regression on model (4-1), we conducted regression analyses sequentially using fixed effects and adding all control variables to examine the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity under scenarios with or without fixed effects and categorized control variables. the specific panel data regression results are shown in table 4.2: columns (1)-(4) present the results of government fiscal expenditure's impact on rural common prosperity under four different explanatory variable conditions. it can be observed that, with the gradual inclusion of control as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 124 published by ideas spread variables, government fiscal expenditure significantly promotes rural common prosperity. a possible explanation is that government fiscal expenditure heavily invests in rural infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and communication networks, which improves rural transportation conditions, enhances logistics efficiency, reduces transportation costs, and facilitates the export of agricultural products and the inflow of external resources. meanwhile, the widespread adoption of communication networks enables farmers to access market information more conveniently, participate in e-commerce, and expand income-generating channels. additionally, increased government fiscal expenditure enhances public services, promotes industrial development, and ensures social equity, laying a solid foundation for the comprehensive revitalization and common prosperity of rural areas. table 4.2. benchmark regression results variable (1) (2) (3) (4) government fiscal expenditure 0.507*** (0.001) 0.182*** (0.004) 0.074*** (0.005) 0.030*** (0.002) economic progress 0.483*** (0.005) 0.211*** (0.006) agricultural machinery power 0.079*** (0.004) 0.048*** (0.004) proportion of primary industry 0.637*** (0.028) 0.462*** (0.028) the proportion of secondary industry -0.189*** (0.482) -0.082*** (0.482) rural labor force -0.001*** (0.001) 0.001*** (0.001) agricultural labor force -0.252*** (0.017) -0.077*** (0.017) traditional financial index 0.008* (0.005) 0.005* (0.005) information infrastructure -0.037*** (0.003) 0.005*** (0.003) resident deposits accounted for 0.145*** (0.008) -0.018*** (0.008) fixed effect no no yes yes _cons 2.643*** (0.018) 1.861*** (0.051) 1.997*** (0.882) 1.698*** (0.919) sample capacity 17679 17679 17679 17679 r2 0.534 0.811 0.460 0.685 note: the values in parentheses in the table are standard errors, and *, **, and *** indicate significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively. specifically, column (1) shows the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity without adopting dual fixed effects or adding control variables, with a significantly positive direction of effect. column (2) presents the influence of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity without dual fixed effects but with control variables added, demonstrating that the direction of impact remains unchanged and still meets the criteria for statistical significance. column (3) reflects the effect of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity when dual fixed effects are applied without adding control variables, indicating that government fiscal expenditure continues to promote the enhancement of rural common prosperity. column (4) displays the regression results after simultaneously applying fixed effects and incorporating all control variables, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 125 published by ideas spread revealing that for every 1-unit increase in government fiscal expenditure, rural common prosperity rises by 3.0%, maintaining statistical significance. in summary, the direction of government fiscal expenditure's impact on rural common prosperity remains consistent after adding control variables, and the baseline regression conclusions align with the theoretical analysis presented earlier, thereby validating hypothesis 1 of this study. 4.3 robustness test 4.3.1 change the measurement method to verify the robustness and reliability of empirical results under different estimation models and to exclude the influence of limited dependent variables, the tobit method was selected for re-estimation while reporting the benchmark regression results. the specific test results are shown in table 4.3. table 4.3. robustness test for alternative measurement methods ols tobit variable (1) (2) (3) (4) government fiscal expenditure 0.074*** (0.005) 0.030*** (0.002) 0.102*** (0.005) 0.035*** (0.005) controlled variable no yes no yes fixed effect yes yes yes yes _cons 1.997*** (0.882) 1.698*** (0.919) 1.126*** (0.005) 1.126*** (0.005) sample capacity 17679 17679 17679 17679 note: same as table 4.2. columns (1) and (2) present the baseline model estimates of the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity, indicating that government fiscal expenditure has a significantly positive effect on rural common prosperity. columns (3) and (4) show the results estimated using the tobit method, where the coefficient for government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity is significantly positive, demonstrating that government fiscal expenditure exerts a positive influence on rural common prosperity. these findings align with the results estimated by the baseline ols model. in summary, the robustness test results obtained after replacing the econometric methods are consistent with the previous conclusions, indicating that the earlier empirical findings are reliable and robust. 4.3.2 lag period treatment to mitigate reverse causality, capture the time-lagged effects of fiscal expenditure on rural income, and eliminate contemporaneous endogeneity interference, this study employs one-period and two-period lag approaches for robustness testing. the robustness regression results are presented in table 4.4 below. table 4.4. robustness test for lag period processing variable lag phase i lag phase ii government fiscal expenditure 0.053*** (0.006) 0.013*** (0.006) 0.011*** (0.006) 0.023*** (0.006) controlled variable no yes no yes fixed effect yes yes yes yes _cons 1.997*** (0.882) 1.698*** (0.919) 2.076*** (1.086) 2.255*** (1.130) sample capacity 15725 15725 13822 13822 r2 0.392 0.621 0.307 0.517 note: same as table 4.2. table 4.4 presents the results of the robustness test for lag period processing. it can be observed that after adding control variables, the marginal effect coefficients for the first and second lag periods are 0.013 and 0.023, respectively. government fiscal expenditure continues to exert a significantly positive impact on rural common as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 126 published by ideas spread prosperity, remaining statistically significant. the regression results after lag period processing are consistent with the baseline regression findings discussed earlier, indicating the robustness of the empirical test results. 4.3.3 altering sample size the data underwent winsorization to eliminate extreme values. following the approach of zhang ping and zhou qianru (2022), this study conducted a 1% winsorization on both ends of the logarithmic values of per capita income for rural common prosperity to test the robustness of the estimation results. the robustness test results are shown in the table below. columns (1) to (4) display the regression results after sequentially applying two-way fixed effects and adding control variables to the winsorized sample. the estimated coefficients for government fiscal expenditure across these four columns are 0.503, 0.181, 0.077, and 0.037, respectively, all passing the 1% statistical significance level. thus, the regression results after winsorization still demonstrate that government fiscal expenditure has a significantly positive effect on rural common prosperity. table 4.5. robustness test of winsorization variable (1) (2) (3) (4) government fiscal expenditure 0.503*** (0.001) 0.181*** (0.004) 0.077*** (0.005) 0.037*** (0.005) controlled variable no yes no yes fixed effect yes yes yes yes _cons 2.688*** (0.018) 1.900*** (0.008) 1.997*** (0.882) 1.698*** (0.919) sample capacity 17503 17503 17503 17503 r2 0.520 0.803 0.449 0.680 note: same as table 4.2. it can be seen that the robustness test regression results above are close to the benchmark regression results in this paper, with no significant changes in the direction and significance of the core explanatory variables and control variables, indicating that the estimation results of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity are robust. 4.4 heterogeneity test 4.4.1 test of heterogeneity of economic development endowments, industrial structure, and policy transmission efficiency, the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity may exhibit heterogeneity across regions with varying levels of economic development. in less developed regions, the per capita gdp and initial capital stock are relatively low. according to the phased characteristics of capital deepening in the solow growth model, the marginal productivity of fiscal expenditure is higher. for instance, fiscal spending on infrastructure such as roads and power grids can produce a "timely assistance" effect. in contrast, developed regions have nearly saturated infrastructure, and additional fiscal investments may flow into inefficient sectors, leading to adverse outcomes like redundant construction and consequently diminishing marginal returns. therefore, under the influence of diminishing marginal utility, differences in resource endowments, industrial structure, and policy transmission efficiency, the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity may exhibit heterogeneity across regions with varying levels of economic development. based on this, to better examine this characteristic of how government fiscal expenditure affects rural common prosperity in the context of china's economic development levels, this paper divides the sample data according to the average per capita gdp. the table below presents the heterogeneous effects of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 127 published by ideas spread table 4.6. heterogeneity test of economic development level variable developed area less developed areas government fiscal expenditure 0.066*** (0.006) 0.056*** (0.006) 0.067*** (0.009) 0.080*** (0.008) controlled variable no yes no yes fixed effect yes yes yes yes _cons 2.219*** (0.007) 1.826*** (4.098) 1.957*** (0.882) 1.198*** (0.919) sample capacity 8713 8713 8966 8966 r2 0.250 0.308 0.247 0.330 note: same as table 4.2. from the regression results of developed regions, columns (1) and (2) present the estimated impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity under fixed effects with control variables added sequentially. it can be observed that government fiscal expenditure significantly promotes rural common prosperity. columns (3) and (4) show the results for underdeveloped regions under the same fixed effects framework with sequentially added control variables, indicating that government fiscal expenditure still exerts a significant positive effect on rural common prosperity. however, judging by the marginal regression coefficients, after fully incorporating control variables, the fiscal expenditure elasticity in underdeveloped regions (0.080) is significantly higher than that in developed regions (0.056), which aligns with the law of diminishing marginal utility. this finding provides empirical support for the "targeted poverty alleviation" policy, demonstrating that allocating fiscal funds to backward regions yields higher marginal returns. 4.4.2 heterogeneity test of labor factor transfer the transfer of labor factors is an important indicator for measuring the degree of labor mobility. its composition is calculated as (1 the number of workers engaged in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery) / the total rural population. a higher proportion of agricultural labor, reflected in more workers engaged in these primary industries, indicates a lower level of labor factor transfer, and vice versa. rural labor with a high transfer level tends to engage more in secondary and tertiary industries, leading to diversified economic structures. conversely, low transfer levels result in labor remaining concentrated in agricultural production, leading to a more singular economic structure. analyzing the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity from the perspective of labor factor transfer levels may also reveal heterogeneity. to this end, this study divides the sample based on the mean value of labor factor transfer levels. samples above the mean are defined as high transfer level samples, while those below the mean are classified as low transfer level samples. the heterogeneous impact results are presented in the table below. table 4.7. heterogeneity test of labor factor transfer variable high transfer levels low transfer levels government fiscal expenditure 0.077*** (0.006) 0.033*** (0.006) 0.056*** (0.008) 0.031*** (0.008) controlled variable no yes no yes fixed effect yes yes yes yes _cons 2.219*** (0.007) 1.826*** (4.098) 1.957*** (0.882) 1.198*** (0.919) sample capacity 9111 9111 8568 8568 r2 0.398 0.617 0.487 0.700 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 128 published by ideas spread note: same as table 4.2. from the perspective of estimated coefficients for high and low labor transfer levels, the fiscal expenditure coefficient of 0.077 in high-transfer regions is significantly greater than the 0.056 in low-transfer regions, indicating that each unit of fiscal investment generates 2.1% higher income growth effects in the former compared to the latter. this highlights the amplifying effect of labor transfer on policy efficacy. the results align with the lewis dual-sector model, suggesting fiscal expenditure in high-transfer regions functions as an "industrialization catalyst," accelerating labor movement from low-productivity agricultural sectors to high-productivity modern sectors, thereby achieving overall income enhancement. the heterogeneity tests on economic development levels and labor factor mobility validate hypothesis 2 of this study. 4.5 mechanism test 4.5.1 mechanism test based on fixed asset investment approach fiscal expenditures directly form fixed assets through public investments. the increased investment in fixed assets such as infrastructure, roads, water conservancy, and power grids enhances the rural capital-labor ratio, breaks the "low-level equilibrium trap" of agricultural productivity, generates capital deepening effects, and thereby promotes the rise in farmers' income levels, facilitating rural common prosperity. additionally, infrastructure construction projects themselves absorb local labor, increasing farmers' wage income in the short term. world bank research shows that every 1 yuan invested in rural infrastructure can create 0.8–1.2 non-agricultural employment opportunities. under the combined effect of this multiplier and job creation, government fiscal expenditures promote rural common prosperity through the channel of fixed asset investments. to better analyze the role of fixed asset investments in the mechanism between government fiscal expenditures and rural common prosperity, this study incorporates fixed asset investments into the analysis of the impact of government fiscal expenditures on rural common prosperity. the regression results of the impact mechanism are shown in table 4.8. table 4.8. results of the fixed asset investment mechanism test variable (1) (2) (3) government fiscal expenditure 0.030*** (0.002) 0.387*** (0.018) 0.024*** (0.005) investment in the fixed assets 0.015*** (0.002) controlled variable yes yes yes fixed effect yes yes yes _cons 1.698*** (0.919) 0.978*** (0.882) 1.927*** (4.098) sample capacity 17679 17679 17679 r2 0.685 0.757 0.693 note: same as table 4.2. table 4.8's three-step test shows: the estimated coefficient of government fiscal expenditure on fixed asset investment is 0.387, which is statistically significant at the 1% level, indicating that government fiscal expenditure significantly promotes fixed asset investment. the estimated coefficient of fixed asset investment on rural common prosperity is 0.015, showing that fixed asset investment has a positive impact on rural income. the mediation effect accounts for 19.4%, confirming the transmission path of "fiscal input → capital deepening → income growth," thereby validating hypothesis 3 of this paper. 4.5.2 mechanism test based on the output value pathway of three industries government fiscal expenditure can promote rural common prosperity by boosting the output value of three industries: agriculture, rural industry (secondary sector), and rural services (tertiary sector). the core logic lies in the precise allocation of fiscal resources to activate rural endogenous dynamics, forming a virtuous cycle of "industrial upgrading → employment expansion → income growth → social equity." as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 129 published by ideas spread to better analyze the mechanism of the three industries' output value in the relationship between government fiscal expenditure and rural common prosperity, this study incorporates the output value of the three industries into the analysis of the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity. the regression results of the mechanism are presented in table 4.9. table 4.9. results of the mechanism test for output value of the three industries variable primary industry common prosperity secondary industry common prosperity tertiary industry common prosperity government fiscal expenditure 0.043*** (0.007) 0.021*** (0.005) 0.103*** (0.009) 0.026*** (0.005) 0.044*** (0.007) 0.027*** (0.006) output value of the three industries 0.156*** (0.006) 0.009*** (0.005) 0.002 (0.006) controlled variable yes yes yes yes yes yes fixed effect yes yes yes yes yes yes _cons 1.997*** (0.882) 0.978*** (0.882) 1.927*** (4.098) 0.997*** (0.882) 1.927*** (4.098) 0.957*** (4.098) sample capacity 17679 17679 17679 17679 17679 17679 r2 0.247 0.725 0.614 0.680 0.506 0.678 note: same as table 4.2. observing table 4.9, columns (1), (3), and (5) report the estimated results of government fiscal expenditure on the output value of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries, respectively, with estimated coefficients of 0.043, 0.103, and 0.044, indicating that government fiscal expenditure promotes the output value of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries. columns (2), (4), and (6) present the overall effect of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity after sequentially controlling for the mediating variables of the output value of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries. the results show that after controlling for the mediating variables of the output value of the primary and secondary industries, government fiscal expenditure still has a significant positive impact on rural common prosperity, suggesting that the mediating variables of the output value of the primary and secondary industries partially mediate the effect of green finance on new quality productivity. the mediating effect of the tertiary industry output value is not significant. thus, it can be concluded that in the pathway of the primary industry output value mediating effect, the mediating effect of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity is 0.007. in the pathway of the secondary industry output value mediating effect, the mediating effect of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity is approximately 0.001. that is, government fiscal expenditure can generate a mediating effect on rural common prosperity through the pathways of the primary and secondary industry output values, validating hypothesis 4 of this paper. 5. conclusions and policy recommendations 5.1 conclusion this study utilizes county-level economic characteristic data from the china county statistical yearbook to construct a fixed-effects econometric model, empirically analyzing the impact of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity. the baseline regression results show that government fiscal expenditure significantly promotes rural common prosperity when fixed effects and all control variables are sequentially added. for robustness checks, the tobit method is employed to re-estimate using alternative econometric approaches, along with one-period lag, twoperiod lag treatments, and winsorization to examine result stability across different estimation models, enhance credibility, address limited dependent variables, and mitigate reverse causality. all three robustness check methods consistently demonstrate a positive directional effect of government fiscal expenditure on rural common prosperity. heterogeneity analysis reveals that from the perspective of economic development disparity, fiscal expenditure elasticity in less-developed regions is significantly higher than in developed regions, aligning with the law of diminishing marginal utility. this finding provides empirical support for the "targeted poverty alleviation" policy, indicating that fiscal allocations to backward areas yield higher marginal returns. from the labor mobility heterogeneity perspective, fiscal expenditure coefficients in high-mobility regions are markedly greater than in low-mobility regions, showing that each unit of fiscal input generates 2.1% higher income growth in the former, highlighting labor mobility's amplifying effect on policy efficacy. this result aligns with the lewis dual-sector as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 130 published by ideas spread model, suggesting fiscal expenditure acts as an "industrialization catalyst" in high-mobility areas, accelerating labor shifts from low-productivity agricultural sectors to high-productivity modern sectors, thereby boosting overall income. mechanism tests indicate that government fiscal expenditure enhances common prosperity through capital deepening (stimulating fixed-asset investment) and by driving primary and secondary industries, demonstrating partial mediating effects. 5.2 policy advice first, it is essential to anchor efforts in regional disparities and optimize the structure of government fiscal expenditures. each region must closely align with its own developmental realities, tailoring adjustments to its fiscal expenditure structure while fully accounting for regional heterogeneity. for instance, economically advanced eastern regions should prioritize addressing income disparities across industries. while steadily driving economic growth, these regions should deepen reforms in education, healthcare, housing, and other areas to ensure ordinary citizens tangibly benefit from the dividends of development. central and western regions, on the other hand, should focus on industrial restructuring, directing fiscal resources toward areas of critical need. by stimulating economic growth, increasing fixed asset investment, and leveraging their inherent factor endowments, these regions can enhance regional economic expansion while promptly addressing income growth for lowand middle-income populations. second, it is crucial to refine the policy framework and execute coordinated policy measures. to begin, local governments at all levels must rigorously implement the directives of central policies while formulating supplementary strategies tailored to local conditions. this involves clarifying fiscal relations between central and local governments and defining relevant fiscal expenditure policies. through continuous reform, localities should be granted greater autonomy to ensure fiscal resources align with responsibilities, thereby securing sufficient funding for economic development and livelihood improvements. furthermore, policies must be synergized— fiscal, industrial, employment, and social security measures should operate in harmony to maximize the impact of government spending and avoid inefficiencies. third, efforts must be made to solidify the foundation of people's livelihoods, with a particular focus on supporting vulnerable groups. in advancing common prosperity, safeguarding basic living standards is paramount, especially in reinforcing fundamental, inclusive, and safety-net social protections. striking a balance between development and welfare is critical, with special attention given to ensuring the basic needs of 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(2024). fiscal expenditure, fiscal pressure, and excessive credit expansion: proactive or passive? economic issues, (12), 58–68+77. https://doi.org/10.16011/j.cnki.jjwt.2024.12.013 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p84-94.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p84 84 published by ideas spread study on the detection of dry matter in silage corn feed based on near infrared spectroscopy changfeng shao1,2 & wenjing zhu1,2 1 school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, china 2 high-tech key laboratory of agricultural equipment and intelligence, jiangsu province, china correspondence: wenjing zhu, school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china. tel: 86-153-5388-4867. e-mail: received: march 7, 2025 accepted: april 10, 2025 online published: april 12, 2025 the research is financed by key laboratory of modern agricultural equipment and technology project (maet202322) and national natural science foundation of china youth fund project (61901194). abstract this study explored the application of a portable near-infrared (nir) spectrometer for analyzing silage corn feed quality, specifically focusing on developing a quantitative detection model for dry matter content. spectral data were collected within the 855-1890 nm range using a portable nir spectrometer, and the dataset was partitioned into calibration and prediction sets using the spxy algorithm. an extreme learning machine (elm) model optimized by particle swarm optimization (pso) was employed for modeling. five preprocessing methods were evaluated: moving average filter (maf), savitzky-golay filter (sgf), multiplicative scatter correction (msc), standard normal variate (snv) transformation, and first derivative (fd). to enhance model performance, feature wavelengths were selected using three methods: bootstrap soft shrinkage (boss), competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (cars), and iterative retained information variable (iriv). the optimal model combining snv preprocessing with boss feature selection achieved a prediction correlation coefficient (𝑅 ) of 0.8708 and root mean square error of prediction (rmsep) of 0.6802. these results demonstrate the potential of portable nir spectroscopy for rapid dry matter content determination in silage corn feed. keywords: near-infrared spectroscopy, silage corn, dry matter content, machine learning optimization 1. introduction as one of the most cultivated and productive crops in the world, maize is not only an important link in the human food supply, but also a core raw material for livestock rearing(garcía-chávez et al., 2020). in aquaculture, maize silage plays a decisive role as a key feed resource to improve productivity and economic efficiency(ribas et al., 2021). silage technology maintains and enhances the nutritional value of the feed by creating anaerobic fermentation conditions (fuglestad et al., 2021), which maximizes the use of plant nutrients and lays the foundation for the sustainable progress of the farming industry (yin et al., 2024). straw dry matter content is a basic and critical indicator in the silage process. ideal storage results depend on the rapid detection and adjustment of the dry matter ratio. however, conventional chemical analysis is time-consuming and labor-intensive, and a breakthrough is needed(büning-pfaue, 2003) . therefore, a rapid and non-destructive way to monitor the dry matter indexes in silage maize stover not only improves the speed of inspection and reduces the running cost, but also provides an important basis for establishing an efficient analytical system and optimizing feed utilization. several studies have been conducted on the application of nirs technology in agriculture.(wu et al., 2005) developed a nirs calibration model to accurately predict the cellulose content of corn stover by partial least squares regression (pls).(aureli et al., 2017) developed a nirs calibration method for predicting the concentration of total phosphorus, phytate-p, and protein in feeds based on 14 plant samples from around the world. calibration method.(ma et al., 2019) developed a high-precision model for predicting moisture, crude protein and soluble sugar content of mulberry leaves using a handheld nirs. (zhang et al., 2019)constructed a high-precision prediction model for moisture content by spectral analysis of 208 corn stover silage samples. these studies provide an important theoretical foundation and technical reference for this research. however, although the feasibility of nir detection in silage nutrient quality testing has been verified, there are fewer studies on the as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 85 published by ideas spread index of dry matter of silage corn feed, especially in the pre-processing methods, wavelength selection methods and modeling algorithms have not yet been studied in depth. in addition, silage corn feed generally requires onsite field testing, which has certain requirements for portability. the aim of this study is to use a portable near-infrared spectrometer to collect the spectral data of silage corn feed, and to establish a high-precision dry matter prediction model for silage corn feed by combining multiple preprocessing methods and wavelength selection algorithms. the feature wavelengths were screened by competitive adaptive resampling algorithm (cars), bootstrap soft shrinkage algorithm (boss), and iterative retention of information variables algorithm (iriv), and the optimization algorithm was used to preferentially select the modeling parameters, and the optimal preprocessing method, wavelength selection strategy, and modeling parameters were ultimately determined in order to establish a dry matter content prediction model with high prediction accuracy. this not only helps to improve the efficiency and accuracy of feed quality testing, but also provides technical support for the sustainable development of the farming industry. 2. method 2.1 test materials the silage corn feed samples used in this experiment were collected in december 2024 from the silage corn fermentation pond of a dairy farm located in tai'an city, shandong province. a total of 270 samples were gathered. immediately after collection, the samples were placed into vacuum bags and vacuum-sealed. they were then transported and stored under refrigerated conditions to ensure their preservation. 2.2 near infrared spectroscopy data acquisition the nir spectral acquisition system comprises an nir spectrometer, light source, acquisition lens, and computer. the system utilizes the nir-nt compact fiber-optic near-infrared spectrometer, manufactured by insion in germany, with a nominal wavelength range of 900-1700 nm. however, due to the manufacturing process, the actual wavelength range is 855-1890 nm. prior to testing, the system requires a 30-minute preheating process to eliminate baseline drift. subsequently, the spectrometer's focal length must be adjusted to ensure optical accuracy. the system's exposure time was set to 20 ms for the experimental parameters. during data acquisition, samples should be evenly distributed in the container to ensure they are within the aperture's coverage area. using nearinfrared spectral data acquisition software, spectral data within the 855-1890 nm wavelength range were collected in this study. 2.3 measurement of dry matter content the dry matter content was measured following the standard method outlined in gb/t 6435-2014 "determination of moisture in feed" using the oven-drying technique. the procedure is described as follows: a beaker was first dried at 103 °c for 30 minutes in a drying oven and cooled to room temperature in a desiccator. its mass (m₁) was then recorded. subsequently, 5 g of silage corn feed was weighed into the pre-dried beaker and dried at 103 °c for 4 hours. during the drying process, the sample was periodically monitored until a constant weight was achieved, defined as a difference of less than 0.1% between consecutive measurements. after drying, the beaker and dried sample were allowed to cool to room temperature in a desiccator, and the total mass (m₂) was recorded. the dry matter content was calculated using equation (1). 𝑋 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 100% 1 in the equation, 𝑚 represents the initial weight of the beaker (g), 𝑚 is the weight of the sample (g), and 𝑚 refers to the weight of the beaker and the sample after drying (g). the statistical analysis results for the dry matter indices of the test samples are presented in table 2. table 1. statistical table of dry matter content (%) of silage maize forage quality indicators minimum maximum mean standard deviation dm 28.63 35.17 31.47 2.30 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 86 published by ideas spread 2.4 spectral data preprocessing the acquisition of near-infrared spectral data is inevitably affected by various factors, including stray light, signalto-noise interference, diffuse light reflection, and spectral baseline shifts. to eliminate these interferences and establish a reliable prediction model, preprocessing of the spectral data is essential. in this study, five preprocessing methods were applied to the spectral data: moving average filtering (maf), savitzky-golay filtering (sgf), multiplicative scatter correction (msc), standard normal variate (snv) transformation, and first-order derivative (fd) processing. 2.5 characteristic wavelength selection the selection of wavelengths for near-infrared (nir) spectroscopy is crucial for reducing model complexity, improving prediction accuracy, and enhancing scanning speed. by identifying wavelengths closely related to the target analyte, data dimensionality can be reduced, and the model structure can be optimized. this, in turn, minimizes the model size and enhances prediction performance. additionally, selecting characteristic wavelengths helps eliminate noise and interference, thereby increasing the model's robustness. in this study, competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (cars), bootstrap soft shrinkage (boss), and iterative retention of informative variables (iriv) methods were employed to select the key wavelengths. 2.6 spectral modeling methods extreme learning machine (elm) is a machine learning approach derived from the single hidden layer feedforward neural network (slfn). it is effective in handling complex nonlinear fitting problems and is particularly suitable for large-scale training datasets (wang et al., 2018) . based on the principle of structural risk minimization, elm enhances data fitting capabilities by randomly mapping the linear output function to achieve efficient nonlinear transformations in high-dimensional feature spaces. in this study, the particle swarm optimization (pso) algorithm was employed to optimize the key parameters of the elm model. particle swarm optimization (pso) is an evolutionary algorithm inspired by the collective intelligence of groups. it efficiently solves complex optimization problems by simulating the collaborative search mechanisms among individuals in a population(huang et al., 2021) . the pso algorithm utilizes particle position and velocity as core parameters, conducting searches through dynamic updates of the individual best and global best solutions, ultimately converging on the global optimal solution. compared to traditional optimization algorithms, pso is characterized by its simplicity, high efficiency, and ease of parallel implementation. it has been widely applied in function optimization and parameter tuning in machine learning. in this study, pso was used to optimize the hyperparameters of the elm model, including the number of neurons in the hidden layer and the weights, thereby significantly improving the model's generalization performance and prediction accuracy. 2.7 model evaluation metrics in model evaluation, the key metrics include the calibration set correlation coefficient (𝑅 ), the calibration set root mean square error (rmsec), the prediction set correlation coefficient (𝑅 ), and the prediction set root mean square error (rmsep). the closer the values of 𝑅 and 𝑅 are to 1, the stronger the model's explanatory and predictive abilities. conversely, lower values of rmsec and rmsep indicate higher model precision. 2.8 data processing methods spectral preprocessing and dataset partitioning were performed using nirsa 5.3 software. wavelength selection and model development were conducted in matlab r2022a. the iriv algorithm for feature wavelength extraction was implemented using the libpls 1.98 toolbox (li et al., 2018). 3. results 3.1 dataset division the dataset was divided using the spxy algorithm. a total of 189 samples (70% of the dataset) were used as the calibration set, while 81 samples (30% of the dataset) were assigned to the test set. 3.2 spectral preprocessing analysis to analyze the effects of different near-infrared (nir) spectral preprocessing methods on the prediction model for the dry matter content of silage corn feed, five preprocessing techniques—savitzky-golay filtering (sgf), moving average filtering (maf), multiplicative scatter correction (msc), standard normal variate (snv), and first-order derivative (fd)—were applied to the raw spectral data. the original spectra and the preprocessed spectral data are shown in figure 1. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 87 published by ideas spread as illustrated in figure 1, after sgf and maf preprocessing, the spectral curves became smoother, noise fluctuations were significantly reduced, and the curves were largely consistent with the original spectral profile. following msc and snv preprocessing, the spectral curves demonstrated higher concentration, scattering effects were effectively reduced, and spectral features became more prominent. after fd preprocessing, small feature variations in the spectral data were revealed, characteristic peaks were significantly enhanced, and the signal-tonoise ratio was improved to a certain extent. figure 1. original spectra and preprocessed spectra table 2 shows the performance of pso-elm prediction models developed using different preprocessing methods across the full wavelength spectrum. models developed using raw spectral data yielded a prediction set correlation coefficient (𝑅 )and rmsep values of 0.8228 and 0.7774, respectively, indicating the feasibility of direct modeling despite the potential interference from noise and scattering effects. models based on maf preprocessing exhibited slightly diminished prediction set performance (𝑅 = 0.8179, rmsep = 0.7871). although maf effectively smooths spectral data and reduces high-frequency noise, it may simultaneously remove critical spectral information, resulting in reduced prediction accuracy. in contrast, sgf preprocessing improved prediction set performance (𝑅 = 0.8375, rmsep = 0.7472), successfully mitigating overfitting tendencies in the original data and enhancing the model's generalization ability. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 88 published by ideas spread the msc and snv preprocessing techniques produced distinct outcomes, with snv delivering superior prediction set performance (𝑅 = 0.8413, rmsep = 0.7680), outperforming both msc-processed and raw spectral data. the superior performance of snv likely results from its standardized normalization process, which effectively reduces scattering-induced variability, minimizes bias, and improves the reliability of the model. first-order derivative (fd) preprocessing significantly improved calibration set performance but paradoxically reduced prediction set performance 𝑅 = 0.8132, rmsep = 0.7687). this inverse relationship suggests that while fd enhances the resolution of spectral features, it also amplifies noise components and increases the risk of overfitting, leading to diminished predictive performance. table 2. modeling performance based on full-wavelength spectral data preprocessing modeling methods calibration set test set 𝑅 rmsec 𝑅 rmsep raw pso-elm 0.8817 0.7309 0.8228 0.7774 maf 0.8658 0.7752 0.8179 0.7871 sgf 0.872 0.7585 0.8375 0.7472 msc 0.8754 0.7444 0.8369 0.778 snv 0.8723 0.7529 0.8413 0.768 1d 0.8873 0.7529 0.8132 0.7687 3.3 characteristic wavelength extraction 3.3.1 competitive adaptive reweighted sampling the competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (cars) algorithm is a wavelength selection method based on darwinian evolutionary theory(li et al., 2009) , designed to optimize wavelength selection through iterative statistical analysis. this algorithm integrates adaptive reweighted sampling (ars) with partial least squares (pls) to identify wavelengths with larger absolute regression coefficients during each iteration. through multiple iterations, the cars algorithm searches for the subset of wavelengths that minimizes the root mean square error of cross-validation (rmsecv), thereby identifying the most representative set of optimal wavelengths. in this study, the optimal principal component of the pls model is determined by monte carlo cross-validation (mccv) and input into the competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (cars) algorithm to realize the feature wavelength screening. the specific process(liu et al., 2023) is as follows: first, the spectral data are centered and preprocessed to eliminate baseline bias; based on the mccv method, the model stability is assessed and the optimal principal component fraction is determined to be 15 by 50 independent random samples (80% of samples taken each time) combined with a five-fold cross-validation; subsequently, the principal component fraction is inputted into the cars algorithm as a parameter to carry out the wavelength screening: in 500 iterations of optimization, a subset of candidate variables is generated by monte carlo sampling, low regression coefficient variables are gradually eliminated using exponential decreasing function (edf), and high weighted wavelengths are competitively retained in combination with adaptive reweighting sampling (ars). finally, the optimal wavelength subset with the smallest rmsecv is screened by 50 independent modeling validations using the 50fold cross-validation root mean square error (rmsecv) as a criterion. as shown in figure 2, figure 2-a depicts the relationship between the number of samples and the number of sampled variables, which overall exhibits a smooth decreasing trend. this indicates that a large number of irrelevant variables are gradually eliminated as the number of samples increases. figure 2-b illustrates the changing relationship between the number of samples and the root mean square error of cross-validation (rmsecv). at the early stages, the rmsecv decreases rapidly, consistent with the trend observed in figure 2-a. the rmsecv reaches its minimum value at 21 samples, after which it begins to increase. figure 2-c shows the relationship between the regression coefficients of the wavelength variables and the number of samples. the blue dashed line marks the location of the minimum rmsecv value, which corresponds to figure 2-b, indicating the optimal subset of wavelengths. following screening by the cars algorithm, a total of 24 characteristic wavelengths were selected, accounting for 18.8% of the overall wavelengths. the distribution of the characteristic wavelength variables obtained through the cars algorithm is shown in figure 3. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 89 published by ideas spread figure 2. cars screening results figure 3. cars-selected wavelength distribution 3.3.2 bootstrap optimized subset selection the boss algorithm (bootstrap optimized subset selection) is an iterative optimization method for feature wavelength screening. its core concept is to combine bootstrap sampling and dynamic assignment strategies to identify the optimal sub-model by generating random feature subsets and employing partial least squares (pls) modeling with root mean square error of cross-validation (rmsecv) as the criterion (deng et al., 2016). during the iterative process, regression coefficients are utilized to construct weight vectors, dynamically adjusting the probability of variable selection. this approach prioritizes the retention of highly contributory variables through weighted bootstrap selection, ultimately selecting the variable combination with the lowest rmsecv as the optimal solution while balancing data diversity and model stability. as a feature selection algorithm based on model cluster analysis, this section highlights the results of its practical application. figure 4illustrates the relationship between the rmsecv and the number of iteration rounds during cross-validation using the boss algorithm. the results indicate that the rmsecv exhibits a dynamic trend of first decreasing and then increasing as the number of iterations progresses. at the 3rd iteration round, the rmsecv reaches its minimum value, marking the precise localization of the optimal variable combination. further increasing the number of iteration rounds results in a rebound of the rmsecv. this rebound occurs because key information variables are unintentionally eliminated. the distribution of feature wavelengths selected by the boss algorithm across the entire wavelength range is shown in the accompanying figure, with the selected wavelengths accounting for 26.6% of the total wavelengths. the distribution of the characteristic wavelength variables obtained through the cars algorithm is shown in figure 5. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 90 published by ideas spread figure 4. boss screening results figure 5. boss-selected wavelength distribution 3.3.3 iterative retained information variable the iterative retained information variable (iriv) method is a feature selection algorithm based on binary random matrix rearrangement filtering(yun et al., 2014). this method classifies variables into four categories: strong information, weak information, no information, and interfering variables. through multiple rounds of iterations, the algorithm gradually filters out the optimal subset of features, thereby reducing the impact of redundant and interfering variables on model performance. as shown in figure 6, the iriv algorithm exhibits a gradual reduction in the number of variables during the feature extraction process for the spectral data of silage corn feed. the process begins with an initial screening of global variables, followed by a reverse elimination mechanism to evaluate the contribution of each variable to the model's predictive performance. through this stepwise elimination of low-contributing variables, 23 key feature wavelengths—accounting for approximately 18% of the original feature space—were ultimately retained. during the backward elimination process, the root mean square error of cross-validation (rmsecv) is used as the evaluation metric, and the model is re-modeled at each step of variable removal to ensure that overall model performance is not significantly degraded. the distribution of the characteristic wavelength variables obtained through the cars algorithm is shown in figure 7. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 91 published by ideas spread figure 6. iriv screening results figure 7. iriv-selected wavelength distribution 3.4 modeling based on characteristic wavelengths table 3 summarizes the performance of prediction models built using different characteristic wavelengths. during the construction of the elm model, the modeling parameters were optimized using the pso algorithm. from the table, it can be observed that the cars, boss, and iriv algorithms effectively reduce the number of wavelengths required for modeling. consequently, the input parameters for the prediction model are reduced, which enhances the real-time performance of online detection systems. the correlation coefficients (𝑅 ) of the model prediction sets based on the characteristic wavelengths all exceed 0.85, demonstrating superior performance compared to models built using the original data. among the tested models, the snv-boss-pso-elm model demonstrated the best performance, achieving an 𝑅 of 0.8708 and an rmsep of 0.6802. table 3. modeling performance based on characteristic wavelengths modeling methods wavelength selection methods number of features calibration set test set 𝑅 rmsec 𝑅 rmsep pso-elm cars 24 0.8995 0.687 0.8664 0.6895 boss 34 0.9142 0.6306 0.8708 0.6802 iriv 23 0.9027 0.666 0.867 0.6927 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 92 published by ideas spread 3.5 experimental summary in this experiment, a quantitative detection model for the dry matter content of silage corn feed using portable near-infrared spectroscopy was developed, with silage corn feed as the research object. the results indicate that spectral data preprocessed using the standard normal variate (snv) method outperformed the original data and data processed with other preprocessing methods. during the pso-elm modeling process, the model constructed using the characteristic wavelengths selected by the boss algorithm demonstrated the best prediction performance. by analyzing the fitted scatter plots (figures 8–10) of the prediction results from the three models based on different wavelength selection algorithms for the dry matter content of silage corn feed, it is evident that the snvboss-pso-elm model exhibited a better fitting effect compared to the other models. its prediction results are more concentrated, which aligns with the data presented in the table. these results confirm that the snv-bosspso-elm model provides better predictive accuracy for the dry matter content of silage corn feed than the other models. figure 8. scatter plot of snv-cars-pso-elm model performance figure 9. scatter plot of snv-boss-pso-elm model performance as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 93 published by ideas spread figure 10. scatter plot of snv-iriv-pso-elm model performance 4. discussion in this study, 270 silage maize feed samples were analyzed, focusing on the dry matter physicochemical values. the raw spectral data were preprocessed using five methods: sgf, maf, msc, snv, and fd. based on an analysis of model performance, the most suitable preprocessing method was selected for subsequent modeling. characteristic wavelengths were selected using the cars, boss, and iriv algorithms, while prediction models were constructed based on full wavelengths and characteristic wavelengths using the elm algorithm. the pso algorithm was employed to optimize the modeling parameters during this process. the main conclusions are summarized as follows: (1) by comparing the spectral preprocessing results of sgf, maf, msc, snv, and fd and combining them with the quantitative evaluation of the pso-elm model, it was found that snv preprocessing yielded the best performance in the quantitative dry matter model. for the calibration set, the correlation coefficient (r) was 0.8723, with a root mean square error (rmse) of 0.7529. for the prediction set, the r was 0.8413, and the rmse was 0.768. these results indicate that snv preprocessing effectively reduces the effects of spectral scattering, baseline drift, and background interference, thereby enhancing the consistency and reliability of the spectral data and significantly improving the accuracy and stability of the model. (2) the characteristic wavelength screening focused on the range of 1100–1800 nm, which encompasses the core absorption regions of the primary chemical components in dry matter, including the vibrational absorption regions of the o-h bond in water and the c-h bond in cellulose and hemicellulose. among the algorithms, boss demonstrated a broader and more balanced wavelength distribution, comprehensively covering key intervals and enhancing the model's generalization ability. cars concentrated on key absorption regions, producing results with strong relevance to the target, though slightly limited in the breadth of information covered. iriv, on the other hand, covered a wider wavelength range and captured the features across multiple intervals but included a higher number of redundant variables, which negatively impacted model efficiency. (3) in the evaluation of the models built using characteristic wavelengths, the boss-based pso-elm model demonstrated the best overall performance. for the quantitative dry matter model, the boss-based model achieved an r of 0.9142 and an rmse of 0.6306 in the calibration set, while in the prediction set, the r was 0.8708 and the rmse was 0.6802. these results outperformed other algorithms, indicating that boss effectively balances model prediction performance and improves the correlation coefficient while maintaining high accuracy. acknowledgments the research is financed by key laboratory of modern agricultural equipment and technology project (maet202322) and national natural science foundation of china youth fund project (61901194). references aureli, r., ueberschlag, q., klein, f., noel, c., & guggenbuhl, p. 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(2019). determination of water content in corn stover silage using near-infrared spectroscopy. international journal of agricultural and biological engineering, 12(6), 143–148. https://doi.org/10.25165/j.ijabe.20191206.4914 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p158 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p158 158 published by ideas spread exploration of the safety and threats associated with smart agriculture-related technologies dong hu1, jiayue he1 & qian wang2 1 zhaotong university, zhaotong, yunnan province, china 2 suijiang county vocational senior high school, zhaotong, yunnan province, china correspondence: qian wang, suijiang county vocational senior high school, zhaotong, yunnan province, china. received: may 18, 2025 accepted: june 27, 2025 online published: june 29, 2025 abstract smart agriculture integrates cutting-edge information technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, and blockchain, deeply integrating them into production decision-making and circulation links related to agriculture, forming a new agricultural business model and solution with significant advantages of intensification, precision, automation, and informatization. therefore, properly handling the relationship between agricultural big data technology and data security becomes particularly critical.the concept of agricultural big data, comprehensively analyzing various current viewpoints. subsequently, through specific cases, it elaborates on the driving role of agricultural big data in various links of the agricultural supply chain. to further delves into the unique characteristics of agricultural big data, including its ubiquity, sociality, and interdisciplinarity. starting from the common problems of big data, it introduces specific issues in the agricultural field and proposes targeted security solutions based on actual smart agriculture application scenarios. this paper aims to provide a new perspective for future research on solving data security issues in the field of smart agriculture, to promote the more rapid and secure development of smart agriculture. keywords: agriculture, smart agriculture, data security, technology 1. introduction the progress of production methods in the agricultural field is closely linked to the overall level of social development. it can be said that the level of technological application in agriculture reflects the development of social productive forces. given the special status of agriculture in providing basic subsistence materials for humans, its development process must not only adapt to changes in social productive forces but also to changes in human needs. especially with the rapid development of information technology, the digitization, intellectualization, and networking of industrial fields have become an inevitable trend[1]. the term "smart agriculture" refers to the new agricultural business model and solution formed by the deep integration of frontier information technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, and blockchain with production decision-making and circulation links related to agriculture. through network technology, it achieves comprehensive interconnection of personnel, agricultural machinery, and crops, thereby realizing real-time monitoring of the agricultural production process, obtaining dynamic data, and promoting the accelerated flow of production factors such as information, technology, and funds through these data. smart agriculture has the advantages of intensification, precision, automation, and informatization. in this process, it can not only realize intelligent management of agricultural product production and processing but also promote the gradual formation of an efficient and precise production and marketing ecosystem in circulation channels, thus reshaping the agricultural industry chain[2]. agricultural big data is one of the important supports for realizing smart agriculture, providing smart agriculture with a digital foundation, a basis for scientific decision-making, and a source of intelligent capabilities, making agricultural production more intelligent, efficient, and sustainable. in the fields related to agricultural production, the benefits of agricultural big data have gradually emerged: in production and circulation links, it helps accelerate the cultivation of high-quality crop varieties, enhance the transparency of agricultural information, and achieve food traceability; through continuous and extensive collection and correlation analysis of agricultural big data, it becomes the "think tank" of modern agricultural production and management, providing direction guidance for agricultural practitioners in production categories, optimized seed selection, and production planning; in market consumption links, it becomes the vane of modern agricultural market consumption, guiding market trends and as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 159 published by ideas spread agricultural product demand; at the macro level of agricultural policy formulation, it provides diverse and accurate data support and analysis conclusions to assist relevant government departments at all levels in making precise decisions.with the development and promotion of agricultural big data technology, data security issues have also become increasingly prominent, bringing risks and hidden dangers to the construction and development of smart agriculture[3]. the destruction, misuse, and leakage of agricultural big data may synchronously affect agricultural production, supply, and market in the fields where smart agriculture is applied. therefore, in the field of smart agriculture, it is necessary to combine the common risks of big data technology with the industry characteristics of agricultural big data to conduct in-depth analysis and research on the data security risks of agricultural big data and propose feasible solutions. 2. analysis of data security risks in smart agriculture 2.1 security risks in agricultural big data collection agricultural big data covers various aspects of the entire crop production cycle, including breed selection, farming techniques, and management measures. these links are comprehensively influenced by various factors such as meteorology, resources, the environment, the market, transportation, and safety. taking rice breed selection as an example, the considerations include meteorological conditions such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation; resource conditions such as organic matter content, nutrient content, and ph value in the soil; as well as economic factors such as market demand and transportation efficiency. data collection refers to the process of inputting external data into the system through a certain medium. active collection involves human intervention and is a conscious and targeted data collection behavior; passive collection usually occurs through automated tools and systems without direct human participation. survey questionnaires and experimental records are common methods in active collection. however, due to the professional competence or insufficient attention of staff, the collected data may be useless or incomplete[4]. to solve this problem, improvements need to be made in questionnaire design, survey planning, and professional competence training for interviewers. common passive collection methods include web crawlers, sensor information collection, and system data collection. due to the extensive scope, complexity, and high degree of automation involved in passive collection, there are risks such as intellectual property rights infringement, infringement of personal privacy data, violation of data owner rights, unreliable data sources, and uncontrollable data quality. it is necessary to clarify the collection scope, quantity, and depth according to the purpose and use of the data collection and follow the principle of data minimization to ensure data compliance; on the other hand, data classification and identification should be implemented in the data collection stage to ensure data security and traceability of data provenance quality[5]. in specific scenarios of smart agriculture, agricultural sensors are installed in various locations, making agricultural big data have significant comprehensive characteristics during data collection and bringing corresponding risks. to solve these problems, physically, protective devices such as protective covers can be considered for sensors, and technically, a device monitoring system can be established to ensure the normal operation of the devices, and password verification and other identity verification mechanisms can be added to the collectors to ensure the security and reliability of configuration modifications. satellite remote sensing has unique advantages in obtaining information such as crop coverage, vegetation growth status, and land use in the agricultural field, but it also faces risks of incomplete and inaccurate data collection at the data security level. for example, when clouds are thick, ground radiation cannot penetrate the cloud layer, resulting in incomplete imaging results of remote sensing satellites; the mixed effect of ground objects makes it difficult for remote sensing satellites to accurately distinguish between ground object types, leading to biases in crop coverage statistics; in addition, the wireless transmission characteristic of satellite remote sensing data also makes it vulnerable to attacks where intruders can invade and tamper with the data. these issues are potential risks inherent in satellite remote sensing technology. 2.2 security risks in data storage and transmission data transmission involves transmitting data from its source to its destination through one or multiple data links according to established procedures. this process includes both wired and wireless transmission technologies, each with its advantages. wired technologies, such as ethernet, usb, and hdmi, provide stable transmission channels; while wireless technologies, such as wi-fi, bluetooth, and z-wave, break through the limitations of physical connections, bringing convenience to mobile devices and remote communications. however, data transmission also faces various risks, including information leakage caused by attackers intercepting and interpreting the data during transmission, data integrity destruction through man-in-the-middle attacks that hijack and tamper with data, and distributed denial-of-service attacks that block communication channels, making information unreachable. to address these risks, it is necessary to develop appropriate data transmission security as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 160 published by ideas spread strategies and procedures based on specific scenarios and adopt corresponding security measures to ensure the identity authentication of the transmitting and receiving entities, verify data integrity, have data recovery control measures, and audit and monitor changes to security strategies.agricultural big data is ubiquitous and social, encompassing a wide range of data that includes sensitive information critical to the security of national agricultural development strategies, such as soil, geology, water quality, topography, hydrological conditions, and climate. if this information is transmitted in plaintext or using weak encryption protocols and algorithms, it can easily be stolen by domestic and foreign criminals or hostile organizations, posing a threat to national agricultural security and national security. to mitigate such risks, the use of trusted encryption technologies should be mandated to establish secure encryption channels, utilizing trusted algorithms for data encryption and employing technologies such as digital signatures and digital certificates to verify the identities of communicating parties[6-8]. data storage refers to the process of statically preserving data in various data media and formats, providing capabilities for management, retrieval, and destruction. stored objects include collected data, analysis and processing result data, and temporary procedural data. in the context of big data, significant differences between big data storage technologies and traditional data storage technologies should be noted. currently, commonly used big data storage technologies, such as distributed file systems, column-based databases, and sql databases, can store unstructured, semi-structured, and structured data, catering to the volume, velocity, and variety characteristics of big data, and offering advantages over the centralized storage model of traditional databases. however, as big data storage technologies develop, security risks also gradually emerge, including unauthorized data access leading to leaks, ransomware attacks following data encryption or corruption, and issues such as unclear and insufficiently granular user security permission control rules. the intersectionality and comprehensiveness of agricultural big data allow attackers to derive critical information through correlation analysis of centrally stored data, compromising data confidentiality. for example, attackers may infer the location of solar power generation facilities by querying non-sensitive data and public information in combination. during the data storage phase, security controls should be developed to use correlation models and analysis scripts for security rule detection of centrally stored data, requiring strong business modeling capabilities. furthermore, homomorphic encryption technology can effectively address the issues arising from the intersectionality and comprehensiveness of agricultural big data, allowing for operations such as search, filtering, and computation on data in an encrypted state without the need for decryption, thereby protecting data privacy[9-10]. 2.3 security risks in data processing and computing of agricultural big data in the realm of data processing, it is imperative to closely monitor the entire lifecycle of data processing, encompassing both the handling of data content and the outcomes of data anonymization processes. at the inception of the processing workflow, given the multi-source nature of big data, data processors must first ensure the security of data sources. in accordance with relevant legal provisions, data processors should require data providers to specify the origins of the data. failure to verify data sources prior to processing vast amounts of data may introduce malicious data, which can lead to incorrect associations during data aggregation and correlation processing, subsequently misleading subsequent data analysis and computation, and potentially providing attackers with opportunities to implant malicious code or launch attacks through the malicious data. therefore, formulating stringent data source review strategies to ensure data security and compliance is of paramount importance. prior to anonymization, it is essential to explicitly list the data assets requiring anonymization and establish corresponding classification, grading standards, and anonymization procedures based on the business characteristics of relevant industries. appropriate anonymization techniques, such as generalization, suppression, and pseudonymization, should be selected for different data types[11]. however, due to the vast volume of big data, attackers may infer anonymized personal privacy data through correlation mining analysis. consequently, establishing corresponding validation methods for anonymization effectiveness is necessary after anonymization processing to avoid the inclusion of recoverable sensitive data in the processing results, ensuring the effectiveness and compliance of data anonymization, and documenting the anonymization process to meet subsequent security audit requirements. during the handling of data outliers, attention must be paid to the risk of unauthorized access by data processors, which could lead to data breaches. the capability of data preprocessing often relies on the data platform, and data processors need to ensure data traceability. nevertheless, vulnerabilities in the platform can compromise data availability. although data analysis and data computing are distinct, they are interconnected. data analysis focuses on interpreting data using statistical methods to extract knowledge for business decision-making, while data computing emphasizes processing, analyzing, inferring data, or generating new information using mathematical and computer science methods, with a strong emphasis on technical implementation and computational efficiency. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 161 published by ideas spread in practice, data analysis and computing often work synergistically, contributing to intelligent decision-making, problem mining, business process optimization, result prediction, and efficiency enhancement[12]. 3. discussion on technological risks in smart agriculture 3.1 social trust risks in smart agricultural technologies social trust risk refers to the risk of negative ethical impacts on social trust due to improper application of technologies, such as abuse or misuse. take blockchain technology as an example. its core function is to create trust, providing a relatively low-cost means to establish complex trust relationships. in the agricultural sector, particularly in the consumption process, the application of blockchain technology is mainly embodied in agricultural product traceability.by recording information on every link of agricultural products from production to consumption on the blockchain, it ensures information security, transparency, and authenticity, enabling consumers to comprehensively monitor the quality of agricultural products and thereby establishing a solid trust mechanism among producers, suppliers, and consumers. blockchain traceability technology has obvious advantages: firstly, the information on the chain is immutable; secondly, it reduces the workload of inspection and quarantine, avoids repeated inspections due to distrust, and lowers costs[13]. however, technological ethical risks still exist and require governance. the zero-state problem arises when the accuracy of the data in the first block of the blockchain is questioned. this can occur if there is no third-party service to protect stakeholders, if proper due diligence is not conducted on the data, or if the person entering the data makes errors or maliciously alters the information. for example, in a blockchain used to track crop information in a supply chain, the first block may erroneously indicate that a truck is loaded with crops from a specific origin, while in reality, the crops come from another origin. individuals involved with the truck's contents may have been deceived or bribed along the way. current blockchain technology can only ensure that uploaded data is not tampered with but cannot guarantee the authenticity of the data. in the absence of third-party supervision, if the items recorded on the blockchain have historically been targets of fraud, bribery, and hacking, then the agricultural information traceability system built on blockchain will lose social trust, leading to serious social ethical issues. furthermore, the vast amount of data itself can lead to a certain degree of loss of control. big data is extremely complex in content and form, to the extent that a single ordinary computer cannot process it, requiring the support of distributed technologies and cloud computing, which inherently poses a high technical threshold. as technology develops, big data continues to change in scale, dimensions, and types, exposing various imperfections. with the enhancement of human data capture capabilities, big data continues to grow and become more complex, making it practically very difficult to comprehensively analyze all data, beyond the reach of human capabilities. therefore, our ability to control big data is limited, and big data is, to some extent, out of human control. on the one hand, there is the issue of agricultural data privacy, where farmers' personal information should be used and protected reasonably to prevent data from being out of control, i.e., abused or leaked. on the other hand, the raw data of agricultural big data is generated by farmers during the production process, but individual farmers do not have the capability to process this data. therefore, the processing of such big data is usually done by powerful large enterprises. in some countries, after large enterprises obtain and use the data generated by farmers, the farmers are unaware of this[14]. the neglect of data ownership has sparked widespread concern among farmers. 3.2 ecological and environmental issues in smart agricultural technologies although many promotions and advertisements for smart agriculture often emphasize its green and safe characteristics and focus on protecting the ecological environment, smart agriculture and green agriculture are actually two different concepts. without specific attention to ecological safety, smart agriculture can also pose ecological risks. in terms of technology application, smart agriculture utilizes smart sensors to monitor soil moisture, uses drones for farmland patrols, and leverages artificial intelligence to identify crop pests and diseases. in contrast, green agriculture emphasizes the harmonious coexistence of environmental protection and agricultural production. green agriculture tends to adopt environmentally friendly and sustainable production methods, such as using organic fertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers, to reduce environmental pollution. in terms of focus, smart agriculture primarily aims to improve production efficiency and yield while reducing labor costs to enhance economic benefits. green agriculture, on the other hand, pays more attention to environmental protection and improving the quality of agricultural products, aiming to promote agricultural development while ensuring environmental protection and the green purity of agricultural products. smart agriculture focuses more on the application of modern technology and the improvement of production efficiency, while green agriculture emphasizes environmental protection and the quality and safety of agricultural products. therefore, in the development process of smart agriculture, it is necessary to increase attention to ecological and environmental safety risks[15]. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 162 published by ideas spread 4. solutions to risks in smart agriculture 4.1 information sharing and mechanism improvement in traditional trust-building mechanisms, product quality certification and consumer rights protection are avenues through which consumers place significant trust. however, with technological advancements, information sharing has gradually become a powerful guarantee for enhancing trust between supply and demand due to its ability to significantly reduce the risks associated with information asymmetry. the more information agricultural producers disclose, the better consumers understand agricultural products, leading to enhanced security and trust. therefore, producers should proactively ensure information openness and transparency. for example, they can establish accounts on social media platforms to disclose production information. surveys have shown that some consumers choose agricultural products from a particular company because it provides the most comprehensive production information on its online platform. additionally, interaction and participation are crucial ways to build trust. allowing consumers to participate in producers' activities can significantly increase their trust in the producers. therefore, practical ways to effectively enhance corporate trust include inviting consumers to visit production sites or farms in person or engaging with consumers through online platforms. strengthening the cultivation of information technology talents in the agricultural sector and guiding enterprises to actively participate in the development of specialized software and socialized service technologies for smart agriculture through professional institutions can provide more technical support for information sharing between producers and consumers. 4.2 integration of smart agriculture and ecological agriculture ecological agriculture, as an agricultural model that meets ecological environmental requirements, helps improve the ecological environment, reduce soil erosion and land degradation, and thereby maintain the stability and healthy operation of ecosystems by minimizing the negative impact of human activities on the natural environment. at the same time, it can protect the diversity and interrelationships of ecosystems, enhance the self-restoration capability of agricultural ecosystems, and rebuild damaged ecological environments. the integration of smart agriculture and ecological agriculture embodies a systems and holistic perspective. smart agriculture emphasizes technological innovation and informatization application, while ecological agriculture emphasizes ecological environmental protection and resource conservation in agricultural production processes. the integration and innovation of smart and ecological agriculture can bring more opportunities for agricultural development. through the comprehensive integration of technologies, rather than relying on a single technology, the optimization of the large agricultural system can be achieved. the shift from purely pursuing economic benefits to achieving comprehensive improvements in economic, social, and ecological benefits forms a sustainable composite agricultural ecosystem. furthermore, if smart agriculture fails to comprehensively consider the use of new technologies, it may lead to a distorted societal perception of agriculture's role. in fact, in the continuous pursuit of new technology applications, human productivity has been greatly enhanced. alongside choosing the integration of smart and ecological agriculture, under today's efficient social production conditions, there is ample room to accommodate some low-efficiency ecological agriculture. this approach not only meets the diversified needs of the market but also, more importantly, ensures stability at the societal values level[16-17]. 5. conclusion in reality, many large technology companies are also important governance entities. it is precisely because these technology companies actively govern the commercial and technological platforms they control that they can jointly promote the healthy operation of the entire society in the current digital economy era. at the same time, as an important cornerstone of social governance, the public should also actively participate in the governance of technological ethical risks, especially by proactively safeguarding their legitimate rights and interests. therefore, the governance of technological ethical risks involves multiple entities and requires collaborative and joint efforts from various parties. in summary, as a new model that further liberates productive forces and enhances the level of agricultural modernization, smart agriculture has become a major trend in future agricultural development. however, it should be noted that smart agriculture itself is a combination of a series of advanced and cutting-edge technologies that are still developing, often accompanied by a series of technological ethical risks that deserve our attention and vigilance, and more importantly, require solutions for governance. therefore, by continuously innovating the governance system, proactively taking responsibility, and persistently exploring effective ways to solve problems, we can achieve healthier development of smart agriculture. establishing a framework for big data security risks in smart agriculture scenarios, we can derive specific issues based on proprietary features in the agricultural sector from the common problems of big data. in exploring strategies for agricultural big data security issues, the strategies for data security issues in the field of smart agriculture are still in the preliminary exploration stage, requiring cross-disciplinary talents with knowledge of both agricultural technology and data as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 163 published by ideas spread security. only by deeply understanding the characteristics and features of agricultural big data can we propose targeted security solutions for actual scenarios to ensure the secure application of agricultural big data in the supply chain, thereby promoting the rapid development of smart agriculture. references [1] eremina, i., yudin, a., & tarabukina, t. o. 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(2011). climate-smart agriculture is needed. nature medicine. https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2011.131 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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/pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p52-69.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p52 52 published by ideas spread evolution of traditional chinese "salt-leaching and alkali-washing" technology and strategies for improving productive coastal salinealkali land landscapes – a case study of cixi city shiyuan lou1 & chenqin du1 1 department of landscape architecture, china academy of art, hangzhou, china correspondence: chenqin du, department of landscape architecture, china academy of art, hangzhou, china. e-mail: received: february 15, 2025 accepted: march 20, 2025 online published: march 24, 2025 abstract “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” is a traditional chinese technique for reclaiming saline-alkali land, widely used in china’s eastern coastal regions. this technique uses irrigation and drainage to reduce soil salinity and alkalinity, transforming land originally unsuitable for farming into highly productive farmland. in cixi city, with the establishment of modern agricultural parks represented by zhengda agriculture, this traditional technique has been combined with modern technology to develop a new “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” method. this greatly increased the efficiency of saline land improvement, converting large areas of heavily saline-alkali land into arable land with mild salinity and achieving very high economic returns. this paper reviews the development history of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” from ancient times to the present and examines its current applications, and also analyzes how “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” shapes the landscape and its potential for future landscape transformation. keywords: saline-alkali land, eastern coastal region, revitalization and utilization, productive landscape, landscape architecture 1. introduction this paper aims to explore the historical development of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” from ancient times to the present, as well as the current application of this technology. “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” is an important hydraulic method for improving saline-alkali soils – it alters the soil moisture through irrigation, thereby affecting the soil’s salt content (wang, 2022). this technique has a long history, dating back to the era of da yu’s flood control (around 2000 bce) (sun, yan, & yin, 2024). even today, it is still widely used in coastal areas of zhejiang province, where it has converted large expanses of highly saline, uncultivable land into high-yield saline farmlands, and on this basis modern agricultural parks have been developed. at present, discussions of “saltleaching and alkali-washing” are mostly found in agricultural engineering research focusing on technical implementation (li et al., 2012). in the landscape architecture field, some studies have addressed productive landscapes on coastal saline-alkali land (wang & wang, 2017), but there is a lack of research tracing the historical context of “salt-leaching and alkaliwashing” and exploring its potential for landscape transformation. from a landscape architecture perspective, this paper examines how “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” shapes the surface landscape during the improvement process, and how it can inform future landscape transformation strategies for coastal saline-alkali lands. the contribution of this study is to highlight the importance of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” in improving coastal saline-alkali land landscapes, providing new directions for beautiful countryside construction in the eastern coastal region. 2. background coastal saline-alkali land is an important land type in china, with an extremely broad distribution. china’s eastern coastal region contains about 210 million mu of saline-alkali land, representing a huge reserve of agricultural land. saline-alkali land is a general term for various saline soils and alkali soils and soils with different degrees of salinization and alkalization (zhang, 2011). by definition, saline-alkali land refers to soil containing soluble salts in high solubility and concentration that inhibit plant growth and destroy original soil nutrients, making it difficult as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 53 published by ideas spread for vegetation to grow. based on salt content, saline-alkali land can be classified as mildly, moderately, or severely saline-alkali (li et al., 2012). modern “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” encompasses specific practices such as flushing salt with fresh water, digging drainage ditches, and introducing water for rice cultivation. these measures effectively reduce the salt content in the soil and have been widely applied with good results in the coastal saline lands of zhejiang. current research focuses on how to optimize the “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” technique to reduce the cost of improving saline land and to increase agricultural yield and quality. northern cixi contains vast newly reclaimed coastal tidal flats. the parent material of the soil is fluvial or fluviomarine deposits; the soil type is coastal saline mud, with deep soil layers and uniform texture. the average salt content from the surface down to 1 m depth is 1‰–4‰, with higher values of 20‰–30‰ and some extreme cases reaching 50‰–90‰. in this area, soil salt content is high, the groundwater table is high, and ph is high; at the same time, wind speeds are high and evaporation is intense (annual sunshine duration of 1,900–2,100 hours), and the groundwater is highly mineralized. these conditions are very unfavorable for saline land improvement, making it extremely difficult (huang, 2010). prior to the intervention of zhengda agriculture, this area was a wasteland of reeds where crops could hardly grow. in 2011, modern industrial agricultural parks led by zhengda agriculture were established here and began improving the saline-alkali land through salt-leaching and alkali-washing. by 2021, the area of high-standard farmland built in the park reached 76.67 km², accounting for 74.2% of the park’s total area, and efficient water-saving irrigation facilities covered as much as 33.33 km²(xu & jiao, 2022). the area has gradually expanded into a diversified industrial park integrating crop farming, aquaculture, food r&d, food processing, agri-machinery manufacturing, real estate development, eco-tourism, financial services, e-commerce, training, and new energy industries. turning these saline wastelands into fertile fields was the first step in developing local modern agriculture – and “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” was the foundation of it all. 3. research methodology 3.1 research focus 3.1.1 review and heritage this research aims to systematically review the evolution of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” in china’s eastern coastal region from ancient times to the present, and to investigate its key technical points, social context, and application patterns in different historical periods. through comprehensive analysis of historical literature, local chronicles, and field investigations, we elucidate the basic principles, development trajectory, and core role of this traditional technique in saline-alkali land improvement. on this basis, we seek to unearth and carry forward traditional water and soil wisdom to provide theoretical support for its contemporary application. 3.1.2 modern application and innovation focusing on the practical case of cixi city, we examine the contemporary implementation of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” in coastal saline-alkali land improvement, with an emphasis on how modern water infrastructure (such as multi-tier water networks and “irrigation-drainage integrated road” systems), mechanized operations, and emerging agricultural models (e.g. rice-crab co-culture, water-flooded rice cultivation) are integrated with the traditional technique to form highly efficient, high-value industry models, and to explore possibilities for further innovation and upgrading. 3.1.3 landscape shaping and revitalization from the perspective of landscape architecture and planning, we analyze the far-reaching impact and unique value of the “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” technique in shaping agricultural landscapes, ecological patterns, and local cultural identity. we explore how landscape design can organically combine agricultural production, ecological restoration, and cultural tourism to achieve multifunctional use and sustainable development of coastal saline-alkali lands. through landscape revitalization, we aim to enhance local cultural identity and promote the integrated development of rural revitalization and eco-tourism. 3.1.4 proposed improvement strategies and design recommendations integrating traditional experience, modern practice, and landscape needs, we propose practical strategies for coastal saline-alkali land landscape improvement and revitalization. these strategies balance ecological restoration, water resource management, economic benefits, and local cultural character, and are intended to provide scientific, systematic references and demonstrations for saline-alkali land improvement and landscape creation in other similar regions. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 54 published by ideas spread 3.2 research questions a. historical context and technical wisdom:  question 1: what are the origins and historical development trajectory of the “salt-leaching and alkaliwashing” technology in china’s eastern coastal region?  question 2: in different historical periods (e.g., song, ming, qing, republic of china), how did people in the cixi area utilize freshwater resources, construct sea dikes, and dig channels to reclaim saline-alkali land? what were the core mechanisms of these measures and the successful water-management wisdom behind them?  question 3: what are the specific methods of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” currently employed by zhengda agriculture, and how do they differ from the traditional approach? b. landscape shaping and cultural heritage:  question 1: in the coastal saline-alkali land improvement process centered on “salt-leaching and alkaliwashing,” what impact does this have on the local water network pattern, topography, and the formation of agricultural landscapes?  question 2: how can traditional water and soil wisdom be inherited and reflected in modern landscape design or landscape architecture through facility layout, landscape narrative, and public participation. 3.3 research strategy for this qualitative study centered on “salt-leaching and alkali-washing,” the core is a cross-dimensional analysis of people–land–water–landscape information. we must both comb through literature and historical context to distill traditional experience and obtain contemporary practitioners’ insights and current data through interviews and on-site observations. by employing multiple qualitative methods in combination, we can not only depict the complete process of the technique’s evolution and landscape interventions but also delve deeper into the value and significance of this traditional wisdom in modern agricultural landscapes and cultural heritage. the research strategy is outlined in table 1. table 1. research strategy part research method research focus research path p1 literature review trace the development of “saltleaching and alkali-washing” from ancient times to present; understand coastal saline land use in different periods and their socio-economic context; explore cross-disciplinary research (landscape, agriculture, environmental science). 1) collect ancient books, local gazetteers, historical archives to extract ideas on traditional water engineering and land reclamation.2) search modern academic papers, government reports, design manuals and industry case studies to analyze contemporary saline land improvement models and landscape practices.3) compare key concepts and technical processes from different studies to form an overall understanding of the research questions. p2 archival research understand the past landscape form and land use of saline-alkali areas in cixi. 1) consult relevant materials in local archives, museums or libraries to find historical documents related to saline land and water conservancy. p3 field observation & oral histories gain a systematic understanding of the operational process and current status of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing.” 1) photograph or sketch site plans and crosssections, marking infrastructure (canals, sluice gates, roads) and vegetation distribution.2) keep photo and video records and conduct routine or seasonal observations to capture dynamic changes.3) interview personnel from zhengda agriculture to learn site-specific information and operational procedures. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 55 published by ideas spread part research method research focus research path p4 visual analysis & landscape narratives discover how “salt-leaching and alkaliwashing” transforms the surface landscape through imagery and narrative. 1) collect multi-period aerial images or ground photos to analyze landscape changes (e.g., effects on water system, vegetation, farming methods).2) interpret landscape imagery (such as sea dikes, former salt field sites, agrarian scenes) from a semiotic or narrative perspective. p5 case study & comparative analysis conduct in-depth analysis of typical areas (e.g., cixi’s eleventh and twelfth polders) or perform crosscomparison of multiple coastal saline land improvement sites; summarize applicable landscape improvement methods; support more general recommendations or theoretical models. 1) select one or more typical sample regions and gather detailed data.2) compare each site’s water network system, soil improvement cycle, and landscape engineering strategies.3) summarize common experiences and divergent factors, analyzing the underlying natural, social, and cultural causes. 4. “salt-leaching and alkali-washing”: traditional water and soil wisdom 4.1 definition of salt-leaching and alkali-washing “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” is a key method for reclaiming saline-alkali land, achieved by altering soil moisture through irrigation to influence the soil’s salt content. when saline soil is flood-irrigated, the salts dissolve into the water; by then draining out the saline water, soil salinity and alkalinity can be reduced. salt-leaching and alkali-washing is also known as irrigation leaching or flushing salt with introduced water. essentially, salt-leaching and alkali-washing applies the principles of water–salt movement. earlier scholars summarized the relationship between salt and water as: “salt comes with water, salt goes with water” and “large water expels salt, small water draws salt.” 4.2 origins and development in the eastern coastal region china has a long history of managing saline-alkali soils. as early as around 2000 bce, records describe the use of networks of ditches for drainage and irrigation to improve saline land during the time of emperor yu’s flood control (sun, yan, & yin, 2024) .the warring states period text lü’s spring and autumn annals · on land also mentioned using field drainage ditches and flushing to wash salt out of soils, a method that was adopted by later generations (xian, 1991). in china’s eastern coastal region, documentation of salt-leaching and alkali-washing appeared relatively later. in the yuan dynasty, yuan huang’s baodi agricultural treatise described using rainwater to wash salt in the coastal area of baodi, tianjin. this method required digging ditches and building dikes or erecting stakes to fend off tidal inflows. fields were designed higher in the middle and lower on both sides, with small ditches every few tens of zhang, medium ditches every few hundred zhang, and large ditches every few thousand zhang, to facilitate the flow of rainwater and freshwater. the engineering plan for salt washing was carried out in a three-year cycle: in the first year, excavate large canals; in the second year, dig medium ditches connecting to the large canal; in the third year, dig small ditches and field channels connecting to the medium ditches. by flushing with freshwater, saline soil was turned into arable land. initially, a salt-tolerant aquatic grass (water millet) was planted; once the salt and alkali were largely removed, after three or four years the fields could gradually be converted to rice paddies. this method at the time was referred to as “fostering fresh water and sustaining greenery” (xian, 1991). table 2. development trajectory of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” in the eastern coastal region period historical record key measures region ca. 2000 bce yu gong (tribute of yu) drainage ditches for irrigation saline-alkali lands of yellow river basin as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 56 published by ideas spread period historical record key measures region warring states lü’s spring and autumn dig field ditches; flush salts from soil saline-alkali lands of yellow river basin yuan dynasty baodi treatise on agriculture (tianjin) multi-tier ditch network: build dikes and raised fields; plant water millet first, then rice coastal saline land of baodi, tianjin ming dynasty expanded meaning of the great learning (qiu jun) flush fields with river water; construct sea dikes coastal saline land of fujian, zhejiang qing dynasty (various records) dig networks of ditches; partition fields; grade irrigation channels coastal saline land of tianjin, northern jiangsu by the ming dynasty, there were already accounts of people in coastal fujian and zhejiang reclaiming salinealkali land through salt-leaching and alkali-washing. qiu jun’s expanded meaning of the great learning recorded how people in these regions flushed coastal saline soils with river water to turn alkaline soil into arable land. it was concluded that to reclaim land near the sea for farming, one must build dikes to block seawater intrusion and dredge channels to bring in freshwater for irrigation. by the late ming, this method had been used to convert large areas of saline wasteland into rice paddies (li, 1981). in the qing dynasty, the eastern coastal region continued to employ freshwater flushing to remove salt. in the zhanggu area, reclamation efforts further divided the improvement zones: the freshwater irrigation ditches were categorized into different grades with varying widths for each grade. this allowed control of water use and reduced waste of freshwater. moreover, even larger-scale saline land improvement projects were carried out along the northern coast of jiangsu. it can be seen that the salt-leaching and alkali-washing technique first emerged in the central plains region and was later gradually adopted in the eastern coastal areas（table 2）. over successive dynasties, the method was continuously refined: an increasing number of factors were considered, practices became more standardized, and the efficiency of improvement steadily increased. 4.3 origin and development in cixi cixi is located on the sanbei plain by hangzhou bay, a typical flat plain formed by marine retreat and sediment deposition, with high soil salinity. starting in the tang dynasty, people in cixi opened up numerous salt pans along the coast, trading salt for money and grain (zhang, 2023). during this period, driven by the need for water for daily life, production, and transportation, people utilized tidal creeks and tributaries, excavating canals to draw freshwater from the yao river, shanglin lake and other areas in the south up to the north, forming straight north– south canals (“direct rivers”). these man-made waterways laid the groundwork of water infrastructure required for the future “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” technique. by the ming dynasty, large salt works gradually gave way to cotton fields. during this period, people in cixi concluded that the three most important engineering works for improving saline-alkali land were: constructing sea dikes, digging river channels (“pu”), and building sluice gates (zhang, 2023). by building sea dikes, newly reclaimed land could be protected from tidal saltwater intrusion; by digging river channels, ample freshwater could be secured for leaching irrigation to reduce soil salt content; and by constructing sluice gates, backflow of saltwater into the channels with the tides could be prevented. the water infrastructure required for “salt-leaching and alkaliwashing” thus became a comprehensive system, and people developed a systematic understanding of the technique. in the republican period (early 20th century), people in cixi gained an even deeper understanding of the salt– water relationship, and they summarized concrete methods for improving saline-alkali land through “salt-leaching and alkali-washing”: in the coastal sandy areas with the highest salt content, allow freshwater (e.g. rainwater) to infiltrate the soil and install underground pipes to drain it away, thereby flushing out and dissolving salt and carrying it off the land. during summer rains, trenches about three chi (roughly one meter) deep were dug every five chi to one zhang (≈1.7–3.3 m) across the fields to channel the salt-laden runoff into ditches and out of the land. then, large volumes of water were repeatedly used to flood and rinse the soil; finally, a shallow layer of water was maintained on the field. after the salt dissolved, it was drained away through percolation—repeating as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 57 published by ideas spread this several times removed the salts. over time, the growth of wild vegetation helped further lower soil salinity. subsequently, ditches were dug alongside the newly reclaimed fields, and at the end of winter or beginning of spring a layer of fresh mud rich in organic matter was spread over the fields. this improved soil structure and simultaneously deepened the ditches to facilitate drainage. alternatively, straw could be directly spread on the ground to reduce evaporation and the rise of salt to the surface; after the straw decayed, it acted as fertilizer to further improve the soil (zhang, 2023). by this period, the traditional “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” technique had become fully mature. table 3 summarizes the utilization methods of saline-alkali land in cixi during different historical stages. 4.4 modern salt-leaching and alkali-washing process modern salt-leaching and alkali-washing is the method used by zhengda agriculture to improve saline-alkali land. before 2010, the average time required to reclaim saline land in china was 3–5 years, athe per-mu rice yield after improvement did not exceed 350 jin. by optimizing salt-leaching and alkali-washing and related measures, the zhengda group completed the saline land reclamation project in the cixi park in only 1 year, with a postimprovement rice yield of 800 jin per mu (~6,000 kg/ha). currently, zhengda agriculture’s rice yields in cixi exceed 1,150 jin/mu (~8,625 kg/ha), reaching medium-to-high yield levels, making it a model for saline land improvementin china (zhang et al., 2021). table 3. history of saline-alkali land reclamation and use in cixi period key measures land use social background stage of technique development tang–ming (7th–17th c.) construct sea dikes; dig canals salt production salt and iron were economic lifelines; salt industry was the region’s pillar industry. origin： initial practice of saltleaching begins as part of salt production efforts. ming–qing (16th–19th c.) build sea dikes; dig river channels (pu); build sluice gates cotton and grain farming coastal salt pans moved north; population growth led to shortages of livelihood resources; economy shifted gradually from salt to agriculture. systemization ： a complete water management system (dikes, channels, sluices) is established for land improvement. republic– post-1949 (20th c.) build sea dikes; flush salts with freshwater large-scale cotton cultivation cotton cultivation gradually became the region’s main industry (replacing salt). maturation ： traditional technique reaches full maturity, widely applied for agricultural production. the primary purpose of salt-leaching and alkali-washing is to use fresh water flushing to reduce the salt and alkali content in the soil. the key is to control the amount of fresh water inundation, the duration and frequency of flooding, and to drain promptly to prevent salt from resurfacing. at the same time, one must strive to minimize freshwater consumption while ensuring the effectiveness of improvement. the core of salt-leaching and alkali-washing operations consists of four major steps: water diversion, leaching, drainage, and planting. (1) water diversion: water diversion is the first step of salt-leaching and alkali-washing and forms its foundation. the goal is to bring freshwater from inland sources to the vicinity of the farmland. the focus is on ensuring a sufficient supply of freshwater while controlling usage to reduce waste. therefore, a complete graded system of rivers, ditches, canals, and sluice gates must be constructed. in cixi’s eleventh and twelfth polder areas, the freshwater used for salt-leaching comes mainly from rivers and reservoirs in the southern hilly regions, such as the yao river and duhu reservoir. before zhengda agriculture’s as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 58 published by ideas spread involvement, cixi already had a network of north-flowing river channels (“pu”) connecting inland freshwaters to the east china sea, which served as primary conduits. first, freshwater is directed northward via primary north–south rivers perpendicular to the coast, ensuring water supply. then, east–west feeder canals connect these primary channels, forming secondary channels encircling the farmland. sluice gates connect the secondary canals to the primary rivers; when leaching or irrigation is needed, the gates are opened to release water into the secondary network. beneath the fields, tertiary irrigation ditches are connected to the secondary canals via pumps, which lift fresh water into the fields for the next step of leaching (figure 1). (2) leaching: the second step involves soaking and leaching the fields with fresh water for a number of days. the aim is to dissolve the salts in the soil into the water. this flooding process must be repeated until the soil is suitable for cultivation. the key to leaching is controlling the volume of each water application, the duration of flooding, and the depth of inundation. based on the area of saline land and its salt content, an overall required water volume for leaching is calculated, which is then applied in several rounds; the water volume in each round is called the fractional flushing quota. a reasonable fractional quota significantly affects the effectiveness and cost of leaching. if the quota per round is too small, salts may not fully dissolve and the flushing will not achieve its purpose; if too large, it will waste freshwater. figure 1. water diversion stage. source: illustration by shiyuan lou. normal water level immersion water level without the inserted pipe immersion water level with the inserted pipe figure 2. leaching stage. source: illustration by shiyuan lou. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 59 published by ideas spread figure 3. drainage stage. source: illustration by shiyuan lou during leaching, fresh water is first introduced into a network of buried “drain tiles” (subsurface perforated pipes) laid beneath the field. these tiles have lateral pipes running east–west every 50 m, connected to the surface for irrigation. when it is necessary to soak the field more deeply to fully dissolve salt, 1 m tall vertical riser pipes can be inserted at the surface outlets of the lateral pipes, thereby raising the inundation water level. each round of leaching involves flooding the field for 2–3 days, then draining the water and letting the field dry for about one day. between successive inundations, there is an interval—after one round’s water has drained off, some time is allowed before the next flooding. the purpose of these intervals is to increase the time for salts in the soil to dissolve, raise the soil temperature, lower the groundwater level, and improve percolation, thereby enhancing the desalination effect. the length of the interval is not fixed: in areas with lighter-textured, well-drained soils and where groundwater recedes quickly (and sulfate salts predominate), the interval should be as short as possible— ideally, the next leaching begins as soon as the previous water has drained. in areas with a high groundwater table and slow drainage, intervals of 1–3 days may be needed (figure 2). (3) drainage: the third step is timely drainage of the water after leaching; otherwise, salt can resurface (a phenomenon known as salt rebound), undermining the efficacy of salt-leaching. emphasis is placed on improving drainage efficiency by establishing a well-designed drainage system. the farmland is engineered with a gentle slope (higher in the north, lower in the south) so that gravity can accelerate drainage. at this stage, the inlet sluices and pumps are closed, and the outlet drainage sluices are opened. once the drainage gate is opened, water flows by gravity into drainage ditches, then into the connected river channels (pu), and ultimately is discharged into the east china sea. after the saline water from leaching is drained, the field is typically left to sun-dry for 1–2 days until the water has completely receded, before the next round of leaching. different soil types require different drying times. saline soils that are lighter or more permeable will drain and dry more quickly; conversely, heavier-textured or less permeable soils require more time (figure 3). (4) planting: the fourth step is to further reduce soil salinity through planting. after several rounds of leaching, the soil’s salt content falls to about 0.3%–0.6%, meaning the land is transformed from severely saline to moderately saline. at this point, rice cultivation can be introduced as a means to continue land improvement while also gaining production. when planting rice, the dry land is converted into paddy fields; similar to the leaching principle, salt in the soil can dissolve into the standing water. after a few seasons of rice cultivation, deep plowing and land leveling can break up the salt-rich surface layer and mix it with the lower-salinity subsoil, thereby reducing surface salt. in 2014, zhengda agriculture innovated a water-flooding method of rice cultivation, in which the paddy field is kept inundated with water for extended periods. using this method, they not only improved the saline soil during the cultivation process but also achieved a yield of 800 jin/mu in the very first season. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 60 published by ideas spread aside from the water-flooded rice method, salt-tolerant green manure and cover crops such as alfalfa and oats can be planted. their growth and subsequent plowing into the soil increases soil organic matter, improves soil structure, reduces moisture evaporation, and decreases salt accumulation. when the soil salinity has fallen to about 0.1%–0.3%, i.e. the land is now mildly saline, higher-value crops such as broccoli, watermelon, and rapeseed can be cultivated to improve economic returns. during cropping, practices like rotation and intercropping are used to make full use of limited water resources and to take advantage of different crops’ capacities to uptake and utilize salt, thereby mitigating soil salinization. furthermore, zhengda agriculture has vigorously advanced mechanized farming, dramatically reducing labor costs and enabling one person to manage 300 mu of land. they are continuously incorporating unmanned technologies into agriculture. currently, by establishing a “smart farm” utilizing iot, cloud computing, and artificial intelligence, zhengda agriculture is retrofitting transplanters, tillers, weeders, harvesters, tractors and other farm machines for unmanned operation. according to professor tang qiyuan of hunan agricultural university, “with beidou navigation technology, farm machines can operate in the field along planned paths in an orderly fashion” (people’s daily, 2024). 4.5 comparison of traditional and modern approaches by separately summarizing traditional and modern practices of salt-leaching and alkali-washing, it is evident that zhengda agriculture, building on traditional water and soil wisdom, has streamlined and optimized the steps of salt-leaching and alkali-washing and, through technology, greatly increased the efficiency of the process. traditional “salt-leaching and alkali-washing,” constrained by the technology and productivity of its time, had significant limitations – yet the core principles of the traditional and modern approaches are fundamentally the same. the comparison between traditional and modern salt-soaking methods and alkali-washing methods is presented in table 4. 5. agricultural landscape shaped by salt-leaching and alkali-washing the process of improving saline-alkali land through salt-leaching and alkali-washing reshapes the local water network pattern, topography, and agricultural landscape, creating a distinctive saline farmland landscape. 5.1 graded water network system salt-leaching and alkali-washing is inseparable from water management engineering. driven by the needs of saltleaching, the shiyitang and shiertang areas of cixi have formed a vast water network connecting inland freshwater lakes and reservoirs to the east china sea. cixi’s current graded water network system developed from the original “horizontal rivers and vertical pu” irrigation–drainage pattern. a pu is an inland water channel with sluice gates that connects rivers to the sea, mostly laid out perpendicular to the coastline (hence called “vertical pu”); horizontal rivers are channels parallel to the sea dikes, running east–west, which also historically served as important transportation routes. the water network in cixi has evolved over a long history, dating back at least to the song dynasty. beginning in the song, people utilized tidal creeks and tributaries and excavated canals to draw freshwater from the yao river, shanglin lake and other southern sources northward, forming a series of straight north–south channels. during the jiajing period of the ming dynasty, several channels were dug through the main tangka river, forming vertical pu channels. from then on, an integrated water network of east–west “horizontal rivers” (with the tangka river as a main artery) and connecting north–south “vertical pu” channels gradually took shape, providing both irrigation/drainage and transportation functions. table 4. comparison of traditional vs. modern salt-leaching and alkali-washing stage traditional approach modern approach traditional limitations modern improvements water diversion relied on natural rainfall flushing; manually dug ditches; simple graded ditch system. complete graded system of rivers, ditches, canals, and sluices; standardized widths and depths for each channel level. low water diversion efficiency; highly dependent on natural conditions. high diversion efficiency; water volume can be precisely controlled with automated equipment, reducing waste; sufficient and uniform water supply as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 61 published by ideas spread stage traditional approach modern approach traditional limitations modern improvements with minimal reliance on natural rainfall. leaching manually dug surface trenches; utilized natural rainfall or nearby river/lake freshwater to soak and flush fields. uses installed subsurface drain pipes and an “irrigation–drainage integrated road” system; pumps actively introduce freshwater into fields for targeted soaking and leaching. limited scale of leaching; uncertain control over duration, inundation depth, and leaching cycle. capable of leaching large areas; flooding duration, depth, and cycle can be precisely controlled. drainage primarily via open surface drains and a few sluice gates. comprehensive drainage system, including buried drainage pipelines, multitier drainage ditches, and automated drainage sluice gates. drainage heavily influenced by natural factors; low drainage efficiency, prone to salt rebound. ensures high-efficiency drainage and prevents salt rebound, securing the improvement results. planting monoculture of a single salt-tolerant crop; rotated water millet and rice; farming depended mainly on manual labor and draft animals. diverse crop rotations; various intercropping and rotation patterns; extensive mechanization and adoption of unmanned (smart) farming technology. single cropping pattern, low economic value, high labor intensity and cost. diversified cropping systems with higher economic value; high levels of mechanization and automation reduce labor and increase productivity. in the republican period (20th century), as the sanbei plain underwent large-scale transition from salt production to agriculture, vast cotton fields emerged. because the northern coastal area had few natural rivers and irrigation was difficult, these cotton fields were ecologically fragile. in addition to constructing sea dikes to keep out saltwater, a complete irrigation and drainage system was necessary. people built a network of connected farm ditches: small ditches drained into large pu canals,and the large pu ultimately discharged to the ocean. the scale of water system construction during this time far exceeded that of previous eras, forming a human-engineered “straight river system” (zhang, 2023). figure 4. hierarchical water network landscape: past vs present source: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/kv-0qsw-ttyviltmq-13tq. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 62 published by ideas spread after 1949, salt production was gradually phased out and cotton cultivation became the main industry. however, as reclamation extended toward the sea, the historic “lake–river (pu)” system faced problems of shallow, narrow channels and siltation, and could no longer meet irrigation needs. in response, reservoirs such as shanglin lake, duhu, changhe, zhouxiang, and simen were built or expanded, river channels were dredged, and the characteristic “square field water network” landscape began to appear. the coordinated rehabilitation of the water system (“straight river system”) laid the foundation for development in the 21st century (zhang, 2023). in 2011, after zhengda agriculture established operations, they retained and dredged the existing straight-river system, excavated irrigation and drainage canals encircling the farmland, and added sluice gates and pumping stations between waterways. this created a multi-tier network of rivers, ditches, canals, and sluices for more efficient management of freshwater resources. today, through standardized construction, the primary irrigation canals around fields are 6 m wide, the smaller feeder canals ~3.5 m wide, and drainage ditches 6 m wide, with depths of about 2–2.5 m. sluice gates and pumps are installed to control water usage and to prevent backflow of brackish water, thus protecting the soil from salt intrusion. over its long evolution, the “horizontal river & vertical pu” water network system has been continually improved, and the surface landscape feature of “square-field water networks” has been further reinforced, resulting in today’s orderly, multi-tiered graded water network landscape (zhang, 2023) (figure 4). 5.2 irrigation-drainage integrated road system beyond large-scale water conservancy works, zhengda agriculture also innovated agricultural infrastructure by constructing a new water-saving irrigation project – the “irrigation-drainage integrated road” system. in a field of about 600 mu, a north–south farm road 6 m in width is laid roughly every 140 m. beneath each road, a main pipeline for both irrigation and drainage is installed. an inlet sluice and an outlet sluice are set at the two ends of each main pipe, which can be opened or closed to regulate water flow according to leaching or irrigation needs (figure 5). these pipelines lie about 1 m underground and have a diameter of roughly 1 m. above them, at 50 m intervals, 1m×1 m inspection wells (about 1 m deep) connect the subsurface pipes to the road surface. through each inspection well, one can see a pair of irrigation/drainage standpipes (vertical wells) every 50 m, extending from the main pipe up to ground level; these are used for leaching irrigation and drainage. figure 5. schematic of the “irrigation-drainage integrated road” system source: illustration by shiyuan lou. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 63 published by ideas spread figure 6. “irrigation-drainage integrated road” in practice source: photograph by the research team. currently, the zhengda cixi modern agricultural eco-park’s water-saving irrigation project is divided into 16 different zones. five zones, totaling approximately 3,480 mu, are dedicated to rice cultivation – these include traditional integrated irrigation areas, intelligent integrated irrigation areas, and water recycling planting areas. additionally, more than 10 zones with a total of about 6,520 mu are designated for fruit and vegetable cultivation, including conventional micro-spray irrigation zones, smart micro-spray zones, and greenhouse micro-spray enhancement zones. the implementation of the “irrigation-drainage integrated road” system allows more effective water conservation and control during salt-leaching, and enables rapid removal of saline water, effectively avoiding salt rebound. meanwhile, the integrated road system offers advantages such as cost-effectiveness, efficient irrigation, convenient maintenance, and improved efficiency of mechanical farming. compared to traditional farmland with separate canals and roads, the integrated system is not only more efficient in operation, but also makes the field landscape more neat and orderly (figure 6). 5.3 crop rotation and intercropping landscape beginning in the republican era, cotton cultivation gradually replaced salt production as cixi’s pillar industry. however, single-crop farming not only failed to ameliorate the saline-alkali soil, it also accelerated the loss of soil fertility and made the soil more compact and saline, thereby affecting cotton yields. in the 1990s, due to national industrial restructuring and pest/disease impacts, cotton acreage in cixi plummeted; the once “hundred-li cotton fields” (cotton fields stretching for dozens of kilometers) gradually disappeared, replaced by new agricultural landscapes employing crop rotation and intercropping. crop rotation can slow the depletion of soil fertility and also help reduce soil salinity. zhengda agriculture has selected several relatively salt-tolerant cash crops to incorporate into a rotation schedule. every october, rapeseed is sown; it is harvested in april–may, then rice is planted and harvested in october of the following year. if rice is not planted, broccoli can be grown from july to december, or a first crop of watermelon from december to april. (watermelon demands very high soil fertility—once a plot has grown one season of watermelon, it cannot be immediately replanted and a few years are needed for the soil to recover.) by 2014, rice yields in the zhengda park reached 1,150 jin/mu, and the park produced 8,400 tons of broccoli, accounting for 14% of the city’s total and 1.7% of the national output. this rotation system also creates distinct seasonal crop landscapes and provides more activities to attract visitors. nowadays, zhengda agriculture hosts events such as a watermelon festival and a bayberry festival, inviting large numbers of visitors to stroll along the field ridges, enjoy the scenery, experience fruit picking, and taste the freshest produce (figure 7). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 64 published by ideas spread since 2016, zhengda agriculture has also begun experimenting with an intercropping mode of “rice–crab coculture.” through three-dimensional farming, river crabs raised in the paddy fields provide manure that serves as organic fertilizer for the rice, enhancing soil fertility; and the presence of crabs helps effectively control weeds and pests in the rice, reducing the need for pesticides. rice field rapeseed field broccoli field watermelon field figure 7. crop rotation and rice–crab intercropping landscape. source: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/ydvpq69iscl6dklpkvtlkq. 6. improvement strategies for productive saline-alkali land landscapes the current landscape of the cixi modern agricultural park is built upon productive reclamation achieved through “salt-leaching and alkali-washing.” for the saline farmland landscape improved by “salt-leaching and alkaliwashing,” the design for its revitalization is considered from two aspects: (1) how the present saline land in cixi is being improved via “salt-leaching and alkali-washing,” and how people can participate in this improvement process; (2) how to enable people to understand and learn about the historical stages that once existed on this land. for the first aspect, we focus on creating interactive landscapes, utilizing the distinctive characteristics of the four stages of salt-leaching and alkali-washing to design corresponding experiential activities. because the leaching process must be repeated multiple times and the intensity varies each time, the stages during which people can participate also differ. therefore, by introducing staged interventions, we can develop appropriate activities and landscape installations for different phases of the leaching process. for the second aspect, we focus on interpretive landscapes. on the basis of preserving the local cultural context, landscape design can be used to communicate the historical trajectory of saline land use. for example, one could establish a theme park and use landscape narrative techniques to vividly convey historical stories of the land. 6.1 phased landscape intervention the process of salt-leaching and alkali-washing improvement can be divided into three phases: the initial phase (severely saline-alkali land), the middle phase (moderately saline-alkali land), and the late phase (mildly salinealkali land). in each phase, the four steps of salt-leaching and alkali-washing play different roles, and people cannot participate equally in all steps. for example, when salinity is extremely high, people cannot safely interact with the landscape immediately after leaching; and the freshwater used in the water diversion stage should not be as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 65 published by ideas spread directly contacted by people to avoid polluting the water and affecting the leaching outcome. therefore, the design for the improvement process should emphasize observation in some stages and interaction in others, allowing people to engage with different stages of saline land improvement and experience the various steps of salt-leaching and alkali-washing. the interventions at different stages can overlay one another, ultimately forming an agricultural landscape park that can be used well into the future. 6.1.1 initial stage (severely saline-alkali land) before improvement, a severely saline-alkali land is often a reed marsh or barren wasteland with hardly any vegetation. in the initial construction phase, prior to carrying out salt-leaching and alkali-washing, water management and land grading projects are necessary. first, the graded water network system must be established to ensure the irrigation and drainage system can function effectively. second, the terrain must be reshaped—raising the field elevation to prevent salt from rising to the surface via capillary action. during this process, “observation pavilions” and safe routes can be set up within the fields, and lookout points can be built on the sea dike, so that people can observe the early construction process of saline land improvement from a safe distance and gain an initial understanding of the square-field water network landscape. after the infrastructure is in place, salt-leaching and alkali-washing operations begin to initially reclaim the saline land. in this phase, the steps of water diversion, leaching, and drainage are involved. freshwater is first channeled into the irrigation canals, then—using the “irrigation-drainage integrated road” system—the fields are flooded for a few days, and finally the saline water is drained away. at this time, aside from the water diversion step, the water involved in the leaching and drainage steps contains high salt concentrations and is not suitable for direct human contact; likewise, the freshwater in the diversion step should not be directly touched by people, to avoid contaminating it and affecting the leaching efficacy. therefore, during the initial phase of improvement, the design should center on observation. the primary focus can be on the water diversion stage and the supporting graded water network. a tour route could be designed that starts from the water source (e.g. a reservoir) and follows the water flow northward, passing through the system of rivers, ditches, canals, and sluice gates, allowing visitors to learn the operating principles of the graded water network. through informational signage and guided explanations along the way, visitors can further understand the evolution of the water network system—from the construction of sea dikes, to the “horizontal rivers and vertical pu” pattern, to the “straight river system,” and finally to today’s graded network—and recognize the origins of the square-field water network landscape. for the leaching and drainage steps in this phase, an elevated boardwalk along the field ridges with observation points can be constructed, enabling visitors to observe and learn during the leaching and drainage processes. along the boardwalk, educational panels can explain the causes of saline-alkali soil and the principles of salt-leaching and alkali-washing, allowing people to learn about these concepts in the context of the actual site. 6.1.2 middle stage (moderately saline-alkali land) in the mid-improvement phase, the salinity of the water after each leaching has gradually decreased. interactive activities can now be introduced in conjunction with the water diversion, leaching, and drainage steps, with an emphasis on demonstrating the operation of the “irrigation-drainage integrated road” system. this phase focuses on engaging and educational experiences (especially for children), aiming to teach through play and help participants understand the salt-leaching process. for the water diversion stage, the design can highlight the inlet structures. at the water intake, electric pumps draw fresh water into the underground pipes of the integrated road system. near some of these pumps, interactive human-powered devices such as an archimedes screw pump or a seesaw pump can be installed to provide a handson appreciation of the water diversion process. additionally, small spray features can be mounted on the pumps, and a portion of the area can be set aside as a safe water-play zone without affecting the leaching process). (figure 8) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 66 published by ideas spread archimedes water-lifting device small sprinkler device figure 8. interactive water inlet devices (e.g., archimedes screw pump and mini spray pump). source: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/wglohnaxm1i2tw_xc7m-vq. hand-operated water-scooping device figure 9. interactive drainage outlet installation (tiered spillway steps). source: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/wglohnaxm1i2tw_xc7m-vq. during the leaching step, when water covers the fields to a depth of 1–2 m for 1–2 days, a small inflatable boat center can be provided, offering boat rides. when the temporary “water field” is deeply flooded, visitors can paddle boats in the inundated fields, thus taking part—symbolically—in the leaching process. after a round of leaching is completed, the water needs to be drained. the optimal spot to observe drainage is typically at the drainage sluice on the north side of the fields, where one can watch how water flows through the sluice into the drainage canal. here as well, interactive installations can increase engagement. for instance, a tiered spillway structure can be installed just below the sluice gate, integrated with stepped seating, so that children can get close to and even touch the cascading water as it flows down (figure 9). 6.1.3 late stage (mildly saline-alkali land) in the late improvement phase, continual freshwater flooding is no longer necessary; instead, soil salinity is reduced through planting. therefore, in this phase the main interactive experience centers on participation in the planting stage. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 67 published by ideas spread at the beginning of the planting-based improvement, the water-flooded rice cultivation method is employed so that salt is further leached out by the water in which the rice grows. the key difference of this method compared to ordinary rice farming is that the paddy field is kept flooded for an extended duration. additionally, a form of integrated farming is implemented by raising crabs in the rice paddies. at harvest time, a “rice & crab festival” can be held: people can take part in cutting rice and catching crabs, and immediately enjoy tasting the fruits of their labor. beyond rice, zhengda agriculture also rotates other crops such as broccoli, rapeseed, watermelon, and grapes. similarly, each harvest can be celebrated with related events that combine picking produce, purchasing goods, and tasting food, attracting individual tourists as well as educational tour groups (figure 10). accordingly, facilities for hosting such events are needed, including a visitor center, dining areas, marketplaces, as well as supporting infrastructure like parking and public restrooms. knowledge about the planting-based improvement methods can be disseminated through organized study camps, agricultural lectures, and informative displays. figure 10. watermelon festival event hosted at zhengda cixi agricultural park. source: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/plarulnnkurz7g74jyjw6q. 6.2 showcasing different historical periods the saline-alkali land in cixi took on different characteristics in different historical periods. a challenge for design is how to present the distinctive features of each historical era in the landscape. there are already theme parks with related concepts that offer reference points. for example, the nanpu salt culture park in tangshan, hebei. the nanpu development zone’s transformation—from a historic sea salt production site to today’s national marine chemical industry base—has always been closely tied to salt. the landscape design team of that park placed sculptures, relief murals, and information walls at important nodes to recreate the salt-making processes of the ancients and to display the developmental history of the nanpu area (figure 11). the historical evolution of saline land use in cixi can be broadly divided into: the salt-making era, the cottonplanting era, the cotton–rice rotation era, and the modern agricultural park era. meanwhile, the utilization of saline land is inextricably linked with cixi’s culture of land reclamation and sea-dike construction, which should be incorporated into the historical narrative as well. given the wide range of themes and content, a saline land culture theme park could be established. the park would be organized under the theme “ever-changing land: from ocean to farmland, the transformation of saline-alkali land,” and structured along a historical timeline, dividing the space into four major sections: birth of the saline land, zhejiang salt capital, hundred-li cotton fields, and modern farmland. the history of seadike construction and the development of water conservancy would be woven into each section at relevant key historical points, illustrating how changes in saline land use closely paralleled those developments. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 68 published by ideas spread through a thoughtfully designed circulation route, visitors would traverse these sections in chronological order. within each section, elements such as sculptures, educational walls, and relief art could be used to showcase the landscape of the past. each section could also feature its own special activity zone to provide immersive experiences: for instance, in the “zhejiang salt capital” section, visitors might experience traditional salt-making; in the “hundred-li cotton fields” section, they could try cotton carding and spinning. this would enrich the learning experience with hands-on engagement. figure 11. nanbao salt culture park in tangshan, hebei. source: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/qtjgsjkdax2hyyndexf8rg. 7. conclusion and outlook the productive landscape formed by reclaiming saline-alkali land with the “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” technique not only demonstrates a unique landscape aesthetic potential but also contains deep cultural connotations. at present, research on “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” has mostly focused on technical implementation and improving agricultural productivity, whereas aspects such as landscape formation, cultural heritage, and social participation remain relatively weak. future research should place greater emphasis on interdisciplinary integration, combining perspectives from landscape architecture, ecology, sociology, and other fields to explore the comprehensive application of “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” in coastal saline-alkali land improvement. at the same time, efforts should be strengthened to excavate and carry forward traditional water and soil wisdom, and, in combination with modern technology, further innovate the techniques and methods for saline land improvement. in current and future development, the concept of sustainable landscapes requires that in the process of improving saline-alkali land, we focus not only on agricultural production efficiency, but also on the health and stability of the ecosystem. enhancing the “salt-leaching and alkali-washing” technique to reduce freshwater waste and improve water-use efficiency will be a key point of technological innovation moving forward. the future improvement and landscape revitalization of coastal saline-alkali lands will require continuous technological innovation, but also, at the conceptual level, a stronger emphasis on the multifaceted integration of ecology, culture, and economy. the experience from cixi can be extended to many other regions: through comprehensive improvement and diversified utilization strategies, these coastal saline-alkali lands can be transformed into new agricultural landscapes that integrate crop production, ecological restoration, cultural heritage, and tourism. this will provide new impetus for the sustainable development of the eastern coastal region. references agricultural knowledge research team. 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v5n2p8 8 published by ideas spread the effectiveness of two hydroponically fodder production of alfalfa (medicago sativa l.) as compared to open field system in mount lebanon edouard tabet1, carole nachar1, khaled el omari2,3, chadi hosri4, suzy rouphael1 & dalida darazy5 1 faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon 2 quality control center laboratories at the chamber of commerce, industry and agriculture of tripoli and north, lebanon 3 laboratoire de microbiologie santé et environnement (lmse), doctoral school of sciences and technology, faculty of public health, lebanese university, tripoli 1300, lebanon 4 faculty of agriculture and veterinary medicine, lebanese university, beirut, lebanon 5 faculty of agriculture, department of plant protection, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon correspondence: edouard tabet, faculty of agriculture, department of plant production, lebanese university, dekwaneh, lebanon. tel: 961-365-5178. e-mail: edouard.tabet@ul.edu.lb received: december 2, 2023 accepted: december 13, 2023 online published: december 30, 2023 abstract this work aims to study the effect on the productivity and quality variation of alfalfa using the two different fertilization recipes: f1 and f2 along with two different cultivation method in soilless: coconut fiber bag cf, nutrient film technique (nft) and in soil so. number of leaves, stem length, number of flowers, crude protein, fiber and ash content of alfalfa plants were measured during the three cuttings time of the production cycle. in the productivity phase, results showed that during the three cuttings repetition, the number of leaves, stem length and number of flowers of alfalfa were in favor of the treatment of coconut fiber bags and the f1 fertilization recipe (cf1) followed by nft with a good interaction noticeable at this combination level (cf1) with the cutting 1. as for the quality variation phase, the results showed that the crude protein and ash content are in favor of alfalfa grown in soilless cf2; cf1; nftf1 and nftf2. as for fiber content, f1 was the most favorable and nftf1 reported higher fiber content than coconut fiber bags. concerning the cutting system, cut 1 had a large impact on chemical composition. in summary, alfalfa grown in soilless is more productive and succeeded in the production cycle and the quality variation of alfalfa. keywords: alfalfa, coconut fiber bag, nft, fertilization recipe, quality variation, productivity 1. introduction the increased livestock production with a total of 200% in the last 54 years (faostat, 2017) has resulted in an increased demand for feeds and forage supply across the world. to ensure abundant production and high-quality forage in grazing systems, producers increased their interest in growing alfalfa to meet the demand for livestock production (wang et al., 2016) which provided the majority of the nutrients required by the animals. in 2009, alfalfa was grown on approximately 30 million hectares worldwide. with 9.3 million hectares in the united states which is the major producer of this crop forage (usda-nass, 2004) and according to fao, 2020, fodder crops are grown on approximately 4500 ha locally from a total of 231 000 of agricultural area in lebanon, 53 137 of which are fallow lands abandoned for years (fao ministry of agriculture, 2010). the multiple crisis lebanon is passing through since 2019 in addition to the poor feed quality and inadequate feed supply, has resulted in threatening livestock sector which is highly dependent on imported fodder. consequently, farmers could no longer grow crops to feed their livestock which allow the introduction of a new form growing plants (weldegerima et al., 2005) that is timidly adapted by lebanese farmers due to the lack of investment and/or of technical knowledge needed to operate properly (tabet et al., 2020) and become important to farmers worldwide (wang et al., 2020) as an alternative to get more output with less resources, especially that it can be helpful to countries that have a zero soil fertility which is not able to sustain agriculture, with an ability to maximize production in limited space (treftz and omaye, 2016). adding hydroponic fodder to the food routine are claimed to have an advantageous way of growing plants in a controlled environment including temperature, light intensity and moisture (liu et al., as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 9 published by ideas spread 2020). the objective of our study is to compare the productivity of alfalfa in open field and in the two soilless systems which are the nutrient film technique and coconut fiber bags with their effects on variation of quality. 2. material and methods 2.1 work description the experiment took place between april and july 2022 at the agricultural research and training center (cfra) of the faculty of agronomy, lebanese university located in ghazir. this study was carried out in a bi-chapel greenhouse with an area of 256 m2 (16 m x 16 m), containing 12 bags of coconut fiber bag technique and two units of nutrient film technique system for alfalfa cultivation. the meteorological station located at crfaghazir recorded a temperature between 17 and 25°c and a relative humidity between 57 and 68%. all the work concerning the proper development of alfalfa crop in terms of fertility requirement and harvest cuts was similar for all the treatments. all plants were irrigated 6-8 times per day. the cultivated alfalfa used in our experiment was the “legend haymaker 34". 2.2 experimental design for the two soilless systems, two different fertilization recipes f1 (samperio-ruiz, 2009) for the first unit system and f2 (jones, 2005) for the second unit were used. the experimental design applied in the two different soilless systems is shown in the following figure (figure 1): figure 1. experimental design of the two soilless cultivation method 2.3 growing alfalfa in soilless system in the coconut fiber bag cultivation method, alfalfa plants were grown in 12 bags, each containing 4 plants per bag, were divided into groups in order to supply them with the fertilizers relating to each unit. nutrient solutions f1 and f2 were administered from two different tanks to the bags using pipes (spaghetti tube) connected to a floating pump inside the tanks. bags filled with substrate are placed in channels to collect drainage solution (tabet et al., 2020). indeed, for the nft technique, it consists of bringing the nutrient solution from two different reservoirs, every one containing the f1 or f2 fertilizers and connected to a separate culture unit composed of two tables each of which contains 7 nft lines (26 plants/line). each unit requires 7 rows x 26 = 182 plants. in total, this experimental part involves 364 alfalfa plants (182 x 2 units). to better organize the work, the forty-eight plants used for parameter measurement (24 plants from the coconut fiber bag technique and 24 plants from the nft) were selected, divided into groups and marked with red ribbons and from which monthly measurements were collected. 2.4 fertilization system the f1 (samperio-ruiz, 2009) and f2 (jones 2005) fertilization recipes were weighed using a precision balance (s/n 1411208789, 19863-400f, 40kg/5g). the production cycle for the two soilless systems was divided into two phases: f1 f2 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 10 published by ideas spread  phase i: representing vegetative development (3 weeks) from germination to 15 cm of plant height;  phase ii: representing flowering set (1-2 weeks) from 15 cm of plant height to cutting at 60 cm of plant height. the number of plants used in our experiment in the different cultivation methods and in combination with the f1 and f2 were divided into groups of 12 for each treatment nft and cf (figure 2). figure 2. experimental block design of the number of plants in the different soilless cultivation methods and in combination with the f1 and f2 2.5 preparation of f1 and f2 fertilization solutions due to the nutritional requirements of the plants in their different development stages, it was observed that growth improves if a suitable nutrition is supplied. the compositions of the f1 and f2 fertilization solutions used during the two phases, vegetative (phase i) and flowering (phase ii), are presented in the table below (table 1). table 1. composition of the two fertilization recipes (f1 and f2) used during phases i and ii in g stock solution stock solution phase i phase ii f1 f2 f1 f2 tank a calcium nitrate 1100 2500 1710 2500 iron 35 35 35 35 tank b magnesium sulfate 1050 2500 1810 2500 fetrilon combi (oligo elements) 40 40 40 40 potassium nitrate 2300 2900 2900 2900 ammonium sulfate 500 500 700 500 based on the literature of samperio-ruiz, 2009, f1 fertilization recipe varied, during our experiment, according to the stages of plant development. for the f2 fertilization recipe all the required nutrients were commonly supplied at similar rate during all the stage of development. the micronutrients added to the solution were the same throughout the production cycle. 2.6 growing alfalfa in the soil the cultivation in the open soil system were carried out in a tunnel greenhouse of dimensions 12 m x 5m. however, plants grown in the soil were fertilized according to the dose adopted by the farmers which is npk via a venturi system irrigation station with a dosatron. on april 4, 2022, seven hundred twenty-one alfalfa seedlings are grown 48 samples unit 1 12 plants from nftf1 12 plants from cf1 unit 2 12 plants from nftf2 12 plants from cf2 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 11 published by ideas spread at 25 cm intervals between plants and 50 cm between rows. twelve plants intended for the measurement of the parameters were selected randomly and marked with ribbons. they are called so. the exact amounts and types of fertilizers to be applied after 2 weeks of transplanting are shown in the following table of fertilization program (table 2). table 2. fertigation of alfalfa grown in the soil using different types of fertilizers fertilizers formulation total grams needed per 8 weeks grams per week added monopotassium phosphate mkp 0-53-34 900 113 potassium nitrate kno 13-0-45 1600 200 potassium sulfate kso 0-0-50 400 50 monoammonium phosphate map 12-61-0 200 25 20s 20-20-20 100 13 the amount to be applied for 1 week should be repeated it for a period of 8 weeks till first harvesting. 2.7 ph and ec of nutrient solutions a daily measurement of electro conductivity (ec) using the ec meter (hanna instruments, ec 215) and ph of nutrient solutions f1 and f2 using the ph meter (ohaus starter 3100) took place in order to control them as best as possible. in general, the ph was maintained between 6.5 and 6.9 while the ec value maintained around 2.5 μs/cm (trejo-tellez and gomez, 2012). 2.8 harvesting and sampling our study grouped together three cuts of three successive production cycles of 5 weeks each. at each cut, productivity and quality parameters were taken into consideration. the harvesting has been divided into 3 repetitions. 1st repetition: 5 weeks after transplantation of the plants representing the development of vegetative and flowering phase of the plant; 2nd repetition: 5 weeks after the first cut of the plants; 3rd phase: 5 weeks after the second cut. 2.9 parameters measured parameters measurements are divided into two parts. the productivity part to measure the growth and the development of the alfalfa plants and the quality variation part to measure the different nutrients contents. 2.9.1 productivity measurements of alfalfa a monthly measurement take place for the majority of the parameters related to the growth of the plants. number of leaves on day 0, just after each harvest, the number of leaves of alfalfa was counted manually and this for the marked plants of each treatment. stem length at the end of each production cycle, the marked plants were measured, harvested at 5 a.m. and preserved in a packaging of plastic bag numbered according to culture methods and treatments, then taken on the same day of the cutting measurements to the laboratories of chamber of commerce industry and agriculture of tripoli where 60 samples were taken for the experiment and dried using the forced – air drying oven method (van soest,1970) at a temperature of 40°c for 6 hours to be dried enough and subjected to the analyzes of the parameters immediately. number of flowers the number of flowers marked already was counted manually with each treatment. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 12 published by ideas spread 2.9.2 quality variation phase of alfalfa during the post-harvest life phase of alfalfa, the parameters were measured at the laboratories on days 19 may; 23 june; and 28 july 2022. analysis of dry forages with ft-nir method a forage analysis consists of multiple parameters such as protein, fiber, ash and moisture content. the bruker optics offers the most comprehensive range of the method of fourier transforms near-infrared (ft-nir) spectroscopy that allows the rapid determination of these and more nutrients in dry forages in terms of chemical component. 2.10 statistical analysis the tables and figures are produced using the excel 2013 program, while the statistical analyzes are processed with glm (general linear model) using the sigmastat program. the significant differences are analyzed with three way anova for the productivity and quality phase parameters. 3. results and discussion 3.1 productivity measurements of alfalfa this phase describes the influence of three different cultivation methods and the two fertilization recipes on the productivity of alfalfa during the whole production cycle. number of leaves the effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the number of leaves of alfalfa are presented in table 3. table 3. effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the number of leaves of alfalfa. treatments/cuts cf1 cf2 nftf1 nftf2 so mean of cuts c1 1175a 1130a 696a 662a 467a 169a c2 1016a 941b 577b 596b 388b 133b c3 988a 784b 499c 483b 295b 113c mean of treatments 1003a 954b 590c 580c 383d *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.01. the number of leaves of alfalfa from the group cf1 shows a clear significant difference (p˃0.01) compared to the other groups. this proves that the f1 fertilization recipe have almost the highest effect on the number of leaves of alfalfa, which is the case for the cultivation method where the cf is relatively higher than that of the nft and so group with a significant difference. for instance, some researchers showed the favorable effect that growing media have on plant growth (maboko et al., 2013) as it increased the yield of fodder and water retention (marinou et al., 2013), other researches did not show any difference in the yield (hallman and kobryn, 2014). the results of the analysis of nft shows that there is no significant effect in treatments when use f1 as compared to f2 for leaf number. fertilization, however, did not influence this parameter in nft production. for pimentel et al., 2016, concentrating the root system in a confined volume of improve substrate and the correct water supply are one of the essential factors for the development of leaves resulted in an increase in the exchanges between the environment and the plant, increasing photosynthesis and can greatly improve the growth of plants which is the basis of the soilless system (savvas et al., 2018). the results of statistical analysis for leaf number data according to the number of cuts are presented in graph 1: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 13 published by ideas spread graph 1. cutting cycles of alfalfa and variation of leaf number as shown in graph 1, the result of the study showed that the leaf number of alfalfas in the first cutting cycle was significantly higher as compared to second and third cuts (p<0.001) that rapidly declines. this report quite agreed with gashaw et al., (2015), and walie et al., (2016) who showed the values that leaf number decrease from 169 for the first cut till 113 for the third one as the cutting cycle increased for the alfalfa. these results indicate that first-cutting also has some unique yield characteristics which corresponds to a higher forage content in the leaves than any other cutting (rankin, 2013). stem length the effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the stem length of alfalfa are shown in table 4. table 4. effect of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation method on the stem length of alfalfa. treatments/cuts cf1 cf2 nftf1 nftf2 so mean of cuts c1 89.5a 82.8a 73a 75a 67a 77a c2 75.2b 74.6b 66.9b 68b 64a 69b c3 65.08b 61.7c 58.6c 62b 58b 60c mean of treatments 77a 73b 66c 66c 63c *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.01. the length of the stem in the treatment of the two groups cf1 and cf2 showed a significant difference (p˃0.01) compared to the other groups. this can be explained by the high-water retention of cf and the constant availability of water during production which has an effect on the solubility of fertilizers and their availability to plants and is conducive to maintain consistent quality of alfalfa stem length (liu et al., 2020). in coconut fiber bags, the stem length showed a tendency to increase following f1 as compared to f2 that have a high nutrient changes in nitrogen and phosphorus during the growth of hydroponics fodder. while in nft the stem length of plants irrigated by f1 and f2 shows no significant difference (p>0.01). this proves that alfalfa can succeed in the nft under both recipes. no significant difference was reported between nft and so. nevertheless, this result suggested that alfalfa succeed in these two systems but their stem remains relatively minimal. this can explain that providing a suitable medium along with chemical fertilizers increased the length of alfalfa stem which in turn increase number of leaves (sepahvand et al., 2021). the results of statistical analysis for stem height data according to the number of cuts are presented in graph 2: 0 50 100 150 200 c1 c2 c3 n um be r o f l ea ve s number of cuts leaf number according to the number of cuts as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 14 published by ideas spread graph 2. cutting cycles of alfalfa and variation of stem length we recorded an overall mean plant length shown in graph 2 of the first cut that showed a significant superiority (p˃0.01) as compared to the second cut that was slightly greater than that of the third cut which have a high significant effect (p <0.01). the reason for increasing plant length in the first cut that indicate the high statistical influence is probably affected by the number of cuts (popovic et al., 2001). however, frequent cuttings of alfalfa may lead to reduction in plant length. in this context, it can be concluded that the factor with the greatest influence on the plant length was the time of stage of development and cultivation method that was different among the culture across the cutting cycle. number of flowers the effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the number of flowers of alfalfa are presented in table 5. table 5. effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the number of flowers of alfalfa treatments/cuts cf1 cf2 nftf1 nftf2 so mean of cuts c1 47a 40a 19a 28a 14a 31a c2 40a 36a 16c 19b 14a 26b c3 43a 30b 17b 14c 12a 22c mean of treatments 42a 36b 21c 21c 13d *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.01. the number of flowers from the two groups cf1 and cf2 showed a significant difference (p˃0.01) compared to the groups nftf1, nftf2 and so. the high-water retention of cf and the irrigation frequencies are factors that improve flower number and mainly attributed to the support of this results (fernando et al., 2014). constitutively, it shows a significant difference (p<0.01) in favor of the f1 and f2 with a superiority for f1. this difference in cf can be explained by the adequate amount in f1 compared to f2, particularly with regard to nitrogen, which recalls the studies of buxton (2010) showing that the decrease in the number of flowers may be due to the excessive quantity of nitrogen. indeed, the f1 recipe has a lower phosphorus composition compared to that of kumarasingue et al., (2016) that recognized the importance of phosphorus by helping flower initiation. although, nft treatment was not influenced by the variation in fertilization recipes which is not the case for the cultivation method. we can conclude that the interaction between the different fertilization recipes and the different substrates have a positive effect by its physico-chemical properties and high-water retention. the results of statistical analysis for flowers number data according to the number of cuts are presented in graph 3: 0 50 100 c1 c2 c3st em h ei gh t ( cm ) number of cuts stem length according to the number of cuts as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 15 published by ideas spread graph 3. cutting cycles of alfalfa and variation of number of flowers the results in graph 3 of flower number showed highest values at the first cutting cycles as compared to the later cuttings (p<0.001) that are not as high in initial value. resulting in nonlinear responses (sanderson et al., 2000) the results showed that with increasing frequency of cuttings to three cuttings, number of flowers has been reduced drastically. with the data on number of flowers, if cuts are frequent, number of flowers is affected (orloff, 2007) in a sharp and significant reduction in all the flower number. the results of this study revealed the consistent effect of cutting on various flower number and as might be expected, the timing of flowering for plants responsiveness is a major factor in improving quality variation. 3.2 quality variation phase of alfalfa this phase describes the influence of the three different cultivation methods and the fertilization recipes on the post-harvest quality of alfalfa. crude protein the effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the protein content of alfalfa are presented in table 6. table 6. effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation method on the protein content of alfalfa treatments/cuts cf1 cf2 nftf1 nftf2 so mean of cuts c1 28.9a 30.4a 27.7b 25.8ab 27.3a 28.03a c2 27.4b 28.3b 28.5a 28.1a 27.6a 28.01a c3 24.3c 24.5c 21c 21b 20.1c 21.7b mean of treatments 26.9b 27.7a 25.4c 24.9 d 24.5e *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.01. a significant difference (p > 0.01) among the crude protein contents of alfalfa was reported between the 5 groups that has a slight superiority (p>0.05) for the cf2 treatment. this difference can be explained by increasing the nitrogen level in f2 fertilization recipes which improve the alfalfa nutritive value and result in high protein content. this is in agreement with delevatti et al., 2019 who suggests that nitrogen application affected the crude protein. the mode of cultivation in nft showed a satisfactory and better-quality protein content values of alfalfa that did not differ from that of coconut fiber. this is one of the important outcomes of our study that justifies the search for alternatives for the use in animal feeding. as reported by el morsy et al., 2013, alfalfa produced under hydroponic conditions revealed appreciable levels of crude protein and digestibility. in contrast to fazaeli et al., (2012) and kılıç (2016) who stated that the quality of protein content decreased in hydroponic green feed and does not substantially change compared to the other treatment. 010 2030 40 c1 c2 c3n um be r o f f lo w er s number of cuts number of flowers according to the number of cuts as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 16 published by ideas spread the results of statistical analysis for protein content data according to the number of cuts are presented in graph 4: graph 4. cutting cycles of alfalfa and variation of protein content as shown in graph 4, the results obtained in the current study was gradually decreasing until third cutting cycle. it is noted that the first and second cut consistently gave the highest protein content with a non-significant effect. this was consistent with lloveras (2001) who reported the increase in alfalfa protein content from the first cutting and decreased in the third one. probably the most important characteristic is the change in composition with advance toward maturity. in their study, fazeli et al., (2012) and naik et al., (2015) reported that the alfalfa cp content decline following increasing harvest days. we can conclude that the stage of cutting of plants has come to be recognized as one of the most important considerations in the harvesting of forage crops that had a large impact on protein content. fiber the effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the fiber content of alfalfa are shown in table 7. table 7. effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on the fiber content of alfalfa treatments/cuts cf1 cf2 nftf1 nftf2 so mean of cuts c1 14.8b 13.6b 18.1b 16.3b 10.9c 14.8c c2 17.2ab 14.6ab 21ab 18.2ab 16.3b 17.5b c3 20.4a 19.2a 28.3a 24a 20.3a 22.7a mean of treatments 17.5c 15.8d 22.5a 19.9 b 15.8d *in columns and rows the numbers with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.01 the fiber content of alfalfa from group nftf1 is significantly higher than the value of the other groups. the results of the fiber content showed a positive effect of the nft substrate for f1, that is slightly higher than that irrigated by f2, in favor of the coconut fiber bags and soil that showed lower fiber values with no significant difference (p˃0.01) reported between cf2 and so. all of these observations may be due to the composition of the substrates and their physical properties (birle et al., 2008). the adequate application of nitrogen and phosphorus levels that had the significant effect under nft treatment (singh et al., 2003) might be attributed to the highest fiber content in alfalfa. it can be concluded that hydroponics shown significant nutritional improvements of crude fiber (almeida et al., 2020). 010 2030 c1 c2 c3cr ud e pr ot ei n % number of cuts protein content according to the number of cuts as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 17 published by ideas spread in support of the present findings, ndaru et al., 2020 found that the crude fiber content was within a range of 5, 61 – 10, 71%. it is relatively lower than that obtained in our study with a value of 22.5% and 19.9% for f1 and f2 respectively. the results of statistical analysis for fiber content data according to the number of cuts are presented in graph 5: graph 5. cutting cycles of alfalfa and variation of fiber content as shown in graph 5, the result of the study showed that the fiber content of alfalfa in the third cutting cycle was significantly higher as compared to the first and second cuts (p<0.001). further, our results were in line with the results of bandara et al., (2016) reported that crude fiber content of alfalfa in the first cut were 11.63%, and in the second one as 16.9% respectively. in the case of cutting schedule, fiber content increased with the crop age advancement (popovic, 2001). from the performed analyses, it can be observed that among the elements of management of alfalfa cultivation, fertilization and cut had a high statistical influence on investigated crude fiber content. lamb et al., 2003; rimi et al., 2010). ash the effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on ash content of alfalfa are shown in table 8. table 8. effects of variations in fertilization recipes and cultivation methods on ash content of alfalfa treatments/cuts cf1 cf2 nftf1 nftf2 so mean of cuts c1 13.4a 13.5a 12.48a 12.07a 14.3a 13.2a c2 8.9c 9.3b 9b 8.7c 9.5b 9.1c c3 10b 12.4a 9.6b 10.5b 10.5ab 10.7b mean of treatments 10.8c 11.9a 10.38d 10.42 cd 11.4b *in columns the figures with similar exponent represent the absence of a significant difference at p>0.05. the number of ashes from the cf2 show a significant difference (p˃0.01) compared to the groups cf1, nftf1, nftf2 and so. the ash content in cf reported a significant difference than that in nft and soil. this probably comes down to the composition of the substrates and their physical properties (birle et al., 2008). notably, the highest ash content (p< 0.01) was recorded in cf was 11.9 with f2 fertilizer and 10.8% in f1 respectively. this can probably due to the sufficient amount of nutrients that ensures favorable conditions for high quality. the effect of the two fertilization recipes f1 and f2 was negligible when using them in nft. kumar et.al., (2021) indicated that not only optimal amounts of nutrients but also their proper balance is significant for proper plant development. 010 2030 c1 c2 c3fi be r % number of cuts fiber content according to the number of cuts as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 18 published by ideas spread we can conclude that the data acquired shows the characterization and analysis of the ash content depending on a large number of factors including growing conditions and fertilization and it indicated that effectively react on the treatment with fertilizers platače & adamovičs, (2014). the results of statistical analysis for ash content data according to the number of cuts are presented in graph 6: graph 6. cutting cycles of alfalfa and variation of ash content as shown in graph 6, the result of the study showed that the ash content in the first cutting cycle was significantly higher as compared to second cut (p<0.001) that rapidly declines while it increases slowly during the third one. it was revealed that first cutting offers the opportunity for harvesting the highest forage quality of the growing season as compared to subsequent cuttings. hence, a timely first cut is essential if high forage quality is the primary objective (rankin, 2013). as a result, in alfalfa cultivation the higher yield and quality can be obtained only using the proper cutting (tabacco et al., 2003). as alfalfa maturity advanced ash content decreased (p< 0.01) which agreed with the results of marković et al., (2009). generally, cuttings applied more frequently led to a decrease in fresh forage yield (kallenbach et al., 2002; ventroni et al., 2010). these results indicate additional factors such as multi-cutting may affect ash content and composition as well, in particular, the first-cutting can be, and often is higher than any other cutting (rankin, 2013). 4. conclusion and perspectives our study shows that the use of two different cultivation methods associated with the two different fertilization recipes used have succeeded in the productivity and quality variation during the three different cuts of alfalfa in coconut fiber bags followed by nft system. regarding the productivity phase of alfalfa, the results showed that during the three cutting repetition, a good interaction was noticeable at this combination level of coconut fiber cultivation mode and the f1 fertilization recipe (cf1) followed by nft that positively affecting the number of leaves, flowers and stem of alfalfa with a best cutting found at cut 1. concerning the quality variation phase of alfalfa, our results indicate that the crude protein and ash content are in favor of alfalfa grown in soilless cf2. for fiber content, f1 was the most favorable and nftf1 reported relatively higher fiber values indicating better quality. regarding the cutting system, cut 1 showed the best results. in summary, the introduction of hydroponics has become a viable alternative to consider and can be recommended to lebanese farmers to improve their quality forage and to overcome the lebanese economic crisis especially since this system is relatively inexpensive. in perspective, we recommend and plan to 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(2016). association mapping for fiber-related traits and digestibility in alfalfa (medicago sativa). original research article. front. plant sci., 18 march 2016. sec. plant breeding, 7, 2016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00331 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). microsoft word p133-157 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p133 133 published by ideas spread response to the effects of drought spell on livelihoods of agropastoralists in northern ghana suhiyini i. alhassan1, lukman yussif2, mohammed alhassan sayibu3 & sulemana wumbei sayibu4 1 monitoring and evaluation officer, changing lives in innovative partnerships (clip), ghana 2 director, changing lives in innovative partnerships (clip), ghana 3 technical adviser on agropastoralism, changing lives in innovative partnerships (clip), ghana 4 project coordinator, changing lives in innovative partnerships (clip), ghana correspondence: suhiyini i. alhassan, monitoring and evaluation officer, changing lives in innovative partnerships (clip), ghana. e-mail: issahsuhiyini@yahoo.com received: march 24, 2025 accepted: june 3, 2025 online published: june 11, 2025 this study was funded by the foreign, commonwealth and development office (fcdo) under the sapsoc 4 project led by acting for life. abstract climate shocks remains a threat to the livelihoods of agro-pastoralists in africa, given that crop and livestock farming in the continent are mainly rain-fed. thus, erratic rainfalls and temperatures are environmental factors bedeviling agro-pastoralism. in ghana, northern ghana is the food basket of the country, with over 70% of the labour force engaged in agriculture, producing both crops and livestock. unfortunately, this part of the country for a long time has suffered from the perennial floods and droughts. in the 2024 farming season, there was a prolong drought in northern ghana spanning for almost 50 days. in response, the government of ghana commissioned the registration of farmers for support. however, this support was mainly limited to crop lost, with little emphasis on livestock lost. in view of this, clip commissioned a study to assess the effect of the drought spell on agropastoralists’ livelihoods in the five regions of northern ghana. the objectives of the study are to examine agropastoralists drought experience, determine the perceived effect of the drought spell on agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods, and identify and analyse agro-pastoralists’ drought adaptation strategies. the study relied on primary quantitative and qualitative data. quantitative data was collected through a survey with 745 agro-pastoralists using survey questionnaire, randomly selected from 22 districts from the five northern regions. qualitative data was collected through interviews with 22 district livestock officers using unstructured interview guide and also interviews with the agro-pastoralists. data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and presented in tables and charts. the results show that over 98% of agro-pastoralists experienced the drought for an average of 28 days and a maximum of 41 days, with agro-pastoralists in the upper east region experiencing the longest drought periods of over 32 days. the results further showed that agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods were severely impacted adversely by the drought. the effect of the drought on their livelihoods manifest in the form of reduced pasture availability, stunting and mortality of livestock, increased competition over water and crop residue, outbreak of diseases among livestock, increased cost of livestock feed, and reduced farm income. though the government of ghana registered some farmers affected by the drought for support, only 21% of agro-pastoralists interviewed were captured in this registration. yet, the government’s promised support targets crop lost, rather than livestock lost. over 76% of agro-pastoralists are either not expecting any external support or not sure if there will ever be an external support for them to recover from the adverse effect of the drought. this renders their livelihoods more vulnerable to climatic shocks. finally, the results showed that the main strategies adopted by agro-pastoralists to adapt to the effects of the drought spell are: buying more fodder for their livestock, migrating to other communities in search for pasture and water, and selling off some livestock. these strategies are not sustainable given that migrating to other communities has implications on farmer-herder relations, buying more fodder has cost implications for agropastoralists and selling off livestock may deplete the stock. based on the prevailing drought spell effects on agropastoralists livelihoods, the policy implication is for governmental and non-governmental organisations to be intentional about the climate change effect on livelihoods of agro-pastoralists by setting up special funds to support agro-pastoralists during climate shocks such as drought and/or floods. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 134 published by ideas spread keywords: agro-pastoralists, dry spell, livelihoods, clip, northern ghana, climate change, adaptation apbg: agro-pastoralists based groups; au: african union; caadp: comprehensive africa agriculture development programme; clip: changing lives in innovative partnerships; ecowas: economic committee of west african states; fao: food and agricultural organisation; gldps: ghana livestock development policy and strategy; gss: ghana statistical service; ki: key informant; mofa: ministry of food and agriculture; srid: statistics, research, and information directorate; ngo: non-governmental organisation; sap: survey with agro-pastoralists; sdg: sustainable development goals 1. introduction agro-pastoralism is the most vulnerable group of resource dependent group to climate change induced drought across the world (schrieks et al., 2024), due to widespread of hunger, livestock deaths, and crop failure. the effect of drought on agro-pastoralists are devastating, with most agro-pastoralists taking an average of 3 – 4 years to recover their herds from the effects of a single season’s drought (mauerman et al., 2023). in the horn of africa, over 36.1 million agro-pastoralists were affected by drought from 2020 – 2022 across ethiopia, somalia, and kenya, resulting in the death of over 9.5 million livestock (world bank, 2023). the international rescue committee (2023) reported that in east africa alone, over 40 agro-pastoralists suffered near-famine and malnutrition due to the impact of drought. thus, the drought incidence and its’ effect of agro-pastoralism is not peculiar to ghana. in ghana, data is silent on the number of agro-pastoralists affected by climate change induced drought and how they adapt to this climate change (alhassan et al, 2024a). the high effect of drought on agro-pastoralists has attracted attention from international, regional and national organisations in supporting agro-pastoralist to respond to these perennial droughts (alhassan et al., 2024b). for example, the fao has implemented several initiatives to combat the impact of drought on agro-pastoralists in africa, such as the rapid response and mitigation plans, livelihoods and food security support, infrastructure and water access, and community resilience programs (fao, 2022). at the continental level, the african union (au)’s policy framework for pastoralism in africa and the au climate change and resilient development strategy and action plan (2022-2032), with focus on protecting pastoralists’ livelihoods, improving access to resources, and promoting drought-adapted practices. these initiatives aligns with the broader goals of the au agenda 2063, which includes promoting sustainable agricultural development and climate adaptation measures across africa. at the regional level, the economic community of west african states (ecowas) has implemented multiple initiatives to support agropastoralists affected by droughts and climate challenges. two of the popular initiatives by ecowas is the regional climate strategy and action plan (2022-2030) and the regional sahel pastoralism support project (praps-2). the aim of the rcs (2022–2030) was to build resilience and climate adaptability for the agricultural sector, while the praps-2 focuses on promoting animal health, sustainable rangeland management, and livestock trade with the aim of improving the productivity and resilience of pastoralists. at the national level, the government of ghana drafted the ghana livestock development policy and strategy (gldps) to address the issues affecting the development of the ghana livestock sub-sector such as the excessive importation of livestock and livestock products especially poultry, increased incidence of emerging and reemerging animal diseases, inadequate supply of vaccines and veterinary pharmaceuticals, inadequate livestock infrastructure, transhumance, financing , research and technology dissemination in the livestock industry. in particular, the vision of the livestock sector is a modernized, competitive and sustainable livestock industry culminating in a structurally transformed national economy and evident in food and nutritional security, employment generation, equity and poverty reduction while preserving the environment. chapter 7 establishes the goals as follows: 1) to enhance the supply of meat, livestock and dairy products from domestic sources, innovation, generation and utilization, capacity and entrepreneurship skills of livestock value chain actors. 2) to enhance access to livestock markets, services and value addition. these goals are consistent with those of the livestock development strategy for africa (auc, 2015). the overall objective of the present policy is to develop a competitive and more efficient livestock industry that increases domestic production, reduces importation of meat and livestock products and contributes to the improvement of the livelihoods of all livestock value chain actors and the national economy while protecting the environment, preserving livestock biodiversity and ensuring bio-security. whereas the specific objectives are: 1) to support the existing livestock production systems for improving production, productivity and income of livestock producers, most of which are women and small scale farmers. 2) to strengthen overall animal health cover through early warning system, prevention, control and eradication of disease. 3) to support training, research and development initiatives on issues pertaining to livestock sector for improving livestock production, productivity and health as well as the profitability of the entire as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 135 published by ideas spread livestock value chain. 4) to improve the production and productivity of livestock by promoting and disseminating technologies developed by the research system. 5) to promote conservation and genetic improvement of indigenous breeds of livestock. 6) to increase availability of feed and fodder resources to meet the requirement of various species of livestock to attain optimal productivity. 7) to encourage value addition of livestock products. 8) to create an enabling environment to attract investment and finance for improving livestock infrastructure, production, processing, value addition and marketing. in the 2024 farming season, northern ghana was hard-hit with prolong drought, resulting in crop failure, reduced pasture and water for livestock. this is expected to adversely impact the livelihoods of agro-pastoralists in the region. the government of ghana’s response to combating the impact of drought on farmers’ livelihoods in the previous years was not different from its’ response in 2024, as it promised to assist almost 930, 000 registered farmers with a cash cushioning of ghs1000.00 (usd64.00). however, this cash-support is targeted at crop farmers, leaving pastoralists to their own faith. as an ngo that champions the advocacy for improved livelihoods for agro-pastoralists, changing lives in innovative partnerships (clip) commissioned this study to assess the likely effect of droughts, especially the 2024 drought on the livelihoods of agro-pastoralists in the five northern regions of ghana (northern, savannah, north-east, upper west and upper east). the findings from this survey will provide empirical data to advocate for support from governmental and non-governmental organisations in ameliorating the climate shocks effects on livelihoods of agro-pastoralists. it will also guide stakeholders in revising and fully implementing the ghana livestock development policy and strategy and other international initiatives on agro-pastoralism. 1.1 objectives of the study the aim of this study was to assess the effects of drought on livelihoods of agro-pastoralists in northern ghana. the specific objectives of the study were to: 1) examine agro-pastoralists drought experience 2) determine the perceived effect of drought on agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods 3) identify and analyse agro-pastoralists’ strategies of adapting to drought 1.2 relevance of the study this study is relevant at the global, continental, regional and national levels. at the global level, findings from this study are relevant to achieving selected sdgs. the findings will be relevant to achieving sdg 1 (no poverty). the findings will trigger policies aimed at improving the livelihoods of agro-pastoralists, reducing poverty in rural communities by increasing income opportunities and stabilizing the effects of climate shocks on agro-pastoralists’ livelihood. it will also be relevant to achieving sdg 2 (zero hunger) by promoting sustainable agricultural and pastoral practices. thus, the research findings will trigger policies that enhance food security through the reliable supply of agro-pastoral product such as staple, meat, milk, and other livestock products. these policies will reduce hunger and malnutrition among households reliant on agro-pastoralism for sustenance. finally, the findings are also relevant to sdg 13 (climate action) in that the findings on climate vulnerabilities of agro-pastoralists practices can inform policies on climate adaptation and mitigation. these policies will promote sustainable grazing and farming practices, reduces carbon emissions, and build resilience to climate shocks. at the continental level, the research findings will be relevant to the au agenda 2063 of comprehensive africa agriculture development programme (caadp), particularly its frameworks on pastoralism and livestock development. the findings will inform au policies on the support for resilience and climate-smart pastoralism, improving infrastructure and trade facilitation initiatives by the au, and transhumance cultural heritage protection initiatives of the au. at the regional level, finding are important to ecowas transboundary migration and grazing rights, disease surveillance and veterinary coordination, harmonized market regulations which allow transhumant herders better access to regional markets and strengthening the west african livestock value chain, etc. at the national level, the findings are relevant to improving the ghana livestock development policy and strategy as well as the government of ghana flagship programs of planting and rearing for food and jobs. 2. methodology 2.1 introduction this chapter presents the methodology employed in the study to achieve its research objectives. the chapter presents a description of the study area, sample size determination and sampling procedure, methods of data as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 136 published by ideas spread collection and analysis, as well as ethical considerations and a declaration of conflict of interest by clip and the research team. 2.2 description of the study area the study was conducted in northern ghana, where clip has most of its operational activities. northern ghana is in the guinea savannah ecological zone located within a semi-arid climatic region and is the food basket of ghana with the highest percentage of its active labour force engaged in agriculture (gss, 2019). since 2019, northern ghana now consists of five regions; northern, north-east, savannah, upper west, and upper east regions (ghana statistical service, 2021). the annual average minimum and maximum temperatures of the region are 140c at night and 400c during the day, respectively (gss, 2014). over 60% of the active labour force are engaged in agriculture, and 90% of agriculture in northern ghana is rain-fed (fao, 2024; ghana statistical service, 2014). the main crops cultivated in northern ghana include rice, maize, groundnuts, yam, soybeans, and cowpea. livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, guinea fowls, and fowls are reared by households in northern ghana (gss, 2014). northern ghana accounts for over 40 percent of the national poverty, with 6 out of 10 persons in northern, savannah, and north–east regions being poor while 8 out of 10 persons and 9 out of 10 persons in upper east and upper west regions respectively are reported to be poor (gss, 2019). figure 2.1 presents a map of ghana showing northern ghana where the study was conducted. figure 2.1. map of ghana showing the study area as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 137 published by ideas spread 2.3 sample size determination and sampling procedure in sampling respondents for a survey data, the required sample size for a small population (>1000) is often 2030%; for a medium population (1000 – 10,000), a sample size of 278 is sufficient; and for a large population (>10,000), the required sample size is 400 – 500 to achieve a 95% confidence level and +5% margin of error (krejcie & morgan, 1970). in this study, we aimed for 99% confidence level and a +5% margin of error. the sample size for the study was calculated using the following sample size formular: 2 2 * *(1 )z p p n e   (1) where n denotes the required sample size for the study, z denotes z-value (2.58 for 99% confidence level), p denotes the estimated proportion of the population with the characteristic (use 0.5 if unknown), e desired margin of error (5% = 0.05). for finite populations like this case, we adjusted the sample size using the following equation (2): 1 1 n n n n     (2) where n is the population size for the study area (582, 635, refer to table 1). the computed sample size from equation 1 (665) is not different from the adjusted sample size (664). thus, the minimum number of respondents to ensure a representative sample and generalization of the findings is 665. to account for a situation where some sampled respondents fail to participate in the survey, the sample size was further adjusted to 745 to ensure that the final number of respondents who consent and participate in the survey does not fall below the minimum threshold of 665. a multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select the 745 respondents for the study. in the first stage, the five regions in northern ghana were purposively selected because these regions in ghana have the highest number of agro-pastoralists in ghana and are the most vulnerable to climate change shocks, especially, the 2024 drought. in the second stage, agro-pastoralists concentrated districts in each region were identified and randomly selected. eight districts were selected from the northern region (gusheigu, karaga, kpandai , mion, yendi, taatali/sanguli, nanumba south, and nanumba north), five districts from the savannah region (north gonja, bole, west gonja, east gonja, and central gonja), three districts from the upper west region (wa west, lambussie, and wa east), three districts from the north-east region (mamprugu-moaduri, cheriponi, and east mamprusi), and one district from the upper east region (garu). given that agro-pastoralists do not usually have an isolated community but scattered across several communities in each district, enumerators consulted with the district assemblies’ staff to identify key agro-pastoralists settlements and communities. a mini census was conducted to list all agro-pastoralists in the identified communities for sampling. based on the total number of agro-pastoralists listed in each district, proportionate sampling was used to allocate the number of agro-pastoralists to be selected from each district. finally, simple random sampling was used to select the required number of agropastoralists to constitute the final sample. selected respondents were later visited by the enumerators to explain the purpose of the study, sought their consent, and then interview a household head or any household member who was 18 years or above, willing to talk to the research team and had adequate information about the household. quality data was collected through key informant interview with district livestock officers. these officers were purposively selected and interviewed because they have more information regarding the intensity of drought in their areas, the effects on drought on pastoralists and government drought interventions for agro-pastoralists. enumerators also solicited for some qualitative responses from agro-pastoralists during the survey interview, table 2.1 presents the population and sample distribution by region. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 138 published by ideas spread table 2.1. target population and sample size distribution region number of agro-pastoralists number of sampled agropastoralists households northern, savannah and north-east 297, 743 443 upper west 98, 036 60 upper east 186, 856 242 total households 582, 635 745 key informants 21 source: srid, mofa (2022) and authors’ computation, 2024 note: data for northern, savannah and north-east regions were aggregated in the srid, mofa (2022) report. 2.4 data collection and analysis methods the study collected both quantitative and qualitative data. the quantitative data was to assess the extent of the drought effects and how agro-pastoralists will adapt to the impact of the drought on their livelihoods. both quantitative and qualitative data were collected through primary sources. the quantitative data was collected through a survey with agro-pastoralist using questionnaire programmed into a kobocollect and administered using tablets. qualitative data was also collected through interview with district livestock officers at the department of agriculture using unstructured interview guide. the qualitative data was to triangulate the quantitative responses and also provide explanation to the quantitative results. before the survey, enumerators were recruited by clip. most of these enumerators were previously trained by clip as community watch relays to report issues of farmer-herder relations at the community level to clip for redress. in other districts where clip had no existing network, the district department of agriculture was contacted to appoint personnel for the data collection exercise. a total of 38 enumerators were employed and trained for the survey. the enumerators were trained online for three days. in the first day, enumerators were trained on the content of the survey questionnaire as well as the unstructured interview guide. in the second day, enumerators were trained on how to administer the soft survey questionnaire using tablets. enumerators were allowed to pilot both the survey questionnaire and unstructured interview guide in the third day and submit for the clip research team to assess the quality of data. those who had issues with their data were contacted and further explained what was expected in the data collection. the quantitative data from the survey was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as means, and percentages presented in tables and chats. the qualitative data was analysed using content and thematic analysis approach. the qualitative results explained the quantitative results but also triangulate the quantitative results. 2.5 ethical considerations and declaration of interest this study was fully funded by foreign, commonwealth and development office (fcdo) under the sapsoc 4 project led by acting for life and implemented by clip with no conflict of interest. it must be stated that the views expressed in this report are the personal opinion of the author(s) and does not represent the official position of clip, acting for life or its donors. all sampled agro-pastoralists were first visited by the research team to explain the purpose of the study, its benefits and sought for the consent of the respondent. a verbal consent contained in the kobocollect questionnaire was read to each respondent by the enumerator and sought for the consent of the respondent before administering the questionnaire. respondents were never coaxed to participate in the survey, but willingly agreed to participate in the survey. respondents could also stop participating in the survey at any point in the interview process, or skip any question they deem private or uncomfortable responding to. they also consented to publishing results emanating from their responses. the consent form is in the first page of the questionnaire attached in appendix a. to ensure confidentiality of respondents, sampled respondents were interviewed at their private homes without the presence of anybody. also, to ensure anonymity of respondents, data were analysed in aggregates, without mentioning any respondent’s name and/or location. also, all personal attributes which could identify respondents were deleted from the data during the data cleaning to ensure that no respondent could be identified in the future. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 139 published by ideas spread 3. results of data analysis 3.1 introduction this chapter presents the results of the data analysis and discussions. the chapter presents results of the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents, respondents’ sources of livelihoods, drought experience and its perceived effects on their livelihoods, and agro-pastoralists strategies of adapting to the effects of the drought on their livelihoods. 3.2 socio-demographic characteristics of respondents this section presents results on the socio-demographic characteristics of agro-pastoralists. these sociodemographics characteristics are either categorical or continuous variables. the categorical socio-demographic variables considered in this report include location of respondents, sex, educational level, ethnicity, membership with agro-pastoralists-based group and their perceived effectiveness, marital status, religion, place of birth of respondents. the continuous socio-demographic variables considered in this report are age, household size, dependency ratio, and household labour force. the results revealed that most survey respondents are in the upper west (242), northern (195), north-east (140) and savannah regions (108). the reason is that these regions have more agro-pastoralists, especially transhumant herders. the results further indicate that lambussie (120) had the highest number of interviewed agro-pastoralists. figure 3.1 presents the distribution of survey respondents by region and table 3.1 presents the distribution of respondents by district. figure 3.1. regional distribution of survey respondents 195 108 140 242 60 northern savannah north-east upper west upper east as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 140 published by ideas spread table 3.1. distribution of survey respondents by district region district number of respondents % of respondents northern gusheigu 64 8.6% kpandai 20 2.7% mion 38 5.1% karaga 19 2.6% nanumba north 21 2.8% nanumba south 16 2.2% yendi 17 2.3% savannah north gonja 21 2.8% bole 30 4.0% west gonja 20 2.7% central gonja 21 2.8% east gonja 16 2.2% north-east mamprugu moaduri 27 3.6% cheriponi 70 9.4% east mamprusi 43 5.8% upper east garu 60 8.1% upper west wa west 81 10.9% lambussie 120 16.1% wa east 41 5.5% sample respondents 745 100.0% the results show that 92.5% of agro-pastoralists interviewed were male compared to only 7.5% female respondents. the reason is that agro-pastoralism is a male dominated occupation, not only in ghana, but across africa and the world. upper east has the highest percentage of female respondents with 31.7% of agro-pastoralists being female. on the other hand, savannah region has the highest proportion of male agro-pastoralists with 99.1% of the respondents from the region being males. in terms of educational level, majority of the agro-pastoralists interviewed (79.6%) had no formal education while only 3.2% of agro-pastoralists interviewed had tertiary level of education. it was revealed that agro-pastoralists who had higher educational attainment own livestock and hire other herders to take care of the livestock rather than herding the livestock themselves. educated agro-pastoralists are often wealthy urban based business men/women who own cattle and hire uneducated fulbe group as caretakers of their herds. fulbe has herding as their traditional occupation. this has been confirmed in this study with 52.8% of agro-pastoralists interviewed belonging to the fulbe/fulani ethnic group, with upper west region having the highest proportion of fulbe agro-pastoralists (78.1%). most authors have regarded agro-pastoralism to be dominated by people who claim faith to the islamic religion. results from this study is not contrary to this perception with 88.5% of agro-pastoralists interviewed belonging to the islamic religion, with only 7.3% of agro-pastoralists interviewed being christians. savannah region has the highest proportion of agro-pastoralists (99.1%) being muslims. the results further revealed that 95.8% of agropastoralists interviewed are married and savannah region has the highest proportion of married agro-pastoralists (99.1%) than other regions. in terms of social network, only 33.6% of agro-pastoralists interviewed belong to an agro-pastoralist-based group (apbg). agro-pastoralists based groups provide social support to members and also advocate for the collective interest of its members, especially when members are affected by shocks such as drought. however, among the agro-pastoralists who belong to agro-pastoralists based groups, only 33.2% of them think that the agro-pastoralists based groups are effective in seeking for support from both governmental and non-governmental organizations to assist members adapt to climate shocks such as the recent drought in northern ghana. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 141 published by ideas spread given that agro-pastoralists are often on the move in search of pasture and arable land, we solicited for respondents’ place of birth. the results revealed that only 40.9% of agro-pastoralists interviewed were born in the community they are currently living, while 13.2%, 12.4%, 10.5% and 23.0% were born outside their community but within the district, outside the district but within the region, outside the region but within ghana, and outside ghana respectively. this suggests that almost 60% of agro-pastoralists interviewed migrated to their current community, either in search for pasture for their herds, arable lands for crop cultivation or other push or pull factors that might have induced their migration. the results further revealed that north-east region (76.4%) has the highest proportion of agro-pastoralists born within their communities while savannah region (27.8%) has the least proportion of agro-pastoralist born within the community they are living. table 3.2 presents results on the categorical socio-demographic characteristics of survey agro-pastoralists. table 3.2. categorical socio-demographic characteristics of survey respondents variable region combined sample n or th er n s av an na h n or th -e as t u pp er w es t u pp er e as t total number of respondents 195 (26.2) 108 (14.5) 140 (18.8) 242 (32.5) 60 (8.1) 745 (100) sex: male 180 (92.3) 107 (99.1) 131 (93.6) 230 (95.0) 41 (68.3) 689 (92.5) female 15 (7.7) 1 (0.9) 9 (6.4) 12 (5.0) 19 (31.7) 56 (7.5) educational level: none 165 (84.6) 71 (65.7) 99 (70.7) 218 (90.1) 40 (66.7) 593 (79.6) primary 8 (4.1) 3 (2.8) 3 (2.1) 9 (3.7) 13 (21.7) 36 (4.8) middle/jss/jhs 8 (4.1) 15 (13.9) 12 (8.6) 7 (2.9) 5 (8.3) 47 (6.3) o level/sss/shs 6 (3.1) 1 (0.9) 14 (10.0) 4 (1.7) 2 (3.3) 27 (3.6) tertiary 5 (2.6) 9 (8.3) 8 (5.7) 2 (0.8) 0 (0.0) 24 (3.2) others 3 (1.5) 9 (8.3) 4 (2.9) 2 (0.8) 0 (0.0) 18 (2.4) ethnicity akan 0 (0) 0 (0) 13 (9.3) 0 (0) 0 (0) 13 (1.7) dagomba/mamprusi/nanumba 61 (31.3) 2 (1.9) 21 (15.0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 84 (11.3) konkomba/basari 23 (11.8) 0 (0) 24 (17.1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 47 (6.3) dagaati/wala 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 18 (7.4) 0 (0) 18 (2.4) sissala 0 (0) 1 (0.9) 0 (0) 33 (13.6) 0 (0) 34 (4.6) gonja 0 (0) 35 (32.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 35 (4.7) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 142 published by ideas spread kusasi 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 27 (45.0) 27 (3.6) frafra/gruni 1 (0.5) 0 (0) 2 (1.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 3 (0.4) fulbe/fulani 105 (53.9) 62 (57.4) 29 (20.7) 189 (78.1) 8 (13.3) 393 (52.8) others 5 (2.6) 8 (36.4) 51 (36.4) 2 (0.8) 25 (41.7) 91 (12.2) membership with agro-pastoralists based group (apbg) 81 (41.5) 40 (37.0) 26 (18.6) 82 (33.9) 21 (35.0) 250 (33.6) apbg support for members (yes) 109 (55.9) 31 (28.7) 57 (40.7) 33 (13.6) 17 (28.3) 247 (33.2) marital status: married 185 (94.9) 107 (99.1) 130 (92.9) 236 (97.5) 56 (93.3) 714 (95.8) divorced 1 (0.5) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (1.7) 2 (0.3) widow/widower 4 (2.1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0.4) 3 (5.0) 8 (1.1) single 5 (2.6) 1 (0.9) 10 (7.1) 5 (2.1) 0 (0) 21 (2.8) religion: christianity 7 (3.6) 0 (0.0) 26 (18.6) 5 (2.1) 16 (26.7) 54 (7.3) islam 175 (89.7) 107 (99.1) 106 (75.7) 231 (95.5) 40 (66.7) 659 (88.5) african tradition 13 (6.7) 1 (0.9) 8 (5.7) 6 (2.5) 4 (6.7) 32 (4.3) place of birth: within community 71 (36.4) 30 (27.8) 107 (76.4) 68 (28.1) 29 (48.3) 305 (40.9) within district 28 (14.4) 34 (31.5) 11 (7.9) 19 (7.9) 6 (10.0) 98 (13.2) within the region 32 (16.4) 5 (4.6) 4 (2.9) 42 (17.4) 9 (15.0) 92 (12.4) outside region but in ghana 31 (15.9) 13 (12.0) 9 (6.4) 14 (5.8) 11 (18.3) 78 (10.5) outside ghana 33 (16.9) 26 (24.1) 8 (5.7) 99 (40.9) 5 (8.3) 171 (23.0) others 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.1) note: figures in parenthesis are in percentage. the study further assessed agro-pastoralists’ age, household size, dependency ratio and labour force availability to agro-pastoralists. the results show that the average age of respondents in the combined sample is 42.8 years. though, this average age is higher than the international youth age limit of 24 years and the ghana youth policy’s youth age limit of 35 years, the results suggest that agro-pastoralists are energetic to undertake the agro-pastoral activities which are labour intensive. upper west region has the least average age of respondents (40.91 years) compared to the other regions. the average household size for the combined sample is 10.56 persons. this is higher than the average household size of 3.6 persons in ghana (ghana statistical service, 2022). the average household size for northern (10.98), savannah (11.10), north-east (11.46), upper west (9.57), and upper east (10.13) persons are higher than the average household size of 6.0, 5.1, 6.3, 5.1, and 5.1 persons for rural communities in these regions respectively (gss, 2021, pp 34). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 143 published by ideas spread the results further revealed that the average labour force for the combined sample is 4.86 persons with a dependency ratio of 1.41. thus, there are more dependents than active labour force among agro-pastoralists households to meet the labour requirement for agro-pastoral activities. the results show that no region had a dependency ratio of less than 1. the implication is that there are more dependents than labour force in all five regions. this suggests that for all agro-pastoralists households, fewer labour force to undertake agro-pastoral activities to meet the need of more dependents and the impact of drought on agro-pastoralists livelihoods can be devastating. table 3.3 presents the continuous socio-demographic characteristics of agro-pastoralists. table 3.3: continuous socio-demographic characteristic of survey respondents variable region min max combined sample n or th er n s av an na h n or th -e as t u pp er w es t u pp er e as t age 43.87 (12.22) 47.07 (11.82) 42.14 (11.16) 40.91 (12.06) 41.02 (10.52) 19 70 42.82 (11.94) household size 10.98 (3.96) 11.10 (3.63) 11.46 (4.17) 9.57 (3.84) 10.13 (3.88) 2 22 10.56 (3.97) dependency ratio 1.37 (0.91) 1.57 (1.09) 1.31 (0.66) 1.46 (0.93) 1.24 (0.84) 0 7 1.41 (0.90) labourforce 5.05 (2.29) 4.86 (2.30) 5.33 (2.38) 4.40 (2.59) 4.95 (2.57) 0 13 4.86 (2.45) drought duration 26.71 (9.28) 31.71 (4.83) 27.14 (8.00) 26.90 (8.32) 32.33 (3.33) 0 41 28.03 (8.09) note: figures in parenthesis are in percentage. 3.3 livelihood strategies of respondents agro-pastoralists interviewed are engaged in one or more livelihood activities. agro-pastoralists are engaged in farming, nomadic herding, sedentary herding, transhumant herding, formal employment, or trading. the results show that upper west region has the highest number of respondents with nomadic herding (146 respondents) and sedentary herding (57 respondents) as their main occupation while northern region has the highest number of respondents with farming (95 respondents) as their main livelihood. the results further show that in the combined sample, 34%, 32% and 27% of agro-pastoralists have farming, nomadic herding and sedentary herding as their main livelihoods respectively. the remaining 7% had trading, formal employment or transhumant herding as their main source of livelihood. figures 3.2 and 3.3 present respondents’ main economic activities (livelihoods) by region and combined sample respectively. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 144 published by ideas spread figure 3.2: main economic activities of respondents by region figure 3.3. main economic activities of respondents for combined data among the respondents who own livestock, the results show that 88.7% of respondents own cattle while 70.0%, 77.5%, and 69.4% of respondents own goats, sheep and fowls respectively. thus, the major livestock in the five 0 50 100 150 200 250 northern savannah north-east upper west upper east 95 26 72 39 20 48 24 38 57 37 28 37 26 146 0 15 15 3 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 n u m b er o f r es p on d en ts formal employment trading transhumant herding nomadic herding sedentary herding farming 34% 27% 32% 2% 4% 1% farming sedentary herding nomadic herding transhumant herding trading formal employment as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 145 published by ideas spread northern regions are cattle, goat, and sheep. these livestock requires large pasture as feed and water to survive, and are greatly affected especially during dry season or shocks such as drought. hence, households who depend on livestock for livelihood, stand to suffer when they are hit with climatic shocks such as drought, as in this case. in terms of regional distribution, even though over 80% of agro-pastoralists in all regions own cattle, savannah (92.6%) and upper west (97.5%) regions had more agro-pastoralists owning cattle. on the other hand, most agropastoralists in upper east region (96.7%) own fowls. thus, agro-pastoralists in savannah and upper west regions are more affected by drought than the other regions. table 3.4 presents agro-pastoralists’ livestock ownership by region while figure 3.4 presents agro-pastoralists’ livestock ownership for the combined sample. table 3.4. agro-pastoralists livestock ownership by region type of livestock region n or th er n s av an na h n or th -e as t u p p er w es t u p p er e as t cattle 163 (83.6) 100 (92.6) 114 (81.4) 236 (97.5) 48 (80.0) goat 137 (70.3) 75 (69.4) 81 (57.9) 173 (71.5) 57 (95.0) sheep 127 (65.1) 76 (70.4) 107 (76.4) 220 (90.9) 47 (78.3) fowls 130 (66.7) 72 (66.7) 73 (52.1) 184 (76.0) 58 (96.7) duck 13 (6.7) 3 (2.8) 7 (5.0) 2 (0.8) 4 (6.7) pigs 9 (4.6) 0 (0.0) 18 (12.9) 0 (0.0) 6 (10.0) others 6 (3.1) 9 (8.3) 0 (0.0) 5 (2.1) 13 (21.7) note: figures in parenthesis are in percentage. figure 3.4. livestock owned by agro-pastoralists in combined sample 0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0% 80.0% 90.0% cattle goat sheep fowls ducks pigs others 88.7% 70.0% 77.5% 69.4% 3.9% 4.4% 4.4% p er ce n ta ge o f r es p on d en ts type of livestock as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 146 published by ideas spread 3.4 agro-pastoralists’ drought experience and perceived effects on livelihoods the effect of climate change in northern ghana manifest in the form of floods due to excess rains, drought and high temperatures emanating from prolong absence of rain. this is not peculiar to northern ghana, but, is a common climatic phenomenon in most african countries, especially in the sahelian region. in this study, over 98% of all respondents reported that they experienced drought in the 2024 farming season. at least, 96% of agropastoralists in each region reported experiencing drought in the 2024 farming season. the average drought period is 28.03 days with a maximum drought period of 41 days. the results indicate that agro-pastoralists in upper east region (32.33 days) and savannah region (31.71 days) experienced the longest drought period in the 2024 farming season. figure 3.5 presents drought experience among agro-pastoralists by region and the combine sample. figure 3.5. agro-pastoralists experience of drought in the 2024 farming season respondents were also asked of the severity of the drought impact on their livelihoods. the results show that in the combined sample, over 61% of agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods were adversely affected very severely with additional 35.5% of agro-pastoralist been severely impacted by the drought. in terms of disparity in drought impact on livelihoods by region, the results show that the livelihoods of over 73%, 79% and 88% of agro-pastoralists in northern, north-east and savannah regions were adversely impacted very severely. figure 3.6 presents results of the severity of drought effect on agro-pastoralists livelihoods by region and the combined sample. 95.0% 95.5% 96.0% 96.5% 97.0% 97.5% 98.0% 98.5% 99.0% 99.5% 100.0% northern savannah north-east upper west upper east combined sample 99.0% 99.1% 99.3% 96.7% 100.0% 98.4% p er ce n ta ge o f re sp on d en ts region as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 147 published by ideas spread figure 3.6. severity of drought effect on agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods the severe effect of the drought reported by agro-pastoralists was confirmed by most district livestock officers. in an interview with a livestock officer, he revealed that: “the drought effect on agro-pastoralists’ livelihood was very severe to the extent that all crops that were cultivated died as a result of the drought and even water to drink was also a serious challenge for people, and worst for livestock. the effect will even be felt more during the dry season because the water bodies did not collect enough water for livestock use beyond the rainy season. pasture will also dry up soon, thereby reducing available pasture for livestock” (ki 11, 26/10/2024). in order to ascertain how agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods were impacted by drought, respondents were asked during the survey to respond to the effect of drought on selected livelihood activities. the results show that 84.4% of agro-pastoralists interviewed reported a reduction in available pasture for their livestock due to the drought, with more agro-pastoralists from upper east region (96.7%) reportedly been more affected than the other four regions. with the exception of savannah region, over 80% of agro-pastoralists in northern, upper west, and north-east regions reported a reduction in available pastures for their livestock. this means that the livelihoods of over 90% of livestock dependent agro-pastoralists (refer to table 3.5) will be severely and negatively affected due to reduced source of pasture for the livestock. in period of drought, grasses dry up. this reduces available pasture for herd. also, streams, rivers, dams and other natural sources of water for livestock dry up, making it difficult for agropastoralists to access water for their livestock. this insufficient pasture and water availability for livestock can lead to stunting growth among livestock. the results show that about 56.4% of agro-pastoralists in the combined sample reported stunting growth among their livestock due to the drought situation. this was more severe in the upper east region where over 98% of agro-pastoralists interviewed reported stunting growth among their livestock. prolong stunting among livestock can lead to livestock morbidity, retarding livelihoods of agro-pastoralists. in the combined sample, over 66% of agro-pastoralists reported experiencing outbreak of diseases and mortality among their livestock within the drought period, with upper east region recording the highest proportion of agro-pastoralists with reported animal mortality (96.7%) and disease outbreak (81.7%). this disease outbreak was attributed to the sudden high temperatures experienced by livestock, as reported by agro-pastoralists. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% northern savannah north-east upper west upper east combined sample 73.1% 88.8% 79.1% 44.0% 1.7% 61.4% 25.4% 11.2% 12.2% 52.6% 98.3% 35.5% 1.6% 0.0% 4.3% 3.4% 0.0% 2.3%0.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.9% p er ce n ta ge o f r es p on d en ts region neglible moderate severe very severe as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 148 published by ideas spread the existing competition for water and arable land for pasture and crop cultivation between crop farmers and pastoralists heighten in period of drought. the results show that over 60% of agro-pastoralists reported increased competition for water and crop residue for livestock among agro-pastoralists. most pastoralists depend on crop residue and natural water bodies for their livestock, especially cattle. however, the prolong drought caused most water bodies to dry up, thereby increasing pressure on the few available water bodies as source of water for both people and livestock. also, there was a reduction in residue of crops such as cowpea, groundnuts, rice straw, etc. which is available after harvest and serve as the main source of livestock feed. however, due to drought, most crop farmers ploughed back their crops for late planting, reducing the quantity of crop residue available to feed livestock. increase competition for water and crop residue was high among agro-pastoralists in the upper east region, with over 81% of respondents in the study reporting the incidence of increased competition for water and crop residue due to the drought. an agro-pastoralists respondent during the survey interview said that: ”due to the drought, there will be no enough water for the animals and grass as well, so the animals are not going to get enough pasture to feed on” (sap 08, 08/10/2024). a district livestock officer in supporting the effect of the drought on agro-pastoralists livelihood during an interview indicated that: “due to the drought, a lot of animals will not get enough pasture and by so doing, it will lose its weight and the market value too will reduce. and some of them will fall sick and may probably die because there is no enough pasture.” (ki 09, 20/10/2024). in view of the increased competition for crop residue due to drought, most agro-pastoralists resort to buying other feed for their livestock, resulting in increased cost of feeding livestock. the results show that over 47% of agropastoralists interviewed reported increased cost of feeding their livestock during the drought season, and upper east region being the hardest hit with over 76% of respondents reporting increased cost of feeding livestock. thus, upper east region is most negatively impacted by the drought with most agro-pastoralists reporting reduced pasture, increased stunting and mortality of livestock, as well as cost of feeding livestock. most pastoralists depend on livestock milk for income and food. however, the drought affected the quantity of milk produced from livestock, especially cattle, with almost 62% of agro-pastoralists interviewed reporting a reduction in milk production due to the drought. dairy cattle produce more milk when they have enough feed. thus, the reduction in livestock feed due to drought had a negative impact on milk production from livestock. the results further showed that over 50% of agro-pastoralists reported reduced income due to the drought. most agropastoralists depend on crop and livestock products for income. hence, a reduction in livestock production and crop yield due to drought, undoubtedly affect their income. for example, two agro-pastoralists in responding to the effect of the drought on their livelihoods during an interview said that: “inadequate rangeland has negatively impacted the animals’ reproduction and low milk production to cater for the young ones. again, some of the animals have been sold to buy grains for the family” (sap 29, 07/10/2024). “milk production wasn't much for the calves during the drought period because the cattle couldn’t get enough pasture to feed. we, the herders, don't get milk like before, which affects our income and food security because we depend on the milk for food and sell it for income since our cattle owners usually allow us to use the milk as our compensation for taking care of the cattle” (sap 041, 09/10/2024). finally, the drought has resulted in the increased cost of livestock products with 31.5% of respondents reporting increase in the cost of livestock products such as meat, eggs, etc. it should be stated unambiguously that this is not a major effect of the drought given that less than one-third of respondents reported increase in the cost of livestock products. agro-pastoralists perceived drought effects on their livelihoods are presented in table 3.5. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 149 published by ideas spread table 3.5. perceived effects of drought on agro-pastoralists livestock type of effect region combined sample n or th er n s av an na h n or th -e as t u pp er w es t u pp er e as t reduced pasture availability 170 (87.2) 82 (75.9) 112 (80.0) 207 (85.5) 58 (96.7) 629 (84.4) stunting of livestock 112 (57.4) 17 (15.7) 65 (46.4) 167 (69.0) 59 (98.3) 420 (56.4) increase competition with farmers for water and crop residue 146 (76.4) 57 (52.8) 92 (65.7) 103 (42.6) 49 (81.7) 450 (60.4) outbreak of diseases 116 (59.5) 74 (68.5) 97 (69.3) 161 (66.5) 49 (81.7) 497 (66.7) animal mortality 114 (58.5) 60 (55.6) 99 (70.7) 162 (66.9) 58 (96.7) 493 (66.17) increased cost of livestock feeding 66 (33.9) 48 (44.4) 78 (55.7) 115 (47.5) 46 (76.7) 353 (47.4) decreased production of milk 120 (61.5) 66 (61.1) 71 (50.7) 159 (65.7) 45 (75.0) 461 (61.9) reduced income 90 (46.2) 67 (62.0) 73 (52.1) 101 (41.7) 46 (76.7) 377 (50.6) increase cost of livestock products 53 (27.2) 34 (31.5) 58 (41.4) 63 (26.0) 27 (45.0) 235 (31.5) others 10 (5.1) 2 (1.9) 0 (0.0) 7 (2.9) 1 (1.7) 20 2.7) note: figures in parenthesis are in percentage. 3.5 agro-pastoralists’ drought adaptation strategies once agro-pastoralists are affected by the drought, they need to adopt strategies to cope and/or adapt to the effects of the drought on their livelihoods. first, respondents were asked during the survey if they are expecting any external assistance to help cope or adapt to the effect of the drought. the results show that while over 40% of respondents were not expecting any external assistance to cope with or adapt to the drought effect on their livelihoods; only 22.6% of respondent are expecting external assistance to help them cope or adapt to the effect of the perennial drought on their livelihoods while 36.5% of respondents are not sure of any external support to cope or adapt to the effect of drought on their livelihoods. in terms of agro-pastoralists’ expectation for external assistance, only 22.3% and 20.4% of respondents are expecting assistance from the ghana government and non-governmental organizations respectively to assist them cope or adapt to the effects of the drought on their livelihoods. less than 5% of respondents expect support from their family, friends, agro-pastoralists based organizations or civil society organizations to cope or adapt to the drought effect on their livelihoods. thus, agro-pastoralists with expectation for external assistance, are mainly looking to the government and ngos for support to cope with or adapt to the drought effects on their livelihoods. results on agro-pastoralists expectation on external support and source of these external supports to help them cope or adapt to the effect of drought on their livelihoods are similar across all five regions. in the second quarter of 2024, the government of ghana registered farmers in northern ghana through the ministry of food and agriculture to compensate them for the 2024 drought effects. however, the results show that only 21.3% of agro-pastoralists interviewed in the combined sample were captured in the survey to benefit from the support expected from the government of ghana, with north-east region having the highest proportion of respondents (47.9%) who reported to have been registered for these support from the government. the result show as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 150 published by ideas spread that over 86% of respondents who expect external support anticipate these support to cover both crop and livestock losses. these results are not very different among respondents from the five northern regions under study. figure 3.7 presents results agro-pastoralists who were captured in the mofa registration for government of ghana support figure 3.7. mofa registration of farmers for government drought support government’s support to farmers for flood and/or drought are often targeted at crop lost, neglecting livestock. this makes livestock farmers more vulnerable to climatic shocks such as drought than crop farmers. responding to the government’s registration of farmers for support, a district livestock officer stated that: “i have not registered livestock farmers who suffered the 2024 drought to benefit from the government’s support. over the years, the government’s support mostly targets crop farmers and neglect livestock farmers and this question can best be explained by the high authorities” (ki 05, 20/10/2024). similarly, another district officer in charge of livestock during an interview stated that: “government has a plan to support farmers affected by the drought spell. however, the support targets crop farmers. i am not aware of any government support for livestock farmers. in this current registration, the government has not given us the go ahead to register livestock farmers. however, most of the crop farmers are also into animal production. hence, we only recorded the number of livestock owned by the farmers but not the number of livestock lost due to the drought” (ki 10, 24/10/2024). these results show that there is no clear plan targeting livestock farmers in adapting to the effect of floods and/or drought. thus, as much as livestock farmers are exposed to climatic shocks (eg. floods and drought), there are no external support mechanisms to boost their adaptive capacities, thereby rendering than more vulnerable to the effects of climate change, than crop farmers and other land users. table 3.6 presents external assistance to agro-pastoralists. 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% northern savannah north-east upper west upper east combined sample 24.60% 10.20% 47.90% 7.40% 25.00% 21.30% percentage of respondents r eg io n as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 151 published by ideas spread table 3.6. external assistance to agro-pastoralists adaptation strategy region combined sample n or th er n s av an na h n or th -e as t u pp er w es t u pp er e as t expectation of external assistance to adapt to the effect of the drought no 58 (29.7) 75 (69.4) 42 (30.0) 112 (46.3) 18 (30.0) 305 (40.9) yes 66 (33.9) 22 (20.4) 44 (31.4) 21 (8.7) 15 (25.0) 168 (22.6) not sure 71 (36.4) 11 (10.2) 54 (38.6) 109 (45.0) 27 (45.0) 272 (36.5) sources of external assistance to agropastoralists family 17 (8.7) 3 (2.8) 6 (4.3) 2 (0.8) 0 (0.0) 28 (3.8) friends 18 (9.2) 3 (2.8) 5 (3.6) 3 (1.2) 1 (1.7) 30 (4.0) government 66 (33.9) 22 (20.4) 43 (30.7) 20 (8.3) 15 (25.0) 166 (22.3) ngos 58 (29.7) 19 (17.6) 42 (30.0) 18 (7.4) 15 (25.0) 152 (20.4) cso 9 (4.6) 14 (13.0) 2 (1.4) 6 (2.5) 0 (0.0) 31 (4.2) agro-pastoralist-based organizations 11 (5.6) 9 (8.3) 5 (3.6) 10 (4.1) 0 (0.0) 35 (4.7) what type of loss will the assistance cover crops loss only 4 (6.1) 4 (18.2) 1 (2.3) 0 (0.0) 2 (13.3) 11 (6.6) livestock loss only 7 (10.6) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (4.8) 3 (20.0) 11 (6.6) both crops and livestock loss 55 (83.3) 18 (81.8) 43 (97.7) 20 (95.2) 10 (66.7) 146 (86.9) note: figures in parenthesis are in percentage. drought has been a perennial climate shock bedeviling agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods and the 2024 drought is just one of the climate shocks experienced by agro-pastoralists in northern ghana. hence, agro-pastoralists have been adapting to climate shocks such drought by adopting adaptation strategies. key informant interviews and household survey revealed that agro-pastoralists reported adopting such strategies as buying of fodder for herd, migrating to other communities, reducing feeding for livestock, night grazing, selling some of the livestock, engaging other strategies or doing nothing. agro-pastoralists could adopt one or more strategies to cope with or adapt to the effect of the drought. the results showed that 46.2% of agro-pastoralists interviewed in the combined sample reported buying fodder for their livestock, with all respondents from the upper east region adopting this strategy. buying fodder for livestock increases the cost of feeding livestock compared to where there is enough natural pasture for livestock grazing. the results further show that over 40% of respondents reported that they will migrate to other communities in as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 152 published by ideas spread search for water, pasture for livestock and arable land for crop cultivation. in the northern region, more than 50% of agro-pastoralists interviewed reported that they will migrate to other communities to cope with or adapt to the effect of the drought. the migration of agro-pastoralists will lead to increased competition for water and arable land for crop cultivation and pasture for livestock. this implies that the receiving or destination communities need to be sensitized and resourced to accommodate these migrant agro-pastoralists. the results further show that over 23% of agro-pastoralists will reduce feeding for livestock and also engage in night grazing. reducing livestock feed or feed rationing will reduce livestock weight and also has health implications. on the other hand, sending livestock for night grazing will most likely cause crop damage, thereby worsening the existing adverse effect of the drought on livelihoods of crop farmers as well as increasing the existing farmer-herder feud. reducing livestock feed is predominant among agro-pastoralists in upper east region. other agro-pastoralists who are unable to buy fodder for their livestock and do not want to risk losing their livestock, reported selling some of the livestock as a strategy to adapt to the effect of the drought. in the combine data, over 44% of respondents reported selling off some of their livestock due to the drought. this is predominant among agro-pastoralists in the upper east region (60.0%) and upper west region (50.0%). finally, almost 13% of respondents did not adopt any strategy to cope with or adapt to the effect of the drought on their livelihoods. thus, their livelihoods’ are left to the mercy of nature and the ‘survival of the fittest’ syndrome. table 3.7 presents agro-pastoralists’ drought adaptation strategies. table 3.7. agro-pastoralists drought adaptation strategies adaptation strategy region combined sample n or th er n s av an na h n or th -e as t u pp er w es t u pp er e as t buy fodder 85 (43.6) 45 (41.7) 59 (42.1) 95 (39.3) 60 (100) 344 (46.2) migrate to other communities 98 (50.3) 63 (58.3 63 (45.0) 72 (29.8) 8 (13.3) 304 (40.8) reduce cattle feeding 66 (33.9) 8 (7.4) 52 (37.1) 17 (7.0) 34 (56.7) 177 (23.8) night grazing 15 (7.7) 26 (24.1) 46 (32.9) 81 (33.5) 5 (8.3) 173 (23.2) sell some herd 66 (33.9) 54 (50.0) 54 (38.6) 121 (50.0) 36 (60.0) 331 (44.4) others 15 (7.7) 3 (2.8) 5 (3.6) 13 (5.4) 1 (1.7) 37 (5.0) do nothing 22 (11.3) 11 (10.2) 19 (13.6) 44 (18.2) 0 (0.0) 96 (12.9) note: figures in parenthesis are in percentage. 4. conclusions and implications of findings 4.1 conclusions from the study this study was clip response to the 2024 drought spell’s effect on the livelihoods of agro-pastoralists livelihoods in northern ghana. the study sought to examine agro-pastoralists’ drought spell experience, the effect of the drought spell on their livelihoods, and the strategies they adopt to adapt to the effects of the drought spell. in pursuance of these objectives, the study interviewed 745 agro-pastoralists using survey questionnaire and 22 district livestock officers using unstructured interview guide. based on the findings from the results generated from the data, the following conclusions are drawn: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 153 published by ideas spread  almost all agro-pastoralists experienced the 2024 drought spell, for an average of 28 days and at most 41 days. agro-pastoralists in the upper east region experienced the longest drought period with 32 days without rain.  the effect of drought on agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods is very severe and manifest in the form of reduced pasture availability, stunting and outbreak of diseases among livestock, livestock mortality, increased competition for water and pasture and reduced income among agro-pastoralists.  the effect of drought on livelihoods varies by geographical location and agro-pastoralists in upper east region are the most adversely impacted by the 2024 drought.  majority of agro-pastoralists (almost 80%) are not expecting any external support to help them cope/adapt to the effect of the drought on their livelihoods. this hinders their adaptive capacity and renders them more vulnerable to climate shocks.  only one out of five agro-pastoralists was captured in the government of ghana farmer registration for support to cushion agro-pastoralists in ameliorating the effects of the drought on their livelihoods. thus, few agro-pastoralists stand the chance of benefiting from the promised support from the government of ghana to avert the effect of the drought on their livelihoods. hence, most agro-pastoralists are left to their faith to cope/adapt to the impact of the drought, making their livelihoods more vulnerable to the impact of climate shocks such as the 2024 drought.  there is limited available external support to help agro-pastoralists adapt to the effect of drought.  the main strategies adopted by agro-pastoralists in adapting to the effects of drought spell are to buy fodder for their livestock, migrate to other communities in search for pasture and water, and selling off some of their livestock. these are not sustainable adaptation strategies. 4.2 policy implications policy implications of the above conclusions from the findings are not far fetch.  given that most agro-pastoralists were not captured in the government registration of farmers for support and most agro-pastoralists are not expecting any external support to help them adapt to the drought effect on their livelihoods, the ghana livestock development strategy and policy need to be revised to consider setting up funds aim at supporting agro-pastoralists to respond to climate shocks such as floods, drought and outbreak of epidemic, and other shocks.  civil society organisations (cso), non-governmental organisations (ngo), international organisations and other think tanks should advocate for the funding support and projects aimed at strengthening the resilience and adaptive capacity of agro-pastoralists to cope/adapt to the adverse effects of climate shocks.  policy response to drought adaptation should consider difference in location. this is based on the findings that most agro-pastoralists in the upper east region are more affected by the drought than agropastoralists from other region. references african union commission. (2015). the livestock development strategy for africa 2015-2035. nairobi, kenya. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/au196356eng.pdf alhassan, s. i., kyereh, b., & osei-tutu, p. (2024). stakeholders’ evaluation of a farmer-herder conflict research project in the ashanti region of ghana. sustainable agriculture research, 13 (2), 84–100. https://doi.org/10.5539/sar.v13n2p84 alhassan, s. i., kyereh, b., pouliot, m., & derkyi, m. a. a. (2024). effect of farmer–herder conflict adaptation strategies on multidimensional poverty and subjective wellbeing in ghana. african journal of agricultural and resource economics, 19 (2), 181–213. https://doi.org/10.53936/afjare.2024.19(2).11 fao. (2022). drought in the horn of africa: revised rapid response and mitigation plan to avert a humanitarian catastrophe – january–december 2022 (first revision). rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0638en fao. (2024). ghana at a glance. https://www.fao.org/ghana/fao-in-ghana/ghana-at-a-glance/en/ ghana statistical service. (2014). ghana living standards survey round 6 (glss 6): poverty profile in ghana (2005-2013). accra, ghana: author. ghana statistical service. (2019). ghana living standard survey round 7: main report. accra, ghana: author. ghana statistical service. (2021). ghana 2021 population and housing census: population of regions and districts. general report, volume 3a. accra, ghana: author. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 154 published by ideas spread https://statsghana.gov.gh/gssmain/fileupload/pressrelease/2021%20phc%20general%20report%20vol%2 03a_population%20of%20regions%20and%20districts_181121.pdf international organization for migration. (2023, february 23). dtm horn of africa drought 2022: human mobility snapshot (january–december 2022). iom, east and the horn of africa. https://dtm.iom.int/reports/horn-africa-drought-2022-human-mobility-snapshot-january-december-2022 krejcie, r. v., & morgan, d. w. (1970). determining sample size for research activities. educational and psychological measurement, 30 (3), 607–610. mauerman, m., ross, c., nébié, e. i., anderson, w., jensen, n., & chelanga, p. (2023). the long-term impact of multi-season droughts on livestock holdings and pastoralist decision-making in marsabit, kenya. journal of arid environments, 211, 104928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2022.104928 schrieks, t., botzen, w. j. w., haer, t., & aerts, j. c. j. h. (2024). drought risk attitudes in pastoral and agropastoral communities in kenya. journal of behavioral and experimental economics, 108, 102143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2023.102143 statistics, research, and information directorate of ministry of food and agriculture. (2022). facts and figures: agriculture in ghana, 2021. accra, ghana: ministry of food and agriculture. file:///e:/%c2%a0/clip%20job/drought%20data/literature/mofa%202022_facts%20and%20figures.p df world bank. (2023, september 1). financial inclusion builds resilience of pastoralists to drought. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2023/09/01/financial-inclusion-builds-resilience-ofpastoralists-to-afe-drought appendices appendix a: households level questionnaire consent of respondent this study is conducted by changing lives in innovative partnerships (clip), under its agro-pastoralism project. the purpose of this study is to assess the effect of the 2024 drought on livestock production and livelihoods of agro-pastoralists in northern ghana and identify possible measures to address these effects. the findings from this survey will provide empirical data to support clip advocacy for support from governmental and nongovernmental organisations in ameliorating the drought effects on livelihoods of agro-pastoralist. this study is fully funded by clip with no conflict of interest in the outcome of the findings. in view of this, you have been randomly selected to participate in this survey. however, your participation in this survey is voluntary and you have the right to or not to participate in the survey. your participation in this survey will only require your time, but no associated cost. clip cannot assure you of any direct material benefit for your participation. however, responses from this survey will be used as the basis to advocate for stakeholders support for agro-pastoralist to remedy the likely effect of the drought on their livelihoods. thus, clip would appreciate your time for participating in this survey. this survey is expected to last for about 25 minutes. it will solicit responses on your demographic characteristics, sources of livelihoods, perceived effect of the 2024 drought on your livestock and livelihoods, your strategies of adapting to these effects, and available support for pastoralists. anonymity of respondents is guaranteed in this survey. findings from this survey would be treated confidentially and analysis of data generated would be based on aggregates of all responses, without mentioning individual respondents' names. to show your consent to participate in this survey without any condition, kindly select yes, otherwise, you can select no if you don’t consent to participate in this survey. yes [ ] no [ ] contact details: lukman yussif (email: lukman@clipghana.org. phone #: 0244889962) mohammed alhassan sayibu: (email: alhassan@clipghana.org. phone #: 0242809619) issah suhiyini alhassan (email: issahsuhiyini@yahoo.com. phone #: 0242388096) sulemana wumbei sayibu (email: sulemana@clipghana.org. phone #: 0246890270) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 155 published by ideas spread name of enumerator: ______________________________________________________ a. households identification 1. name of respondent: 2. phone number: 3. region: northern [ ] savannah [ ] north-east [ ] upper west [ ] upper east [ ] 4. district: northern (karaga, mion, yendi, gusheigu, tatale/sanguli, nanumba north, nanumba south, kpandai), savannah (east gonja, central gonja, north gonja, west gonja, bole), north-east (cheriponi, east mamprusi, yonyo, mamprugu-moagduri), upper west (lambuisie, wa east, wa west), and upper east (bawku west, garu) 5. name of community: ____________________________ b. socio-demographic characteristic: 6. sex of respondent? male [ ] female [ ] 7. age of respondent in years? [ ] 8. household size: please record the number of household members within the following age groups below 15years [ ] 15 – 59 years [ ] 60+ years [ ] 9. educational level of household head? none [ ] primary [ ] middle school/jss/jhs [ ] o level/sss/shs [ ] post-secondary [ ] tertiary [ ] 10. marital status of household head? single [ ] married [ ] window [ ] divorce [ ] others [ ] 11. religion of respondent? christian [ ] islam [ ] african traditional religion [ ] 12. where were you born? within this community [ ] within the district [ ] within the region [ ] outside the region but ghana [ ] outside ghana [ ] others [ ] specify:________________________________________ 13. what is your ethnicity? akan [ ] dagomba [ ] mamprusi [ ] konkomba [ ] dagaati/wali [ ] sissala [ ] ewe [ ] gonja [ ] bimoba [ ] gruni/frafra [ ] fulbe [ ] other [ ] specify: ________ 14. do you belong to any farmer or pastoralist group? yes [ ] no [ ] 15. do you think farmer/pastoralist groups are putting enough effort into seeking support from both government and ngos to assist you adapt to the effect of the drought? yes [ ] no [ ] c. livelihood 16. what are your major economic activities? (tick all applicable). farming [ ] sedentary herding [ ] nomadic herding [ ] transhumance herding [ ] trading [ ] formal employment [ ] mining works [ ] arts work [ ] others [ ] specify: _____________ 17. which of these activities in (14) above is your major economic activity? (tick only one applicable). farming [ ] sedentary herding [ ] nomadic herding [ ] transhumance herding [ ] trading [ ] formal employment [ ] mining works [ ] arts work [ ] others [ ] 18. what livestock do you have? (tick all applicable and state their numbers) cattle [ ] goat [ ] sheep [ ] fowls [ ] ducks [ ] pigs [ ] others [ ] specify: __________________ d. drought experience and expected effects 19. did you experience drought in your community within the 2024 farming season? yes [ ] no [ ] 20. how long did the drought last? [ ] months [ ] weeks [ ] days 21. how severe was the drought? very severe [ ] severe [ ] moderate [ ] negligible [ ] 22. what is the expected effect of the drought on your livestock production/livelihood? (tick all applicable) reduced pasture availability [ ] stunting of livestock [ ] increase competition with farmers for water and crop residue [ ] outbreak of diseases [ ] animal mortality [ ] increased cost of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 156 published by ideas spread livestock feeding [ ] decreased production of milk [ ] reduced income [ ] increase cost of livestock products [ ] others [ ] specify: ______________________ 23. please, estimate the number of your livestock affected by the drought? [ ] e. adaptation strategies 24. how do you intend to adapt to the effect of the drought? (tick all applicable) buy fodder [ ] migrate to other communities [ ] reduce cattle feeding [ ] night grazing [ ] sell some herd [ ] do nothing [ ] others [ ] specify 25. were you captured in the mofa registration of farmers for government assistance for farmers affected by drought? yes [ ] no [ ] 26. do you expect any external assistance to help you adapt to the effects of the drought? yes [ ] no [ ] not sure [ ] 27. if yes to question (26), what are these eternal sources? (tick all applicable) family [ ] friends [ ] government [ ] ngos [ ] cso [ ] farmer-based organisations [ ] others [ ] specify: _______________________ 28. if yes to question (26), what will loss will the assistance cover? crop loss only [ ] livestock loss only [ ] both crop and livestock loss [ ] others [ ] specify: _____________________ f. qualitative data (record responses into the space provided ): 29. narrate how the drought is likely to affect your pastoral activities this year. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………. 30. how would you adapt to the effects of the drought on your pastoral activities and livelihood. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… 31. any other comment from respondents: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… 32. i would like to take a picture of you and/or your livestock to show evidence of drought effect on your livelihoods. do you agree? (seek for respondent’s consent before taking picture) yes [ ] no [ ] end of interview thank you appendix b: key informant interview guide (mofa officers and leaders of agro-pastoralist-based organisations) 1. name of organisation and district: ………………………………………………… 2. position of respondent: ……………………………………………………………. 3. did you experience drought in your district within the 2024 farming season? yes [ ] no [ ] 4. if yes, how severe was the drought? ………………………………………….. 5. does government plan to support farmers affected by the drought damage? yes [ ] no [ ] 6. if yes, what is the nature of this government’s support for farmers? 7. does these government support targets only crop farmers or both crop farmers and pastoralists? 8. are there other supports from ngos to farmers to address the effects of drought on their livelihoods? yes [ ] no [ ] as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 157 published by ideas spread 9. are pastoralist listed to benefit from the support from ngos? yes [ ] no [ ] why, if no. …………………………………………………………………… 10. in your view, how do you think the drought situation will impact the livelihood of pastoralists and their livestock? 11. how can pastoralists adapt to the effects of the drought? 12. have you registered crop farmers to benefit from this government support? yes [ ] no [ ] 13. have you registered livestock farmers to benefit from this government support? yes [ ] no [ ] 14. if yes, which livestock are covered under the government support 15. if no, why are livestock farmers not covered under the government support programme? copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p17 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n2p17 17 published by ideas spread design and performance testing of the hydraulic system for the pickup assembly of a residual film recovery machine yapeng li1 & nan zang1 1 school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china correspondence: yapeng li, school of agricultural engineering, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, jiangsu, china. received: november 1, 2025 accepted: november 10, 2025 online published: november 14, 2025 abstract addressing issues such as complex transmission structures and poor speed regulation in traditional mechanical residual film collectors used in xinjiang cotton fields, this study designs a load-sensing hydraulic system for the pickup working components of residual film collectors. field tests evaluated key parameters including operating pressure and flow rate, while investigating the influence of pickup chain speed and forward speed on residual film collection efficiency. results indicate that the designed hydraulic system meets operational requirements under complex field conditions. when the forward speed varies between 0 and 12 km/h, the optimal pickup chain speed range is 57.6 to 83.6 r/min. this study provides theoretical basis and practical reference for optimizing hydraulic systems in residual film collectors. keywords: residual film collector, hydraulic system, load sensing, operational parameter optimization, field trial 1. introduction as a major cotton-producing region in china, xinjiang began promoting plastic mulch technology in cotton fields during the 1980s. this technology significantly increased cotton yields and water resource utilization efficiency. however, the widespread use of plastic mulch has led to increasingly severe residual film pollution in farmland, creating so-called "white pollution"[1]. residual plastic film disrupts soil structure, impairs crop growth, reduces agricultural productivity, and causes long-term harm to the agricultural ecosystem[2-3]. with the advancement of agricultural modernization, mechanized film residue recovery has become the primary method for addressing this pollution[4]. currently, china's residual film collectors primarily employ chain-driven and drum-type designs, relying mainly on mechanical transmission. while these devices can perform automated functions such as film pickup, debris removal, and baling, they still suffer from low reliability, limited adaptability, and suboptimal recovery efficiency[5]. particularly in the complex operational environment of xinjiang cotton fields, traditional mechanical residual film collectors struggle to adjust pickup speeds in real-time according to field conditions, severely compromising recovery effectiveness. developed countries enforce stringent standards for agricultural film quality, predominantly using plastic mulch films with thicknesses exceeding 0.02 mm[6-7]. overseas residual film collectors primarily employ roll-up designs, characterized by simple and efficient structures[8]. for instance, sawyer[9] in the united states invented a film collector that significantly enhances recovery efficiency by synchronizing the forward speed of the implement with the rotational speed of the film roll. in hydraulic technology applications, r.l. parish[10] designed a recovery device using a hydraulic motor to control the film roll speed, matching the roll's linear velocity to the working speed by adjusting the motor's rotation rate. this hydraulically driven roll-up design is widely adopted internationally. china's residual film collectors primarily feature pickup-type combined operations, capable of simultaneously performing operations such as stalk cutting, film raking, and film collection. based on differences in collection principles, they can be categorized into two main structural types: drum-type and chain-type. in recent years, domestic researchers have actively explored hydraulic technology applications for residual film collectors. wang et al.[11] developed a hydraulic cotton field film collection and baling machine, optimizing operational parameters using a five-factor, three-level box-behnken design method. li et al.[12-13] developed a hydraulic system for combined residual film pickup and stalk recovery machinery, enhancing bale formation success rates. wang[14] designed an automatic contour-following hydraulic system for cotton stalk return and residual film recovery machinery, improving machine adaptability in complex environments. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 18 published by ideas spread hydraulic technology finds increasingly widespread application in agricultural machinery, particularly in largescale equipment like cotton pickers[15] and harvesters[16]. load-sensing technology, a key development direction for hydraulic systems, automatically adjusts system output based on load variations, enhancing energy efficiency and system stability[17]. threaded cartridge valve technology, characterized by compact structure and reliable performance, is gradually replacing traditional plate valves and stacked valves in modern agricultural machinery hydraulic systems[18-20]. the introduction of proportional control technology has transformed hydraulic control from traditional on-off operation to precise continuous proportional control, meeting the demands of high-pressure and high-flow applications[21-22]. despite progress in residual film recovery machine research both domestically and internationally, the following issues persist: insufficient depth in applying domestic hydraulic drive technology to residual film recovery machines, particularly limited research on pickup working components; traditional mechanical residual film recovery machines struggle to achieve stepless adjustment of pickup speed, failing to adapt to complex and variable operating conditions; existing research predominantly focuses on optimizing individual components or functions, lacking studies on coordinated control of the entire system; insufficient research exists on the quantitative relationship between operational parameters and recovery efficiency of residual film recovery machines. to address the aforementioned issues, this paper investigates the hydraulic system design and control strategies for the pickup working components of residual film recovery machines. key research areas include: designing a load-sensing hydraulic system for the pickup working components; validating system performance through field trials and analyzing the impact of operational parameters on recovery efficiency; establishing a matching relationship model between pickup chain speed and forward speed; and proposing an optimized control strategy to enhance the machine's adaptability and operational efficiency. this research holds significant importance for resolving technical challenges encountered during practical operations of residual film recovery machines, advancing the development of residual film recovery technology toward intelligent and efficient directions, and providing theoretical foundations and practical references for the technological upgrading and innovation of related equipment. 2. hydraulic system design for residual film recovery machines 2.1 system design requirements and operating condition analysis residual film collectors operate in complex and variable environments. xinjiang cotton fields feature diverse soil types, including sandy and clay soils, alongside uneven terrain and rocky areas, imposing stringent demands on the hydraulic system. based on the structural characteristics of the 4mz220d self-propelled residual film recovery machine, its film collection components primarily consist of a debris-cleaning auger assembly, a pickup chain assembly, and a film-rolling and baling assembly (figure 1). the hydraulic system must meet the following design requirements: (1) adaptability to complex operating conditions: the system must maintain stable operation despite variations in soil hardness, terrain undulations, and interference from residual crop straw. (2) stepless speed adjustment: the pick-up chain speed must be continuously adjustable within 0-120 r/min to accommodate varying forward speeds (0-12 km/h). (3) energy consumption and heat dissipation: system efficiency must exceed traditional mechanical transmission, with oil temperature controlled below 65°c to ensure long-term operational reliability. (4) safety protection: incorporate safety measures such as relief valves and overload protection to prevent mechanism jamming or hydraulic shock damage to components. based on field test data, the pick-up mechanism experiences significant torque fluctuations (0.003-703.412 nꞏm) during operation, with an average torque of 126.222 nꞏm. the system must demonstrate excellent load adaptability and dynamic response capability. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 19 published by ideas spread 1. debris-clearing auger assembly. 2. pickup chain assembly. 3. film-rolling baling assembly. 4. ground roller. figure 1. schematic diagram of the working component structure for residual film recovery 2.2 load analysis and parameter calculation of working components 2.2.1 mechanical model of the pickup mechanism 1. pick-up chain. 2. idler roller. 3. frame. 4. lubrication port. 5. hydraulic motor. 6. drive roller. 7. sensor. 8. vibration mechanism. figure 2. schematic diagram of the working principle of the pickup chain as shown in figure 2, the pickup chain 1 is mounted on the drive roller 6 and driven roller 2. the frame 3 adjusts its tension. the drive roller, powered by the hydraulic motor mounted on the frame, drives the pickup chain to rotate. the frame 3 is suspended from the rear of the vehicle via a mechanism. the penetration depth h of the pickup tines is adjusted by regulating the depth-limiting wheel connected to the frame. during operation, the pick-up chain primarily overcomes the tangential resistance between the pick-up teeth and the soil. based on metal-soil dynamics research[23], the pick-up resistance is calculated using the following formula: 𝐹 𝜇 𝐵𝐻𝑙𝑛𝑣 𝑓 (1) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 20 published by ideas spread where, 𝐹 represents the pickup resistance (n); 𝜇 denotes the resistance coefficient between the pickup teeth and soil; 𝐵 represents the number of pickup chain roots; 𝐻 is the penetration depth of the pickup teeth into the soil (mm); 𝑣 is the relative movement speed between the teeth and the ground surface (m/s); 𝑓 represents the frictional resistance (n). the relationship between the linear speed of the pick-up tines (𝑣) and the forward speed of the implement (𝑣 ) is: 𝑣 𝜋𝐷𝑛 60 𝑣 (2) where, 𝑣 is the implement forward speed (m); 𝐷 is the working diameter of the pick-up teeth (m); 𝑛 is the rotational speed of the passive pick-up roller (r/min). 𝑓 is the friction resistance between the pick-up mechanism and the soil (n): 𝑓 𝜇2𝑓 (3) where, 𝜇 is the friction coefficient between the pick-up tines and the soil; 𝑓 is the normal force exerted by the pick-up tines on the ground (n). torque formula for the drive roller to overcome pickup resistance: 𝑇1 𝐹1 𝐷 2 𝜇1𝐵𝐻 𝑙𝑛 𝜋𝐷𝑛 60 𝑣 𝜇2𝑓 𝐷 2 (4) in actual operation, the system must also overcome the resistance from the debris-clearing mechanism (𝑇 ) and the resistance from its own mechanical structure (𝑇 ). the total torque load is: 𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇 (5) considering safety redundancy, the torque selection formula for the hydraulic motor is: 𝑇 𝑖𝑘𝑇 (6) where, 𝑖 is the transmission ratio; 𝑘 is the redundancy factor. 𝑇 cannot be directly calculated, thus requiring measurement of the actual load on the drive roller of the residual film recovery machine's pickup chain via a torque sensor. 2.2.2 torque characteristics test validation to obtain authentic load data, field measurements of the pick-up roller torque were conducted using a tq201 wireless torque sensor (figure 3). test conditions: pickup roller speed 62 r/min, forward speed approximately 5 km/h. results shown in figure 4 indicate torque fluctuations ranging from 0.003 to 703.412 nꞏm, with an average of 126.222 nꞏm and a median of 62.999 nꞏm, demonstrating significant load variability. (a) tq201 sensor (b) sensor mounting configuration on the pick-up roller figure 3. torque node and pick-up roller as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 21 published by ideas spread figure 4. torque waveform diagram of the pick-up device table 1. loads during field operation of the pick-up roller pickup drive roller torque minimum maximum average median value (nꞏm) 0.003 703.412 126.222 62.999 the organized torque values are shown in table 1. substituting the maximum values measured by 𝑇 (𝑇 703 nꞏm), the average values (𝑇 126 nꞏm), and the values 𝑖 7/10 and 𝑘 1.2 into equation (6) yields: 𝑇 𝑖 𝑘 𝑇 590.5 nꞏm and 𝑇 106 nꞏm. therefore, the eaton 6k-390 cycloidal hydraulic motor is selected as the hydraulic motor for the pick-up chain. its displacement is 390 cm³/r, torque is 1155 nꞏm, and maximum intermittent torque is 1635 nꞏm, meeting the requirements. 4.1 system working pressure and flow calculation the system operating pressure depends on the maximum load torque. the torque-pressure relationship for the hydraulic motor is: 𝑇 ∆𝑝𝑉𝜂 20𝜋 (7) where, 𝑇 represents the motor load (nꞏm); ∆𝑝 denotes the pressure differential between the motor's inlet and outlet ports (bar); 𝑉 indicates the motor displacement (cm3/r); 𝜂 signifies the mechanical efficiency of the hydraulic motor, typically ranging from 80% to 95%. ∆𝑝 𝑝1 𝑝2 (8) 𝑝1 t20𝜋 𝑉𝜂 𝑃2 (9) substituting 𝑇 𝑇 669 nꞏm, 𝜂 0.8 , and 𝑉 390 cm3/r into formula (8) yields ∆𝑝 135 bar. substituting 𝑇 𝑇 919 nꞏm, 𝜂 0.8 , and 𝑉 390 cm3/r into formula (8) yields ∆𝑝 185 bar. therefore, the system rated working pressure is set to 180 bar, with a maximum pressure of 305 bar. system flow rate is calculated based on motor speed requirements: 𝑞 𝑉𝑛 1000 (10) where, 𝑛 is the rotational speed of the hydraulic motor during operation (r/min). the pick-up chain speed ranges from 0 to 120 r/min, corresponding to a flow rate of 0 to 46.8 l/min. considering a leakage factor k=1.3, the maximum system flow requirement is 61 l/min. 2.3 hydraulic component selection calculation 2.3.1 hydraulic pump selection as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 22 published by ideas spread maximum operating pressure of the hydraulic pump 𝑝 : 𝑝 𝑝1 ∑∆𝑝 (11) where, 𝑝 is the maximum working pressure of the hydraulic pump (bar); 𝑝 is the maximum working pressure of the pick-up chain motor (bar); ∑∆𝑝 is the total pipeline loss between the hydraulic pump outlet and the pickup chain hydraulic motor inlet (bar). through load calculations, the maximum operating pressure of the pick-up chain motor is determined to be 185 bar, with other working loads estimated at 100 bar. the primary pressure loss in the piping system is attributed to the proportional flow valve, amounting to 20 bar. consequently, the maximum operating pressure of the hydraulic pump should exceed 305 bar. determining the hydraulic pump flow rate and pressure 𝑞 : 𝑞 𝐾∑𝑞 (12) where, 𝐾 is the system leakage coefficient; ∑𝑞 is the maximum flow rate of the pick-up chain hydraulic motor (l/min). the maximum rotational speed of the pick-up chain motor is 120 r/min. therefore, based on the hydraulic motor flow formula, the system flow rate is calculated as 46.8 l/min, with 𝐾 1.3. the maximum flow rate of the hydraulic pump should be greater than 61 l/min. 𝑃 𝑝 𝑞 𝜂 (13) where, 𝑝 is the maximum operating pressure of the hydraulic pump (pa); 𝑞 is the flow rate of the hydraulic pump (m3/s); 𝜂 is the overall efficiency of the hydraulic pump, typically 0.8 to 0.85 for a plunger pump. substituting 𝑝 305 bar,𝑞 61 l/min into equation 13 and using 𝜂 0.8 yields the maximum drive power 𝑃 38790 w for the hydraulic pump. the danfoss 45 series load-sensing pump (figure 5) was selected, featuring a displacement of 45 cm³/r, continuous operating pressure of 310 bar, and rated flow of 126 l/min (2900 r/min), meeting the requirements. (a) physical diagram (b) installation diagram figure 5. danfoss 45 series load-sensing pump 2.3.2 actuator selection based on the principle of equal flow in series circuits, the displacement of each motor is selected inversely proportional to its rotational speed: 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 (14) where 𝑞 is the flow rate through the hydraulic motor (l/min). 𝑉1𝑛1 𝑉2𝑛2 𝑉3𝑛3 (15) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 23 published by ideas spread where the speed ratios for the picking chain, baler, and debris-cleaning auger are set at 1:0.8:1.2. the selection results are shown in table 2, with physical diagrams depicted in figure 6. table 2. selection parameters of hydraulic motors hydraulic motor name model displacement (l/r) rated pressure (mpa) speed range (r/min) rated output torque (nꞏm) pickup chain motor 6k-390 390 20.5 0-387 930 packing machine motor 2k-245 245 17 0-308 555 debris removal auger motor 2k-195 195 17 0-385 465 the physical diagram of the motor and its installation position on the residual film machine are shown in figure 6. (a) 6k-390 cycloidal motor (b) 2k-195 cycloidal motor (c) pickup chain and baler motor installation (d) debris-cleaning auger motor installation figure 6. hydraulic motor physical diagram 2.3.4 selection of auxiliary components for the hydraulic motor accumulator: in this system, the accumulator primarily serves to absorb shocks. its effective working volume is calculated using the formula: 𝑉0 𝑚 2 𝑣2 0.4 𝑝0 ⎣ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎡ 103 𝑝2 𝑝0 0.285 1 ⎦ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎤ (16) where, 𝑉 is the required accumulator volume (m3); 𝑚 is the total fluid mass in the pipeline (kg); 𝑣 is the flow velocity in the pipe (m/s); 𝑝 is the minimum system operating pressure (bar); 𝑝 is the charging pressure (bar), set to 90% of the system operating pressure. assuming a system stable pressure of 170 bar and a maximum surge pressure of 305 bar,𝑚 1 kg, 𝑣 3 m/s, the calculation yields 𝑉 0.54 l. selects the gxq-d-0.75-210-l diaphragm accumulator with a volume of 0.75 l. tank capacity: the empirical formula for tank volume is: 𝑉 𝑎𝑞 (17) where, 𝑞 is the volumetric flow rate of hydraulic oil discharged per minute by the pump (m3/min); 𝑎 is an empirical coefficient, typically ranging from 1 to 2 for mobile machinery. using empirical formula (17) with 𝑎 1.5 and 𝑞 120 l/min (maximum flow rate), the calculated value 𝑉 180 l. set to 200 l. 2.4 descriptive stats as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 24 published by ideas spread 2.4.1 descriptive stats the hydraulic system model was established using amesim software, as shown in figure 7. key parameters are listed in table 3. figure 7. simulation model table 3. selection parameters of hydraulic motor component parameter description setting value film-forming chain motor motor displacement displacement (ml/r) 390 typical motor speed rotational speed (r/min) 1000 rolling film motor motor displacement displacement (ml/r) 245 typical motor speed rotational speed (r/min) 1000 cleaning motor motor displacement displacemen (ml/r) 195 typical motor speed rotational speed (r/min) 1000 variable displacement pump pump displacement pump displacement (ml/r) 100 power source shaft speed motor speed (r/min) 2250 load-sensing valve ls pilot differential pressure for maximum opening ls set pressure (bar) 20 maximum controlled pressure maximum controlled pressure (bar) 230 proportional flow valve valve rated current valve rated current (ma) 1800 pressure compensating valve control pressure differential control pressure differential (bar) 7 pilot differential pressure for additional opening 1 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 25 published by ideas spread maximum closing pressure due to spring stiffness (bar) relief safety valve relief valve cracking pressure activation pressure (bar) 260 2.4.2 standby condition when the residual film recovery machine is in standby mode, the hydraulic motor stops rotating. the proportional valve opening is zero, the pump maintains a standby pressure of 200 bar, and the flow rate is near zero. the simulation results for the standby condition are shown in figure 8. (a) control signal simulation curve (b) flow simulation curve (c) pump outlet pressure simulation curve figure 8. simulation curves of control signal, flow rate, and pump outlet pressure 2.4.3 normal operating conditions to simulate actual operating conditions, the load torque of the pick-up motor was varied between 300-600 nꞏm. system pressure fluctuated with load, but the proportional valve differential pressure remained stable (22±2 bar) with constant flow rate. the simulation curves for system pressure and differential pressure across the proportional valve are shown in figure 9. the control signal input to the proportional valve during this period is depicted in figure 10. results indicate that system flow rate and the rotational speed of the pick-up roller hydraulic motor vary with the proportional valve opening, independent of the load on the pick-up working components. (a) pickup motor load simulation curve (b) system pressure simulation curve (c) simulation curve of proportional valve pressure differential figure 9. simulation curves of load, pressure and pressure difference as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 26 published by ideas spread (a) proportional valve control signal simulation curve (b) pickup roller hydraulic motor speed simulation curve figure 10. simulation curves of control signal and motor speed 2.4.4 blockage of debris removal mechanism and stoppage of baler simulation results are shown in figure 11. when the debris-cleaning motor overload occurs, the pump flow drops to zero, and the system pressure limits at 200 bar. when the baling mechanism stops rotating while the pick-up chain and debris-cleaning mechanism continue operating normally, the corresponding relief valve 10 for the baler's film-winding motor spills, as shown in figure 12. between 5s and 25s, the baler stops rotating while other actuators continue functioning normally. based on the hydraulic simulation results, the selected circuit configuration is reasonable, the component selection is appropriate, and the designed hydraulic system for the pick-up chain can meet the operational requirements of the pick-up chain. (a) system pressure simulation curve (b) system flow simulation curve (c) relief valve flow simulation curve figure 11. simulation curves of system pressure, system flow, and relief valve flow (a) pickup motor speed (b) baling motor speed (c) debris removal auger motor speed (d) system flow figure 12. simulation curves of hydraulic system flow rate and motor speed as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 27 published by ideas spread 3. hydraulic system performance testing and parameter optimization 3.1 test objectives and conditions the tests were conducted in november 2023 at yingbositan village, kumish town, toksun county, turpan city, xinjiang. the area features sandy soil with 0.008 mm thick plastic film. the land is level but contains impurities such as stones and wooden stakes, presenting a complex operating environment. the tested model was an upgraded towed 4jmlq-210 residual film collector equipped with a hydraulic system incorporating key components such as a load-sensing pump, proportional flow valve, and cycloidal hydraulic motor. the test design adhered to the following principles: (1) systematic approach: testing covered critical hydraulic parameters including pressure, flow rate, and temperature; (2) comparability: orthogonal experimental design was employed to control variables and ensure comparable results; (3) repeatability: each test group was repeated three times, with averages taken to minimize random errors; (4) practicality: test conditions simulated real-world operational scenarios, enabling direct application of results to production. 3.2 hydraulic system performance testing 3.2.1 test platform and equipment the test platform is based on a modified 4jmlq-210 model. core components of the hydraulic system include: (1) main pump: danfoss 45 series load-sensing pump (jr-r-s45b-ls type), displacement 45 cm3/r; (2) actuators: eaton 6k-390 cycloidal hydraulic motor (pickup chain drive), 2k-245 motor (baler drive), 2k-195 motor (debriscleaning auger drive); (3) control valve: atlantic ce001034 proportional flow valve, maximum flow 100 l/min; (4) auxiliary components: gxq-d-0.75-210-l accumulator, 200l oil tank, plate heat exchanger. testing equipment includes: (1) pressure sensor: pt-719 hydraulic pressure transmitter (range 0-400 bar, accuracy ±0.5%); (2) data acquisition: yav8ad plus data acquisition card, sampling frequency 100hz; (3) temperature monitoring: fluke 62max infrared thermometer (accuracy ±1°c) and mechanical tank thermometer; (4) flow measurement: turbine flowmeter (range 0-150l/min, accuracy ±1%). 3.2.2 hydraulic system pressure testing under operating conditions of implement forward speed 8 km/h and pick-up chain speed 85 r/min, pressure monitoring was conducted at four key system measurement points: (1) point p1: pump outlet pressure (port p of valve block); (2) point p2: pick-up chain motor inlet pressure (ls feedback pressure); (3) point p3: inlet pressure of the baler motor; (4) point p4: system return oil back pressure. test results are shown in figure 13, with statistical analysis of pressure data presented in table 4. figure 13. hydraulic system pressure test waveform graph. table 4. statistical analysis of hydraulic system pressure test results (unit: bar) test point average standard deviation maximum minimum fluctuation range p1 (pump outlet) 142.3 8.7 156.2 128.5 27.7 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 28 published by ideas spread p2 (pickup chain motor inlet) 120.1 6.3 132.4 113.2 19.2 p3 (packing machine motor import) 85.6 3.2 90.1 82.3 7.8 p4 (system back pressure) 5.2 0.5 5.8 4.7 1.1 key pressure differential analysis: (1) proportional valve pressure differential ∆p1 p1 p2 22.2 2.4 bar, indicating the load-sensing system maintains stable pressure differentials; (2) pickup chain motor load pressure differential ∆p2 p2 p3 34.5 10.4 bar, exhibiting significant fluctuations reflecting operational load variations; (3) total load pressure differential ∆p3 p3 p4 80.4 3.1 bar for the baler and debris-cleaning motor, which remains relatively stable. compared to the hydraulic system studied by li jingkai et al. in reference[20], this system exhibits a narrower pressure fluctuation range, demonstrating the superiority of loadsensing control. 3.2.3 system flow rate, oil temperature, and stability flow rate test results indicate that the system achieves stepless speed regulation within the pick-up chain speed range of 0-120 r/min, with flow linearity error < 3%. oil temperature test data are shown in table 5. table 5. hydraulic system temperature test results (unit: °c) test time ambient temperature tank temperature pump outlet temperature maximum motor housing temperature radiator outlet temperature 13:12 (no load) 9 12 15 18 8.5 14:30 (homework 1h) 11 35 58 53 14.2 4:00 pm (assignment 2.5 hours) 10 44 65.8 55 17.3 19:21 (offline) 5 23 25 21 9.1 regarding system stability, continuous operation for 4 hours without failure demonstrated superior temperature rise control compared to the hydraulic system studied by wang cheng et al.[19]. the maximum temperature of 65.8°c remained below the permissible value of 80°c. under debris-jamming conditions in the cleaning mechanism, the relief valve promptly activated (figure 14), maintaining system pressure within safe limits and validating the reliability of the system's protective function. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 29 published by ideas spread figure 14. overflow valve protection during mechanism jam 3.3 comparison test of speed control methods for pickup chain drive rollers 3.3.1 test design and evaluation criteria an orthogonal experimental design was employed to investigate the effects of pick-up chain speed (𝑥 ) and forward speed (𝑥 ) on residual film recovery efficiency. evaluation metrics included: 𝑌 , measured per gb/t 25412-2021 standard, calculated as: 𝑌 1 𝑊 𝑊0 100% (18) where, 𝑌 is the residual film pickup rate (%), 𝑊 is the residual film mass after operation (g), and 𝑊 is the residual film mass before operation (g). formula for impurity rate (𝑌 ): 𝑌 1 𝐸 𝐸0 100% (19) where, 𝑌 is the impurity rate (%), 𝐸 is the mass of pure residual film (kg), and 𝐸 is the total baled mass (kg). the experimental factor level design is shown in table 6. based on preliminary tests, material accumulation occurred at rotational speeds below 65 r/min, while severe film leakage occurred above 95 r/min. therefore, this range was set. table 6. experimental factor coding table no. experimental factor pickup speed 𝑥 (r/min) forward speed 𝑥 (km/h) 1 65 1 2 75 2 3 85 3 4 95 4 3.3.2 test procedure and data acquisition in accordance with gb/t 25412-2021, each test group was conducted within a 100m-long measurement zone using a five-point sampling method. residual film was collected from depths of 0–100mm, washed, air-dried, and weighed using an electronic balance with 0.001g precision. a total of 16 test groups were performed in random order to minimize systematic errors. the measurement process is illustrated in figures 15-16. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 30 published by ideas spread figure 15. collection and weighing of residual film post-operation (a) weighing before impurity separation (b) weighing after impurity separation figure 16. weighing of mulch film packaged by the residual film recycling machine 3.3.3 experimental results orthogonal test results are shown in table 7. data indicate a maximum purity rate of 87% (test 3) and a minimum of 31% (test 13); the lowest impurity rate was 68% (test 16), while the highest reached 90% (tests 9 and 10). table 7. test protocols and results no. factor 1 factor 2 picking efficiency 𝑌 (%) impurity rate 𝑌 (%) 1 1 1 83 86 2 1 2 85 86 3 1 3 87 85 4 1 4 81 84 5 2 1 69 86 6 2 2 80 85 7 2 3 87 85 8 2 4 85 87 9 3 1 65 90 10 3 2 69 90 11 3 3 84 85 12 3 4 81 84 13 4 1 31 74 14 4 2 49 74 15 4 3 58 74 16 4 4 55 68 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 31 published by ideas spread 3.4 descriptive stats 3.4.1 experimental results statistical analysis of experimental data was performed using spssau software to evaluate the significant effects of various factors on the assessment indicators. single-factor anova indicated (table 8) that the picking chain speed had a highly significant effect on both the picking efficiency and the impurity rate (p < 0.01). the relationship between rotational speed and pickup rate is shown in figure 17a, where the pickup rate decreases significantly as rotational speed increases. the relationship between rotational speed and impurity content is shown in figure 17b, indicating significant differences in impurity content only at rotational speeds between 85 and 95. table 8. results of single-factor anova for pickup chain speed indicator factor f value p-value significance 𝑌 rotational speed 13.834 0.000 ** 𝑌 rotational speed 35.553 0.000 ** note: * indicates p < 0.05, ** indicates p < 0.01 (a) comparison of mean scores from anova for picking chain speed and picking accuracy (b) comparison of mean scores from anova for picking chain speed and impurity rate figure 17. comparison of mean scores from anova for picking chain speed versus picking rate and impurity rate 3.4.2 effect of forward speed on recovery efficiency single-factor anova indicates (table 9) that forward speed has no significant effect on pickup rate (p=0.534). this means that within the speed range of 65 r/min to 95 r/min, samples exhibit no noticeable difference in pickup rate across varying forward speeds. however, mean scores (figure 18a) suggest forward speed may positively influence pickup rate. forward speed did not significantly affect contamination rate (p=0.907). mean scores (figure 18b) indicate no discernible variation in contamination rate across forward speeds. table 9. results of single-factor anova for forward speed indicator factor f value p-value significance 𝑌 forward speed 0.768 0.534 —— 𝑌 forward speed 0.182 0.907 —— note: * indicates p < 0.05, ** indicates p < 0.01 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 32 published by ideas spread (a) comparison of anova mean scores for forward speed and pick rate (b) comparison of anova mean scores for forward speed and impurity rate figure 18. comparison of anova mean scores for forward speed versus pick rate and impurity rate 3.4.3 regression model developmen through multiple linear regression analysis, mathematical models were established for the relationship between operational parameters and evaluation indicators. pickup rate regression model: 𝑌 144.95 1.127𝑥1 2.438𝑥2 (20) where, 𝑌 represents pickup rate (%); 𝑥 denotes rotational speed (r/min); 𝑥 indicates forward speed (km/h). the model's coefficient of determination r2 is 0.747, indicating that rotational speed and forward speed together explain 74.7% of the variation in pickup rate. the model's f-test result is 19.182, with a p-value less than 0.05, confirming the model's statistical significance. contamination rate regression model: 𝑌 116.025 0.367𝑥1 0.562𝑥2 (21) where, 𝑌 represents the contamination rate (%). model r²=0.472, f=5.819, p=0.016, indicating significant but low explanatory power. regression coefficient tests show (table 10) that 𝑥 significantly affects both 𝑌 and 𝑌 , while 𝑥 only significantly affects 𝑌 . in summary, the rotational speed of the pick-up chain drive roller is the key factor influencing changes in pick-up efficiency and contamination rate. forward speed significantly affects pick-up efficiency, and a linear relationship exists between forward speed and pick-up chain drive roller rotational speed. table 10. significance test of regression coefficients model factor regression coefficient t-value p-value significance 𝑌 constant term 144.95 5.832 0.000 ** 𝑥 -1.127 -5.685 0.000 ** 𝑥 2.438 2.458 0.029 * 𝑌 constant term 116.025 4.126 0.001 ** 𝑥 -0.367 -3.262 0.006 ** 𝑥 -0.562 -0.999 0.336 —— note: * indicates p < 0.05, ** indicates p < 0.01 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 33 published by ideas spread 3.5 establishment of the recovery rate parameter formula for residual film recovery machines based on regression analysis results, using the 80% pickup efficiency required by gb/t 25412-2021 as the standard, substitute 𝑌 80% into equation 3.4 to derive the relationship formula between forward speed and pickup chain rotation speed: 𝑥1 64.95 2.438𝑥2 1.127 (22) the optimal picking chain speed at different forward speeds was calculated (table 11). when 𝑥 equals 0 to 12 km/h, 𝑥 equals 57.6 to 83.6 r/min, ensuring optimal operational performance within this range. table 11. recommended operating parameter matching table 𝑥 (km/h) 4 6 8 10 12 𝑥 (r/min) 66.3 70.6 74.9 79.3 83.6 comparing the results of this study with the literature (table 12) shows that the parameter optimization method proposed in this paper is more systematic. the recommended rotational speed range is consistent with the findings of wang[19] (60–85 r/min), but this paper provides precise mathematical relationships through regression models. table 12. comparison with related studies researcher model recommended speed range (r/min) research method pickup efficiency (%) wang et al.[19] hydraulic recovery machine 60–85 box-behnken design 78-85 li et al.[20] combined operation machine 65-80 orthogonal test 80-87 this study 4jmlq-210 57.6–83.6 orthogonal test and regression analysis 80-87 4. conclusion 4.1 research summary this study systematically investigated the hydraulic system design and control strategy for the pickup components of residual film recovery machines, addressing the practical needs of residual film recovery operations in xinjiang cotton fields. key findings include: (1) a load-sensing hydraulic system suitable for residual film collectors was designed. theoretical calculations and field tests validated an operating pressure of 180 bar and maximum flow rate of 61 l/min, meeting operational demands under complex conditions. compared to traditional mechanical transmission systems, the hydraulic system demonstrated significant advantages in speed regulation range, response speed, and operational stability. (2) torque testing revealed the actual load characteristics of the pickup working components. results indicated substantial torque fluctuations (0.003-703.412 nꞏm) in the drive roller of the pickup chain, with an average torque of 126.222 nꞏm. this data provides crucial reference for hydraulic component selection and system parameter optimization. (3) orthogonal experimental design was employed to systematically investigate the impact of operational parameters on residual film recovery efficiency. a regression model was established linking the pickup chain rotational speed (𝑥 ) and forward speed (𝑥 ) to the pickup efficiency (𝑌 ). (4) based on national standard requirements (pickup efficiency ≥80%), a formula was derived to determine the optimal matching relationship between forward speed and pickup chain rotational speed. the findings not only provide theoretical foundations and practical guidance for upgrading residual film recovery machinery but also offer reference methods and insights for optimizing hydraulic systems in agricultural machinery. as agricultural modernization advances, intelligent and efficient residual film recovery technologies based on hydraulic transmission will play an increasingly vital role in addressing "white pollution" in farmlands and promoting sustainable agricultural development. 4.2 innovations and contributions as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 34 published by ideas spread the innovations and primary contributions of this study are reflected in the following aspects: (1) hydraulic system design innovation: load-sensing technology was applied to the hydraulic system of the residual film recovery machine. the post-valve pressure compensation (ludv) technique resolved the flow distribution issue among multiple actuators. compared to the system studied by li et al.[20], this system achieved approximately 15% improvement in pressure stability. (2) innovative parameter optimization method: a quantitative relationship model between operational parameters and recovery efficiency was established using regression analysis. compared to the box-behnken design method employed by wang et al.[19], this approach is more suitable for optimizing multi-factor, nonlinear agricultural machinery operational parameters. (3) outstanding practical value: the research findings directly guide the operational parameter settings for plastic film recovery machines, providing technical support for enhancing recovery efficiency and reducing energy consumption. table 13 compares the operational effectiveness of the recommended parameters with traditional methods. table 13. comparison analysis of task effectiveness evaluation metrics traditional method recommended parameters in this study change range pickup efficiency (%) 70-75 80-87 increase by 15-20% impurity rate (%) 15-20 12-16 reduced by 20% energy consumption (kwh/hm²) 8.5-9.2 7.2-7.8 15% reduction 4.3 research limitations although this study achieved certain results, the following limitations remain: (1) experimental conditions: the research was conducted solely in the turpan region of xinjiang. while this area is representative, the system's adaptability under different soil types and climatic conditions requires further validation. (2) limited parameter range: the pickup chain rotational speed study was confined to 65-95 r/min, neglecting operational performance at lower or higher speeds, potentially overlooking more optimal operating points. (3) simplified control strategy: this research primarily focused on hydraulic system design and parameter optimization, without exploring the application effectiveness of advanced control algorithms (e.g., fuzzy pid, adaptive control) within the system. 4.4 research prospects based on the findings and limitations of this study, future research may explore the following directions: (1) intelligent control strategy research: integrating modern control theory to investigate the application of intelligent algorithms like fuzzy control and neural networks in the hydraulic system of residue film collectors, enhancing the system's adaptive capabilities. (2) multi-condition adaptability research: further validating and optimizing system parameters under different soil types and crop residue levels to improve the equipment's versatility and adaptability. (3) energy consumption optimization: conduct in-depth analysis of the system's energy consumption characteristics. implement measures such as pump control technology and energy recovery to further reduce operational energy consumption and improve economic efficiency. (4) system integration and validation: apply research findings to the development of a new generation of residual film recovery machines. conduct large-scale field trials to validate the system's reliability and practicality. references [1] shi, y. q., wang, q., dong, d., et al. (2023). pollution status and impact of microplastics in xinjiang cotton fields and its treatment techniques. china cotton, 50(9), 27–34. [2] sun, x., gou, y. r., yan, h., et al. 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(1988). study on the relationship between metal-soil friction resistance and sliding speed. transactions of the chinese society for agricultural machinery, (4), 33–40. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p36-46 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n2p36 36 published by ideas spread analysis of the impact of new digital infrastructure construction on the urban-rural income gap: a mediation perspective based on agricultural industrial agglomeration yanxing li1 1 school of economics and management, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china correspondence: yanxing li, school of economics and management, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china. received: november 20, 2025 accepted: december 14, 2025 online published: december 17, 2025 abstract narrowing the urban-rural income gap is an essential requirement and a crucial focus for achieving common prosperity. based on panel data samples from 30 chinese provinces (excluding hong kong, macao, taiwan, and tibet) from 2014 to 2023, this study empirically examines the impact effects, mechanisms, and heterogeneity of new digital infrastructure on the urban-rural income gap using a two-way fixed effects model. the findings indicate that, overall, the construction of new digital infrastructure widens the urban-rural income gap, a result which holds under a series of robustness checks. examining sub-samples by region across the country reveals that the widening effect of new digital infrastructure on the urban-rural income gap is concentrated in the less developed central and western regions, with no significant impact observed in economically developed regions. further analysis demonstrates that new digital infrastructure indirectly narrows the urban-rural income gap through the mediating mechanism of agricultural industrial agglomeration. keywords: new digital infrastructure, urban-rural income gap, mediation effect, agricultural industrial agglomeration 1. introduction common prosperity is an inherent requirement of the socialist system and a key component of chinese modernization. achieving common prosperity is both a long-term vision and a protracted development process. the report of the 20th national congress of the communist party of china explicitly states that china must resolutely prevent polarization, promote common prosperity, and achieve social harmony and stability. jiang yongmu et al. (2021)[1] as china's economy transitions from a phase of high-speed growth to one of high-quality development, entering the new century has seen rapid economic growth, steady social progress, and gradual improvement in people's living standards. however, income disparities between regions, urban and rural areas, and different social groups have also widened. li shi et al. (2022)[2] the persistent urban-rural income gap has become a key constraining factor in achieving the goal of common prosperity. entering the second decade of the 21st century, with the deepening development of digitalization, informatization, and intelligence, new digital infrastructure has become a focal point for governments and enterprises worldwide. this includes 5g networks, the internet of things, artificial intelligence, big data centers, and industrial internet. governments have introduced various policies to promote digital infrastructure development. for example, the chinese government proposed the "new infrastructure" policy, identifying new infrastructure such as 5g, ai, and industrial internet as key development directions; the u.s. government has also increased investment in data centers and cloud computing infrastructure. in 2019, the general office of the cpc central committee and the general office of the state council issued the "digital village development strategy outline," identifying accelerating digital infrastructure construction in rural areas as a key task, particularly emphasizing significantly improving rural network and information facilities and deepening the network poverty alleviation action. in 2023, five departments including the cyberspace administration of china, the ministry of agriculture and rural affairs, the national development and reform commission, the ministry of industry and information technology, and the national rural revitalization administration jointly issued the "key tasks for digital village development in 2023," proposing to continuously enhance the supply capacity of communication infrastructure in rural and remote areas and gradually extend 5g network and gigabit optical network coverage to villages. digital infrastructure construction is a crucial measure in implementing the national digital village development strategy. this raises the questions: as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 37 published by ideas spread will digital infrastructure construction significantly promote the narrowing of the urban-rural income gap? what are the underlying mechanisms? and how can the positive role of digital infrastructure construction in promoting common prosperity between urban and rural areas be better leveraged? literature closely related to this paper falls into two main categories: first, examinations of the economic effects of digital infrastructure. some scholars believe digital infrastructure has a positive impact on income development. for instance, xia jiechang et al. (2023)[3] argue that as the foundation for digital economic development, digital infrastructure construction can promote resource sharing and information flow, enhance social productivity by improving production efficiency, drive economic transformation, and thereby provide a material and technological foundation for achieving common prosperity. he xiaoyu et al. (2023)[4] contend that new digital infrastructure can significantly promote the quality of regional economic growth, with resource allocation effects, technological innovation effects, and industrial upgrading effects being important pathways through which new digital infrastructure influences the enhancement of economic growth quality. second, discussions on the impact of the digital economy on the urban-rural income gap. zhao kangjie (2025)[5] argues that due to the objective existence of the "digital divide," the income-increasing effect for urban residents is higher than for rural residents, and new digital infrastructure exacerbates urban-rural income inequality. in recent years, an increasing number of scholars have begun studying the non-linear impact of the digital economy on the urban-rural income gap. bai xu (2023)[6] posits that the digital economy can narrow the urban-rural income distribution gap through the urban-rural integration effect of reduced communication costs and the rural revitalization effect of agricultural technological progress, but it can widen the gap through the employment substitution effect of industrial structure upgrading. the impact of digital economy development on the urban-rural income distribution gap shows a trend of first strengthening and then inhibiting. li xiumin et al. (2023)[7] argue that the impact of new digital infrastructure on economic growth exhibits an "inverted u-shaped" pattern, and new digital infrastructure has a significant spatial spillover effect on economic growth. additionally, luo mingzhong et al. (2023)[8] argue that rural digitalization has a single human capital threshold effect on the income gap and ecological environment; the higher the level of human capital in the rural labor force, the greater its effect. currently, in recent years, research on the digital economy and the urban-rural income gap has continuously emerged, yielding many valuable theoretical and practical results. however, most scholars focus their research perspective on the overall level of the digital economy, lacking studies that take new digital infrastructure as the entry point. therefore, exploring the relationship between new digital infrastructure and the urban-rural income gap holds significant theoretical and practical value. by studying the correlation between digital infrastructure and the urban-rural income gap, it can provide scientific and forward-looking theoretical support and decision-making basis for local governments to enhance the level of digital infrastructure construction and optimize the urban-rural income distribution pattern. hence, this research is significant for promoting digital economic development and narrowing the urban-rural income gap. 2. theoretical analysis and research hypotheses 2.1 the impact mechanism of new digital infrastructure on the urban-rural income gap xu mengmeng et al. (2024)[9] identify issues such as inadequate relevant laws and regulations, weak digital infrastructure, a relative lack of agricultural technical talent, and the "digital divide" further exacerbating the risk of income imbalance in rural digital development. while promoting social progress, the construction of new digital infrastructure may also exacerbate the urban-rural income gap through various channels. from a technical perspective, these high-tech facilities often require high operational skills and professional knowledge. rural areas, due to relatively scarce educational resources, generally have lower digital literacy among residents, making it difficult for them to fully master and utilize these new technologies, placing them at a more disadvantageous position in the digital economy era. from an economic structure perspective, the construction and operation of new digital infrastructure require substantial capital investment. this capital-intensive nature naturally concentrates resources in economically developed urban areas, while rural areas, due to funding shortages, find it harder to obtain equal development opportunities. the unequal distribution of data factors is also an important reason. in the digital economy era, data has become a key production factor, but rural residents are often merely data providers rather than beneficiaries, with most of the value generated from data flowing to urban enterprises that control the technology and platforms. this imbalance in data factor distribution further widens the urban-rural income gap. furthermore, the agglomeration effect of new digital infrastructure is evident, with high-quality resources such as talent, capital, and technology accelerating their concentration in cities, creating a "matthew effect," while rural areas face the dilemma of resource outflow. from an institutional environment perspective, the current digital skills training system tailored for rural areas is still incomplete, making it difficult for farmers to quickly adapt to digital transformation. simultaneously, digital financial services and business models suitable for as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 38 published by ideas spread rural characteristics still need development, all of which constrain rural residents' ability to benefit equally from new digital infrastructure. these factors collectively mean that new digital infrastructure, in the absence of effective intervention measures, may become a new factor widening rather than narrowing the urban-rural gap. therefore, this paper proposes the theoretical hypothesis: h1: new digital infrastructure exacerbates the urbanrural income gap. 2.2 regional heterogeneity in the impact of new digital infrastructure construction on the urban-rural income gap in economically developed regions, the impact of new digital infrastructure on exacerbating the urban-rural income gap is not significant, primarily because these regions already possess a relatively complete infrastructure network, higher levels of human capital, and mature industrial systems, enabling them to effectively absorb and transform the development opportunities brought by digital technology. urban and rural residents in developed regions generally possess strong digital literacy and skill adaptability. various market actors can access digital resources relatively equally, while the government also possesses stronger fiscal capacity and policy execution power to promote the balanced distribution of digital dividends. therefore, the popularization of digital infrastructure actually helps promote urban-rural integrated development. currently, china's digital village construction faces many shortcomings, such as a lack of overall planning, the urban-rural digital divide, and regional development imbalances. the difficulty in bridging the urban-rural digital divide has become a major obstacle in digital village construction. zhao hui et al. (2025)[10] and zhao ruonan et al. (2024)[11] argue that the urban-rural digital divide brought about by informatization development is also one reason for the widening income gap between urban and rural residents. the digital divide hinders the development of chinese-style modernization by reducing market vitality, widening the urban-rural income gap, and slowing down industrial structure upgrading. therefore, in economically less developed regions, due to constraints such as weak foundational conditions, human capital shortages, and insufficient marketization, the introduction of new digital infrastructure is more likely to produce a differentiation effect: urban elite groups, leveraging their educational background and social resources, can quickly master digital technology and benefit from it, while rural residents, due to insufficient digital skills and poor financial accessibility, find it difficult to effectively participate in the digital economy, leading to a further widening of the "digital divide." simultaneously, governments in less developed regions often lack sufficient fiscal investment and institutional innovation capacity to guide the balanced allocation of digital resources, causing digital technology to tend to agglomerate in urban areas, ultimately forming a "the strong get stronger" development pattern, significantly exacerbating the urban-rural income gap. therefore, this paper proposes theoretical hypothesis h2: in economically developed regions, new digital infrastructure has no significant impact on exacerbating the urban-rural income gap. conversely, in economically less developed regions, new digital infrastructure has a significant impact on exacerbating the urban-rural income gap. 2.3 the transmission mechanism of new digital infrastructure's impact on the urban-rural income gap agricultural industrial agglomeration is the process where production factors, business entities, and related institutions concentrate in specific geographical areas and form a synergistic network. it represents the meso-level form of the evolution of rural industries towards modernization and organization. new digital infrastructure effectively catalyzes agricultural industrial agglomeration by optimizing factor allocation and strengthening industrial synergy. the scale economies, knowledge spillovers, and industrial integration effects brought about by agglomeration constitute another key structural mediating pathway influencing the urban-rural income gap. therefore, this paper proposes theoretical hypothesis h3: new digital infrastructure can indirectly narrow the urban-rural income gap by promoting agricultural industrial agglomeration, meaning agricultural industrial agglomeration plays a partial mediating role. 3. research design and data description 3.1 baseline regression model based on the previous theoretical analysis, to examine the impact of new digital infrastructure on the urban-rural income gap, the following baseline regression model is constructed: 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑙 , 𝛼 𝛼 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑎 , 𝛼 𝑙𝑛𝐺𝑑𝑝 , 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 , 𝛾 𝜌  , （1） as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 39 published by ideas spread 3.2 variable measurement and description 3.2.1 dependent variable the dependent variable in this paper is the urban-rural income gap (theil). existing analyses mostly use three methods to measure the urban-rural income gap: the ratio of urban to rural residents' disposable income per capita, the gini coefficient, and the theil index. following the approach of xu wenzhuan (2023)[12]. the ratio of urban to rural residents' disposable income per capita does not include the proportion of urban and rural populations and is a static indicator that cannot reflect population mobility between urban and rural areas. the gini coefficient measures overall income inequality and is more sensitive to income changes in the middle class. however, the main body of the urban-rural income gap lies at the two ends, and the gini coefficient cannot reflect the urbanrural income gap situation. this paper uses the theil index to represent the urban-rural income gap. this index can more scientifically reflect the level of income disparity, considers the factor of population change and differences between and within groups, and more comprehensively captures the diversity and complexity of the urban-rural income gap. additionally, this paper uses the ratio of urban to rural residents' disposable income per capita (urir) as a substitute indicator for the dependent variable to conduct robustness checks. the specific measurement method for the theil index is as follows: 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑙 , ∑ ln2 1 （2） 3.2.2 explanatory variable there is limited literature involving the measurement of digital infrastructure construction, with only a few individual studies including new digital infrastructure among multiple dimensions for evaluating the digital economy. this paper draws on the measurement method of wu xianfu (2021)[13] to measure new digital infrastructure, selecting 3 first-level indicators and 18 second-level indicators to reflect the development level of new digital infrastructure. as shown in table 1, information infrastructure mainly reflects china's information infrastructure from five dimensions: optical cable line length per square kilometer, internet ports per capita, mobile phone base stations per square kilometer, mobile internet penetration rate, proportion of internet access users, and domain names per capita. integrated infrastructure mainly reflects china's integrated infrastructure from eight aspects: length of public tram operation per capita, railway operating mileage per capita, road length per capita, expressway mileage per capita, proportion of e-commerce enterprises, proportion of information industry personnel, e-commerce sales per capita, and software business revenue per capita. there are fewer indicators for measuring innovation infrastructure, mainly reflecting it from four aspects: proportion of r&d personnel, proportion of science and technology expenditure, r&d funding intensity, and patent applications per capita. table 1. new digital infrastructure indicator system first-level second-level indicator attributes new digital infrastructure construction information infrastructure optical cable line length per sq. km + internet ports per capita + mobile phone base stations per sq. km + mobile internet penetration rate + proportion of internet access users + domain names per capita + integrated infrastructure length of public tram operation per capita + railway operating mileage per capita + road length per capita + expressway mileage per capita + proportion of e-commerce enterprises + as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 40 published by ideas spread proportion of information industry personnel + e-commerce sales per capita + software business revenue per capita + innovation infrastructure proportion of r&d personnel + proportion of science and technology expenditure + r&d funding intensity + patent applications per capita + 3.2.3 control variables to objectively and comprehensively measure the impact of the explanatory variable on the dependent variable, this paper refers to studies on the urban-rural income gap by xie xuemei (2021)[14], chen wen et al. (2021)[15], and li xiaozhong (2021)[16], selecting marketization level (market), economic development level (pgdp), urbanization rate (urb), industrial structure (stru), human capital level (edu), openness to the outside world (fdi), etc., as control variables. 3.3 sample selection and data sources the sample data for this study are panel data from 30 chinese provinces/municipalities/autonomous regions (excluding hong kong, macao, taiwan, and tibet) for the period 2014-2023. data for the various variables involved in this study mainly come from sources such as the china statistical yearbook, the ministry of commerce statistical database, and the china macroeconomic database. 4. research results and analysis 4.1 descriptive statistics the descriptive statistical results for all variables are shown in table 2. from table 3, it can be seen that the mean of the urban-rural income gap (theil) is 0.083, with a standard deviation of 0.038, indicating that areas with large urban-rural income gaps are relatively few. the maximum value is 0.21, and the minimum value is 0.017, indicating significant differences in urban-rural income inequality across different regions of china. the table shows that each variable has a relatively large range of variation, which can better reflect developmental differences among regions, indicating that the basic data for studying the relationship between new digital infrastructure and the urban-rural income gap are reasonable. table 2. descriptive statistics variable symbol sample size mean s.d min max theil 300 0.083 0.038 0.017 0.21 urir 300 2.524 0.446 1.682 3.808 infra 300 0.147 0.113 0.019 0.61 market 300 8.351 1.882 3.58 12.864 pgdp 300 10.946 0.432 10.003 12.155 urb 300 0.614 0.114 0.379 0.896 stru 300 1.417 0.757 0.665 5.283 edu 300 0.022 0.008 0.006 0.114 fdi 300 0.259 0.257 0.008 1.257 4.2 baseline regression analysis before conducting the baseline regression, f-tests and hausman tests were first performed on the regression model. the models rejected the null hypothesis, and a two-way fixed effects model was used for regression analysis. this as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 41 published by ideas spread means the model controls for both time-fixed effects and individual-fixed effects simultaneously to eliminate potential individual heterogeneity that does not vary over time and time trends that do not vary across individuals. the results are shown in table 4. column (1) in the table shows the regression results for the core explanatory variable without including any control variables. its impact coefficient is 0.092 and significant at the 1% level, indicating that new digital infrastructure has a positive impact on the urban-rural income gap. specifically, a oneunit increase in the new digital economy index leads to a corresponding increase of 0.092 units in the degree of the urban-rural income gap. columns (2) to (7) show the regression results after gradually adding control variables for marketization level (market), economic development level (pgdp), urbanization rate (urb), industrial structure (stru), human capital level (edu), and openness (fdi). the results show that after adding control variables, the coefficient of the core explanatory variable ranges between 0.036 and 0.103, still significantly positive at the 1% level. the magnitude of the regression coefficients after adding control variables shows little difference from the single-variable analysis results, so the empirical conclusion of the baseline regression is robust. this indicates a significant positive correlation between new digital infrastructure and the urban-rural income gap, i.e., the construction of new digital infrastructure widens the urban-rural income gap. this conclusion aligns with hypothesis h1. for the control variables, economic development level and urbanization degree are both significantly negative at the 1% level, indicating that economic development and urbanization construction are conducive to narrowing the urban-rural income gap, which also proves the importance of economic development and urbanization construction. conversely, industrial structure is significantly positive at the 1% level, proving that industrial structure upgrading widens the urban-rural income gap. the adjustment of industrial structure increases the demand for labor skills, making rural residents lacking skills unable to qualify for jobs, leading to reduced income. additionally, marketization level, human capital level, and openness have no significant impact on the urban-rural income gap. table 3. baseline regression results (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) theil theil theil theil theil theil theil infra 0.092*** 0.099*** 0.103*** 0.047*** 0.041*** 0.041*** 0.036*** (0.014) (0.014) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.013) market -0.004*** -0.003*** 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) pgdp -0.067*** -0.042*** -0.036*** -0.035*** -0.036*** (0.009) (0.008) (0.008) (0.008) (0.008) urb -0.297*** -0.280*** -0.281*** -0.260*** (0.032) (0.032) (0.032) (0.036) stru 0.008*** 0.008*** 0.009*** (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) edu -0.040 -0.052 (0.059) (0.060) fdi -0.011 (0.008) _cons 0.099*** 0.127*** 0.832*** 0.709*** 0.622*** 0.619*** 0.616*** (0.002) (0.007) (0.090) (0.080) (0.085) (0.085) (0.085) n 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 r2 0.809 0.819 0.854 0.890 0.893 0.894 0.894 year yes yes yes yes yes yes yes id yes yes yes yes yes yes yes standard errors in parentheses * p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 42 published by ideas spread 4.3 robustness checks to verify the validity of the previous regression results, the following three methods were used for robustness checks: 1. winsorization. to make the data smoother, this paper performed winsorization at the 1% and 99% percentiles for the data of the explanatory variable, dependent variable, and control variables. the regression results are shown in column (1) of table 4. digital infrastructure still has a significant positive impact on the urban-rural income gap at the 1% level, with an impact coefficient of 0.035. 2. lagged explanatory variable. since digital infrastructure construction takes time, the construction effectiveness of digital infrastructure in the previous year may affect the current year's urban-rural income gap. therefore, this paper lagged the new digital infrastructure construction variable by one period for regression. the results are shown in table 4 column (2). the results show that new digital infrastructure still has a positive impact on the urban-rural income gap. 3. replacing the dependent variable. referring to existing literature, this paper uses the ratio of urban to rural residents' disposable income per capita (urir) to measure the urban-rural income gap. the results are shown in column (3) of table 4. digital infrastructure still has a positive impact on the urban-rural income gap, consistent with the baseline regression results of this study. table 4. robustness check results variable (1) (2) (3) winsorization lagged explanatory var. replace dep. var. infra 0.035*** 0.664*** linfra (0.012) 0.027** (2.370) (0.133) market 0.001* -0.001 0.003 (0.001) (-0.790) (1.016) pgdp -0.031*** -0.027*** -0.044* (0.008) (-6.173) (-1.920) urb -0.245*** -0.211*** -0.240** (0.034) (-8.161) (-2.162) stru 0.010*** 0.012*** 0.014 (0.003) (6.079) (1.402) edu -0.101 -0.144*** -1.349 (0.109) (-3.074) (-0.996) fdi -0.011 -0.005 0.045 (0.008) (-0.781) (1.526) observations 300 270 300 adjusted r-squared 0.981 0.881 0.546 year yes yes yes id yes yes yes standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 4.4 heterogeneity 4.4.1 heterogeneity analysis considering the differences in resource endowments and economic development stages across regions in china[^1], and the significant gaps in new digital infrastructure, this study conducts a classified analysis of regional heterogeneity. first, this study conducts separate regressions for the eastern, central, and western regions. the regression results are shown in columns (1) and (2) of table 5. the results show that in both the eastern and central-western regions, the regression coefficient for digital infrastructure construction is significant, meaning the effect of digital infrastructure construction widening the urban-rural income gap holds in the eastern and centralwestern regions. therefore, since coastal areas have a better foundation in digital infrastructure construction as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 43 published by ideas spread compared to non-coastal areas, this study further conducts separate regression tests for economically developed and less developed regions. the regression results are shown in columns (3) and (4) of table 5. the results indicate: in economically developed regions, the regression coefficient for new digital infrastructure construction is not significant. from the above sub-regional test results, it can be seen that the impact effect of new digital infrastructure construction widening the urban-rural income gap is mainly manifested in economically less developed regions. the dividend effects brought by digital infrastructure construction include the following aspects: first, digital infrastructure construction is conducive to the development of agricultural industries, promoting agricultural products from villages to cities and increasing farmers' income levels; second, digital infrastructure construction facilitates the return of talent to rural areas, providing intellectual support for agricultural industry development; third, digital infrastructure construction provides new platforms for industrial development, such as e-commerce and live streaming, expanding sales channels for agricultural products, all of which become new platforms for increasing farmers' income. regional development imbalance is a basic national condition in china. due to the existence of the digital divide, economically less developed regions have deficiencies in accessing and utilizing digital infrastructure, meaning the positive effect of digital infrastructure construction on narrowing the urban-rural income gap has not yet manifested. therefore, in economically less developed regions, digital infrastructure construction widens the urban-rural income gap. this conclusion aligns with hypothesis h2. table 5. heterogeneity analysis regression results (1) (2) (3) (4) eastern central-western developed regions less developed regions infra 0.047*** 0.084** 0.014 0.180*** (3.372) (2.608) (1.196) (4.761) market -0.000 0.003 -0.000 0.003** (-0.229) (1.643) (-0.410) (2.084) pgdp -0.046*** -0.004 -0.027** -0.039*** (-4.026) (-0.315) (-2.576) (-3.444) urb -0.216*** -0.331*** -0.234*** -0.383*** (-5.898) (-3.368) (-5.978) (-4.420) stru 0.001 0.013** 0.014*** 0.009** (0.211) (2.255) (3.968) (2.007) edu -0.012 -0.038 -0.025 -0.189 (-0.291) (-0.240) (-0.536) (-1.073) fdi -0.016* -0.076** -0.000 -0.078*** (-1.838) (-2.244) (-0.056) (-3.616) _cons 0.725*** 0.285** 0.509*** 0.696*** (5.782) (2.153) (4.486) (6.076) year yes yes yes yes id yes yes yes yes n 100 80 120 180 r2 0.906 0.932 0.906 0.915 f 44.459 48.053 55.097 97.660 ***p<0.01", "**p<0.05", "*p<0.10 4.5 mediation effect test based on the above analysis of policy effects, to further study the mechanism through which new digital infrastructure affects the urban-rural income gap, this paper selects agricultural industrial agglomeration as the mediating variable and uses jiang ting's method for testing. the mediation effect test results are shown in table 6. in column (1) of table 6, after adding the mediating variable, the test result coefficient is -0.151 and passes the test at the 1% significance level. this shows that agricultural industrial agglomeration plays a mediating role in the relationship between new digital infrastructure construction and the urban-rural income gap, i.e., new digital infrastructure construction narrows the urban-rural income gap by increasing agricultural industrial agglomeration as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 44 published by ideas spread effects, proving the existence of hypothesis h3. the regression results in column (2) of table 6 are basically consistent with the baseline regression results. table 6. mediation effect of agricultural industrial agglomeration (1) (2) gig theil infra -0.931*** 0.054 (-4.416) (0.590) market 0.009 -0.005 (0.614) (-0.886) pgdp -0.231** -0.230*** (-2.507) (-5.935) urb 0.921* -1.531*** (1.782) (-7.083) stru 0.248*** 0.153*** (6.352) (8.745) edu 15.827*** -11.300*** (3.924) (-6.545) fdi -0.189 -0.032 (-1.400) (-0.562) gig -0.151*** (-5.883) _cons 2.642*** 4.532*** (3.442) (13.887) n 300 300 r2 0.320 0.922 f 17.614 384.937 ***p<0.01", "**p<0.05", "*p<0.10 5. conclusions to achieve common prosperity, it is essential to address the problem of unbalanced and inadequate development to ensure that all people share the fruits of development equally. in the process of high-quality development, it is necessary to continuously increase per capita income, narrow the urban-rural income gap, promote common urban and rural development, and thereby achieve common prosperity. from the perspective of digital infrastructure construction, this study selects panel data from 30 chinese provinces from 2014 to 2023 and uses a two-way fixed effects model to examine the impact effects, mechanisms, and heterogeneity of new digital infrastructure construction on the urban-rural income gap. the main conclusions are as follows: digital infrastructure construction widens the urban-rural income gap, a result which holds under a series of robustness checks. in-depth analysis of the mechanism reveals that digital infrastructure helps increase urban residents' disposable income per capita, but its promoting effect on increasing rural residents' net income per capita has not yet manifested. examining sub-samples by region across the country finds that the effect of digital infrastructure construction widening the urban-rural income gap is more significant in the western regions and economically less developed regions. tests on mediating variables also found that, by increasing agricultural industrial agglomeration, digital infrastructure construction narrows the urban-rural income gap. the research results of this paper provide theoretical support for narrowing the urban-rural income gap and achieving common prosperity. to this end, this paper proposes the following policy recommendations: (1) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 45 published by ideas spread accelerate the construction of digital infrastructure and build a sound digital infrastructure system. on the one hand, promote the construction of 5g networks, industrial internet, big data centers, power stations, etc.; on the other hand, use new-generation information technology to digitally and intelligently upgrade traditional infrastructure, thereby providing solid support for digital economic development. (2) digital infrastructure construction in rural areas lags behind, and per capita income is low, leading to a continuously widening urbanrural income gap. therefore, it is necessary to scientifically plan and comprehensively coordinate digital infrastructure construction, focusing on strengthening digital infrastructure construction in rural areas, western regions, and less developed regions, providing sufficient funding and technical support, promoting the deep integration of digital technology and the rural economy, bridging the digital divide, thereby increasing per capita income in rural areas and achieving common prosperity. (3) increase the proportion of education expenditure in fiscal expenditure, strengthen human capital accumulation and investment, improve the quality of education development, optimize the allocation of educational resources, and increase support for human capital investment in backward and rural areas. simultaneously, optimize the allocation of human capital and improve the efficiency of human capital allocation across industries and sectors. encourage specialized digital talent to flow to rural and backward areas, transmit advanced digital technology application experience from developed regions, and improve the digital skills of residents in rural areas. (4) accelerate the development of rural productive service industries such as rural finance, enhance the ability of rural areas to utilize new-generation information technology, realize the value of the network economy, thereby narrowing the urban-rural income gap and achieving common prosperity. references bai xu. 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(2024). digital divide and chinese-style modernization: theoretical analysis and empirical test. modernization of management, 44(02), 190-200. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p36-51.docx agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p36 36 published by ideas spread the impact of modern agricultural parks on regional agricultural economic growth: a case study of modern agricultural parks in southwest china ke rujuan1 & chen jiusheng1 1 school of economics and management, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china correspondence: ke rujuan, school of economics and management, chongqing normal university, chongqing, china. tel: 86-1-573-623-7348. e-mail: received: february 24, 2025 accepted: march 19, 2025 online published: march 21, 2025 abstract the level of agricultural economic development is a critical indicator for assessing the achievements of rural revitalization and the construction of a modern agricultural power. how to elevate agricultural economic standards remains a significant challenge for china today. this study treats modern agricultural parks as a quasi-natural experiment and employs a multi-period difference-in-differences (did) model to analyze panel data from 98 modern agricultural parks in southwest china, aiming to explore whether the construction of modern agricultural parks can influence regional agricultural economic growth. the findings demonstrate that the establishment of modern agricultural parks significantly enhances the level of agricultural economic development. this effect remains robust after conducting parallel trend tests, placebo tests, and propensity score matching (psm)-did checks. further mechanism analysis reveals that such parks drive agricultural economic growth through innovations in agricultural technology. additionally, heterogeneity analysis indicates that the policy effect of modern agricultural parks varies across regions, with stronger impacts observed in areas with moderate development levels compared to less developed regions. these research findings provide valuable insights for accelerating the construction of a socialist modern agricultural power in the new era and offer a theoretical foundation for advancing the modernization of agriculture and rural areas. keywords: national agricultural science and technology parks, agricultural economic development, innovation in agricultural technology, southwest region 1. introduction the level of agricultural economic development is a crucial metric for evaluating the progress of rural revitalization and the construction of a modern agricultural power. at present, china is in a critical phase of comprehensively advancing the rural revitalization strategy, making the effective enhancement of agricultural economic standards an urgent issue that requires immediate attention. the 2024 central document no. 1 explicitly states that advancing chinese-style modernization necessitates persistent efforts to strengthen the agricultural foundation and promote comprehensive rural revitalization. against this backdrop, modern agricultural parks, as vital carriers for driving agricultural modernization, have garnered significant attention. modern agricultural parks serve not only as key platforms for the dissemination and innovation of agricultural technologies (jiang and cui, 2009) but also as primary vehicles for promoting the integration of rural industries (luo et al., 2020). the issuance of the "opinions of the central committee of the communist party of china and the state council on implementing the employment-priority strategy and promoting high-quality and full employment" on september 25, 2024, further emphasizes the strategic deployment of guiding capital, technology, and labor-intensive industries to shift towards central and western regions. this presents new opportunities for the development of modern agriculture in the southwest region. as a pivotal strategic point in the western development initiative, the southwest region, with its core cities of chengdu and chongqing, plays a significant role in regional economic development due to its technological innovation capabilities and its role in ensuring food security. by december 2024, the southwest region had established a total of 98 modern agricultural parks, significantly contributing to regional grain production and efficiency. taking sichuan province as an example, grain production in 2023 increased by 16.7 billion pounds compared to the previous year, setting a new historical record. this underscores the strategic value of modern agricultural parks in "hiding grain in the land and in technology." as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 37 published by ideas spread existing literature on modern agricultural parks primarily focuses on their development status (lan ge et al., 2011; yan ru li et al., 2009), innovative capabilities (sun and chen, 2020; chang and luo, 2019; qian and wang, 2021), and spatial regional disparity measurements (huo et al., 2022), with most studies remaining at a theoretical level. while xue and zhu (2022) analyzed the impact of modern agricultural parks on regional agricultural economic growth based on data from 254 prefecture-level cities in china from 2010 to 2019, research specifically targeting the southwest region, with its unique geographical characteristics, remains insufficient. the southwest region is characterized by complex terrain, a high proportion of mountainous and hilly areas, low standards of high-quality farmland, and issues such as inadequate mechanization and restricted development (yue, 2018). these factors severely constrain the large-scale and industrialized development of regional agricultural economies (liu, 2021; zeng and liu, 2018). in light of this, this study takes 438 counties in the southwest region as its research subjects, utilizing data from the china county statistical yearbook and regional statistical yearbooks spanning 2007 to 2021. it employs a multi-period difference-in-differences (did) method to thoroughly investigate the impact of modern agricultural park establishment on regional agricultural economic development and its underlying mechanisms. the innovative aspects of this research are twofold: first, it focuses on the agricultural economic development at the county level in the southwest region, systematically analyzing the effects of modern agricultural park establishment on regional economies, thereby offering a new research perspective for the modernization of agriculture in the southwest. second, by exploring the heterogeneity of modern agricultural parks in the southwest region, it enriches the microlevel research on how modern agricultural parks influence agricultural economic growth, providing significant practical implications for enhancing agricultural economic levels and increasing grain production in the southwest region. 2. theoretical analysis and research hypotheses 2.1 the impact of modern agricultural park development on regional agricultural economic growth in the 1950s, economist françois perrou proposed the non-equilibrium theory of regional economic development, known as the "core-periphery theory." this theory posits that growth poles, or focal points of economic growth, play a driving role within a system. according to perrou, growth poles can be categorized into spontaneously formed poles and planned and cultivated poles (wang, 2011). modern agricultural parks clearly represent planned and cultivated growth poles. by establishing these parks, resources such as funds, technology, and talent are invested to increase the population density in surrounding areas, thereby improving residents' living standards and promoting regional economic growth. during the initial stages of park development, local governments typically provide strong financial support and infrastructure development, laying a solid foundation for the park's growth. as modern agricultural parks mature and progress, the agricultural economic strength of the region gradually increases. simultaneously, the driving forces of growth poles and the interactive effects of industrial chains become more pronounced, effectively promoting sustained regional prosperity and development. in essence, the gradual refinement of the parks and the improvement in agricultural economic levels create a virtuous cycle, providing strong momentum for the comprehensive revitalization of the regional economy. based on this theory, the following hypothesis is proposed: h1: the establishment of modern agricultural parks promotes regional agricultural economic growth. 2.2 mechanisms through which modern agricultural park development affects regional agricultural economic growth 2.2.1 driving technological innovation the introduction of agricultural new productive forces, which emphasize innovation-driven development and technology empowerment, aims to advance the process of agricultural modernization with chinese characteristics, achieving a historic transformation from a "large country with weak agriculture" to a "large country with strong agriculture" (luo and geng, 2024). modern agricultural parks play a critical role in fostering technological innovation and the commercialization of research findings. they focus on developing innovative crop varieties and production techniques, while also introducing advanced agricultural technologies and production models, thereby significantly enhancing the intensity of technological innovation. this comprehensive strategy ensures that cutting-edge technologies are integrated into every aspect of agricultural production. the introduction of new crop varieties and technologies not only boosts the market competitiveness of agricultural products and increases their value-added potential but also drives the innovation of agricultural production methods, leading to significant improvements in production efficiency. additionally, these innovative measures facilitate the optimization of as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 38 published by ideas spread agricultural structures, providing a robust technological foundation for the sustainable development of the agricultural industry. based on this theory, the following hypothesis is proposed: h2: modern agricultural parks stimulate agricultural economic growth through technological innovation. 2.2.2 promoting agricultural industrial integration the concept of rural industrial integration is rooted in the foundational role of agriculture, leveraging new agricultural business entities to drive the extension of agricultural value chains, the enhancement of industrial functions, the aggregation of production, the integration of resources, and the innovation of organizational management systems. this integrated development model seeks to transcend the boundaries of traditional agriculture, fostering the deep integration of rural primary, secondary, and tertiary industries. this promotes a mutually reinforcing and synergistic development cycle, ultimately leading to the comprehensive revitalization of the rural economy and the continuous advancement of agricultural modernization (sun et al., 2024). as a new type of agricultural business entity, modern agricultural parks facilitate rural industrial integration through various means, such as extending agricultural value chains, developing multifunctional agricultural applications, and new agricultural business models. from a micro economic perspective, the rural industrial integration strategy enhances agricultural production efficiency by adopting advanced agricultural technologies and optimizing resource allocation. this not only increases farmers' economic benefits but also drives overall agricultural economic growth. from a macroeconomic perspective, rural industrial integration accelerates the pace of agricultural modernization, promotes rural economic diversification, fosters the formation of industrial clusters, and strengthens regional economic competitiveness, ultimately contributing to sustained agricultural economic growth. additionally, due to variations in the hierarchical status and strategic positioning of different cities, modern agricultural parks possess distinct resource conditions and development goals. these differences result in varying impacts of modern agricultural parks on the agricultural economic development of their respective counties. to explore how these differences affect the specific effects of modern agricultural parks on regional agricultural economies, we propose the following hypotheses: h3: modern agricultural parks drive agricultural economic growth through the promotion of rural industrial integration. h4: the impact of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economic growth exhibits heterogeneity across regions. the mechanism through which modern agricultural park development influences agricultural economic growth is illustrated in figure 1. figure 1. the logical framework of how modern agricultural park construction influences agricultural economic development 3. econometric model, variables, and data sources 3.1 econometric model different counties were approved to establish modern agricultural parks at different times. therefore, this study employs a multi-period difference-in-differences (did) approach, treating the establishment of modern agricultural parks as a quasi-natural experiment. this method allows us to assess the impact of modern agricultural park development on agricultural economic growth by comparing economic data before and after their establishment, while also contrasting with a control group (regions without modern agricultural parks). this as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 39 published by ideas spread approach helps to identify the direct effects of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economic growth, providing more precise and scientific analysis results. the specific model is as follows: ln y , α β did , γ x , μ λ ϵ , (1) i represents the county, and t represents the year. ln y , is the dependent variable, representing the level of agricultural economic development i in county in year t. did , is the core explanatory variable, a dummy variable indicating whether county i established a modern agricultural park in year t.it is set to 1 if the park was established (treatment group) and 0 otherwise (control group). β is the key coefficient of interest, capturing the effect of modern agricultural park establishment on agricultural economic growth. x , represents control variables that account for factors such as agricultural labor, agricultural machinery, agricultural land inputs, etc. γ is the coefficient vector for these control variables. μ and λ are county and year fixed effects, respectively. ϵ , is the random error term. the study focuses on determining whether β is statistically significant. if positive and significant, it indicates that modern agricultural parks have a positive effect on agricultural economic growth. to address selection bias and ensure the validity of the multi-period did model, this study conducts a parallel trend test between the treatment and control groups. this test evaluates whether the trends of the dependent variable (agricultural economic development) in the treatment and control groups were parallel before the treatment (i.e., the establishment of modern agricultural parks). the model for the parallel trend test is as follows: ln y , α ∑ β did , ∑ β did , γ x , μ λ ϵ , (2) did , and did , are sets of dummy variables indicating years before 8 and after 6 the establishment of modern agricultural parks. β captures the trend in agricultural economic development before the establishment of modern agricultural parks. if β is not significant, it satisfies the parallel trend assumption. β captures the effect of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economic growth after their establishment. to explore the pathways through which modern agricultural parks affect regional agricultural economic growth, this study constructs a mechanism test model. the specific models are as follows: tecℎ , α β did , γ x , μ λ ϵ , (3) ln y , α β did , β tecℎ , γ x , μ λ ϵ , (4) merge , α β did , γ x , μ λ ϵ , (5) ln y , α β did , β merge , γ x , μ λ ϵ , (6) tecℎ , represents the level of technological innovation. merge , represents the level of rural industrial integration. α 、α 、α 、α represent constant terms. β 、β 、β 、β 、β 、β 、γ 、γ 、γ 、γ are coefficients to be estimated. the remaining symbols carry the same meanings as defined in the preceding equations. 3.2 variable selection 3.2.1 dependent variable the dependent variable represents the indicator used to measure regional agricultural economic level. in previous studies, some scholars have utilized the added value of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery or rural residents' per capita net income as (yuan et al., 2021; huang et al., 2021; deng and wang, 2020). to mitigate the impact of price fluctuations on research results, this study follows the methodologies of wang et al. (2021), huang et al. (2021), and deng et al. (2020) by employing the annual total output value of agriculture, forestry, animal as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 40 published by ideas spread husbandry, and fishery at the county level as a proxy variable. data are log-transformed to more accurately reflect the actual regional agricultural economic levels. 3.2.2 core explanatory variable the core explanatory variable is a binary variable indicating whether a modern agricultural park has been established. based on the earliest year each county was approved to establish a modern agricultural park, the variable is assigned a value of 1 if the county has a modern agricultural park in the given year or any subsequent year, and 0 otherwise. this binary variable captures the treatment effect of modern agricultural park establishment, contrasting the outcomes of counties with such parks to those without. 3.2.3 control variables this study incorporates six control variables to account for factors that may influence regional agricultural economic growth, drawing from the methodologies of xue et al. (2023) and yin (2020). these variables are: agricultural labor: the number of persons employed in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery reflects labor input in agricultural development. notably, the population engaged in these sectors has declined annually as rural residents migrate to urban areas. agricultural machinery: the total power of agricultural machinery used in a region indicates the level of agricultural mechanization, enhancing production efficiency and crop output. agricultural land inputs: the total cropped area serves as an indicator of a region's agricultural land resources. farmers' income levels: this encompasses income from farming, animal husbandry, and 务工 activities, assessing the economic well-being of farmers. agricultural output levels: this measures regional agricultural production capacity and directly impacts agricultural economic growth. government intervention: measured by local government's general budget revenue, reflecting financial capacity and support for agricultural development. 3.2.4 mechanism variables to analyze how modern agricultural parks influence agricultural economic growth, this study examines two mechanisms: technological innovation and rural industrial integration. technological innovation: the number of patent applications in a county is used to assess technological innovation, as it reflects the intensity of scientific and technological activities (guo et al., 2023; dong et al., 2023). rural industrial integration: the proportion of the primary sector in a region's gdp is used to gauge the extent of rural industrial integration. a smaller proportion indicates a more diversified economic structure with enhanced synergies across agricultural, industrial, and service sectors, facilitating extended agricultural value chains and efficiency improvements. for comparability and to neutralize scale effects, all variables except the core binary explanatory variable and the rural industrial integration index have been log-transformed. 3.3 data sources the data for this study are derived from non-panel data spanning 2007 to 2021 for 438 counties across four provinces in southwest china: sichuan, guizhou, yunnan, and chongqing. the dataset includes: modern agricultural parks: a list of modern agricultural parks, sourced from the website of the chinese ministry of science and technology. patent applications: data on patent applications, sourced from the china national intellectual property administration (cnipa) patent search and analysis platform. control variables: data on agricultural labor, machinery, land inputs, farmers' income, agricultural output, and government revenue, sourced from the china county statistical yearbook. for missing values, the data were supplemented using local city and county statistical yearbooks, and linear interpolation was applied to impute any remaining missing values. notably, due to severe data missingness and difficulties in collection, data from the tibet autonomous region were excluded from the analysis of the southwest region. table 1 presents the definitions and descriptive statistics of the variables used in the study. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 41 published by ideas spread table 1. variable definitions and descriptive statistics 4. empirical results analysis 4.1 analysis of baseline regression results table 2 reports the estimation results of the baseline regression examining the impact of modern agricultural park construction on agricultural economic development. column (1) does not include control variables, while columns (2) to (7) progressively add control variables. all equations employ a multi-period differencein-differences (did) model for parameter estimation, with two-way fixed effects controlled. based on the sign of the correlation coefficients and the statistical significance of the variables, the estimated results of the core explanatory variable across all columns are significant at the 1% level. in column (1) of table 2, only the agricultural economic level is regressed. the results show a positive effect at the 1% significance level, indicating that in counties where modern agricultural parks are established, the agricultural economic level has increased by an average of 6.23%. when control variables are gradually introduced in columns (2) to (7), we find that the regression results of the interaction term remain highly significant, and the impact coefficient increases from 0.0623 to 0.0862. this increase reflects that the positive impact of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economic development is not only significant but also robust after controlling for other relevant factors. therefore, we can confirm that hypothesis 1 holds, i.e., the establishment of modern agricultural parks has a significant positive impact on agricultural economic growth. by establishing modern agricultural parks, we can effectively integrate sci-tech innovation resources, promote the development and transformation of agricultural technologies, and thereby improve agricultural production efficiency and product quality. variable category variable name variable description mean standard deviation dependent variable agricultural economic level logarithm of the total output value of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery (in 10,000 cny) 12.02 1.152 core variable interaction term whether a modern agricultural park is established: yes = 1, no = 0 0.128 0.334 control variables agricultural labor level logarithm of the number of employees in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery (in persons) 11.53 0.684 agricultural mechanization level logarithm of the total power of agricultural machinery (in kilowatts) 2.983 0.807 agricultural land input logarithm of the total sown area of crops (in hectares) 3.729 0.933 farmers' income level logarithm of the per capita disposable income of rural residents (in cny) 8.876 0.623 grain output level logarithm of the total output value of grain (in tons) 11.52 1.394 degree of local government intervention logarithm of local government general budget revenue (in 10,000 cny) 10.66 1.301 mediating variables regional sci-tech innovation level logarithm of the number of patent applications in each region 3.456 1.922 rural industrial integration proportion of the added value of the primary industry to regional gdp 0.289 0.204 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 42 published by ideas spread regarding the control variables, it is observed that only the degree of local government intervention has a negative impact. this could be because local governments, in their pursuit of increased fiscal budget revenue, have adopted more aggressive tax collection measures, such as raising agricultural tax rates or strengthening tax enforcement. these measures may increase production costs and economic burdens for farmers. table 2. regression results of the effect of establishing modern agricultural parks on agricultural economic level variable dependent variable: agricultural economic level (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) interaction term 0.0623*** 0.0724*** 0.0739*** 0.0757*** 0.0932*** 0.0870*** 0.0862*** (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) agricultural labor level 0.588*** 0.544*** 0.540*** 0.250*** 0.127*** 0.125*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.004) (0.005) agricultural mechanization level 0.321*** 0.293*** 0.244*** 0.181*** 0.183*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) agricultural land input 0.488*** 0.510*** 0.231*** 0.252*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.006) (0.004) farmers' income level 0.611*** 0.551*** 0.556*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) grain output level 0.306*** (0.000) 0.306*** (0.000) degree of local government intervention -0.0969*** (0.000) year fixed effects yes yes yes yes yes yes yes county fixed effects yes yes yes yes yes yes yes constant 12.01*** 5.234*** 4.784*** 3.085*** 1.073 0.714 1.658*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.103) (0.232) (0.005) observations 6570 6570 6570 6570 6570 6570 6568 r² 0.938 0.939 0.942 0.943 0.949 0.950 0.954 notes.*, **, and *** denote significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively. standard errors in parentheses are robust standard errors. 4.2 parallel trend test to confirm the validity and accuracy of the multi-period difference-in-differences (did) model, this study follows the method proposed by beck et al. (2010) to test the parallel trends before and after the establishment of modern agricultural parks. a dynamic trend test graph is plotted to visually present the results. in this test, data from eight years before the policy implementation to six years after the policy implementation are selected, with the year before the policy implementation set as the baseline year. as shown in figure 1, the estimated coefficients for most years before the policy implementation are not statistically significant and fluctuate widely around zero. however, after the policy implementation, the estimated coefficients for each year become significant and exhibit an upward trend, with all coefficients located above zero. this indicates that there is no significant difference between the treatment group and the control group before the policy implementation. the results demonstrate that the treatment group and the control group satisfy the parallel trend assumption, validating the applicability of the multi-period did model in this study. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 43 published by ideas spread figure 2. parallel trend test 4.3 placebo test to address the potential influence of unobservable factors at the county-year level on the estimation results, despite the inclusion of two-way fixed effects in the baseline regression to control for heterogeneity across counties and years, this study adopts the approach of tang haodan et al. (2022) to conduct a placebo test. specifically, counties and policy implementation years are randomly assigned to generate a pseudo-core explanatory variable, which is then used for regression analysis. figure 3 illustrates the results of 500 random sampling iterations. as shown, the majority of the 500 estimated coefficients are distributed around zero rather than clustering around the true estimated result of 0.0861. additionally, the p-values for most of these coefficients are statistically insignificant. this indicates that the true estimated result in this study is a clear outlier within the sampling distribution and is unlikely to have occurred by chance. thus, the placebo test confirms that the agricultural economic growth effect attributed to the modern agricultural park policy is genuine and not influenced by unobservable factors at the county-year level. figure 3. placebo test p olicy effect policy implementation time point k ern eld en sity p-value kernel density of estimated p-value estimated coefficient as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 44 published by ideas spread 4.4 robustness test given that the establishment of modern agricultural parks is not a random process but rather a decision based on comprehensive evaluations by the ministry of science and technology or provincial science and technology departments, considering factors such as regional agricultural development levels, the status of specialized agriculture, the scale of technological investment, and scientific research and innovation capabilities, there is an inherent difference between the treatment and control groups. this inevitably leads to sample selection bias. to address the potential self-selection bias in the policy effect evaluation using the difference-in-differences (did) method, this study employs the propensity score matching-difference-in-differences (psm-did) approach (table 3). by matching each treatment group sample with a control group sample that has a similar propensity score, the robustness test ensures that the evaluation results are more reliable and accurate. in table 3, column (1) presents the baseline regression results, primarily for comparison with the subsequent columns. column (2) shows the regression results using samples with non-empty weights. by including these samples in the matching process, they are incorporated into the did regression model for parameter estimation, thereby mitigating the selection bias present in the baseline regression to some extent. column (3) displays the regression results using samples that satisfy the common support assumption, while column (4) presents the frequency-weighted regression analysis results, considering the importance of sample weights. notably, all four estimated coefficients are statistically significant at the 1% level, reaffirming that the establishment of modern agricultural parks has a significant positive impact on improving local agricultural economic levels. table 3. psm-did robustness test variable (1) (2) (3) (4) fixed effects regression weight!=. on_support weight_reg interaction term 0.0862*** 0.181*** 0.0875*** 0.184*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) agricultural labor level 0.125*** 0.0737 0.0959** 0.180 (0.005) (0.555) (0.031) (0.113) agricultural mechanization level 0.183*** 0.205*** 0.184*** 0.175*** (0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.002) agricultural land input 0.252*** -0.171 0.254*** -0.106 (0.004) (0.329) (0.003) (0.493) farmers' income level 0.556*** 0.655*** 0.564*** 0.631*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) grain output level 0.306*** 0.153*** 0.303*** 0.145*** (0.000) (0.003) (0.000) (0.003) degree of local government intervention -0.0969*** -0.0892*** -0.0973*** -0.103*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) constant 1.658*** 4.559*** 1.949*** 3.658** (0.005) (0.004) (0.001) (0.013) year fixed effects yes yes yes yes county fixed effects yes yes yes yes observations 6568 2103 6545 2475 r2 0.954 0.961 0.954 0.963 notes.*, **, and *** denote significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively. standard errors in parentheses are robust standard errors. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 45 published by ideas spread 4.5 mechanism analysis 4.5.1 the impact of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economy through technological innovation column (2) of table 4 presents the estimated results of the impact of establishing modern agricultural parks on regional technological innovation levels. the data show that the establishment of modern agricultural parks significantly promotes regional technological innovation capabilities by effectively aggregating innovation resources such as high-tech talent, specialized technologies, and financial support, thereby enhancing agricultural technological levels. in column (3), although the estimated coefficient of the interaction term is significant at the 1% level, the impact of regional technological innovation capabilities on local agricultural economic development is not statistically significant. to further verify the existence of the mediating effect, the sobel test or bootstrap test was employed. given the statistical power of the bootstrap test and the sample size of this study, the bootstrap method was chosen. by resampling the original sample with replacement and repeating the process 1,000 times, the results in table 5 indicate that the total effect of modern agricultural parks on regional agricultural economic levels is 0.326, of which the direct effect is 0.16 and the indirect effect is 0.165, accounting for 50.61% of the total effect. furthermore, both the confidence interval (p) and the bias-corrected confidence interval (bc) do not include zero, indicating that the mediating effect is significant. therefore, we can conclude that hypothesis 2 holds. table 4. the impact of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economy through technological innovation variable (1) (2) (3) baseline regression regional technological innovation level agricultural economic level interaction term 0.0862*** 0.253*** 0.0849*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) regional technological innovation level 0.00505 (0.195) control variables included included included year fixed effects yes yes yes county fixed effects yes yes yes constant 1.658*** 0.573 1.656*** (0.005) (0.856) (0.005) observations 6568 6568 6568 r2 0.954 0.738 0.954 notes.*, **, and *** denote significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively. standard errors in parentheses are robust standard errors. table 5. bootstrap test results test method regression coefficient bias standard error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound indirect effect 0.16568611 -0.0009081 0.01533964 0.1361087 0.1956324 (p) 0.137309 0.197297 (bc) direct effect 0.16031955 0.0011065 0.035686 0.0907738 0.2314546 (p) 0.0918679 0.2317094 (bc) as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 46 published by ideas spread 4.5.2 the impact of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economy through rural industrial integration column (2) of table 6 presents the estimated results of the effect of establishing modern agricultural parks on rural industrial integration. the estimated coefficient is positive and significant at the 5% level, indicating that although the establishment of modern agricultural parks does not significantly enhance the level of rural industrial integration, it does help increase the proportion of the primary industry in the local economy, relatively reducing the output value of the secondary and tertiary industries, thereby promoting agricultural development. in column (3), the estimated coefficient results show that establishing modern agricultural parks cannot drive regional agricultural economic growth by promoting industrial integration but can only promote agricultural economic development by increasing the proportion of the primary industry in the regional economy. therefore, hypothesis 3 is not validated. this may be because modern agricultural parks overly focus on the research and innovation of agricultural product technologies while failing to effectively integrate subsequent stages such as agricultural product processing and sales services, resulting in an incomplete industrial chain and thus hindering the integrated development of rural industries. table 6. the impact of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economy through rural industrial integration variable (1) (2) (3) baseline regression rural industrial integration agricultural economic level interaction term 0.0862*** 0.0100** 0.0832*** (0.000) (0.022) (0.000) rural industrial integration 0.299*** (0.000) control variables included included included year fixed effects yes yes yes county fixed effects yes yes yes constant 1.658*** 2.029*** 1.052* (0.005) (0.000) (0.073) observations 6568 6568 6568 r2 0.954 0.893 0.954 notes.*, **, and *** denote significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively. standard errors in parentheses are robust standard errors. 4.6 heterogeneity analysis 4.6.1 analysis by administrative level the regression results in columns (1) and (2) of table 7 show that the coefficients for both provincial capital and non-provincial capital groups are significant at the 1% level. to better understand the differences between provincial capitals and non-provincial capitals, a chow test was conducted to examine the coefficient differences between the groups. the results, presented in table 8, show that the p-value for the interaction term between the provincial capital variable and the core explanatory variable (whether a modern agricultural park is established) is 0.000, which is significant at the 1% level. this confirms that the coefficient differences between the groups are significant, supporting hypothesis 4. the impact of modern agricultural parks on promoting agricultural economic development differs significantly between provincial capitals and non-provincial capitals. based on the estimated coefficients, establishing modern agricultural parks in provincial capitals yields a 28% benefit for agricultural economic growth. this is because provincial capitals are typically regional political, economic, and cultural centers, making it easier to secure government policy support and resource allocation, including funding, technology, and talent. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 47 published by ideas spread table 7. heterogeneity analysis based on administrative level, core metropolitan areas in the southwest, and major grain-producing counties variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) provincial capitals nonprovincial capitals core metropolitan areas non-core metropolitan areas major grainproducing counties non-major grainproducing counties interaction term 0.286*** 0.0546*** 0.213*** 0.00784 -0.0387** 0.0788*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.657) (0.028) (0.000) control variables included included included included included included constant 3.545* 4.619*** -1.882* 6.497*** 11.42*** 1.593** (0.077) (0.000) (0.081) (0.000) (0.000) (0.026) year fixed effects yes yes yes yes yes yes county fixed effects yes yes yes yes yes yes observations 808 5760 1648 4920 1710 4858 r² 0.955 0.955 0.959 0.954 0.979 0.962 notes.*, **, and *** denote significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively. standard errors in parentheses are robust standard errors. table 8. coefficient difference test between groups (chow test) variable (1) agricultural economic level 1.provincial_capital#c.did 0.432*** (0.000) control variables included constant 12.07*** (0.000) year fixed effects yes county fixed effects yes observations 6570 r² 0.943 4.6.2 analysis by core metropolitan areas in the southwest based on the chengdu metropolitan area development plan, chongqing metropolitan area development plan, guiyang-gui'an-anshun metropolitan area development plan, and yunnan provincial territorial spatial plan (2021-2035), 22 cities, including chengdu, deyang, meishan, ziyang, yuzhong district, dadukou district, jiangbei district, guiyang, gui'an, anshun, and kunming, are identified as core metropolitan areas. columns (3) and (4) of table 7 show that establishing modern agricultural parks in core metropolitan areas significantly improves agricultural economic levels. this is likely because core metropolitan areas are home to numerous highquality higher education institutions, top talent, and research institutes, which provide robust technical support and talent reserves for the parks. these resources facilitate the transformation and practical application of agricultural scientific and technological achievements. additionally, establishing modern agricultural parks in core metropolitan areas can attract related agricultural enterprises, research institutions, and service providers, forming as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 48 published by ideas spread a complete industrial chain. this agglomeration effect promotes resource sharing, information exchange, and technical collaboration, further enhancing the overall competitiveness of agriculture. 4.6.3 analysis by major grain-producing counties sichuan province, the only core grain-producing region in the southwest, has launched the "tianfu granary: hundred counties, thousand zones" construction action plan (2024–2026), aiming to create 1,000 highstandard, high-yield grain and oil demonstration zones in over 100 counties and districts. this study categorizes counties in the southwest based on whether they are major grain-producing counties and employs heterogeneity analysis. from the regression coefficients in columns (5) and (6) of table 7, it is evident that modern agricultural parks in major grain-producing counties have a significant negative impact on agricultural economic growth, while in non-major grain-producing counties, the impact is positive and significant at the 1% level. this suggests that establishing modern agricultural parks in non-major grain-producing counties can promote regional agricultural economic growth. the primary reason may be that major grain-producing counties already have well-established agricultural production systems and high resource utilization levels. establishing modern agricultural parks in these areas could lead to competition for core resources such as land, water, and labor, potentially causing imbalanced resource allocation and negatively affecting traditional grain production efficiency and scale. in contrast, non-major grain-producing counties have lower resource utilization efficiency and lagging agricultural production. introducing modern agricultural parks in these areas can bring new management practices and technologies, significantly improving resource use efficiency and driving agricultural economic growth. 5. conclusions and implications 5.1 research conclusions this study provides a detailed analysis of the role of modern agricultural parks in promoting regional agricultural economic growth and concludes the following: significant positive impact: regardless of whether control variables are included, the regression coefficient between modern agricultural parks and agricultural economic growth is significant at the 1% level. this confirms that modern agricultural parks substantially contribute to regional agricultural economic growth. robustness of results: the accuracy and reliability of the regression results are ensured through parallel trend tests, placebo tests, and psm-did robustness tests, further validating the causal relationship. mechanism analysis: modern agricultural parks significantly promote agricultural economic development by enhancing regional technological innovation capabilities. however, this effect is not achieved through rural industrial integration. heterogeneity analysis: the impact of modern agricultural parks on agricultural economic growth varies across administrative levels, core metropolitan areas, and major grain-producing counties. specifically: provincial capitals: the most significant positive impact is observed in provincial capitals. non-provincial capitals: positive effects are also found in non-provincial capital regions. core metropolitan areas: modern agricultural parks in core metropolitan areas contribute positively to agricultural economic growth. non-grain-producing counties: these regions also benefit from the establishment of modern agricultural parks. in summary, the establishment of modern agricultural parks has a positive impact on agricultural economic growth, with the most pronounced effects in provincial capitals. 5.2 policy implications based on the research findings, this study proposes the following policy recommendations: 1. leverage the growth wisdom of modern agricultural parks to consolidate and enhance their quality, maximizing their role in promoting agricultural economic prosperity specifically, the southwestern region should build on the successful examples and models of existing modern agricultural parks to further strengthen their construction. this includes improving support policies and evaluation mechanisms, establishing a performance-based dynamic assessment system, and implementing promotion and exit mechanisms. additionally, it is essential to encourage collaboration between municipal-level modern agricultural parks and higher-level parks in the industrial chain, positioning modern agricultural parks as pioneers in regional agricultural industrial upgrading and driving the revitalization of rural economies. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 49 published by ideas spread 2. further enhance the technological innovation capacity of modern agricultural parks to promote efficient and high-quality agricultural development by leveraging the development and application of new technologies, modern agricultural parks can lead the transformation and upgrading of local agricultural economies. the southwestern region should address technical bottlenecks in agricultural production by enhancing agricultural technical support. advanced agricultural technologies and management models should be widely applied in rural areas to improve agricultural productivity and product quality, thereby increasing farmers’ income and accelerating the modernization of agriculture. 3. develop leading agricultural industries and build a robust modern agricultural industrial system the fundamental goal of the rural revitalization strategy is industrial prosperity. therefore, innovation should be the driving force to accelerate agricultural modernization and fully implement the rural revitalization strategy, which should be the core purpose of building modern agricultural parks. by constructing high-level modern agricultural parks, pooling superior resources, and advancing the research and development of key technologies, the transformation and dissemination of scientific and technological achievements can be accelerated. this will cultivate a series of leading agricultural industries with demonstration and driving functions, injecting new vitality into agricultural modernization and creating broader opportunities for rural revitalization. references ahuja, g. 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(2023). research on the impact of national agricultural science and technology parks on regional agricultural economic growth [doctoral dissertation, yangzhou university]. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v5n2p22 22 published by ideas spread use of micronized calcium carbonate-based sunscreen on young european hazelnut (corylus avellana l.) in commercial nursery under environmental stress conditions during the summer period ignacio errazuriz-montanares3, sergio fernandez2, paulo cañete-salinas3, khristopher ogass1, cristian espinosa1, jorge guajardo3, nicolas saavedra3, sebastián contreras3, francisco zamudio4 & césar acevedoopazo3 1 erde technology and applied engineering spa, talca, chile 2 ferpac fertilizers of the pacific s.a. orchard street no. 575, hijuelas, valparaíso, chile 3 faculty of agricultural sciences, university of talca, av. lircay s/n, talca, chile 4 facultad de ciencias de la salud, universidad de talca. avenida lircay s/n, talca, chile correspondence: césar acevedo-opazo, faculty of agricultural sciences, university of talca, av. lircay s/n, talca, chile. e-mail: cacevedo@utalca.cl received: august 20, 2023 accepted: december 3, 2023 online published: december 31, 2023 abstract chile has become one of the main exporters of european hazelnuts in the world, mainly due to favorable edaphoclimatic conditions. currently, due to the negative effects of climate change, chile has been suffering recurrent heat waves and droughts, which are damaging the productive efficiency of the european hazelnut. the present research proposes to evaluate the use of a sunscreen composed of micronized calcium carbonate, pinolene and lignosulfonate on young european hazelnut plants growing in a commercial nursery. in this study, the environmental conditions of heat stress observed during the summer months were evaluated. the results show statistically significant differences between treatments, in favor of plants treated with the sunscreen in at least one of the three months of evaluation. thus, stomatal conductance (gs) showed increases of up to 29% compared to the control treatment, transpiration rate (tr) increased by up to 25% and the net assimilation rate (an) increased by up to 18% compared to the control treatment without application. the use of sunscreen would increase the gas exchange of young european hazelnut plants, thus providing greater tolerance to conditions of high environmental temperature, promoting an increase in the production of photo-assimilates compared to untreated plants. keywords: european hazelnut, sunscreen, physiological response, micronized calcium carbonate, stress 1. introduction chile is the main producer in the southern hemisphere and ranks fifth worldwide, after countries such as turkey (63.2%), italy (13.4%), azerbaijan (4.7) and the usa (4.2%) (faostat, 2020). the production areas in chile are concentrated in the central south and south of the country, characterized by a mediterranean and temperate climate, respectively (durán et al., 2022). currently, these areas cover an area of 30,000 hectares (ha) with an annual growth rate of 2,000 to 3,000 ha (odepa, 2020, moya-elizondo et al., 2022). ninety percent of this production is exported to italy (ellena et al., 2014), which has allowed it to gain relevant in the world hazelnut market, due to its position as an off-season exporter (ghisoni et al., 2019). in addition, the low commercial risks and socio-political effects affecting the price of hazelnuts, together with a high productive potential (2.0 4.0-ton ha-1), even higher than the great productive exponents such as turkey and italy (0.85 -1.5-ton ha-1), give chile a privileged position in the world hazelnut market (grau and sandoval, 2009; bozoglu et al., 2019). the production of fruit trees such as european hazelnut has been strongly affected in mediterranean climate zones, due to the intensification of droughts events and heat waves generated mainly by the negative effects of climate change (del pozo et al., 2019). in southern latitudes such as chile, the ozone layer has also decreased, increasing the intensity of incident solar radiation, especially ultraviolet radiation (uv) (lizana et al., 2009). like other fruit trees of mediterranean climate, hazelnut has a saturation point of incident light that is around 50% of the intensity in full sun during the summer, which would decrease its physiological performance during the productive period (corelli-grappadelli and lakso, 2007). moreover, in the case of european hazel this threshold is even lower (luciani et al., 2020) and exceeding this value would generate damage to the photosynthetic apparatus (psii), as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 23 published by ideas spread increasing photorespiration and photoinhibition of the plant. this situation is even more aggravated under a scenario of water restriction, due to the increase in temperature in plant tissues (corelli-grappadelli and lakso, 2007; salazar-canales et al., 2021). this affects plants in different processes of development and organ growth, which would ultimately significantly affect fruit production, so it is essential to have alternatives to overcome the negative effects of climate, providing conditions to minimize the damage caused by high radiation and lack of water in key phenological periods for european hazel. as an alternative, the use of sunscreens is proposed, being kaolin the most used via foliar application, increasing albedo through the formation of a whitish layer of this mineral on the leaves, which would increase the reflection of photosynthetically active radiation (par), uv and infrared (ir) (brito et al., 2019), favoring the reduction of leaf temperature from 1 to 4 °c, thus reducing heat stress. however, under water stress conditions, the decrease in leaf temperature could reach up to 6.9 °c, also decreasing gs, tr and an (luciani et al., 2020). foliar applications of micronized calcium carbonate (caco3) would also reduce the negative effects of high solar radiation not only by increasing albedo, but also by generating greater efficiency in calcium translocation within plant tissue cells (deepa et al., 2015), which is essential in the synthesis of salicylic acid and chitinase, increasing plan tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress (pugliese et al., 2018). among the adjuvant compounds used to enhance the effect of sunscreens, we have pinolene, which is a terpene polymer derived from pine resin, which helps limit plant transpiration (brillante et al., 2016). on the other hand, the lignosulfonate added in the formulation would fulfill the function of a binder (przywara et al., 2021). based on the literature review, the present research aims to evaluate the use of a formulation based on micronized calcium carbonate, pinolene and lignosulfonate as a sunscreen, on the water status and gas exchange in young european hazel plants in a commercial nursery, under environmental stress conditions recorded during the summer period in central chile. 2. materials and methods 2.1 experimental site the study was conducting during the 2020-2021 season in a commercial nursery of young european hazelnut trees (corylus avellana l.) belonging to the company agrichile s.a., located in los niches, maule region, chile (35° 3'13.42" s; 71° 7'48.41" w; 288 m.a.s.l). the orchard corresponds to the cv. tonda di giffoni, used for plant propagation (nursery). the niches area has a mediterranean climate with a long dry season. the average annual temperature is 14.7 °c, and the average temperature of the warmest month is 21.9 ºc and the average minimum temperature during the coldest month is 8 °c (january and july, respectively). the total average annual precipitation in the last 10 years was 860 mm. the soils of this site are moderately deep of superficial clay loam texture, with slow permeability and flat topography. 2.2 experimental design two treatments with application of commercial product blocker (micronized calcium carbonate, pinolene and lignosulfonate), and a control (without application) were evaluated. for this, an experimental design of randomized blocks was carried out, with four repetitions per treatment, where each repetition corresponds to a block. each of the blocks is made up of a total of 20 plants. three applications were made during the summer season, during the months of highest climatic demand, that is middle january, february and march in the southern hemisphere. ten days after the application of the products, measurements were made in the field. 2.3 plant measurements to characterize plant water status, midday xylem water potential (ψx; mpa) was measured using the pressure chamber methodology (pms instrument co., model 1000, corvallis, oregon, usa; scholander et al., 1965). to evaluate the physiological response of the plants, the physiological variables of stomatal conductance (gs; mol m2 s-1), transpiration rate (tr; mol m-2 s-1) and net assimilation rate (an; µmol m-2 s-1) were performed using a portable infrared gas analyzer (li-6800 li-cor). all measurements were made between 12:00 and 14:00 h. in the afternoon, during the period of highest climatic demand on healthy, medium-sized leaves in full sun. 2.4 statistical analysis for the data information analysis, it was carried out using a generalized linear model (glm), where the treatment was considered as a fixed variable and the block as a random variable. for the separation of means, a multiple range comparison test was performed using hsd, tukey, p-value ≤ 0.05. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 24 published by ideas spread 3. results table 1 shows the climatic analysis for the 3 measurement dates during the study season. in this regard, it is observed that on january 12 and march 9, maximum temperatures fluctuated around 30°c, while photosynthetically active radiation (par) exceeded 1,500 µmol m-2 s-1, a normal situation in the southern hemisphere during the summer season high temperatures and high solar radiation are observed (del pozo et al., 2019). on the contrary, during february 16, temperatures and par were ostensibly lower, due to the high cloudiness of that day (8/8 oktas of cloud). table 1. climatic analysis for the dates of physiological measurements made in the field. data were obtained from the agromet weather station, located in san jorge, los niches. date average temperature (°c) maximum temperature (°c) minimum temperature (°c) solar radiation (µmol m-2 s-1). 12-01-2021 16.7 28.6 4.8 1877 16-02-2021 14.5 17.8 8.7 533 09-03-2021 18.6 31.2 7.2 1577 figure 1 shows the xylem water stress values and the assimilation rate for the evaluated treatments. for xylem water stress, statistical differences were only observed on january 12, in which the plants covered with sunscreen presented a lower water stress with -0.57 mpa. an also showed statistically significant differences during the measurements made in january and march, being the plants treated with sunscreen the ones that presented a better performance, increasing these measurements by 13% and 18%, respectively, compared to the control treatment without application. variable xylematic water potential (mpa) assimilation rate (µmol m-2 s-1) treatment 12-01-2021 16-02-2021 09-03-2021 12-01-2021 16-02-2021 09-03-2021 sunscreen -0.57 a -0.14 -0.70 18.04a 17.86 17.73 control -0.66 b -0.15 -0.69 16.01b 17.40 15.00 valor-p 0.004 (*) 0.15 0.93 0.018 (*) 0.74 0.0014(*) figure 1. evolution of midday stem water potential (ψx; mpa) and net assimilation rate (an; µmol m-2 s-1) and analysis of variance performed. different letters indicate significant differences between treatments. * p-value <0.05 on the other hand, in figure 2, tr presented statistically significant differences during the three measurement dates. in this case, the plants treated with sunscreen showed increases of 25% and 20% for the measurements made in january and march, respectively. however, this variable also decreased during the month of february by 14%, compared to the control treatment. finally, gs increased by 25% and 29% in plants treated with sunscreen during as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 25 published by ideas spread january and march, respectively. however, the increase in gs represented statistically significant differences only in march. on the other hand, the measurement of gs in february showed significant statistical differences in the sunscreen treatment, being 24% lower than the control treatment. variable transpiration (mol m-2 s-1) stomatal conductance (mol m-2 s-1) treatment 12-01-2021 16-02-2021 09-03-2021 12-01-2021 16-02-2021 09-03-2021 sunscreen 0.0071a 0.0024b 0.0092a 1.53 0.29b 0.66a control 0.0057b 0.0028a 0.0077b 1.22 0.38a 0.51b valor-p 0.02 (*) 0.02 (*) 0.0057 (*) 0.12 0.008 (*) 0.0027 (*) figure 2. evolution of leaf transpiration (tr; mol m-2 s-1), stomatal conductance (gs; mol m-2 s-1) and analysis of variance for each variable studied. different letters indicate significant differences between treatments. * p-value <0.05. 4. discussion the plants evaluated in this trial did not present xylem water stress values, obtaining ψx values lower than -0.7 mpa, remaining below the threshold range proposed by grau and sandoval, (2009) and salazar-canales et al., (2021); corresponding to -0.85 and -0.89 mpa, respectively for european hazel plants cv. tonda di giffoni l, well irrigated and under climatic conditions like those of the present study. despite this, statistical differences of ψx were observed during january 12, where the treatment with sunscreen application reduced the water stress of plants, increasing the ψx by 14% compared to control treatment without application. the water stress values observed in the study show that the plants were not subjected to water stress conditions, therefore, the differences observed in the physiological response of the plants would have been generated mainly by thermal and radiative stress to which the plants were subjected during the growing season, especially during the first and third measurement dates. in the cloudy conditions observed during the february measurement, only significant statistical differences were found in the gs and tr variables, with lower values for plants treated with sunscreen. this is explained by the occurrence of low temperatures (below 25 °c) in conjunction with the10% decrease in par intensity observed. under these conditions the whitish film of the sunscreen could generate decreases in gas exchange variables, which was evidenced by lower rates of gs and tr (glenn et al., 2001). the gas exchange values recorded in this research differ from the experiences reported in literature, reaching values 5 times higher for gs and around two time higher for tr and an under similar climatic and water conditions (luciani et al., 2020; salazar-canales et al., 2021). the above results could be due to the age difference between the plant material used in this trial (young plants in nursery), this justifies the gap in gaseous exchange values observed in this study. however, data obtained from 2-year-old european hazelnut trees (height 58 ± 5 cm) cv. tonda gentile romana, growing in rome, in a mediterranean climate locality in evaluation periods similar to those of the present study (july, equivalent to january in the southern hemisphere) show even more marked differences in gas exchange variables with gs up to 8 times lower than that reported in this study (8 µmol m-2 s-1) and about 2 times lower in tr and an (0.13 and 0.0035 mol m-2 s-1, respectively) (catoni et al., 2017). these as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 26 published by ideas spread differences observed in relation to the information reported in literature could be due to measurements performed during a phenological period of active growth in new shoots of young plants growing in nursery. as for the use of micronized calcium carbonate, pinolene and lignosulfonate, there are no precedents in the literature on their use as a sunscreen for agricultural purposes. instead, the most widely used and studied sunscreen corresponds to kaolin. according to studies conducted by other authors, this product reduces leaf temperature and increases gs, thus tr and an. however, other studies with kaolin show decreases in an (glenn et al., 2001). such is the case of the study of by luciani et al., (2020) where applications of kaolin as a sunscreen were made on european hazelnut, with results coinciding with those obtained by glenn et al., (2001), regarding the decrease in leaf temperature between 2.9 to 6.9 °c, but differing in gas exchange variables, without observing benefits in relation to the control treatment. they also observed an interaction between the application of kaolin and water deficit, which would generate a greater stomatal resistance and therefore a decrease in the net assimilation rate, independently of leaf temperature. brito et al., 2019 mentions that in both irrigated and rainfed olive trees, benefits are seen from kaolin applications, mainly associated with the decrease in leaf temperature. this differs from what was observed by rotondi et al., 2021, who evaluated kaolin and zeolite in olive trees, carrying out a total of 8 applications between june and september, finding that the use of kaolin reduced gas exchange and photosynthesis evaluated in august and september, compared with witness trees. the zeolite increased the gas exchange, compared to the control. these results can be explained by the large number of applications, which generates an excessive density of lamellar particles, which act as a physical barrier on the upper surface and underside of the leaf, exacerbating stomatal resistance. on the other hand, with zeolite, although the same application pattern was followed, as they are pseudo cubic particles with a smaller specific surface area, they did not generate the limitation caused by kaolin. another experience that differs from what was expressed by brito et al., 2019, corresponds to that carried out by cabo et al., 2020 in a dry european hazelnut orchard, located in moimenta da beira, portugal, where trees in full production were treated. (the age of the trees is not specified) with kaolin, applying irrigation and the combination of both, obtaining as a result that these applications can increase yield through greater volume and weight of the fruit; but if the trees are irrigated. the discordance in results obtained when evaluating the same sunscreen can be explained by morphological and physiological characteristics intrinsic to each fruit species. have the olive tree, which is a species widely studied in its resistance to adverse environmental conditions thanks to its leaf morphology and physiological mechanisms such as osmolyte production. on the other hand, the european hazelnut is a species in which environmental adaptation mechanisms are unknown, but it can be seen that its resilience to environmental stress is less than that of the olive tree, therefore, obtaining favorable results in the olive tree does not ensure it in the hazelnut tree. european. on the other hand, the favorable results in mitigating environmental stress presented in this article, associated with plants treated with sunscreen (micronized calcium carbonate), which we show by the reduction in water stress and increase in gas exchange and photosynthesis, may be explained by the increase in albedo and consequent decrease in leaf temperature. however, as we saw in other research carried out with kaolin, the decrease in temperature does not guarantee the best photosynthetic performance. on the other hand, the formulation of the sunscreen evaluated corresponds to pinolene and lignosulfonate. pinolene is recognized as a film-forming antiperspirant that in research has contrasted its effect with that of kaolin, highlighting that it does not generate beneficial effects on gas exchange or photosynthesis, which has an impact on quality and performance (abdallah et al., 2019; brillante et al., 2016). for their part, lignosulfonates that have been evaluated as effective bio stimulants capable of promoting metabolic responses, physiological performance, increasing the photosynthetic rate (greater rubisco activity) and thereby increasing plant growth evaluated as dry weight (ertani et al., 2019). on the contrary, the results of the application of diverse sources of calcium as sunscreen allow us to observe statistically significant differences that show a benefit for the plant. on a sunny day, photosynthetically active radiation (par) is around 2,000 µmol m-2 s-1 and european hazelnut leaves exposed to full sun saturate at 40 to 50% of par, while shaded leaves of the same species have a lower light saturation point, which is reached at 15 to 25% of par on a sunny day, fluctuating between 300 and 500 µmol m-2 s-1 (hampson et al., 1996). therefore, the solar protection effect of calcium is based on the increase of plant albedo, reflecting the excess of incident solar radiation as par, uv and infrared radiation (ir), allows to reduce heat stress by reducing leaf temperature (luciani et al., 2020). the above practice maintains the photochemical functioning of psii, respecting temperature thresholds and light intensities, maximizing photosynthesis, which is reflected in an increase in net plant assimilation (glenn et al., 2001; glenn et al., 2003). the use of sunscreen allowed increasing gs in january and march, which would be related to high plant water availability and high transpiration, even under conditions of high temperature, high light intensity and high vapor pressure deficit (vpd) (cincera et al., 2018). the sunscreen, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 27 published by ideas spread reduces leaf temperature, decreases vpd between air and leaves. plants not being under water restriction, would allow maintaining a low plant stomatal resistance, increasing tr and an. calcium, in addition to generating a benefit as a physical barrier, would also do so through chemical properties, due to reports that indicate that foliar applications of nanoscale calcium, such as micronized calcium carbonate, would allow the transport of calcium through the phloem (deepa et al., 2015). thus, it is suggested that sunscreen could also increase calcium content within the plant, stimulating the production of salicylic acid and chitinase, fulfilling a sar role that would increase tolerance to heat and water stress in hazelnut plants (pugliese et al., 2018). 5. conclusion applications of micronized calcium carbonate, pinolene and lignosulfonate on young european hazelnut plants in commercial nursery managed without water stress during summer would improve gas exchange in hazelnut plants. the results obtained in this research stand out from the bibliographic reports of applications of other sunscreens on european hazelnut, being always favorable for plants treated with sunscreen under heat stress conditions, since this product allows maximizing the water efficiency of the plant, decreasing the stomatal resistance of the leaves, increasing their transpiration rate. this would improve the cooling process of plant tissues which, together with the increase in albedo, would help to protect the photochemical efficiency of psii, favoring the productivity of european hazelnut. references abdallah, a. m., mashaheet, a. m., zobel, r., & burkley, k. o. 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(2019). economic performance and risk of farming systems specialized in perennial crops, an analysis of italian hazelnut production. agricultural systems, 176, 102645. https//doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102645 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 5, no. 2; 2023 29 published by ideas spread copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice microsoft word p9-16 agricultural science; vol. 7, no. 2; 2025 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n2p9 9 published by ideas spread the impact of wildfires on california agriculture william zeng1 1 the quarry lane school, dublin, ca, usa correspondence: william zeng, the quarry lane school, dublin, ca, 94568, usa. received: september 18, 2025 accepted: october 21, 2025 online published: october 23, 2025 abstract this paper examines the complex impacts of wildfires on agriculture in california, analyzing the consequences across the environment, society, and economy both during and after the events. given the agricultural sector's high importance and hefty contributions to a region's well-being, it is among the most severely affected areas. understanding these in-depth effects, particularly on the environment and agriculture, is essential for grasping the broader implications for the economy and society. this paper analyzes past wildfires and investigates fire mitigation methods. additionally, graphical analyses illustrate trends in wildfire damage over the past century, along with corresponding increases in pollutants. furthermore, graphs are utilized to visualize the scope of damage by showing wildfire damage of the past century and the increase in pollutants in water. ultimately, the data supports the crucial need to implement policy changes that prioritize wildfire preparation, response strategies, and long-term resilience. keywords: wildfires, impact, california agriculture 1. introduction california has experienced fires for decades, but in recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in frequency and intensity (energy safety, 2020). wildfires are commonly associated with structures getting damaged and worsening air quality. still, other impacts, such as on agriculture, are often overlooked—california’s agriculture is a key pillar of the state’s economy and national food supply. fires that happen on or near agricultural lands or during harvest season can devastate crops and be an environmental strain. furthermore, wildfires impede social services and threatens farmers’ safety and income (gabi raab, university of oregon, 2021). despite the many years of wildfires, many regions remain underprepared and end up being impacted the most. under preparedness is seen in many forms beyond training, such as farmers lacking proper safety gear or experiencing rising insurance premiums. further under preparedness can be seen in utility providers like pg&e, whose failure to adequately maintain power lines near vegetation led to their aging and unreliable equipment, starting major blazes in 2017 and 2018 (wildfire task force, 2021). in addition, nonprofit organizations that aim to support these areas also struggle with limited funding, weak infrastructure, and inadequate emergency training, revealing broader gaps in wildfire preparedness and community resilience (cnmsocal, 2025). in this current decade, california has faced and experienced some of the most severe wildfires. at the start of this decade in 2020, six of the ten largest wildfires in california occurred concurrently, totaling 4 million acres, which is double the previous record. in the same year, with approximately 92,000 wildfires in california, many of the 4.2 million acres affected were relatively close to agricultural lands. as a result, the fire had a more direct path to impact agricultural lands negatively, and its effects could be felt in greater magnitude on the economy and crops (california department of fish and wildlife, 2020). elevated levels of toxic metals such as lead and zinc were found as far as 150 miles away. moreover, these wildfires struck during august, the peak harvest season—when many crops are most vulnerable, making huge losses for farmers. this combination of increased wildfire risk and disrupted harvest leads to increased potential for job losses and a decrease in food availability. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 10 published by ideas spread figure 1. the amount of acres burned over time the graph of figure 1(calfire, 2023) shows that the current impact of wildfires on agriculture has been increasingly more serious. even though the total amount of wildfires has been decreasing in fig. 2(calfire, 2023), the yearly damage gets more destructive, a trend shown by the increasing upward trendline of the amount of acres that wildfires burned each year (fig. 1). contributing to soil degradation, through wildfire destroying organic matter (such as roots), making farmland less productive and healthy. with agriculture being more vulnerable, it makes crops more prone to invasive species and to future fire damage. figure 2. number of wildfires over time as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 11 published by ideas spread figure 3. effects of wildfire on water quality further wildfires can be seen in figure 3(paul et al, 2022, american geophysical union) reporting changes in the amount of studies on “conceptual model endpoints.” the search criteria focus on literature that quantitatively assesses wildfire effects on water quality, such as the directionality of change (increase, decrease, or no change) of various physical, chemical, and biological response endpoints. it can be seen that there is a higher proportion of studies claiming an increase than no change or a decrease in a specific quantity at water endpoints. the table's data represents the compilation of results from studies pointing towards the increase of specific particles: nitrogen, aluminum, zinc, or mercury. interestingly, more studies are focusing on the increase of disinfectant byproduct particles than on heavy metals and suspended sediment in water, emphasizing the complex and widespread effects of wildfires on both agricultural systems and water resources. effects of wildfires extend beyond environmental degradation and into the livelihoods of the farmers. even after the wildfire’s threats have been eliminated, the aftermath is still damaging. according to the president of the california farm bureau federation, jamie johansson, assessment of farmers' situation to damage includes: some counties having over 1500 farmers’ applications for financial help; 70% lacking appropriate personal protective equipment, such as an n95 mask; and crop insurance premiums jumping from $8,000 to $36,000 for some agricultural policyholders. lost wages can be seen through farmers experiencing cuts of as much as $5,500. when added up, the lost wages could be as much as $50 million in wages for napa farmworkers alone. beyond economic disruption, other damages are seen through social impact. nonprofit organizations, during normal operations, can play a vital role in sustaining and maintaining, sustaining specific communities by providing important services. these services, such as medical services, medical care, mental health support, or shelters, will be reduced (cnmsocal, 2025). 2. thesis the effects of wildfire have had hefty impacts on the societal, economic, and environmental well-being of an area. one of the most affected sectors is agriculture, given its high precedence with its benefits and contributions. hence, it is important to prioritize and improve upon wildfire preparation and response by looking at the effects on agriculture, through analyzing past wildfires and looking at potential fire mitigation methods. to visualize the damage of wildfires throughout the years, graphs are utilized to show wildfire damage over time and pollutants in water after a wildfire. as stated, agriculture has benefits and hefty contributions to the societal, economic, and environmental well-being of an area. hence, it is important to prioritize and improve upon wildfire preparation and response by looking at the effects on agriculture, through analyzing past wildfires and looking at potential fire mitigation methods. this paper will characterize the impacts of wildfire on agriculture in california. to understand the in-depth effects as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 12 published by ideas spread primarily on the environment and agriculture, with economy and society, it's necessary to understand the broader impacts. 3. literature review 3.1 environmental most of california’s ecosystems are fire-dependent or fire-adapted, as fire can promote biodiversity and healthy ecosystems. wildfires naturally allow succession and changes in the ecosystem cycle. wildfires’ environmental impact beneficially alters the balance between biodiversity and composition of forest ecosystems: the presence of “habitat heterogeneity” boosts biodiversity (ayars, kramer jones, 2023, pnas). however, as vegetation has become more susceptible to fire due to increasingly frequent and severe droughts and global warming. wildfires becoming sporadic or higher frequency bring challenges to wildlife, natural resource management, and hinder the adaptation ability of organisms to wildfires. (ayars, kramer & jones, 2023, pnas). for example, during the wildfires of 2020 to 2021, there were 19,000 km² of forest vegetation burned: a number that is a magnitude more than the historical average (ayars, kramer & jones, 2023, pnas). commonly, persistent wildfires that are exacerbated by prolonged droughts make vegetation more prone to fire. while natural wildfires occur due to lightning or dry conditions, human activities such as land clearing, resource extraction, and climate change have greatly increased wildfire’s frequency and intensity. allowing issues to arise, such as the balance of essential natural resources like groundwater and timber in many recreational areas, expansion of invasive species, or impairing the conservation of native biodiversity via long-term (or permanent) loss of native vegetation (california department of fish and wildlife). environmental health is also directly impacted by prolonged and destructive wildfires, as seen in the water quality worsens due to an increase in foreign particles. after a wildfire, there’s an increase in streamflow due to the loss of vegetation’s canopy and roots and heat from the wildfire that bakes the ground, creating a hydrophobic layer of soil. with increased mobilization of nutrients, ions, metals, and certain organic chemicals in the waterway. concentrations rising 10–100 times or more above reference levels. the water quality is degraded below the criteria for aquatic life or drinking water standards/regulations for an average of two years, persisting for up to fifteen years. additionally, other factors such as particulate matter in the air and heavy metals will also be affected. in some cases, an area after a wildfire may experience an increase in particulate matter in the air to increase fourfold (california air resources board, 2021). furthermore, the plant is weakened and stunned from a lack of light or heat. both smoke and the fire itself will delay plants, resulting in decreased growth rates and minimized sunlight reaching plants. this prevents them from reaching their full size. since they are being planted late, their maturity date shifts into winter. 3.2 economics the economy is affected by a loss of profit for many insurers. for example, the los angeles fire caused losses of 16521 registered and insured structures. the majority involved homes, which were estimated to be valued from $65 to 131 billion. insurers were able to cover a portion and lost as much as $44.5 billion. additionally, a 0.48% decrease has occurred in the county’s gdp value. beyond homes getting damaged, infrastructure structures were also damaged and limited. so, without appropriate structures to operate, loss of productive capital, businesses, and labor markets. while all communities suffer damage, the magnitude isn't proportional across different communities. unfortunately, disadvantaged communities are more often to experience recurring damage. such as disadvantaged communities don’t have proper resources to have future strengthened responses with personnel training, equipment, safety, and protection equipment, or for prevention methods. additionally, structurally disadvantaged communities are less likely to implement essential measures such as roof replacements (for protective purposes) and could therefore be significantly more exposed to the consequences of wildfires in the future. homes in communities classified as disadvantaged by the us government are 29 percent more likely to be destroyed by wildfire within 30 years than homes in less disadvantaged communities. 3.3 agriculture and environment agriculture’s presence matters deeply to society, serving as the only viable source of income for three-quarters of people globally living below the poverty line, reflected in $1.3 trillion in global revenue (world wildlife organization). furthermore, this sector matters to people by fostering a healthy society by encouraging cultural heritage, community, involvement, and local resilience through self-sufficiency (bloom ranch). however, this essential resource is vulnerable to wildfires, impacting communities by hindering communities' main source of income (gabi raab, university of oregon, 2021). beyond wildfire directly destroying equipment and agriculture, as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 13 published by ideas spread the impact is felt through unsafe conditions for farmers, equipment damage, and an increase in poverty (california state assembly committee on agriculture, 2020). at a larger scale, there also comes the disruption of croplands, which leads to food shortages and releases significant amounts of greenhouse gases, emphasizing the damage wildfires do to agriculture. as stated before, agriculture is a major economic driver that boosts gdp and creates employment opportunities. furthermore, appropriately managing agricultural lands is vital to the state’s environment: sustainable practices are necessary in preserving and restoring critical habitats, protecting watersheds, and improving water quality and soil health (world wildlife organization). these contributions to the economy, environment, and overall society’s welfare show the importance and presence of agriculture in califonia’s security and strength as a state. the recent impacts of california have highlighted agriculture’s extreme vulnerability, with losses to property and human lives. property such as crops was notably impacted by smoke and ash, rather than direct fire. not only can particles in the atmosphere block out sunlight and lower temperatures, but plants can also be affected by smoke taint: see the lnu lightning complex fire with hundreds of millions in damages (california state assembly committee on agriculture, 2020). as a consequence, many wildfires’ trail of destruction has allowed agricultural insurance premiums to surge (e.g., from $8,000 to $36,000) for some agricultural policyholders, and many coverages have been canceled. moreover, the fair plan, a last-resort insurance program providing superficial fire insurance to homeowners and businesses, does not cover ranches or farms (california state committee on agriculture, 2020). furthermore, wildfires have led to significant impacts on humans and labor. for example, the glass fire reduced approximately an average of $5,500 per worker, summing up to an estimate of $50 million of reduced wages (california state assembly committee on agriculture, 2020). beyond wages, a society’s wellbeing is impacted through loss of housing and exposure to hazardous conditions. 4. methodology figure 4. acres burned (mil) vs. acres burned(mil) 4.1 data analysis figure 4 reinforces the idea that the overall escalating wildfire frequency and intensity is a real threat in the millions of acres burned. data showing that the problem is growing, sharing an upward trend. after 2 decades of relatively stable burns with 3.37 million and 2.73 million acres burned, respectively, the acres burned tripled in the latter half. hence, environmental, economic, and social consequences have increased too. such widespread destruction accelerates soil degradation through more hydrophobic layers of soil, increases risk for smoke taint on crops, and provides the context for the surge in insurance premiums and lost wages that destabilize the agricultural sector. 4.2 discussion naturally, forests and wildfires have some degree of resilience to disturbances and changes to their surroundings. wildfires that are less concentrated often give a chance for habitat variety: positive outcomes from appropriately spaced-out wildfires allow an ecosystem to build up resilience and boost biodiversity rates (ayars, kramer & jones, 2023, pnas). however, the disturbances caused by consistent wildfires are not inherently destroying habitats; rather, frequent wildfires with tight timing between them often leave wildlife unable to quickly respond by adapting in time. additional harm from wildfire is its output of the release of greenhouse gas, which contributes as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 14 published by ideas spread to climate change and puts the environment at risk through an imbalanced food chain. however, in the past century, the number of acres damaged by wildfires has increased dramatically (calfire, 2023), highlighting the growing threat to california's agricultural sector and overall economy. too frequent and strong wildfires impact beyond the environment. wildfires bring social aspects that impact communities at large. seen with slowing down or disabling shelters that normally empower communities through medical care, shelter, supplies, mental health support, and housing assistance. shelter employees often may not come into work due to increased health risks (cnmsocal, 2025) and face a shortage of supply donations. beyond shelters, other institutions that normally provide support are also affected, including schools being shut down. affecting children with health issues caused by the wildfire, and confusion about the lack of an established routine (usc, 2025). on the other hand, fires reduce the flow of transportation of goods and humans by creating dangerous and uncertain conditions. further compromising shelters that are unable to provide aid. fires not only stop a society from functioning normally but also hinder society from attempting reconstruction. another way in which fire blocks the normal operation of society is by affecting agriculture. during wildfire, both agricultural equipment and crops can get destroyed through direct inflammation, and further crops destroyed with smoke persisting in the atmosphere that blocks sunlight. the important needed consistent flow of food and goods for a functioning society is interrupted, further exacerbating food scarcity and employee salaries. seeing the significance of agriculture and its relation to social, environmental, and other aspects of society, wildfire prevention and defense need to be increased and given greater weight. first, wildfire defense can be strengthened through governments helping more with farmers fending for themselves less, through farmers and ranchers being allowed into designated evacuation zones. the purpose of relocating at-risk animals is to assist firefighters by creating firebreaks (an effective way is targeted grazing using animals to consume excess fuel) or providing water for firefighting efforts (california state assembly, 2020). for context, firebreaks are most prevalent on landscapes that are hard to access (i.e., landscapes that are steep, rocky, or too remote). furthermore, wildfire responses can be improved by having the california fair plan to cover commercial buildings and equipment, similar to other california businesses’ coverage. instead of the plan covering only crop losses for farmers (california state assembly, 2020). lastly, wildfire response may be improved by creating a surplus source of personal protective equipment that may be sourced to community or farmworker organizations (california state assembly, 2020). some of the suggestions made in november 2020 were later implemented, most notably in “california’s wildfire and forest resilience action plan” published in january of 2021. with plans to “draw upon the practices of native americans, ranchers, and rural communities to rapidly expand the use of prescribed fire and bring these best practices to these lands”. thereby, diverse landscapes require unique management strategies of fire prevention. such as, grasslands and rangelands are vulnerable to fast-moving fires, hence fuel breaking needs to prevent invasive species. however, there are still limitations in the action plan: as fires increase in severity, it highlights the need to contain the growing presence of invasive species (leading to a process where other vegetation takes over and increases fire risk and frequency) or changes to a more supportive fair plan. these unaddressed issues show that while steps have been taken in forest resilience, the full scope of wildfire preparedness and resilience has not yet been reached. current vulnerabilities of wildfire response and wildfire impacts can be further reduced through direct prevention. currently, the california wildfire mitigation program is working towards the goal of encouraging cost-effective structure protection, facilitating vegetation management, and creating and maintaining defensible spaces (california wildfire mitigation program, 2022). as said, fire breaking is frequently an effective way to remove the fuel for potential wildfires, allowing the cwmp to properly manage vegetation and create defensible spaces. a sufficient amount of fire-breaking strategy results creates a large network of fuel breaks specifically situated around vulnerable communities (wildfire task force, 2021). as a result, wildfire-prone homes and neighborhoods are protected through a buffer. moreover, fire breaking can create fire-safe roadways and evacuation routes, established by clearing combustible vegetation for effective linear fuel breaks (wildfire task force, 2021). however, fire breaking often is hindered by a high frequency of ‘no-burn’ decisions by air pollution control districts and air quality management district’s managing decisions on prescribed burns (california state assembly, 2022). to encourage prescribed fires, a “gross negligence standard” should be supported, under the condition that “burn bosses” (trained professionals) are legally held liable for gross negligence, instead of minor mistakes, reducing the magnitude of disincentives and concerns, such as concerns of liability or insurability. furthermore, prevention includes applying mature models/simulations to assess and evaluate infrastructure and utility capabilities in reducing wildfire risk (energy safety, 2020). this overlaps with the goals of the california public as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 7, no. 1; 2025 15 published by ideas spread utilities commission (cpuc), which initiated a project to create a vision, strategy, and roadmap to outline its efforts to systematically reduce the risk of ignition of wildfires from utility infrastructure.5.conclusion the escalating frequency and damage from wildfires make it clear that wildfires can’t be seen as standalone natural disasters. rather, they give rise to both standing environmental and societal issues. in agriculture, by delaying the growth of plants and destroying equipment, wildfires have triggered a cascade of events that touch both the economic vitality and social well-being of california. understanding said issues of the connection between the environment and social issues better can contribute to society. it points out issues brought by fires, which, with appropriate responses, can lead to a safer and healthier environment. with more resilience, through focusing on both proactive and reactive approaches, the agricultural sector can allow for long-term resilience against future damaging wildfire seasons. ultimately, this paper shows that despite california’s decades of experience, significant gaps in strategy still exist in wildfire preparedness. a prepared response strategy that closes these gaps will reduce the long-term damage done to the economy, society, and environment. closing these gaps. by establishing how serious and negatively impactful wildfires are, the investment of additional resources is justified to help better the planning, defense, and appropriate response to the fire. these challenges underscore the need for stronger prevention and a proactive strategy. more thorough wildfire prevention, preparedness, and recovery efforts-particularly for agricultural regions-remain essential to protecting both local communities and the state's broader stability. references [1] 10 benefits of the importance of agriculture to the nation. 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(2019). sustainable agriculture. https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/sustainableagriculture copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves 0.0000 /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice agricultural science; vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 issn 2690-5396 e-issn 2690-4799 https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v4n2p79 79 published by ideas spread effect of color during transport and anesthetic efficacy of alcoholic drink, 2-phenoxyethanol, clove oil, ms-222, and benzocaine in silver therapon, leiopotherapon plumbeus (kner 1864) mark june s. consigna1 & mark nell c. corpuz1 1 center for research on aquaculture and aquatic resources in brackishwater systems, institute of fisheries and aquatic sciences, bataan peninsula state university, orani, bataan, philippines correspondence: mark nell c. corpuz, center for research on aquaculture and aquatic resources in brackishwater systems, institute of fisheries and aquatic sciences, bataan peninsula state university, orani, bataan, philippines. e-mail: mnccorpuz@bpsu.edu.ph received: november 17, 2022 accepted: december 9, 2022 online published: december 31, 2022 the research is financed by bataan peninsula state university, research and development office. abstract the study evaluated the survivability of silver therapon, leiopotherapon plumbeus (kner, 1864) in different color containers during transport and the efficacy of five anesthetic agents [alcoholic drink, 2-phenoxyethanol, clove oil, tricaine methanesulfonate (ms-222), and benzocaine] in the induction and recovery time of l. plumbeus. different colored polyethylene bags (black, red, yellow, blue, and transparent) did not influence the survival rate of fish until the termination of the experiment (12-h transport time). the immersion experiment used three different concentrations in each anesthetic agent with three replicates (ten fish specimens per replicate). different dosages significantly influenced the induction time, with decreased induction efficacies in high dosages. moreover, the 200 ml l-1 and 300 ml l-1 alcoholic drinks anesthetized the fish specimens comparable to the induction efficacy of several dosages of 2-phenoxyethanol, ms-222, and benzocaine. recovery time significantly varied among treatments, with a prolonged recovery period with increasing anesthetic concentrations. regression analysis revealed a positive correlation between fish standard length and induction time (p < 0.05), albeit more pronounced in smaller dosages. induction and recovery times were not correlated to fish size when exposed to higher dosages. the present finding demonstrated the anesthetic efficacy of four commercial anesthetic solutions, so as with alcoholic drinks with concentrations between or equal to 200 ml l-1 and 300 ml l-1. experimental trials for fish euthanization and field trials are open for further investigation. keywords: ayungin, bataan, induction time, anesthesia, recovery time 1. introduction silver therapon (leiopotherapon plumbeus kner 1864), locally known as ayungin is an endemic commercial fish thriving in freshwaters (paller et al. 2011) and brackishwaters of luzon, philippines (de leon et al. 2017; santos et al. 2020). it is regarded as an important fishery resource for subsistence fisheries which is priced from $ 4 to $ 8 per kilogram (corpuz and espaldon 2021). wild populations of freshwater fishes, however, are imperiled by overfishing, habitat alterations (corpuz et al. 2015), and the presence of alien invasive species causing their natural populations to dwindle (corpuz et al. 2018). to save this terapontid, conservation management initiatives and repopulation through habitat restoration and hormonal-induced breeding have been implemented by the philippine government and other state-funded universities (aya et al. 2015; consigna et al. 2019). one of the vital factors to take into consideration for successful induced breeding is handling stress (hseu et al. 1998; weber et al. 2009). it was reported that physical stress may cause breeding inefficiency and at worst, mortality to the fish broodstock (coyle et al. 2004). one method to minimize stress is to anesthetize the animals, which results in loss of sensitivity or insensitivity and induced sleep and muscle relaxation (general anesthesia). moreover, the appropriate color background is used in aquaculture particularly in the hatchery to provide the best fish growth performance (imanpoor and abdollahi 2011; brian 2015). in the same manner as transportation, a specific color background of transport bags may help the fish to reduce stress and eventual mass mortality (manliclic et al. 2018). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 80 published by ideas spread in aquaculture, various anesthetic agents are being used to reduce the stress on the fish and injuries during transportation, breeding, and fish capture (coyle et al. 2004). there are several types of anesthesia used to lessen the stress of fish in performing induced breeding including tricaine methanesulphonate (hereafter denoted as ms222). the ms-222 is a water-soluble powdered substance that is typically buffered with sodium bicarbonate to lessen its acidity and is commonly delivered in a water bath (popovic et al. 2012). benzocaine (ethyl paraaminobenzoate) is known for its rapid induction and recovery times and good safety margin for several groups of fish (ross and ross 2008). clove oil is derived from eugenia caryophyllate tree, which contains methyleugenol, eugenol, and isoeugenol (soto and burhanuddin 1995), whereas clove oil has been widely used due to their efficacy and being inexpensive (uçar and atamanalap 2010). the 2–phenoxyethanol is a colorless oily liquid with a faint aromatic odor but moderately soluble in water. it is widely used for transporting live fish because it is cheap, reliable, and efficient and its active ingredients are ethylyn glycol monophenyl ether (weber et al. 2009; ucar and atamanalap 2010). the alcoholic drink contains the recreational drug, ethanol which is produced through the fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. the practicality of using alcoholic drinks as anesthetic agents lies in the efficacy in reducing the mobility and reaction of fish to pressure, and the availability and ease of access in local markets. attempts of using this substance for fish anesthesia previously showed a positive sedative effect in zebrafish (hullinger 2014). however, the appropriate amounts or dosages to realize its anesthetic effect are yet determined for l. plumbeus. the present study evaluated the anesthetic efficacy of alcohol drinks, 2-phenoxyethanol, clove oil, ms-222, and benzocaine as anesthetic agents in l. plumbeus. specifically, this study determined the appropriate dosages for anesthesia, compared the induction and recovery times across different concentrations and anesthetic solutions, and analyzed the correlation of induction and recovery times with fish size. moreover, we evaluated the survival of l. plumbeus stocked in various colored transport containers for 12-h transport time. 2. method 2.1 fish specimens and acclimation the l. plumbeus (n = 312) were obtained from the fishponds in orani, bataan (14˚48.50’’ n, 120˚32.60’’ e) using cast nets and net traps set at the outlet of each pond. the specimens were transported at the hatchery facility of bataan peninsula state university and acclimated in three 1,200 l fiberglass tanks with a continuous supply of running freshwater and artificial aeration. fish specimens were maintained for two weeks under ambient conditions (1:1 light-dark). during acclimation, daily monitoring of dissolved oxygen (5.30 ± 0.05 mg l-1), temperature (26.63 ± 0.24 °c), and ph (7.81 ± 0.01) was done. total ammonia-nitrogen concentration was recorded every other day and was constantly below 0.01 mg l-1. fish were fed ad libitum twice per day with commercial extruded feed (crude protein = 32%). feeding was terminated 24 h before the experiment. no mortality was observed during the acclimation period. fish specimens were size-sorted five days before the initiation of the experiment. two hundred (200) unsexed fish individuals were used in the study. 2.2 experimental trials five anesthetics were used in this study — alcoholic drink (40% alcohol by volume, 80-proof, ginebra san miguel inc., philippines), 2-phenoxyethanol (ethylene glycol monophenyl ether, sigma aldrich co., usa), ms-222 (sigma aldrich co, usa), clove oil (90–95% eugenol, sigma aldrich co., usa) and benzocaine (ethyl 4aminobenzoate 99%, sigma aldrich co, usa). the different dosages of each anesthetic agent were prepared 30 min before the actual induction experiment. the experiment used 3-l plastic containers filled with 1 l of water with a specific dosage of anesthetic solution. artificial aeration was provided throughout the experiment. the alcoholic drink, 2-phenoxyethanol, and ms-222 (see table 1 for each concentration) were diluted directly into the anesthetic bath, whereas benzocaine and clove oil were initially dissolved in ethanol (92.8%) in a ratio of 1:9 (anesthetic to ethanol) since the two anesthetics are slightly soluble in water. the aliquot of the stock solutions was then used to attain the specific dosages in each treatment. treatments and control groups (no anesthetic) were buffered with sodium bicarbonate to attain a ph level of 7.5. the fish individual (ten fish per treatment of each anesthetic agent) was randomly placed in an experimental container with a specific concentration of the anesthetic solution. treatments for all the anesthetic agents were investigated. the concentrations of alcoholic drinks were 100, 200, and 300 ml l-1, while the four commercial anesthetic agents had 0.25, 0.50, and 1.00 ml l-1 (coyle et al. 2004). the induction time was recorded for each the fish when fish displayed loss of balance, cessation of swimming, decrease in opercular rate, and no reaction to external stimuli (pawar et al. 2011). anesthetized individuals were weighed (g) and the standard length (sl) was measured. the sl (cm) of fish specimens was statistically homogeneous (9.07 ± 0.65 cm), ranging from 8.61 to as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 81 published by ideas spread 9.39 mm (table 1), whereas weight was 12.27 ± 2.62 g, varying from 7.38 to 22.76 g. consequently, the fish was placed into freshwater of similar temperatures to the experimental container. water in the recovery container was constantly renewed. recovery time was noted when the fish exhibited normal swimming and reaction to stimuli (silva et al. 2012). the different stages of induction and recovery times followed the criteria proposed by gullian and villanueva (2009). recovered specimens were brought back to the hatchery; whilst dead specimens (no vital signs after 30 min) were preserved in a 10% formaldehyde solution for fish collection. table 1. mean ± standard error in standard length (mm) of experimental leiopotherapon plumbeus (n = 200) anesthetic solutions standard length (mm) f value p control t1 t2 t3 alcoholic drink 9.16 ± 0.21 8.61 ± 0.24 9.04 ± 0.19 9.25 ± 0.25 2.00 0.154 2-phenoxyethanol 9.05 ± 0.15 8.89 ± 0.30 9.11 ± 0.13 9.12 ± 0.16 0.38 0.687 clove oil 8.85 ± 0.26 8.82 ± 0.28 9.39 ± 0.22 9.24 ± 0.19 1.56 0.229 ms-222 9.24 ± 0.22 9.35 ± 0.27 9.16 ± 0.14 9.01 ± 0.21 0.61 0.548 benzocaine 8.98 ± 0.18 9.02 ± 0.20 9.04 ± 0.12 9.07 ± 0.29 0.01 0.986 treatments for alcoholic drink: t1 = 100 ml l-1, t2 = 200 ml l-1, t3 = 300 ml l-1 treatments for commercial anesthetic agents: t1 = 0.25 ml l-1, t2 = 0.5 ml l-1, t3 = 1.0 ml l-1 2.3 influence of color containers in separate experiment, juvenile unsexed l. plumbeus from other conditioning tanks were randomly placed in various colored polyethylene bags (black, red, yellow, blue, and transparent) as colored containers (25.4 x 50.8 x 0.008 cm). the procedure was adopted from the study of manliclic et al. (2018). each bag contained 5 l of freshwater with a stocking density of one fish per liter (five fish x three replicates x five color containers = 75 fish individuals). the water used was obtained from the conditioning tanks. bags were sealed after the addition of medical oxygen. the amount of oxygen was standardized for all treatments by ensuring that all plastic bags were air-filled of the same height. an improvised carrier with wheels was utilized to facilitate the simulated transport. the carrier was manually agitated by periodic push-and-pull actions and was operated under ambient conditions for 12 hours. fish mortalities were monitored at 0-h, 6-h, and 12-h transport times. 2.4 data analyses the homoscedasticity (levene’s test) and normality assumptions (shapiro-wilk test) for parametric terse were met. with that, analysis of variance (anova) was employed for the mean comparison of induction and recovery time, followed by a posthoc test using tukey’s test (p < 0.05). regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between sl and induction time, and between sl and recovery time (p < 0.05). in the color container experiment, the data on survival rates, expressed as percentages were arc sine-transformed prior to analyses. treatment means (mean ± sd) in every transport time were compared using anova (p < 0.05). data were presented as mean ± standard deviation (sd). all statistical analyses were performed with the spss v 17 and paleontological statistic v 3.0. 3. results 3.1 influence of color containers a summary of the survival rate of experimental fish is detailed in table 2. fish mortality occurred in the yellow and blue containers. the first mortality was observed in the yellow container, commenced at 6-h transport period, whereas the second mortality was recorded in the blue container at 12-h transport period. nevertheless, no mortality happened in transparent, red, and black containers. throughout, only two mortalities were recorded in the present study. statistically, no significant difference among treatments was observed (p > 0.05). as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 82 published by ideas spread table 2. data on the survival (%) of juvenile leiopotherapon plumbeus packed in containers of different colors during the 12-h transport period color of containers survival (%) 2 h 4 h 6 h 8 h 10 h 12 h transparent (control) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 red 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 yellow 100.00 100.00 93.33 93.33 93.33 93.33 black 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 blue 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 93.33 3.2 induction time different concentrations significantly affected the induction time, with a significant decrease in the induction period recorded (no more than 2 min) in t3 in each anesthetic solution (table 3). the t1 of alcoholic drink had the longest mean induction time (9.73 ± 1.16 min). nevertheless, the t3 of alcoholic drinks was able to anesthetize the fish individuals at 0.77 ± 0.14 min, considerably comparable to t3 of 2-phenoxyethanol (0.63 ± 0.12 min; q = 1.11; p = 0.44), and t1 of ms-222 (0.74 ± 0.13 min; q = 0.19; p = 0.89). moreover, the mean induction time in t3 of benzocaine (1.96 ± 0.14 min) was not significantly different from t2 of the alcoholic drink (1.98 ± 0.30 min) (q = 0.12; p = 0.93). among all the treatments, the t3 of ms-222 solution had the most reduced mean induction time (0.21 ± 0.02 min). 3.3 recovery time the recovery period was significantly varied among treatments in each anesthetic solution, with induced recovery time with increasing dosages (table 4). the clove oil was found to cause longer mean recovery time relative to other anesthetic solutions (particularly for t1 and t3), whilst specimens exposed to 2-phenoxyethanol exhibited the fastest mean recovery time (1.02 ± 0.09 min). fish specimens in all treatments of 2-phenoxyethanol and benzocaine had the fastest recovery time (no more than 3 min). however, two specimens died in t3 of the latter. additionally, the mean recovery time for t1 of alcoholic drink (2.51 ± 0.50 min) was statistically homogeneous to t1 of ms-222 (2.68 ± 0.10 min), t2 (2.14 ± 0.28 min) and t3 (2.42 ± 0.32 min) of 2-phenoxyethanol, and t3 of benzocaine (2.85 ± 0.27 min). mean recovery time in t2 of alcoholic drinks (6.85 ± 0.97 min) showed considerable similar response to t2 of clove oil (6.03 ± 0.33 min; q = 1.13; p = 0.43), and t3 of ms-222 (7.14 ± 1.36 min; q = 0.24; p = 0.86). table 3. induction rate (min) of different anesthetic solutions of varying concentrations for leiopotherapon plumbeus (n = 200). anesthetic solutions induction time (min) f value p control t1 t2 t3 alcoholic drinks na 9.73 ± 1.16a 1.98 ± 0.30b 0.77 ± 0.14b 32.74 < 0.001 2-phenoxyethanol na 5.65 ± 1.21a 2.96 ± 0.64ab 0.63 ± 0.12b 13.97 < 0.001 clove oil na 1.26 ± 0.13a 1.11 ± 0.21a 0.37 ± 0.03b 28.19 < 0.001 ms-222 na 0.74 ± 0.13a 0.57 ± 0.12ab 0.21 ± 0.02b 12.08 < 0.001 benzocaine na 4.50 ± 0.29a 2.27 ± 0.27b 1.96 ± 0.14b 32.94 < 0.001 treatments for alcoholic drink: t1 = 100 ml l-1, t2 = 200 ml l-1, t3 = 300 ml l-1 treatments for commercial anesthetic agents: t1 = 0.25 ml l-1, t2 = 0.5 ml l-1, t3 = 1.0 ml l-1 for each anesthetic solution, means with the same superscript letter are not significantly different (tukey posthoc tests); na = not applicable as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 83 published by ideas spread table 4. recovery time (min) of leiopotherapon plumbeus exposed to different anesthetic solutions of varying concentrations (n = 200) anesthetic solutions recovery time (min) f value p control t1 t2 t3 alcoholic drinks na 2.51 ± 0.50a 6.85 ± 0.97b 8.98 ± 0.84b 24.08 < 0.001 2-phenoxyethanol na 1.02 ± 0.09a 2.14 ± 0.28b 2.43 ± 0.32b 14.18 < 0.001 clove oil na 5.34 ± 0.27a 6.03 ± 0.33a 13.43 ± 0.91b 34.73 < 0.001 ms-222 na 2.68 ± 0.10a 5.87 ± 0.91ab 7.14 ± 1.36b 10.72 < 0.001 benzocaine na 1.97 ± 0.07a 1.92 ± 0.09a 2.85 ± 0.27b 5.27 < 0.001 treatments for alcoholic drink: t1 = 100 ml l-1, t2 = 200 ml l-1, t3 = 300 ml l-1 treatments for commercial anesthetics: t1 = 0.25 ml l-1, t2 = 0.5 ml l-1, t3 = 1.0 ml l-1 for each anesthetic solution, means with the same superscript letter are not significantly different (tukey posthoc tests); na = not applicable 3.4 correlation of fish length with induction and recovery time correlation analysis indicated that the induction and recovery time is size-influenced, with smaller specimens anesthetized faster than the larger ones (table 5). this observation was significantly evident in t1 of all anesthetic solutions, as well as in t2 of alcoholic drinks. the size of the fish did not affect the induction time when the concentration of commercial anesthetics was 0.5 ml l-1 and above. no significant correlation between size and recovery time was observed in t1 of alcoholic drinks and ms-222, including t2 and t3 of all anesthetic solutions (table 5). table 5. relationship of standard length (mm) with induction and recovery times in each treatment. significant relationships are set in bold. anesthetic solutions t1 t2 t3 r2 p r2 p r2 p alcoholic drink sl vs induction 0.78 0.001 0.85 0.002 0.34 0.329 sl vs recovery 0.48 0.157 0.28 0.583 0.46 0.181 2-phenoxyethanol sl vs induction 0.71 0.019 0.59 0.073 0.52 0.126 sl vs recovery 0.76 0.010 0.61 0.060 0.54 0.110 clove oil sl vs induction 0.69 0.026 0.59 0.072 0.55 0.102 sl vs recovery 0.66 0.038 0.18 0.622 0.19 0.597 ms-222 sl vs induction 0.71 0.020 0.55 0.098 0.61 0.062 sl vs recovery 0.62 0.057 0.20 0.573 0.41 0.267 benzocaine sl vs induction 0.73 0.018 0.34 0.337 0.62 0.056 sl vs recovery 0.72 0.020 0.30 0.392 0.45 0.268 treatments for alcoholic drink: t1 = 100 ml l-1, t2 = 200 ml l-1, t3 = 300 ml l-1 treatments for commercial anesthetic agents: t1 = 0.25 ml l-1, t2 = 0.5 ml l-1, t3 = 1.0 ml l-1 as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 84 published by ideas spread 4. discussion the present study demonstrated that the color background did not affect the survival of l. plumbeus juveniles during the 6-h and 12-h transport times. previous studies demonstrated that background color affects the performance of various aquatic species (luchiari and freire 2004; ninwichian et al. 2018; manliclic et al. 2019). in the works of manliclic and his colleagues (2018), survival of nile tilapia juveniles improved when exposed to the blue color container in 24-h conditioning time before transport. in the present study, no significant difference was observed in the mortality rate of l. plumbeus juveniles. it is comparable to the result of manliclic et al. (2018), where there are no significant differences in four different color backgrounds during 6-h and 12-h transport time. the induction times decreased significantly as concentrations increased in 2-phenoxyethanol, clove oil, ms-222, and benzocaine. the results are similar to the previous studies suggesting an inversed relationship between induction time and concentration of anesthetic agents in teleost fishes (pawar et al. 2011; yildiz et al. 2013; varkey and sajeevan 2014; kucuk and coba 2016; ogretmen et al. 2016; bolasina et al. 2017; park 2019). it is also apparent that the alcoholic drinks have comparable effect in several dosages of commercial anesthetic agents the study provides evidence that alcoholic beverages containing 40% ethanol can be used as an effective anesthetizing agent for l. plumbeus. the presence of an active component, ethanol is known to inhibit or depress the central nervous system activity of many mammalian species (banerjee 2014). in most fish farms in the philippines, alcoholic drinks are usually used as an anesthetic agent for aquaculture fish (e.g., clarias gariepinus). in the absence of commercial anesthetics, alcoholic drinks can be practical options to facilitate the smooth handling of fish during induced spawning. the present finding thus opens further studies as to the anesthetic effect of alcoholic drinks in l. plumbeus during actual breeding and transport. recovery times increased gradually with increasing concentrations of all the anesthetic agents. prolonged recovery with increased anesthetic dosage had been reported in seahorse (pawar et al. 2011), rainbow trout (yildiz et al. 2013), redline torpedo fish (varkey and sajeevan 2014), goldfish (kucuk and coba 2016), shabbout fish (ogretmen et al. 2016), guppy (bolasina et al. 2017), catfish (park 2019). however, several studies have documented a decreasing recovery time with an increase in the concentration of clove oil and 2-phenoxyethanol for european sea bass (dicentrachus labrax) and gilthead seabream (sparus aurata) (mylonas et al. 2005). the mechanisms of fish in recovery times during anesthetizing seem to be complex. the observed delayed recovery may be attributed to its persistence on the gill surface (sladky et al. 2001; king et al. 2005). moreover, the difference in the respective recovery times is highly affected by species, size, physiological status, and environmental conditions (ross and ross 1999). different factors, i.e., biological and/or environmental factors affect the efficacy of anesthetics in fish. according to coyle et al. (2004), the efficacy of anesthetic drugs depends on the gill area to body weight ratio, metabolic rate, and temperature related. moreso, larger fish has a slower absorption rate of anesthetic drugs compared to smaller fish because of the smaller gill area surface relative to body mass for drug diffusion (popovic et al. 2012). our observation is in agreement with the work of park (2019), i.e., small-sized fish were more easily anesthetized and recovered more rapidly from anesthesia than large-sized fish. despite that, there are other reports that found that larger individuals had quicker recovery times than smaller ones (woody et al. 2002; fernandes et al. 2017). it is noteworthy to mention that all recovered and survived fish individuals in the two experiments were returned to hatchery facility for future research initiatives. 5. conclusion and recommendations this preliminary study demonstrated that the color of containers had no profound effect on the survival of juvenile l. plumbeus, although this may be attributed to low stocking density and short transport period. for further investigation, it is suggested to increase the number of experimental fish per container and increase the transport time under the ambient setting. the present study demonstrated the anesthetic efficacy of alcoholic drinks and four commercial anesthetic agents in l. plumbeus. higher dosages, viz 200 ml l-1 to 300 ml l-1 of alcoholic drinks were found to be effective, and are comparable to the induction response of other commercial anesthetics. the results imply cost-effective use of anesthetic during induced spawning and transportation of this terapontid. the results of the study provide a practical method for minimizing stress in fish handling, which is vital in aquaculture and conservation endeavors for this terapontid, and possibly in other diminutive native fish species. the study can be replicated in induced spawning and transportation under ambient set-up. fish euthanization using experimental anesthetic agents is also open for further investigation. likewise, investigation of the dose-response in biological status (reproductive state, sizes, and sexes), hematological profile, and cortisol levels will contribute more to the total efficacy of anesthetics in experimental l. plumbeus. as.ideasspread.org agricultural science vol. 4, no. 2; 2022 85 published by ideas spread acknowledgment the study is funded by the research and development office of bataan peninsula state university. special appreciation is accorded to the student-researchers, viz ma. angelica swin, christian jarrel perez, richard san diego, giselle refuerzo, erica shane enriquez, and lea raya for lending their helping hand and hard works, and to the anonymous reviewers for the comments and suggestions. references aya, f. a., nillasca, v. s. n., corpuz, m. n. c., & garcia, l. m. b. 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(2013). the anaesthetic effects of clove oil and 2-phenoxyethanol on rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss) at different concentrations and temperatures. iranian journal of fisheries sciences, 12(4), 947–961. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). << /ascii85encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain 20%) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \050swop\051 v2) /srgbprofile (srgb iec61966-2.1) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel 1.4 /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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/pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice 