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 Agricultural Science; Vol. 7, No. 1; 2025 
ISSN 2690-5396   E-ISSN 2690-4799 

https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v7n1p21 

21                             Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Maize and Pearl Millet Production in Hot Semi-Arid North Eastern 
Namibia Under Conventional Tillage and Conservation Agriculture 

Practices 

L. P. Kudumo1, F. Itanna2 & C. Thierfelder3 
1 Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform (MAWLR), Directorate of Agricultural Production, Extension 
and Engineering Services (DAPEES), Windhoek, Namibia 
2 School of Interdisciplinary Research and Graduate Studies (SIRGS),College of Graduate Studies, University of 
South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, South Africa 
3 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre, (CIMMYT) Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe 

Correspondence: Ladislaus Kudumo, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform (MAWLR), Directorate of 
Agricultural Production, Extension and Engineering Services (DAPEES), Namibia, Private Bag 13184, Windhoek, 
Namibia. E-mail: Kladialaus gmail. com  

 

Received: February 1, 2025   Accepted: February 27, 2025    Online Published: March 3, 2025 

 

Abstract 

This article focuses on the results from experiments conducted to test and compare the effects of selected 
agricultural practices and principles on maize and pearl millet production of the major cropping systems in north-
eastern regions of Namibia. Conventional Tillage (CT), Minimum Tillage (MT), Minimum Tillage with Mulch 
(MT-M), Minimum Tillage with Rotation (MT-R) and Minimum Tillage with Mulch and Rotation (MT-MR) were 
the primary treatments tested. Significant differences were observed on pearl millet grain in the first season 
(p=0.0496) and for maize grain in the second season (p=0.0206). For pearl millet, CT yielded the highest with 
1783.0 kg ha-1and MT (1520.8 kg ha-1) had the lowest pearl millet grain yield at SE 240.35. For maize, CT-MR 
yielded the highest maize grain, 3852.3 kg ha-1, Standard Error of Mean 240.35. Results suggest that CA has the 
potential to increase or maintain maize production while noting projected declines in crop production of at least 
50% or more through the influence of climate change according to Namibia’s Country Climate Smart Agriculture 
Programme (2015 – 2030). 

Keywords: conservation agriculture, conventional tillage, grain yield 

1. Introduction 

According to Fourie et al. (2007) good maintenance and improvement of soil quality are critical for sustainable 
and booming agricultural crop productivity. The agricultural sector of Namibia is particularly affected by climate 
change, in the form of droughts, erratic rains and floods, all major threats leading to failed harvests, affecting food, 
water security and general livelihoods. Soil degradation and desertification are also increasing threats to the 
productivity of Namibia’s agricultural sector. Besides impacts of erratic weather conditions as a result of climate 
change, the widespread use of outdated traditional farming practices has also been identified as a significant driver 
of low agricultural outputs (FAO, 2009). Purcell et al. (2007) highlighted that soil moisture stress resulting from 
drought, dry spells and high moisture loss through evaporation is one of the primary limiting factors in crop 
production as it affects many plant biochemical and physiological processes. 

Pearl millet, locally better known as Mahangu is the staple food crop, grown largely for home consumption 
predominantly in the north-central and parts of the north-eastern regions of Namibia, while maize (Zea mays) is 
the staple food crop of the north eastern regions of the country, particularly in the Zambezi region. According to 
the 2009 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the average annual pearl 
millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and maize production in communal areas in 2008 in Namibia was about 250-400 kg 
ha-1 and 500-550 kg ha-1, respectively. According to Namibia’s Country Climate Smart Agriculture Programme, 
jointly implemented by Ministry of Agriculture Water and Forestry (MAWF) and Ministry of Environment and 
Tourism (MET) (2015 – 2030). It is projected that through the influence of climate change crop production is 
expected to decrease by at least 50% or more. Maize in particular is expected to experience a 0.5 t/ha yield decline 
based on the above mentioned projections. Due to climate change (Rowswell and Fairhurst 2011) and need for 



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increased crop productivity, it is critical that mitigation, good maintenance and improvement of soil quality is 
undertaken (Fourie et al. 2007), especially as erratic weather patterns are projected to become increasingly worse.  

Tillage is the preparation of the soil for the production of crops for human consumption, animal feed and/or for 
the improvement of the soil. It is known to influence soil physical properties such as soil hydraulic properties, 
change flow path, rate of water infiltration and percolation and the stability of the biotic factors (Dexter 1988). 
Tillage methods (Fuentes et al. 2003) and climatic factors, especially rainfall distribution and reliability (Fowler 
and Rockstrom 2001) influence available soil moisture, key for plant growth, development and soil physical 
properties. Conventional tillage (CT) is the most common practice used among small holder farmers and has been 
practiced for a long time (Chen, Liu et al. 2011). In Namibia, tillage is largely done using the hand hoe and animal 
drawn moldboard plough introduced in the early 20th century from Europe usually referred to as Conventional 
Tillage (CT). CT is reported to be unsustainable over the long term in more intensive production setup as it 
contributes to inefficient natural resource use, poor soil water retention, soil degradation and global warming 
(Ferna´ndez, Quiroga et al. 2009). Conservation agriculture (CA), on the other hand is a crop management system 
that involves a combination of soil management practices to reduce soil disruption, compaction whilst enhancing 
natural biodiversity and is based on three principles namely (1) minimal soil disturbance, (2) crop rotation and (3) 
permanent soil cover with crop residues or growing plants (Kassam, Friedrich, Shaxson, & Jules, 2009; FAO, 
2009; & Friedrich, Derpsch, & Kassam, 2012).  

CA is a less energy intensive system as compared to CT and has been known to improve crop yields whilst 
conserving water/moisture, reduce erosion and eliminate organic matter loss among others (Dumanski et al. 2006). 
The influence of tillage on crop growth and development is reported to however depend on a number of factors, 
including the type of tillage practice used to prepare the land (Martinez et al., 2008). Tillage methods 
(Fuentes,Flury, Huggins & Bezdicek, 2003), climatic factors especially rainfall distribution and reliability (Fowler 
& Rockstrom, 2001) influence available soil moisture, which is a key factor for plant growth and development and 
stability of soil physical properties. Tillage and mulch/residue retention have been reported to have beneficial 
effects on the retention of soil moisture (Gicheru, Gachene, Mbuvi & Mare, 2004; Benites, 2008; Landers, 2008). 
Reduced tillage practices such as ripping and sub-soiling have the potential to mitigate the effects of dry spells and 
moisture stress and contribute to improved soil moisture retention (Ahmed and Suliman, 2010). Soil moisture 
stress is one of the primary limiting factors in crop production as it affects a host of plant physiological and 
biochemical processes (Purcell et al., 2007). However, Jalota Khera & Chahal, (2001), acknowledged that the 
success of a crop depends upon the nature of the soil and the amount of moisture stored in it. Kl-Kaisi & Broner 
(2012) stated that, in most legumes, when moisture stress occurs at critical growth stages such as flowering, 
podding and pod/seed filling, high grain yield loss is all too often the final outcome.  

Dry spells, water scarcity, unreliable rain pattern and agricultural systems play a large role in the amount of 
moisture available in the soil. Namibia is classified as the driest country in Southern Africa, where 10–25% of 
rainwater is lost to runoff, and another 30–50% is lost through evaporation from unprotected soil surfaces. 
Conventional tillage is widely practiced in Namibia and is associated with increased soil erosion, loss of soil 
organic matter and destruction of soil structure. In Namibia, conventional agriculture has for decades existed as 
the major agricultural system up to the year 2005, in which the government through MAWF introducing another 
agricultural system namely CA. Unfortunately due to variable findings little documented knowledge of the 
influence of Conventional and CA Tillage systems and principles on soil moisture content and water infiltration 
in Namibia exist. Therefore, this necessitated the research on suitable tillage methods for two agro-ecological north 
eastern regions of Namibia.  

The main objective was to document and compare the effects of different tillage systems (Conventional and CA) 
and the influence of the individual CA principles on soil moisture and infiltration. Specific objectives included 
determination of the effects of different reduced tillage options on soil moisture dynamics and water infiltration 
under maize, millet on a sandy soil and to determine the effects of minimum tillage and mulch/rotation on soil 
moisture and grain yields of maize and pearl millet. The hypothesis of the study was that there were no significant 
differences in soil water infiltration between CA and Conventional plots and that no significant differences existed 
between the effect of no mulch, mulch only, rotation only and mulch plus rotation on the soil moisture content and 
crop grain yields for both CA and Conventional plots. 

Taking into account Namibia’s dry climatic condition, findings would significantly contribute towards water 
conservation endeavors and good crop production practices for small holder and commercial farmers and 
influencing further adoption of CA systems in Liselo, Mashare, Kavango East region, Zambezi region and Namibia 
at large. 



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2. Methods 

2.1 Site Characteristics 

Mashare Irrigation Training Center (17.889300 °S; 20.170258 °E), 50km east of Rundu town in Kavango East 
region, and the Liselo Research Station (17.524745 °S; 24.238707 °E) located 7 km west of Katima Mulilo town 
in the Zambezi Region of Namibia were the sites chosen for the experiments. Both are situated in the hot, sub-
humid north eastern parts of the country (Table 1). The sites were predominantly having slightly acidic soils with 
pH of 5.3-6.1 (Table 2). 

 

Table 1. Site Characteristics for Liselo Research Station and Mashare Irrigation, Training Center 

Site Elevation (m 
asl) 

Climate Annual Mean 
Temperature 

Annual Mean 
Rainfall 

Soil Texture Class 

Liselo Research Station 964 Hot, semi-
arid 

21.3 °C 600-700 mm Loamy sand to 
sand 

Mashare Irrigation 
Training Center 

1050 Hot, semi-
arid 

22.3 °C 450-650 mm Sandy Loam to 
loamy sand 

 

2.2 Experimental Design 

The experiment consisted of eight (8) treatments in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) set-up with 
four (4) replications on a 2,419.2 m2 trial plot (50.4 m x 48 m). Treatments tested were; Conventional Tillage (CP), 
Convectional Tillage with Mulch (CP-M), Conventional Tillage with Rotation (CP-R), Conventional Tillage with 
Mulch and Rotation (CP-MR), Minimum Tillage (MT), Minimum Tillage with Mulch (MT-M), Minimum Tillage 
with Rotation (MT-R) and Minimum Tillage with Mulch and Rotation (MT-MR). Each plot was composed of 7 
rows (90 cm row spacing & 35 cm within row) by 12 m and plots with rotation were split into subplots each with 
7 rows by 6 m. CT plots were tilled with an animal drawn moldboard plough, while CA/minimum-tillage plots 
were tilled with an animal drawn Magoye ripper, opening narrow furrows about 5-10 cm deep.  

2.3 Seeding and Weed Management 

Maize (Zea mays, commercial hybrid maize variety Zamseed 606) and commercial pearl millet variety Okashana 
2 were the principal crops and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) an important secondary crop used in rotation 
with maize or pearl millet. Maize, pearl millet and cowpea crop varieties were manually seeded, Maize (90cm x 
35cm) with 31 746 plants/ha target population while, pearl millet (75cm x 25cm) with a target population of 53 
333 plants/ha. Rotational crop, commercial cowpea variety BIRA was manually seeded in rows spaced 45 cm 
apart and inter row spaced 25 cm. Basal fertilizer, NPK (2:3:2) was applied at a rate of 150 kg/ha to cereal only 
plots and a split application of Urea at a rate of (150 kg ha-1) was applied as top dressing to the same plots.  

Treatments with cowpea rotation were mulched with 2.5-3 t/ha of grass at the onset and all crop residues retained 
on the soil surface in the subsequent seasons after harvesting. Weed control was achieved by disturbing only the 
top soil using a hoe at 30-day intervals and when necessary. At harvest, cobs were removed from the plots and 
crop residues (stover) were retained on the respective CA and CT treatments.  

2.4 Data Collection 

2.4.1 Soil Fertility Test 

Prior to plot establishment, the Liselo Research station had natural vegetation of mixed subtropical woodland 
containing copalwood (Guibourtia coleosperma), Terminalia serecea, Zambezi teak (baikiaea plurijuga), and 
Acacia eriolaba trees, shrubs and grasses. Mashare Irrigation Training Center on the other hand was used as part 
of the Irrigation Training Center for pearl millet production. Soil samples were taken from the sites at the onset of 
the study and levels of nitrogen and phosphorous, Organic C, estimated SOM and pH were tested, for comparison 
against suggested nutrient ranges suitable for grains. 

2.4.2 Harvest Data Collection 

Maize, pearl millet and cowpea grain were harvested at physiological maturity and total above-ground biomass 
and grain yield of each plot were determined. Sub-samples of 20 cobs/heads were taken from each plot as samples 
and used to determine maize grain moisture. 

 



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2.5 Statistical Data Analysis 

Linear model, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Statistical analysis software ‘Statistix 9’ for personal 
computers was used to test for normality and test for any significant difference in moisture content and grain yield. 
Probability levels of 0.05 were used to determine the level of significance among the means. LSD All-Pair wise 
Comparisons Test was used to compare soil moisture and grain yield for treatment effect.  

3. Results 

3.1 Soil Nutrient Levels 

Soil from research sites were evaluated for soil fertility levels (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium), organic C, 
soil organic matter (SOM) and pH. At both study sites, the levels of nitrogen and phosphorous, Organic C, and 
SOM were far below the suggested range for grains. Only potassium and Soil pH fell within the suggested range 
for grains at both sites (Table 2).  

 

Table 2. Site Characteristics of Liselo Research Station and Mashare Irrigation, Training Center 

Characteristics Suggested range for grains  LRS MITC 

N (g kg-1)  1.0– 2.0 0.48 0.28 

P (g kg-1) 0.2 – 0.6  <0.1 <0.1 

K (g kg-1) 1.5 – 3.0 2.2 2.8 

Organic C (g kg-1) 17 – 50 6.9 2.9 

SOM (%)*  2.9 – 8.6  1.2 <1 

pH  4.9 – 6.4  5.3 6.1 

Soil Cares (2007,www.soilcares.com) provided the suggested range for grains which is based on soil analysis. 
N = NItrogen; P = Phosphorus; K = Potassium; C= Carbon; SOM = Soil Organic Matter. N= 24 at Liselo 
Research Station.  

*Soil Organic matter is estimated based on a conversion factor of 1.72 [Soil organic matter=58%C] 

 

3.2 Rainfall 

Rainfall at both LRS and MITC for the 2016/17cropping season was erratic with a short rainy season especially at 
LRS (Figure 1). At LRS, total seasonal rainfall recorded was 499.9 mm for the first cropping season 2016/17, 
while at MITC it was 715.2 mm. Rainfall at both LRS and MITC for the second season, 2017/18 was again erratic 
with especially low rain incidences at the early stages of the season (Figure 1). AT LRS and MITC, 521 mm and 
530.4 mm of rainfall was recorded for the 2017/18 cropping season, respectively. In January 2018, LRS received 
44 mm, while 233 mm of total rain fell in February 2018. Rainfall amount of 1.3 mm at MITC, from 31 December 
2017 to 21 January 2018, was insufficient for crop growth and development. Rainfall eventually increased as the 
season advanced, particularly in March, during which the site received 214 mm of the total 521mm (see Figure 1). 

  



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Figure 1. Rainfall Measurements at LRS for the first and second season 

Figure 2. Rainfall Measurements at MITC for the first and second season 

 

3.3 Maize Grain Yields 

Maize grain yield at LRS for the first season was not significantly affected by tillage and principles. However, 
during the second season maize grain yield was significantly affected (p=0.0206) (Table 3), during which CT-MR 
yielded the highest with 3852.3 kg ha-1of maize, followed by MT-MR (3550.8 kg ha-1) and CT-M (3371.8 kg ha-

1).  

 

Table 3. Average maize grain yield at Liselo Research Station 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Minimum tillage with selective incorporation of CA principles yielded increased maize grain yields [MTM (2920.0 
kg ha-1), MT-R (3225.0 kg ha-1) and MT-MR with 3550.8 kg ha-1]. MT however produced the lowest maize grain 
yield of 2524.0kg ha-1, but was found to have yielded higher than all the treatments in the first season. Conventional 
Tillage in both seasons yielded higher maize yield than Minimum Tillage (Table 3). 

Maize grain yields were found to follow no particular order over the two seasons. Most Minimum tillage treatments 
averaged less than 1500 kg ha-1 maize grain yield in the first season and more than 2500 kg ha-1 in the second 
season (Table 3). Although no significant difference (p=0.0884) was observed in the first season, conventional 
tillage treatments were found to have yielded more maize grain than minimum tillage treatments, indicating the 
benefit of CT in the first season. Maize grain yield followed the order CT-MR > MT-MR >CT-M > MT-R >CT-
R > MT-M >CT>MT in the second season (Table 3).  

3.4 Pearl Millet Grain Yield 

Pearl millet grain yield at MITC was significantly affected by the various treatments in the first cropping season 
(p =0.0496) and not significantly affected in the second season. In the first season, CT produced the highest average 
pearl millet grain yield of 1783.0 kg ha-1, followed by MT-M and MT which produced pearl millet grain yield of 
1562.0 kg ha-1 and 1520.8 kg ha-1, respectively. Minimum tillage treatments produced varied average pearl millet 
grain yields [MT-M produced 1562 kg ha-1, MT-MR produced1439.8 kg ha-1 and MT-R plots had the least yield, 
at 1044.8 kg ha-1] (Table 4). 

 

Table 4. Average pearl millet grain yield (kg ha-1) at Mashare Irrigation Training Centre 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. Discussion 

In the first season (2016/17), CT (Conventional tillage) treatments yielded an average of 477.5Kg ha-1 and 50.85 
Kg ha-1 more maize and pearl millet than CA (Minimum Tillage) treatments, respectively. Maize grain yield 
followed the order CT-M>CT>MT>CT-MR>CT-R>MT-R>MT-M>MT-MR, highlighting the lack of influence of 
Conservation tillage in the first season whilst, pearl millet grain yield for the same season followed the order, 
CT>MT-M>MT>MT-MR>CT-MR>CT-M>CT-R>MT-R, contrary to finding on maize. In the subsequent season 
2017/18, with a 4.2% (21.1mm) increase in rainfall at LRS and a 25.8% (184.8mm) decrease at MITC respectively, 
maize grain yields experienced an average increase of 1500.1 Kg ha-1, whilst pearl millet decreased by 426.1 Kg 
ha-1. The decline in pearl millet yield was primarily the result of drastic decline of 25.8% in rainfall over the two 
year period. On the basis of average group yields, CT (Conventional tillage) treatments again out performed MT 
treatments with averages of 213.0 Kg ha-1 and 69.78 Kg ha-1, more maize and pearl millet than CA (Minimum 
Tillage) treatments, respectively. Maize yields followed the order CT-MR > MT-MR >CT-M > MT-R >CT-R > 
MT-M >CT>MT and Pearl millet CT-MR > MT-MR >CT-M > MT-M >CT>CT-R >MT-R >MT with CT-MR 
yielding the highest and MT least productive. 

Mulch coupled with crop rotation appeared to have positive influence, by providing a physical barrier that reduced 
soil movement, allowed organic matter accumulation as similarly observed by Mutema, et al., (2013), and 
ultimately led to increased crop yield particularly in maize as found by McHugh et al., (2007), Pansak, (2008) and 
Govaerts et al., (2009).  



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5. Conclusion 

The results indicated that minimum/CA tillage methods can improve maize grain yield. Application of mulch and 
crop rotation appeared to positively influence maize grain yield over the study period compared to no mulching 
and, not practicing rotation. Yield outcomes clearly showed mulch’s influence on crop yield and solidified its 
status as a great contributor towards increased crop production. Implementation of CA in Namibia is at different 
stages, driven significantly by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) in collaboration with government and 
with recent policy adoption and implementation in some parts of the country and indifferent in other parts. In 
Namibia, the government adopted the Climate Smart Agriculture Programme, jointly implemented by the Ministry 
of Agriculture Water And Forestry (MAWF) and the Ministry of Environment And Tourism (MET) (2015 – 2030). 
The adoption of such sustainable technologies is believed to increase productivity and production. Namibia also 
developed a Namibia specific conservation tillage (NSCT) technique, as a method that advocates for use of rippers, 
mulch, improved seeds, constant monitoring, new planting and fertilizing methods and techniques. CA is not 
exclusively practiced at local level and with the finding of this study, in part showing that reduced soil disturbance 
and mulching together with crop rotation enhance maize performance and production and can influence fast 
tracking and encourage its widespread practice in in the hot sub-humid north-eastern regions of Namibia and 
similar areas. 

Acknowledgements 

Our sincere gratitude goes to the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ), the 
sponsors of the study, the Directorate of Agricultural Production, Extension and Engineering Services (DAPEES) 
of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform, implementer of the project and the University of Namibia, 
through which the programme was done. We would also like to thank the International Maize and Wheat 
Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for backstopping the research project. Our thanks are extended to Dr. Alexander 
Schoening, Magret Bartels, Dr. Stephanie Chessman, former staff members of Deutsche Gesellschaft für 
Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) and Dr. Ibo Zimmerman and Mr. Theofilus Shiimi (from Namibia 
University of Science and Technology) for their generous assistance, constant support, guidance and 
encouragement over the study period. Last but not least, we shall remain eternally grateful to family and friends 
for their support during the entire period of study.  

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Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. 

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 
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    /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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    /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing.  Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
  >>
  /Namespace [
    (Adobe)
    (Common)
    (1.0)
  ]
  /OtherNamespaces [
    <<
      /AsReaderSpreads false
      /CropImagesToFrames true
      /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
      /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
      /IncludeGuidesGrids false
      /IncludeNonPrinting false
      /IncludeSlug false
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (InDesign)
        (4.0)
      ]
      /OmitPlacedBitmaps false
      /OmitPlacedEPS false
      /OmitPlacedPDF false
      /SimulateOverprint /Legacy
    >>
    <<
      /AddBleedMarks false
      /AddColorBars false
      /AddCropMarks false
      /AddPageInfo false
      /AddRegMarks false
      /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
      /DestinationProfileName ()
      /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /Downsample16BitImages true
      /FlattenerPreset <<
        /PresetSelector /MediumResolution
      >>
      /FormElements false
      /GenerateStructure false
      /IncludeBookmarks false
      /IncludeHyperlinks false
      /IncludeInteractive false
      /IncludeLayers false
      /IncludeProfiles false
      /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (CreativeSuite)
        (2.0)
      ]
      /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /PreserveEditing true
      /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
      /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
      /UseDocumentBleed false
    >>
  ]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
  /HWResolution [2400 2400]
  /PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice

