




































 Agricultural Science; Vol. 2, No. 1; 2020 
ISSN 2690-5396   E-ISSN 2690-4799 

https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n1p95 

95                             Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Coupled Irrigation–Drainage Management Practice for HYV Rice 
Cultivation with Saline-Irrigation Water: Evidence from Lysimeter 

Experiment 
Mohammad A. Rahman1, Tanvir Ahmed2 & Mohammad A. Mojid2 

1 Agricultural Engineering Division, Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), Mymensingh-2202, 
Bangladesh 
2 Department of Irrigation and Water Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, 
Bangladesh 
Correspondence: Mohammad A. Mojid, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh. E-
mail: ma_mojid@yahoo.com 
 
Received: March 21, 2020   Accepted: April 8, 2020   Online Published: April 16, 2020 
 
Abstract 
Irrigation with saline water adversely affects rice production and degrades land productivity in the coastal zones 
of many countries in the world. This study aimed at developing a suitable irrigation management practice to reduce 
the harmful effects of salinity on rice production under saline water irrigation. An experiment in raise-bed 
lysimeters was set in a split-split-plot design with irrigation–drainage practice as the main factor, irrigation water 
salinity as the sub-factor and rice variety as sub-sub factor; the main factor and sub-factor comprised four 
treatments and the sub-sub factor comprised three treatments, each with three replications. The treatments of the 
main factor were – T1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, T2: continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 
3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of 
application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth. The sub-factor comprised – SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 
saline water of 6 dS m−1, SL3: saline water of 9 dS m−1, and SL4: saline water of 12 dS m−1. The sub-sub factor 
comprised three salt-tolerant rice varieties V1: Binadhan-8, V2: Binadhan-10, and V3: BRRI dhan-47. The 
irrigation–drainage practices T2 and T3 provided significantly (p≤0.05) improved growth and yield attributes of 
the rice varieties under salinity water level SL3 and SL4 compared to T1 and T4 treatments. The treatment T3 
maintained least exposure of the crop to high degree of salinity and produced satisfactory plant attributes by 
inhibiting the detrimental effects of salinity. Therefore, T3 is suggested for adoption in practical fields when 
provision for removing high saline water from the rice fields can be arranged. 
Keywords: rice irrigation, ponding depth, salinity exposure 
1. Introduction 
Salinity is one of the important physical factors that reduce soil fertility and crop productivity by inhibiting plant 
growth and development (Mojid & Hossain, 2013). An estimated 955 Mha land was reported to suffer from salinity 
and sodicity globally (Pandey et al., 2011; Wong et al., 2010). In Bangladesh, 3.56 Mha of arable lands are currently 
affected by soil salinity (SRDI, 2016). Due to reduction in dry-season river flows, mainly due to increased upstream 
withdrawal, and rise in sea level, the severity and extent of salinity may even aggravate (Bates et al., 2008; Mojid, 
2020). Consequently, the current saline area has been predicted to increase by 39% across the south-west coastal 
belt by 2050 (Dasgupta et al., 2015). The productivity of the saline area is further hindered since there is severe 
scarcity of fresh water. Sodium (Na) is the dominant cation both in saline soils and irrigation water that affects soil 
physicochemical characteristics and plant growth (Ribeiro et al., 2014) and causes toxicity on plant species (Abrol 
et al., 1988) when it is excess in amount. 
Continuous increase in salinity is affecting traditional cropping systems and livelihoods in salinity-affected 
southern coastal belt of Bangladesh (Rahman, 2011; Mainuddin et al., 2013); specifically, the production levels of 
rice are becoming much lower compared to the other regions of the country. Scarcity of good quality irrigation 
water is a major hindrance for crop cultivation, especially High Yielding Variety (HYV) rice cultivation in the 
saline area. Groundwater in that region being contaminated with high degree of salinity has also restricted the 
development of irrigation sector (Rahman et al., 2017). The available surface water, which is also limited in the 



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coastal zone, is suitable for irrigation only during October–December, which is generally a wet period and requires 
only minimal irrigation. But the surface water becomes saline and unsuitable for irrigation during dry period 
(February–April), which is the main crop season and peak irrigation period (Mahtab & Zahid, 2018). 
In the absence or with limited availability of fresh water, the salt-affected areas need to be brought under cultivation 
by irrigation using saline water for increasing rice production to ensure food security in the rice-producing 
countries like Bangladesh. However, use of saline water for irrigation requires careful planning and scheduling 
since the response of rice crop to salinity is controlled by the level of salinity and its duration and timing of 
exposure (Lee et al., 2004). Growing salt-tolerant rice variety with appropriate water management practices may 
be one of the approaches for economic utilization of moderately salt-affected land under saline-water irrigation 
(Mokoi & Verplancke, 2010). Both quality and ponding depth of irrigation water significantly affects growth and 
yield of rice (El Hasan et al., 2006; Zeng et al., 2003). Consequently, depth of standing water in rice field is 
regarded as an important agronomic parameter in the management of irrigation-related salinity problems. 
To increase crop productivity during dry season (January–April) in the coastal saline area of Bangladesh, it would 
be imperative to introduce salt-tolerant HYV rice cultivars and develop suitable crop and water management 
practices for reducing the detrimental effects of salinity on crops. Occasional flush irrigation with fresh water 
during rice-growing period can remove part of the accumulated salts from the fields (Qadir et al., 1998; Nayak et 
al., 2008). But, scarcity of fresh water is a limiting factor to implement this management practice. Where available, 
irrigation with good quality water prior to sowing helps leaching the salts from the top soil. Mixing fresh water 
and saline water, and intermittent irrigation can also mitigate the detrimental effects of salinity on rice (Rezaei et 
al., 2013). But, in the absence of fresh water, removing the saline water from the rice field at certain interval to 
keep water salinity at non-harmful level may be an important practice to develop an effective on-farm water 
management for rice cultivation on saline soils (Chen et al., 2013). After applying irrigation with saline water, 
salinity of standing water in the rice field would gradually increase over time due to increased salt concentration 
with continuous evaporation loss of water. Consequently, maintaining the salinity level of irrigation water at crop-
tolerance limit by replacing high saline water from the rice field with relatively low saline water may be a potential 
option for rice cultivation under saline-water irrigation. The information on reduction of salinity effects by 
irrigation and associated drainage system, such as removing the applied saline water before reaching the stage of 
crop tolerance limit, is still inadequate. So, this study was planned to identify a suitable irrigation–drainage 
management practice for HYV salt-tolerant rice cultivation under saline-water irrigation. This was achieved by 
evaluating several possible irrigation–drainage practices in lysimeter experiments under controlled conditions. The 
main purpose was to characterize the expected suitable irrigation–drainage practice for future verification in the 
practical fields. In this paper, removal of the high-saline water from the rice field has been referred as drainage. 
2. Materials and Methods 
2.1 Experimental Site and Climate 
The experiment was done during December 2016 to May 2017 at Field Lysimeter Yard of Bangladesh Institute of 
Nuclear Agriculture (BINA) at Mymensingh in Bangladesh. The site is within Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ) 9 that 
lays at 24°75' N latitude and 90°50' E longitude; the elevation of the site is 18 m above mean sea level. AEZ 9 has 
broad ridges and basins, and soils of the region are predominantly silt loams to silty clay loams on the ridges and 
clay in the basins. Organic matter content is low on the ridges and moderate in the basins. The top soils are 
moderately acidic, but sub-soils are neutral in reaction. For this study, loamy soil of 0−15 cm profile from the 
BINA farm was used to fill 16 lysimeters (details of the lysimeters are provided in section 2.2); each lysimeter 
contained 750 kg air dry soil. Three samples were collected from the soil-lot before filling the lysimeters. The 
organic carbon, bulk soil electrical conductivity (EC) and soil reaction (pH) were determined by analyzing these 
samples following standard procedures. The soil contained 0.94% organic carbon. The EC and pH of saturation 
extract (soil : water = 1:2.5) was 0.45 dS m−1 and 6.06, respectively. Sub-tropical climate of the site is characterized 
by high temperature and humidity, and heavy rainfall with occasional gusty wind from April to September and 
scanty rainfall associated with moderately low temperature during October to March. The monthly maximum 
temperature during December to June varied from 26.7 to 33.5oC and minimum temperature varied from 12.9 to 
25.5oC in 2016–2017. The maximum and minimum relative humidity during that period varied from 97.8 to 100% 
and 45.2 to 77.6%, respectively. Monthly total rainfall varied from 0 (nil) to 357 mm during the rice-growing 
season (December 2016 to May 2017) in this experiment. 
2.2 Treatments and Experimental Set-up 
A three-factor factorial experiment was set in a Split-Split-Plot Design in 16 lysimeters arranged in four blocks. 
Each lysimeter (120 cm × 100 cm × 62 cm) with inner surface area (soil surface area) of 1.2 m2 (1.2 m × 1.0 m) 



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had an effective soil depth of 0.5 m. There was a 12-cm empty depth in the lysimeters on the soil surface to 
accommodate applied irrigation water. Each lysimeter box was equipped with two taps: one at the soil surface and 
the other near the bottom; only the upper tap was used for draining out water from the soil surface through surface 
runoff when needed in this study. The main factor was the irrigation-drainage practice, the sub factor was salinity 
of irrigation water and the sub-sub factor was three salt-tolerant HYV rice varieties. Both the main and sub factors 
had four treatments and the sub-sub factor had three treatments; all factors were replicated thrice. The factors and 
their treatments/levels are summarized in Table 1. 
 
Table 1. Factors and treatments of the experiment 

Factors Treatments Description 

Main 
factor 

T1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding (with no drainage/no removal of applied water) 
T2: continuous saturation (with no drainage/no removal of applied water) 
T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining a 2−5-cm 

ponding 
T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining a 2−5-cm 

ponding 

Sub factor 

SL1: fresh water (control) 
SL2: 6 dS m−1 
SL3: 9 dS m−1 
SL4: 12 dS m−1 

Sub-sub 
factor 

V1: Binadhan-8 
V2: Binadhan-10 
V3: BRRI dhan-47 

 
Based on our design there were three hills of rice for each treatment and each variety. It is noted that because of 
space limitation in the lysimeters the rice varieties could not be randomized. V1 can tolerate 10−12 dS m−1 salinity 
at early stage and 8−10 dS m−1 at maturity stage, while the salt-tolerant limit of V2 for the corresponding growth 
stage is 12−14 dS m−1 and 10−12 dS m−1 (BINA, 2012). V3 can tolerate 12−14, 8 and 6 dS m−1 at early, pollination 
and maturity stage, respectively (BRRI, 2015). The three rice varieties were allocated in each lysimeter plot. The 
layout of the experiment is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. Basal dose fertilizer of triple super phosphate (TSP), 
muriate of potash (MP), gypsum, zinc sulphate and cowdung at the rate of 12, 16, 13, 0.5 and 720 g per lysimeter 
plot (1.2 m2) were applied and mixed with the soil, corresponding to their recommended dose of 100, 130, 105.88, 
3.61 and 6000 kg ha−1. Seeds of the three rice varieties (V1, V2 and V3) were sown in three separate seed beds in 
BINA farm on 26 December 2016. The seedlings of 32 days age were transplanted on 26 January 2017. Twenty-
five (25) hills (each of one plant) were established in each lysimeter with a row to row spacing of 25 cm and plant 
to plant spacing of 20 cm; the buffer distance surrounding the outer hills was 10 cm (Fig. 1). Each inner hill 
occupied an area of 500 cm2. The outer most hills acted as buffer plants to reduce the heterogeneity in the effects 
of solar radiation and wind in the inner hills. After transplanting seedlings, 40 g urea per plot corresponding to its 
recommended dose of 326 kg ha−1 was top dressed in three splits: 14 g at 11 days after transplanting (DAT), 13 g 
at 32 DAT and 13 g at 60 DAT. Gypsum @ 18 g per plot corresponding to its recommended dose of 150 kg ha−1 
was applied in two equal splits at 15 DAT and 60 DAT. Weeds were uprooted manually when required. Sunfuran 
insecticides were applied to protect green leaves of the rice plants before flowering stage. 
2.3 Irrigation and Drainage Practices 
Groundwater of a deep tubewell (DTW) inside the BINA farm was used as fresh water (SL1) for irrigation. Raw 
wet salt (salt with small quantity water) was collected from a salt field in coastal saline area of Chittagong district. 
This salt was used to prepare irrigation water with salinity levels SL2, SL3 and SL4 having ingredients similar to 
that of sea water. A total of 4.8, 7.2 and 9.6 g salt, when mixed separately in one-liter fresh water, provided 6, 9 
and 12 dS m–1 salinity level, respectively at 25°C. Adequate quantity of irrigation water for each salinity level was 
prepared during each irrigation event by mixing salt with fresh water. Fresh water was applied to the lysimeter 
plots that were selected for non-saline/control (SL1) treatment (Fig. 1). The other plots were irrigated by water 
with the required salinity levels (SL2, SL3 and SL4). To ensure sufficient soil moisture for normal growth of rice, 
2−5 cm water depth was maintained in treatments T1, T3 and T4. T2 was kept approximately at saturation without 
any standing water depth. This was done by applying 1-cm irrigation almost daily. Measured quantity of irrigation 



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water was applied in all treatments during the growing period of rice. Conjunctive irrigation water with fresh water 
and saline water was applied at two critical growth stages of rice: fresh water at 0−15 DAT to ensure establishment 
(live-saving) of the crop and 61−80 DAT to ensure adequate flowering of the crop since these two growth stages 
are very sensitive to salinity stress. Irrigation at 16−60 DAT and 81−100 DAT was done by saline water. The 
applied saline water was drained out through the taps set with the lysimeter boxes at the soil surface and new saline 
water was applied after 3 days of application in treatment T3 and 5 days of application in treatment T4. In T1, 
irrigation was applied at 3 to 5 days interval as required to maintain 2 to 5 cm standing water depth. The lysimeter 
plots were protected from rainfall during the entire growing season with a shade of transparent plastic sheet set 
over a pre-constructed cast iron frame in the lysimeter yard. The transparent shade did not prevent sunlight 
significantly from reaching the rice plants. The shade helped maintaining proper control on water budget and 
salinity levels of the applied irrigation water by preventing rainfall. 

 
Figure 1. Layout of the experiment in lysimeter plots. T1–T4 are the four irrigation–drainage treatments, SL1–SL4 
are the four irrigation water salinity levels, V1–V3 are the three salt-tolerant rice varieties, and the number 1 to16 
are the lysimeter plots (Note: without the surrounding buffer plants, there are equal number of plants of each rice 

variety in each lysimeter) 
 

2.3.1 Data Collection and Analysis 
The total number of irrigations and quantity of water applied to each plot in each irrigation event were recorded. 
Initial soil-moisture content was measured just before transplanting the seedlings in the lysimeters. The final soil-
moisture content was measured in each lysimeter plot just after harvesting of rice. Soil-moisture content was 
determined gravimetrically from the weights of the wet and oven-dry soil samples. Bulk soil electrical conductivity, 
EC (composite EC of mineral fraction, water and air in a soil volume), of top 0–5 cm soil layer of the lysimeter 

 
SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 

 

V1   V1     V2   V3   V3  V2    V2   V3   V1   V1   V3   V3   V1   V2   V2  V3   V3    V2  V1    V1 

T1 

     
R1 

R2 

R3 

 

 1 2 3 4  

T2 

      

R1 

R2 

R3 

 

 5 6 7 8  

T3 

      

R1 

R2 

R3 

 

 9 10 11 12  

T4 

      

R1 

R2 

R3 

 

 13 14 15 16 

N

20 cm

25 cm

10 cm



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plots was measured on 13 occasions during the rice-growing season. EC was measured by inserting an EC5061 
meter (Germany) into the top soil. The ECs were measured prior to draining out high saline standing water from 
the treatments T3 and T4; ECs of T1 and T2 were also measured on the same days. After harvesting of rice, soil 
samples were collected from 0–15 cm soil layer of each lysimeter plot. These were air-dried in laboratory, grinded 
and sieved with a 2-mm mesh sieve. Twenty grams of each sample was mixed with 50 g distilled water (soil : 
water = 1:2.5) and the mixture was shaken vigorously and equilibrated at 25oC for 6 hours. The supernatant was 
separated, and its EC and pH were measured with a pH110 meter (Cvberscan, Germany) and EC5061 meter 
(Germany), respectively. 
At full maturity, nine (9) inner hills of the three rice cultivars – three for each variety (Fig. 1) – were harvested 
plot-wise at a time on 22 May 2017. The crop of each plot was bundled separately and tagged properly by 
maintaining treatments, salinity levels, varieties and replications. Plant heights were measured with a 100-cm 
measuring tape. The numbers of total tillers and effective tillers (that bear fertile panicles) were counted from each 
hill at harvest. For recording data on roots, one inner hill for variety V2 from each plot was uprooted with a soil 
column of 30 cm depth and 10 cm diameter since most of the root system remained within this soil volume. Note 
that roots were sampled from only one hill in order to keep the lysimeters’ soils mostly intact for the next season’s 
experiment. The roots with the soil were kept on plastic nets and washed manually with water to remove the soil 
and separate the roots. The depth of roots was measured from the base of the root-node to end of the longest root. 
After oven-drying the roots at 60°C for 72 hours, weight of the roots was measured with an electronic balance. 
Panicle length was recorded from the basal node of the rachis to the apex of each panicle. Each observation was 
made by averaging the lengths of the panicles of each hill. The rice grains of each hill were separated and weighed 
after sun drying at 12% moisture content. One thousand clean sun-dried grains were taken from the grain stock of 
each plot and weighed. We expressed the grain and straw yields as ‘per hill basis’ since the results will be compared 
with a future pot experiment. This did not hamper comparing relative performance of the factors and treatments 
of the experiment in this study. After sun drying, the straw of each plot was weighed, and the straw yield was 
calculated. Harvest index (HI) of the rice crop was calculated from the ratio of grain yield to the total above-ground 
biomass yield (grain plus straw yield). Water productivity was determined by dividing grain yield by the total 
water used in each plot (Table 2) that comprised applied irrigation and soil-moisture contribution. Since the crop 
was protected from rainfall by shading, rainfall did not contribute to the water budget in the plots. Soil-moisture 
contribution was determined by subtracting the quantity of soil moisture at harvest from the soil moisture at 
transplanting of seedlings (36% by weight). The components of water usage and total water used by the rice plants 
of the treatments are given in Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done by using Statistix 10 software 
package of Analytical Software (2019). Comparison of means of the plant attributes among the irrigation–drainage 
treatments and salinity levels was done at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05) by implementing Tuky’s Honest 
Significant Difference (HSD) test. 
 
Table 2. Components of water use and total water used in different irrigation-drainage treatments 

Irrigation 
-drainage 
treatments 

Salinity 
levels 

No. of 
freshwater 
irrigation 

Quantity
of 
freshwater 
irrigation 
(mm)

No. of
saline 
water 
irrigation

Quantity
of saline 
water 
irrigation 
(mm)

Total
quantity 
of 
irrigation 
(mm)

Soil-moisture 
contribution 
(mm) 

Total
water 
used 
(mm)

T1 SL1 23 785 00 00 785 25 760
SL2 7 274 16 478 752 25 727
SL3 7 271 16 455 725 25 700
SL4 7 260 16 423 687 25 662

T2 SL1 30 394 00 00 394 25 369
SL2 9 190 21 166 356 25 331
SL3 9 187 21 145 332 25 307
SL4 9 177 21 127 304 25 279

T3 SL1 33 799 00 00 799 25 774
SL2 9 239 24 505 744 25 719
SL3 9 237 24 490 726 25 701
SL4 9 229 24 465 694 25 669

T4 SL1 21 710 00 00 710 25 685
SL2 7 250 14 437 687 25 662
SL3 7 244 14 421 665 25 640
SL4 7 237 14 398 634 25 760

 



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3. Results 
3.1 Growth Attributes of Rice 
The tallest plant (97.4 cm) of the rice crop, recorded in treatment T3 (changing irrigation water after 3 days of 
application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under salinity level SL2 (6 dS m−1), was statistically similar to 
the plant height in other treatments under this salinity level (Table 3). The shortest plant (88.4 cm) was obtained 
in T4 (changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) under salinity 
level SL4 (12 dS m−1). Treatment T2 produced taller plants under the two higher salinity levels (SL3 and SL4) of 
irrigation water. Table 3 reveals that the salinity level and duration of exposure of the rice crop to salinity did not 
exert consistent effect on the plant height of the crop. As for the varietal effect (under the combined impacts of 
irrigation–drainage treatments and salinity levels), the mean plant height exhibited significant (p≤0.05) variations 
among the three rice varieties (Table 4). Variety V2 (Binadhan-10) produced significantly higher plant height (102.2 
cm) than the other two varieties. Continuous ponding (T1) produced the highest number of total tillers (average = 
27) under fresh-water (SL1) irrigation and lowest number of total tillers (17) under the highest salinity level (SL4) 
of irrigation water, confirming the findings of Haq et al. (2009) who observed significantly reduced number of 
total tillers under saline condition compared to non-saline condition. Because of the special irrigation and drainage 
management practices, treatments T2, T3 and T4 minimized exposure of the crop to the degree of salinity and, 
consequently, improved the number of total tillers under saline-water irrigation (Table 3). Among the four 
irrigation–drainage treatments, T3 produced the highest number of total tillers under saline-water irrigation, with 
significantly (p≤0.05) higher number of tillers under SL4 than other treatments. This observation reveals that T3 is 
the best irrigation–drainage management practice with saline-water irrigation. 
 
Table 3. Comparison of the mean plant height and number of total tillers and effective tillers per hill of three rice 
varieties (V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 and V3: BRRI dhan-47) among four irrigation–drainage treatments (T1: 
2−5 cm continuous ponding, T2: continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by 
maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm 
ponding depth) under four salinity levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, and SL4: 12 dS 
m−1) of irrigation water 

Treatments Plant height (cm) Total tillers per hill (-) Effective tillers per hill (-) 
SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4

T1 92.1b 94.9a 88.4b 93.0a 27a 22a 19a 17b 22a 17a 15a 12b
T2 97.1a 94.2a 96.2a 93.6a 27a 21a 21a 19ab 21a 17a 16a 15a
T3 94.3ab 97.4a 93.8a 88.9b 25ab 23a 21a 21a 20a 18a 17a 16a
T4 92.8b 93.8a 90.4b 88.4b 25b 22a 21a 19ab 20a 17a 15a 13b

HSD0.05 3.45 3.87 3.12 3.26 2.2 2.3 2.2 1.9 2.5 2.7 2.4 1.1 
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 
 
Compared to fresh-water (SL1) irrigation, saline-water irrigation suppressed effective tiller numbers; the 
suppressing effect increased with increasing salinity level of irrigation water. Table 3 reveals that 
changing/replacing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding water depth (T3) 
produced the highest number of effective tillers per hill in saline condition (SL2−SL4); with significantly higher 
number of effective tillers under SL4 than the other treatments. Irrigation with saline water throughout the crop 
period (T1) imposed strong salinity stress and reduced the effective tillers. Similar to the findings of Akter et al. 
(2015), the panicle number in our experiment was the maximum in the control and decreased gradually as salinity 
of irrigation water increased from 4 to 12 dS m−1. The numbers of total tillers and effective tillers per hill were 
statistically similar for both V1 (Binadhan-8) and V3 (BRRI dhan-47) but significantly (p≤0.05) lower than that in 
V2 (Binadhan-10) (Table 4). So, BINA dhan-10 gave the most promising results in terms of plant height and tiller 
number under saline water irrigation. 
3.2 Yield Attributes of Rice 
The panicle length of rice decreased in the four irrigation-drainage treatments with increasing salinity levels of 
irrigation water. Treatments T2 and T3 provided significantly longer panicle length under high salinity levels (SL3 
and SL4) than T1 and T4, both of which provided statistically similar panicle lengths (Table 5). Continuous 
saturation (T2) with fresh-water irrigation (SL1) provided the longest panicle length (26.2 cm), while 2−5 cm 
continuous ponding (T1) with high saline-water (SL4: 12 dS m−1) irrigation provided the shortest panicle length 



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(21.4 cm). Under saline-water irrigation, T3 provided the longest panicle length of rice. Of the practically feasible 
saline-water irrigation–drainage treatments (T1, T3 and T4), T3 produced significantly (p≤0.05) longer panicles than 
T1 and T4. The number of grains per panicle in the irrigation–drainage treatments also decreased with the increase 
in salinity of irrigation water (Table 5). T1 provided the lowest number of grains per panicle under high saline-
water irrigation (SL4). T2 and T3 minimized salinity stress of rice to irrigation-water salinity by reducing crop-
exposure to salinity and significantly (p≤0.05) improved the number of grains per panicle under the imposition of 
the two high salinity levels (SL3 and SL4), with the higher number of grains in T3. The irrigation–drainage 
treatments T2 and T3 performed exactly similarly in providing 1000-grain weight as they did in providing the 
number of grains per panicle. The weight of 1000-grain increased in T2, T3 and T4 compared to T1, and decreased 
with the increase in salinity levels. The mean panicle length and 1000-grain weight under the combined effects of 
four irrigation-drainage treatments and four salinity levels differed significantly among the three rice varieties 
(Table 6). BINA dhan-10 (V2) provided the most improved panicle length (25.8 cm) and 1000-grain weight (28.9 
g). 
 
Table 4. Comparison of the mean growth attributes of rice for three varieties (V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 
and V3: BRRI dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (T1: 2−5 cm continuous 
ponding, T2: continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm 
ponding depth, and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and 
four salinity levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, and SL4: 12 dS m−1) 

Rice variety Plant height (cm) Total tillers per hill (-) Effective tillers per hill (-) 
V1 87.7c 22b 17b 
V2 102.2a 23a 18a 
V3 89.4b 21b 16b 

HSD0.05 1.04 0.7 0.7 
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 
 
Table 5. Comparison of the yield attributes of rice due to the effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (T1: 2−5 
cm continuous ponding, T2: continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by 
maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm 
ponding depth) under the application of four salinity levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, 
and SL4: 12 dS m−1) irrespective of the rice varieties (V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 and V3: BRRI dhan-47) 

Treatments Panicle length (cm) Grains per panicle (-) 1000-grain weight (g) 
SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 

T1 25.9a 24.4a 22.6b 21.4b 133a 127ab 113c 110c 30a 28b 27b 26c 
T2 26.2a 24.6a 24.7a 23.9a 136a 134ab 126ab 123ab 30a 29a 28a 27ab 
T3 25.4a 25.8a 24.9a 23.9a 137a 138a 133a 128a 30a 29a 28a 27a 
T4 25.0a 24.7a 22.8b 22.2b 140a 125b 119bc 114bc 30a 28ab 27b 27bc 

HSD0.05 1.74 2.36 1.16 1.12 18.7 11.7 11.0 12.0 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.5 
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 
 
Table 6. Comparison of the mean yield attributes of rice for three varieties (V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 and V3: 
BRRI dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (T1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, T2: 
continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, 
and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and four salinity 
levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, and SL4: 12 dS m−1) 

Rice variety Panicle length (cm) Grains per panicle (-) 1000-grain weight (g) 
V1 23.2c 127a 28.1b 
V2 25.8a 128a 28.9a 
V3 23.8b 128a 27.5c 

HSD0.05 0.49 5.1 0.23 
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 



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3.3 Yields, Harvest Index and Water Productivity of Rice 
Treatments T2 and T3 minimized harmful effects of salinity and improved grain yield under high saline-water (SL3 
and SL4) irrigation compared to T1 and T4 (Table 7). T3 produced significantly (p≤0.05) higher grain yield per hill 
under these salinity levels compared to the other treatments. T2 and T3 minimized the detrimental effects of salinity 
on vegetative growth of the rice plants and produced similar straw yield under SL4 (12 dS m−1) that was 
significantly higher than the straw yield in T1 and T4. Exactly similar effects of the irrigation–drainage treatments 
under the four salinity levels of irrigation water were observed in producing above-ground biomass (straw plus 
grain) yield of rice (Table 7). BINA dhan-10 (V2) produced significantly higher grain yield, straw yield and above-
ground biomass yield per hill under the interaction effects of irrigation−drainage treatments and salinity levels of 
irrigation water than the other two rice varieties, which produced statistically similar yields (Table 8). 
 
Table 7. Comparison of the yield of rice due to the effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (T1: 2−5 cm 
continuous ponding, T2: continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 
2−5 cm ponding depth, and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding 
depth) under the application of four salinity levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, and SL4: 
12 dS m−1) irrespective of the rice varieties (V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 and V3: BRRI dhan-47) 

Treatments Grain yield per hill (g) Straw yield per hill (g) Above-ground biomass yield 
per hill (g) 

SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4

T1 65.6a 45.3a 34.7b 26.5c 17.7ab 16.5a 12.0a 11.0b 83.3a 61.8a 46.6b 37.5c
T2 63.9a 45.0a 37.4b 34.3b 19.7a 14.9a 12.1a 13.6a 83.6a 59.8a 49.5b 47.9b
T3 59.9a 52.8a 43.7a 39.5a 18.1ab 15.4a 13.3a 13.2a 78.0a 68.2a 57.0a 52.7a
T4 59.9a 44.2a 34.2b 27.3c 16.9b 14.5a 12.0a 11.2b 76.8a 58.7a 46.3b 38.5c

HSD0.05 14.9  9.7 6.2 3.7 1.9 2.8 1.7 1.7 17.1 10.9 6.4 3.9 
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 
 
Table 8. Comparison of the mean yield of rice for three varieties (V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 and V3: BRRI 
dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (T1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, T2: 
continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, 
and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and four salinity 
levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, and SL4: 12 dS m−1) 

Rice variety Grain yield per hill (g) Straw yield per hill  (g) Above-ground biomass 
yield per hill (g) 

V1 42.5b 14.0b 56.5b 
V2 50.9a 15.4a 66.3a 
V3 40.5b 14.1b 55.7b 

HSD0.05 3.2 0.8 3.7 
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 
 
Root-biomass decreased with increasing salinity level of irrigation water (Table 9). Treatments T1 and T4 produced 
lower root-biomass under saline-water irrigation, but T3 produced significantly higher quantity of root-biomass 
under high saline-water (SL3 and SL4) irrigation than the other treatments. The harvest index of rice decreased 
with the increase in salinity level and also with the increase in the duration of exposure of the crop to salinity of 
irrigation water. The observed harvest indices (Table 9) appeared to be generally large as compared to that found 
for rice at field level, usually around 50%. The higher harvest indices might possibly be due to the rice-growth 
management under controlled condition in the lysimeters where most of the growth-influencing factors were 
properly maintained. However, in the relative terms, the four irrigation–drainage treatments did not exert any 
significant impact on the harvest index under the four salinity levels of irrigation water (Table 9). These results 
revealed that longer exposure of rice plants to high salinity stress reduced its grain yield more compared to its 
straw yield. In general, reduction of duration of salinity exposure of rice plants improved water productivity of 
rice. Continuous saturation (T2) of rice plot provided significantly (p≤0.05) higher water productivity since it 
drastically reduced crop-water usage (Table 2) compared to the other treatments (Table 9). In contrast, continuous 



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standing water provided the lowest water productivity under all four salinity levels of irrigation water. Treatment 
T3, most practically applicable treatment compared to T2, resulted in significantly higher water productivity under 
high salinity (SL4) of irrigation water. Among the three rice varieties, BINA dhan-10 (V2) provided significantly 
higher root-biomass yield, harvest index and water productivity than the other two rice varieties, which resulted in 
statistically similar harvest index and water productivity but different root biomass yields (Table 10). 
 
Table 9. Comparison of the harvest index of rice due to the effects of four irrigation-drainage treatments (T1: 2−5 
cm continuous ponding, T2: continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of application by 
maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm 
ponding depth) under the application of four salinity levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, 
and SL4: 12 dS m−1) irrespective of the rice varieties (V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 and V3: BRRI dhan-47) 

Treatments Root-biomass yield per hill 
(g) 

Harvest index (%) Water productivity (kg ha−1 
cm−1) 

SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4 SL1 SL2 SL3 SL4

T1 17.6b 14.8a 11.4b 9.1bc 78.7a 73.1a 74.2a 70.5a 172.5b 124.6b 99.0b 80.0c
T2 19.0a 15.2a 12.0b 10.2ab 76.2a 75.0a 75.4a 71.4a 345.9a 271.5a 243.6a 246.3a
T3 17.7a 15.4a 13.7a 10.9a 76.5a 77.3a 76.6a 74.8a 154.8b 146.9b 124.7b 118.2b
T4 18.0a 14.8a 11.9b 8.6c 77.9a 74.9a 73.8a 70.5a 174.9b 133.5b 106.9a 89.7c

HSD0.05 1.9 2.0 0.9 1.3 2.7 4.6 3.3 4.9 42.4 47.7 29.2 20.8
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 
 
Table 10. Comparison of the mean root biomass yield, harvest index and water productivity of rice for three varieties 
(V1: Binadhan-8, V2 : Binadhan-10 and V3: BRRI dhan-47) under the combined effects of four irrigation-drainage 
treatments (T1: 2−5 cm continuous ponding, T2: continuous saturation, T3: changing irrigation water after 3 days of 
application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth, and T4: changing irrigation water after 5 days of application by 
maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth) and four salinity levels (SL1: fresh water as control, SL2: 6 dS m−1, SL3: 9 dS m−1, 
and SL4: 12 dS m−1) 

Rice variety Root-biomass yield per 
hill (g) 

Harvest index (%) Water productivity (kg 
ha−1 cm−1) 

V1 13.6b 74.6b 155.7b 
V2 14.8a 76.3a 188.1a 
V3 12.9c 73.5b 150.0b 

HSD0.05 0.6 1.3 12.5 
Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance (p≤0.05). 
 
3.4 Soil Salinity Dynamics in Rice Plots 
Bulk soil EC in all lysimeter plots increased after rice cultivation from an average initial (before rice plantation) 
value of 0.45 dS m−1 to 0.39–2.85 dS m−1, with a mean value of 1.49 dS m−1. EC varied with irrigation water salinity 
and length of exposure of irrigation–drainage cycles to the salinity levels. At 1 (one) day after transplanting (DAT), 
EC was the lowest, ranging from 0.23 to 0.26 dS m−1 among the treatments (Table 11) since irrigation was applied 
during the first 15 DAT with fresh water. Application of the first split of urea on 11 DAT contributed increasing 
EC of the standing water and/or soil in the plots; consequently, EC increased noticeably on 12 DAT in all treatments. 
Due to imposition of salinity through irrigation water during 16–59 DAT, EC increased drastically on 18 DAT in 
all treatments and continued increasing until saline-water in the plots was replaced with fresh-water irrigation 
during 60–80 DAT. As a result, EC decreased on 66 and 78 DAT, and continued increasing thereafter with the 
imposition of saline-water irrigation again. The second and third splits of urea application on 32 and 60 DAT, and 
gypsum application on 12 and 60 DAT also contributed to the bulk soil EC. But, their effects were not visible 
(Table 11) due to the predominant effect of irrigation water salinity. Soil reaction, pH, also increased from an 
average initial value of 6.06 ± 0.07 (n = 3) to 7.84 ± 0.22 (n = 16). 
3.5 Suitable Irrigation–Drainage Management Practice 
In terms of growth and yield attributes, yields, harvest index and water productivity, changing/replacing saline 
irrigation water after 3 days of application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding depth (T3) provided the best results. 



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However, continuous saturation with saline water (T2) and changing saline irrigation water after 5 days of 
application by maintaining 2−5 cm ponding (T4) provided better results compared to 2−5 cm continuous ponding 
depth of saline water (T1). From practical applicability point of view, treatment T2 is difficult to implement in the 
field. So, T3 appeared to be the optimum irrigation–drainage management practice for HYV salt-tolerant rice 
cultivation by saline-water irrigation. Among the three rice varieties, BINA dhan-10 (V2) provided significantly 
(p≤0.05) higher growth and yield attributes, yields, harvest index and water productivity than Binadhan-8 (V1) and 
BRRI dhan-47 (V3) and appeared to be the most suitable rice variety for cultivation under saline-water irrigation 
for the employed irrigation–drainage management practice (T3). 
 
Table 11. Bulk soil electrical conductivity (EC, dS m−1) of 0–5 cm soil layer in the lysimeter plots on different 
days after transplanting (DAT) during the rice-growing period and EC and pH after harvesting the crop 

Treatment 
and 

salinity 
level 

EC at DAT EC and 
pH after 
harvest 

1 12 18 20 21 28 40 48 58 66 78 87 98 EC pH

T1 

SL1 0.25 0.70 0.67 0.85 0.70 0.70 0.68 0.40 0.46 0.42 0.49 0.49 0.54 0.41 7.43
SL2 0.23 0.80 4.70 5.20 6.70 7.20 7.52 6.90 7.10 4.34 2.13 3.25 4.18 1.49 7.87
SL3 0.25 0.90 5.60 7.20 9.20 9.50 8.87 8.70 9.30 6.43 4.39 5.19 5.89 2.06 7.84
SL4 0.25 1.10 7.50 8.10 10.2 11.2 11.36 11.89 12.39 8.14 5.24 6.34 8.33 2.85 8.25

T2 

SL1 0.24 1.00 1.00 1.30 1.20 0.80 0.42 0.59 0.56 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.52 0.42 7.77
SL2 0.23 0.70 2.10 2.60 3.00 3.20 2.05 2.29 2.84 2.74 1.87 2.58 3.28 1.13 8.03
SL3 0.24 0.90 3.65 4.10 4.30 4.40 4.22 4.35 4.55 4.15 2.62 3.68 4.88 1.83 7.91
SL4 0.24 0.80 4.60 5.70 6.20 6.12 5.67 6.53 6.95 5.16 3.55 4.85 5.85 2.69 7.86

T3 

SL1 0.23 0.90 0.63 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.52 0.58 0.55 0.54 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.39 7.47
SL2 0.25 0.90 2.10 3.17 4.30 4.50 3.75 4.30 4.61 1.94 1.58 2.16 2.77 0.91 7.63
SL3 0.24 0.90 3.80 3.91 4.50 4.90 5.08 5.44 5.73 2.91 2.16 3.22 4.12 1.65 7.90
SL4 0.24 0.80 4.60 5.50 6.15 6.20 6.19 6.38 6.57 3.52 3.17 4.33 5.18 2.15 7.87

T4 

SL1 0.25 0.80 0.50 0.62 0.50 0.80 0.51 0.52 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.41 7.77
SL2 0.24 0.80 3.90 4.01 4.80 5.30 4.83 5.34 5.63 2.13 1.69 2.99 3.44 1.07 7.85
SL3 0.25 0.70 4.42 5.30 6.10 6.50 6.62 6.72 6.87 3.49 2.87 3.87 4.79 2.00 7.83
SL4 0.26 0.90 6.59 7.30 7.85 8.40 8.68 8.66 8.95 4.92 3.50 5.39 6.68 2.35 8.20

 
4. Discussion 
4.1 Crop Exposure to Salinity 
The root zone of the rice crop always remained water saturated in the four irrigation−drainage treatments (T1–T4). 
Consequently, the crop was always exposed to salinity under saline-water irrigation. The soil in treatment T2 
maintained always saturation condition almost without standing water except for a short period after application 
of 1 cm irrigation water daily. So, only the roots of the rice crop remained exposed to salinity in this treatment. In 
the other treatments (T1, T3 and T4), in addition to root zone, 2−5 cm of the rice stems also remained into standing 
water in the lysimeter plots. However, the duration of exposure of the rice plants to salinity differed among these 
treatments for the four salinity levels (SL1, SL2, SL3 and SL4) of irrigation water. Immediate after an irrigation 
event with saline water in T1, water salinity in the rice plots became higher than salinity of the applied irrigation 
water due to mixing of the applied water with the already remaining standing water in the plots with elevated 
salinity. After the irrigation event, water salinity continued increasing until the next irrigation was applied since 
salt concentration in the standing water increased due to evaporation loss of water from the plot. In this process, 
salinity of standing water in the rice plots under T1 increased continuously during the entire rice-growing period. 
Consequently, soil salinity in the rice plots also increased in parallel to the standing water salinity (Table 11). In 
treatment T3, on the other hand, salinity of the applied water in the rice plots continuously increased for 3 days 
(irrigation interval) until water depth decreased to ≈ 2 cm from 5 cm. The standing water in the plots was then 
changed/replaced with irrigation water of the prescribed salinity level, which was lower than the remaining water 
in the plots. Therefore, both the rice crop and soil in treatment T3 remained exposed to water salinity, which was 
low compared to that in treatment T1. Treatment T4 was mostly similar to T3, except that because of larger irrigation 
interval (5 days) in T4 compared to T3 (3 days), salinity of the applied water in the plots increased for a longer 



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period. Consequently, both the rice crop and soil in T4 remained exposed to water salinity, which was high 
compared to that in T3 but still low compared to T1. So, the crop exposure to high degree of salinity was the least 
in treatment T2, slight in T3, moderate in T4 and maximum in T1; this classification is just a relative grading of 
salinity level. 
4.2 Salinity Effects on Growth Attributes 
Treatment T2 that maintained continuous saturation and the least exposure of the rice crop to high salinity produced 
the tallest plants under most of the salinity levels. However, this treatment is not practically feasible to implement 
at field level since it is difficult to maintain large rice fields continuously saturated without standing water. But, T3 
maintained specific limiting high degrees of salinity exposure to the crop produced significantly (p≤0.05) taller 
plants than in T1 and T4 treatments under high salinity levels (SL3 and SL4). The observed trend in the plant height 
thus implies that the longer the exposure of the crop to high degree of salinity, the less was the plant height. Similar 
trend of salinity effects was also observed in producing total number of tillers and effective tillers of the three rice 
varieties. So, the least exposure of the crop (crop stem) to high degree of salinity (T2), although practically not 
feasible, was the best, and the longest exposure of the crop stem to high degree of salinity (T1) was the poorest 
irrigation–drainage practices. Our observations agree with the findings of El Hasan et al. (2006), Haq et al. (2009) 
and Razzaque et al. (2009), who reported significant suppressing effect of salinity on the number of total tillers 
and effective tillers. In our study, T3 produced the largest number of effective tillers under saline-water irrigation 
(SL2–SL4). Continuous standing saline water without replacement (T1) drastically reduced the number of effective 
tillers under high salinity level (SL4, Table 3). Aguilar et al. (2017) also reported similar result by obtaining reduced 
panicle number under salt-stress due to saline-water irrigation throughout the entire crop season. The three rice 
varieties in our experiment differed in producing the number of effective tillers and plant height; BINA dhan-10 
(V2) produced significantly (p≤0.05) higher number of effective tillers than the other two varieties. This variety 
thus revealed its more salt-tolerant ability than the other two varieties. Less reduction in effective tiller number by 
a salt-tolerant variety was also reported by Akter et al. (2015). 
4.3 Salinity Effects on Yield Attributes and Water productivity 
Generally, salinity caused noticeable reduction in yield attributes (e.g., panicle length, grains per panicle, 1000-
grain weight) and yield of rice in our experiment similar to that reported by other investigators (e.g., WeonYoung 
et al., 2003; Hassan et al., 2012; Hasanuzzaman et al., 2009). But, the crop exposure to large degree of salinity (T1) 
significantly reduced grain yield. Saline water during both the vegetative and reproductive phases was reported to 
adversely affect yield attributes and grain yield due to toxic ion accumulation in the plant cells (Aguilar et al., 
2017). Standing water in the rice field adversely affects fertile tiller number (Zeng et al., 2003). In treatment T2, 
there was no standing water and hence it provided more grain yield than T1 and T2 treatments for different salinity 
levels of irrigation water. But, T3 provided significantly higher yield than the other treatments under all salinity 
levels (Table 7). For the same reason, T3 also provided significantly higher straw yield and above-ground biomass 
yield (straw plus grain yield) than the other treatments under SL3 and SL4. Irrespective of the irrigation–drainage 
practices and salinity levels, BINA dhan-10 (V2) exhibited more salt-tolerant ability by providing significantly 
higher grain, straw and biomass yields than the other two rice varieties. 
The reduced rice yield due to Na+ accumulation in the plant cells of rice grown under saline condition eventually 
reduced water productivity. But, when the duration of salinity exposure of the crop was reduced by irrigation-
drainage practices, water productivity increased due to increase in rice yield. The three tested rice varieties were 
salt tolerant, and they accumulated less Na+ and more K+ than susceptible cultivars (Khan et al., 1997). But, 
increasing salinity level with longer exposure of the crop to salinity enhanced Na+ accumulation with associated 
depletion in K+ content of the rice plants. Consequently, water productivity in our experiment decreased with 
increasing level of salinity and also with increasing duration of crop exposure to salinity. Therefore, considering 
growth and yield attributes and yield of rice, treatment T3 in which applied saline water was replaced after 3 days 
of application and a 2 to 5-cm ponding depth was maintained appeared as the optimum irrigation management 
practice to reduce detrimental effects of salinity on rice production. 
4.4 Practical Context of the Results 
The main purpose of this study was to identify a suitable irrigation–drainage practice for HYV salt-tolerant rice 
cultivation under saline-water irrigation by characterizing the possible irrigation–drainage practices for further 
verification in field conditions with a view to future adoption of the practice in practical fields. For the identified 
suitable irrigation–drainage practice (T3), there remain some important queries, which are: how to flush (2–5 cm) 
saline water from the rice fields, where the flushed water can be disposed of, and what will happen to the 
accumulated salt in the soil of the rice field? These issues need to be worked out before adopting the proposed 



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irrigation–drainage practice for practical application. 
Due to soil salinity, the land usage and cropping intensity in the coastal zone of Bangladesh are low (Rahman & 
Ahsan, 2001). Consequently, there remain large swaths of fallow land in the dry season. To cultivate rice in these 
fallow lands under saline water irrigation, both irrigation and drainage canal networks would be needed, preferably 
for gravity supply (for irrigation) or removal (for drainage) of water. The two different canal network-types can be 
of side-by-side surface system or one or both of them can be of buried pipe systems. Although some additional 
cost will be involved for constructing the drainage canal system, it will bring the fallow land under rice cultivation. 
The saline water expected to be used for irrigating rice crops mostly remains in rivers and channels in the coastal 
zone. The drainage water from the rice fields could be disposed of to these same rivers and channels; the drainage 
water, although of higher salinity than the river/channel water, would not perceptively increase the salinity of the 
water in the rivers and channels because of their large volumes. 
In our lysimeter experiments, the vertical and horizontal movement of salt in the rice plots was not considered, 
and salt from irrigation water continuously accumulated throughout the rice-growing period. Under this situation, 
the amount of salt in the soil was controlled only by the concentration of salt in irrigation water and total irrigation 
amount, thus the soil-salt could not be effectively controlled by the irrigation–drainage management practice. 
However, the practical field conditions would be completely different than the conditions in lysimeter plots in 
regard to salt dynamics in the soil. Due to standing water (and also saturated condition) there will be continuous 
leaching of salt from the rice plots through the percolating water. So, salt accumulation in the soil would be lower 
compared to that in the lysimeter experiments. Furthermore, during the monsoon period (May–September), the 
accumulated salt would leach down with the infiltrating rain water. Salt accumulation in the soil during dry season 
due to capillary rise or saline water irrigation and salt leaching during monsoon is a usual natural salt dynamics in 
the coastal saline zone of Bangladesh. So, the proposed irrigation–drainage practice (T3) in the practical field is 
not expected to require any additional management of soil-salt except occasional monitoring. 
5. Conclusions 
Coupled irrigation–drainage management practices can provide an opportunity to obtain desired yield of HYV 
salt-tolerant rice in areas with scarcity of fresh water and availability of saline water. Apart from selecting salt-
tolerant HYV rice cultivars, an intelligent irrigation and drainage management practice with limited exposure of 
the crop to high salinity can reduce detrimental effects of salinity. Rice fields often lack drainage facility, although 
this is an important component of rice-irrigation management. We evaluated four irrigation–drainage practices in 
reducing salinity effects on rice in lysimeter experiments under controlled conditions. Our observations revealed 
that replacing irrigation water of 9–12 dS m−1 (SL4) salinities after 3 days of application by maintaining a 2−5 cm 
ponding depth for salt-tolerant boro rice significantly (p≤0.05) reduced detrimental effects of salinity in the growth 
and yield of HYV rice cultivars. Although in our lysimeter experiments irrigation-induced soil salinization 
remained in place during the crop period, downward movement of salt through leaching will also be in place in 
practical field conditions. Also there is a long monsoon period (May–September) in Bangladesh during which 
accumulated salt in the soil would leach down with infiltrating rain water. So, practical field experiments in coastal 
areas under fresh-water scarcity and saline water availability are necessary to validate our results and evaluate 
practicability of the practice before adopting it for practical application. One limitation of this study was that it 
was done only in one year because of time constraint since the study was done under a degree program. However, 
the results were obtained under controlled conditions with minimum possible errors and the expected field 
verification of the results would eliminate any discrepancy arising from the single-year observation.  
Conflict of interest 
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. 
Acknowledgments 
This research was supported by the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) under its revenue funded 
in-country PhD scholarship program. The first author held this scholarship and was on deputation from the 
Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Institute (BINA). The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of both 
BARC and BINA. 
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    /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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    /UKR <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>
    /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing.  Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
  >>
  /Namespace [
    (Adobe)
    (Common)
    (1.0)
  ]
  /OtherNamespaces [
    <<
      /AsReaderSpreads false
      /CropImagesToFrames true
      /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
      /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
      /IncludeGuidesGrids false
      /IncludeNonPrinting false
      /IncludeSlug false
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (InDesign)
        (4.0)
      ]
      /OmitPlacedBitmaps false
      /OmitPlacedEPS false
      /OmitPlacedPDF false
      /SimulateOverprint /Legacy
    >>
    <<
      /AddBleedMarks false
      /AddColorBars false
      /AddCropMarks false
      /AddPageInfo false
      /AddRegMarks false
      /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
      /DestinationProfileName ()
      /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /Downsample16BitImages true
      /FlattenerPreset <<
        /PresetSelector /MediumResolution
      >>
      /FormElements false
      /GenerateStructure false
      /IncludeBookmarks false
      /IncludeHyperlinks false
      /IncludeInteractive false
      /IncludeLayers false
      /IncludeProfiles false
      /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (CreativeSuite)
        (2.0)
      ]
      /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /PreserveEditing true
      /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
      /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
      /UseDocumentBleed false
    >>
  ]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
  /HWResolution [2400 2400]
  /PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice

