




































 Agricultural Science; Vol. 2, No. 2; 2020 
ISSN 2690-5396   E-ISSN 2690-4799 

https://doi.org/10.30560/as.v2n2p89 

89                             Published by IDEAS SPREAD 
 

Performance of Wheat in Five Soils of Different Textures under 
Freshwater and Wastewater Irrigation 

Mohammad A. Mojid1, Khadija A. Mousumi1 & Tanvir Ahmed1 

1 Department of Irrigation and Water Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, 
Bangladesh 
Correspondence: Mohammad A. Mojid, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. E-mail: 
ma_mojid@yahoo.com 
 
Received: June 27, 2020   Accepted: July 11, 2020   Online Published: July 29, 2020 
 
Abstract 
This study investigated the effects of five soils of different textures on wheat cultivation under irrigation with 
freshwater (FW) and municipal wastewater (WW). The experimental design was a split-plot with irrigation water 
quality as main factor and soil texture as sub-factor in three replications. These factors respectively comprised 2 
and 5 treatments. Soil texture significantly (p≤0.05) influenced plant height, leaf area index (LAI), spike length, 
number of grains per spike, above ground dry matter (ADM), grain yield, straw yield and biomass yield of wheat 
in most cases both under FW and WW irrigation. The harvest index (HI) of wheat responded significantly under 
FW irrigation only. Under FW, treatment T5 (silt loam) produced the highest grain yield (4.2 t ha–1) followed by 
T3 (loam-1) (3.1 t ha–1); the lowest yield (2.0 t ha–1) was in the control treatment, T1 (loamy sand). Under WW, 
treatment T2 (sandy loam) produced the highest grain yield (5.0 t ha–1) followed by T4 (loam-2) (4.5 t ha–1) both 
of which are statistically similar; the lowest yield (3.4 t ha–1) was in the control treatment. Treatments T2 and T4 
provided the highest straw yield (5.6 t ha–1) and treatment T2 provided the highest biomass yield (10.6 t ha–1), both 
under WW; both T2 and T4 produced invariant biomass yields. Compared to other treatments, T2 and T4 gave 
statistically similar but significantly higher water productivity with respect to straw and grain yields. The lowest 
water productivity was in treatment T1 under both water qualities. The results of this study provided sound criteria 
in selecting suitable lands for wheat cultivation based on irrigation water quality, specifically in alluvial plains 
where soil texture is prone to high variations. Also, the observed facts of improved productivity of lower quality 
coarse-textured soils due to addition of easily available and inexpensive clay would provide guidance to bring 
unproductive sandy soils under production by clay amendments. 
Keywords: soil texture, water quality, cereal crop, yield response, water uptake, water productivity 
1. Introduction 
Irrigation water is becoming scarce with continuous increase in its demand almost everywhere in the world, 
especially in areas with intensive agricultural practices. Therefore, effective ways of water conservation and 
management are of primary importance (Al-Rashed and Sherif, 2000; Rahman et al., 2020). Wastewater (e.g., 
urban wastewater, industrial wastewater) is an unconventional water source, the availability of which is increasing 
over time due to increasing use of water by the growing population (van Rooijen et al., 2005). Under water-scarce 
situations, use of wastewater in irrigation is increasingly getting attention because of its increasing supply together 
with relatively low cost and growing awareness of environmental quality (Mojid et al., 2010). In case of poor 
fertility soils, wastewater is an important source of nutrients for crop production (Kiziloglu et al., 2007; Mojid and 
Wyseure, 2013). However, wastewater irrigation may also be hazardous to environment since it contains pollutants, 
such as macro- and micro-organic and inorganic matters. These constituents of wastewater may harm environment, 
health, soil, aquifer and crops (Feigin et al., 1990; US Environmental Protection Agency, 1992). Disposal of 
urban/municipal wastewater is also a problem of increasing importance throughout the world. Consequently, both 
the necessity to conserve freshwater and to dispose of wastewater safely and economically makes wastewater use 
in agriculture a very feasible option (Wang et al., 2007). Irrigation with municipal wastewater may permit a more 
efficient use of water resources and considerably limit environmental pollution due to its direct disposal into 
surface water bodies. Wastewater irrigation may be a prime solution in the optimization of water resources in 
water-scarce areas (Virto et al., 2006). Peri-urban agriculture with municipal wastewater is an emerging 
agricultural practice in Bangladesh (Mojid et al., 2010) and several other countries in the world. Wastewater reuse 
can reduce fertilizer rates due to its fertilizer contribution in crop production (Tabriz et al., 2011; Biswas et al., 



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2017; Biswas and Mojid, 2018) and thus can provide a low-cost source of irrigation water (Mojid et al., 2012a). 
In many countries, most of the suitable lands have already been brought under agriculture, and cultivation now 
needs spilling over to marginal lands like hilly lands, charlands and other inferior quality lands. For example, the 
agriculture in Bangladesh is now being expanded in the large charland areas (river shores) of the country where 
soils are mostly coarse-textured (e.g., sandy soil). But, soil texture is an important control of water regime and 
nutrient availability for crop production; it influences the physical, chemical and hydraulic properties of soils. 
Sandy soils, characterized by less than 18% clay and more than 68% sand in the top 100 cm of the soil profile, 
occur in every part of the world (van Wambeke, 1992). The productivity of such soils is limited due to their low 
water holding capacities, high infiltration rates, high evaporation, low fertility levels, very low organic matter 
content (Mojid, et al., 2012b), and excessive deep percolation losses. These unfavorable soil properties cause low 
water productivity of the crops cultivated in these soils. Consequently, these soils have not received adequate 
research attention yet although cultivating sandy soils may be a promising intervention to increase food production 
in many developing countries like Bangladesh. A significant proportion of such land has been remaining 
unproductive because of its low fertility. Management of these soils through proper reclamation measures to 
increase crop productivity adds a great deal to interest in a day wherein the available land area for cultivation is 
declining all the time in Bangladesh and many other countries in the world. 
Addition of fine natural deposits, such as clay and bentonite, can increase productivity of sandy soils by eliminating 
or minimizing constraints associated with these soils. This proposition is specifically suitable in areas where these 
amendment materials are available naturally in abundance and inexpensive (Al-Omran et al., 2004). Until now, 
information on the effects of using clay as an amendment for sandy soils on crop yields, specifically wheat yield, 
under wastewater irrigation are not available. However, soil texture is an important factor to be considered in 
wastewater irrigation because soil fertility or soil contamination will depend mainly on soil texture. Therefore, a 
suitable soil texture for irrigated crops is a concern in wastewater irrigation. If wastewater irrigation could be used 
for keeping soil productivity sustainable, it would reduce water deficit, increase the overall crop production and 
thereby provide food security in resource-scarce regions, such as Bangladesh. A comprehensive knowledge of the 
effects of municipal wastewater on the growth and yield of crops in soils of different textures is necessary before 
recommending irrigation with wastewater. This study was planned to investigate the impact of five soils of 
different textures on wheat cultivation under irrigation with municipal wastewater in terms of growth and yield 
attributes of wheat as well as the yield, and to identify suitable soil texture(s) for wheat cultivation under freshwater 
and wastewater irrigation. 
2. Material and Methods 
2.1 Experimental Site 
The experiment was done in the central farm of Bangladesh Agricultural University in Mymensingh, Bangladesh 
(24.75oN latitude, 90.50oE longitude and 18 m a.m.s.l.). The average maximum and minimum air temperatures 
ranged from 22.2oC to 30.0oC and from 10.7oC to 20.0oC, respectively, over the experimental period (November 
through March) in three consecutive cropping seasons (2008–09, 2009–10 and 2010–11). The mean relative 
humidity, pan evaporation and sunshine varied from 74% to 86%, 1.9 mm to 3.9 mm and 4.3 h to 8.4 h, respectively. 
An amount of 53-mm rainfall (i.e., 41 mm and 12 mm in December and February, respectively) was recorded over 
the 2010–11 cropping season with 50.2 mm of effective rainfall. No rainfall occurred over crop cycle in the two 
previous years. 
2.2 Field Plot Preparation 
An area of 14 m × 10 m was divided into 3 strips each of them being split in 2 blocks. The distance between the 
adjacent strips was 2 m and that between the adjacent blocks was 1 m. Each block was split in 5 unit plots of 1 m2 

each. Two adjacent unit plots within a block was 1 m separated. The experimental layout was a split-plot with 10 
irrigation water quality and soil texture treatments in 3 replications that gives a total number of 30 plots. In each 
unit plot, a pit of 60 cm depth and 1 m square area was dug manually with a spade. A polyethylene sheet was 
placed on the four vertical sides of each pit to prevent lateral seepage of water. All the pits were filled with a 
mixture of loamy sand collected from river shore and field soils at different ratio to obtain the five different soil 
textures required in each block (Table 1); this table also contained the average bulk density, saturated hydraulic 
conductivity, organic matter, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of the soils. More details on plot preparation are 
available in the literature (Mojid et al., 2009; Mojid et al., 2012b). 
2.3 Experimental Design and Set-Up 
Three-year historical data involving irrigation experiments were analyzed with the aim to evaluate the interaction 



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effects of soil texture and irrigation water quality on wheat cultivation. The experimental design was a split-plot 
with irrigation water quality as the main factor of two levels and soil texture as sub-factor of 5 levels, which gives 
10 treatments in 3 replications (Fig. 1). The water quality was composed of freshwater (FW) obtained from a deep 
borehole well (I1) and wastewater (WW) from municipal sewage of Mymensingh town (I2). The soil texture 
involved loamy sand (control T1), sandy loam (T2), loam-1 (T3), loam-2 (T4) and silt loam (T5). 
 
Table 1. Percentage of sand, silt and clay, and textural classes, average bulk density (γ), saturated hydraulic 
conductivity (Ksat), organic matter content (OM), electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of the experimental soils 

Treatments % Sand % Silt % Clay Textural 
class 

γ (g cm−3) Ksat 
(cm h−1)

OM 
(%) 

EC 
(S cm−1)

pH

T1 79.48 14.48 6.04 Loamy sand 1.41 27.36 0.39 11.4 5.99
T2 54.48 37.02 8.50 Sandy loam 1.37 1.34 0.99 14.9 5.88
T3 52.72 38.24 9.04 Loam-1 1.38 1.27 0.86 13.3 5.13
T4 41.00 49.00 10.00 Loam-2 1.36 0.67 1.34 34.1 4.88
T5 15.00 72.00 13.00 Silt loam 1.28 0.41 1.47 29.8 6.05

 
Table 2 lists the pertinent chemical constituents of freshwater and wastewater used for irrigating the experimental 
wheat plots. It is noted that the concentrations of boron, iron, potassium, nitrate nitrogen, phosphate phosphorus, 
sodium, lead, copper, zinc and cadmium in wastewater were below their threshold values set by Food and 
Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1992) for safe use in agriculture, except for manganese. Details of the quality 
parameters of Mymensingh sewage are found in Mojid et al. (2010). Recommended fertilizer doses for wheat – 
120 kg N, 32 kg P, 62 kg K, 20 kg S, 3 kg Zn and 1 kg B per hectare in the form of urea, triple super phosphate, 
muriate of potash, gypsum, zinc sulphate and borax, respectively – were used. Two-thirds of urea and the entire 
doses of the other fertilizers were applied as basal dose. The remaining urea was top dressed before applying the 
first irrigation. Wheat seeds (cv. Shatabdi, @ 120 kg ha–1) were sown at 2−3 cm depth in 20-cm apart rows on 6 
December 2008, 6 December 2009 and 24 November 2010. In order to control insect pests, Bavistine (0.9 kg ha–

1) and Ridomil Gold (1 kg ha–1) were sprayed before first irrigation. 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Figure 1. Field layout of the irrigation water quality vs. soil texture experiment executed on the central farm of 

Bangladesh Agricultural University in Mymensingh, Bangladesh 
 

 

 



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Table 2. Chemical constituents of freshwater (FW) and wastewater (WW) used for irrigation of experimental plots 
of wheat at Bangladesh Agricultural University farm, Mymensingh 

Water 
type 

Chemical constituents (mg L–1, dS m–1 for EC) 
TN P K EC pH 

FW 1.52 ± 0.03 0.039 ± 0.005 2.35 ± 0.04 0.385 ± 0.017 7.08 ± 0.03 
WW 18.39 ± 2.4 4.28 ± 0.64 13.59 ± 1.25 1.049 ± 0.078 7.33 ± 0.12 

 
2.4 Data Recording 
Irrigation was scheduled based on crop-water requirement and observation of soil moisture condition. Because of 
lighter texture, total four irrigations were applied to treatments T1 (loamy sand), T2 (sandy loam) and T3 (loam-1) 
compared to treatments T4 (loam-2) and T5 (silt loam) in which total three irrigations were applied. Soil moisture 
was measured in the plots with a digital soil-moisture meter (DSMM, General Tools and Instruments) before 
applying irrigation. Leaf area index (LAI) was determined at 75 days after sowing (DAS) on five representative 
plants collected from each plot with an LI-3100 AREA METER (LI-Cor. Inc. Lincoln. Nebraska, USA). Total 
area covered by all five plants was calculated from the planting density. By definition, the LAI was calculated as 
the ratio of leaf area to the covering ground area. The above ground dry matter (ADM) of the crop was also 
determined at 75 DAS by collecting five representative plants from each plot. The plants were oven-dried at 60oC 
in 72 h and weighed to determine the ADM. The crop was harvested when the spikes were completely ripened. 
The harvested crop of each plot was bundled separately and tagged. In order to assess the change in soil moisture 
status during the growing season, the soil-moisture content of each plot was measured immediately after harvesting. 
Soil-moisture content data, recorded over time, were used to estimate water used by the crop during the growing 
season. After harvest, different crop attributes, such as the number of total tillers, effective and non-bearing tillers, 
plant height, spike length, spikelets per spike and grains per spike for each plot were counted. Plant materials were 
then air-dried. Threshing, cleaning and drying of grains and straws of each plot were done carefully, grain and 
straw yields being recorded separately. The harvest index (HI) of wheat was determined by the ratio of grain yield 
to total biomass yield (grain plus straw yield). The water productivity of wheat, defined as the ratio of yield to total 
amount of water used, was determined both for grain and biomass yields. Root development of wheat in different 
treatments was measured at the end of the growing season. Just after harvest, roots over three different soil depths 
(0–15, 15–30 and 30–45 cm) were collected separately by sampling soil columns with a representative area of the 
soil surface. Roots were obtained after careful soil-washing through a plastic net. They were successively air-dried 
and oven-dried at 60oC in 72 h to obtain their mass. The root-density was calculated by dividing the root dry weight 
by the covering area. The analysis of variance of data obtained was done by using Statistix 10 software package 
of Analytical Software (2019). Comparison of means of the plant attributes among the factors and treatments was 
done using Tukey’s HSD test at 5% level of significance (p ≤0.05). 
3. Results and Discussion 
3.1 Growth Attributes of Wheat 
Quality of irrigation water affected the plant height, leaf area index, above-ground dry matter and root-density at 
different depths significantly (p <0.05) except root density at 30–45 cm soil layer (Table 3). WW (I2) produced 
significantly taller plants and greater LAI and ADM than FW (I1), which produced greater root-density than WW. 
Texture of the soils did not influence plant height and LAI significantly (p ≤0.05) except treatment T1 (Loamy 
sand, Table 1), which produced significantly shorter plant and smaller LAI than the other treatments (Table 3). 
Treatment T3 (Loam-1, Table 1) produced the tallest plants (84.6 cm) and T4 (Loam-2) produced the shortest plants 
(82.9 cm). Treatment T5 (Silt loam) produced the highest LAI and T1 produced the least LAI; in general, LAI 
increased with the increase in clay content of the soils. Lower saturated hydraulic conductivity of the amended 
soils (T2–T5) than the control treatment (T1) (Table 1) reduced percolation losses of water in the amended 
treatments. The reduced percolation loss augmented soil-water and nutrient retention with a consequent increase 
in soil fertility, which enhanced the growth of wheat leaves and, consequently, caused increase in LAI. ADM of 
wheat increased significantly as texture of the soils became finer except treatment T5, which produced significantly 
higher ADM than treatment T1 but lower ADM than the other treatments. 
Soil texture significantly influenced root-growth at the top 0–15 cm soil layer; the coarser the texture the higher 
was the root-density. Most of the roots were obtained in the top 0–15 cm soil layer; only small fractions of roots 
were in the lower layers. Soil texture exerted only minimal influence on root-growth at the lower soil layers. The 
topsoil retained most of the nutrients both from the applied fertilizers and WW and promoted more extensive 
growth of roots in the upper soil profile compared to the lower one (Table 3). Increased root growth with increasing 



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fertilizer was also reported by Li et al. (2004). The three coarser-textured soils (T1, T2 and T3) provided 
significantly higher root-density compared to the two finer-textured soils (T4 and T5) (Table 3). Lesser amount of 
irrigation water could be applied in coarser-textured soils with a quicker water loss through percolation and 
evaporation compared to the finer-textured soils. Consequently, plants in coarse-textured soil (e.g., T1) generally 
suffered from water stress for a while before each irrigation application. Although irrigation was scheduled based 
on soil-water status, the allowable soil-water deficit was higher in coarse-textured soils compared to that in fine-
textured soils. The extensive root system helped the plants to take up more water and nutrients from the soil than 
did the narrow root system. The plants thus compensated, to some extent, water deficit by increasing water-uptake 
through additional rooting in coarse-textured soils. 
The interaction effects of irrigation water quality and soil texture were significant on the growth attributes in most 
cases except for the root-density at two lower soil layers, 15–3 cm and 30–45 cm (Table 3). The plant height ranged 
from 75.7 cm (I1T1) to 89.7 cm (I2T2) among different (10) combinations of irrigation water quality and soil texture. 
Only a few treatment combinations exerted significant effect on LAI. The highest LAI was obtained in T2 under 
FW irrigation (3.6) and in T5 under WW irrigation (2.7) and the overall lowest LAI in T1 under WW irrigation 
(1.2). These observations in LAI are in agreement with the findings of Mojid et al. (2012c) who obtained leveling-
effects of irrigation water quality when it contained more than 75% WW; the influence of WW on LAI reached a 
plateau when irrigation was applied entirely with WW (Fig.5 in Mojid et al., 2012c). The leveling-off of irrigation 
on LAI occurred due to over-fertilization of wheat with recommended fertilizer doses in combination with fertilizer 
contribution of WW in their experiments. This effect also occurred in our study in the plots irrigated with WW; 
with recommended fertilizer doses and fertilizer contribution from WW the plots provide smaller LAI than those 
under FW irrigation. Most treatment combinations exerted significant effect on ADM. The smallest ADM was in 
I1T1 and largest ADM in I2T4. Table 3 demonstrates that WW contributed more in increasing plant height and 
ADM than FW in all five soil textures. The textural effects on plant height and ADM were more systematic under 
FW than under WW; in general, the coarser the soil the smaller were these plant attributes. The trend of root-
growth in the top soil layer in relation to irrigation water quality was opposite to that of plant height and ADM. 
FW in combination with the soil textures produced more roots compared to the combination of WW and soil 
textures. The interaction of irrigation water quality and soil texture did not reveal any systematic textural effect on 
root density. Since the root density in the entire root zone was dominated by that in the top layer, the interaction 
effect of irrigation water quality and soil texture was also similar to that in the top soil layer. 
 
Table 3. Quantity of applied irrigation, average plant height, leaf area index (LAI), above-ground dry matter (ADM) 
and root density of wheat as influenced by irrigation water quality, soil texture and their interaction over three 
cropping seasons in Mymensingh, Bangladesh 

Treatment Irrigation 
(cm) 

Plant 
height 
(cm) 

LAI at 75 
DAS 

ADM at 
75 DAS

Root density (kg m–2) at depth 
0−15 
(cm) 

15−30 
(cm) 

30−45 
(cm) 

0−45 
(cm) 

 Irrigation 
I1 (FW) – 80.5a 1.84a 3.3a 0.44a 0.11a 0.04a 0.58a 
I2 (WW) – 85.0b 2.92b 6.0b 0.31b 0.07b 0.04a 0.42b 

Soil texture 
T1 22.7 79.1a 1.72a 3.6d 0.41a 0.10a 0.04a 0.55a 
T2 20.7 84.2b 2.46b 4.6bc 0.39ab 0.11a 0.05a 0.54a 
T3 18.2 84.6b 2.37b 5.2ab 0.39ab 0.09a 0.04a 0.52ab 
T4 15.0 82.9b 2.61b 5.5a 0.35bc 0.08ab 0.04a 0.48b 
T5 13.8 82.9b 2.74b 4.3cd 0.31c 0.06b 0.04a 0.41c 

Irrigation × Soil texture 
I1T1 22.7 75.7e 2.3bc 1.9f 0.46ab 0.13a 0.04a 0.63bc 
I1T2 20.7 78.7de 3.6c 2.5ef 0.52a 0.13a 0.04a 0.69c 
I1T3 18.2 82.2bcd 2.6bc 4.3cd 0.45bc 0.1ab 0.04a 0.58ab 
I1T4 15.0 80.7cd 3.4c 3.6de 0.43bc 0.1ab 0.04a 0.58ab 
I1T5 13.8 85.1abc 2.8c 3.9d 0.31de 0.06b 0.04a 0.42a 
I2T1 22.7 82.6bcd 1.2a 5.2cd 0.35bcd 0.08ab 0.05a 0.48ab 



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I2T2 20.7 89.7a 1.3a 6.8ab 0.26e 0.08ab 0.06a 0.39a 
I2T3 18.2 86.9ab 2.2bc 6.0bc 0.32bcde 0.09ab 0.05a 0.46ab 
I2T4 15.0 85bc 1.9ab 7.3a 0.27e 0.07b 0.04a 0.38a 
I2T5 13.8 80.7cde 2.7c 4.8cd 0.32cde 0.06b 0.03a 0.41a 

Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance. D.f. regarding 
the split-plot design: Erro1 = 2; Interaction Factor 1 x Factor 2: 4; Error 2: 16. Total 53-mm rainfall (41 mm in 
December and 12 mm in February) occurred in 2010–11 cropping season; no rainfall occurred over crop cycles in 
the two previous years. 
 
Addition of even a small quantity of amendment (as in T2) remarkably improved soil-water retention; the rate of 
this improvement, however, decreased with further increase in amendment. Reduced evaporation rate due to higher 
water-holding capacity of clay than sand also helped increasing soil-water content in the amended treatments. The 
water content at field capacity increased with increasing clay content of the treatments following a strong linear 
relation (r2 = 0.93). The amendment helped increasing the field capacity by 78%, 80% and 91% in treatment T2, 
T3 and T4, respectively compared to T1 (Mojid et al., 2012b). The WW contained N, P and K at concentration of 
17.5 mg L−1, 3.7 mg L−1 and 10.3 mg L−1, respectively and added these nutrients to the irrigated soils and elevated 
their fertility. Increased nutrients (e.g., N, P, K) in WW compared to FW improved fertility of the soils under 
irrigation with WW and enhanced vegetative growth of wheat with the consequent increase in plant height, LAI 
and ADM of the crop (Table 3). However, the elevated quantity of available water associated with more nutrient 
retention in finer-textured soils generally enhanced crop growth attributes more compared to that of the coarse-
textured soils. 
3.2 Yield Attributes of Wheat 
Irrigation water quality influenced significantly the yield attributes of wheat, such as spike density, spike length, 
spikelets per spike and grains per spike, with WW producing more spikes per unit area, longer spike, more spikelets 
per spike and more grains per spike (Table 4). The weight of 1000 grains of wheat remained unaffected by 
irrigation water quality. Soil texture exerted significant influence on spikes per square meter and spike length for 
most treatments and on spikelets per spike and 1000-grain weight for a few treatments; grains per spike remained 
unaffected by the soil textures. Table 4 demonstrates that all the yield attributes improved as texture of the soils 
became finer. Poor nutrient availability and water-retention capacity of loamy sand (T1) and sandy loam (T2) 
compared to the other soil textures suppressed the yield attributes in these treatments. 
 
Table 4. Quantity of applied irrigation, average number of spikes per square meter, spike length, spikelets per 
spike, grains per spike and 1000-grain weight of wheat as influenced by irrigation water quality, soil texture and 
their interaction over three cropping seasons in Mymensingh, Bangladesh 

Treatment Irrigation 
(cm) 

Spikes 
(m–2)

Spike length 
(cm)

Spikelets 
(spike–1)

Grains 
(spike–1)

1000-grain 
weight (g)

 Irrigation 
I1 (FW) – 208.5a 12.9a 15.7a 36.8a 47.9a 
I2 (WW) – 267.3b 13.5b 16.8b 39.2b 47.4a 

 Soil texture 
T1 22.7 199.2c 12.7b 15.1b 36.3a 46.6b 
T2 20.7 243.2ab 13.2ab 16.0ab 37.1a 46.2b 
T3 18.2 235.8b 13.5a 16.7a 38.9a 49.8a 
T4 15.0 248.6ab 13.2ab 16.6a 39.1a 47.5b 
T5 13.8 262.6a 13.5a 16.8a 38.7a 47.9ab 

Irrigation × Soil texture 
I1T1 22.7 177.0a 12.3ab 14.6c 33.6de 44.5a 
I1T2 20.7 195.9ab 12.5ab 14.2c 33.1e 46.5abc 
I1T3 18.2 221.7bcd 13.3bc 17.3ab 39.4abc 49.4bc 
I1T4 15.0 199.2ab 12.8ab 15.4bc 36.4bcde 49.1bc 
I1T5 13.8 248.6cde 13.8c 17.3ab 41.5ab 47.3abc 
I2T1 22.7 221.3abc 13.0abc 15.6bc 39.0abc 48.7abc 



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I2T2 20.7 290.6e 13.9c 17.9a 41.1abc 46.0ab 
I2T3 18.2 249.9cde 13.7bc 16.2abc 38.4abcd 50.3c 
I2T4 15.0 298.0e 13.6bc 17.9a 41.9a 45.9ab 
I2T5 13.8 276.6de 13.1abc 16.4abc 35.9cde 48.6abc 

Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance. D.f. regarding 
the split-plot design: Erro1 = 2; Interaction Factor 1 x Factor 2: 4; Error 2: 16. 
 
The interaction effects of irrigation water quality and soil texture on the yield attributes of wheat were significant 
for most treatment combinations (Table 4). FW in combination with loamy sand (I1T1) and sandy loam (I1T2) 
produced the poorest yield attributes, while WW in combination with loam-2 (I2T4) produced the most improved 
spikes per square meter, spikelets per spike and grains per spike. The longest spike was obtained in I2T2 treatment 
combination, which produced statistically similar spike length to I2T3, I2T4 and I2T5 treatment combinations. The 
1000-grain weight was the highest in I2T3. WW in combination with the five soil textural treatments provided more 
improved yield attributes of wheat compared to FW in combination with the soil treatment, further implying that 
WW contributed more in improving the yield attributes compared to FW. Table 4 also demonstrates that the yield 
attributes generally continued increasing as the texture of the soil became finer under irrigation with FW; however, 
such trend was not evident under irrigation with WW. These results revealed that under FW irrigation and 
recommended fertilizer doses the overall fertility levels of the soil textural treatments did not reach their possible 
maximum limits in all treatments for fertilizing wheat. Although irrigation with WW contributed increasingly on 
the growth attributes of wheat as soil texture became finer, it did not contributed in the same way on the yield 
attributes. 
3.3 Yield and Harvest Index of Wheat 
As given in Table 5, irrigation water quality influenced significantly wheat traits like grain yield, straw yield and 
biomass yield; harvest index remained unaffected. Irrigation with WW improved these wheat traits irrespective of 
soil textural differences. The effect of soil texture was statistically similar on these traits of the crop except 
treatment T1 (loamy sand, Table 1), which produced significantly lower grain, straw and biomass yields compared 
to the other treatments (T2–T5). However, these three yield measures of wheat increased with the increase of clay 
content in the treatments. The field soil (T5) contained four times higher organic carbon (0.85%) than the control 
(T1). Consequently, the amendment considerably elevated organic carbon (hence organic matter) in treatments T2, 
T3 and T4 compared to T1. Poor yields in T1 could be explained by lower organic matter, other nutrients (N, P and 
K) and water contents in this treatment. Reduced wheat yield under lower soil-water content was also reported by 
Simsek et al. (2005). 
 
Table 5. Quantity of applied irrigation, average grain, straw and biomass yields, harvest index (HI), and water 
productivity resulting from grain (WPg) and biomass yields (WPb) as influenced by irrigation water quality, soil 
texture and their interaction over three cropping seasons in Mymensingh, Bangladesh 

Treatment Irrigation 
(cm) 

Grain yield 
(t ha–1) 

Straw yield
(t ha–1) 

Biomass yield
(t ha–1) 

HI 
(-) 

WPg 
(kg m–3) 

WPb 
(kg m–3) 

Irrigation 
I1 (FW) – 2.88a 3.61a 6.48a 0.44a 1.25a 2.84a 
I2 (WW) – 4.12b 4.83b 8.95b 0.46a 2.28b 4.99b 

Soil texture 
T1 22.7 2.70a 3.31a 6.02a 0.44a 1.20c 2.75a 
T2 20.7 3.66b 4.44b 8.10b 0.44a 1.84ab 4.05b 
T3 18.2 3.47b 4.16b 7.62b 0.45a 1.68b 3.78b 
T4 15.0 3.72b 4.54b 8.26b 0.46a 1.99ab 4.45b 
T5 13.8 3.94b 4.64b 8.59b 0.46a 2.11a 4.55b 

Irrigation × Soil texture 
I1T1 22.7 2.0f 2.8f 4.7e 0.42ab 0.8f 1.94f 
I1T2 20.7 2.3ef 3.3ef 5.6de 0.41b 0.9ef 2.28f 
I1T3 18.2 3.1de 4.0cde 7.0cd 0.44ab 1.3de 3.04def 
I1T4 15.0 2.9def 3.4def 6.3de 0.46ab 1.2ef 2.79ef 



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I1T5 13.8 4.2abc 4.6bcd 8.7bc 0.47a 2.0cd 4.16bcd 
I2T1 22.7 3.4cde 3.9cde 7.3cd 0.47ab 1.6de 3.55cde 
I2T2 20.7 5.0a 5.6ab 10.6a 0.47ab 2.8a 5.82a 
I2T3 18.2 3.8bcd 4.4cd 8.2c 0.47ab 2.0cd 4.51bc 
I2T4 15.0 4.5ab 4.7abc 10.2ab 0.45ab 2.7ab 6.12a 
I2T5 13.8 3.7bcd 5.6a 8.4bc 0.45ab 2.2bc 4.94ab 

Common letter(s) within the same column do not differ significantly at 5% level of significance. D.f. regarding 
the split-plot design: Erro1 = 2; Interaction Factor 1 x Factor 2: 4; Error 2: 16. 
 
The interaction effect of irrigation and soil texture under recommended fertilizer dose was more favorable for 
wheat yields (grain, straw and biomass yields) when irrigation was done with WW compared to irrigation with 
FW. Irrigation with WW produced greater grain, straw and biomass yields in the corresponding soil treatments 
when compared with irrigation with FW (Table 5). Harvest index, HI, remained mostly unaffected by the 
interaction effect of irrigation water quality and soil texture. Like yield attributes, FW in combination with loamy 
sand (I1T1) produced the lowest yields of wheat that were similar to the yields under the combination of FW and 
sandy loam (I1T2) but significantly lower than the yields of other treatment combinations. Treatments T3, T4 and 
T5 produced statistically similar grain and straw yields under FW irrigation. Inadequate soil water along with 
reduced nutrient in T1 retarded physiological processes in the plants and consequently reduced the crop yields. 
Under FW irrigation, the grain, straw and biomass yields increased as the texture of the soil became finer except 
the treatment combination I1T4, which produced lower yields than the treatment combination I1T3. The enhanced 
vegetative growth in terms of plant height and number of tillers per plant in the amended treatments increased 
straw yield that, in turn, together with yield attributes, improved the biomass yield. The amendment, however, did 
not systematically influence the harvest index of wheat. Irrigation with FW in combination with recommended 
fertilizer dose produced the most improved yield of wheat in silt loam (T5), thus revealing that this soil texture is 
the most suitable for wheat cultivation under recommended fertilizer doze and irrigation with FW. The interaction 
effect of irrigation with WW and soil texture on the yields of wheat had no systematic trend with the texture of the 
soils except that the treatment combination I2T1 produced the lowest yields, which were significantly lower than 
the yields of other treatment combinations. The highest grain yield was obtained in treatment combination I2T2, 
straw yield in I2T2 and I2T5, and biomass yield in I2T4. The enhanced vegetative growth due to increased soil-water 
content augmented straw yield, which, together with yield attributing characters, improved the biomass yield. 
Under WW irrigation, soil texture minimally influenced the HI of wheat. These results again revealed that, under 
FW irrigation and recommended fertilizer doses, the overall fertility levels of the soil textural treatments did not 
reach their maximum limits in all treatments for wheat growth, while the fertility levels under irrigation with WW 
might reach or even exceeded the maximum limits except in the most light-textured soil (T1). These results are in 
agreement with the findings of Mojid et al. (2012c) who obtained suppressed grain yield of wheat when the applied 
irrigation comprised over 75% WW and recommended fertilizer dose was applied. 
3.4 Water Productivity of Wheat 
Irrigation water quality influenced significantly water productivity of wheat related to grain and biomass yields, 
with WW providing significantly greater water productivity compared to FW (Table 5). Both water productivity 
data increased as soil texture became finer since the treatments with high clay content consumed small amount of 
water. Similar findings were reported by Ismail and Ozawa (2007). Particularly, treatments T2 to T5 saved 30% to 
60% irrigation water compared to treatment T1. Irrespective of water quality, loamy sand (T1) provided the least 
water productivities of wheat and silt loam (T5) provided the greatest values. Both water productivities were 
significantly lower in T1 treatment than in the other soil treatments. In terms of water productivity related to grain 
yield, treatment T5 performed best; this performance was however statistically similar to that of T4. In terms of 
water productivity related to biomass yield, the best-performing treatment was also T5, whose performance was 
similar to that of treatments T2, T3 and T4. 
Soil texture exerted varying degrees of influence on the two water productivity data in different combinations of 
irrigation water quality and soil texture. WW in combination with soil textures provided higher water productivities 
related to both grain and biomass yields compared to the corresponding treatment combinations of FW and soil 
textures. Loamy sand (T1) in combination with irrigation with FW (I1T1) produced the least water productivities, 
while silt loam (T5) with FW irrigation (I1T5) produced the greatest water productivities. Under FW irrigation, 
both water productivity data increased as the texture of the soil became finer except treatment T4, which provided 
statistically similar but lower water productivities compared to treatment T3. The highest water productivity for 



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grain production in T5 revealed that wheat, cultivated under irrigation with FW in combination with the 
recommended fertilizer doses, most effectively utilized water in grain production. Thus, clay helped conserving 
soil water and nutrients by improving soil structure that contributed increasing growth and water productivity of 
wheat. The control treatment always provided the lowest water productivity since irrigation requirement and, hence, 
total water used in a plot increased with the decreasing clay content of the plot. Under WW irrigation, the treatment 
combination I2T1 provided the least water productivities, which were significantly lower than that under the other 
treatment combinations. The treatment combination I2T2 provided the most improved water productivity related 
to grain yield and I2T4 provided such water productivity related to biomass yield. The interaction effects of 
irrigation with WW and soil texture did not reveal any systematic trend in relation to textural variations except the 
loamy sand (T1), which provided the least water productivity data. 
4. Conclusions 
Addition of small quantities of clay (2.4–4.0%) through silt loam transformed loamy sand to sandy loam and loam. 
This amendment improved soil structure, reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity (by reducing the macro pores) 
of the soil, and increased soil-water and nutrient contents. Consequently, irrigation water quality contributed to 
wheat cultivation differently following soil texture. Soil-water and organic-matter contents of fine-textured soils 
were much higher than that of loamy sand. In terms of grain, straw and biomass yields, sandy loam and loam-2 
performed the best with high water productivity followed by silt loam irrespective of irrigation water quality; 
loamy sand performed the least. The least water productivity was obtained in loamy sand while the amended soils 
could save 30% to 60% of irrigation water. Among the five soil textures, sandy loam and loam appeared the most 
suitable soil textures for wheat cultivation since they produced more grain and biomass yields compared to loamy 
sand. The results of this study thus provide information in selecting lands with suitable soil texture for wheat 
cultivation, specifically in alluvial plains where soil texture varies widely. However, the essence of this study is 
that amendment of lower quality coarse-textured soils by adding naturally available and inexpensive clay could 
improve crop productivity through better water regimes and higher nutrient content. 
Conflict of interest 
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. 
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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
 
 
















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    /HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke.  Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.)
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    /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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    /TUR <FEFF005900fc006b00730065006b0020006b0061006c006900740065006c0069002000f6006e002000790061007a006401310072006d00610020006200610073006b013100730131006e006100200065006e0020006900790069002000750079006100620069006c006500630065006b002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002000620065006c00670065006c0065007200690020006f006c0075015f007400750072006d0061006b0020006900e70069006e00200062007500200061007900610072006c0061007201310020006b0075006c006c0061006e0131006e002e00200020004f006c0075015f0074007500720075006c0061006e0020005000440046002000620065006c00670065006c0065007200690020004100630072006f006200610074002000760065002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200076006500200073006f006e0072006100730131006e00640061006b00690020007300fc007200fc006d006c00650072006c00650020006100e70131006c006100620069006c00690072002e>
    /UKR <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>
    /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing.  Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
  >>
  /Namespace [
    (Adobe)
    (Common)
    (1.0)
  ]
  /OtherNamespaces [
    <<
      /AsReaderSpreads false
      /CropImagesToFrames true
      /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
      /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
      /IncludeGuidesGrids false
      /IncludeNonPrinting false
      /IncludeSlug false
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (InDesign)
        (4.0)
      ]
      /OmitPlacedBitmaps false
      /OmitPlacedEPS false
      /OmitPlacedPDF false
      /SimulateOverprint /Legacy
    >>
    <<
      /AddBleedMarks false
      /AddColorBars false
      /AddCropMarks false
      /AddPageInfo false
      /AddRegMarks false
      /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
      /DestinationProfileName ()
      /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /Downsample16BitImages true
      /FlattenerPreset <<
        /PresetSelector /MediumResolution
      >>
      /FormElements false
      /GenerateStructure false
      /IncludeBookmarks false
      /IncludeHyperlinks false
      /IncludeInteractive false
      /IncludeLayers false
      /IncludeProfiles false
      /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
      /Namespace [
        (Adobe)
        (CreativeSuite)
        (2.0)
      ]
      /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
      /PreserveEditing true
      /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
      /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
      /UseDocumentBleed false
    >>
  ]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
  /HWResolution [2400 2400]
  /PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice

