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Agriculture and Food Sciences Research 
Vol. 6, No. 1, 120-126, 2019 

ISSN(E) 2411-6653/ ISSN(P) 2518-0193 
DOI: 10.20448/journal.512.2019.61.120.126 

© 2019 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

    
 

 

 
 
 
Sustainability of Climate Change Adaptation Measures in South-South, Nigeria 

 
Osuji, E. E.1   
Okwara, M. O.2 
Essien, U. A.3 
Agu, C. G.4 
Oguegbuchulam, M. N.5 

 
( Corresponding Author) 

 
1Department of Agricultural Economics, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Nigeria. 

 
2 3,Department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. 

 
4Department of Cooperative Economics and Management, Institute of Management and Technology Enugu, 
Nigeria. 

 
5Department of Agricultural Extension and Management, Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri, Nigeria. 

 
   

Abstract 
The rampaging effects of climate change on Nigeria agriculture cannot be totally undermined, 
hence, the sustainability of climate change adaptation measures in South-South, Nigeria. A multi-
stage sampling technique was used to select 142 farmers who were interviewed to elicit 
information bordering on climate change in the area. Data were analyzed using descriptive 
statistics, ordinary least square multiple regression technique and the scaling model. Results 
showed that the socio-economic factors investigated influenced the decisiveness of the farmers in 
embracing adaptive strategies to checkmate the overindulgence of climatic variations in the area. 
Age of the farmers, educational level, household size, farming experience, farm size, extension 
contacts were all positive and significant factors. Result also shows that there is increasing rate of 
temperature, rainfall volume, sunshine hours and number of rainy days and decreasing rate of 
light intensity and wind. The adaptation techniques of the farmers were classified into highly 
sustainable adaptation strategies which include; use of pest and disease resistant varieties, use of 
organic fertilizers, tree planting, early information seeking on climate change etc and slightly 
sustainable; planting of different crop varieties, mulching, mixed cropping, etc. All the farmers in 
the area perceived inadequate capital as a major constraint in coping with climate change effects. 
Hence, this study recommends government all levels to sensitize the crop farmers on the 
devastating effects of climate change on agriculture as well as provide supports where necessary 
to cushion its negative impacts. 

 
Keywords: Agriculture, Adaptation, Climate change, Mitigation, Sustainability, Variability, Farmers’ perception, Mean scores, OLS 
regression, Nigeria 

 
Citation | Osuji, E. E.; Okwara, M. O.; Essien, U. A.; Agu, C. G.; 
Oguegbuchulam, M. N. (2019). Sustainability of Climate Change 
Adaptation Measures in South-South, Nigeria. Agriculture and Food 
Sciences Research, 6(1): 120-126. 
History:  
Received: 12 March 2019 
Revised: 8 April 2019 
Accepted: 14 May 2019 
Published: 4 July 2019 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 3.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Contribution/Acknowledgement: All authors contributed to the conception 
and design of the study. 
Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of 
interests. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, 
accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital 
features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the 
study as planned have been explained. 
Ethical: This study follows all ethical practices during writing.   

 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 121 
2. Materials and Methods ................................................................................................................................................................. 121 
3. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 122 
4. Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................. 126 
References ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 126 
 
 

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Contribution of this paper to the literature 
This paper affirmed the adaptation measures of crop farmers’ to climate change variability using 
sustainable procedures which enhances farm outputs, yields and productivity, hence ensuring food 
security and improved income of the crop farmers in Nigeria.    

 
1. Introduction 

In recent time, climate change is notably one of the major challenges confronting Nigeria Agriculture. Its 
impacts have been felt both at the national, regional, and local levels.Nigeria is currently under pressure from 
climate change stresses and its adverse consequences. Many areas in South-South region of Nigeria are recognized 
as having climates that are among the most variable in the world on seasonal time scales [1]. Floods and droughts 
occur in these areas times without number leading to famine, hunger and widespread disruption of socio-economic 
well-being. Nigeria agriculture is largely weather-sensitive and particularly vulnerable to climate change [1]. This 
vulnerability has been demonstrated by the devastating effects of recent flooding in the South-South region of the 
Country and the various prolonged droughts that are currently witnessed in some parts of Northern region. 
Moreover, the over exploitation of land resources (forests), desertification, land degradation and increase in 
population pose additional threats to climatic variations and changes in Nigeria [2].Thus, understanding farmers’ 
responses to this climatic variation is very crucial as this will help in designing appropriate sustainable and coping 
strategies to ameliorate this ugly climatic trend. Also the spatial and erratic rainfall and temperature distribution 
patterns being experienced in the South-South region of Nigeria have influenced the farm productivity of the 
farmers leading to loss of food crops, income, low outputs, etc, thereby increasing food insecurity in the region [3]. 
Conventional approaches to understanding climate change were restricted to identifying and quantifying the 
potential long-term climate impacts on different ecosystems and economic sectors. Although, essential in depicting 
general trends and dynamic interactions between the atmosphere, biosphere, land, oceans and ice. Literatures have 
shown that science driven approach has failed to address the regional and local impacts of climate change and the 
farmers’ abilities to adapt to climate-induced changes [4]. Though, this impact-driven approachhashelped in 
assessing past and present current vulnerability, existing sustainable adaptation strategies, and how these might be 
modified to suit recent climatic trend. Adaptation to climate change is a new process for both developed and 
developing nations and concrete experience in applying an integrated approach to adaptation is limited [5]. 
Adaptation is a process through which societies make themselves able to cope with future uncertainties. Adapting 
to climate change entails taking the right measures to reduce the negative effects of climate change (or exploit the 
positive ones) by making the appropriate adjustments and changes. However, sustainable adaptation measures in 
South-South region of Nigeria range from technological options such as improved farming methods, timely 
cultivations and reducing usage of water during drought seasons. Other strategies include early warning systems 
for extreme events, better water management, improved risk management, various insurance options and 
biodiversity conservation. Considering the speed at which climate is changing due to global temperature rise, it is 
obvious that the vulnerability of developing countries to climate change is increasing and their capacity to adapt 
has also increased [6]. Both mitigation and adaptation measures must be seriously pursued to tackle the climate 
change problem and to create an effective and inclusive international climate change regime. Sensitivity to the issue 
of adaptation has grown over the last couple of years, particularly after the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on 
Climate Change) and TAR (Third Assessment Report) [7]. Adaptation has now emerged as an urgent policy 
priority, prompting action both within and outside the climate change negotiations [8]. Adaptation calls for 
natural resource management, buttressing food security, development of social and human capital and 
strengthening of institutional systems. Such processes, besides building resilience of farmers, communities, regions 
and countries to all shocks and stresses, including climate variability and changes are good development practice in 
themselves. However, the risks associated with climate change call for a broad spectrum of policy responses and 
strategies at the local, regional, national and global level. Hence the essence of this study which seeks to examine 
the sustainability of climate change adaptation measures in South-South, Nigeria. 
 

2. Materials and Methods 
This study was carried out in Rivers State, Nigeria due to the devastating effects of climate change in the area. 

It has a total land mass of 11,077 Sq km and is located on latitudes 40 32’ and 50 53’ North and longitudes 70 25’ 
and 80 25’ east of the equator. It is bounded on the South by the Atlantic Ocean, to the North by Imo and Abia 
States, to the East by AkwaIbom State and to the West by Bayelsa and Delta and States. The inland part of Rivers 
State consists of tropical rainforest; towards the coast the typical Niger Delta environment features many 
mangrove swamps. Temperature range is between 23-31ºC and vegetation found in the State includes the saline 
water swamp, mangrove swamp and the rain forest. Major seasons are the dry (November-February) and wet 
seasons (October – March). The climatic and soil condition of the study area favour the extensive production of 
various food crops such as yam, cassava, maize, vegetables plantains and cocoyam. Multistage sampling technique 
was used to select two Local Government Areas each out of the three senatorial zones of the State. Three 
Communities were picked from each of the selected Local Government Areas hence; ten registered crop farmers 
were randomly selected from the various Communities giving a sample size of 180 farmers. Questionnaire, in-depth 
scheduled interviews and direct personal field interactions were used to extract information from the respondents 
but after sorting out the data instruments, only 142 questionnaires were found useful for data analysis. Data were 
analyzed using descriptive statistics such as the (mean, frequency counts, relative frequency), ordinary least square 
multiple regression technique as well as the scaling model. In this study, 4 functional forms were fitted into the 
Ordinary Least Square Multiple Regression Model expressed as follows; 

eqn. (1) 
Linear function 

 eqn. (2) 



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Semi-log function 

 eqn. (3) 
Double- log function 

 eqn. (4) 
Exponential function 

 eqn. (5) 
Where; 
Y = ith ratio of adaptation strategies/techniques of farmers’  
X1 = Age (years) 

X2 = Gender (Male=1; Female=0) 
X3 = Marital status (Married=1; Single=0) 

X4 = Household size (number of pesons)  
X5 = Level of education (years spent in school) 

X6 = Farming experience (years) 

X7 = Farm size (hectare) 

X8 = Extension contacts (number of contacts) 
e = Error term 
 

3. Results and Discussion 
3.1. Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change 

Table 1; below shows the socio-economic factors influencing adaptation of farmers to climate change. Majority 
of the farmers aged between 41-50 years with a corresponding mean age of 50 years. This implies that the farmers 
are not too old to embrace adaptive measures in mitigating climate change incidence. Age is known to influence 
adaptive capabilities of farmers as it relates to climate change outcomes [9]. Female farmers in the area accounted 
for 54.2% as against 45.8% of male farmers.  
 

Table-1. Farmers’ Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Variability. 

Socio-Economic Factors Frequency Relative Frequency Mean 

Age   50 

31 – 40 24 17.0  

41- 50 64 45.1  
51-60 20 14.1  

61 and above 34 24.0  

Gender    

Male 65 45.8  
Female 77 54.2  

Marital Status    
Single 44 31.0  

Married 98 69.0  

Household Size   7 

1-5 45 31.7  
6-10 93 65.5  

11-15 4 2.8  
15 and above 0 0  

Educational Level   7 
0 (No formal) 31 21.8  

1 – 6 36 25.3  

7 - 13 67 47.1  
14 and above 8 5.6  

Farming Experience   10 
1-5 19 13.4  

6 – 10 59 41.5  
11 – 15 44 31.0  

16 and above 20 14.1  

Farm Size (Ha)   2 

Less than 1 55 38.7  
2 – 3 81 57.0  

4 – 5 4 2.8  
6 and above 2 1.4  

Extension Contacts   10 
1-5 41 28.9  

6 – 10 46 32.4  
11 – 15 39 27.5  

16 and above 16 11.3  

Total 142 100  
                       Source: Field survey, (2018). 
 

This implies the dominance of female farmers in the area and support the claim that women engaged more in 
climate change mitigation. African women are seen as climatic change agents and thus, contribute more in 



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domestic food production [10]. Again, married farmers dominated the entire area accounting for 69% with logical 
implication that marriage contributes to household size which plays a major role in combating climate change. 
Furthermore, marriage is sine qua non to family labour which helps in adapting to climatic conditions. Almost 66% 
of the farmers had household sizes which range from 6-10 with a mean household size of 7. This implies that 
farmers tend to utilize more labour which is indispensable in mitigating climate change occurrences. It is believed 
that the higher the household size, the higher the farmers’ adaptation to climate change since more hands will be 
needed to mitigate the negative effects of climate change. Large sizes of households encourage adaptive potentials 
of farmers as well as position them for improved outputs [11]. The study revealed the mean educational level of 
the farmers as 7 years which implies that the farmers attempted post primary education which exposes them to 
innovative ideas in handling climatic outcomes. Education is believed to equip farmers with the right knowledge 
needed to overcome adverse climatic changes and weather conditions Farmers in the area had 10 years of farming 
experience. Farming experience instills in farmers the ability to cope with adverse climatic conditions and adaptive 
measures. Farming experience enhances farmers’ knowledge and understanding of climatic events and conditions 
as well as equips farmers to adapt favorably to changing climate. Experienced farmers are more skilled and 
organized in handling climatic issues and variations. About 57% of the farmers had farm sizes ranging between 2 to 
3 hectares with a mean farm size of 2 hectares. Small farm sizes influences the perception of farmers in mitigating 
climatic change. Farm sizes in rural areas is often fragmented and scattered making it unsuitable to adopt 
adaptation strategies/measures especially crop rotation, etc to mitigate climatic effects. Farmers in the area had 
reasonable extension contacts (10, contacts/annum). This implies that farmers in the area were exposed to various 
adaptation strategies by the extension agents that visited the area. Extension contacts expose rural farmers’ to 
innovative ideas and adaptation techniques and further equip them with a good understanding and knowledge of 
climatic changes and variations which helps in mitigating adverse climatic conditions. 

 
3.2. Farmers’ Sources of Information on Climate Change Variability 

Table 2 reveals the sources of information on climate change variability available to the farmers. From the 
Table, Extension contacts proved to be the major source of information to the farmers in the area. Extension 
agents’ are information channels and change agents. They expose farmers to adaptive measures used in mitigating 
adverse climatic variations.  About 89% of the farmers learnt about climate change through the viewing of 
television and listening to radio. These medium offers a wider dissemination of information on climate change 
variations. While less than 86% of the farmers learnt about the effects of climate change through their 
friends/relatives. Farmers often learn new things much faster and much easier from their colleagues 
(friends/relatives). 73% and 47% of the farmers got to know of climate change through the non-governmental 
organizations (NGO’s) as well as other government agencies. In recent times non-governmental organizations and 
government agencies have simultaneously engaged in the dissemination of information bordering on climate 
change variations [12]. Also 18% of the crop farmers knew about climate change through the print media. Print 
media such as (newspapers, magazines, literatures, journals, articles, dossiers on climate change, etc) helps to 
diffuse information on climatic variation and / or conditions prevalent in an area, while 33% and 70% of the crop 
farmers discovered of climate change through seminars/conferences and local workshops. These medium exposes 
farmers to information bordering on climate change. Farmers who are privileged to attend seminars and 
workshops are better informed on climatic variations as well as on other agricultural packages and concerns. 
Furthermore, other sources of information on climate change variability indicated by the farmers include; self 
observations and personal experience (55%), interactions with other enlightened farmers (64%), internet/web 
services (16%) and others (14%). These medium are effective and proven sources of information gathering of 
farmers. 
 

Table-2.Farmers’ Source of Information on Climate Change Variability. 

Sources of Information **Frequency Relative Frequency 

NGO’s 103 72.5 
Government Agency 67 47.2 
Self-observation and experience 78 54.9 
Interaction with enlightened farmers 91 64.1 
Radio 126 88.7 
Television 129 90.8 
Friends/Relatives 124 87.3 
Extension Agents 132 92.5 
Seminars/Conferences 47 33.1 

Internet/Web 23 16.2 
Local Workshops 
Print Materials 
Others 

99 
25 
20 

69.7 
17.6 
14.1 

                        Source: Field survey, (2018) **Multiple Responses Recorded. 
 

3.3. Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change Variability 
Table 3 shows farmers’ perception of climate change variability in the area. A mean index of 2.0 was estimated 

using scaling techniques. Results show that there is increasing rate of temperature (2.41), rainfall volume (3.05), 
sunshine hours (2.45), and number of rainy days (2.91). This implies a high variability occurrence of climate change 
prevalent in the area. The standard deviation values of the aforesaid climate variables were all less than 1.0., except 
rainfall volume which implies that the volume of rainfall exceeded its previous records in the area. Furthermore, 
farmers in the area perceived a decreasing rate of light intensity and wind while relative humidity and soil Ph in the 
area remained unchanged. This further indicates vagaries of climatic atmospheric conditions dominant in the area. 
Hence these atmospheric variations undoubtedly influenced agricultural operations in the area. Farmers in a bid to 



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maximize farm utility engaged in multiple adaptation strategies to cushion the negative effects of climate change 
variations [13]. 
 

Table-3.Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change Variability. 

Climatic/Soil Index Mean Score S.D Remark 

Temperature 2.41 0.96 Increasing 
Rainfall volume 3.05 1.88 Increasing 
Sunshine hours 2.45 0.82 Increasing 
Number of rainy days 2.91 0.98 Increasing 
Humidity 2.00 0.77 Unchanged 
Light intensity 1.93 0.09 Decreasing 
Wind 1.81 1.58 Decreasing 

Soil PH 2.00 0.59 Unchanged 
Note: M > 2.0 = Increasing, M < 2.0 = Decreasing, and M = 2.0 = Unchanged. 
Source: Field survey, (2018)    

 

3.4. Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies in Mitigating Climate Change Variability 
Table 4 shows the adaptation strategies/techniques practiced by the farmers in mitigating climate change 

effects. These adaptation techniques are classified into degrees of sustainability with respect to the mean score 
obtained. The highly sustainable adaptation strategies mostly practiced by the farmers include; use of pest and 
disease resistant varieties (3.90), use of organic fertilizers (3.01), tree planting (2.67), early information seeking on 
climate change (2.25), soil conservation practices (2.09), cover cropping (2.90), increase use of family labour (2.01), 
cultivation of early maturing varieties’ (1.99), early and late planting (1.98), regular weeding to avoid breed of 
insect pests (1.98), use of improved crop varieties (1.54) and insurance options (1.90). Use of pest and disease 
resistant varieties are widely used by farmers in combating the adverse effects of climate change. Farmers’ often 
make good use of crop varieties that are free from pest and disease infestations in mitigating climatic variation. 
Organic fertilizers are often used by farmers to checkmate adverse climatic conditions as well as replenish and / or 
restore the fertility of the soil probably due to easy accessibility and cheap source of the manure [2]. The planting 
of trees is a vital adaptive measure used to withstand uncertainties in regards to climatic change. Trees are planted 
to prevent undue destruction of the vegetative cover of the soil and other nefarious activities of climate change. 
Early information seeking on climate change enables farmers to avert the consequences of climate change on time 
and also forestall adverse effects of climatic variations. Soil conservation practices such as cover cropping helps to 
prevent unforeseen variations of climatic change. Cover cropping is an adaptive technique that increases soil 
fertility which in turn enhances the productivity of the farmers [14].Family labour improves agricultural activities 
in the sense that more hands are hired to facilitate farm operations. 
Cultivation of early maturing varieties is a widely mitigation strategies mostly adopted by farmers in coping with 
the demands of changing climates. This strategy assist farmer to improve on crop yield and avert ugly incidences 
of climate change. Furthermore, farmers also engaged in early and late planting to checkmate variations of climate 
change. Early and late planting is frequently practiced by crop farmers to mitigate and overcome excessive 
incidence of climate change.   
 

Table-4.Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies in Mitigating Climate Change Variability. 

Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies/Techniques  Mean Score        S.D Remark 

Tree planting (Afforestation)                    2.67                     0.76 Highly sustainable 
Soil conservation  practices  2.09                     0.98 Highly sustainable 
Planting different crop varieties  1.45                     0.62 Slightly sustainable 

Early and late planting  1.98                     0.88 Highly sustainable 
Use of improved varieties 1.54                     0.67 Highly sustainable 
Irrigation practices 
Improved farming methods 

1.23                     2.09 
1.46                     0.40 

Slightly sustainable 
Slightly sustainable 

Use of organic fertilizers  3.01                     0.58 Highly sustainable 

Crop–livestock diversification 1.05                     0.69 Slightly sustainable 
Mixed cropping  1.44                     0.87 Slightly sustainable 
Crop rotation  1.43                     2.98 Slightly sustainable 
Mulching 1.45                     0.66 Slightly sustainable 
Change in planting dates 1.67                     0.54 Highly sustainable 

Cultivation of early maturing varieties    1.99                     0.61 Highly sustainable 
Cover cropping                2.90                     0.87 Highly sustainable 
Relocation of farm lands 1.05                     0.63 Slightly sustainable 
Increase use of family labour 2.01                     0.84 Highly sustainable 
Use of pest and disease resistant varieties 3.09                     0.09 Highly sustainable 

Avoidance of farm areas susceptible to flooding 1.40                     0.59 Slightly sustainable 
Regular weeding to avoid breed of insects pests 1.98                     0.77 Highly sustainable 
Breeding of drought and heat resistant crop varieties 1.35                     0.60 Slightly sustainable 
Avoidance of deforestation 
Early information seeking/warning on climate change 
Improved risks management                                      
Insurance option 
Better water management 
Biodiversity conservation 
 

1.09                     0.64 
2.25                     0.73 

 
1.21                     0.91 
1.90                     0.31 
1.01                     0.57 
1.45                     0.69 

Slightly sustainable 
Highly sustainable 

 
Slightly sustainable 
Highly sustainable 
Slightly sustainable 
Slightly sustainable 

Note: M ≥ 1.5 =Highly sustainable and M < 1.5 = Slightly sustainable. 
Source: Field survey, (2018). 

 



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Regular weeding on the farm is usually carried out to avoid breeding of insects’ pests which alters yields on the 
farm. Use of improved crop varieties helps farmers to reduce losses and improve the productivity of the land. 
Farmers often use improved crop varieties to avert total crop failure as a result of the changing climate.  In recent 
times, farmers’ insure their farmlands and other valuable farm assets to cushion the negative effects of certain 
uncertainties emerging from climate change. However, the values obtained of the standard deviations in highly 
sustainable techniques are all less than one, implying that these adaptive techniques do not vary much with the 
mean scores estimated hence agrees with the result. Similarly, quite a number of the adaptive measures of the 
farmers were slightly sustainable and these include; planting of different crop varieties (1.45), mulching (1.45), 
mixed cropping (1.44), avoidance of farm areas susceptible to flooding (1.40), crop rotation (1.43), irrigation 
practices (1.23), breeding of drought and resistant crop varieties (1.35), Improved farming methods (1.46), 
avoidance of deforestation (1.09), crop-livestock diversification (1.05), improved risk management (1.21), insurance 
options (1.90), better water management, relocation of farmlands (1.05) biodiversity conservation (1.45). Of all the 
adaptive measures that were slightly sustainable only crop rotation and irrigation practices had a high standard 
deviation signifying a slight variation from the mean scores obtained, probably due to the technicalities associated 
with these two techniques. 

 
3.5. Factors’ Influencing Farmers Adaptation to Climate Change Variability 

Table 5 reveals the factors influencing farmers’ adaptation to climate change variability. Four functional forms 
of the ordinary least square multiple regression models were fitted in to assess the factors influencing farmers’ 
adaptation to climate change variability in the area. From the result, The Linear functional form was isolated as the 
lead equation based on the significance of the explanatory variables, highest R2, and F-statistics and was further 
used for interpretations. The Coefficient of multiple determination (R2) was0.8722. This suggests that about 87% of 
the total variation in the endogenous variable were explicitly explained by the exogenous variables investigated. 
The F-value of 42% further indicated the fitness of the model. The coefficient of age was positive and significant at 
5% level. This implies that as farmers’ advances in age, their ability to adapt to climatic changes increases per time. 

This is probably as a result of accumulated farming experiences which leverage their acceptance of adaptive 
techniques to forestall the despicable incidence of climate change[15]. Household size was also positive and 
significant at 5% level. This reveals increase in family labour via expansion of household size. As household size 
increases, more family labour (more hands) is effectively utilized in mitigating the negative impacts of climate 
change in the area. The coefficient of level of education was significant at 1% level and was positive too. This 
implies that education increases the farmers’ knowledge and understanding of climate change and as well as 
reposition the farmers’ mindset in adopting new scientific strategies with respect to combating the incidence of 
climatic variations. The farming experience of the farmers has a positive relationship, and was significant at 5% 
level. This implies that 1% increase in farming experience of the farmers will lead to a corresponding increase in 
farmers ability in adapting to climatic changes. Farming experience enhances the  farmers’ drive in adapting to 
climatic changes which ensures improved farrn outcomes.  

Farm size was also significant at 1% level having a positive sign. This implies that larger farm sizes motivate 
farmers to practice adaptive strategies that repel climatic changes. Farmers with large farm sizes are likely to adopt 
anti climatic techniques than farmers with lesser farm sizes. The coefficient of extension contacts was positive and 
also significant at 5% level. This further implies that 1% increase in extension contacts of the crop farmers will 
equally lead to a corresponding increase in adaptative abilities of the farmers. The relevance of extension agents in 
championing the impacts of climate change can not be undermined as they are evidently known as change agents in 
exposing the farmers to understand the phenomenon of climate change and adaptive ways to mitigate and combat 
its adverse effects[16]. However, other variables such as gender and marital status was not significant at all and 
this might be due to statistical errors encountered during the process of investigation. 
 

Table-5. Factors Influencing Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change Variability. 

Variables Coefficients t-Values Std. Error Sign. Levels 

Age (X1) 2.0935 2.5091 0.8343 ** 
Gender (X2) 1.8853 1.0981 1.7168 NS 

Marital status (X3) 0.3657 1.0071 0.3631 NS 
Household size (X4) 0.9074 2.5671 0.3534 ** 

Level of education (X5) 2.5680 4.0912 0.6276 *** 

Farming experience (X6) 0.3785 2.6109 0.1449 ** 
Farm size (X7) 1.0987 3.0902 0.3555 *** 

Extension contacts (X8) 1.9041 2.6710 0.7128 ** 

Constant 2.7862 1.2091 2.3043 NS 
R2 0.8722    

F-value 
N 

41.631 
142 

   

               Source: Field survey, (2018). 
 

3.6. Farmers’ Perceived Constraints to Climate Change Variability 
Table 6 shows the farmers’ perceived constraints to climate change variability. From the Table, 100% of the 

farmers; which implies that all the farmers in the area perceivedinadequate capital as a major constraint to climate 
change? This could be true because capital is majorly required to acquire a piece of land, purchase farm inputs, hire 
labourers, and above all practice anti climatic adaptive strategies and/ or techniques [2]. About 90% of the farmers 
indicated inadequate farmlands and inadequate information on climate change. Most times, inadequate farmlands 
and information on climate change makes it difficult for farmers to adopt climatic techniques.   

Again, 92% and 87% of the farmers indicated land fragmentations and erosion issues as their major constraints. 
This duo makes it practically impossible for farmers to adopt climatic adaptive techniques. Furthermore, other 
farmers in the area indicated high cost farm inputs (62%), constant deforestation (70%), inadequate extension 



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agents (16%), high cost of labour (24%) and long distance of farmlands (86%). It could be seen from the result that 
all these factors played a role or the other in influencing the farmers’ ability in mitigating adverse climatic effects.                                   
 

Table-6.Farmers’ Perceived Constraints to Climate Change Variability. 

Perceived Constraints **Frequency Relative Frequency 

Inadequate farmlands 140 98.6 
Inadequate capital 142 100 
Inadequate information on climate change 134 94.4 
High cost farm inputs 88 61.9 
Land fragmentations 131 92.3 
Erosion issues 123 86.6 
Constant deforestation 99 69.7 
Inadequate extension agents 22 15.5 
High cost of labour 34 23.9 
Long distance of farmlands 122 85.9 

Note: **Multiple Responses Recorded.             
Source: Field survey, (2018).    

 

4. Conclusion and Recommendations 
The findings of the study revealed that the socio-economic factors played a major role in influencing the 

decision of the farmers in embracing adaptive strategies to checkmate the excesses of climatic variations in the 
area.The mean age of the farmers in the area is 50 years. This implies that the farmers are not too old to embrace 
adaptive measures in mitigating climate change incidence. The coefficient of age was also positive and significant at 
5% level. This implies that as farmers’ advances in age, their ability to adapt to climatic changes increases per time. 
The mean educational level of the farmers is 7 years which implies that the farmers attempted post primary 
education which exposes them to innovative ideas in handling climatic outcomes. Extension contacts proved to be 
the major source of information to the farmers on climate change. Results show that there is increasing rate of 
temperature, rainfall volume, sunshine hours and number of rainy days. This implies a high variability occurrence 
of climate change prevalent in the area. The adaptation techniques of the farmers were classified into highly 
sustainable adaptation strategies which include; use of pest and disease resistant varieties, use of organic fertilizers, 
tree planting, early information seeking on climate change etc and slightly sustainable; planting of different crop 
varieties, mulching, mixed cropping, etc. All the farmers in the area perceivedinadequate capital as a major 
constraint in combating climate change effects. Hence this study recommends government all levels to sensitize the 
crop farmers on the devastating effects of climate change on agriculture as well as provide supports where 
necessary to cushion its negative impacts.    
 

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