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Agriculture and Food Sciences Research 
Vol. 9, No. 1, 22-31, 2022 

ISSN(E) 2411-6653/ ISSN(P) 2518-0193 
DOI: 10.20448/aesr.v9i1.3858 

© 2022 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

 
 

 
 
 
Factors Determining where to Buy Olive Oil on the Tunisian Local Market: The 
Importance of Quality Attributes Perception 

 
Ouertani Emna1   

Dhraief Mohamed Zied1,2   

 
 

 
( Corresponding Author) 

1Higher School of Agriculture, Mograne, University of Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia. 
1Email: ouertaniemna2015@gmail.com     
1,2Rural Economics Laboratory, National Agronomic Research Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage, 
Tunis, Tunisia.  
2Email: dhraief.mz@gmail.com Tel: +216 71 230 239 

 

 
Abstract 

The aim of this paper is to investigate the extent to which factors determining the purchase of 
olive oil within Tunisian consumers also determine their choice of its place of purchase. Based on 
an exploratory survey carried out with Tunisian household heads, an exploratory factor analysis 
was conducted to determine the principal dimensions of quality attributes and indicators. To 
evaluate factor determining olive oil purchase decision and its place of purchase choice, a binomial 
and a multinomial logistic regressions are respectively used. Consumer sensibility to brand and 
price have a negative impact on buying decision and on the choice of mills, relatives, and store 
retail, as suppliers of olive oil. Originating from a production area encourage consumers to buy 
olive oil from friends and relatives. Tunisian olive oil industry is therefore able to adopt product 
and distribution policies based on consumer expectations, to improve local market consumption. 

 
Keywords: Logistic regression, Olive oil purchase, Place of purchase, Quality attributes, Indicators. 

JEL Classification: E21; M31; Q13. 

 
Citation | Ouertani Emna; Dhraief Mohamed Zied (2022). Factors 
Determining where to Buy Olive Oil on the Tunisian Local Market: 
The Importance of Quality Attributes Perception. Agriculture and 
Food Sciences Research, 9(1): 22-31. 
History:  
Received: 14 January 2022 
Revised: 23 February 2022 
Accepted: 8 March 2022 
Published: 18 March 2022 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 4.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Authors’ Contributions: Both authors contributed equally to the conception 
and design of the study. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of 
interest. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, 
accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the 
study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned 
have been explained. 
Ethical: This study followed all ethical practices during writing. 

 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 
2. Literature Review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 23 
3. Methodological Approach .............................................................................................................................................................. 24 
4. Results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 26 
5. Discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 
6. Conclusions and Implications ........................................................................................................................................................ 30 
References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 31 
 

 
 

 

 

 

 

mailto:ouertaniemna2015@gmail.com
mailto:dhraief.mz@gmail.com
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/aesr.v9i1.3858
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4234-3293
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7075-8023


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Contribution of this paper to the literature 
Several works explore the effect of olive oil quality attributes on the purchase decision without any focus 
on their role in the choice of its place of purchase. This paper investigates how these olive oil quality 
attributes also determine the choice of its favorite sales points. 

 
1. Introduction 

The olive crop is deeply rooted in the traditions of Tunisia, both in terms of production and consumption. The 
consumption of edible oil in Tunisia is about 22 kg/capita/year and remains dominated by vegetable oil (soya, 
colza and corn oils). The domestic consumption of Tunisian olive oil is based on family reserves, the direct supply 
of olive mills or the use of informal circuits. It is difficult to provide a precise estimate of olive oil consumption due 
to variability in practices and in the channels for sale and purchase. In fact, domestic consumption is not only 
varying from 20.000 to 60.000 tons/year, but also decreasing. While the olive oil consumption in most of the big 
consumer countries is improved, it decreases in Tunisia from 6 kg/capita/year before 2000 to approximately 3.5-4 
kg/capita/year in 2015. This Tunisian consumption is very lower than the average in the producing countries (20 
kg/capita/year in Greece; 12 kg/capita/year in Spain and Italy) [1, 2]. 

This low and declining consumption was due to the marginal actions to promote olive oil trade and 
consumption in the local market. Indeed, the promotion is focused on the overseas markets. Furthermore, the 
Government set the price of the other vegetable oils (soybean oil), enhance local refining, packaging and trade of 
vegetable oils such as sunflower and maize oils on the domestic market while leaving the price of the olive oil free 
to reach five times the price of the other vegetable’s oils. This politics to book the Tunisian olive oil to the export 
and to encourage the consumption of the other subsidized vegetables oils on the local market. So, Tunisia was the 
third olive oil exporter in the world, behind Italy and Spain. The part of the olive oil domestic consumption in the 
Tunisian olive oil production is about 20%, against 150 % in Italy, 70 % in Greece and 40 % in Spain [1]. 
Furthermore, in the local market, consumers traditionally buy olive oil in bulk and directly from neighbouring 
olive oil processing units. Small quantities are retailed in bottles at supermarkets and hypermarkets located 
especially in large cities [3]. 

Tunisian producers have realized that to improve market share in a global market, they need also to improve 
local market consumption and meet consumers’ requirements and perceptions. It is becoming evident for the 
Tunisian olive oil industry to adopt a business strategy based on client preferences, so the objective of this paper is 
to investigate olive oil consumers’ behaviours and to propose a series of business strategies. Therefore, the aims of 
the present study are: 

• To explore the behaviour of Tunisian olive oil consumers toward olive oil. 

• To define the way Tunisian consumers, perceive the quality attributes and indicators of olive oil, as factor 
influencing consumer behaviour. 

• And to discover if factors determining the purchase of olive oil also determine the choice of its place of 
purchase for Tunisian consumers. 

 

2. Literature Review 
2.1. Consumers' Perception of Olive Oil Quality Indicators and their Purchase Behaviour  

Both endogenous factors (needs and motives, learning, self-concept, personalities, and attitudes) and exogenous 
factors (culture, reference group, family, and socio-economic situations) affect consumers’ buying behaviour [4, 5]. 
With reference to olive oil consumption, Vlontzos and Duquenne [5]; Van Waterschoot, et al. [6] demonstrate the 
impact of socio-economic and spatial attributes of consumers households on their olive oil purchase and on the 
supply modes choices. Also, products attributes like, product quality, price, place of sale and country of origin, 
affect the consumer’s attitude and food purchase decision. More precisely these attributes have "search, experience 
or credence" properties [7-9].  Consumers attach considerable importance to search attributes which are quality 
indicators that can be tested easily, prior to purchase, by actual inspection of the good.  Experience quality 
attributes are those that can only be confirmed after purchase and consumption of the product. Credence qualities 
cannot be verified even after purchase and consumption, they have a positive impact on consumer’s attitude 
towards a product, and consequently influence consumers buying intentions [10].   

For olive oil, different search attributes are proposed for olive oil such as color, smell, taste, transparency, size 
shape, material and color of the bottle, design of the label and the information released, brand and point of sale [11, 
12].  Focusing on these search attribute for olive oil, studies on this topic present two groups of factors that allow 
consumers to evaluate the product: intrinsic attributes and extrinsic attributes. These factors determine perceived 
quality [12-15]. Several studies about olive oil perceived quality revealed that the intrinsic attributes (such as 
taste, color, flavour, smell) and the extrinsic attributes (packaging, price, place of sale, region of origin) have 
determine consumers’ purchase decision [16]. However, theses quality attributes are evaluated differently 
according to the markets. In the Greek and Dutch markets, quality and color are more important than smell, 
image-reputation, package, and social influences attributes [3]. Whereas Krystallis and Ness [16]; García, et al. 
[17] point out that Greek olive oil consumers grant no importance to the product brand. For the Canadian 
context, studies prove the relative importance of origin, price, and production system compared to color and 
appearance [3]. Studies about UK consumers demonstrate that packaging, size, and price as very determinant 
factors Rodolfo and Mónica [18]. Rodolfo and Mónica [18]; Delgado and Guinard [19] reveal that the Spanish 
market are divided on two consumers segments: consumers choosing the olive oil because of price and other were 
guided by the product’s specific attributes, such as organic production. In the USA market, consumers consider the 
price, available information, and product reputation as determinant factors in the purchase of olive oil [20].  

Especially for organic olive oil, Sandalidou, et al. [20]; Sandalidou, et al. [21] attest that Greek organic olive 
oil consumers have a positive perception of health, package, and sensory characteristics such as flavour and taste, 
but they are dissatisfied about price/quality, promotion, and disposition of this product [21, 22]. While price, 
geographic origin and certification of extra-virgin olive oil are very important attributes Italian consumers of 
organic olive oil according to Cicia, et al. [22]; Tsakiridou, et al. [23]. On the other hand, Tsakiridou, et al. [23] 



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verify that socioeconomic consumer characteristics (such as their income, their occupation) deeply affect the 
demand for organic olive oil [24]. 

For the Tunisian market, Mtimet, et al. [2] demonstrate that olive oil consumption is rooted in the Tunisian 
consumers tradition, shoppers are familiar with olive oil attributes, but they are indifferent to the region of origin 
or any other quality label, and they generally buy olive oil in bulk [3]. Oppositely, consumers in North-
Mediterranean olive oil-producing countries are more interested on the region of origin, quality labels and 
packaging attributes. It should be noted that taste, color and smell can be considered as experience attributes 
because they are the results of previous consumer experiences. In addition, the choice between different olive oils 
depends on consumption mode and of food preparations (frying, cooking, for salad dressing…) [25]. Besides, 
Cacchiarelli, et al. [24] approved the importance of nutritional and health benefits and positive environmental 
impacts as credence attributes for olive oil [26]. According to Sinha and Batra [26] the probability of buying 
products is lower when the product category is high in experience/credence quality instead of searching through 
package label information [27]. 
 

2.2. Olive Oil Place of Purchase Preferences 
Place of purchase is an additional interesting aspect related to purchase habits. Based on Delgado and Guinard 

[19] and Fotopoulos and Krystallis [27] studies [14, 20-24, 26-28] reported that most US consumers bought 
olive oil principally at the supermarket and stores (68%), in contrast with the ways in which Mediterranean 
consumers most frequently buy their olive oil. 41% of Cretan consumers buy olive oil at the supermarket, while 
38% buy in bulk directly from the producer or farm, and 21% make oil from their own olive orchards [29].  

Focusing on the Italian internal market, Giuseppe [3] demonstrate quite differences between the central-
northern olive oil market and the southern Italy [4]. Consumers in the central-northern area mainly purchased 
extra-virgin olive oil at supermarkets or in large-scale retail stores (70%), only 23% purchase olive oil directly from 
grocery stores (or traditional stores) particularly when they wanted to buy high-quality olive oil. Only 5.5% of the 
sample bought the product at oil mills. In southern Italy market, just 27.4% of consumers buy olive oil in large-
scale retail stores, whereas people who purchase olive oil directly from the producer reached 20.3%. Those who 
bought olive oil in other places of purchase was equally distributed: traditional stores (17.4%), local markets 
(17.2%) and local oil mills (17.7%).  

Greek olive oil market is dominated by informal markets: more than 45% of household are providing olive oil 
through relative self-consumption or purchasing olive oil in bulk directly from small producers. Factors 
determining the choice of the place of olive oil purchase are the age of the consumer, the educational level, and the 
fact of living or not nearby to an olive oil producing area. However, non-significant factors are household's size and 
family income [6]. Moreover, Corbeto-Fabón, et al. [30] with a focus on the Spanish market, demonstrate that the 
preferences for olive oil attributes depend on the place of purchase [31].  

The question arises as to whether the factors determining the purchase of olive oil also determine the choice of 
its place of purchase. It would be useful to know to what extent those search, experience and credence attributes 
and those individual socio-economic and demographic characteristics influence the purchase decision of olive oil 
and its place of purchase selection. A conceptual model to understand factor detraining olive oil purchase and the 
choice of its place of purchase was proposed in Figure 1. 
 

 
Figure 1. Conceptual framework. 

 

3. Methodological Approach  
3.1. Database 

This study is based on data gathered from a questionnaire survey conducted on a sample of 216 households 
essentially localized in Tunis city centre and its suburbs, the North and the centre of the country, they also 
originate in the different regions for a better representativeness. In fact, olive oil consumption differs by living 
environment.  

The questionnaire was addressed to the household heads. The interviewees were 61% men 68.5% married, with 
64% other than 31 years old and 44% with university educational level. The "household size" variable shows that 
74% of the families are composed of more than 4 individuals Table 1. The income is an important variable in 
determining the olive oil consumption since it reflects the purchasing power of consumers. It is well distributed 
among the different income classes selected, with about 45% of the middle classes, whose income is between 1001 

and 2000 TND (Euro 3.24TND). 

 



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Table 1. Socio-demographic profile of the sample (N=216). 

Gender 

Male Female 

61.1 38.9 

Age 

Inf 30 31-40 41-50 Sup 50 

9.3 30.6 33.3 26.9 

Origin 

Tunis city center and its suburbs North Center South 

18 41.3 37.1 3.7 

Marital status 

Married Other 

68.5 31.5 

Place of residence 

North Tunis city center and its 
suburbs 

Center South 

32.9 33.3 33.3 0.5 

Educational level 

Analphabet Koranic school Primary Secondary University 

1.9 2.3 20.4 31.5 44 

Household monthly income 

˂500 TD 501-1000 1001-1500 1501-2000 2001-2500 2501-3000 ˃3000 

5.6 27.3 25.9 18.5 9.3 6.5 6.9 

Household's size 

1 2 3 4 5 ˃6 

3.7 9.7 13 26.8 26.8 20 

 
The questionnaire covers all the variables that can affect the consumer behaviour. It is structured into four 

sections: purchases (place of purchase, quantity, frequency, and budget), consumption preferences, quality attributes 
and indicators, and socio-demographic and economic variables of the households. 

For the selected quality attributes and indicators, our assumptions focused on 25 variables that we expect to 
influence consumer behaviour and measure their perceptions of quality. 

 These variables belong to different quality attributes and indicators defined by Branger, et al. [29]; Del 
Giudice, et al. [13]; Jiménez-Guerrero, et al. [14]; Ward, et al. [15]; Krystallis and Ness [16]; García, et al. [17]; 
Rodolfo and Mónica [18]; Delgado and Guinard [19]; Sandalidou, et al. [20]; Sandalidou, et al. [21]; Cicia, et al. 
[22]; Tsakiridou, et al. [23]; Cacchiarelli, et al. [24]; Sinha and Batra [26]; Fotopoulos and Krystallis [27]; 
Corbeto-Fabón, et al. [28]; Branger, et al. [29]; Ding and He [31]. 

Quality indicators are divided into two categories: 

• Extrinsic quality indicators and tangible attributes (6): Quality label, Packaging, Olive oil origin, points of 
sale, brand name, price.  

• Intrinsic quality indicators (3) such as Color, odour and taste.  
For inviolable attributes, we use 7 credence attributes about health and nutrition and 9 experience attributes 

(Smell, Taste, Color as experience attributes, mode of uses, and cooking reaction).  
Each of the 25 items, respondents were asked to express, with a score from 1 to 5, the importance of quality 

attributes and indicators they consider when buying olive oil (1 = "strongly disagree",5 = "strongly agree"). So, 
the 25 selected quality items are introduced into the database in numerical forms. 
 

3.2. Data Statistical Analysis 
Using SPSS software (20.0) descriptive statistical analysis was used to determine the socio-demographic profile 

of the consumers and to describe respondents’ behaviour towards olive oil (perception, purchase, and consumption). 
An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to determine the principal dimensions among the variables. 

Between the 25 items, 16 were factor-analysed, using principal component analysis (PCA) with the Varimax 
rotation method to establish the different dimensions of quality. The Varimax rotation was used to maximize the 
differences between the components extracted and to maintain correlation within the components. The Kaiser–
Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and the Bartlett’s test were used to determine the fitness of 
the data. Values of 0.6 or above from the KMO measures indicated that data are adequate for PCA [31]. The items 
factor-analysed sets out details about the different dimensions of quality. 

To evaluate the impact of socio-demographic factors, search, experience, and credence attributes on olive oil 
purchase decision (1) and on its place of purchase choice (2), a binomial logistic regression and a multinomial 
logistic regression are respectively used. 

For the binomial logistic regression, the outcome variable has only two categories: it is a dichotomous outcome 
variable describing the purchase or not of olive oil (“1=yes” and “0=no”). 

For the multinomial logistic regression, the outcome variable has six categories, they describe the six 
alternatives of olive oil places of purchase: 0= No purchase, 1= olive oil mills, 2=Wholesalers, 3= Friends and 
relatives,4= Wholesalers, 5= Retail stores”. 

For both binomial and multinomial logistic regression, the predictor variables refer to all the dimensions 
resulting on the previous factor analysis using principal component analysis. 
 



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4. Results  
4.1. Consuming Peculiarities of Olive Oil in the Tunisian Market 

The results of our survey confirm that the purchases of olive oil on the Tunisian market are made essentially in 
bulk. Indeed, more than 4/5 of our sample (86.1%) confirm having bought the olive oil and they did it in bulk. The 
domestic consumption of Tunisian olive oil is based on family/friends reserves and the direct supply of olive mills. 
More than half of the interviewees (53.7%) reported that they bought olive oil primarily from families and friends. 
21,3% of interviewed consumers bought it directly from olive oil mills and producers. The market share of 
wholesalers, retail stores and weekly markets is less important with respective percentages of 4.2 %, 4.6 % and 2.3 
% Table 2. 

 
Table 2. The purchasing place choice for olive oil. 

Purchasing place of olive oil (%) 

No purchase Retail stores Olive oil producers/mills Wholesalers Friends and relatives 

13.9 6.9 21.3 4.2 53.7 

 
Respondents were asked to express, with a score from 1 to 5, what quality attributes and indicators they 

consider when buying olive oil (Table 3). The most important are «taste" (average score 4.83) and "smell" (4.69). In 
contrast, the less important are attributes about cooking reaction "do not darken" (2.13) and " with high smoking 
point" (3.3). 

 
Table 3. Quality attributes and indicators perception. 

Quality attributes and indicators  Minimum Maximum Mean Standard 
deviation 

(SD) 
An Oil that do not darken 1 5 2.13 1.057 
An oil with high smoking point 1 5 3.3 1.21 
Brand Name 1 5 3.81 1.267 
Color 1 5 4.57 0.692 
Cook better 2 5 4.84 0.498 
Fry better 1 5 1.7 1.068 
Healthy 4 5 4.97 0.177 
Multipurpose 1 5 4.27 0.902 
Nutritional value 2 5 4.94 0.298 
Origin  1 5 4.37 1.012 
Packaging  1 5 3.78 1.098 
Price 1 5 3.89 1.498 
Purchasing place  1 5 4.19 1.068 
Quality label 1 5 3.97 1.032 
Smell  2 5 4.69 0.594 
Taste 4 5 4.83 0.374 

 
This descriptive analysis summarizes the burden of different quality attributes and indicators on olive oil 

quality perceptions; it should be deepened by a diagnosis of the determinants of the olive oil purchase on the 
Tunisian market (paragraph 4.3). To this end, an exploratory factor analysis of the olive oil quality attributes and 
indicators is used to determine the principal dimensions among the variables and to highlight the dimensions of 
research quality indicators, experience, and beliefs quality attributes. 
 

Table 4. Factor analysis results of the olive oil quality attributes and indicators (Varimax rotation). 

 Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) Measure of sampling adequacy 0.688 

Bartlett's test for sphericity 
  

Approx. chi square 803.29 
df 120 
Sig. 0.000 
 Factors 1 2 3 4 5 6 

Factor 1 Extrinsic quality 
indicators  

Quality label 0.818 0.1 -0.065 -0.084 -0.004 -0.051 
Packaging  0.803 -0.025 -0.043 0.002 0.06 -0.052 
Origin  0.778 0.049 0.008 0.29 -0.076 0.233 
Purchasing place  0.756 0.057 0.002 0.239 -0.14 0.275 

Factor 2 Intrinsic quality 
indicators  

Smell  0.035 0.846 -0.005 0.074 -0.019 0.016 
Taste  0.047 0.842 0.219 -0.066 -0.032 0.044 
Color 0.097 0.614 -0.079 0.303 0.227 -0.018 

Factor 3 Health / Nutrition 
Nutritional value -0.053 0.041 0.863 0.011 -0.006 -0.09 
Healthy  -0.042 0.079 0.861 0.118 -0.017 -0.02 

Factor 4 Price/Brand  
Price 0.018 0.018 0.172 0.819 0.015 0.024 
Brand Name 0.339 0.191 -0.032 0.654 0.039 -0.028 

Factor 5 Experience attributes - 
mode of use 

Multipurpose -0.129 0.194 -0.167 0.057 0.657 0.162 
Fry better 0.067 -0.122 0.18 -0.209 0.647 -0.159 
Cook better -0.046 0.049 -0.033 0.369 0.556 0.027 

Factor 6 Experience attributes - 
cooking reaction  

An oil with high smoking point 0.041 0.208 -0.102 -0.011 -0.161 0.732 
An Oil that do not darken -0.179 0.219 0.015 -0.015 -0.275 -0.701 

Factor statistics 
Eigen values 3.186 2.123 1.623 1.412 1.088 1.023 
% of variance 19.912 13.266 10.146 8.827 6.8 6.395 
Cumulative variance 19.912 33.177 43.323 52.15 58.95 65.346 

 
 
 



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4.2. Factor Analysis Results of the Olive Oil Quality Attributes and Indicators  
16 items were factor-analyzed, using principal component analysis (PCA) with the Varimax rotation method to 

establish the different dimensions of quality (Table 4). Value of 0.688 for the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measures 
indicated that data are adequate for PCA, and the Bartlett’s test was significant. 

The exploratory factor analysis with Varimax rotation of the 16 variables result edit a six-factor solution that 
explains 65.34% of the total variance. All six factors had eigen values greater than 1 (Table 4). The first dimension 
was labelled as “Extrinsic quality indicators”, which explained 19.91% of the total variance; it is determined by 
attributes related to quality label, packaging, origin and purchasing place. The second dimension “intrinsic quality 
indicators” includes three indicators (smell, taste and color) and explain 13.26% of the total variance. The third 
dimension “health / nutrition” focuses on these tow credence attributes and explain 10.14% of the total variance. 
The fourth dimension, explaining 8.82% of the total variance, is determined by tow attributes “Price/Brand”. The 
fifth dimension called “Experience attributes about olive oil mode of use” combines the attributes related to the 
different mode of use of olive oil: a multipurpose oil, an oil that fry better and an oil that cook better. This 
dimension explicates 6.8% of the total variance. The sixth dimension, which explain6.39% of the total variance, 
covers two experience attributes about cooking reaction (an oil with high smoking point and an oil that do not 
darken). 

Knowing that the most common and reliable criterion in extracting factors is the use of eigen values, all factors 
are with eigen values greater than 1, so they were retained because they were considered significant. In addition, all 
the items showed factor loading of more than 0.50. 

These six quality dimensions of olive oil, in addition to socio-economic and demographic consumers’ 
characteristics, are used as predictor variables to identify factors determining olive oil purchase decision (1) and its 
place of purchase choice (2). 
 

4.3. Factors Determining the Purchase of Olive Oil 

• All six dimensions of the olive oil quality and the socio-demographic and economic consumers’ characteristics 
(gender, origin, educational level, household's size) were taken into consideration in the Binary logistic 
regression analysis and the dependent variable (categorical variable) was considered “the purchase of olive 
oil” and could have only two values,1 or 0, as follows: 

• 1: the consumer purchase olive oil. 

• 0: the consumer does not purchase olive oil. 
The values of the regression coefficients and their statistical significance obtained by Enter logistical 

regression method were included in Table 4. 
The logistic regression could use two indicators such as Cox and Snell R2 and Nagelkerke R2that estimates 

the contribution of predictor variable to the variability of dependent variable. We used the Nagelkerke R2 indicator 
to analyse the contribution of all predictor variables to the variability of the dependent variable. Knowing that Cox 
and Snell R2 indicator usually underestimates the real value, the test results (Table 4) based on the 10 predictor 
variables could explain in 40,3% the effect of the environment on the artefacts. The results from the classification 
table showed that the mathematical model predicts 86.6% of cases correctly, so we could conclude that it is a good 

performing model, and its regression coefficients (β) are shown in “Variables in the equation” (Table 5). 
Ten predictive variables were analysed by regression analysis, but only three of them had a statistical 

significance (Table 5): Educational level, Factor 1 referring to extrinsic quality indicators and Factor 4 about the 
consumers’ sensibility to “Price and Brand”. The remaining predictive variables did not show a statistical 
significance.  

By interpretation of the sign of the β coefficients of the independent variables, the educational level, the factor 1 
related to consumers’ sensibility to extrinsic quality indicators (quality label, packaging, origin, purchasing place) 
have a positive effect on olive oil purchase. However, the sensibility of the consumer to “Price/Brand” quality 
indicators (factor 4) has a negative effect on olive oil purchase. 

The educational level of Tunisian consumers has a positive and significant effect on the purchase of olive oil: by 
reference to the Odds ratio, it can be argued that when the consumer is with high educational level, the purchasing 
propensity is 4.7 higher than when he was with primary or secondary educational levels, or also illiterate. In 
addition, consumers who attach greater importance to extrinsic indicators of quality, particularly the origin of the 
olive oil, quality labels, packaging, and place of purchase) have a higher probability of purchasing olive oil (Odds 
ratio=2.51).  

 

4.4. Factors Determining the Choice of the Purchasing Place of Olive Oil on the Tunisian Local Market 
A multinomial logistic regression model was used to identify the relationships between dependent variable 

“choice of the purchasing place of olive oil” and independent variables (the six dimensions resulting on the factor 
analysis using principal component analysis and four socio-economic and demographic variables).  

The dependant variable “choice of the purchasing place of olive oil” has m categories(m=5); having no olive oil 
purchase (and consequently no choice of a place of purchase) was specified as the baseline category (m=1). The 
probability of membership in other categories is compared to the probability of membership in the reference 
category. Moreover, there will be five predicted log odds, one for each category relative to the reference category. 

Results of the multinomial logistic analysis indicated that the predictor model provides a statistically 

significant prediction of the choice of place of purchase, -2 Log Likelihood=391.890, χ2=150.299 and p=0.000. The 
Nagelkerke R2 indicated that the model accounted for approximately 54.6% of the total variance, Cox and Snell 
R2=0.501 and McFadden R2=0.277. Prediction success for the cases indicated an overall prediction success rate of 
62%.  

The Table 5 presents the regression coefficients, the Wald test, adjusted odds ratio [Exp(B)], for the odds 
ratio for each predictor variable used for the four alternative of olive oil place of purchase. The results indicated 
that some predictors were not statically significant predictors for the four categories of olive oil place of purchase. 
There was no significant effect such as household's size, factor 2 relative to intrinsic quality indicators perception, 



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factor3 about health and nutrition as credence quality attributes, factors 5 and 6 concerning consumers' sensibility 
to experience quality attribute.  
 

Table 5. The binary logistic regression of the purchase decision model (Enter method). 

Model summery 

Step −2 log likelihood Cox and Snell R2 Nagelkerke R2 

1 119.501a 0.223 0.403 

Parameters β S. E.β 
Wald 

χ2 

Degrees 
of 

freedom 
P value Exp (β) 

Step 
1b 

Consumer origin  
(1 if from production area, 0 if not) 

0.630 0.523 1.448 1 0.229 1.877 

Educational level  
(1 if with high education. 0 if not) 

1.553 0.676 5.286 1 0.021 d 4.727 

Gender  
 (1 if women, 0 if men) 

0.284 0.496 0.328 1 0.567 1.329 

Household's size(sz) 
(1 if ≥5 members, 0 if not) 

-0.332 0.482 0.475 1 0.491 0.717 

Factor1. Extrinsic quality indicators 0.921 0.341 7.303 1 0.007 c 2.512 

Factor2. Intrinsic quality indicators 0.277 0.220 1.589 1 0.208 1.320 

Factor3. Health / Nutrition -0.183 0.483 0.144 1 0.704 0.832 

Factor4. Price/Brand -1.724 0.468 13.572 1 0.000 c 0.178 

Factor5. Experience attributes - mode of use -0.187 0.380 0.242 1 0.623 0.829 

Factor6. Experience attributes - cooking 
reaction  

-0.077 0.289 0.071 1 0.789 0.926 

Constant 2.049 0.715 8.219 1 0.004 7.757 

Note:  
a. Estimation terminated at iteration number 7 because parameter estimates changed by less than 0.001. 
b. Variables entered in step 1: gender, origin, educational level, household's size, factor 1, factor 2, factor3, factor 4, factor5, factor 6. 
c. Statistically significant for p < 1% 
d. Statistically significant for p < 5%. 

 
Table 6 presents the factors that influence the choice of olive oil points of sales based on the results of a 

multinomial logit model. 
For the olive oil producers /mills as first category of olive oil place of purchase, educational level, and the 

factors one and four describing consumers’ sensibility to extrinsic quality indicators were statically significant. 
Educational level was a significant predictor (p<5%) of mills choice for olive oil purchase with a positive impact. In 

fact, with a highest educational level, the probability of buying olive oil from mills increase Exp (β)=4,8. 
Furthermore, factor 1 describing the importance of extrinsic quality indicators such as quality label, packaging, 
origin and purchasing place as quality indicators for Tunisian consumers, was a significant factor determining the 
choice of mills as point of purchase (p<1%). It has a positive impact: for consumers finding factor1 very important 
for quality assessment and for purchase decision, the probability to opt for mills as olive oil supplier increase de 
5,02. By buying olive oil from mills, consumers are sure about the origin of the product, the quality label “organic 
olive oil”, they consider producers/mills as a guarantor of quality. Additionally, the importance of brand/price as 
quality indicators for Tunisian consumers (factor 4) is a very significant factor (p<5%), with negative effect on olive 
oil producer choice: the more the consumer considers the brand and the price as olive oil quality indicators, the less 
likely it is to buy this oil from mills. Indeed, consumers who buy from olive oil from mills, buy olive oil in bulk and 
in large quantities, at an annual frequency, therefore they pay large sums of money in return. 

Only one predictor is significant for the “wholesalers” as place of purchase of olive oil: The gender is a 
significant (p<5%) and a main factor determining the choice of wholesalers for the olive oil purchase. In fact, 
women were 17 times more likely to buy olive oil from wholesalers look for the lowest prices and to save money.  

When the dependant variable is “friends and relatives”, four predictors are significant: consumer origin, 
educational level and factors “1 and 4”. The explicative variable “consumers origin” is significant (p<1%) and have a 
positive impact on buying olive oil from friends and relatives. In fact, the originating from an olive oil producing 
area are 5,4 times more likely to buy olive oil from friends, family, and relatives. “Educational level” is a significant 
variable (p<5%) with a positive influence on the decision of buying olive oil from relatives; the transition to the 
high educational level increased the probability of purchasing olive oil from family and friend 4-folds. The first 
factor describing consumers’ sensibility to extrinsic quality indicators (except brand and price indicators) is 

statistically significant at 5%. With an Exp (β) 2, it has a positive effect on the decision of purchasing olive oil of 
friends and relatives. Especially in the case of consumers belonging to producing countries, when consumers buy 
olive oil directly from friends and relatives olive oil producers, they are sure about the origin of the product, the 
quality label “organic olive oil”, they also consider these suppliers as a guarantor of quality. Place of purchase is 
part of the extrinsic indicators determining quality, but also, it is a choice to be made regarding supply areas. As for 
the olive oil mills, factor 4 "brand/price" as quality indicators for Tunisian consumers are significant (p<1%), with 
negative effect because consumers who buy from friends and relatives, buy olive oil in bulk and in large quantities, 
at an annual frequency, therefore they pay large sums of money in return. 

For the retail stores as category of olive oil place of purchase, factor 1 describing the importance of extrinsic 
quality indicators such as quality label, packaging, origin and purchase area, was a significant factor determining 
the choice of retail store (p<1%). It has a positive impact: for consumers finding factor1 very important for quality 
assessment, the probability to opt for retail stores increase de 4,08. 

 
 



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Table 6. The results of the multinomial logit model-Place of purchase choice. 

Place of purchase a Parameter β S. E.β Wald 
Degrees of 

freedom 
P value Exp (β) 

O
li

v
e 

o
il

 p
ro

d
u

ce
rs

 -
m

il
ls

 
 

Constant 0.642 0.825 0.606 1 0.436 - 

Factor1. Extrinsic quality indicators 1.614 0.433 13.877 1 0.000 5.025 

Factor2.Intrinsic quality indicators 0.341 0.275 1.534 1 0.216 1.406 

Factor3.Health / Nutrition 0.098 0.564 0.030 1 0.862 1.103 

Factor4.Price/Brand -1.262 0.519 5.900 1 0.015 0.283 

Factor5.Experience attributes - mode of use -0.097 0.418 0.054 1 0.816 0.907 

Factor6.Experience attributes - cooking 
reaction 

0.285 0.337 0.714 1 0.398 1.329 

Educational level (1 if with high education. 0 
if not) 

1.575 0.737 4.563 1 0.033 4.830 

Gender (1 if women. 0 if men) 0.454 0.577 0.620 1 0.431 1.575 

Household's size (1 if ≥5 members. 0 if not) 0.001 0.564 0.000 1 0.998 1.001 

Consumer origin (1 if from production area. 0 
if not) 

-0.097 0.618 0.025 1 0.875 0.908 

W
h

o
le

sa
le

rs
 

 

Constant -3.294 1.710 3.709 1 0.054 - 

Factor1. Extrinsic quality indicators -0.333 0.639 0.271 1 0.603 0.717 

Factor2. Intrinsic quality indicators 0.367 0.427 0.739 1 0.390 1.444 

Factor3. Health / Nutrition 0.574 1.765 0.106 1 0.745 1.776 

Factor 4. Price/Brand 0.090 0.846 0.011 1 0.916 1.094 

Factor 5. Experience attributes - mode of use -0.924 0.702 1.733 1 0.188 0.397 

Factor 6. Experience attributes - cooking 
reaction 

-0.221 0.539 0.167 1 0.682 0.802 

Educational level (1 if with high education. 0 
if not) 

1.803 1.099 2.689 1 0.101 6.065 

Gender (1 if women. 0 if men) 2.811 1.216 5.348 1 0.021 16.632 

Household's size (1 if ≥5 members. 0 if not) 0.086 0.913 0.009 1 0.925 1.090 

Consumer origin (1 if from production area. 0 
if not) 

-1.170 0.955 1.501 1 0.221 0.310 

F
ri

en
d

s 
an

d
 r

el
at

iv
es

 
 

Constant 0.929 0.797 1.360 1 0.243 - 

Factor1. Extrinsic quality indicators 0.782 .370 4.459 1 0.035 2.186 

Factor2. Intrinsic quality indicators 0.269 0.241 1.246 1 0.264 1.309 

Factor3. Health / Nutrition -0.218 0.523 0.173 1 0.677 0.804 

Factor4. Price/Brand -1.928 0.494 15.250 1 0.000 0.145 

Factor5. Experience attributes - mode of use -0.093 0.403 0.053 1 0.818 0.911 

Factor6. Experience attributes - cooking 
reaction 

-0.218 0.309 0.499 1 0.480 0.804 

Educational level (1 if with high education. 0 
if not) 

1.572 0.705 4.977 1 0.026 4.818 

Gender (1 if women. 0 if men) -0.024 0.538 0.002 1 0.964 0.976 

Household's size (1 if ≥5 members. 0 if not) -0.506 0.519 0.953 1 0.329 0.603 

Consumer origin (1 if from production area. 0 
if not) 

1.636 0.605 7.313 1 0.007 5.134 

R
e
ta

il
  
 s

to
re

s 

Constant 1.348 0.887 2.309 1 0.129 - 

Factor1. Extrinsic quality indicators 1.406 0.540 6.769 1 0.009 4.078 

Factor2.Intrinsic quality indicators 0.371 0.404 0.844 1 0.358 1.449 

Factor3.Health / Nutrition -0.498 0.556 0.803 1 0.370 0.608 

Factor4.Price/Brand -1.923 0.587 10.741 1 0.001 0.146 

Factor5.Experience attributes - mode of use -0.099 0.491 0.041 1 0.840 0.905 

Factor6.Experience attributes - cooking 
reaction 

-0.082 0.419 0.038 1 0.845 0.921 

Educational level (1 if with high education. 0 
if not) 

-0.486 1.053 0.213 1 0.644 0.615 

Gender (1 if women. 0 if men) -0.939 0.861 1.188 1 0.276 0.391 

Household's size (1 if ≥5 members. 0 if not) -1.092 0.793 1.897 1 0.168 0.336 

Consumer origin (1 if from production area. 0 
if not) 

-0.539 0.805 0.449 1 0.503 0.583 

Note: a.  The reference category is: 0 “No purchase”. 

 
Additionally, the importance of brand/price as quality indicators for Tunisian consumers (factor 4) is a very 

significant factor (p<1%), with negative effect on retail stores choice: the less the consumer considers the brand and 
the price as olive oil quality indicators, the more likely it is to buy this oil from retail store. In fact, consumers buy 
olive oil from retail store in small quality but at relatively high prices. These results are in accordance with 
predictions from previous studies [14, 19]. 



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5. Discussion 
Olive oil purchase habits of Tunisian are based on bulk purchase from family/friends reserves and olive mills. 

These results confirm those of Fotopoulos and Krystallis [27] reporting that 38% of Cretan consumers buy olive 
oil in bulk directly from the producer or farm, and 21% make oil from their own olive orchards [28]. This is the 
same situation in the Greek olive oil market where 45% of household are providing olive oil through relatives or 
directly from small producers Van Waterschoot, et al. [6]. Jiménez-Guerrero, et al. [14] establish the same results 
and state that similar figures can be associated with other Mediterranean producing countries [29]. According to 
theses authors, this habit seems to be a consequence of the consumer experience and a result of their intrinsic 
cultures. The place of purchase still related to consumers’ culture and purchase habits. 

The result of the binary logistic regression about factor determining olive oil purchase highlights the positive 
impact of the educational level and of consumers’ sensibility to extrinsic quality indicators (quality label, packaging, 
origin, purchasing place), and the negative impact of the consumer's sensibility of to “Price/Brand”. These findings 
confirm those of other studies. In fact, Jiménez-Guerrero, et al. [14] reported that literature review proves that the 
extrinsic attributes of olive oil are the most important when consumers face the act of purchase [29]. However, 
intrinsic attributes (e.g., colour or flavour) is on the second place, except for Japanese consumers. In the other hand, 
the probability of buying olive oil is decreasing as consumers' sensitivity to prices and brands increases: the more 
importance Tunisian consumers attach to these extrinsic indicators of quality, the lower the purchasing propensity 
of olive oil (Odds ratio=0.178). Differently to the postulates of Jiménez-Guerrero, et al. [14] the attribute with the 
highest relative importance is the price for consumers belonging to both producer and non-producer countries 
[29]. Results of the multinomial logistic regression model about the choice of the purchasing place of olive oil 
underline the non-significant effect of household's size, consumer's sensibility of intrinsic quality indicators and 
consumers' sensibility to experience and credence quality attributes. Indeed, many consumers still do not know 
olive oil benefits. For this reason, providing information, mainly through advertising, is necessary, to enhance 
consumers’ awareness of olive oil’s nutritional content and health benefits. This was also recommended by other 
authors such as Sandalidou, et al. [21] and Jiménez-Guerrero, et al. [14]; Cicia, et al. [22]; Tsakiridou, et al. [23]; 
Cacchiarelli, et al. [24]; Sinha and Batra [26]; Fotopoulos and Krystallis [27]; Corbeto-Fabón, et al. [28]; 
Branger, et al. [29]. Awareness-raising and information regarding olive oil intrinsic quality attribute will also be 
an asset. For all categories of olive oil purchase except for wholesalers, consumers’ sensibility to extrinsic quality 
indicators were statically significant, with positive impact for the first factor describing consumers’ sensibility to 
extrinsic quality indicators other than brand and price and with negative impact for "brand and price" indicators. 
The gender is a significant and a main factor determining the choice of wholesalers for the olive oil purchase, while 
educational level is significantly determining the selection of “friends and relatives” and mills for the olive oil 
procurement. Consumer origin is especially significant for supplies carried out from relatives. 

Based on the two models, it can be confirmed that some factors determining the purchase of olive oil also 
determine the choice of its place of purchase (except for "wholesalers" and "retail store" as purchase places). These 
factors are "educational level" as socio-demographic factor and factors 1 and 4 relative to all extrinsic quality 
indicators. Indeed, high educational level and consumer sensibility to extrinsic quality indicators such as "quality 
label, packaging, olive oil origin, points of sale" have a positive effect on olive oil purchase and promote olive oil 
supply from mills and friends and relatives. On the other hand, consumer sensibility to brand name and price, also 
extrinsic quality indicators, have a negative impact on purchase decision and on the choice of mills, relatives, and 
store retail, as suppliers of olive oil. There are also other factor determining the choice of "friends and relatives " as 
buying place, it's the consumer origin: if consumers come from a production area, the probability of purchase from 
family and friends increases. In addition, "gender" as socio-demographic factor has a positive and significant impact 
on olive oil purchase from wholesalers. Women, head of household, are more likely to buy from wholesalers. 

These results confirm the assumptions of Corbeto-Fabón, et al. [30] about impact of olive oil quality attributes 
perception on place of purchase choice [31]. In addition, some assumptions of Vlontzos and Duquenne [5] about 
the Spanish market are confirmed: the educational level and the fact of living or not nearby to an olive oil 
producing area influence place of purchase choice, while the impact of household's size is not significant [6]. 

 

6. Conclusions and Implications 
Consumers’ purchasing behaviour is affected to varying degree by different factors: socioeconomic and 

demographic factors, the relative importance accorded by Tunisian consumers to the olive oil intrinsic and 
extrinsic quality indicators and olive oil experience and credence attributes. The results obtained here prove that 
having a high educational level and being sensitive to some extrinsic quality indicators such as origin, quality label, 
packaging and place of purchase have a positive and significant impact on olive oil purchase decision and promote 
the choice of mills and relatives as olive oil place of purchase. Whereas consumers sensibility to brand and price has 
a negative and significant impact on purchase decision and on the choice of these point of sale of olive oil in the 
Tunisian market. It should be noted that mills and friends/relatives are the main supply areas for Tunisian 
consumers. In addition, being a women head of household increase the probability of olive oil purchase from 
wholesalers. Being originating in an olive oil production area increase the probability of purchasing olive oil from 
friends and relatives. Based on these results, it is recommended that Tunisian olive oil institutions work on 
changing Tunisian purchase behaviour from bulk to bottled products, from an annual act of purchase to more 
frequent purchase of small quantities to meet consumer expectations for quality attributes and to enhance olive oil 
purchase. This will facilitate the transition from informal (weekly market, friends, and relatives) to formal 
distribution (supermarket, hypermarket, retail stores, etc.). Producers’ marketing strategies must consider the 
consumer profile (age, gender, origin, and educational level) and behaviour (frequency of purchase, preferred size of 
the package, awareness about quality attributes) to provide an adequate product, compliant with and met the 
requirements of the Tunisian consumers. This strategy can be based on olive oil’s peculiarities, origin and quality 
labels. Particularly, they have to strengthen the in-store advertising (e.g. Tasting sessions as promotion campaigns 
at supermarkets and hypermarkets) to allow consumers to experience the olive oil properties, so they can make 
their purchase decisions of bottled and branded olive oil based on sensory factors. In addition, companies can 



Agriculture and Food Sciences Research, 2022, 9(1): 22-31 

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strengthen consumers’ awareness about olive oil health benefits and mode of use. So, experience and credence 
quality attributes could become more significant for Tunisian consumers.  

In conclusion, the present study is in effect an exploratory study. Sample size and representativeness are its 
main limitations. It emphasizes the interaction between the olive oil purchase decision and the choice of its place of 
purchase, based on an investigation quality attributes and indicators perception. 

 

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