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© 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Agriculture and Food Sciences Research 
Vol. 12, No. 1, 69-77, 2025 

ISSN(E) 2411-6653/ ISSN(P) 2518-0193 
DOI: 10.20448/aesr.v12i1.6820 

© 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

 
 

 

 
 
 
Assessment of productivity of spring and winter wheat sorts from China and 
Pakistan in high mountain Tajikistan 

 
Kozimamad A Abdulamonov1   

Aslam Q Qadamov2   

Aziz Ali Khan3   

Roy C. Sidle4   

Ahmad Q Abdulamonov5   

 

 
( Corresponding Author) 

 
1,5Pamir Biological Institute, NAST, 2 Kholdorov Street, 736000 Khorog, Tajikistan. 
1Email: Ahmad80@mail.ru  
5Email: ahmad79.79@mail.ru 
2,3,4University of Central Asia, Mountain Societies Research Institute, 155 Qimatsho Imatshoev Street, 736000, 
Khorog, Tajikistan. 
2Email: aslam.qadamov@ucentralasia.org  
3Email: azizali.khan@ucentralasia.org  
4Email: Ahmad80@mail.ru  

 
Abstract 

Wheat is a staple crop and critical for food security in the high mountains of Tajikistan. Despite 
the local and introduced varieties of wheat, overall yields remain low and crops are vulnerable to 
diseases and climatic shocks. To improve production, new adapted and disease-resistant crops are 
crucial. We tested ten spring wheat sorts from Pakistan and seven from China with higher yields, 
disease resistance, and shorter stems compared to local varieties. Local varieties performed better 
than foreign varieties in stem length (77% longer), 25% more grains in the main spike, 45% longer 
main spike, 4% more spikelets in the main spike, and more productive tillers. Foreign cultivars 
had shorter morphogenic events, 16% higher grain weight in the main spike, 23% higher weight 
of 1000 grain, and 11% more grains per spikelet. Yield components and morpho-physiological 
traits for Chinese cultivars were weakly correlated. The main phenotypic traits affecting crop 
yield components were general and productive tillering. In contrast to Chinese cultivars, the main 
crop yield component values of local cultivars negatively interacted with most genotypic and 
phenotypic traits. Foreign cultivars were less susceptible to lodging and diseases; however, their 
shorter stems made them less attractive to local farmers. 

 
Keywords: Breeding parent selection, Disease resistance, Food security, Gorno-Badakhshan, Grain quality, High-altitude agriculture, 
Lodging resistance, Straw yield. 

 
Citation | Abdulamonov, K. A., Qadamov, A. Q., Khan, A. A., Sidle, 
R. C., & Abdulamonov, A. Q. (2025). Assessment of productivity of 
spring and winter wheat sorts from China and Pakistan in high 
mountain Tajikistan. Agriculture and Food Sciences Research, 12(1), 
69–77. 10.20448/aesr.v12i1.6820 
History:  
Received: 28 April 2025 
Revised: 5 June 2025 
Accepted: 18 June 2025 
Published: 25 June 2025 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 4.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

Funding: This research is supported by Aga Khan Foundation Tajikistan 
within the THRIVE project, Tajikistan (Grant number: 122042700045-3). 
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, 
accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the 
study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned 
have been explained. This study followed all ethical practices during writing. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing 
interests. 
Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception 
and design of the study. All authors have read and agreed to the published 
version of the manuscript. 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 70 
2. Materials and Methods ................................................................................................................................................................... 70 
3. Results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 72 
4. Discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 75 
5. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 76 
References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 77 
 

 

mailto:Ahmad80@mail.ru
mailto:ahmad79.79@mail.ru
mailto:aslam.qadamov@ucentralasia.org
mailto:azizali.khan@ucentralasia.org
mailto:Ahmad80@mail.ru
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/aesr.v12i1.6820
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6291-7066
https://orcid.org/0009-0005-8571-1585
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5682-3129
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5004-4154
https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6621-9455


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Contribution of this paper to the literature:  
This is the first wheat trial in GBAO that put high-altitude Chinese and Pakistani lines side-by-
side with local wheats. Earlier tests used only Tajik varieties. By using local types as controls, 
we found foreign lines with valuable traits- earlier ripening, strong disease resistance, and 
heavier grains. These traits are now being crossed into local wheats, a clear and practical 
outcome of the study.   

 
1. Introduction 

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), a member of the grass family Poaceae [1] is the third most important cereal crop 
behind rice and maize [2, 3] has profound economic and livelihood benefits [4] and is the most widely grown crop 
worldwide [5, 6]. The increasing demand for wheat increases its planted area, reaching up to 219 million ha with 
yields ranging from  732.1 to 760.9 million tons globally [7]. Wheat provides about 20% of protein and calories 
worldwide [8] and its gluten protein is widely used in many foods [9]. Wheat is the highest-ranked cereal crop, 
accounting for 30% of all cereals, and provides staple food for more than 7.9 billion people in up to 43 nations [10]. 
In developing countries, the demand for wheat is expected to grow by as much as 60% by 2050 [11].  

Wheat is one of Central Asia's most consumable cereal crops; almost every meal includes bread made of wheat 
[12]. In the Pamir of Tajikistan, located in Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast (GBAO), both local and 
introduced wheat varieties have served as a mainstay of food security and livelihood support for many years, but 
changes in socio-economic conditions together with climate changes have made wheat less attractive due to 
declines in yields and disease resistance [13]. Lack of knowledge and financial capital prevent local farmers from 
introducing new varieties that are more resistant to disease and more productive. Moreover, this practice requires a 
preliminary assessment of introduced cultivars aimed at determining the main characteristics of the introduced 
varieties in the new location. Therefore, it is important to identify and select the best wheat varieties that can grow 
in mountain conditions as well as conduct breeding selection in such environments. The overall goal of this 
research was to assess foreign wheat sorts from China and Pakistan that carried traits such as high yield, disease 
resistance, and short stems that would not lodge before harvest and compare these to local varieties.  

Ancient wheat varieties have been cultivated by local farmers for centuries, but during the last century were 
replaced by high-yielding sorts [13] which led to the loss of some varieties. Considering the importance of ancient 
cultivars and to preserve natural agrobiodiversity [14] Pamir Biological Institute (PBI) collected more than 100 
local wheat varieties from Tajik and Afghan parts of Badakhshan. The main disadvantage of most local cultivars is 
their low yields and low baking qualities [15]. PBI with a long history of agricultural research and extension is the 
only facility in GBAO with enough land to test many wheat varieties focusing on developing and preserving local 
varieties and their gene pools. Each year PBI provides small farmers in GBAO with top local spring wheat varieties 
(Safedaki Ishkashimy, Surkhkhusha, Bobillo, Safedaki Bartang, and Kilak Bartangy) along with the proven lines 
from Afghan Badakhshan, such as Sadiras, Pandaki (facultative), and Bludon from Takhar province  [16]. In recent 
years, PBI scientists and other Tajik breeders have crossed local and foreign wheats at the Ishkashim Experimental 
Station, producing hybrids that combine valuable traits [13]. Surprisingly, results of tested varieties show that no 
foreign variety surpassed the local lines in a total dry biomass and yield metrics  [13].  

Local wheat varieties have some valuable characteristics such as tolerance to local stresses, yield stability, 
strong adaptability to high altitudes, and important genetic diversity. Many of the local cultivars are ancient wheat. 
The interest in ancient grains increased during the last decades mainly because of their better nutritional 
composition [17]. The presence of lipids, trace elements, proteins, and other contents make ancient grains popular 
among farmers and consumers [18, 19]. Another feature of local varieties is the so-called high “straw to grain 
yield” ratio (the ratio of the height of the cultivar to yield). This is important for local farmers as the wheat straw is 
usually used as livestock feed during winter [20]. Therefore, dwarf and semidwarf cultivars are not popular among 
local farmers. However, local varieties also have disadvantages such as lodging, susceptibility to diseases, and low 
baking quality. The low baking qualities relegate these varieties to fodder wheat [21]. To support livelihoods and 
mitigate food insecurity in these mountainous regions, as well as increase the adaptative capacity of local farmers to 
climate variability, it is essential to improve the yield and the quality of local cultivars by introducing new varieties 
for screening and dissemination among local farmers. Thus, the main objective of this research was to assess and 
compare the productivity of foreign spring soft wheat sorts from China and vernalized winter sorts from Pakistan 
to local varieties in the mountain conditions of GBAO. 

In developing countries, people depend on cereal crops as a main nutrient source, therefore production of 
sufficient grain crops to ensure food security remains significant [22]. Recent studies attempted to identify 
mechanisms to increase yields [9, 23, 24] but wheat yield depends on many factors [25, 26]. Thus, the 
introduction of new cultivars is important because the variety genotype is a key factor affecting yield [27]. On the 
other hand, only proper selection and introduction of new varieties and their tolerance towards agroecological 
conditions can guarantee high yields and high-quality grains [28]. Therefore, comparative analyses of the 
performance of introduced varieties in local conditions are important.  
 

2. Materials and Methods 
2.1. Site Characteristics  

Ishkashim District is situated in the southern part of GBAO (Figure 1) and is characterized by a continental 
and arid climate. The summers are warm and dry, and the winters are cold with little snow. Annual precipitation is 
low, only 80-120 mm. Precipitation mainly falls during the winter and spring (80%), with negligible rain in 
summer and autumn. March is the wettest month and August is the driest month of the year. The amount of solid 
precipitation is quite low, ranging from 10 to 20% of total precipitation. The difference in precipitation between the 
driest and wettest months is 78 mm [29]. During the growing season (May to September) in this arid area, the 
relative air humidity is no more than 40%. The average annual temperature in Ishkashim is 7.5 °C. July is the 
warmest month of the year with an average temperature of 19.5 °C, and January is the coldest month with an 

average temperature of −6.0 °C. The average monthly temperature varies by 25.5 °C throughout the year [30].  



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During the research period (2019-2021), no significant differences in mean annual air temperature were 
observed for the research area (Figure 2). Precipitation was higher in 2020 (91 mm) compared with the other two 
years, but the difference was insignificant. 

 

Figure 1. Location of the study area and experimental plot in Ishkashim District, GBAO, Tajikistan. 
 

 
Figure 2. The distribution of mean annual air temperature and precipitation within the research period based on data from Ishkashim 
meteorological station.  

 

2.2. Experimental Design, and Agronomic Practices 
The research was conducted at the PBI Experimental Station in Ishkashim, GBAO, Tajikistan (36°40'42"N, 

71°41'22"E) (Figure 1). Seven breeding sorts (CRBW1, CRBW2, CRBW3, CRBW4, CRBW5, CRBW6, and 
CRBW7) were provided by the Agronomy Department, University of Chengdu, China. Ten breeding sorts (Trjata, 
No. 63, No. 76 skd, No. 75, No. 78 skd, No. 105, No. 141, No. 142, No. 144 and No. 147) were provided by the 
Pakistan Agriculture Research Council (PARC). The Pakistani winter wheat sorts were tested and successfully 
cultivated in the Skardu region (above 2000 m a.s.l.) of Gilgit Baltistan Province, Pakistan. As a control local 
variety, Safedaki Ishkashimy was compared with the Chinese wheat varieties and local varieties Joydori and Bludon 
were compared with varieties from Pakistan. Local varieties were included because they have evolved under the 
local conditions and are adapted to high altitudes (2000-3250 m a.s.l.).   

In October 2019 local winter wheats Joydori and Bludon and ten Pakistani lines were sown at the Ishkashim 
experimental site. All plants tillered but later froze because the 2019-2020 winter had little snow cover. In March 
2020 some Pakistani lines and the two local varieties were vernalized in a freezer (below 0°C for 86 days) and sown 
in spring. Because seeds was limited, the final lines kept only three Pakistani lines (No. 75, No. 144, and No. 63) 
plus Joydori and Bludon.  

Soil is a sandy loam over pebbles, giving good drainage and high natural fertility  [31, 32]. The second-year 
trail was planted in the third week of April and harvested in late September. Before ploughing, we applied 200 
kg/ha of nitrogen-phosphorus fertilizer and 100 kg/ha of urea. Rows are 50 cm apart, each 1 m strip was separated 
by 60 cm. We hand-sowed two rows per strip (100 seeds per row, 2 cm between plants, 17 cm between the paired 
rows). Each 0.5 m2 plot was replicated three times, and the replicates were arranged at random.  

    
 



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2.3. Data Collection 
The key growth staged such as germination, tillering, stem elongation, heading, and stage of ripeness (milk 

and dough stages, and full ripening) were tracked. The time from germination to heading and from heading to 
ripening was recorded, and some plants showed yellow rust during ear emergence and flowering. At harvest we 
sampled ten plants per variety and measured plant height, general and productive tillering, length of the main 
spike, number of spikelets on the main spike, number and weight of grains in the main spike, number of grains per 
spikelet, grain weight of the main spike, grain weight of one plant, and weight of 1000 grains. Each of the 12 traits 
was tested with a one-way ANOVA in XLSTT, with LSD use to separate means. Pearson correlations among traits 
were run in R Studio (https://posit.co/download/rstudio-desktop).   

 

3. Results  
3.1. Comparative Analyses of Spring Soft Wheat Sorts 

As a widely adapted crop, wheat grows in most environments but thrives in cool environments [33]. The main 
parameters of the spike that determine productivity (i.e., number of spikelets per spike, number of kernels per 
spikelet, and weight of individual kernels) are determined genetically but can be affected by environmental 
conditions [34]. In this study, all relevant parameters related to crop yield were analyzed.    

The comparative analyses amongst all Chinese and local sorts show that the mean plant height of the control 
variety Safedaki Ishkashimy ranged from 90.6 to 96.0 cm during the 3-yr period, significantly higher compared to 
Chinese sorts (Figure 3a). The height of wheat is an important factor for Tajik farmers as the straw is used for 
winter cattle forage. Height of Chinese sorts during this period ranged from 52 (CRBW-7) to 62 (CRBW-6) cm, 
significantly shorter than controls. All Chinese sorts were semidwarf. Local varieties Surkhkhusha and Pandaki 
showed slightly better results than the control (Safedaki Ishkoshimi), but these height differences were not 
statistically significant. Pandaki produced the tallest plants of all varieties tested.  

During the 3-yr period, Safedaki Ishkashimy (control) had the highest mean of the general tillering, a 
specialized branching that occurs from the basal node and grows independently of the mother stem [35] (3.5-3.7 
pcs), significantly higher than sorts from China (Figure 3b). The general tillering of sorts from China in the 3-yr 
period ranged from 2.4 to 2.9 pcs. Local varieties were not significantly different from the control, except in 2020 
when Surkhkhusha was significantly higher. 

The mean number of productive tillers (number of tillers that produce spikes and seeds) [36] of the control 
variety was 3.4 pcs. Similar to general tillering, the control variety had a higher number of productive tillers 
compared to all sorts from China. Productive tillering of Chinese sorts ranged from 2.3 to 2.7 pcs during the 3-yr 
period (Figure 3c). Also, similar to general tillering, local varieties were not significantly different from controls, 
except in 2020 when Surkhkhusa was significantly higher.   

The mean of the length of the main spike in the control variety was significantly greater than the range 
reported for Chinese types. The spike length of the Chinese types ranged from 5.5 to 7.5 cm (Figure 3d). Local 
types did  not differ significantly  from the control, except for Surkhkush in 2021 (7.40 cm) and Pandaki in 2020 
(7.7 cm), which were both shorter than the control.  

Safedaki Ishkoshimy, the control, also had significantly more spikelets per main spike than the Chinese types.  
Nevertheless,  CRBW7, CRBW6 CRBW5 and CRBW2 had higher values than the control in 2020 (Figure 3e). On 
average , the Chinese types had from 11.2 to 15.1 pcs spikelets per main spike . Local varieties Surkhkusha and 
Pandaki had significantly fewer spikelets than the control.   

No significant differences were observed between the control and Chinese varieties for the number of grains 
per spikelet. There were about 2.2 to 3.20 pcs grains per spikelet among the Chinese varieties (Figure 3f). The sorts 
from China (CRBW7, CRBW6, CRBW4, CRBW5 and CRBW2) recorded somewhat higher values than the control 
in 2029, but the 3-year averages were not significantly different..  

The control plants carried about 38–42 grains on the main spike. CRBW1 always produced fewer grains than 
the control. CRBW7, CRBW6, and CRBW5 matched the control in 2019 but fell below the control in 2020 and 
2021. CRBW3 and CRBW2 followed the same pattern. CRBW4 was the only line with more grains than the 
control in 2019 (about 44), yet it dropped below the control in 2020 and showed no difference in 2021. Both local 
sorts equaled the control in 2019 and trailed the control in the next two seasons. 

The control’s 1000-grain weight ranged from 29.8 to 34.7 g. In 2019, grain weights for CRBW1, CRBW4, 
CRBW5, and CRBW2 were clearly heavier (40–43 g), while CRBW7, CRBW6, CRBW3, and the local varieties 
showed no statistical difference from the control. 

Local varieties needed the most time to reach heading,  about 53–61 days. Chinese lines headed sooner at 
roughly 52–55 days, so they were significantly earlier than the control in 2019 and 2020. In 2021, heading in two 
of those lines extended to 58–59 days, and the rest matched the control. Surkhkhusha reached heading later than 
the control only in 2019, whereas Pandaki was slow every year (65–72 days). 

The time period from heading to full ripening was shorter for local wheats (51–53 days). Most lines mirrored 
the control in 2019 and 2021, except CRBW6, which took slightly longer to ripen in 2019. During the 2020 season 
all sorts needed 59–62 days from heading to full ripening, outpacing the control. Local varieties ripened more 
rapidly than the control in 2019–2020 but slower in 2021. 

The germination to ripening period is longer for local varieties compared to foreign sorts (112 and 106 days, 
respectively; Figure 3k). During the 3-year study, this period ranged from 104-113 days. The mean germination to 
ripening periods for all sorts in 2019 and 2021 were a bit slower compared to the control but not statistically 
different (Table 1). In 2020, all sorts were not significantly different from the control. Surkhkhusha was not 
significantly different from the control in all years, whereas the local variety Pandaki had significantly higher 
values in 2019 and 2020 (109 and 119 days, respectively).  

 



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Figure 3. Main parameters of the Chinese and local sorts; a) plant height, b) general tillering, c) productive tillering, d) length of main spike 
e) number of grains in the main spike. f) number of grains per spikelet, g) number of grains in the main spike h) weight of 1000 grains, i) 
germination to heading period, j) heading to ripening period, k) germination to ripening period, l) weight of grains in the main spike. 

 
There were no differences in the weight of grains in the main spike of the control compared to foreign sorts 

(Figure 3l). Grain weights in the control ranged from 1.2 to 1.3 g. Some Chinese sorts (CRBW2, CRBW3, 
CRBW4, CRBW5, CRBW7) showed better performance than the control variety but these changes were not 
significant (p<0.05). Surkhkhush and Pandaki had significantly lower weight of grain in the main spike compared 
to the control. 

 

3.2. Comparative Analyses of Vernalized Winter Sorts 
Local cultivars were taller than introduced sorts from Pakistan. Control height ranged between 85.9 to 105.6 

cm (Figure 4a), generally higher than sorts from Pakistan (74.4 to 95 cm), except sort №63 in 2019. The local 
variety Bludon was not significantly different from the control in all years.  

 
 

 
Figure 4. Main parameters of the Pakistani and local  varieties; a) plant height, b) general tillering, c) productive tillering, d) length of the 
main spike, e) number of kernels in the main spike, f) number of grains per spikelet, g) number of grains in the main spike h) weight of grains 
in the main spike i) weight of 1000 grains, j) germination to heading period, k) heading to ripening period, and l) germination to ripening 
period. 



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The mean value for general tillering in the control was 3.3 pcs., not significantly different from foreign sorts. 

This value for the sorts from Pakistan ranged from 2.2 to 2.7 pcs. (except №144 in 2020) and was not significantly 
different from the control (Figure 4b). Local variety Bludon had a lower tillering value in 2019 and 2021 (2.2 and 
2.6 pcs.) but was not significantly different (3.3 pcs.) from the control in 2020. The mean of productive tillering in 
the control was 3.2 pcs. For Pakistani sorts, productive tillering ranged from 2.2 to 2.6, which was not statistically 
different than the control (Table 1). The local variety Bludon had lower values ranging from 2.2 to 2.9 pcs (Figure 
4c).  

There was no difference in the length of the main spike among the control and foreign sorts (Figure 4d). The 
mean value of the main spike of the control was 8.3 cm, significantly longer compared to Pakistani sorts (6.9 to 8.0) 
(Table 2). Local cultivar Bludon was not significantly different than the control. 

The mean number of spikelets in the main spike of the control ranged from 14.5 to 16.2 pcs (Figure 4e). All 
foreign sorts and Bludon were not significantly different from the control in all years. No statistically significant 
differences were found among cultivars. 

The mean number of grains per spikelet in the control ranged from 2.3 to 2.8 pcs. (Figure 4f). Sorts №75 and 

№63 did not differ from the control values in all years. Only sort №144 had more grains per spikelet compared to 
the control, but this was not statistically significant. In 2019 and 2021, local cultivar Bludon had a higher value 
compared to the control, but in 2020 it had significantly lower values. The control had an average of 36.5 grains in 

the main spike during the 3-year study (Figure 4g). Sort №75 and Bludon were not significantly different from the 

control. Sorts №144 and №63 had significantly higher grains per spikelet in all years except 2019 (№144) and 

2020 (№63). The Pakistani variety № 63 had the highest mean weight of grains in the main spike (1.6 g) and the 
local variety Bludon had the lowest value (1.2 g), although the difference between the cultivars was not statistically 
significant (Figure 4h). On an annual basis, the highest value was recorded in 2021 (1.7 g) and the lowest in 2020 
(1.2 g).     

The mean weight of 1000 grains in the control ranged from 35.9 to 48.1 g (Figure 4i). Sorts №75 and №144 
had higher values in some years but mean values were not significantly different (Table 2). Local cultivar Bludon 
had the lowest mean value.  

The germination to heading period was 65 days for the control, slightly longer but not significantly different 
from Pakistani sorts (59 to 62 days, Figure 4j, Table 2). Local cultivar Bludon had the longest germination to 
heading period (67 days). The control cultivar Joydori ripened first (42 days). The Pakistani cultivars had a longer 
heading to ripening period (46-49 days) but this was not significantly different from the control variety (Figure 
4k). For local cultivar Bludon, ripening occurred after 44 days.  

The germination to ripening period was similar for all varieties (108 to 110 days) (Figure 4l). The ripening 
period varied throughout the 3-year study period. For instance, in 2019 all sorts had significantly lower values 
(ranged from 98 to 104 days), while in 2020 all sorts and the local cultivar Bludon had higher values (ranged from 
111 to 112 days) compared to the control. In 2021 all sorts and the local cultivar Bludon were not significantly 
different from the control.  

 

3.3. Pearson Correlation Analyses Between the Crop Parameters 
The results of Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlations between various crop yield parameters of Chinese, 

local, and Pakistani cultivars are shown in Figure 5. Among the phenotypic and genotypic variance affecting the 
grain yield, the influence of yield components, namely the number of grains per spike, weight of the kernel, and 
spikes per unit area are significant [37]. We observed a weak correlation between the yield components and 
morpho-physiological traits for Chinese cultivars (Figure 5a). The length of the main spike (LMS) was negatively 
correlated with weight of 1000 grains (W1000G), number of grains per spikelet (NGPS), and general tillering 
(GT). LMS was positively correlated with the number of spikelets in the main spike (NSMS), but had a non-
significant positive correlation with plant height (PH), number of grains in the main spike (NGMS), and weight of 
grains in the main spike (WGMS). Among the main phenotypic traits affecting the NGMS are GT and productive 
tillering (PT). The interaction between them is highly significant (p<0.001). A negative correlation was detected 
for W1000G with morpho-physiological traits, especially with HRP (p<0.01), and GRP (p<0.05). However, 
W100G had a negative non-significant correlation with NGMS and NSMS. In contrast, NSMS was positively 
correlated with almost all traits, while the level of the interaction between these traits was low. WGMS and 
NGMS were also not well correlated with morpho-physiological traits. 

For local spring wheat cultivars, the highest correlation was detected between the NGPS and GT, NGMS and 
WGMS, NGMS and PH, and between W1000G and PT (Figure 5b). The main phenotypic traits affecting the yield 
components were PT, LMS, and GT. In contrast to Chinese cultivars, LMS, PH, WGMS, and NGMS values of 
local cultivars negatively interact with most genotypic and phenotypic traits. The grain yield components WGMS 
and NGMS correlated well with PH and LMS, though the coefficient of the correlation is not significant (p≥0.05). 
The height of the plant (PH) of local wheat cultivars had a high negative correlation with most morpho-
physiological traits (GRP, PT, GHP, HRP) and yield trait components (W1000G, NGPS). 

For the Pakistani sorts, a high correlation was detected between some phenotypic traits (GRP, GHP and LMS) 
and yield components (NGMS, WGMS) (Figure 5c). Other phenotypic traits (GT, PT and HRP) showed a 
negative interaction with most genotypic and phenotypic traits. The 1000 grain weight had a moderate positive 
correlation with WGMS, PH, and HRP, but a non-significant negative correlation with yield components (NGMS 
and NGPS). PH and LMS interacted significantly with WGMS. The main morpho-physiological traits affecting 
the crop yield components are PH, GHP, and GRP.        

 



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Figure 5. Correlation between the main crop yield parameters of Chinese (a), local (b), and Pakistani (c) cultivars. PH-plant height, PT-
productive tillering, NSMS-number of spikelets in the main spike, HRP- heading to ripping period, GRP- gemination to heading period, 
LMS- length of the main spike, W1000G- weight of 1000 grains, NGMS- number of grains in the main spike, NGPS-number of grains per 
spikelet, and WGMS- weight of grains in the main spike. 
Note:      ns p>=0.05; *p<0.05; ==<0.01; and ***<0.001. 

 

4. Discussion 
Varieties with long adaptation periods to local stresses favor local cultivars if the high mountain setting is not 

well suited to newly introduced crops. An ideal cultivar that best fits the local context and contributes to food 
security in this mountain region must possess ideal traits, including long straw; high numbers and mass of kernels 
per spike; high numbers of productive tillers; early maturity; and resistance to local environmental shocks and 
diseases.  

Our findings show that local varieties have some advantages over imported cultivars, especially for crop height, 
number of spikelets on the main spike, length of the main spike, and number of grains in the main spike. Introduced 
cultivars have higher numbers of grains per spikelet, higher weight of 1000 grains, and matured earlier. These 
results indicate that despite having longer spikes and longer axes, local cultivars produce small grains diminishing 
total cultivar yields (Table 1). Local cultivars produce longer stems and more tillers, which are important for the 
local farmers because they use wheat straw for cattle fodder during the long winters. The local cultivar Safedaki 
Ishkoshimi was 72% higher than the average value of the Chinese cultivars. The height of the plants was 
recognized as a main feature of ancient wheat [14]. On the other hand, tall plants are susceptible to lodging [38] 
causing decreases in yields because the lodged plant becomes susceptible to diseases. Therefore, to keep the stem 
standing, the spikelets have undergone significant changes during domestication, mainly expressed by changes in 
their shape and decreases in kernel weight [14]. Thus, despite local wheat cultivars producing more grains in the 
main spike, the weight of grains is lower compared to foreign varieties.     

Local cultivars had longer periods of morphogenic events ranging from 109 to 114 days. Chinese cultivars 
matured somewhat earlier, but results were not statistically significant (Table 1). Early cultivar maturation is an 
important trait because of the harsh local climate.  

The growing season in Ishkashim is short, varying from 150 to 155 days, and the sum of effective daily 
temperatures (>10°C) range from 1000 to 1100°C per year [39]. Rain can occur in September making cereal crops 
vulnerable to microbial diseases, thus farmers prefer to harvest earlier before the onset of September rains. As such, 
early maturation of the cultivars is significant. In the overall heading stage in 2019 and 2020, five wheat sorts 
ripened 5 to 11 days earlier compared to the control. In contrast, the heading to ripening period for the local 
variety (Pandaki) was 8 to 13 days later compared to the control. The heading to ripening period in the five sorts in 
2020 was 2 to 7 days longer than for the control; however, in other years these differences were not significant. 
The germination to heading periods for the five sorts were 2 to 7 days shorter than the local variety Surkhkusha. 

The main characteristics of the spike, such as length, number of spikelets and grains in the spike, and size and 
weight of grains are important to biologists and breeders [40]. Local cultivars had higher spikelet counts and 
higher numbers of grains in the main spike, but the weight of grains per spike was lower than in Chinese varieties. 
Thus, total yields of local cultivars were lower. The number of spikelets is generally determined genetically, 
although they could be influenced by the environment [34].    

Grain productivity in local wheat varieties is formed based on characteristics such as productive tillering, spike 
length, number of spikelets, and number of grains in the main spike. In contrast, grain productivity in Chinese 
sorts was based mainly on weight of 1000 grains and a longer heading to ripening period.  
 
Table 1. Analyses of variance of main crop parameters of the local and foreign spring cultivars from China. 

Parameter Α F Pr > F p-values signification codes 

Plant height 0.05 127.5 0.0001 *** 
Length of the main spike 0.05 15.27 0.0001                         ***           
Number of grains per spikelet 0.05 4.39 0.003 ** 
Number of grains in the main spike 0.05 6.81 0.00018 ** 
Number of spikelets in the main spike 0.05 1.78 0.13 ° 
Grain weight of the main spike 0.05 1.75 0.142 ° 
Weight of 1000 grains 0.05 50.38 0.069 . 
Heading to ripening period 0.05 5.27 0.99 ° 
Germination to ripening period 0.05 0.95 0.505 ° 
Germination to heading period 0.05 7.74 0.51 ° 
General tillering capacity 0.05 9.904 <0.0001 *** 
Productive tillering capacity 0.05 8.02 <0.0001 *** 

Note: Computed against model Y=Mean(Y). 
Signification codes: 0 < *** < 0.001 < ** < 0.01 < . < 0.1 < ° <1. 



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The highest-yield traits, such as  number of grains per spike, grain weight of the main spike, and weight of 
1000 grains, were found in six Chinese lines (CRBW1, CRBW7, CRBW4, CRBW5, CRBW3 and CRBW2). These 
lines also stood up well to lodging, pests, and diseases and have good baking quality, making them useful parents 
for crossing with local wheats. The main disadvantage of these sorts in this region is that they have shorter stems 
with a lower straw-to-grain yield ratio. Therefore, they should be used in the breeding and hybridization rather 
than released directly.  

During the three-year test, Pakistani winter lines (No. 75, No. 144, and No. 63) grew shorter, tillered less, and 
had shorter main spikes than the local Bludon. Spikelet and grain counts were mostly similar to the control, except 
that No. 144 had more grains per spike. All three Pakistani lines reached heading 4-10 days sooner and matured 5-
7 days earlier than the control, while Bludon reached heading later but ripened at the same time. Sort No. 144 and 
No. 63 also produced more grains per main spike than the control.   

 
Table 2. Analyses of variance of the local and foreign winter sorts from Pakistan. 

Parameters  Α F Pr > F p-values signification codes 

Plant height 0.05 4.892 0.019 * 
Length of the main spike 0.05 6.10 0.009 ** 
Number of grains per spikelet 0.05 0.46 0.759 ° 
Number of grains in the main spike 0.05 1.56 0.257 ° 
Number of spikelets in the main spike 0.05 0.367 0.827 ° 
Grain weight of the main spike 0.05 0.64 0.65 ° 
Weight of 1000 grains 0.05 0.61 0.659 ° 

Heading to ripening period 0.05 0.209 0.927 ° 
Germination to ripening period 0.05 0.068 0.990 ° 
Germination to heading period 0.05 2.06 0.161 ° 
General tillering 0.05 1.79 0.207 ° 
Productive tillering 0.05 1.80 0.204 ° 
Note: Computed against model Y=Mean(Y). 

Signification codes: 0 < ** < 0.01 < * < 0.05 < . < 0.1 < ° <1. 

 
The Pakistani sorts produce smaller grains but are noted for resisting lodging, pest, and diseases, and for their 

good baking quality (this was not tested but based on the sort characteristics). Local wheats lack these strengths, 
so the Pakistani sorts are useful breeding materials and can be included in the hybridization process with local 
varieties. 

  

5. Conclusion 
Comparative analysis of productivity of foreign wheat sorts with local varieties in GBAO revealed important 

insights into the suitability of different sorts for the high mountain region. The research aimed to identify the ideal 
wheat cultivar that best fits local conditions and contributes to food security in this challenging region. The 
findings revealed that local varieties had certain advantages over foreign sorts. The local varieties showed better 
performance in terms of crop height, number of spikelets on the main spike, length of the main spike, and number 
of grains in the main spike. Additionally local cultivars had longer stems and more tillers, which are valuable traits 
for local farmers who use wheat straw as cattle fodder during the long and harsh winter months in high mountain 
areas. However, foreign wheat sorts also exhibited favorable characteristics, such as higher number of grains per 
spikelet, higher weight of 1000 grains, and early maturation. These traits are important and could be beneficial for 
withstanding the challenging local environment where the growing season is short and unpredictable weather 
conditions occur; particularly rains in September may make cereal crops susceptible to diseases. Early maturation 
of wheat sorts is desirable in such conditions to avoid the impact of September rainfall; some of the foreign wheat 
sorts demonstrated this trait.  

Local varieties have longer periods of maturity indicating a longer adaptation period to the local conditions. On 
the other hand, foreign sorts mature somewhat earlier, though not significantly different from the local varieties. 
The productivity attributes of local wheat varieties are mainly associated with productive tillering, spike length, 
number of spikelets, and number of grains in the main spike. In contrast, the productivity attributes of foreign sorts 
focus on weight of 1000 grains and longer heading to ripening periods for grain productivity.   

A separate comparison was made with vernalized winter wheat sorts from Pakistan during spring sowing 
under local conditions. The Pakistani sorts were generally shorter with lower general and productive tillering and 
shorter main spikes compared to local variety Bludon. However, some Pakistani sorts have higher numbers of 
grains in the main spike and better resistant to lodging, pests, and diseases, making them potential candidates for 
hybridization with local varieties. 

In conclusion, the study shows that local wheat varieties in GBAO have specific advantages, especially in terms 
of their adaptability to local stresses and their importance for providing cattle fodder during prolonged harsh 
winters. However, introduced wheat sorts also have attributes, including higher grain yield, early maturation, and 
resistance to lodging, pests and diseases. The results suggest that a combination of local and foreign wheat sorts 
through hybridization could lead to the development of ideal wheat varieties that can thrive in these unique 
environmental conditions and contribute to food security. Further research and breeding efforts should focus on 
selecting and developing cultivars with the most desirable traits to address the specific challenges of wheat 
cultivation in this high mountain region. In this study, the genotype by environment interaction (GEI) or 
differential genotypic expression across environments was not considered. GEI affects the performance of the 
tested cultivar in multiple environments.  Identification of superior genotypes is difficult because of GEI [41] 
therefore it is important to test the introduced cultivar in different locations of the region to identify the area where 
the cultivar performs similarly [42]. This limitation should be considered in future research.  

 
 



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