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Agriculture and Food Sciences Research 
Vol. 12, No. 2, 131-139, 2025 

ISSN(E) 2411-6653/ ISSN(P) 2518-0193 
DOI: 10.20448/aesr.v12i2.7803 

© 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

 
 

 
 
 
Nutrient use efficiency and growth analysis of wheat crop under precision nitrogen 
management techniques and growth regulators application 

 
Manisha Kapri1   

Amit Kesarwani2   

Rajeew Kumar3   

Vineeta Rathore4   

 

       
( Corresponding Author) 

 
1,2,3,4Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, India. 
1Email: manishakapri610@gmail.com  
2Email: getkesar@gmail.com  
3Email: shuklarajeew@gmail.com  
4Email: vineetaagron@gmail.com  

 
Abstract 

Nitrogen occupies a significant position in plant metabolism as an essential component of 
proteins, which are associated with all vital and metabolic processes in the plant system. Nitrogen 
fertilization in wheat is more complex, and the results are more flexible than in any other field 
crop. The objective of this study was to determine how nitrogen dose variation interacts with 
growth regulators and their impact on crop lodging and the yield of wheat. The experiment was 
conducted during the Rabi season 2019-20 to assess these effects, involving various treatment 
combinations of different nitrogen doses, use of growth regulators, including precision nitrogen 
management using leaf color charts, GreenSeeker, and decision-support tools such as Nutrient 
Expert. The results showed that precision nitrogen management techniques resulted in higher 
harvest index and nitrogen use efficiency compared to other treatments. Balanced supply of major 
nutrients, viz., N, P, and K, led to better nutrient uptake compared to treatments where only 
nitrogenous fertilizer was applied. The use of growth regulators increased the total number of 
days to achieve physiological maturity, thereby increasing values of growing degree days and 
heliothermal units. Therefore, it is suggested that nitrogenous fertilizer alone should not be 
applied in wheat crops to avoid soil nutrient imbalance and potential toxicity disruptions in the 
food cycle. 

 
Keywords: Chlormequat chloride, Growth regulators, Nitrogen, Nutrient expert, Nutrient use efficiency, Precision nutrient management, 
Tebuconazole. 

 
Citation | Kapri, M., Kesarwani, A., Kumar, R., & Rathore, V. 
(2025). Nutrient use efficiency and growth analysis of wheat crop 
under precision nitrogen management techniques and growth 
regulators application. Agriculture and Food Sciences Research, 12(2), 
131–139. 10.20448/aesr.v12i2.7803 
History:  
Received: 17 October 2025 
Revised: 21 November 2025 
Accepted: 28 November 2025 
Published: 5 December 2025 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 4.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, 
accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the 
study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned 
have been explained. This study followed all ethical practices during writing. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing 
interests. 
Authors’ Contributions:  All authors contributed equally to the conception 
and design of the study. All authors have read and agreed to the published 
version of the manuscript. 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 132 
2. Materials and Methods ................................................................................................................................................................. 132 
3. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 134 
4. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 138 
References ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 138 
 

 

 

 

mailto:manishakapri610@gmail.com
mailto:getkesar@gmail.com
mailto:shuklarajeew@gmail.com
mailto:vineetaagron@gmail.com
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/aesr.v12i2.7803
https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0672-1941
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6699-9668
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7082-2868
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9209-4790


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Contribution of this paper to the literature 
This study contributes to the existing literature on the application of nitrogen, along with 
growth regulators and precision nutrient management. It demonstrates the relevance of 
balanced nutrients, especially nitrogen application in crops. Although the integrated use of 
growth regulators can also help achieve higher yield targets and improve soil nutrient status. 

 
1. Introduction 

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a universal staple food for 40% of the human population in the world and is the 
second most important cereal after rice [1]. The massive importance of wheat can be understood from the figures 
of a grown area of 215.48 Mha, with an annual production of 731.46 Mt and a productivity of 33.9 q/ha during 
2018-19 worldwide [2]. In India, a significant portion of total cultivation is devoted to this crop, covering nearly 
29.14 million hectares with an annual production of 102.19 million tonnes, carrying an average productivity of 
3,506.8 kg/ha in the year 2018-19 [3] but Unfortunately, the productivity of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh is 44% and 
34%, respectively, which is less than the productivity of Punjab [4]. On a deeper level, these yield gaps can be 
somewhat related to the nutrient (N+P2O5+K2O) consumption per unit of gross cropped area in each individual 
state. 

Nitrogen is an indispensable protein component required in all dynamic processes of plants. Excessive N causes 
"luxuriant" growth, resulting in the plant being attractive to insects and diseases. The excessive growth can also 
reduce the strength of stems, which induces lodging at the time of flowering and grain filling. Therefore, deciding 
the optimum dose of nitrogen for crops is a matter of great concern for better yield. On one hand, high-yielding 
varieties require more inputs like nitrogenous fertilizers for their better performance, but on the other hand, more 
nitrogen application causes problems like lodging, which reduces their yield [5]. Therefore, it becomes quite 
important to know whether nitrogen management could reduce lodging risk without reducing the yield potential 
[6]. Plant growth regulators are chemical substances that can alter growth and developmental processes, helping 
to increase yield, improve grain quality, or facilitate harvesting [7]. The chemicals used are most commonly 
gibberellin inhibitors that block the early stages of gibberellin synthesis, thereby inhibiting cell elongation and 
growth, which results in shorter, lodging-tolerant plants. Some examples include Chlormequat chloride, 
Trinexapac-ethyl, Ethephon, Peclobutrazol, etc. 

The blanket recommendations of nitrogenous fertilizers for larger areas have helped to serve the purpose of 
producing optimum yield, but these recommendations are not always helpful in increasing N use efficiency beyond 
a certain limit [8]. In general, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) or recovery is only 30-50%. The concept of Site-
Specific Nutrient Management can help to improve production per unit of nutrient supply. Site-Specific Nutrient 
Management is a method to adjust soil nutrient supply over time and space to match the crop’s requirements 
through four key principles: Right Rate, Right Product, Right Time, and Right Place. Many instruments, viz. LCC 
(Leaf Colour Chart), optical sensors, and decision support systems like Nutrient Expert can be used for this 
purpose [9]. 
 

2. Materials and Methods 
The Centre N. E. Borlaug Crop Research Centre of Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and 

Technology, Pantnagar, is situated at 29°N latitude and 79.50°E longitude, at an elevation of 243.8 meters above 
mean sea level. The climate of the region is subtropical, with winters that are extremely cold, and the average 
temperature ranges from 4°C to 35.4°C. The soil at the experimental site is silty clay loam with a neutral pH of 7.4. 
It contains medium organic carbon content (0.73%), low available nitrogen (217.16 kg/ha), medium available 
phosphorus (21.4 kg/ha), and potassium (139.1 kg/ha) (Figure 1).  

 
 

 
Figure 1. Location map of Pantnagar, District Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand. 

 



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The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with 13 treatments and 3 replications. The 
treatments included an absolute control, 50% N (recommended dose of N) (75 kg N/ha), 75% N (112.5 kg N/ha), 
100% N (150 kg N/ha), 125% N (187.5 kg N/ha), 150% N (225 kg N/ha), 100% RDF (150:60:40 kg N P2O5 K2O / 
ha). Three treatments involved growth regulator spray with Chlormequat chloride (Lihocin) @ 0.2% of the 
commercial product dose and tebuconazole (Folicur 430 SC) @ 0.1% of the commercial product at the first node 
and boot leaf stage, along with application of 125% N, 150% N, and 150% RDF in respective treatments. 
Additionally, three precision nutrient management treatments were included. N management by LCC (Apply 45kg 

N/ha if LCC<4 and 35kg N/ha if LCC≥ 4) (135 kg N/ha), N management by green seeker (116.5 Kg N/ha) and N 
management by Nutrient Expert (125: 71: 89 Kg N P2O5 K2O / ha). N was applied in 3 split doses (1/3rd basal + 
1/3rd at 1st irrigation + 1/3rd at 2nd irrigation) in only N-containing treatments. Full dose of P and K and 1/3rd of N 
was applied at the time of sowing, and the remaining 2/3rd of N was applied as 1/3rd at first irrigation and 1/3rd at 
second irrigation. In LCC-based N management, a full dose of P, K, and 1/3rd N was applied as basal, and 1/3rd N 
at the time of the first irrigation. The readings of LCC were taken at the time of the second irrigation, and 35 kg 
N/ha was applied as the LCC reading was 4. Similarly, in Green Seeker-based N management treatment, 1/3rd N 
and full P and K were applied as basal, and 1/3rd at the time of the first irrigation. The remaining N was applied 
based on Green Seeker NDVI readings taken at the time of the third irrigation. In the case of Nutrient Expert-
based N management, the fertilizer doses were determined through the SSNM Nutrient Expert software with a 
yield target of 8 t/ha. 

Wheat variety WH 1105 was sown at a row spacing of 20 cm on 14th November 2019. Other management 
practices, including irrigation, weeding, and hoeing, were adopted as per the package of practices for the wheat 
crop. 

Crop growth rate and relative growth rate during different time intervals were calculated using the following 
formula [10]. 

CGR = 
𝑊2 −W1

𝑇2−𝑇1
  

Where, 
W2 = dry weight of plant/m2 recorded at time T2. 
W1 = dry weight of plant/m2 recorded at time T1. 

RGR = = 
𝑙𝑛𝑊2 − lnW1

𝑇2−𝑇1
  

Where, 
ln = Natural log. 
W2 = dry weight of plant/m2 recorded at time T2. 
W1 = dry weight of plant/m2 recorded at time T1. 
The collected grain and straw samples, after harvest, were oven-dried at 70 ± 1 ˚C for 72 hours and ground to 

estimate the nitrogen content (%) in the samples, which was then converted to kg/ha. 

Nitrogen uptake by grain (kg/ha) = 
Nitrogen conc.in grain (%)×Grain yield ( kg/ha )

100
 

Nitrogen uptake by straw (kg/ha) =
Nitrogen conc.in straw (%)×Straw yield ( kg/ha )

100
 

Total nitrogen uptake (kg/ha) = Nitrogen uptake by grain + Nitrogen uptake by straw 
Plant samples were analyzed for phosphorus concentration (%) in grain and straw. Plant samples were dried in a 
dryer at 70 ± 1°C for 72 hours and followed by wet digestion using the vanado-molybdo-phosphoric acid yellow 
color method [11]. The total phosphorus uptake was calculated as described below. 

Phosphorus uptake by grain (kg/ha) = 
Phosphorus conc.in grain (%)×Grain yield ( kg/ha )

100
 

Phosphorus uptake by straw (kg/ha) = 
 Phosphorus conc.in straw (%)×Straw yield ( kg/ha )

100
 

Total Phosphorus uptake (kg/ha) = Phosphorus uptake by grain + Phosphorus uptake by straw. 
Plant samples were analyzed for potassium concentration (%) with the help of a flame photometer, and the total 

potassium uptake by grain and straw was calculated separately. Total potassium uptake (kg/ha) was determined as 
follows. 

Potassium uptake by grain(kg/ha) = 
Potassium conc.in grain (%)×Grain yield ( kg/ha )

100
 

Potassium uptake by straw (kg/ha) =
 Potassium conc.in straw (%)×Straw yield ( kg/ha )

100
 

Total Potassium uptake = Phosphorus uptake by grain + Phosphorus uptake by straw. 
Partial factor productivity and Agronomic efficiency of N were calculated by formula [12]. 

Partial factor productivity (kg/kg N) = 
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑎)

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑎)
 

Agronomic efficiency (%) = 
𝑌𝑁−𝑌0

𝑁
×100 

Where, 

𝑌𝑁 = Crop yield (kg/ha) with applied nutrient. 

𝑌0= Crop yield (kg/ha) without nutrients. 
N = Amount of nutrient applied (kg/ha). 
Weekly weather observations were recorded at the meteorological observatory situated at the research centre, 

and growing degree days and heliothermal units were calculated using the following formula [13]. 

GDD (˚C days) = Σ 
T max + T min

2
 − base temp. 

 
 
The base temperature for wheat was taken as 5 ˚C. 

HTU = Σ GDD X bright (Actual) sunshine hrs 
 



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Observations on different growth and yield parameters were taken, and the data were statistically analyzed 
with the help of the statistical program OPSTAT. 

 
3. Results and Discussion 
3.1. Crop Growth Rate (g/m2/ Day) 

Different treatments had shown no significant effect on CGR values during 90-120 DAS, while a significant 
effect was reported during the early stages of the crop (Figure 2). CGR increased slowly at early stages of growth 
and reached the peak at booting to heading stage; thereafter, it declined. The mean value of CGR was lowest in the 
absolute control during 30-60 DAS, while achieving the highest value in 100% RDF and 125% N during 60-90 
DAS. These results are in accordance with the results obtained by Sugár et al. [14]. This was due to the maximum 
production of dry matter at vegetative stages and indicates that dry matter production increases throughout the 
life cycle, but at a slow rate in later stages. Crop growth rate (CGR) is an index of agricultural productivity of land 
in terms of the plant biomass produced per unit area. It represents the net result of photosynthesis, respiration, and 
canopy area interception [15]. 
 

3.2. Relative Growth Rate (g/g/Day) 
Relative growth rate (RGR) is used to express growth in terms of the rate of increase in size per unit of size. 

There was no significant effect of nitrogen doses on RGR values during 90-120 DAS, but a significant effect was 
observed during the initial stages until 90 DAS (Figure 3). The values of RGR were maximum during 60- 90 DAS, 
and after that, RGR values declined. Sugár et al. [14] reported similar results. The observed decline in RGR with 
increasing size is accompanied by systematic changes in physiology, morphology, and allocation [16] often 
referred to as ontogenetic drift. The RGR values at later stages decrease for several reasons: non-photosynthetic 
biomass (roots and stems) increases, the top leaves of a plant begin to shade lower leaves, and soil nutrients can 
become limiting. As RGR is a total function of plant biomass change with time, it indicates that in later stages of 
plant growth, biomass increases but at a relatively slower rate compared to the initial period. 
  

 
Figure 2. Effect of different treatments on Crop growth rate (g/m2/day) at different intervals. 

 

3.3. Harvest Index (%) 
There was no significant difference observed in harvest index due to different treatments (Figure 4). The 

maximum harvest index was recorded from Green Seeker-based N management, followed by the application of 50% 
N. While a minimum harvest index was observed from the application of 150% N. A Low harvest index means that 
there is less translocation of assimilates from the source to the sink, which results in less development of seeds. 
When the harvest index is high, it means that more assimilates were translocated from the source to the grains, 
which results in improved development and filling [17]. The more nitrogen present, the greater the vegetative 
growth and development, but only up to a certain limit. Beyond that limit, it can cause toxicity to the plant and 
have adverse effects on yield and yield parameters. Therefore, N doses exceeding 125% resulted in a low harvest 
index [18]. 

 



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Figure 3. Effect of different treatments on the Relative growth rate (g/g/day). 

 

3.4. Nitrogen Content (%) and Uptake in Grain and Straw 
A gradual and significant increase in nitrogen content in grain and straw was observed with an increase in the 

dose of nitrogen (Table 1). N content in grain varies from 1.18% in the absolute control to 2.01% in 150% RDF + 
GR. This may be the effect of increased availability of nitrogen to the plants due to higher application amounts. As 
proper availability of K was present under 150% RDF, and K plays a very important role in the translocation of 
nutrients in the plants, therefore, N% in grain was higher in this treatment [19]. Similarly, maximum N content in 
straw was observed with the application of 125% N+GR and nutrient expert-based nitrogen management. The 
application of growth regulators has a positive impact on grain and straw nitrogen content. Under similar N 
application, treatments with growth regulator application showed higher values of grain and straw nitrogen 
content. Belete et al. [20] and  Singh et al. [21] reported similar results. Nutrient Expert gave the best results 
among all precision nitrogen management practices. As nutrients were applied at the right dose and the right time 
with the help of a software system, the availability of nitrogen content was increased to the plants. 

 

 
Figure 4. Effect of different treatments on Harvest index (%). 

 
Significant effects of different nitrogen doses and plant growth regulators were observed in the uptake of 

nitrogen by the crop. N uptake in grain and straw was significantly increased with an increase in the dose of 
nitrogen. Maximum N uptake in grain was obtained from the application of 150% RDF + GR, followed by 100% 
RDF, while maximum N uptake in straw was recorded in Nitrogen management by Nutrient Expert. Eytoo [22] 
reported similar results. Total N uptake is directly related to the grain and straw yield obtained from the particular 



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treatment and is found to be maximum with the application of 150% RDF + GR. The balanced supply of major 
nutrients, viz. N, P, and K might have resulted in better development of the active root system, which efficiently 
helps in better absorption of nutrients from the soil, producing higher biomass and nutrient concentration, 
resulting in higher nutrient uptake [20]. 
 
Table 1. Effect of different treatments on N content (%) and uptake in grain and straw. 

Sr. 
No 

Treatment 
N content (%) N uptake (kg/ha) 

Grain Straw Grain Straw Total 

1 Absolute control 1.18 0.30 28.9 13.9 42.8 
2 50% N 1.20 0.38 51.8 29.3 81.1 
3 75% N 1.37 0.40 62.9 36.9 99.8 
4 100% N 1.77 0.44 82.9 42.3 125.2 
5 125% N 1.86 0.46 92.2 43.2 135.4 
6 150% N 1.87 0.41 87.2 39.2 126.4 
7 100% RDF 1.99 0.49 102.5 47.3 149.9 
8 125% N+GR 1.89 0.50 98.8 47.5 146.3 
9 150% N+GR 1.90 0.42 93.2 40.3 140.2 
10 150%RDF+GR 2.01 0.49 106.1 46.3 152.8 
11 LCC 1.66 0.48 79.2 43.5 122.7 
12 Green seeker 1.62 0.49 76.6 41.2 117.8 
13 Nutrient expert 1.85 0.50 94.5 48.2 142.7 

 SE(m) ± 0.04 0.01 2.9 2.1 4.2 

 C.D. (P = 0.05) 0.11 0.03 8.6 6.1 12.4 

 

3.5. Phosphorus Content (%) and Uptake in Grain and Straw 
There was a significant difference observed in grain and straw P content due to different nitrogen doses (Table 

2). The maximum value of grain P content was obtained with the application of 150% RDF + GR, followed by 
nutrient expert-based N management. However, P content in straw was maximum under both nutrient expert and 
150% RDF + GR, followed by 100% RDF. The reason behind the higher P content in these two treatments may be 
the application of a higher amount of P, which has increased the availability of P to plants. N also plays an 
important role in the uptake of other nutrients. It encourages the uptake and utilization of other nutrients, 
including potassium and phosphorus, and controls the overall growth of the plant [23]. Treatments in which only 
N was applied without P and K showed a decrease in P content (%) in grain and straw with an increase in the dose 
of N. As no P was applied, the application of more N resulted in increased plant growth, and due to the dilution of 
available phosphorus, less content was observed.  

Total P uptake in plants depends on P content (%) in grain and straw as well as grain and straw yield, and it 
was found to be maximum with the application of 150% RDF + GR. P uptake in grains ranged from 8.1 kg/ha in 
the absolute control to 26.3 kg/ha in 150% RDF + GR. P uptake in straw ranged from 6.3 kg/ha in the absolute 
control to 16.6 kg/ha in Nutrient Expert-based N management. The amount and timing of application of P in the 
above two treatments, viz. 150% RDF + GR and Nutrient Expert played an important role in increasing the 
availability and uptake of P by the crop. 
 
Table 2. Effect of different treatments on P content (%) and uptake in grain and straw. 

Sr. 
No. 

Treatment 
P content (%) P uptake (kg/ha) 

Grain Straw Grain Straw Total 

1 Absolute control 0.33 0.13 8.1 6.3 14.3 
2 50% N 0.32 0.13 13.8 9.7 23.5 
3 75% N 0.32 0.12 14.7 11.2 26.0 
4 100% N 0.31 0.11 14.6 10.3 24.9 
5 125% N 0.31 0.11 15.2 10.0 25.3 
6 150% N 0.30 0.10 14.0 9.5 23.5 
7 100% RDF 0.45 0.16 23.1 15.8 38.9 
8 125% N+GR 0.30 0.12 15.9 11.3 27.1 
9 150% N+GR 0.29 0.10 14.4 9.8 24.2 
10 150%RDF+GR 0.50 0.17 26.3 16.1 42.4 
11 LCC 0.44 0.15 21.0 13.5 34.5 
12 Green seeker 0.42 0.15 20.0 12.8 32.8 
13 Nutrient expert 0.49 0.17 24.9 16.6 41.4 
 SE(m) ± 0.01 0.01 0.8 0.8 1.1 
 C.D. (P = 0.05) 0.02 0.02 2.4 2.3 3.3 

 

3.6. Potassium Content (%) and Uptake in Grain and Straw 
Significant differences were observed in potassium content (%) in grain and straw due to different treatments 

containing various N doses (Table 3). More amount of potassium in grains and straw was obtained from the 
treatments in which basal application of potassium was done. Maximum K content in grains was recorded at 150% 
RDF + GR, followed by Nutrient Expert, while maximum K content in straw was obtained at 150% RDF + GR, 
followed by 100% RDF.  

Remaining precision nitrogen management treatments, viz. LCC and Green Seeker-based N management have 
shown better values of K content in both grains and straw compared to other treatments in which only nitrogen 
was applied. 

 
 

 



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Table 3. Effect of different treatments on K content (%) and uptake in grain and straw. 

Sr. 
No. 

Treatment 
K content (%) K uptake (kg/ha) 

Grain Straw Grain Straw Total 

1 Absolute control 0.43 0.97 10.6 45.3 55.9 
2 50% N 0.42 0.97 18.2 74.2 92.3 
3 75% N 0.42 0.96 19.2 87.8 106.9 
4 100% N 0.41 0.95 19.4 91.0 110.4 
5 125% N 0.40 0.95 20.0 89.6 109.6 
6 150% N 0.40 0.93 18.6 88.9 107.5 
7 100% RDF 0.63 1.47 32.2 143.1 175.3 
8 125% N+GR 0.41 0.97 21.6 91.1 112.7 
9 150% N+GR 0.39 0.94 19.3 89.6 108.9 
10 150%RDF+GR 0.65 1.53 34.4 144.6 179.0 
11 LCC 0.62 1.30 29.3 117.7 147.1 
12 Green seeker 0.61 1.20 28.8 99.7 128.5 
13 Nutrient expert 0.64 1.37 32.8 130.7 163.5 
 SE(m) ± 0.01 0.09 1.0 9.8 9.8 
 C.D. (P = 0.05) 0.03 0.26 2.9 28.9 28.6 

 
Significant effects of different treatments were observed in grain and straw potassium (K) uptake. Higher 

values of potassium uptake were observed from the treatments with application of potassium compared to the 
treatments in which only nitrogen was applied. The highest potassium uptake in grains was recorded at 150% 
RDF+GR, followed by Nutrient Expert. The highest potassium uptake in straw was obtained with 150% 
RDF+GR, followed by 100% RDF. The improved grain and stover (straw) yield also enhanced potassium uptake in 
the crop, which was also confirmed in the findings of Shivay et al. [24]. 
 

3.7. Partial Factor Productivity of Nitrogen (kg/kg N) 
Partial factor productivity of N is a useful measure of nitrogen use efficiency as it provides an integrative index 

that quantifies total economic output relative to the use of nutrient resources in the system [25]. There was a 
significant difference observed in the partial factor productivity of nitrogen due to different treatments (Figure 5). 
It was observed that with an increase in the level of nitrogen, partial factor productivity decreased. Significantly, 
the maximum (57.6 kg/kg N) and minimum (20.7 kg/kg N) PFP were observed with the application of 50% RDN 
and 150% RDN, respectively. Panayotova and Kostadinova [26] reported similar results. Precision nutrient 
management treatments consisting of N management by Green Seeker and Nutrient Expert show better partial 
factor productivity of N compared to the remaining treatments. The fertilizer efficiency increases when suitable 
sources of nutrients are applied at the exact rate, time, and place, which increases the yield, decreases the loss of 
nutrients, and improves soil fertility. Nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUE), or N uptake per unit N applied, is 
greatest where the yield response to N is highest. Therefore, NUE is generally greatest with low levels of applied 
N and decreases as the amount of N applied increases [27, 28]. 
 

3.8. Agronomic Efficiency of Nitrogen (%) 
Agronomic efficiency of nitrogen was significantly affected by different treatments. With an increase in the 

level of nitrogen, agronomic efficiency decreased (Figure 5). Maximum (24.9%) and minimum agronomic efficiency 
(9.8%) were obtained from treatments with application of 50% N and 150% N, respectively. Similar results are 
reported by Ayadi et al. [29]. Similar to PFP of N, better agronomic efficiency of nitrogen is obtained from 
precision nutrient management treatments in which N was applied on the basis of nutrient expert and green seeker. 
 

 
Figure 5. Effect of different treatments on Partial factor productivity (kg/kg N) and Agronomic efficiency (%). 

 



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3.9. Growing Degree Days (˚C days) and Helio Thermal Units 
The relationship between temperature and the length of different growth stages of crops can be well 

understood with the help of growing degree days. The accumulated GDD, taken from the date of sowing to the 
physiological maturity of wheat for different treatments, is presented in Figure 6. Wheat crop supplied with higher 
nitrogen doses accumulated more growing degree days for attaining physiological maturity. The GDD values for 
different treatments range from 1303 in the absolute control to 1543 in the treatment with application of 150% N 
with growth regulator. Similar results related to the effect of nitrogen doses on GDD are reported by Sidhu and 
Raj [30]. Due to the application of more nitrogen, the vegetative phase of the crop was enhanced, which resulted in 
the accumulation of more growing degree days [31]. Application of plant growth regulators also increases the 
GDD accumulation to attain maturity as the total growing period length increases. Similarly, the accumulated 
heliothermal units required to attain physiological maturity differed greatly among different nitrogen doses and 
growth regulator applications. Maximum and minimum values of heliothermal units were recorded from the 
application of 150% N + GR and absolute control, respectively. The higher values of heliothermal units may be due 
to the longer duration of the wheat crop in 150% + GR as compared to lower levels of nitrogen doses. The findings 
confirmed the results of Kaur et al. [31]. 
 

 
Figure 6. Effect of different treatments on growing degree days (˚C days) and Helio thermal units. 

 

4. Conclusion 
From the conducted research, it can be concluded that a balanced application of nutrients (NPK) is key to 

achieving better yield of wheat crops in terms of both quality and quantity. The application of only nitrogenous 
fertilizer should not be recommended, as it leads to a lower harvest index, nitrogen use efficiency, and nutrient 
uptake in plants. Precision nitrogen management techniques have significant potential to increase nitrogen use 
efficiency and crop yield with reduced use of nitrogenous fertilizer. 
 

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Any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 

 

https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1973.00472425000200040017x
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(97)00140-8
https://doi.org/10.1515/boku-2017-0005
https://doi.org/10.1515/boku-2017-0005
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1989.tb02405.x
https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1995.0011183X003500050020x
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0231-z
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2015.03.002
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-008-9186-y
https://doi.org/10.15547/ast.2016.01.005
https://doi.org/10.4141/cjss77-035
https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps90-119
https://doi.org/10.1111/aab.12262
https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.709.379

