









































Aisthesis

1

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness: A Study of Metaphoric Conceptualizations of What is Happiness: A Study of Metaphoric Conceptualizations of 
Happiness in PoetryHappiness in Poetry
By: Jessica Pollard

Introduction

	 Since	Lakoff	and	Johnson	published	Metaphors We Live By	(1980),	studies	in	conceptual	metaphors	

have	changed	the	way	people	understand	the	relationship	between	human	thought	and	language.	Metaphors	

help	humans	communicate	complex	thoughts	by	relating	them	to	our	experiences.	While	other	theories	of	

metaphor	conceptualization	(such	as	the	discourse	dynamics	framework	(Cameron,	2010))	have	advanced	

metaphor	theory,	this	study	will	focus	on	conceptual	metaphor	theory	as	defined	by	Lakoff	and	Johnson.	While	

humans	use	conceptual	metaphors	in	their	daily	language,	metaphor	usage	is	most	discernible	in	poetry.	The	

purpose	of	this	study	is	to	analyze	conceptual	metaphors,	particularly	conceptual	metaphors	of	happiness,	in	

twentieth-century	American	poetry	to	see	how	poets	use	cultural	conceptualizations	of	happiness	in	their	poetic	

expression.	

Conceptual Metaphors

	 Metaphors	are	more	than	comparisons	not	using	like	or	as.	A	conceptual	metaphor	(which	is	the	type	of	

metaphor	referred	to	throughout	this	paper)	is	most	simply	defined	as	“understanding	and	experiencing	one	kind	

of	thing	in	terms	of	another.”1	When	humans	have	shared	cultural	or	physiological	experiences	over	time,	they	

can	classify	these	experiences	in	more	concrete	terms	by	imposing	“artificial	boundaries	that	make	physical	

phenomena	discreet	just	as	we	are:	entities	bound	by	surface.”2	These	classifications	become	so	engrained	in	our	

cultural	and	cognitive	systems	that	we	often	do	not	realize	we	are	using	them.	One	such	classification	happiness	

is	a	fluid	in	a	container	can	be	seen	in	the	phrase	“She	was	bursting	with	joy”3	and	in	the	poem	“The	Trickle-

down	Theory	of	Happiness,”	which	says	happiness	falls	down	“to	the	pitchers	and	pails	on	the	ground.”4	In	this	

conceptual	metaphor,	happiness	is	the	target	domain,	often	an	abstract	concept,	while	the	fluid	in	the	container	

is	the	source	domain,	something	more	concrete	that	helps	us	understand	the	abstract	target	domain.	As	Lakoff	

and	Johnson	say,	“The	metaphors	come	out	of	our	clearly	delineated	and	concrete	experiences	and	allow	us	to	

construct	highly	abstract	and	elaborate	concepts.”5	Through	metaphor,	we	can	better	understand	the	world	we	

1.	George	Lakoff	and	Mark	Johnson, Metaphors We Live By,	2nd	ed.	(Chicago:	University	of	Chicago	Press,	2003)	5.
2.	Lakoff	and	Johnson,	Metaphors,	25.
3.	Zoltán	Kövecses,	“The	Conceptual	Structure	of	Happiness,”	PDF	File, COLLeGIUM 3	(2008):	135,	http://hdl.handle.
net/10138/25772.
4.	Philip	Appleman,	“The	Trickle-down	Theory	of	Happiness,”	Poetry	142,	no.	5	(August	1983):	262,	https://www.jstor.org/sta-
ble/20599554.
5.	Lakoff	and	Johnson,	Metaphors,	105.



Aisthesis

2

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

live	in.	

However,	not	everything	can	be	a	source	domain	for	a	particular	target	domain.	There	must	be	some	

perceived	similarity	between	the	two	domains	based	on	our	experiences	for	us	to	make	the	correlation	between	

them.6	However,	there	can	be	two	or	more	source	domains	for	a	particular	target	domain.	According	to	Lakoff	

and	Johnson,	“The	reason	we	need	two	metaphors	is	because	there	is	no	one	metaphor	that	will	allow	us	to	do	

the	job.”7	Each	conceptual	metaphor	for	a	particular	domain	allows	us	to	emphasize	or	conceal	an	aspect	of	that	

domain.8 

Because	conceptual	metaphors	are	based	on	cultural	and	physical	experiences,	some	metaphors	are	

universal	while	others	appear	only	within	a	particular	cultural	group.	Similarly,	some	metaphors	change	over	

time	within	these	cultural	groups	while	others	remain	static.	This	is	because	while	all	humans	physiologically	

experience	the	world	similarly,	they	interpret	these	experiences	differently	because	of	their	cultural	values	

and	contexts.9	If	the	way	we	understand	the	source	or	target	domain	changes,	the	way	we	classify	the	domain	

will	too.	However,	studies	have	shown	some	conceptual	metaphors	span	several	cultures	and	time	periods.	

According	to	Kövecses,	“In	general,	embodiment	appears	to	be	a	key	component	in	cross-culturally	similar	

conceptualizations	of	the	same	domain.”10	Embodiment	is	essentially	the	way	we	experience	emotions	

physiologically.	For	universality	to	occur,	both	groups	must	experience	and	interpret	the	domain	similarly.	

Likewise,	for	a	metaphor	to	be	diachronically	static,	the	way	a	particular	cultural	group	interprets	the	domains	

must	remain	the	same.	Changes	are	caused	by	new	knowledge	or	values	within	a	society.11	Not	every	researcher	

agrees	on	the	exact	nature	of	metaphoric	universality	and	stability.	Kövecses	argues	that	new	cultural,	technical,	

and	scientific	developments	likely	change	only	the	expression	of	a	conceptual	metaphor	rather	than	the	

underlying	conceptual	metaphor	itself.12	Although	scholars	dispute	the	exact	manner	this	occurs	cognitively,	

conceptual	metaphors	are	inherently	linked	to	cultural	and	diachronic	shifts.	

Conceptual Metaphors of Emotion

	 Because	emotions	are	abstract	concepts,	they	are	generally	common	target	domains.	In	fact,	almost	all	

the	ways	we	view	emotion	are	conceptualized	because	emotions	are	so	abstract.	Emotions	also	tend	to	have	a	
6.	Lakoff	and	Johnson,	147.
7.	Lakoff	and	Johnson,	95.
8.	Lakoff	and	Johnson,	105.
9.	James	J.	Mischler,	III, Metaphor Across Time and Conceptual Space: The Interplay of Embodiment and Cultural Models	(Amster-
dam:	John	Benjamins	Publishing	Company,	2013),	204,	EBSCOhost.
10.	Zoltán	Kövecses,	Metaphor and Emotion: Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling	(Cambridge:	Cambridge	University	
Press,	2003),	162.
11.	Mischler,	Time and Conceptual Space,	161.
12.	Kövecses,	Metaphor and Emotion,	34.



Aisthesis

3

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

wide	range	of	source	domains	to	capture	all	the	distinct	ways	we	experience	emotion.	Within	the	emotion	target	

domains,	there	are	ranges	of	shared	source	domains:	some	source	domains	apply	to	all,	apply	to	some,	or	only	

apply	to	one	emotion.	Kövecses	explains	that	shared	sources	often	characterize	emotions’	“existence,	intensity,	

passivity,	control,	evaluation,	difficulty,	desire,	and	harm.”13	These	aspects	of	source	domains	are	shared	

because	they	characterize	how	we	experience	all	emotions.	The	aspects	concerning	an	emotion’s	cause	and	

lasting	effect	tend	to	be	specific	to	that	particular	emotion.14	A	unique	cause	metaphor	for	happiness	is	happiness	

is	a	pleasurable	physical	sensation,	and	a	unique	effect	is	happiness	is	being	off	the	ground.15	Conceptual	

metaphors	are	essential	in	the	way	we	experience,	structure,	and	understand	emotions.

Poetic Conceptual Metaphors

	 Because	all	humans	use	conceptual	metaphors	in	their	daily	lives,	the	poet’s	use	of	metaphor	is	not	

exclusive.	However,	poets	must	stretch	how	these	common	expressions	are	used	to	create	the	novel	images	

and	powerful	figurative	language	we	see	in	poetry.	Novel	metaphors	are	made	by	extending	the	unused	parts	

of	a	metaphor,	which	is	to	say	the	parts	“not	used	to	structure	part	of	our	normal	conceptual	system	but	as	

a	new	way	of	thinking	about	something.”16	Lakoff	and	Turner	theorized	four	specific	ways	poets	uniquely	

use	ordinary	thought:	extending,	elaborating,	questioning,	composing.17	Extending	is	when	poets	take	the	

conventional	metaphor	and	map	other	aspects	related	to	the	source	domain	to	the	target	domain.18	Elaborating	

entails	explaining	the	source	domain	in	unique	details	in	a	way	that	makes	us	think	differently	about	the	

target.19	We	can	question	the	boundaries	of	our	normal	conceptual	understanding	when	a	poet	reveals	an	

inconsistency	within	our	conventional	conceptualization.20	Poets	can	also	combine	more	than	one	metaphoric	

conceptualization	of	a	domain	to	compose	a	composite	metaphoric	conception.21	Because	poets	experiment	with	

our	normal	conceptualizations,	poetry	is	harder	for	people	to	interpret.	In	our	normal	conversations,	we	often	do	

not	see	the	mixing	or	extending	of	our	conceptual	systems	the	way	poets	do	to	make	us	think	about	the	world	in	

different	ways,	which	makes	poetry	unique	despite	its	dependence	on	the	basic	conceptual	metaphors.

13.	Kövecses,	47.
14.	Kövecses,	48.
15.	Kövecses,	49.
16.	Lakoff	and	Johnson,	Metaphors,	53.
17.	George	Lakoff	and	Mark	Turner, More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor	(Chicago:	University	of	Chicago	
Press,	1989)	67–72.
18.	Lakoff	and	Turner,	More Than Cool Reason,	67.
19.	Lakoff	and	Turner,	67–69.
20.	Lakoff	and	Turner,	69–70.
21.	Lakoff	and	Turner,	70–71.



Aisthesis

4

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

Collection of Data

	 The	purpose	of	this	study	was	to	analyze	how	twentieth-century	American	poets	used	conceptual	

metaphors	of	happiness	in	their	poetry.	To	do	this,	sixteen	poems	published	from	1916–1995	and	written	by	

sixteen	different	American	poets	were	analyzed.	Each	poet	was	born	and	lived	in	the	United	States	for	the	

majority	of	his	or	her	life	with	the	exception	of	May	Sarton,	who	was	born	in	Belgium	but	moved	to	the	United	

States	at	age	four	and	lived	there	the	rest	of	her	life.	By	limiting	the	years	of	publication	and	the	places	the	poets	

lived,	the	analysis	could	compare	poems	of	similar	cultural	influences	because	conceptualization	of	metaphors	

can	change	based	on	diachronic	and	geographic	factors.22	Because	these	poets	shared	historical	and	cultural	

experiences,	the	data	set	could	more	accurately	represent	how	twentieth-century	Americans	conceptualized	

happiness	through	poetry.	All	these	poems	were	published	in	literary	magazines	or	books,	but	the	scale	of	the	

poets’	fame	and	readership	ranged	to	obtain	a	cross	section	of	American	poetry.	Additionally,	each	poem	had	to	

contain	the	word	happiness	and	contain	at	least	one	conceptual	metaphor	pertaining	to	happiness.	The	sixteen	

poems	in	the	data	set	were	then	analyzed	for	conceptual	metaphors	of	happiness.	

Rubric of Analysis

	 Analysis	guidelines	were	established	to	ensure	a	systematic	classification	of	happiness	conceptual	

metaphors	across	the	data.	For	a	metaphor	to	be	considered	conceptual,	the	target	domain	is	understood	in	

terms	of	a	source	domain.	For	the	purposes	of	this	study,	happiness	must	be	the	target	domain	for	the	metaphor	

to	be	evaluated.	Because	of	Lakoff	and	Turner’s	classification	of	personification	as	a	specialized	type	of	

conceptual	metaphor,	instances	where	happiness	is	personified	were	included	in	the	analysis.23	Similarly,	

metaphorical	similes,	when	the	basic	and	contextual	meanings	of	the	source	domain	contrast,	were	analyzed	as	

conceptual	metaphors	because	this	distinction	between	metaphorical	and	non-metaphorical	similes	is	common	

in	contemporary	metaphor	studies.24	Very	common	nouns	and	verbs	as	defined	by	Cameron	and	Maslen	were	

excluded	along	with	all	prepositions	and	articles	because	their	high	frequency	would	have	diverted	the	goal	

of	this	project.25	When	necessary,	words	were	checked	for	etymological	changes	using	the	Oxford	Standard	

Dictionary	to	ensure	the	basic	meaning	was	incongruous	with	the	contextual	meaning.	Words	contextually	used	

as	synonyms	for	happiness	within	the	poems	were	included	to	see	how	conceptualizations	work	in	synonyms.	

22.	Mischler,	Time and Conceptual Space,	7.
23.	Lakoff	and	Turner,	More Than Cool Reason,	38–39.
24.	Lynne	Cameron	and	Robert	Maslen,	“Identifying	Metaphors	in	Discourse	Data,”	in	Metaphor Analysis: Research Practice in 
Applied Linguistics, Social Sciences and the Humanities,	ed.	Lynne	Cameron	and	Robert	Maslen	(London:	Equinox	Publishing,	2010), 
110.
25.	Cameron	and	Maslen,	“Identifying	Metaphors,”	111–112.



Aisthesis

5

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

These	words	included	pleasure, content, bliss, benediction, fun,	and	joy.	These	guidelines	ensured	each	poem	

and	conceptual	metaphor	were	analyzed	using	the	same	criteria	within	the	confines	of	this	study.	

	 Once	all	the	conceptual	metaphors	of	happiness	were	identified,	each	was	classified	by	twenty-two	

different	source	domains	according	to	lists	of	metaphorical	sources	domains	found	in	Kövecses	(2003)	and	

Kövecses	(2008).	Those	that	fit	more	than	one	category	and	those	that	did	not	exactly	match	but	were	related	to	

one	of	the	categories	were	noted.	This	method	of	classification	was	intended	to	show	how	poets	used	existing	

conceptual	metaphors	in	their	cultural	frameworks	in	their	poetry.	

Observations

	 Within	the	data,	107	conceptual	metaphors	pertaining	to	happiness	were	found	and	classified.	Twelve	

metaphors	fit	more	than	one	of	the	twenty-two	metaphorical	source	domains,	seven	did	not	clearly	fit	one	of	

the	categories	but	were	novel	metaphors	based	on	the	existing	categories.	In	four	instances,	a	metaphor	was	

not	directly	stated	but	implied	throughout	the	poem	or	a	section	of	the	poem.	The	most	common	source	domain	

in	this	data	set	was	happiness	is	a	desired	hidden	object.	Two	of	the	source	domains	used	in	this	analysis	

were	not	found	in	any	of	the	poems:	happiness	is	warmth	and	happiness	is	force	dislocating	the	self.	In	

the	fifteen	poems	that	had	more	than	one	conceptual	metaphor	for	happiness,	thirteen	poets	used	more	than	one	

source	domain	throughout	the	poem	although	they	tended	to	rely	the	same	one	or	two	source	domains.	These	

observations	were	then	analyzed	to	determine	how	twentieth-century	poets	used	the	conventual	conceptual	

metaphors.

Discussion

Conventional Conceptual Metaphors

Most	of	the	conceptual	metaphors	of	happiness	used	one	of	the	twenty-two	common	source	domains	

found	in	everyday	speech.	For	this	study’s	purposes,	the	use	of	everyday	source	domains	will	be	called	

conventional.	It	is	important	to	note	that	any	list	of	conventional	conceptual	metaphors	is	not	conclusive	

because	of	the	fluid	nature	of	language	and	categorization.26	The	most	common	source	domain,	happiness	is	

a	desired	hidden	object,	shows	happiness	as	something	to	be	pursued	and	found,	even	if	it	remains	elusive.	

In	“Sonnet	10:	I	have	sought	Happiness,	but	it	has	been,”	the	poet	said	he	had	“sought	happiness”	but	it	was	

“baffling	all	pursuit.”27	Another	common	and	closely	related	source	metaphor	is	happiness	is	a	valuable	

commodity.	This	source	domain	reveals	why	happiness	is	desired.	Kizer	states	this	clearly	in	“Afternoon	
26.	Lakoff	and	Johnson,	Metaphors,	122–124.
27. Alan	Seeger,	“Sonnet	10:	I	have	sought	Happiness,	but	it	has	been,”	Poetry	Foundation,	last	modified	1916,	https://www.poetry-
foundation.org/poems/57351/sonnet-10-i-have-sought-happiness-but-it-has-been.



Aisthesis

6

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

Happiness”	when	she	sees	“happiness	as	gift.”28	Kövecses	states	that	these	views	of	happiness,	along	with	the	

conceptual	metaphors	of	happiness	is	up	and	happiness	is	being	in	heaven,	reveal	how	we	see	happiness	as	“a	

quiet	state	with	hardly	any	noticeable	responses	or	even	a	clearly	identifiable	specific	cause.”29	The	prevalence	

of	these	conceptual	metaphors	throughout	twentieth-century	poetry	suggests	a	distance	between	happiness	and	

ourselves	so	that	while	we	may	seek	happiness,	we	are	not	guaranteed	to	find	it.	

However,	we	can	also	describe	happiness	as	a	force	we	experience.	Hoyt	uses	the	conceptual	metaphor	

happiness	is	a	physical	force	throughout	her	poem	“Happiness	Betrays	Me.”	By	saying	happiness	betrays	and	

slays	her,	she	personifies	it	and	implies	she	feels	its	actions	impact	her	physical	body.	The	conceptual	metaphor	

happiness	is	a	high	or	being	drunk	can	be	seen	in	“Stolen	Happiness”	when	the	poem’s	narrator	describes	

a	happy	couple	before	saying,	“I	tasted	the	wine	they	were	quaffing/…I	was	intoxicate.”30	These	mappings	

of	happiness,	while	seemingly	opposite	the	idea	that	happiness	is	distant,	are	simply	a	different	dimension	

happiness;	it	is	both	a	distance	yet	valued	ideal	and	a	physical	experience.		

Novel Metaphors

While	poets	can	use	the	conventional	conceptualizations	of	conceptual	metaphors	in	their	poetry,	they	

often	build	off	from	these	conventual	conceptualizations	to	highlight	a	unique	dimension	or	way	of	thinking	

about	happiness,	giving	even	more	ways	for	us	to	understand	happiness.	In	“The	Work	of	Happiness,”	

Sarton	starts	with	the	conceptual	metaphor	happiness	is	vitality.	In	our	everyday	lives,	we	only	map	some	

characteristics	of	vitality	onto	happiness,	like	energy	or	pep.	Sarton	extends	this	mapping	to	include	the	life	of	

nature,	particularly	trees.	She	sets	up	the	metaphor	in	the	line	happiness	is	“like	the	growth	of	a	tree.”31	Then,	

she	can	extend	it	without	mentioning	the	word	happiness:
	Another	circle	is	growing	in	the	expanding	ring.	
No	one	has	heard	the	root	go	deeper	in	the	dark,	
But	the	tree	is	lifted	by	this	inward	work
And	its	plums	shine,	and	its	leaves	are	glittering.32
 

This	stanza	combines	the	happiness	is	vitality	metaphor	with	the	happiness	is	up	(“lifted”)	and	happiness	is	

light	(“shine”	and	“glittering”).	Her	extension	created	a	composite	metaphor,	which	allows	us	to	see	happiness	

with	the	aspects	attributed	to	trees,	such	as	growth	and	beauty	although	the	conventional	metaphor	does	not	
28. Carolyn	Kizer,	“Afternoon	Happiness,” Poetry	163,	no.	3	(December	1983):	157,	https://www.jstor.org/stable/20599700.

29. Kövecses,	“Conceptual	Structure,”	139.
30. John	J.	Chapman,	“Stolen	Happiness,” The Sewanee Review	30,	no.	2	(April	1922):	192.	https://www.jstor.org/stable/27533536.
31.	May	Sarton,	“The	Work	of	Happiness,”	Poetry	Out	Loud,	last	modified	1993,	https://www.poetryoutloud.org/poem/the-work-of-
happiness/.
32.	Sarton,	“Work	of	Happiness.”



Aisthesis

7

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

allow	for	these	insights.	

Kenyon	uses	the	metaphoric	simile	“it	[happiness]	turns	up	like	a	prodigal”	to	elaborate	the	conventional	

conceptual	metaphor	happiness	is	a	desired	hidden	object	in	the	first	two	stanzas	in	the	poem.33	By	comparing	

happiness	to	a	prodigal,	Kenyon	is	able	to	give	unique	details	of	the	source	domain	of	a	desired	hidden	object,	

which	provide	new	meaning	on	the	target	domain.	In	this	poem,	happiness	is	what	creates	and	closes	the	

distance	of	happiness.	Happiness	is	what	“comes	back	to	the	dust	at	your	feet”	while	the	“you”	persona	forgives	

happiness	and	welcomes	it	home.34	This	elaborating	of	the	conceptual	metaphor	puts	the	blame	for	the	feeling	of	

distance	happiness	creates	on	happiness	instead	of	on	the	person	who	cannot	find	it.	

In	“Happiness:	The	Forbidden	Subject,”	Ludvigson	questions	the	conventional	conceptual	metaphor	of	

happiness	is	up. Typically,	this	conceptualization	has	a	positive	connotation,	especially	compared	to	the	opposite	

sadness	is	down.	However,	Ludvigson	reveals	an	inconsistency	in	this	metaphor	when	she	says,	“When	they	

arrived	[at	happiness]	the	air	was	thinner	than	they’d	imagined.”	Although	the	people	in	the	poem	are	traveling	

up	toward	happiness,	the	air	has	thinned,	and	it	has	become	hard	to	breath.	This	poetic	metaphor	asks	the	

question	if	happiness	is	the	desired,	valued	object	they	search	for.

In	“The	Trickle-down	Theory	of	Happiness,”	Appleman	describes	happiness	as	a	rain	that	comes	“out	

of	heaven”	that	the	“residents	catch”	in	“pails	and	pitchers	on	the	ground.”35	This	poem	is	the	combination	of	

several	conceptual	metaphors.	Rain	itself	is	a	natural	force	(happiness	is	a	natural	force),	which	comes	from	

heaven	(happiness	is	being	in	heaven).	Appleman	uses	the	word	down	in	this	poem	although	the	conventional	

conceptualization	is	happiness	is	up	because	when	Appleman	he	is	questioning	this	conceptualization.	The	

conventional	metaphor	distances	happiness	while	Appleman	closes	this	distance.	This	poem	also	shows 

happiness	is	a	fluid	in	a	container,	which	is	a	conventional	conceptual	metaphor,	but	by	using	it	with	other	

metaphors,	Appleman	implies	this	desired	object	does	not	have	to	be	hidden	or	distance	but	can	be	collected	

and	shared.	Conventional	conceptual	metaphors	are	used	in	novel	ways	by	poets	to	highlight	the	richness	of	

language	and	the	complexities	of	life.		

Limitations of the Study

While	the	parameters	of	the	study	were	set	to	assess	a	range	of	twentieth-century	American	poets	

with	similar	cultural	and	historical	experiences,	it	would	be	impossible	to	get	a	complete	picture	of	how	this	

33.	Jane	Kenyon,	“Happiness,”	Poetry	165,	no.	5	(February	1995):	288,	https://www.jstor
.org/stable/20604323.
34.	Kenyon,	“Happiness,”	288.
35.	Appleman,	“Trickle-down	Theory,”	262.



Aisthesis

8

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

group	conceptualized	happiness	without	accessing	all	their	poems.	There	is	also	the	possibility	that	a	poet	was	

expressing	a	conceptualization	found	in	a	subculture	group	they	belong	to.	Because	of	the	size	of	the	United	

States,	the	existence	of	numerous	subcultures,	and	the	historical	changes	that	occurred	within	this	one-hundred-

year	period,	it	can	be	difficult	to	determine	if	an	expression	is	a	conceptual	metaphor	for	a	particular	subgroup.36 

Additionally,	while	one	researcher	will	create	uniform	judgments	across	the	data	set,	having	multiple	

researchers	decreases	the	likelihood	of	metal	overload,	bias,	and	misinterpretation	of	metaphors.37	In	future,	a	

similar	study	could	be	done	to	decrease	the	current	limitations.

Conclusion

	 This	study	found	that	twentieth-century	poets	used	conceptual	metaphors	of	happiness	in	both	

conventional	and	novel	ways.	For	people	to	read	poetry	how	it	was	intended,	a	conceptual	definition	of	a	

metaphor	should	be	introduced	into	schools,	colleges,	and	the	general	public.	The	traditional	definition	of	

metaphor	as	a	comparison	does	not	account	for	the	ways	that	metaphor	helps	us	structure	our	thoughts	and	

language.	Poetic	expressions	of	metaphor	are	based	on	conventional	metaphors	people	use	in	their	everyday	

lives.	By	better	understanding	conventional	metaphor,	people	would	have	a	better	understanding	of	how	poets	

apply	metaphor	to	create	new	ways	of	thinking	about	a	target	domain,	even	if	these	ways	of	thinking	are	not	

incorporated	into	our	society’s	conventional	conceptualizations.	This	study	of	happiness	could	be	expanded	

to	show	these	same	principles	apply	to	other	eras,	cultures,	and	conceptual	metaphors.	Additionally,	future	

study	could	be	done	to	see	how	the	happiness	conceptual	metaphors	interact	with	other	conceptual	metaphors	

in	a	particular	poem	to	see	if	the	interaction	creates	another	sphere	of	nonconventional	poetic	expression	of	

metaphor.	Poetic	expression	has	always	been	known	to	open	new	ways	of	thinking.	Conceptual	metaphor	

research	reveals	a	reason	why	poetry	challenges	readers	to	see	happiness—and	the	rest	of	the	world—with	fresh	

eyes.	

36. Cameron	and	Maslen,	“Identifying	Metaphors,”	112–113.
37. Graham	Low	and	Zazie	Todd,	“Good	Practices	in	Metaphor	Analysis:	Guidelines	and	Pitfalls,”	in	Metaphor Analysis: Research 
Practice in Applied Linguistics, Social Sciences and the Humanities,	ed.	Lynne	Cameron	and	Robert	Maslen	(London:	Equinox	Pub-
lishing,	2010),	218–221.



Aisthesis

9

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

Bibliography 

Appleman,	Philip.	“The	Trickle-down	Theory	of	Happiness.”	Poetry	142,	no.	5	(August	1983),	
262.	https://www.jstor.org/stable/20599554. 

Barr,	Sister	Mary	A.	“Lament	for	Ritual	Happiness.”	The Sewanee Review	84,	no.	3	(Summer	1976),	392.	
https://www.jstor.org/stable/27543125.

Bynner,	Witter.	“This	Happiness.”	Poetry	34,	no.	5	(August	1929),	253.	https://www.jstor.org
/stable/20577153.

Carver,	Raymond.	“Happiness.”	Poetry	145,	no.	5	(February	1985),	251.	https://www.jstor.org
/stable/20600174.	

Cameron,	Lynne,	and	Robert	Maslen.	“Identifying	Metaphors	in	Discourse	Data.”	In	Metaphor Analysis: 
Research Practice in Applied Linguistics, Social Sciences and the Humanities,	edited	by	Lynne	
Cameron	and	Robert	Maslen,	97–115.	London:	Equinox	Publishing,	2010.	

Chapman,	John	J.	“Stolen	Happiness.”	The Sewanee Review	30,	no.	2	(April	1922),	192.	https://
www.jstor.org/stable/27533536.

Cutler,	Bruce.	“Older	Than	Happiness.”	Prairie Schooner	44,	no.	2	(Summer	1970),	168–169.	https://www.
jstor.org/stable/40629202.

Davis,	Leland.	“The	Perils	of	Happiness.”	Poetry	22,	no.	1	(April	1923),	17.	https://www.jstor.
org/stable/20574022.

Garrigue,	Jean.	“‘When	Shall	We	Set	Sail	for	Happiness’—Baudelaire.”	Poetry	104,	no.	6	(September	1964),	
336–337.	https://www.jstor.org/stable/20589862.

Hoyt,	Helen.	“Happiness	Betrays	Me.”	Poetry	13,	no.	3	(December	1918),	120–121.	https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/20571924.

Keenan,	Deborah.	Happiness: Poems.	Minneapolis:	Coffee	House	Press,	1995.

Kenyon,	Jane.	“Happiness.”	Poetry	165,	no.	5	(February	1995),	288.	https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/20604323.

Kizer,	Carolyn.	“Afternoon	Happiness.”	Poetry	163,	no.	3	(December	1983),	156–157.	https://
www.jstor.org/stable/20599700.	

Kövecses,	Zoltán.	“The	Conceptual	Structure	of	Happiness.”	PDF	File. COLLeGIUM 3	(2008),	131–143.	
http://hdl.handle.net/10138/25772.

———.	Metaphor and Emotion: Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling.	Cambridge:	Cambridge	
University	Press,	2003.

Lakoff,	George,	and	Mark	Johnson.	Metaphors We Live By,	2nd	ed.	Chicago:	University	of	Chicago	Press,	
2003.



Aisthesis

10

Volume 12, 2021

What is Happiness? 

Lakoff,	George,	and	Mark	Turner.	More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor.	Chicago:	Uni-
versity	of	Chicago	Press,	1989.

Low,	Graham,	and	Zazie	Todd.	“Good	Practices	in	Metaphor	Analysis:	Guidelines	and	Pitfalls.”	In	Metaphor 
Analysis: Research Practice in Applied Linguistics, Social Sciences and the Humanities,	edited	by	
Lynne	Cameron	and	Robert	Maslen,	217–229.	London:	Equinox	Publishing,	2010.

Ludvigson,	Susan.	“Happiness:	The	Forbidden	Subject.”	Poetry	157,	no.	4	(January	1991),	209–210.	https://
www.jstor.org/stable/20602675.

Mischler,	III,	James	J.	Metaphor Across Time and Conceptual Space: The Interplay of Embodiment and Cultur-
al Models.	Amsterdam:	John	Benjamins	Publishing	Company,	2013.	EBSCOhost.

Orgel,	Irene.	“The	Hoofbeat	of	Happiness.”	The American Scholar	22,	no.	1	(Winter	1952–1953),	60.	https://
www.jstor.org/stable/41210075. 

Sarton,	May.	“The	Work	of	Happiness.”	Poetry	Out	Loud.	Last	modified	1993.	https://www.poe
tryoutloud.org/poem/the-work-of-happiness/.

Seeger,	Alan.	“Sonnet	10:	I	have	sought	Happiness,	but	it	has	been.”	Poetry	Foundation.	Last	modified	1916.	


