

































Abstract: Many scholars have conducted studies to understand the overall role more knowledgeable others play 
in children’s academic achievement. According to Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory, individuals learn by 
observing and imitating the behaviors of those around them, including their older siblings. !e present study 
examined the older sibling-younger sibling relationship in an academic context by investigating how younger 
siblings’ math achievement, measured by the Elementary Mathematics Student Assessment (EMSA), was linked to 
older sibling’s warmth, academic socialization, and academic support behaviors. !e sample was drawn from the 
Parent Experiences, Attitudes, and Learning in Math (PEALM) study, a parent-report, questionnaire-based study, 
which included 66 children who ranged from kindergarten to third grade. Pearson correlations showed that all 
three variables were negatively associated with younger siblings’ math achievement. !en, two regression models 
demonstrated that the separate sibling scales did not signi"cantly predict younger siblings’ math achievement, but 
a composite scale comprised of all three component measures of sibling in#uences did. !ese "ndings show that 
siblings play an overall negative role in younger siblings’ math achievement, but no one aspect of the older sibling-
younger sibling relationship is driving this relation.

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  202210

Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

by Madison B. Poisall, B.S., Mia C. Daucourt, M.S., and Sara A. Hart, Ph.D.

 !e sibling relationship is thought to be one of the 
most pervasive and longest-standing relationships in 
a person’s life (Sanders, 2004). !roughout their early 
and middle childhood, siblings spend a majority of 
their time together, and in turn, develop a unique 
relationship with one another. Because of the sheer 
amount of time spent together as well as their places 
in the family structure, older and younger siblings 
are found to in#uence one another throughout their 
developmental years. One area of sibling in#uence 
is the realm of academics. !ere has been limited 
prior research on older sibling in#uences on younger 
sibling’s academic achievement. Historically, most 
research on the predictors of academic achievement 
has centered on the parent-child relationship. For 
example, Uddin (2011) found that parental warmth 
and acceptance were positively related to their child’s 
academic achievement. !us, in the current study, 
I aimed to determine if this positive association 
extended to the sibling relationship as well. 
Additionally, rather than zeroing in on a speci"c 
domain, the literature that does exist on sibling 
in#uences tends to look at academic achievement in 
general ways (i.e., GPA). For example, Eccles et al. 
(1997) found that children with older brothers who 

provided support for academic achievement had 
higher GPAs. Moreover, the same study also found 
that higher GPA for the younger sibling was related 
to positive behavioral regulation by an older sibling. 
 With respect to math achievement in particular, 
Bouchey & Harter (2004) found that students’ 
perceptions of signi"cant individuals in their lives 
in terms of the domains of math and science, do 
in fact predict students’ own performance and self-
perceptions. As math skills are a globally in-demand 
skillset, the results of this study could potentially 
hold future implications for the math "eld as a whole 
to determine some of the factors that drive math 
achievement di$erences in children. Accordingly, 
the present study will be "lling an important gap 
in the literature looking at the signi"cant early 
in#uences on children’s math achievement by 
narrowing the broader focus on general academic 
achievement to investigate math achievement, 
speci"cally. Moreover, to the best of my knowledge, 
in addition to the lack of research on the role of 
siblings in math achievement, no prior studies have 
investigated the sibling support constructs that 
I examined in the present study, namely sibling 
warmth, sibling academic socialization, and sibling 



Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  202211

academic support behaviors. !us, my investigation 
will provide important novel insight into the facets 
of the sibling relationship that matter for children’s 
math achievement.
 My research questions are as follows: 1.) Is 
there a correlation between younger siblings’ 
math achievement and each of the three older 
sibling subscales: sibling warmth, sibling academic 
socialization, and sibling academic support? 2.) 
What is the total contribution of the three subscales 
to younger children’s math achievement? 3a.) Which 
of the three subscales is the driving association 
between older sibling in#uences and younger 
siblings’ math achievement? 3b.) What is the overall 
role of older siblings in younger siblings’ academic 
achievement? Based on the work of Eccles et al. (1997) 
and Bouchey et al., (2010), which found positive 
relations between positive older sibling variables 
and their younger siblings’ academic achievement, I 
hypothesize that there will be a positive correlation 
between younger siblings’ math achievement and 
each of the older sibling subscales (sibling warmth, 
sibling academic socialization, and sibling academic 
support). Because they are exploratory in nature, I 
do not have a priori hypotheses for the second and 
third research questions examining the overall role 
and comparative strength of older sibling in#uences 
on younger siblings’ math achievement and the role 
of each speci"c sibling in#uence.

!eoretical Framework
 A prominent and well-known theory in 
psychology is Bandura’s theory of social learning, 
which posits that individuals learn through 
observation, modeling, and imitation (Bandura, 
1977). Assuming that older and younger siblings 
spend much of their adolescent and school-aged 
years together, it would be appropriate to also 
assume that a younger sibling who observes their 
older sibling engaging in positive school-related 
behaviors (e.g., "nishing homework on time) and 
exhibiting positive attitudes toward school would, 
in turn, imitate the older sibling’s school-related 
behaviors and attitudes. !is modeling can extend 
to most facets of the siblings’ lives. !e present 
study speci"cally examines older siblings’ modeling 
of academic-related behaviors, such as studying 
and "nishing homework on time and how they are 
associated with children’s math achievement.

 By virtue of growing up with the same parents 
and in the same household (in most cases), and 
sharing approximately 50% of the same genes, 
siblings are already more similar than non-siblings 
(Scarr & Grajek, 1982). It is also natural for an older 
sibling to hold power in their relationship with their 
younger sibling simply due to the di$erence in age 
and experience (Lindell & Campione-Barr, 2017). 
Older siblings have also historically been regarded 
as agents of socialization. It is from the older sibling 
that the younger sibling may learn not only social 
norms but academic norms as well (Wang, Degol & 
Amemiya, 2019). Keeping this in mind, it is possible 
to see the potential connections between the social 
learning theory and older siblings having in#uence 
on their younger siblings in many aspects of life 
including and especially the academic domain.
 In addition to the role of Bandura’s social learning 
theory (1977) in sibling modeling and similarity, 
there are additional theories that may elucidate 
the role of sibling interactions in children’s math 
achievement. !e sibling deidenti"cation theory 
claims that siblings may wish to di$erentiate from 
one another in order to protect themselves from 
rivalry and social comparison within the family 
(Whiteman, McHale, & Crouter, 2007). A direct 
divergence from the social learning theory, sibling 
deidenti"cation would suggest in this context that in 
order to stand out from their older sibling, a younger 
sibling would be likely to focus his or her e$orts and 
behaviors on domains that are in opposition to the 
domain in which their sibling excels. For example, 
if the older sibling performs well academically, the 
younger sibling may reject the idea of also doing well 
academically, choosing instead to focus his or her 
time more on sports or musical pursuits as a way of 
di$erentiating him or herself. Acknowledging the fact 
that these two theories provide di$erent explanations 
for the academic achievement of siblings, the results 
of the present study may be able to assist with 
determining which of these theories may be more 
at play in the context of sibling in#uences on math 
achievement. If the sibling deidenti"cation theory is 
supported in my analyses, I would expect a negative 
association between the older sibling variables and 
the younger sibling’s math achievement. If Bandura’s 
social learning theory is supported, I would expect 
a positive association between the older sibling 
variables and younger siblings’ math achievement.



Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  202212

 Finally, according to Bronfenbrenner’s 
bioecological model of human development 
(Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994), interactions 
occurring within a child’s microsystem or their 
immediate surroundings and connections, are 
some of the most salient and in#uential interactions 
the child can observe (Wang et al., 2019), as the 
individuals existing in this microsystem are of 
much personal signi"cance to the child. Signi"cant 
individuals in the microsystem are usually identi"ed 
as parents, teachers, close friends, and most 
important to the present study, siblings. Moreover, 
older siblings may display parent-like corrective 
behaviors like helping parents enforce family rules 
and setting an example for younger siblings (Amato, 
1989), which could further emphasize the role 
model status of the older sibling in the younger 
sibling’s eyes. Seeing their older sibling as someone 
who enforces the rules and who they should listen to, 
may help to a%rm the feeling of wanting to imitate 
an older sibling’s behaviors. !is may manifest 
as a statistically signi"cant, positive association 
between older siblings’ academic support behaviors 
and younger siblings’ math achievement. Further, 
research centering around the family in times of 
distress, change, or parental separation has noted 
that older siblings will o&entimes take on multiple 
roles (i.e., mentor, teacher, caregiver) in place of the 
parents in some instances (Wang et al., 2019). Having 
an older sibling take on a caregiver-type role or even 
a role with more authority that establishes important 
academic ideals may help a%rm to the younger 
sibling to see the older sibling as a role model and 
potentially result in signi"cant links between older 
siblings’ parent-like behaviors, like sibling academic 
support and socialization and younger siblings’ math 
achievement.

Sibling Warmth
 In line with Bandura’s (1997) social learning 
theory, Rowe & Gulley (1992), posited that siblings 
with a warmer relationship may, in fact, be more 
willing to imitate each other’s behavior because 
of the emotional closeness that comes from the 
warmth of a sibling relationship. In fact, the more 
time siblings spend together and the more positive 
their relationship, the more likely they are to behave 
similarly (Rowe and Gulley, 1992). For the present 
study, sibling warmth was de"ned following Sander’s 

de"ning features of sibling warmth, which include 
closeness, intimacy, and companionship between 
siblings (Sanders, 2004). ' Examples of' sibling 
warmth in the context of the present study include 
telling the child you love them and spending quality 
time with the child. Previous research on parenting 
has shown that mothers’ school involvement has 
a positive association with their child’s academic 
achievement when the relationship between mother 
and child is characterized by warmth (Simpkins et 
al., 2006). Evidence also suggests that children’s 
modeling and imitative behaviors are particularly 
in#uenced by those who are similar to them, hold 
power, and provide a degree of warmth (Wang, 
Degol & Amemiya, 2019). !us, it is also likely that 
a warm relationship with an older sibling will be 
conducive to younger siblings’ general achievement, 
and speci"cally their math achievement, which 
I tested here. Previous work has also found that 
sibling warmth and support is related to variables 
that have been shown to be important for academic 
achievement, such as self-esteem and self-worth 
(Amato, 1989), which may also create a positive 
connection between older sibling warmth and 
younger siblings’ math achievement.

Sibling Academic Socialization
 Prior research has also shown that having a more 
academically involved parent is associated with 
higher positive academic outcomes for the child 
(Lam & Ducreux, 2013). !is parental involvement 
can be roughly translated to the parent exhibiting 
some sort of academic support behavior with 
their child, which is meant to bolster children’s 
achievement outcomes. If this is the case in terms 
of the parent-child relationship, it could potentially 
also be a factor in the sibling relationship, and I 
investigated this possibility in the present study by 
assessing the association between sibling academic 
support behaviors and sibling academic socialization 
and younger siblings’ math achievement. 
 Academic support behaviors are behaviors 
performed around the child that help in#uence their 
motivation to do well in school (Zippert & Rittle-
Johnson, 2020). Examples of this include helping 
the child with their homework, talking to the child 
about doing well in school, and encouraging the 
child to study. Milevsky & Levitt (2005) found that 
children in grades 5-8 with higher levels of support 



Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  202213

from their brothers showed more positive school 
attitudes overall. Although their outcome was not 
directly measuring academic achievement, like I 
did in the present study, the fact that they found a 
positive link between sibling support behaviors and 
sibling academic-related outcomes means that the 
same link may exist with academic achievement 
as well. Additionally, supportive and accepting 
interactions are thought to enhance school outcomes 
for adolescents (Wentzel, 1994). As such, younger 
siblings who receive academic support from their 
older sibling may also experience enhanced school 
outcomes, which I tested in the realm of mathematics 
in my current investigation. 
 !e third and "nal construct that was examined 
in the present study is sibling academic socialization. 
Academic socialization is the process by which a 
child’s academic behaviors and attitudes are shaped 
by a signi"cant person in their life, in this case a 
sibling (Taylor et al., 2004). Examples of this include 
talking to the child about liking school and discussing 
with the child how they can do well in school. 
Parents may academically socialize their children 
by setting expectations for academic performance 
and providing a supportive home environment 
(Taylor et al., 2004), and the present study intended 
to determine if this level of socialization within the 
sibling relationship could help children’s academic 
success in math.

Method
Participants 
 !e sample used in this study was drawn from an 
earlier questionnaire-based study that investigated 
parental and home-based in#uences on children’s 
math achievement called the Parent Experiences, 
Attitudes, and Learning in Math (PEALM) 
Questionnaire. !e overall sample is made up of 124 
students in grades K-4 from Florida schools in Leon, 
Bay, and Hillsborough counties. Of those 124, only 
66 students had older sibling measures, meaning the 
other 58 participants either did not have siblings, 
only had younger siblings, or did not complete the 
sibling measures. In terms of race, four participants 
reported as American Indian, 24 as Asian, zero as 
Hawaiian, 104 as Black, 372 as White, and four as 
Other. 236 participants were female and 220 were 
male. !ese variables can be seen in Table 1. !ree 
control variables were utilized, gender, age, and 
socioeconomic status, in order to control for their 

e$ects on the outcome. For the PEALM project, 
questionnaire data was collected by up to two 
primary caregivers of the children who participated 
in the Research on Experiences, Attitudes, and 
Learning in Math (REALM) study. !e REALM 
study studied the in#uence of teacher math attitudes 
and math ability on the students in their classrooms. 
!e sample included 599 kindergarten through third 
grade students from 25 di$erent schools in one state 
in the United States. PEALM recruited the caregivers 
of the children enrolled in the REALM study to "ll 
out a voluntary questionnaire about themselves, 
their home, and their children. In the case of two-
parent households, mothers and fathers were asked 
to "ll out separate identical PEALM questionnaires. 
Parents were then asked to return the questionnaires 
in a pre-addressed and stamped envelope and were 
compensated for their participation in PEALM and 
completion of the questionnaire with a $30 online 
gi& card. For this study, I used questionnaire data 
on siblings, socioeconomic status, race, age, and sex 
drawn from the questionnaire portion of PEALM, 
and linked it to the children’s math achievement 
data collected by teachers in schools through 
REALM based on deidenti"ed student identi"cation 
numbers. 

Measures
 Within PEALM, a researcher-created, 24-item 
measure used parent report to assess older sibling 
in#uences. Seven of the items were then used to 
create three scales that represented sibling warmth, 
sibling academic socialization, and sibling academic 
support behaviors. Parents were asked to rate the 
behaviors of their child’s older sibling on a 4-point 
Likert scale. 
 Sibling warmth was measured by two items (e.g., 
“spend quality time alone with your child” and “tell 
your child they love him/her”), which was summed 
to represent total level of sibling warmth, with 
a maximum for each item of 4 = very o&en and a 
minimum of 0 = not at all. 
 Sibling academic socialization was measured 
by two items (e.g., “talk to your child about liking 
school” and “talk to your child about doing well in 
school”), which was summed to represent total level 
of sibling academic socialization, with a maximum 
for each item of 4 = very o&en and a minimum of 0 
= not at all. 



Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  202214

 Sibling academic support behaviors was 
measured by two items (e.g., “help your child 
with homework” and “help your child understand 
concepts he/she doesn’t understand”), which was 
summed to represent total level of sibling academic 
support behaviors, with a maximum for each item of 
4 = very o&en and a minimum of 0 = not at all. 
 Finally, I also calculated and created an overall 
sibling in#uence score for each of the three subscales 
by adding the three scale scales together.
 !e child’s math achievement was measured 
using the Elementary Mathematics Student 
Assessment (EMSA), which consists of a 16-item 
math test that is designed to align with Common 
Core Standards of Mathematics. !e EMSA assesses 
number sequence, word problems, and computation, 
which also varies in content and number of items 
for each grade-level. Math test scores were gathered 
using a two-parameter logistic model based on item-
response theory. !e expected a posteriori (EAP) 
method was utilized to estimate the person ability 
in each grade level. !ese ability estimates were then 
mapped onto a single scale by the Stocking-Lord 
method for vertical equating (Kolen & Brennan, 
2014), which allows comparison of scores between 
grades. A student’s EMSA score for each wave was 
operationalized as a theta score, with high scores 
indicating high levels of math achievement and lower 
scores indicating lower levels of math achievement. 
!e test proved to be reliable across all four grade 
levels (kindergarten ( = .77, 1st grade ( = .79, 2nd 
grade ( = .82, 3rd grade ( = .87).

Analysis Plan
 I used R version 3.5.3 (R Core Team, 2020) to "rst 
run descriptive statistics, looking speci"cally at mean, 
standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, 
skew, and kurtosis to determine if all variables were 
normally distributed. As a second step, a regression 
was run to remove all variance due to age, sex, and 
SES and the resulting predicted values were used for 
all analyses. Next, I ran each bivariate association 
separately using a Pearson correlation with younger 
siblings’ math achievement and each of the sibling 
in#uence variables. !en, I ran a regression with 
sibling warmth, sibling academic socialization, and 
sibling academic support behaviors as predictors of 
younger siblings’ math achievement they explained 
as a whole. Finally, I ran a regression for a measure 

representing total sibling in#uences predicting 
younger siblings’ math achievement.
      
Results
Descriptive Statistics
 I examined the overall composition of my sample 
in terms of the age, race, and sex of the participants. 
Race was split into selectable categories including 
American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Native 
Hawaiian, or Other Paci"c Islander, Black or African 
American, White, and Other. !ese demographic 
details are presented in Table 2.

Correlations
 Pearson correlations were conducted to 
determine the strength, direction, and signi"cance 
of the relation between each of the three sibling 
scales and the younger siblings’ math achievement. 
Contrary to my expectations, sibling warmth and 
sibling academic support behaviors were found to 
be negatively correlated with younger siblings’ math 
achievement (r(64) = -.31, p = .012; r(64) = -.29, p = 
.018). !is can be seen in Table 3.
 Sibling academic socialization was also found 
to be negatively correlated with younger siblings’ 
math achievement, but the relation was not 
statistically signi"cant (r(64) = -0.20, p = .107). 
When looking at the correlation between the total 
sibling in#uence scale, which combined all three of 
the aforementioned subscales, and younger siblings’ 
math achievement, a statistically signi"cant negative 
correlation was found, r(64) = -.338, p = .016.

Multiple Regression Analysis
 A multiple regression analysis was conducted 
to determine if sibling warmth, sibling academic 
socialization, and sibling academic support behaviors 
predicted younger sibling math achievement. !e 
results of the regression, shown in Table 4, showed 
that the three subscales explained 11.6% of the 
variance in younger siblings’ math achievement 
(R)= 0.12, F(3, 64) = 2.72, p = .052). When all three 
predictors were included in the model, sibling 
warmth (* = -.02, t(62) = -1.48, p = .144), sibling 
academic socialization (* = .003, t(62) = .27, p = 
.789), and sibling academic support behaviors (* 
= -.02, t(62) = -1.22, p = .227) did not statistically 
predict math achievement.
  



Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  202215

 A regression analysis was also conducted to 
determine if the total sibling in#uence scale made 
up of all three sibling support measures predicted 
younger sibling math achievement. !e results 
showed that the total scale explained 11.4% of the 
variance in younger siblings’ math achievement (R)= 
0.11, F(1, 64) = 8.24, p = .006). When this single 
predictor was included in the model, it statistically 
signi"cantly predicted younger siblings’ math 
achievement (* = -.01, t(64) = -2.87),  p = .056).

Discussion
 !e present study adds a unique perspective 
to the prior literature by looking at the sibling 
relationship on academic achievement (as opposed 
to the parent-child relationship) as well as focusing 
on a speci"c domain of academic achievement 
in math. !e results of the Pearson correlation 
showed that in contrast with my initial hypothesis, 
there was a negative correlation between the three 
sibling support behaviors and younger siblings’ 
math achievement. !is "nding could support 
the sibling deidenti"cation theory (Whiteman, 
McHale, & Crouter, 2007) in which in order to avoid 
comparison and rivalry, the younger sibling would 
deidentify himself or herself from an older sibling 
who demonstrated their own focus on academics.
 !e multiple regression analysis that was run 
showed that none of the three sibling support 
behaviors signi"cantly predicted younger siblings’ 
math achievement separately. However, the single 
combined measure of sibling in#uences did emerge 
as statistically signi"cant. Due to the fact that each 
scale only had two items, the composite measure may 
have allowed more variability to be picked up on, thus 
leading to it appearing as statistically signi"cant. !is 
could mean that overall sibling in#uences should be 
considered instead of separating them out or that 
more items should be added to the scales.
 !e present study has a few potential limitations, 
the "rst being the number of participants, as I had 
to exclude some because there was no achievement 
data available, and I didn’t have the outcome needed 
to analyze. I also did not have data from participants 
that did not have any siblings or only had younger 
siblings. However, I focused on older siblings 
because their support has been shown to in#uence 
younger siblings’ general academic achievement 
(Ryherd, 2011) signi"cantly and positively. !e 

control variables gender, age, and socioeconomic 
status that were used to residualize the outcome, 
can also explain the smaller sample size because 
children who did not have data for these variables 
were dropped. !e COVID-19 pandemic also 
limited the number of participants that were able to 
participate in the REALM study, so the collection of 
math achievement data was cut short. Future studies 
should utilize a larger participant pool to determine 
if the results would change. Social desirability bias is 
another limitation common to questionnaire-based 
studies and may have had an in#uence on the results 
of the present study by participants answering in 
way they believed to be more socially acceptable 
as opposed to what their actual response would be 
(Gordon, 1987).
 !e "ndings of this study may have implications 
in the math education of children with older siblings 
and could be used as a tool to better cultivate an 
e$ective learning environment. Since the results 
showed negative associations between older sibling 
academic support and younger sibling math 
achievement, this may suggest to parents to limit 
sibling interaction in terms of academics and helping 
with school. Math is an important and growing "eld 
and those hoping to educate their children in the 
math domain could potentially use the results of this 
study to best "t the needs of their child and their 
education.

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Aisthesis      Volume 13,  2022

Wig"eld, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory 
of achievement motivation: A developmental 
perspective.'Educational Psychology Review,"6(1), 
49-78.

Zippert, E. L., & Rittle-Johnson, B. (2020). !e home 
math environment: More than numeracy.'Early 
Childhood Research Quarterly,"50, 4-15.

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Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  2022

Tables

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Sibling In!uences on Math Achievement

Aisthesis      Volume 13,  202219


