

































Aisthesis      Volume 15,  202456

Literature Review: Security of the LGBTQ+ Community in 
Lebanon 

by Karam Burjas

Introduction 
 !e plight of LGBTQ+ individuals transcends 
geographic boundaries. On the global level, 
promising e"orts are being made to further the well-
being and security of sexual minorities. It continues 
to be of concern, however, that LGBTQ+ individuals 
face hardships in all aspects of daily life: social, 
personal, economic, political, and legal. Security 
studies on this topic emphasize that the LGBTQ+ 
community experiences additional levels of violence 
on top of other identity-based hardships, and thus 
require urgent attention. !e Middle East and North 
Africa (MENA) region is not unique in its intolerance 
towards sexual minorities; however, the LGBTQ+ 
community in the region is disproportionately 
under-researched, and country-speci#c research is 
even more scarce. !ese factors heavily complicate 
and restrain e"orts for informed policy proposals and 
movements for equality. Lebanon provides a strong 
case for the need to expand research on this issue. 
!e country is unique within the Arab world as it is 
o$en characterized as the most socially progressive 
of all Arab countries. !is creates a problematic 
discourse surrounding the perceived acceptance of 
LGBTQ+ individuals in Lebanon against the very 
real ostracization the community faces. As Moussawi 
(2013) states, the essentialist progressive depiction of 
Lebanon minimizes queer experiences and “renders 
them voiceless” (868). !is literature review thus 
aims to unravel the multifaceted security challenges 
confronting LGBTQ+ individuals in Lebanon, a state 
entangled in crises due to the compounding impacts 
of the COVID-19 pandemic, political gridlock, the 
2020 Beirut explosion, a refugee crisis, and ongoing 
sectarian tension. Within this chaotic landscape, 
the LGBTQ+ community faces unprecedented 
threats to their well-being. Helem’s 2021 LGBTQ+ 
Rights Violations Report highlights the community's 
vulnerability stating that “the events of 2020 and 2021 
exacerbated an already entrenched system of violence 
and discrimination against LGBTQ+ people in 

Lebanon'' (2021a, 4). Oxford International's (2021a) 
report, titled Queer Community in Crisis: Trauma, 
Inequality, and Vulnerability, states that individuals 
of the LGBTQ+ community “have limited access to 
safe spaces, are facing a housing crisis, are in dire 
need of basic assistance, and are facing worsening 
mental health and psychological wellbeing" (3). 
Studies on the challenges of both LGBTQ+ nationals 
and refugees, particularly those %eeing from Syria, 
residing in Lebanon will be included in this review 
to analyze security concerns for the community as a 
whole. Helem’s (2021a) report writes that “LGBTQ 
refugees face added violence and discrimination 
resulting from institutionalized homophobia and 
transphobia from both existing Syrian refugee 
communities as well as host Lebanese communities 
and institutions” (16). Additionally, this paper 
categorizes schools of research into four categories 
to display the research on the LGBTQ+ security 
landscape in Lebanon. By doing so, it highlights 
the interdisciplinary and intersectional nature of 
the issue. !is review is not just an exploration 
but a call to action. !rough a survey, evaluation, 
and comparison of pre-existing research, I aim to 
illuminate the LGBTQ+ experience, identify areas 
needing further research, and emphasize the urgency 
of addressing the community’s security.

Health Administration, Data Collection, and 
Health Risks
 Assessing human security in Lebanon's LGBTQ+ 
community involves examining the healthcare 
sector, including administration, prevention, and 
data collection, as well as factors like sexually 
transmitted diseases (STDs), healthcare stigma, 
malpractice, discrimination, and apathy. Existing 
health research and literature on these topics are 
majorly concerned with determinants of these issues 
and providing recommendations for policy reform. 
Kaplan and El Khoury (2017) expand on HIV and 
sex data by showcasing recent successes, lessons 



Literature Review: Security of the LGBTQ+ Community in Lebanon 

Aisthesis      Volume 15,  202457

learned, and obstacles regarding data collection for 
the community. !ey emphasize that health research 
faces obstacles such as how "key populations continue 
to be criminalized and excluded from surveillance 
programs" (1).  
 Within the literature examining the security of 
LGBTQ+ individuals in Lebanon, a pronounced 
concern emerges regarding the growing prevalence of 
HIV, increasing the vulnerability of this community. 
Researchers widely acknowledge the need for a 
focused inquiry into these escalating health risks. 
Men who have sex with men (MSM) are the most 
predominant sub-demographic studied in this 
research. Studies by Tohme et al. (2016b) and Heimer 
et al. (2017) survey HIV risk and prevalence within 
the community through qualitative data collection. 
Tohme et al. focus on the socio-demographic 
correlates of these disparities. Research on sexually 
transmitted diseases in the community helps draw 
conclusions about the security of these individuals 
and the lack of health resources. Civil society and 
international organizations also focus on these 
issues. Oxfam International’s (2021a) study found 
that “46% of participants reported great di&culties 
accessing general healthcare services since the 
crisis began” (17) and that “44% reported the same 
regarding sexual and reproductive health services'' 
(17). !ey underscore that queer individuals 
struggle in accessing healthcare services reportedly 
due to “multiple layers of marginalization, lack of 
healthcare facilities that provide tolerant and safe 
environments for queer individuals, and lack of 
healthcare professionals who are experts in meeting 
queer health needs'' (17). 
 A discernible gap in mental health resources for 
LGBTQ+ individuals in Lebanon has been identi#ed 
by researchers. Oxfam International’s (2021b) studies 
reported that “44% of participants described their 
access to mental health services as “very di&cult to 
access” or “not accessible at all” (19). Helem’s (2021a) 
report writes that the organization recorded a “record 
30% increase of individuals calling its hotline with 
suicidal ideation and thoughts of self-harm - and 
had more than 100 individuals on the waiting list 
for its free Mental Health Support program” (26). 
!is adds an additional layer of complexity to their 
security concerns. 
      Health is a major area of research for assessing 
the security of sexual minorities, especially due to 

healthcare stigma and anxieties widespread through 
these communities. Data collection faces many 
obstacles due to these issues, and further work is 
needed not only for healthcare reform but also 
towards ensuring safe spaces within healthcare are 
established for marginalized communities.

Systemic, State-Sponsored, and Physical Violence
 A signi#cant amount of LGBTQ+ security 
studies on Lebanon focus on systemic issues within 
areas of law, policing, and governance. Extralegal 
violence, abuses of power, civil rights violations, 
discrimination, and suppression are also prevalent 
research areas, underscoring the need for sweeping 
reform in the state administration. Additionally, 
both international and domestic human rights and 
civil society organizations have actively contributed 
to this discourse. Regarding obstacles entrenched by 
Lebanon’s political structure, Nagle (2018) writes that 
“while consociational arrangements – predicated 
on a minority rights regime – theoretically open 
up constitutional space for LGBT rights, they o$en 
negate such possibilities by empowering ethnic 
hardliners opposed to sexual minorities'' (1). !us, 
the consociational system makes it so that LGBTQ+ 
visibility, activism, and policy movements are harder 
to achieve. 
 Police brutality and abuse as well as the 
criminalization of nonheterosexuality are a large 
area of research regarding systemic issues. In 2013, 
Human Rights Watch (HRW) published a study 
titled It’s Part of the Job’: Ill-treatment and Torture 
of Vulnerable Groups in Lebanese Police Stations. 
!is report focuses on Lebanon’s main police force, 
the Internal Security Forces (ISF), which enforces 
morality laws against drug users, sex workers, and 
LGBTQ+ individuals. !ey write that “what these 
three groups have in common are their precarious 
status under Lebanese law as well as the social 
stigma that renders them particularly vulnerable 
to police abuse” (HRW, 2013, 1). HRW published a 
separate report titled Dignity Debased: Forced Anal 
Examinations in Homosexuality Prosecutions in 2016 
highlighting Lebanon as one of the case studies (31-
40). Similar to the 2013 HRW report, this helps assess 
the level of comprehensive literature and research on 
systemic issues and abuses. 
 Arbitrary arrests are important red %ags for civil 
and human rights abuses. Helem’s (2021a) report 



Literature Review: Security of the LGBTQ+ Community in Lebanon 

Aisthesis      Volume 15,  202458

writes that “Article 534 of the Lebanese Penal Code, 
which criminalizes ‘any sexual intercourse contrary 
to the order of nature,’ is commonly used to harass, 
detain, and violate LGBTQ+ individuals and acts 
as a legitimizing cover to most institutionalized 
homophobia and transphobia in the country” (4) 
and that victims of these violations are subjected 
to “arbitrary arrests and detention as well as highly 
criticized, degrading, and violent interrogation 
methods'' (4). Helem (2021b) writes that the ISF was 
“active in perpetrating the largest number of arbitrary 
arrests and detention of LGBTQ individuals under 
Article 534 of the penal code” (6). Orr et al. (2021) 
take an interpretive approach to data collection by 
interviewing MSM in Beirut about their experiences 
with discrimination and violence. !ey found “71% 
of foreign-born and 32% of native-born participants 
reporting at least one type of discrimination or 
violence (10278). !eir work expands the pre-
existing research on sexuality-based violence in 
Lebanon and makes their own comparisons with 
their work. 
      
Social Stigma and Risk Factors
 Exploring the social roots of stigma, entwined 
with religious dynamics, is an important component 
of the research on LGBTQ+ security in Lebanon. 
Michli and El Jamil’s (2022) work adds to the 
literature on how stigma and polarization create 
internalized homonegativity (IH). !ey state that 
“religiosity, parental rejection (actual or anticipated), 
and legal discrimination were signi#cant risk 
factors of IH, while sense of belonging to the LGBT 
community was a strong protective factor” (1). !ey 
note that there is a lack of research on the topic as 
it pertains to the Arab world and use Lebanon as a 
case study for this research. Tohme et al.’s (2016a) 
research on psycho-social correlates of safe-sex 
practices amongst MSM refugees in Beirut is the 
#rst of its kind in the MENA. !ey found that “both 
condom use and HIV testing were in%uenced by 
multiple psychosocial factors on levels of health care 
utilization, sexual identity development processes, 
and patterns of social discrimination and integration 
within the larger MSM community” (S422). Wagner 
et al.’s (2013) qualitative study on MSM in Beirut adds 
to the literature on sexual stigma, stating that most 
men in their study “struggled at least somewhat with 
their sexuality, o$en because of perceived stigma 

from others and internal religious con%ict about 
the immorality of homosexuality” (570). Similar 
issues revealed in these studies underscore the 
importance of researching social stigma in security 
studies, as areas such as physical and mental health 
are impacted. Additionally, Helem’s (2021) report 
states that the LGBTQ+ community in Lebanon 
is o$en “blackmailed, threatened, or verbally 
abused, with knowledge of their sexual orientation 
or gender identity” (27) and that “such violations 
against the community are extremely common and 
prevalent, particularly on social media platforms'' 
(27). Additionally, false perceptions of Lebanon as a 
haven for queer individuals minimize these realities. 
Moussawi (2013) has conducted sizable research on 
this issue, stating that “such reductionist depictions 
%atten queer Lebanese men’s experiences and render 
them voiceless” (868). Moussawi's work furthers 
research on the queer experience, emphasizing how 
essentialized and orientalist portrayals result in 
minimizing the intersectional experiences faced in 
the country's queer community. Existing literature 
on this topic is in consensus that social issues are 
large obstacles that queer individuals face and 
have compounding impacts on other problems the 
community faces.

Civil Society Landscape and E!orts
 Lebanon’s civil society is an important area for 
research and activism, as it helps in assessing the 
support systems in place for vulnerable communities 
in the country. Civil society organizations (CSOs) 
have an important role as a third space in furthering 
the well-being of sexual minorities as they face 
hardships from both society and the government. 
As cited throughout this literature review, Helem has 
provided comprehensive research and publishing 
on LGBTQ+ issues. Saleh showcases Helem’s (2015) 
e"orts in Lebanon while addressing the challenges it 
faces in a"ecting change in Lebanon. Jones and Tell 
(2010) write that “while real political gains remain 
elusive for Helem, its success lies in the visibility 
it has given to issues of gay rights in Lebanon and 
throughout the Arab world” (137). Saleh, Jones, 
and Tell expand on the literature on the limits faced 
by CSOs in Lebanon, giving particular emphasis 
on the necessity for expanding legal protections 
for such organizations. Helem’s work has reached 
many community members in Lebanon. Its 2021 



Literature Review: Security of the LGBTQ+ Community in Lebanon 

Aisthesis      Volume 15,  202459

report states that it has “processed 4,007 incidents 
of violations, risk, and/or humanitarian need with 
2,331 di"erent case evaluations within the LGBTQ 
community in Lebanon in 2021 alone” (2021b, 4). 
!e report also provides recommendations to both 
the Lebanese government and other CSOs on how 
to further LGBTQ+ security. Oxfam International 
and Human Rights Watch are two predominant 
international organizations that have released 
literature on the LGBTQ+ experience in Lebanon 
speci#cally and have thus been major contributors 
to the topic. Challenges of activism and government 
suppression have played a large role in the security 
studies of LGBTQ+ individuals in Lebanon. Zeidan 
(2013) writes that “human rights defenders working 
on sexuality constantly face dangers'' (201). Civil 
society and international e"orts are highlighted in 
most of the security study literature in Lebanon due 
to the large role they play in advocating for justice 
and reform. Civil society is an important research 
focus not only for showcasing successes but also to 
call for increased support for their e"orts. 

Conclusions and Notes for Continued Research
 !e review aims to assess the existing literature 
and research on the security of LGBTQ+ individuals 
in Lebanon. !e main #ndings of this review 
establish that security concerns and rights violations 
in the LGBTQ+ community are rooted in systemic 
and social issues that impact things such as health 
administration, policing, criminal justice, mental 
health, and disease transmission. 
 In analyzing major schools of research, areas 
needing expansion arise. One limitation of existing 
research is that MSM are the most largely surveyed 
demographic within the LGBTQ+ community. 
More research is needed on other demographics, 
like transgender women who consistently face 
violence around the world. Helem (2021a) writes 
that transgender women “face disproportionate 
sexual violence from tra&ckers, police, and other 
perpetrators and are far less likely to report sexual 
harassment and assault to authorities—su"ering 
from a perpetual culture of impunity in these spaces” 
(18). 
 Beirut, with its sizable LGBTQ+ population, 
stands as the most researched area for the LGBTQ+ 
experience. Expanding this research to the entirety 
of Lebanon is necessary for addressing human rights 

concerns and violations against the community. It is 
important that research is being done in the capital 
city, and research there is itself scarce; however, queer 
individuals are everywhere, and especially in the 
a$ermath of crises such as Covid-19 and the Beirut 
port explosion, the queer community has faced 
displacement within Beirut and relocation to rural 
and less populated localities (Oxfam International 
2021a, 3). A large issue that is thus lacking su&cient 
research and attention is the security of LGBTQ+ 
individuals outside of the Beirut metropolitan area. 
 Research institutions must be better funded 
to expand their research into rural areas outside 
of city centers. Such gaps in research leave issues 
of sexual-based violence unanswered in certain 
geographic locations. !is expansion of research 
is particularly relevant in issues of sexual health 
and sexually transmitted diseases. !e literature 
review has established that sexual minorities face 
systemic, economic, and social barriers to health 
resources; however, geography could also prove to 
be a restriction for resources as well. Additionally, 
a rising HIV epidemic concentrated among sexual 
minorities in Lebanon is a large security concern, and 
researchers in this #eld agree that continued study 
is necessary for establishing prevention e"orts and 
this must be expanded to all of Lebanon. Narrowing 
research to target these communities would 
provide a perspective that has yet to be introduced 
in the human security literature on the LGBTQ+ 
community in Lebanon and could reveal new 
security threats that queer residents in urban areas 
do not face. If the opportunity to do further research 
presented itself, I would target both geographic areas 
and sub-demographics most lacking in research to 
supplement the pre-existing literature and provide a 
more comprehensive picture of the security situation 
faced by LGBTQ+ individuals in Lebanon. 



Literature Review: Security of the LGBTQ+ Community in Lebanon 

Aisthesis      Volume 15,  202460

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