









































Posture (expansive, neutral, contractive) serves as non-verbal cues that convey meaning influencing perceptions of 
power and likeability. Expansive postures are often linked to dominance and power, while contractive postures are 
associated with approachability. We hypothesized that expansive postures would lead to higher perceptions of power 
than contractive poses with a stronger effect for men. Additionally, we predicted that women in contractive poses 
would be perceived as more likeable, whereas men would appear more likeable in expansive poses. We assessed 128 
University of San Diego participants, who rated images of men and women in expansive or contractive postures on 
power and likeability. Results supported our prediction that expansive postures convey greater power, with men in 
expansive stances receiving the highest power ratings. However, contrary to our hypothesis, women in contractive 
postures were not rated as more likeable. Instead, contractive postures overall were viewed as more likeable than 
expansive ones, regardless of gender. These findings suggest gender influences the interpretation of postural cues, 
with broader implications for social and professional interactions.

Aisthesis      Volume 16,  202551

Postures and Perceptions: Expansive and Contractive 
Postures on Perceptions of Power and Likeability

by Samantha Laurin

 Postures shape our every moment. From 
confident power stances to relaxed sitting positions, 
every movement is interpreted differently (Zloteanu 
et al., 2021). For instance, a man standing proud and 
broad chested may be discerned as powerful, while a 
woman sitting in a relaxed and comfortable position 
may be perceived as approachable (Zloteanu et al., 
2021). Postures act as a nonverbal cue that shapes 
how others perceive a person (Bailey et al., 2017). The 
connection between posture and communication 
can be rooted in the theory of Embodied Cognition, 
which explains how body positioning influences 
perception and interaction. The Role Congruence 
Theory furthers the idea that gender is more 
positively evaluated when men and women act in 
their stereotypical roles. These frameworks explain 
how gendered nonverbal cues influence how people 
position themselves, which can ultimately shape 
perceptions in reference to power and likeability. Our 
study explores how the intersection of body posture 
cues and gender shapes both perceived power and 
perceived likability, adding understanding of the 
subtle dynamics of nonverbal communication. 

Postures (expansive and contractive)
 There are three types of postures: expansive, 
neutral, and contractive. Expansive poses are created 

when the body is positioned to make it appear bigger, 
wider, and taller than its neutral state. Conversely, 
contractive poses are created when the body is 
concave and inward, making the body emerge as 
smaller and more petite than the body’s neutral 
position (Elkjær et al., 2020). Body expansion or 
open stances—including dominant nonverbal 
behaviors—are sometimes implicit, signaling 
confidence in ways that may not be consciously 
recognized by perceivers; however, stances are still 
influential in shaping social interactions (Williams & 
Tiedens, 2016). For instance, it is generally unlikely 
that someone who tends to be more reserved will 
feel comfortable approaching someone who appears 
more powerful in an expansive posture. Therefore, 
various postures have an impact on perceptions of 
power and likeability. Nonverbal cues, such as body 
posture, play a crucial role in shaping how others 
perceive an individual’s status and power. Specifically, 
social status impacts nonverbal movements. For 
example, a person who holds a position of power 
typically portrays expansive postures (Fişek et 
al., 2005). The difference between expansive and 
contractive postures can signal perceived power 
(Bailey et al., 2017). In other words, body postures 
play a significant role in influencing perceptions. 



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 Further, the theory of Embodied Cognition 
suggests that our physical posture and movements 
shape how we perceive ourselves; essentially, our 
own body posture affects our own emotional states 
(Adams, 2010). Though this is not directly applicable 
to how we perceive others, the concept is similar, as 
posture clearly has an emotional effect on perception. 
Thus, embodied cognition highlights the complex 
interplay between physical posture, gender norms, 
and how these factors affect perceived power and 
likability. Broadbent and Lin (2023) examined the 
connection between physical stance and emotional 
experience. People who adopted expansive stances 
elicited feelings of power and confidence, while 
contractive poses correlated with sadness and a 
sense of low control. Further, Elkjær et al. (2020) 
investigated how certain body posture changes 
affect behavior (the connection between someone's 
feelings and actions). Both research studies asked 
the participants to mirror the postures of the image 
the participants were shown, which led to power and 
confidence. Although embodied cognition is about 
perception of ourselves, the same thought process 
could be applied to how we perceive others and how 
others perceive us.
 Although expansive postures can convey a sense 
of power, they do not always enhance likability. 
In the United States, social norms often associate 
certain contractive postures with likability. Rennung 
et al. (2016) explores how adopting open and 
expansive high-power postures can lead to higher 
perceptions of power and a higher likelihood of 
being admired. However, it also notes that power 
poses may elicit envy and contempt, and a reduced 
probability of being liked. This indicates that while 
expansive postures can enhance perceptions of 
power, they may also lead to mixed social reactions. 
Conversely, Abdurazak et al. (2013) found that open 
body language, to an extent, is seen as more likable 
than contractive. For example, someone with arms 
by their side is seen as more friendly than someone 
with their arms crossed. Thus, body language, such 
as open or closed postures, can influence perceptions 
of likeability. 

Gendered Postures
 The way men and women hold their bodies can 
communicate different levels of power, influence, 
and how likable they appear. For example, expansive 

postures—such as standing tall with broad 
shoulders—are often associated with dominance 
and confidence. However, these postures may be 
interpreted differently depending on the individual’s 
gender. Research has shown that when men adopt 
such expansive postures, they are typically seen as 
more powerful (Bailey & Kelly, 2015). In contrast, 
women in expansive postures may face mixed 
perceptions, with some viewing them as more 
powerful but potentially less likable, as societal 
expectations often associate femininity with more 
reserved or submissive body language. 
 Society’s rigid stereotypes are understood 
through the Role Congruence Theory, which explains 
how men and women differ in behavior, based on 
existing societal constructs (Eagly & Karau, 2001). 
When an individual's or group's characteristics 
align with these role expectations (i.e., when there 
is congruence), they are more likely to be positively 
evaluated. Conversely, when characteristics do not 
align with the expected role (i.e., incongruency), this 
can lead to negative evaluations or bias. Furthermore, 
Role Congruence Theory explains that, through 
society's standards, men should not appear weak or 
feminine, and women not powerful or authoritative 
(Eagly & Karau, 2001). These cultural biases link 
power with masculinity and warmth with femininity. 
Ultimately, these dynamics interpret the complex 
and often restrictive expectations placed on both 
men and women’s nonverbal postures. 
 Traditionally, gender has been correlated with 
status in relation to social power, which generalizes 
societal role assumptions about powerful and likable 
postures (Dovidio et al., 1988).  In societal gender 
roles, men are normally seen in an expansive posture, 
asserting dominance and attaining power. On the 
other hand, women often viewed in more contractive 
poses, are seen as submissive and weak (Bailey & 
Kelly, 2015). These Western societal assumptions 
play a key role in stereotypes of gendered posture 
expectations. Since these societies are accustomed 
to certain behavioral norms, it is surprising when 
women express expansive postures and men express 
contractive postures (Eagly & Karau, 2001). These 
various postures determine the perceived power and 
likeability of the individual at hand.

Power
 Research states that expansive posture results 
in differing perceptions of men and women (Eagly 



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Aisthesis      Volume 16,  202553

& Karau, 2001). The way that men and women are 
frequently viewed creates a feeling of familiarity, 
which sways perceptions about likeability. Men in 
more expansive postures create a more powerful 
presence (Broadbent & Lin, 2023). Conversely, 
women are commonly in contractive postures. A 
woman’s expectation to be submissive makes it 
more challenging to assert dominance through 
nonverbal communication (Aguinis & Henle, 2001). 
Furthermore, women are perceived to be more 
likable, but less powerful because the nonverbal cues, 
like contractive posture, can influence perceptions 
of power and authority (Aguinis & Henle, 2001). 
Moreover, these perceptions of postures challenge 
traditional gender roles. For example, powerful 
and dominant women defy expectations of 
appropriate behavior (Williams & Tiedens, 2016). 
These patterns reveal how nonverbal cues can 
subtly reinforce societal expectations. Dominant 
or expansive poses are generally valued in men, 
but can challenge traditional views when displayed 
by women (Rennung et al., 2016). Women can 
leverage nonverbal postures, which can shift others’ 
perceptions of their power (Bailey & Kelly, 2015). 
However, these counter-stereotypical postures often 
come at a social cost. A woman's assertive poses 
may conflict with societal norms that traditionally 
associate high-power displays with men and low-
power displays with women. Such disruptions 
suggest that nonverbal cues, like dominant or 
submissive postures, can reshape impressions of 
power and likeability.

Likeability
 Men who adopt more contractive, low-power 
postures may be perceived as weak, yet also more 
approachable because these stances may signal 
warmth, friendliness, or likeability. Contractive 
postures may be seen as more likable, and expansive 
postures may be seen as more powerful, but could be 
perceived differently when it comes to gender. 
Women, in particular, face unique challenges, as 
societal biases often lead to their assertive postures 
being interpreted as significantly less likable 
compared to men’s assertive postures. The perception 
gap of likeability may be influenced by traditional 
gender norms and stereotypes that associate 
women’s physical expression with submissiveness 
rather than dominance. In American culture, 

warmth is a valued quality in women, reinforcing a 
social norm that expects them to exhibit nurturing 
and accommodating behaviors (Williams & Tiedens, 
2016). This bias signifies that women who assume 
expansive or assertive postures, often associated with 
power, may inadvertently convey a lack of warmth 
or friendliness, which can lead to unfavorable 
perceptions and reduce their overall likeability. 
Men are often more strictly policed for deviations 
from masculine behavior. If their behavior deviates 
from societal norms, individuals might doubt their 
strength and authority. While dominance in men is 
often seen as a positive indicator of confidence and 
leadership potential, the same behaviors in women 
can be perceived as threatening or overly assertive. 
These patterns reveal how nonverbal cues can subtly 
reinforce societal expectations: expansive poses are 
generally valued in men but challenge traditional 
views when displayed by women. This understanding 
of nonverbal cues and societal expectations sets 
the stage for exploring how physical stance not 
only influences social perceptions but also impacts 
emotional experiences. 
 However, our study aims to explore how different 
perspectives influence the perception of a target, 
rather than the emotion of physically enacting 
the motion. Both research studies highlighted the 
contradictions in gender-based perceptions: women 
are often viewed unfavorably in dominant, expansive 
positions, whereas men displaying similar behaviors 
are seen as more likable, as they are more congruent. 
These studies emphasize the complex relationship 
between body language, societal expectations, and 
perceived likability. 

Our Present Study
 Our study explores the perceptions of power 
and likeability when participants view images of 
both men and women adopting identical expansive 
or contractive postures. Previous research suggests 
that men adopting expansive postures and women 
in contractive postures align with the social gender 
norms prevalent in the United States, although there 
is little research on the associations of gendered 
postures with perceived power and likeability 
(Rennung et al., 2016). We hope to gain more 
knowledge about how perceptions of power and 
likeability are understood from looking at different 
body positions. 



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 In our study, we aimed to examine how nonverbal 
body posture cues influence perceptions of power 
and likability, specifically by exploring interactions 
between body posture (expansive or contractive) 
and gender (male or female). We predicted that 
expansive postures would lead to higher perceptions 
of power compared to contractive postures, whether 
that is from a male or female, although it will have 
more of an effect on men. This effect may be because 
of established societal perceptions associating power 
with masculinity. Traditional assumptions about the 
dominance associated with expansive stances aligns 
with our observation that expansive poses might 
convey qualities potentially linked to power. We 
tested our hypothesis by asking participants to rate 
images of males and females in expansive, neutral, 
or contractive body position in regards to perceived 
power and likeability.
 We also predicted that the main effects of posture 
would differ by gender of the target: women should 
be perceived as more likable when in contractive 
poses compared to expansive poses, while men will 
be perceived as more likable when in expansive 
poses when compared to contractive. Specifically, 
females in contractive poses will have the greatest 
likability response overall. Women in contractive 
poses will elicit this greater response due to such 
postures aligning with societal expectations of 
female warmth, friendliness, and approachability. 

Method
Participants
 The sample included 128 college-aged students 
(19 men, 95 women) between the ages of 18 and 28 
(M = 20.04, SD = 1.780). We recruited University 
of San Diego psychology students through posters 
on campus (N = 84) as well as Introduction to 
Psychology courses in the psychology department (N 
= 44). Some participants were not compensated for 
their work; however, the Introduction to Psychology 
students received one point of course credit for 
their participation. The participants were of 5 racial 
groups (45.3% Caucasian, 24.2% Latinx, 8.6% Asian, 
6.3% African American, and 4.7% other). 

Procedure and Design
 This experiment was a 2 (postures: contractive, 
expansive) x 2 (target gender: female, male) mixed 
model factorial design, with postures as a within-

subjects variable. The dependent variables were 
perceived likeability and perceived power of the target. 
Potential participants were invited to participate 
in a survey completed via Qualtrics. In the survey, 
the participant viewed 3 images of different men 
and women sitting in either an expansive, neutral, 
or contractive posture. Participants were randomly 
assigned to two experimental targets of the same 
gender in different postures and one filler target of 
the opposite gender in the neutral pose. Participants 
rated each target on 8 questions, measuring likeability 
and power including one filler question to distract 
participants from the purpose of the study. Then the 
participants completed the manipulation check and 
filled out their demographic information (age, race, 
gender, majors). In the debriefing, participants were 
informed that the study was designed to explore 
how postures influence perceived likeability and 
perceived power. 

Materials
Target Images
 This study used 10 total black and white images, 
8 of which were part of the experimental design. 
Those 8 pictures consisted of 2 men and 2 women 
who each posed in both expansive and contractive 
postures. The contractive postures and expansive 
postures were modeled after Bailey and Kelly (2015). 
In the contractive condition, the image showed a 
person sitting in a more submissive, inward-facing 
posture, with arms close to chest and legs touching. 
In the expansive condition, the photo showed a 
person sitting in a more dominant, outward-facing 
posture, with their arms and legs spread out wide 
for all images. Participants were randomly assigned 
to see two of the experimental pictures: either two 
women, one in a contractive posture and one in an 
expansive posture, or two men, one in a contractive 
posture and one in an expansive posture. The specific 
men and women in the images were counterbalanced 
across conditions. The other two pictures were a 
different man and woman sitting in a neutral posture. 
Participants saw one of these images as a filler item in 
the opposite gender as the experimental targets. The 
two filler images were found online, but experimental 
images were taken for the purpose of this study by 
asking people unknown to potential participants to 
pose in either an expansive or contractive posture. 



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Aisthesis      Volume 16,  202555

For all images of expansive, neutral, contractive, and 
manipulation check, see Appendix A. 
 The gender of the targets in the images were 
manipulated as either male or female. Although all 
the targets wore neutral clothing, the women had 
longer hair and the men had shorter hair, and the 
target gender should have been clear to participants.

Measure of Perceived Likeability
 We used 3 questions to measure the participants' 
perceived likeability of each target on a 5-point 
Likert scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a great deal). 
The items included: “How much do you think you 
would like this person if you knew them?,” “If you 
were their age, would you want to be friends with 
this person?,” and “How pleasant to be around does 
this person seem?” These three items were added 
to create a measure of likeability for each posture 
(Cronbach’s alpha for the contractive posture = .83 
and for the expansive posture = .88).

Measure of Perceived Power of Target 
 We used 4 questions to measure the participants' 
perceived power of each target on a 5-point Likert 
scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a great deal). The items 
included: “How powerful do you think this person 
is?,” “How confident does this person seem?,” “How 
likely is this person to speak up in a public setting?,” 
and “How high-status do you think this person's job 
is?” These four items were added to create a measure 
of perceived power for each posture (Cronbach’s 
alpha for the contractive posture = .73 and for the 
expansive posture = .73).

Gendered Posture Manipulation Check
 To test if the postures were received as feminine 
or masculine representing, participants viewed 
images of gender-neutral stick figures in the same 
two postures and rated perceived gender on a 
5-point Likert scale from 1 (very masculine) to 5 
(very feminine). To see the manipulation check stick 
figures, see Appendix A.

Results
Perceived Likeability
 We conducted a 2 (postures: contractive, 
expansive) x 2 (gender: female, male) mixed model 
ANOVA on likeability, with posture as a within-

subjects variable. The main effect of postures was 
significant, F(1, 110) = 9.92, p = .002. Despite our 
predictions, expansive postures (M = 7.24 , SD = 
3.09) were rated as less likeable than contractive 
postures (M = 8.34, SD = 2.66). The main effect of 
gender was significant, F(1, 110) = 14.90, p = < .001. 
As predicted, males (M = 7.06, SD = 2.09) were rated 
as less likeable than females (M = 8.60, SD = 2.15). 
The Gender x Posture interaction was not significant 
F(1, 110) =1.9, p = .171.

This graph shows likeability ratings for male and 
female participants across contractive and expansive 
postures, including error bars for each data point. 

Perceived Power
 The main effect of postures was significant, F(1, 
112) = 55.49, p = < .001 As predicted, expansive (M 
= 14.12, SD = 3.31) were rated more powerful than 
contracted (M = 12.78, SD = 2.73). The main effect 
of gender was not significant, F(1,112) = 0.216, p = 
< .64. The Gender x Postures interaction was also 
significant, F(1, 112) = 8.25, p = .005. As predicted, 
expansive postures (M =  13.49, SD = 3.11) were 
rated as more powerful than contractive postures 
(M = 10.44, SD = 3.06). Posthoc tests showed that, 
as predicted, men in expansive postures (M = 14.12, 
SD = 3.31) were more powerful than in contractive 
postures (M = 9.98, SD = 3.31),  t(2) = 7.378, p = < 
.001. Women in contractive postures (M = 10.94, SD 
= 2.95) were less powerful than women in expansive 
postures (M = 12.78, SD = 2.73), although the effect 
will be larger for men than women t(2) = 7.378, p = 
<.001. 



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This graph shows that both males and females 
report higher power ratings with expansive postures. 
Males show a more pronounced increase in power 
ratings from contractive to expansive posture. Error 
bars indicate variability, with overlapping ranges 
suggesting some uncertainty in precise comparisons.

Manipulation Check 
 We created a manipulation check using stick 
figures in contractive and expansive postures to see 
if the participants could correctly identify which 
postures are more feminine and masculine. We 
computed one sample t-test comparing the mean 
rating to the midpoint of the scale (3). The expansive 
posture (M = 1.33, SD = 0.49) was significantly 
higher than the midpoint t(113) = -36.18, p< .001. 
The contractive postures were (M = 3.89, SD = 0.08), 
t(113 ) = 11.60, p< .001.

Discussion
Discussion of Results
 Power and likeability can be perceived through 
expansive and contractive body positioning. These 
dynamics can differ between men and women based 
on societal expectations. Theories such as Embodied 
Cognition and Role Congruence Theory can explain 
how body postures are linked to social norms in the 
real world. Embodied Cognition is related to the 
emotions of an individual performing these poses, 
as they may feel more confident in expansive poses 
and approachable in contractive poses (Adams, 
2010). Role Congruence Theory explains how 
stereotypical social norms determine what type of 
body posture men and women usually enact. When 

men pose more dominantly, in expansive postures, 
and women submissively, in contractive posture, 
they are congruent with their societal roles (Eagly 
& Karau, 2001). We hypothesized that expansive 
postures would lead to higher perceptions of power 
compared to contractive postures, and that this 
effect would interact with gender—such that men in 
expansive postures would be perceived as especially 
powerful due to alignment with societal gender 
norms compared to contractive postures. A study by 
Lin & Broadbent (2023) supports our hypothesis as 
researchers found that expansive postures are seen 
as more powerful and dominant than contractive. 
Our study confirmed this finding as the main 
effect of expansive poses were significantly more 
powerful than the contractive poses. Although not 
hypothesized, in our Qualtrics survey, we found a 
significant main effect of gender on power, where 
men were rated as more powerful than women. This 
difference, rooted in Role Congruence Theory, likely 
explains why men were perceived as more powerful 
even when adopting similar postures to women. We 
took a similar approach to research from Bailey et 
al. (2017), when providing the participants images 
of men and women in high (expansive) and low 
(contractive) postures. This method allowed us to 
isolate body posture as the primary factor influencing 
perceptions, allowing for a clearer understanding of 
how nonverbal cues shape our judgments of power. 
Further, we could understand how body language 
is interpreted by observers in a more detached and 
cognitive manner. Our study differed in that we did 
not ask the participants to hold the poses they were 
viewing, but rather perceive them. Our results were 
similar in that expansive postures were viewed and 
felt as more powerful. Most importantly, however, 
we predicted an interaction between posture and 
gender, such that men in expansive poses were 
rated the most significant, more than any other 
variation. Role Congruence Theory affirms that men 
in expansive poses are viewed as more powerful 
because those poses are congruent with their role 
expectation, linking power with masculinity (Eagly 
& Karau, 2001). Conversely, women in the same 
poses are incongruent with their role expectation of 
being less powerful and authoritative, so although 
women appear more powerful in expansive poses, 
this effect is muted by role incongruence. 



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 For likability, we hypothesized in an interaction 
that women should be perceived as more likable when 
in contractive poses compared to expansive poses, 
while men will be perceived as more likable when 
in expansive poses when compared to contractive. 
These poses align with societal expectations noted 
in Role Congruence Theory, in which females 
in contractive poses seem warm and submissive 
and men in expansive poses seem powerful and 
dominant (Eagly & Karau, 2001). Therefore, it was 
hypothesized that the alignment of body posture 
with these gender role expectations would influence 
perceptions of likeability. 
 Despite societal norms associating expansive 
postures with power and dominance (particularly 
for men) and contractive postures with warmth 
and submission (particularly for women), there 
was no significant effect of gender on likability. 
Both men and women were rated as more likable 
when in contractive postures than expansive ones. 
Consequently, the predicted interaction effect was 
not significant. This may have been due to the use of 
black-and-white static images to assess perceptions. 
Judging likeability from a still picture can be 
challenging, as it does not fully capture the dynamic 
process of human interaction that influences how 
likable someone is. Nonverbal cues such as facial 
expressions, tone of voice, and body language in 
motion can significantly impact perceptions of 
likeability, which may not be accurately conveyed 
through a single image (Chanes et al., 2018). In 
addition, a person’s appearance or attractiveness in 
pictures may influence their perceived likeability. 
These findings confirm the role of nonverbal cues 
in shaping social perceptions while revealing that 
the impact of gender on likability may be less 
pronounced than anticipated. 
 Although not explicitly hypothesized as a main 
effect, we found that contractive poses were rated 
as more likable than expansive poses, which was 
supported by previous research stating a main effect 
that linked contractive body language to likability 
(Abdurazak et al., 2013). Our data supported this 
hypothesis with a main effect of posture on likability, 
where people in contractive poses were seen as 
more likable than expansive poses. This effect was 
interesting as it showed that body postures do have 
an effect on perceptions of likability despite gender.

Strengths
 One of the key strengths of this study is its 
strong internal validity, as it effectively establishes 
a cause-and-effect relationship between body 
posture and perceptions of power and likeability. 
By structuring the study in a 2x2 mixed-model 
factorial design, we were able to isolate and analyze 
how the combination of posture (contractive 
versus expansive) and gender (male versus female) 
influenced participant responses, which enhanced 
the reliability of the findings. By examining multiple 
factors simultaneously, a mixed-model factorial 
design increases the statistical power (the probability 
of detecting an effect) of the study. When we analyze 
the combined effect of posture and gender, we were 
more likely to detect an effect that may have been 
overlooked if only one factor (like posture) had been 
considered in isolation, which allowed us to reduce 
type I (false positives) and type II (false negatives) 
errors. Additionally, the study demonstrates control 
over extraneous variables, such as the inclusion of 
neutral filler images which provided a baseline of 
posture to reduce biases introduced by repeated 
exposure to experimental target images. Also, by 
addressing potential confounds with a mixed-
model design, the study has a high internal validity. 
By comparing how the same participants respond 
to different conditions, we were able to control 
for individual differences (personality and prior 
experiences) that could influence the results. This 
reduces the risk of confounding by participant-level 
variability.
 Another notable strength of the study is its 
use of established measures, which enhanced the 
clarity, reliability, and accuracy of the research. 
By understanding what contractive, expansive, 
and neutral postures were based on, from prior 
research, the study ensured that participants were 
provided with carefully designed images that 
visually exemplified each posture type. This helped 
to minimize ambiguity and allow for consistent 
interpretation across the different samples. This led 
to a higher construct validity, as a more concrete 
understanding was able to be assessed from specific 
operational definitions. 
 Lastly, we used a gender-neutral stick figures 
manipulation check to verify that the participants 
perceived the postures as intended. The goal was 
to confirm that the postures were successfully 
conveyed through the images, and that participants 

57



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could differentiate between the two types of postures 
without the influence of gender-related stereotypes. 
The use of gender-neutral stick figures was essential 
in ensuring that gender did not influence the 
perception of the posture itself, allowing us to focus 
on the effects of posture on perceptions of likability 
and power. Since gender norms and stereotypes can 
shape how we perceive people in different postures 
(expansive postures in men might be viewed as 
confident and powerful, but in women, they could be 
seen as arrogant or unlikable), removing gender from 
the images ensured that the study was not biased 
by these pre-existing societal expectations. This 
methodological choice allowed us to test whether 
the effect of posture on perceptions of power and 
likability was consistent across gender lines. 

Limitations and Future Research
 There were several important limitations in this 
study that should be considered. One limitation 
could be the lack of psychological realism, which 
affects the external validity of the findings. Since the 
study was conducted online, participants engaged 
with the task in a self-directed, uncontrolled 
environment. This setup differs greatly from real-
world interactions, where social cues such as body 
posture are often observed within conversations. 
Real-world social interactions are dynamic and 
complex, encompassing continuous motion, vibrant 
colors, and contextual cues that static, black-
and-white images cannot replicate. Introducing 
non-static, colorful, and interactive stimuli could 
significantly enhance the psychological realism 
and external validity of this research. By using 
dynamic stimuli, such as videos or confederates, 
researchers could capture more authentic responses, 
better simulating how posture interacts with other 
nonverbal cues like facial expressions or tone of 
voice in everyday settings. 
 A limitation of this study is the use of a WEIRD 
(Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and 
Democratic) participant sample, which may limit 
the generalizability of the findings to the broader 
global population (Henrich et al., 2010). The sample 
consisted of University of San Diego participants, 
the majority being Caucasian and female. Previous 
research has shown that cultural differences can 
influence how body posture is perceived, particularly 
in relation to power (Körner et al., 2022). For instance, 
studies have found that expansive postures may have 

stronger effects on perceptions of power in Western 
countries, such as the U.S. and Germany, compared 
to Eastern countries like Japan or Malaysia (Körner 
et al., 2022). Nonverbal cues, including posture, 
may be interpreted differently across cultures, 
which could lead to varying perceptions of power 
and likeability. The findings from our study may, 
therefore, be culturally specific, and the results might 
not apply to individuals from non-WEIRD cultures 
where social norms and perceptions of power may 
be influenced by different values. Future research 
should aim to replicate this study with a more diverse 
range of populations, particularly those from non-
WEIRD cultures, to examine how different cultural 
contexts perceive body posture. To conduct a future 
study, researchers could recruit participants from a 
variety of cultural backgrounds, ensuring a balance 
between individualistic and collectivistic societies. 
In these cultures, the emphasis on hierarchy, group 
harmony, and social context might lead to different 
interpretations of expansive and contractive postures 
(Körner et al., 2022). For instance, in collectivistic 
cultures, nonverbal cues such as posture might be 
less about individual power and more about the 
dynamics of the group or community. By broadening 
the participants to include non-WEIRD populations, 
future studies could contribute to a more globally 
applicable understanding of how posture influences 
power and likeability, ultimately improving the 
external validity.
 Lastly, another limitation is the timing of the 
assessments for likeability and power. These two 
constructs were assessed simultaneously, but research 
suggests that people tend to evaluate power more 
quickly and instinctively than likeability (Koski et al., 
2015). This difference in processing speed could have 
skewed the results, as power may have been judged 
before likeability could be fully considered. Given 
that power is often perceived faster, it is possible that 
the participants' perceptions of power were more 
automatic, while their judgments of likeability may 
have required more thoughtful reflection (Farley, 
2008). Power may have an overshadowing effect, 
which could decrease the impact of the likeability 
interaction of women in contractive poses being 
seen as more likeable than men in contractive 
poses. Therefore, the null interaction on likeability 
might be a result of the intermixed power and 
likeability questions when rating the image, rather 
than an inherent characteristic of posture itself. 

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The difference in how the participants judged these 
poses could have impacted results by having a quick 
interpretation instead of thinking of the poses, 
especially in this short ten-minute study where 
people may not have time to fully recognize their 
thoughts about their perceptions of the poses. Future 
research should test these two constructs separately 
either in separate studies or one full target image 
related to power and another related to likeability. 
This might give a more accurate representation of 
how each variable is influenced by body posture, as 
power will then not overwhelm likeability and they 
can be judged differently. Further, research shows 
that likeability is better assessed and understood 
when people can have a personal interaction (Rivera 
et al., 2023). Therefore, it would be interesting to have 
future research investigate if an actual interpersonal 
interaction would confirm our hypothesis that 
women in contractive postures are seen as more 
likable than men in contractive postures. 

Application
 Our study highlights the importance of posture as 
nonverbal cues significantly influence perceptions of 
power and likeability. Expansive postures are linked 
to higher perceptions of power, particularly for men, 
reinforcing societal norms associating dominance 
with authority. Conversely, contractive postures are 
perceived as more likable due to their association 
with warmth and approachability. This research 
underscores how nonverbal communication, often 
operating subconsciously, shapes social perceptions 
and interactions. By examining the interplay of 
posture, gender, and implicit biases, the study 
reveals how these factors influence perceptions and 
interpersonal dynamics in both professional and 
social contexts. 
 Our study offers suggestions for implementation 
postures in various domains. Highlighting how 
nonverbal communication, such as posture, can 
contribute to gender inequality in the workplace 
could help reduce gender bias by raising awareness 
of how certain postures are interpreted differently 
based on gender, influencing perceptions among 
colleagues and superiors. Further, gender biases 
could lead to different interpretations of the same 
posture depending on whether it is adopted by a 
male or female. For instance, a male individual 
adopting an expansive posture during a job interview 
or workplace meeting may be seen as more powerful 

than females in the same physical position (Lin & 
Broadbent, 2023). Conversely, contractive posture 
may signal approachability and warmth, which 
may be beneficial when someone needs to engage 
in a one-on-one conversation. By recognizing these 
biases, organizations can work towards a more 
equitable evaluation of behavior and leadership 
potential, ensuring that individuals are judged based 
on their abilities and qualifications rather than their 
physical posture.
 This study could also contribute to leadership 
development by helping leaders navigate high-stakes 
situations, where balancing authority with the ability 
to foster empathy may be influenced by nonverbal 
cues. Aspiring leaders can learn how to adopt body 
postures that convey confidence and authority 
while also understanding how their gestures may be 
interpreted differently based on gender. For female 
leaders, in particular, awareness of societal biases 
and strategies to navigate them can be empowering, 
enabling them to balance perceptions of power and 
approachability effectively. Women could do this by 
creating an expansive posture in situations where 
they want to be heard and a contractive posture 
when they need to signal empathy or approachability. 
Incorporating these strategies does not mean 
conforming to narrow stereotypes or forcing 
unnatural behaviors, but rather understanding how 
body language and social dynamics work together to 
shape perceptions and outcomes. 
 Beyond professional settings, the study's 
findings are relevant to everyday social interactions. 
Understanding how posture influences perceptions 
of likeability and power can help individuals 
navigate social situations more effectively by 
allowing them to consciously adjust their body 
language to align with their desired impression. 
Adopting and understanding how expansive and 
contractive postures are interpreted provides 
individuals and organizations with valuable tools to 
navigate challenges and enhance their interactions. 
By recognizing the impact of nonverbal cues, 
individuals can adjust their posture to shape how 
they are perceived, thereby improving their ability 
to communicate, foster relationships, and achieve 
success in both social and professional environments. 
Understanding these dynamics is crucial for 
enhancing our awareness of how the body language 
of ourselves and others impacts social interactions.
 

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