This is an open access article under the CC BY license : Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal ISSN (printed): 1818 – 1171, ISSN (online): 2312 – 0789 Vol. 21, No. 4, December, (2025), pp. 93- 105 Analysing the Effects of Switching, Conduction and Thermal Losses on IGBT Performance in Boost DC–DC Converters for Photovoltaic Systems Muhanad D. Hashim Almawlawe Department of Electronics and communication Engineering ,College of Engineering, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Qadisiyah, Iraq Email: muhanad.almawlawe@qu.edu.iq (Received 9 April 2025; Revised 13 September 2025; Accepted 19 October 2025; Published 1 December 2025) https://doi.org/10.22153/kej.2025.10.003 Abstract This study examines the thermal and electrical characteristics of insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) in boost direct current (DC)–DC converters used in photovoltaic systems with respect to how switching and conduction losses vary under different operating conditions. The behaviour of IKWH70N65WR6 IGBT was measured (PLECS software) with load resistances of 5, 10 and 20 Ω at switching frequencies of 1–100 kHz. Important results are as follows: conduction losses prevail at low frequencies and load currents and switching losses increase towards high frequencies. Thermal stress is the highest at mid-range frequencies (50–60 kHz) and IGBT junction temperatures peak to 123 °C. Reduced load resistance leads to increased power consumption and total losses, and the value of load matching must be optimised. This study offers critical data regarding the choice and optimisation of IGBTs to improve efficiency and reliability within the uses of renewable energies. Keywords: IGBT losses; step-up DC–DC converter; photovoltaic systems; conduction losses; switching losses; thermal control; efficiency optimisation; continuous conduction mode (CCM) 1. Introduction Renewable energy systems have been used extensively in the recent years as a sustainable substitute to power generation based on fossil fuels, which is linked to the high rate of environmental degradation [1][2]. Amongst these systems, photovoltaic (PV) systems utilise the power of the sun and transform it into direct current (DC) voltage by using a number of subsystems. However, the power emitted by solar panels is typically too low and cannot be used directly to charge a battery or be linked to a grid. Thus, a voltage-boosting stage is necessary. A boost DC–DC converter is widely used in PV systems to raise low panel voltage to a level required by other downstream systems (e.g. battery storage or grid-tied inverters) [3]-[5]. This converter consists of important elements, such as an inductor; a capacitor; a semiconductor switch, typically a metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) or an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT); and a diode. The synchronised switching behaviour of this converter, which is controlled by the duty cycle, allows increasing the voltage. The assumptions used in the current study are operation in continuous conduction mode (CCM), input voltage (Vin) of 48 V, output voltage (Vout) of 100 V, switching frequency of 1–100 kHz and load resistance of 5–20 Ω. The efficiency of the target is approximately 90%. mailto:muhanad.almawlawe@qu.edu.iq https://doi.org/10.22153/kej.2025.10.003 Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 94 The primary motivation of the current study arises from the critical need to enhance the efficiency, reliability and thermal robustness of boost DC–DC converters used in PV systems. 1.1 Literature Review In this section, a literature review highlights the relationship between the losses of the switching components and the improvement in efficiency of the step-up converter [6]- [10]. These previous studies are considered under different environmental conditions with various control strategies and authors’ overviews. They focus on the characteristics of IGBTs and diodes from the following views. 1.1.1 Importance of Loss Minimisation in Power Electronics One of the grounds for enhancing the effectiveness of step-up DC–DC converters is loss minimisation. Esram and Chapman in [3] reported that the effectiveness of maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques in PV systems is closely related to the performance of converters, which, in turn, is dependent on converter losses. Efficiency has been pursued with the incorporation of high materials with less loss coefficients, including gallium nitride (GaN)-based devices Graditi et al. in [8] established that GaN-based synchronous rectifiers could significantly lower switching loss in power factor correction boost converters and provide a path towards greater efficiency. Almawlawe et al. in [2] used digital converters in low-switching-loss solar panel converters; this technique not only provided an innovation for control strategies but was also the key to minimising switching losses. The aforementioned developments highlight the importance of an overall loss analysis, for conduction and switching losses, with the aim of maximising the performance of a system. 1.1.2 Thermal Management Challenges The problem of heat dissipation is challenging as far as the stable functioning and reliability of IGBTs in high-frequency converters are concerned. The approach to thermal management in power electronics was defined broadly by Rahman et al. in [10] to highlight the effect of losses on the temperature of devices and their dependence on temperature. At high junction temperatures, a threat of thermal stress exists, shortening the life of components, such as diodes and IGBTs. The reviewed articles examined the dependence of switching frequency, heat sink temperature and junction temperatures on load resistance (R = 5, 10 and 20 Ω). For example, when R = 5 Ω and f = 100 kHz, IGBT junction temperatures reach approximately 118 °C. Meanwhile, they reach approximately 88 °C when R = 20 Ω. These results are consistent with the findings in Chaithanakulwat [9], who underlined the significance of high- efficiency power conversion in renewable power sources to reduce thermal adversities. 1.1.3 Efficiency Optimisation Techniques The optimisation of the efficiency of step-up DC–DC converters comprise a set of high-level control algorithms, topology redesigning and novel materials. Sullivan and Zhang in [11] suggested the simplified design of a litz wire that minimised alternating current (AC) losses in inductors, enhancing total efficiency. Similarly, the design and use of transformers and inductors in power electronics were discussed by Hurley and Wölfle [12], with emphasis on core loss modelling via the Steinmetz equation. Trade-offs between switching frequency and efficiency were also marked in the reviewed papers. Although operation at very high frequencies (>100 kHz) lowers thermal stress, it causes the difficulty of more switching losses. Zhang and Peng in [8] performed a step-by-step loss analysis and optimisation of DC–DC converters on PV applications, offering guidelines in the practical selection of components and component working parameters. 1.1.4 Control Strategies for Dynamic Performance In boost DC–DC converters, advanced control methods are important for suppressing losses and improving dynamic performance. The implementation of a boost converter with quasi- sliding mode control presented by TRUJILLO, Simeón Casanova [13] was demonstrated to achieve better transient response and stability because of its microcontroller-based implementation. Hawsawi in [5] discussed switched capacitor boost converters to incorporate solar PV, with particular interest in augmenting MPPT dynamically. Future research programmes will involve developing adaptive gate-drive methods and real-time control programmes to allow converter operation to be adjusted dynamically to changing load conditions. Strategies will be developed to solve the high- Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 95 frequency operation problems and guarantee optimum performance over a significant operating range. 1.1.5 Comparison of Component Characteristics The performance of IGBTs and diodes in step-up converters is strongly influenced by their switching and conduction characteristics. The reviewed papers provide extensive data on IGBT and diode losses under varying frequencies and load resistances. For example, IBGT losses = 28.99 W, diode losses = 31.44 W when R = 5  and f = 10 kHz. • R = 20  100 kHz, loss in IGBT is 13.27 W and that in diodes is 7.19 W. Such findings coincide with those of [14], who conducted research on interleaved zero voltage-switching converters to reduce ripple currents and enhance efficiency. The data underscore the importance of selecting components with optimal characteristics for specific applications. 1.1.6 Renewable Energy Applications The incorporation of boost DC–DC converters into renewable energy systems, particularly PV systems, requires appropriate attention on efficiency, reliability and cost. Twidell in [1] explained the role of power electronics in renewable energy design, and the necessity of converters with high efficiency to obtain the maximum energy harvest. Singh in [4] identified the relevance of converter design in attaining optimal performance. Chaithanakulwat in [9] conducted an extensive review of high-efficiency power conversion into renewable energy systems, providing knowledge of state-of-the-art methods for addressing loss reduction. All the aforementioned studies support the necessity to maximise the performance of IGBTs in PV-integrated systems. Reference [15] discussed the losses in DC–DC converters and the techniques for improving efficiency by minimising losses. Different techniques for reducing losses in high-frequency DC–DC converters were discussed in [19], [20], [21], including the use of advanced MOSFETs and optimised circuit designs. 1.1.7 Major calculations Used to Design the Set-up Converter Working in CCM must satisfy the following equation: 𝐷𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 . …(1) The inductor ripple current (ΔIL) should be less than two times the average inductor current (IL). 𝐿𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝐷𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡. ∗ ∆𝐼𝐿 , …(2) 𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝐷𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡. ∗ ∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 , …(3) where Lvalue is the inductance value, Cvalue is the capacitance value, Vin is the input voltage, Vout is the output voltage, Dcycle is the duty cycle, fswit is the switching frequency, IL is the inductor ripple current and Vout is the output ripple voltage . The basic scheme for the step-up DC–DC converter is depicted in Figure 1 [6]. Fig. 1. Basic step–up DC–DC converter scheme. Moreover, the step-up converter contains switches of the MOSFET or IGBT type and diodes, on which the principle of switching depends on the process of raising or lowering voltages (depending on duty cycle Dcycle) . Each of these elements contributes to different types of losses. 1) Switching losses: They occur during the transition states of a MOSFET, wherein energy is lost due to the finite time it takes for the switch to turn on or off [2]. 2) Conduction losses: They are resistive losses in the switch, diode and inductor windings; they can increase with current and are influenced by the resistance of these components [9]. 3) Core Losses: Losses in the inductor due to hysteresis and eddy currents within the magnetic core material [11]. Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 96 Enhancing the efficiency of boost converters can be achieved by optimising the properties of the aforementioned components, using sophisticated control methods and by redesigning even converter topology in some cases. Techniques, such as soft switching, synchronous rectification and the use of materials with low loss coefficients, have been explored and implemented to push efficiency boundaries and minimise losses under varying load conditions [11] [12] [16]-[18],. Finally, a table that classifies the aforementioned prior studies summarises the literature review. Year Author Technology Employed Contribution 2022 Shi and Li ANN with particle swarm Optimisation (PSO) Privacy- focused IDS for WSNs; PSO-enhanced ANN performance. 2023 Belarbi et al. Federated deep learning Privacy- preserving IDS for IoT that uses federated learning. 2024 Gueriani et al. Hybrid CNN–LSTM High-accuracy IDS that captures spatiotemporal features in IoT traffic. 2024 Shen et al. Federated learning with ensemble knowledge distillation (FLEKD) Enhanced IDS performance that addresses data heterogeneity 2024 Gowdhaman and Dhanapal ResNet- Inception + SVM Hybrid IDS that achieves 99.46% accuracy on NSL-KDD . 2. Mathematical Model The theoretical part can be strengthened if a clear connection between component physics and the observed simulation results is established through mathematical modelling. The total losses for the step-up converter working in CCM mode is 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠.𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.𝐼𝐺𝐵𝑇 + 𝑃𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡.𝐼𝐺𝐵𝑇 + 𝑃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 + 𝑃𝑙𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡.𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 + 𝑃𝐿 . ...(4) 2.1 IGBT Conduction Losses 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.𝐼𝐺𝐵𝑇 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑜 ∗ 𝐼𝑐.𝑎𝑣𝑔. + 𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ ∗ 𝐼2 𝑐.𝑟𝑚𝑠, …(5) where ,cond IGBTP is the conduction power loss in IGBT (W), 0ceV is the IGBT threshold voltage (typically 0.7–1.5 V for IGBTs) (V), , .c avgI is the average collector current during the conduction period (A), cer is the on-state resistance of the IGBT [Ω], ,c rmsI is the root mean square (RMS) value of the collector current during the conduction period (A). For a step-up converter working in CCM mode, previous currents can be calculated as 𝐼𝑐.𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 𝐼𝐿.𝑎𝑣𝑔. ∗ 𝐷, 𝐼𝑐.𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝐿.𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗ √𝐷, ...(6) where , .c avgI is the average inductor current (A), 𝐼𝐿.𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛∗𝛾 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡∗𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛∗𝛾 , ,rmsLI is the RMS inductor current (A) and 𝐼𝐿,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐼𝐿.𝑎𝑣𝑔 . 2 + ∆I𝐿 2 12 . 2.2 IGBT Switching Losses 𝑃𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡.𝐼𝐺𝐵𝑇 = 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡. ∗ (𝐸𝑂𝑁 + 𝐸𝑂𝐹𝐹), ...(7) where ,swit IGBTP is the switching power loss in the IGBT (W), switf is the switching frequency (Hz), ONE - is the energy loss during the turn-on state (J) and OFFE is the energy loss during the turn-off state [J]. These energy losses can be further modeled as 𝐸𝑂𝑁 = ∫ 𝑣𝑐𝑒(𝑡) ∗ 𝑖𝑐(𝑡)𝑑𝑡, 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 0 𝐸𝑂𝐹𝐹 = ∫ 𝑣𝑐𝑒(𝑡) ∗ 𝑖𝑐(𝑡)𝑑𝑡. 𝑡𝑂𝑁 0 …(8) These equations can be approximated using datasheet values that are scaled to actual operating conditions: 𝐸𝑂𝑁 = 𝐸𝑂𝑁.𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ 𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒.𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑐.𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ [1 + 𝑇𝑐 ∗ (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇𝑐𝑗.𝑟𝑒𝑓)], 𝐸𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 𝐸𝑂𝐹𝐹.𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ 𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑒.𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑐.𝑟𝑒𝑓 ∗ [1 + 𝑇𝑐 ∗ (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇𝑐𝑗.𝑟𝑒𝑓)], …..(9) Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 97 where ,ON refE and ,OFF refE are the turn-on and turn-off energy losses under reference conditions (J), ,ce refV is the reference collector–emitter voltage (V), ,c refI is the reference collector current (A), ,j refT is the reference junction temperature (°C), cT is the temperature coefficient (typically 0.003–0.005 per °C) and jT is the actual junction temperature (°C). 2.3 Diode Conduction Losses 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝑉𝐹𝑂 ∗ 𝐼𝐹.𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑟𝐹 ∗ 𝐼𝐹.𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 , …(10) where .,cond diodeP is the conduction power loss in the diode (W), FOV is the diode threshold voltage (typically 0.7–1.0 V) (V), Fr is the on-state resistance of the diode (Ω), 𝐼𝐹.𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the average forward current through the diode (A) and ,F rmsI is the RMS value of the forward current (A). For a step-up converter working in CCM mode, 𝐼𝐹.𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ; 𝐼𝐹.𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ √ 1 1−𝐷 . …(11) 2.4 Diode Switching Losses 𝑃𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡.𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡 ∗ 𝐸𝑟𝑟, …(12) where .,swit diodeP is the switching power loss in the diode (W), and rrE is the reverse recovery energy (J). The reverse recovery energy can be calculated as 𝐸𝑟𝑟 = 1 4 ∗ 𝑄𝑟𝑟 ∗ 𝑉𝑅 [1 + 𝑇𝐶.𝑟𝑟 (𝑇𝑗 − 𝑇𝑗.𝑟𝑒𝑓)], …(13) where rrQ is the reverse recovery charge (C), RV is the reverse voltage across the diode during switching (V) and ,rrCT is the temperature coefficient for reverse recovery (typically 0.005–0.006 per °C). 2.5 Inductor Losses 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝐿.𝐷𝐶 + 𝑃𝐿.𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿.𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 ∗ 𝑅𝐷𝐶 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 , …(14) where LP is the total inductor power loss (W); ,L DCP is the DC copper loss (W); ,L ACP is the AC loss, which is primarily the core loss (W); and DCR is the DC resistance of the inductor winding (Ω). Core losses can be estimated using the Steinmetz equation: 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝛼 ∗ 𝐵𝑝𝑘 𝛽 ∗ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒, …(15) where , ,k   are material-specific Steinmetz parameters, pkB is the peak magnetic flux density (T) and coreV is the volume of the magnetic core (m³). 3. Simulation Process The simulation process was completed using Figure 2, PLECS software and detailed data on switching and conduction losses for an IGBT device, specifically the IKWH70N65WR6 model. Various scenarios are divided into different resistance values (R = 5, 10 and 20 Ω) and various frequencies that range from 1 kHz to 100 kHz. All electrothermal runs were executed in PLECS 4.6 on a 1 µs fixed-step solver. Conduction and switching losses were computed internally from device characteristics, whilst thermal quantities were obtained with the built-in ‘thermal library’ by using Foster coefficient networks. • IGBT: Infineon IKWH70N65WR6 (650 V, 70 A at 25 °C, Tj max 175 °C) • Boost diode: Infineon IDW75E65D1 (650 V, 75 A) • Inductor: 220 µH, Kool-Mμ 60 µ toroid, 14 turns 2 mm × 0.8 mm litz wire, measured RDC = 28 mΩ • Output capacitor: 470 µF/250 V E-cap, ESR = 110 mΩ @ 20 °C, 100 kHz • Heat sink: RthSA = 1.8 K/W (extruded AL 150 mm length, 3 mm fin, natural convection 2 m/s); TIM RthCS = 0.35 K/W • Ideal gate drive (no overshoot/undershoot); the measured switching energies already include 15% extra margin for layout inductance (estimated 15 nH). 3.1 Junction Temperature Losses • For R = 5  and frequencies of 1–100 kHz Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 98 Fig. 2. Circuit of the setup DC–DC converter. Table 1, Temperature losses at Rload = 5  Frequency (kHz) Heat sink temperature Diode junction temperature IGBT junction temperature 1 69.5141 134.3826 77.1753 5 82.1744 150.5209 95.1672 10 85.4309 151.4186 99.9818 50 99.4328 -- 122.9279 60 96.5419 -- 122.0881 100 84.6633 -- 118.2692 • For R = 10  and frequencies of 1–100 kHz Table 2, Temperature losses at Rload = 10  Frequency (kHz) Heat sink temperature Diode junction temperature IGBT junction temperature 1 44.4157 68.7946 47.8958 5 47.619 73.4129 53.0108 10 48.8675 73.6855 54.9149 50 58.5155 86.4866 68.4873 60 61.0306 90.2099 71.9595 100 71.5927 106.3471 86.4659 • For R = 20  and frequencies of 1–100 kHz Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 99 Table 3, Temperature losses at Rload = 20  0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 H e a t s i n k t e m p e r a t u r e Frequency Heat sink temp. VS frequency R=5 R=10 R=20 Fig. 3. Heat sink temperature losses vs. frequency. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 D io d e j u n c t io n t e m p e r a t u r e Frequency (Hz) Diode junction temp VS Frequency R=5 R=10 R=20 Fig. 4. Diode junction temperature losses vs. frequency. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 I G B T j u n c t i o n t e m p . Frequency IGBT junction temperature VS frequency R=5 R=10 R=20 Fig. 5. IGBT junction temperature losses vs. frequency. Figures 3, 4 and 5 likely present a comparative graph that shows temperature measurements across three components (IGBT junction, diode junction and heat sink) at different switching frequencies. This figure depicts the critical thermal operating points for each component, highlighting that different elements in the converter reach their maximum temperatures at different frequencies. From this figure, we can conclude that the curves likely exhibit rising temperatures as frequency increases, peaking at around 50–60 kHz, followed by a decay at extremely high frequencies. Moreover, the IGBT junction temperatures are the highest (reaching ~123 °C at 50 kHz with R = 5 Ω), followed by diode junction temperatures (reaching ~151 °C at 10 kHz with R = 5 Ω), with heat sink temperatures presenting lower values but similar trends. 3.2 Switching and Conduction Losses • For R = 5  and frequencies of 1–100 kHz Table 4, Switching losses at Rload = 5  Frequency (kHz) IGBT looses Diode looses Power 1 19.176 25.3391 2178.6038 5 26.7407 30.437 3733.7786 10 28.9968 31.4379 3733.3485 50 -- -- 3699.3581 60 -- -- 3697.3194 100 -- -- 3693.0962 • For R = 10  and frequencies of 1–100 kHz Frequency (kHz) Heat sink temperature Diode junction temperature IGBT junction temperature 1 36.9866 47.4033 39.5024 5 34.7991 45.7058 37.1773 10 35.3559 45.8791 38.0362 50 39.756 51.4332 44.3082 60 40.8781 53.0029 45.8885 100 45.4653 59.5084 52.3223 200 57.69 77.5262 69.3008 300 71.1633 98.3546 87.7596 Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 100 Table 5, Switching losses at Rload = 10  Frequency (kHz) IGBT looses Diode looses Power 1 8.6257 10.7904 424.8729 5 11.064 11.5559 1671.302 10 12.024 11.8445 1765.6378 50 19.3185 14.1989 1829.0381 60 21.1788 14.854 1831.4453 100 28.8015 17.7949 1836.2035 • For R = 20  and frequencies of 1–100 kHz Table 6, Switching losses at Rload = 20  Frequency (kHz) IGBT looses Diode looses Power 1 6.1994 5.788 -- 5 4.8705 4.9289 699.3105 10 5.3224 5.0338 814.0819 50 8.8221 5.9346 900.7073 60 9.7048 6.174 904.2111 100 13.2742 7.1922 911.1927 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 I G B T lo s s e s Frequency IGBT Losses VS frequency R=5 R=10 R=20 Fig. 6. IGBT switching and conduction losses. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 D io d e l o s s e s Frequency Diode losses VS Frequency R=5 R=10 R=20 Fig. 7. Diode switching and conduction losses. 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 P o w e r Frequency Power VS Frequency R=5 R=10 R=20 Fig. 8. Dissipated power. Figures 6, 7 and 8 present the breakdown of power losses between switching and conduction losses for the IGBT and diode components. From this figure, we conclude the following: • Conduction losses dominate at lower frequencies. • Switching losses become more significant at higher frequencies. • Total losses peak at mid-range frequencies (IGBT losses of ~29 W and diode losses of ~31 W at 50 kHz with R = 5 Ω). • Lower resistance values demonstrate significantly higher losses than higher resistance values. Figure 6 illustrates the trade-off between conduction and switching losses across different operating frequencies, explaining why thermal performance peaks at mid-range frequencies. 3.3 Heat Sink and Diode Temperature Losses • For R = 5–20  and frequencies of 1–100 kHz. Table 7, Heat sink temperature at Rload = 5–20  Frequency (kHz) At R = 5  At R = 10  At R = 20  1 69.5141 44.4157 36.9866 5 82.1744 47.619 34.7991 10 85.4309 48.8675 35.3559 50 99.4328 58.5155 39.756 60 96.5419 61.0306 40.8781 100 84.6633 71.5927 45.4653 Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 101 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 T e m p . Frequency (Hz) Heat Sink Temp. VS Frequency R=5 R=10 R= 20 Fig. 9. Heat sink temperature losses vs. frequency and resistance value. Figure 9 focuses on the heat sink temperature of IGBT behaviour across the full range of investigated frequencies. This figure illustrates how load resistance dramatically affects thermal stress on the heat sink of IGBT, with lower resistance (higher current) conditions creating significantly more challenging thermal control requirements. Meanwhile, Figure 10 specifically emphasises diode temperature behaviour across different frequencies. This figure indicates that the diode exhibits varying thermal stress distributions under various frequencies than under IGBT, and the highest temperatures in the diode are at different frequencies. This finding implies that thermal control policies must consider the individual behavioral patterns of the components. Table 8, Diode temperature at Rload = 5–20  Frequency (kHz) At R = 5  At R = 10  At R = 20  1 134.3826 68.7946 47.4033 5 150.5209 73.4129 45.7058 10 151.4186 73.6855 45.8791 50 -- 86.4866 51.4332 60 -- 90.2099 53.0029 100 -- 106.3471 59.5084 1000 5000 10000 50000 60000 100000 T e m p . Freq. (Hz) Diode Temp. VS Frequency R=20 R=10 R=5 Fig. 10. Diode temperature losses vs. frequency and resistance value. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Heat Sink Temperature • The temperature of a heat sink tends to rise with frequency to a given frequency but tends to decline at extremely high frequencies (e.g. 100 kHz and higher). • When R = 5 , the highest temperature of the heat sink was recorded as 50 kHz (99.4328 °C). Then, temperature decreased slightly at higher frequencies. • Similar tendencies were noted in the cases of R = 10  and 20 , where temperature was the highest at 50–60 kHz and then reduced. 4.2 Diode Junction Temperature • Diode junction temperature also rises with increasing frequency, peaking between 50 kHz and 60 kHz. • For R = 5 , the peak diode junction temperature reached 151.4186 °C at 10 kHz, which remained relatively stable until 50 kHz before becoming unavailable (‘-’). • At R = 10 , the diode junction temperature continued to rise even at higher frequencies, reaching 106.3471 °C at 100 kHz. • For R = 20 , diode junction temperature increased steadily, reaching 98.3546 °C at 300 kHz. 4.3 IGBT Junction Temperature • The IGBT junction temperature exhibited similar trends as the heat sink and diode junction temperatures. Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 102 • Notably, at R = 5 , IGBT junction temperature peaked at 122.9279 °C at 50 kHz. • For R = 10  and 20 , IGBT junction temperatures were lower but still exhibited peaks at around 50–60 kHz. 4.4 IGBT and Diode Losses • IGBT and diode losses increase with frequency, reflecting higher switching losses at higher frequencies. • For example, at R = 5  and 50 kHz, IGBT losses were 28.9968 W, and diode losses were 31.4379 W. • At R = 10 , losses were considerably lower compared with R = 5 , particularly at higher frequencies. • At R = 20 , IGBT and diode losses were the lowest among the three resistance values. 4.5 Power Consumption • For power consumption, the losses exhibit a similar trend, peaking to a maximum of 50–60 kHz at all resistance values. • With R = 5 , the maximum power consumption was 3733.7786 W at 5 kHz, which remained relatively constant until 100 kHz. • At R = 10 , power consumption was considerably lower, with the maximum power consumption of 1836.2035 W at 100 kHz. • At R = 20 , power consumption was the minimum, with a value of 911.1927 W at a frequency of 100 kHz. On the basis of the above information analysed in the context of losses based on switching frequency, we can infer dependable and pegged efficient operation under different circumstances. 1) Thermal management: Effective thermal control is crucial, mostly at mid-range frequencies (50–60 kHz), where heat sink and junction temperatures peak. 2) Efficiency: Lower resistance values (e.g. R = 5 ) result in higher power consumption and losses, suggesting less efficient operation compared with higher resistance values (e.g. R = 20 ). 3) Frequency dependence: Operating at very high frequencies (>100 kHz) might lead to reduced thermal stress but could introduce other challenges related to switching losses and overall system efficiency. 5. Conclusions This work was a systematic research on the thermal and electrical characteristics of IGBTs in boost DC–DC converters to PV systems at different switching frequencies (1-100 kHz) and load resistances (5 , 10 , 20 ). The key findings are as follows: 1. Loss mechanisms • Conduction losses. They dominate at low frequencies and high load currents. • Switching losses. As switching frequency increases, energy lost during switching becomes more prominent, reaching its highest point within the 50–60 kHz range. 2. Thermal performance • IGBT junction temperatures. They peak at 123 °C (R = 5 Ω, 50 kHz), whilst diode junctions reach 151 °C (R = 5 Ω, 10 kHz). • Heat sink temperatures. The shared patterns in the data highlight the importance of a well-designed cooling system. 3. Efficiency trade-offs Using a smaller resistor (e.g. 5 Ω) results in more wasted energy (approximately 3.7 kW) and lower overall efficiency. Meanwhile, a larger resistor (e.g. 20 Ω) reduces this energy waste, but its use must be carefully coordinated with the operating frequency to maintain good balance amongst different types of energy loss. 4. Design implications • Optimal frequency ranges (≈20–50 kHz) exist to minimise total losses whilst maintaining thermal limits. • Component selection (e.g. IGBT/diode characteristics) must align with operational conditions to ensure reliability. Limitations of the Study This study’s conclusions are limited by several factors: Firstly, the findings are based solely on computer simulation (using PLECS) and have not been confirmed with a physical model. That is, real-world issues, such as electrical interference, measurement errors, heat transfer between components and manufacturing variations in parts, were not considered. Secondly, the simulation’s heat model is a simplification based on manufacturer data. It does not capture the complex, 3D manner in which heat actually spreads or changes over time, nor does it Muhanad D. Hashim Almawl Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, Vol. 21, No.4, pp. 93- 105 (2025) 103 factor in how airflow and surrounding temperature changes will affect performance in a real application. Thirdly, this research only examines a standard and basic converter design with simple controls. It does not explore how more advanced designs or smarter control methods can change the results. Finally, this investigation was narrow, focusing only on a single specific type of transistor (IKWH70N65WR6 IGBT) and its diode. The results may not be generalised to other IGBT generations, SiC/GaN devices or different diode technologies with superior reverse recovery characteristics. Future Work Future research directions: • Developing advanced control algorithms and adaptive gate-drive techniques to minimise losses and improve dynamic performance in boost DC– DC converters for PV systems. • Exploring innovative thermal management strategies to address the challenges posed by high- frequency operation and varying load conditions. Acknowledgements We extend our heartfelt gratitude and deepest appreciation to Al-Qadisiyah University, particularly the Department of Electronics and Communication, for their unwavering support, guidance and resources throughout this endeavour. 6. References [1] TWIDELL, John. Renewable energy resources., Second edition,: Taylor&Francis, 2021. [2] M. D. Almawlawe, M. Al-Badri, and E. J. Alshebaney, “Implementation and evaluation of low switching losses converter for solar panel using digital controller,” AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 2797, 2023, p. 050009-1- 050009-10, , doi: 10.1063/5.0148147. [3] T. Esram and P. L. 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https://www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/6xEy9fYZ5iFtbvU81n9vXR/lists/24BfyavWhjdcGyCUlkVnqC/sources/6j5KA551bjsncQSsOFpc6u/ https://www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/6xEy9fYZ5iFtbvU81n9vXR/lists/24BfyavWhjdcGyCUlkVnqC/sources/6j5KA551bjsncQSsOFpc6u/ https://www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/6xEy9fYZ5iFtbvU81n9vXR/lists/24BfyavWhjdcGyCUlkVnqC/sources/6j5KA551bjsncQSsOFpc6u/ https://www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/6xEy9fYZ5iFtbvU81n9vXR/lists/24BfyavWhjdcGyCUlkVnqC/sources/6j5KA551bjsncQSsOFpc6u/ https://www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/6xEy9fYZ5iFtbvU81n9vXR/lists/24BfyavWhjdcGyCUlkVnqC/sources/6j5KA551bjsncQSsOFpc6u/ https://www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/6xEy9fYZ5iFtbvU81n9vXR/lists/24BfyavWhjdcGyCUlkVnqC/sources/6j5KA551bjsncQSsOFpc6u/ https://www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/6xEy9fYZ5iFtbvU81n9vXR/lists/24BfyavWhjdcGyCUlkVnqC/sources/3q1KPGSaA0r5Gg6Qxgg275/ ( 2025) 93-105، صفحة 4، العدد21مجلة الخوارزمي الهندسية المجلد مهند ضياء هاشم المولوي 105 في مغيرات التيار المستمر الرافعه IGBT تحليل تأثير خسائر التبديل والتوصيل على أداء .ألنظمة الكهروضوئيةالمستخدمه في أ مهند ضياء هاشم المولوي االلكترونيك واالتصاالت، كلية الهندسة، جامعة القادسية، القادسية، العراق قسم muhanad.almawlawe@qu.edu.iq :البريد االلكتروني المستخلص المعزولة البوابة القطب ذات ثنائية الترانزستورات أداء التبديل والتوصيل على تأثير خسائر في الدراسة التيار (IGBTs)تبحث هذه داخل محوالت في ظل ظروف تشغيل مختلفة ، بما في IGBTsيفحص البحث السلوك الحراري ل . (PV)المستمرالتصعيدية ، المصممة خصيصا لألنظمة الكهروضوئية يتم .اإلخراج /، ومعلمات اإلدخال كيلو هرتز 100كيلو هرتز إلى 1، وترددات التبديل تتراوح من (Ω 20و Ω 10و Ω 5ذلك مقاومة الحمل المختلفة ) وخسائر الطاقة لتوفير فهم IGBTتحليل المقاييس الرئيسية مثل درجة حرارة المشتت الحراري ودرجة حرارة تقاطع الصمام الثنائي ودرجة حرارة تقاطع الكفاءة لمقايضات أكثر .شامل التبديل بينما تصبح خسائر ، الحمل األعلى المنخفضة وتيارات الترددات التوصيل تهيمن على إلى أن خسائر النتائج تشير كيلو 60-50)يظهر التحكم الحراري كعامل حاسم ، حيث تصل درجات الحرارة إلى ذروتها عند ترددات متوسطة المدى ) .وضوحا عند الترددات األعلى هالك الطاقة والخسائر ، مما يسلط الضوء على باإلضافة إلى ذلك ، تؤدي قيم المقاومة المنخفضة إلى زيادة است .هرتز قبل أن تنخفض عند الترددات العالية جدا ، يوفر هذا البحث إرشادات مهمة الختيار وتحسين أداء PLECSمن خالل المحاكاة باستخدام برنامج .أهمية تحسين ظروف الحمل من أجل التشغيل الفعال IGBTs ستركز األبحاث المستقبلية على خوارزميات التحكم المتقدمة وتقنيات محرك البوابة التكيفية .لزيادة الكفاءة والموثوقية في تطبيقات الطاقة المتجددة لتقليل الخسائر وتعزيز األداء الديناميكي في محوالت التيار المستمرالتصعيديه والمستخدمه في منظومات الطاقه الشمسيه. mailto:muhanad.almawlawe@qu.edu.iq