Article


 

  AL-QADISIYAH JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING SCIENCES   13 (2020) 262–267 
 

   

       Contents lists available at http://qu.edu.iq 

 

Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Engineering Sciences 

  
Journal homepage: http://qu.edu.iq/journaleng/index.php/JQES  

  

 

* Corresponding author.  

E-mail address: zahraanzzal1992@gmail.com ( Zahraa N.Hussain) 

 

https://doi.org/10.30772/qjes.v13i4.697  

2411-7773/© 2020 University of Al-Qadisiyah. All rights reserved.                                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

Green Diesel Production using Egg Shell Derived CaO catalyst: Effect of 

catalyst and reaction process 

 Zahraa N. Hussaina* , Ali A. Jaziea 

a Chemical Engineering Department -Faculty of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah-Iraq 

A R T I C L E  I N F O 

Article history:  

Received 4 September 2020 

Received in revised form 3 October 2020 

Accepted 19 October  2020 

 

Keywords: 

Bio fuel 

Cladophora glomerata  

Deoxygenation  

Calcium oxide  

 

 

A B S T R A C T 

Increasing demand for fossil fuels and the resulting emissions for it have become an interesting research 

topic for biofuel production from renewable natural resources aimed at development and reduce greenhouse 

gas emissions. In this research, algae was used as a biological source for the production of biofuels because 

it has many advantages, represented by its high oil content, which may reach 50% of the dry cell weight, it 

does not need arable land, it can grow even in salt water. A Cladophora glomerata alga was used and 

extraction oil from biomass with the help of methanol solvent was using a Soxhlet device. The produced oil 

was being tested by Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as well as by thermal analysis and gas 

chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS). After that the resulting oil was used through the process of 

deoxygenation using a high pressure reactor with a heterogeneous catalyst prepared from natural sources. 

Recent studies have shown that these catalysts have high performance compared to other catalysts as well 

as low cost, because they can be obtained from natural sources that are abundantly available. Heterogeneous 

catalysts were produced in this paper from chicken eggshells by calcining them at high temperatures to 

obtain calcium oxide (CaO) and these catalysts were characterized using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier 

Analysis of Infrared Spectrum (FTIR) and Brunauer Emmet surface area. -Teller (BET). Ultimately, fuel 

properties similar to those of mineral diesel are obtained. Represented by Flash point 49, Cetane number 

39, Cloud point 7, Calorific value 41 and acid value 0.374. 

 

© 2020 University of Al-Qadisiyah. All rights reserved.    

1.Introduction

The transport sector currently accounts for approximately 19 per cent of 

global energy demand Gadonneix et al. [1]. The worldwide demand for 

petroleum is projected to rise to 18 million 𝒎𝟑per day by 2040 Briefing et 

al. [2]. Energy lack refers to a crisis of energy resource to an economy. 

There has a large uplift in the universal demand for energy in the recent 

years as a result development of manufacture and growth of population. 

The request for energy, especially from liquid fuel, and limitations on the 

rate of fuel product have created such a phase ago the early 2000s, lead to 

the current energy crisis. The rise may be overconsumption, aging 

infrastructure, disturbance or crises in oil refineries and harbor facilities that 

restrict fuel supplies Durakovic et al. [3]. The limited fossil fuel reserves 

global warming increase due to high carbon dioxide emissions has led to a 

global spread quest for reliable and renewable energy sources for the 

transport strip Knothe et al. [4]. This can only be investigated by developing 

a new technologies or by updating existing technologies Aviation et al. [5]. 

There are different renewable sources of energy widely found on earth, 

including biomass, solar , wind and nuclear sources, which can replace  

fossil fuels [6],[7],[8]. However, during its treatment, these renewable 

energy sources eventually caused many issues related to waste management 

and radioactive emissions from biomass and nuclear energy [9],[10],[11]. 

Biomass energy has therefore been known as the most promising source of 

renewables in the transport sector Zulkepli et al. [12]. Biomass is a 

renewable resource and carbon neutral in principle Wang et al. [13]. 

http://qu.edu.iq/
https://doi.org/10.30772/qjes.v13i
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


ZAHRAA  N. HUSSAIN , ALI A. JAZIE /AL-QADISIYAH JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING SCIENCES   13 (2020) 262–267                                                                                      263 

 

Biomass and  biofuels derived from biomass like as biogas, green 

diesel, bio methane, bioethanol, biodiesel , green gasoline and bio hydrogen 

are of global interest, since they can mitigate atmospheric 𝐶𝑂2 levels and 

replace fossil fuels in future energy outfit Douvartzides et al. [14].  

Biofuel has many characteristic exceeds fossil fuels including 

biodegradability, nontoxicity, sustainability and decrease  emissions of 𝐶𝑂2 

exceptionally Sajjadi et al. [15]. 

Biofuel is produced from biomass material like oils of vegetable such 

as rapeseed, palm, corn, sunflower, soybean, coconut, camelina, peanut, 

carinata, cottonseed and jatropha oils), animal fats, algal oils and  waste 

cooking oils used Anuar et al. [16]. Foodstuff based biofuels can impact the 

availability and the price of food, particularly in developing country Braun 

et al. [17]. lately, algae as a biomass feedstock have been selected to avert 

the confrontation  of food vs. fuel and changes of  use earth [18],[19]. Algae 

have large potential as feedstock's for bioenergy output due to their rise 

product, rapid growth rate, ability to rectify 𝐶𝑂2 and for non-competition 

with a food crops. The raw algae could be pyrolysed to obtain a liquid bio 

oil that still retains a significant fraction of initial energy of the algae 

Fermoso et al. [20]. Biofuels based on algae are considered a viable option, 

because they do not affect the supply of food. They can also be cultivated 

on any available ground, water or saline Shen et al. [21]. Some drawbacks 

of bio-oil based on algae, like low heating value, corrosiveness, instability 

of thermal, rise of viscosity, and have impeded its use in practice because 

of height oxygen amount, up to (35–40%). Therefore, deoxygenation is the 

secret to upgrade of algae based bio oil Nguyen et al. [22]. The amount of 

oxygen in a plant oil can be eliminated by Deoxygenation (DO), which 

undergo process of decarboxylation ( 𝐶𝑂2 ) and decarbonylation ( 𝐶𝑂 ) 

[23],[24],[25]. Catalytic deoxygenation (DO) was produced to efficiently 

product biofuel based  on a green hydrocarbon  in the non-Presence of 𝐻2 

by eliminate compounds of oxygen from the plant oil in the shape of 𝐶𝑂 , 

𝐶𝑂2  and 𝐻2𝑂  by using solid acids or base catalysts [23],[26],[27]. 

Therefore, metal catalysts have been synthesized for deoxygenation process 

has continuously searched because of desired properties like higher 

catalytic activity, high rotation frequency, high chemical stability and little 

amount of catalysts wanted for catalysis. This catalytic property would lead 

to a high yield of desirable deoxygenated product in a short reaction time 

as contrast with a non-catalysed deoxygenated process. The metallic 

catalyst could occur in the form of pure metals, mix   metallic (trimetallic, 

metallic alloy, or bimetallic), metallic oxides,  metallic nitrides, metal 

phosphates or metallic carbides [28],[29]. Heterogeneous metal catalysts 

are usually used as solids for deoxygenation when the product compounds 

are in liquid or gas phase Tanaka et al. [30]. The addition of acid sites in 

catalysts improves the cracking and abscission of (𝐶 − 𝑂) and (𝐶 − 𝐶 ) 

bonds linked in the biomass structure by dehydration, decarboxylation, 

aromatization, isomerization, cracking, dealkylation and oligomerization 

Shen et al. [31]. Calcium oxide was used as a catalyst  made from organic 

calcium compounds (Org-CaO) Yi et al. [32]. Several studies have 

indicated that 𝐶𝑎𝑂 catalysts derived from organic calcium precursors have 

outstanding unique surface areas and rich porous structures that provide 

more active 𝐶𝑂2 capture sites than traditional 𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑂𝐻)2[33],[34]. Low-

cost 𝐶𝑎𝑂 is a perfect catalyst for deoxygenation Asikin-Mijan et al. [35]. 

Organic calcium precursors tend to produce 𝐶𝑎𝑂 with better reactivity and 

recyclability [34],[36]. In the present work it has been suggested that 

calcium oxide could be prepared from the chicken eggshell as an efficient 

catalyst for deoxygenation. Processing CaO catalyst activity was tested by 

using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Fourier analysis of Infrared Spectrum 

(FTIR) and Brunauer Emmet-Teller (BET) surface area characterization. 

Algal oil and the product biofuel were characterized using (GC - MS) and 

(FTIR) methods. Cladophora glomerata algae were investigated as a raw 

material for the deoxygenation process due to the high oil content. The 

properties biofuel also was investigated. 

2.Material and Method 

Methanol: ( 𝐶𝐻3𝑂𝐻 ), (M.Wt=32.04) and purity (99.8%), (Fisher 

Scientific, India). Algae (Cladophora glomerata). Nitrogen gas: Nitrogen 

(supplied from Al-Diwaniyah north factory, Iraq) of purity greater than 

95% was used as inert gas medium during the process, (M.Wt = 14.0067). 

Eggshells: Chicken egg shells were collected from local restaurants in 

Diwaniyah, Iraq. 

2.1. Catalyst preparation 

Heterogeneous catalysts of eggshells were prepared, as a quantity of 

chicken eggshells were collected, then thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with 

water to get rid of the organic matter contained in them. The crusts were 

dried under the sun rays for 24 hours, after which the crusts were ground 

into a fine powder before the calcification process, and the calcification 

process was performed in the combustion oven using different temperatures 

and at different times. Several experiments were performed for the 

calcification process with temperatures between (850˚C to 950 ˚C) and time 

ranging from (2 - 3) hour. 

2.2. Characterization 

Characterization of heterogeneous catalyst has been discussed using X-

Ray Diffraction (XRD), Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and Bruner 

Emmett-Tiller (BET). The (XRD) spectra of a copper shell calcined egg 

samples (𝜆 =  0.154178 𝑛𝑚) were obtained at (40 𝑘𝑉) and (30 𝑚𝐴), the 

scanning velocity 0.1 ˚ / s, and the range of scan from (10 - 80 °C). Upon 

calcification, the egg shells are completely white, which confirms that the 

product has eliminated calcium carbonate, which is only calcium oxide 

Engin et al. [37]. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) mechanism is 

using for identify organic materials. This mechanism measures the extent 

to which a sample absorbs infrared radiation to its wavelength. The infrared 

absorption bands define the molecular structures of the sample and 

components. The test applied at Al-Qadisiyah University at the college of 

Engineering by using FTIR using Bruker, Tensor II, Germany and the 

resolution of this device used within the spectrum range 4000-400 cm-1. 

The BET (Brunauer-Emmet-Teller) surface area, pore volume and average 

pore diameter of the catalysts were determined via nitrogen physisorption 

at 77 K using a Micrometrics, ASAP 2020 BET surface area analyser in 

University of Tehran. 

2.3. Experimental  

Catalytic deoxygenation and cracking reactions in a high reactor of 

pressure were carried by using algae oil Cladophora glomerata at  

Nomenclature 
 

 

DO Deoxygenation BET  Brunauer Emmett Teller 

 
XRD  X-Ray Diffraction FTIR Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy 



264           ZAHRAA  N. HUSSAIN , ALI A. JAZIE/AL-QADISIYAH JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING SCIENCES   13 (2020) 262–267 

 

temperature ranged between (260 – 360 ˚𝐂)  at time range between (2 - 4) 

hours, at pressure of the nitrogen used between (5 - 10) bar with a mixing 

cycles ranged between (600 - 1400) rpm. Calcium oxide catalyst has been 

used, the ratio of catalyst to oil ratio range between (5 - 10) g. From view 

of a chemical point, removing oxygen at high temperatures and the relative 

pressure of nitrogen is a complex operation that involves a series of 

cascading reactions. 

Fatty acids are converted to biofuels by a catalytic deoxygenation 

reaction by breaking a bond (𝐶 − 𝐶) using nitrogen gas. The bonds (𝐶 =
𝐶) are first hydrogenated, and then oxygenated from the front to produce 

alkanes. Free fatty acids are converted to saturated hydrocarbons, including 

n-pentadecanes ( 𝐶15𝐻32 ) and n-heptadecanes ( 𝐶17𝐻36 ) and to n-

heptadecenes unsaturated (monounsaturated and unsaturated). The oxygen 

is removed in the form of carbon dioxide, throughout the reaction of the 

carbonation the free fatty acids are converted to the unsaturated n-

pentadecanes and nheptadecenes including mono-unsaturated 

(𝐶15𝐻30 ,𝐶17𝐻34 ), diunsaturate (𝐶17𝐻32 ) and poly-unsaturated (𝐶17𝐻28 ). 

The produced hydrocarbons may be exposed to further cracking reactions 

to produce hydrocarbons with shorter chains by breaking the bond (𝐶 − 𝑂). 

3.Results and discussion 

3.1. Basic properties of the prepared catalysts 

Fig. 1 shows the X-ray diffraction peaks of the catalyst samples CaO-

850 and CaO-900 indicated the presence of a pure CaO crystalline phase. 

The concentration of the typical peaks of CaO phase is higher when high 

activation temperatures are used. These changes in density and peak width 

might indicate somewhat greater dimensions of CaO crystals formed at high 

activation temperatures. Based on the known crystalline phases (pure CaO) 

and crystalations sizes in CaO-catalyst specimens calcined at high 

temperatures, starting from 850 ° C, we can deduce that there is a exigency 

to activate the CaO catalyst with heat treatment prior to use. This remark is 

consistent with those of others author Boey et al. [38].. The calcination at 

900 ° C cause the remove carbon dioxide CO2 from the calcium carbonate 

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3  in the natural waste crust and creates calcium oxide CaO. The 

narrow and high intensity peaks of the calcified catalyst define the fully 

crystallized structure of CaO. The waste shell catalysts showed obvious and 

sharp peaks corresponding to the crystal phase of calcium oxide CaO. The 

peaks of calcined eggshell at 900𝐶 ° show 2𝜃 values of 33, 37, and 54 which 

are the characteristic peaks for CaO results were shown similar to those 

written by Buasri et al. [39]. 
Fig. 2 has proven that high calcification temperatures cause an increase 

in activity CaO. The calcification result was annotated by drying 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 

and converting 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3  to 𝐶𝑎𝑂 in addition to increasing the amount of 

active sites, where it occurred in a non-preserved absorption catalyst at the 

main absorption ranges at 1415, 879, and 700 cm-1 , which was caused by 

asymmetric expansion. . Outside the vibration modes are the flat curve and 

the curvature inside the plane, respectively. The functional group (𝐶𝑂3
−2

) 

upon calcification, egg shells begin to lose carbonate ranges and absorb 

molecules ( 𝐶𝑂3
−2

) to a highest energy (Which, 1470, 1040, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 

  820 𝑐𝑚−1) Jazie et al. [40]. This is due to the reduced mass of the ions-

related functional group (𝐶𝑂3
−2

). Sharp expansion (𝑂𝐻−1) is observed at 

3689 cm-
1 at the Calcined catalyst at 900 ° C consistent with that observed 

[37]. 
Table 1 Surface area of the BET for a catalysts manufactured from 

eggshell at temperature (900˚𝐶)  was high attain ( 58.155 𝑚2𝑔−1 ). 

Research shows BET that a particle volume decreases with increasing 

temperature of calcination from ( 850˚𝐶 −  900˚𝐶 ) lead to a raise the 

surface area. Another increase in the temperature to 950 ˚C the particle 

volume increases and surface area decreases due to sintering and collapse 

of pore structure Jazie et al. [41]. Catalysts calcined at degree of 850 ° C 
and 950°C have a low surface area. Eggshell catalysts calcined at degree of 

(850°C and 950°C) are consider materials that less porous because of the 

size of a trace pores, whereas the calcined of a catalyst at (900 ° C) 

temperature shows the best structure of porous. Therefore, these results 

indicate that a decomposition of a carbonate takes place at a temperature 

(900 ° C). 
 

 

Figure 1.  XRD of catalyst for egg shell calcined at 

(𝟖𝟓𝟎˚𝑪, 𝟗𝟎𝟎˚𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟗𝟓𝟎˚𝑪) on respectively

 

 

Figure 2.  

 

FTIR spectra of Calcined egg shell at 
(𝟖𝟓𝟎 ˚𝑪, 𝟗𝟎𝟎 ˚𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟗𝟓𝟎 ˚𝑪)  respectively at 𝟑𝒉

 
Table 1- Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) surface area and total pore 

size of the egg shell specimen Calcined at (𝟖𝟓𝟎˚𝑪, 𝟗𝟎𝟎˚𝑪 and 𝟗𝟓𝟎˚𝑪) 

on respectively 

Raw Material Calc.Temp. (oC) 
A surface of 

area (𝑚²/𝑔) 

A total pore of size 

(𝑐𝑚³/𝑔) 

Egg shell   850 3.4056 0.15455 

Egg shell   900 5.8155 0.109827 

Egg shell   950 4.8864 0.018494 

900˚𝐶 

950˚𝐶 

850˚𝐶 



ZAHRAA  N. HUSSAIN , ALI A. JAZIE /AL-QADISIYAH JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING SCIENCES   13 (2020) 262–267                                                                                      265 

 

3.2. Reaction results 

The composition of the organic liquid products was characterized via 

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas 

Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). According to Meng et al. 

[42] fig. 3 a distinctive absorption bands in an infrared spectrum of a 

macromolecules were: a) lipids bands in a range of (3000 –  2800 𝑐𝑚 −1 ). 

In this study, a lipid amounts was soft. b) Carbohydrates bands among 

(1200 𝑎𝑛𝑑 950 𝑐𝑚 −1) and c) Two type of amide bands of proteins I and 

II, located at (1734 – 1584 𝑐𝑚 −1)  and (1584– 1495 𝑐𝑚 −1) 

respectively. Moreover, it also been advertise those  (𝑁 − 𝐻)  protein 

binding vibrations may happen in (1555 𝑐𝑚 −1) , d) a (𝐶 − 𝑂 − 𝐶) 

polysaccharide bands happen at  range (1050– 1098 𝑐𝑚 −1)Xu et al.[43]. 

Finally, the range (2255– 2407 𝑐𝑚 −1) represents the presence of carbon 

dioxide at an environment [44],[45]. 

To determine the oxygen removal efficiency, the peak intensity 

reductions were comparable with the reduced oxygen content in the product 

by comparison with the non-oxygenated liquid product. The absence of a 

bond (𝐶 − 𝑂 − 𝐶) at (1014.91 𝑐𝑚−1) indicates that a triple bond such as an 

ester has been eliminated Aliana-Nasharuddin et al. [46]. Liquid product 

formulations were evaluated with by using Gas Chromatograph Mass 

Spectrometer (GC-MS) (Agilent 6890N series GC with a 5973 N Inert MS 

detector and 7683 Injector). GC - MS analyzes were performed in order to 

find out the hydrocarbons present in algae oil and the fuel produced from 

algae oil after deoxygenation. Different classes of hydrocarbons were 

obtained which include aromatic amines, nitriles, alkenes and 

carbohydrates. 

The most saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in C. glomerata myristic acid and 

palmitic acid. Light hydrocarbons from (C9-C10) represent the highest 

yields in the resulting biofuels. Also noted is the large existence of a 

hydrocarbon with chains containing one less carbon than the chains of 

carbon in oil of algal. Those odd numbered carbon compounds are 

generated by decarbonylation or decarboxylation reactions. A presence of 

a molecules containing an even number carbon (𝐶12, 𝐶14, 𝐶16) could be 

related to reactions of dehydration [47],[48],[49]. 

 

 

Figure 3. FTIR of biofuel production by deoxygenation for C. 

glomerata algae 

3.3. Assessment of the basic fuel properties 

The properties of the resulting biofuels are shown in Table 2. The algal 

oil has relatively close fuel properties to those of metallic diesel. In 

comparison with a specific gravity of a petroleum diesel of 0.85, the 

specific gravity of the biofuels resulting from the current degradation was 

(0.84) for Cladophora glomerata algal oil. The ASTM D445 standard 

specified an acceptable range of biofuel viscosity at 40 ° C. The main flow 

characteristics of the biofuel specifications are the intake and pour point. 

The intake and pour points are found at (-1) ° C and (-5) ° C for algae oil 

esters Cladophora glomerata according to (ASTM D92-53) standard. The 

acidic value of biofuels produced from algal oil was (0.374 mg KOH/g and) 

for Cladophora glomerata good within the limits of the biofuel standard 

(ASTM D664) (0.8 mg KOH/g). To calculate the cetane number for biofuel 

according to (ASTM D 976) in this current decomposition the number of 

cetane for esters of algae oil for Cladophora glomerata was (39), while the 

typical value for diesel was (40). As a result, most of the characteristics of 

the biofuel resulting in this current work can be compared with the 

characteristics of standards ASTM for green diesel. 

Table 2-  Fuel properties of biofuels produced with testing methods 

Properties 
Cladophora 

glomerata 

green diesel 

ASTM D 6751 

green diesel 
Method of test 

Kinematic viscosity 

at 40 ˚C 
3.2 1.9 – 1.3 ASTM D445 

Specific gravity 

(kg/m3 or gm./mL) 
0.84 

0.82 - 0.85 ASTM D4052 

Flash point (˚C) 49 52 – 28 ˚C ASTM D92-53 
Cetane number 39 40 min. ASTM D976 
Cloud point (˚C) 7 – IP15/60 
Pour point (˚C) -6 -35  – 14 IP15/60 
Acid value 

(mg/KOH/g) 
0.374 

0.6 max. ASTM D 664 

Calorific value 

(MJ/kg) 

41 
– IP12/63T 

 

4.Conclusions 

The use of waste is an important element in sustainable development, 

and waste is seldom used to be used in the production of practical products. 

Most waste shells contain quantities of (CaCO3) which can be converted 

into (CaO) by exposing them to high temperatures in the calcification 

process and as a result it can be used as cheap catalysts for biofuel 

production. The deoxygenation process with Catalysts calcium oxide 

showed the possibility of producing alkanes without the need for hydrogen 

gas. The results showed a higher selectivity towards products with a range 

(C8 - C12) compared to products with a higher range (C13 - C16). The 

deoxygenation pathway under pressure of nitrogen by decarboxylation is 

proposed as the main pathway and decarbonylation as the secondary 

pathway. As for the characteristics of the produced biofuel, the number of 

cetane, heating values and the specific gravity are identical to those of 

mineral diesel. 

REFERENCES 

 

[1] P. Gadonneix, A. Sambo, L. Tie’nan, A.R. Choudhury, J. 



266           ZAHRAA  N. HUSSAIN , ALI A. JAZIE/AL-QADISIYAH JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING SCIENCES   13 (2020) 262–267 

 

Teyssen, J.A.V. Lleras, A.A. Naqi, K. Meyers, H.C. Shin, M.-J. 

Nadeau, Global transport scenarios 2050, Transp. London World 

Energy Counc. (2011). 

[2] U.S. Briefing, International energy outlook 2013, US Energy Inf. 

Adm. (2013). 

[3] C. Durakovic, A. Memon, Potential of Algae for Biofuel 

Production, Period. Eng. Nat. Sci. 4 (2016). 

https://doi.org/10.21533/pen.v4i1.50. 

[4] G. Knothe, J. Krahl, J. Van Gerpen, The biodiesel handbook, 

Elsevier, 2015. 

[5] A. Aviation, benefits beyond Borders, Geneva Air Transp. 

Action Gr. (2014). 

[6] O. Kaarstad, Fossil fuels and responses to global warming, 

Energy Convers. Manag. 36 (1995) 869–872. 

[7] F. Zhang, X.-F. Tian, Z. Fang, M. Shah, Y.-T. Wang, W. Jiang, 

M. Yao, Catalytic production of Jatropha biodiesel and hydrogen 

with magnetic carbonaceous acid and base synthesized from 

Jatropha hulls, Energy Convers. Manag. 142 (2017) 107–116. 

[8] T.M.I. Mahlia, M.Z. Abdulmuin, T.M.I. Alamsyah, D. 

Mukhlishien, An alternative energy source from palm wastes 

industry for Malaysia and Indonesia, Energy Convers. Manag. 42 

(2001) 2109–2118. 

[9] M.F. Demirbas, M. Balat, H. Balat, Potential contribution of 

biomass to the sustainable energy development, Energy Convers. 

Manag. 50 (2009) 1746–1760. 

[10] A. Demirbas, Waste management, waste resource facilities and 

waste conversion processes, Energy Convers. Manag. 52 (2011) 

1280–1287. 

[11] A.R. Mohamed, K.T. Lee, Energy for sustainable development in 

Malaysia: Energy policy and alternative energy, Energy Policy. 

34 (2006) 2388–2397. 

[12] S. Zulkepli, J.C. Juan, H.V. Lee, N.S.A. Rahman, P.L. Show, E.P. 

Ng, Modified mesoporous HMS supported Ni for deoxygenation 

of triolein into hydrocarbon-biofuel production, Energy Convers. 

Manag. 165 (2018) 495–508. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.03.087. 

[13] H.-Y. Wang, D. Bluck, B.J. Van Wie, Conversion of microalgae 

to jet fuel: Process design and simulation, Bioresour. Technol. 

167 (2014) 349–357. 

[14] S.L. Douvartzides, N.D. Charisiou, K.N. Papageridis, M.A. 

Goula, Green diesel: Biomass feedstocks, production 

technologies, catalytic research, fuel properties and performance 

in compression ignition internal combustion engines, Energies. 

12 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/en12050809. 

[15] B. Sajjadi, A.A.A. Raman, R. Parthasarathy, S. Shamshirband, 

Sensitivity analysis of catalyzed-transesterification as a 

renewable and sustainable energy production system by adaptive 

neuro-fuzzy methodology, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 64 (2016) 

47–58. 

[16] M.R. Anuar, A.Z. Abdullah, Challenges in biodiesel industry 

with regards to feedstock, environmental, social and 

sustainability issues: a critical review, Renew. Sustain. Energy 

Rev. 58 (2016) 208–223. 

[17] J. Von Braun, The world food situtation: new driving forces and 

required actions, Intl Food Policy Res Inst, 2007. 

[18] J. Baffes, T. Haniotis, Placing the 2006/08 commodity price 

boom into perspective, World Bank Policy Res. Work. Pap. 

(2010). 

[19] Y. Chisti, Biodiesel from microalgae, Biotechnol. Adv. 25 (2007) 

294–306. 

[20] J. Fermoso, J.M. Coronado, D.P. Serrano, P. Pizarro, Pyrolysis of 

microalgae for fuel production, Elsevier Ltd., 2017. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101023-5.00011-X. 

[21] Y. Shen, Z. Pei, W. Yuan, E. Mao, Effect of nitrogen and 

extraction method on algae lipid yield, Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng. 2 

(2009) 51–57. 

[22] T.S. Nguyen, S. He, G. Raman, K. Seshan, Catalytic hydro-

pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass over dual Na2CO3/Al2O3 

and Pt/Al2O3 catalysts using n-butane at ambient pressure, 

Chem. Eng. J. 299 (2016) 415–419. 

[23] R.W. Gosselink, S.A.W. Hollak, S. Chang, J. van Haveren, K.P. 

de Jong, J.H. Bitter, D.S. van Es, Reaction pathways for the 

deoxygenation of vegetable oils and related model compounds, 

ChemSusChem. 6 (2013) 1576–1594. 

[24] A. Galadima, O. Muraza, In situ fast pyrolysis of biomass with 

zeolite catalysts for bioaromatics/gasoline production: a review, 

Energy Convers. Manag. 105 (2015) 338–354. 

[25] T. Morgan, E. Santillan-Jimenez, A.E. Harman-Ware, Y. Ji, D. 

Grubb, M. Crocker, Catalytic deoxygenation of triglycerides to 

hydrocarbons over supported nickel catalysts, Chem. Eng. J. 189 

(2012) 346–355. 

[26] N. Asikin-Mijan, H. V Lee, Y.H. Taufiq-Yap, G. Abdulkrem-

Alsultan, M.S. Mastuli, H.C. Ong, Optimization study of SiO2-

Al2O3 supported bifunctional acid–base NiO-CaO for renewable 

fuel production using response surface methodology, Energy 

Convers. Manag. 141 (2017) 325–338. 

[27] L.E. Oi, M.-Y. Choo, H.V. Lee, H.C. Ong, S.B. Abd Hamid, J.C. 

Juan, Recent advances of titanium dioxide (TiO 2) for green 

organic synthesis, Rsc Adv. 6 (2016) 108741–108754. 

[28] Z. He, X. Wang, Hydrodeoxygenation of model compounds and 

catalytic systems for pyrolysis bio-oils upgrading, Catal. Sustain. 

Energy. 1 (2012) 28–52. 

[29] S. Boullosa-Eiras, R. Lødeng, H. Bergem, M. Stöcker, L. 

Hannevold, E.A. Blekkan, Catalytic hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) 

of phenol over supported molybdenum carbide, nitride, 

phosphide and oxide catalysts, Catal. Today. 223 (2014) 44–53. 

[30] K. Tanaka, Unsolved problems in catalysis, Catal. Today. 154 

(2010) 105–112. 

[31] D. Shen, W. Jin, J. Hu, R. Xiao, K. Luo, An overview on fast 

pyrolysis of the main constituents in lignocellulosic biomass to 

valued-added chemicals: Structures, pathways and interactions, 

Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 51 (2015) 761–774. 

[32] L. Yi, H. Liu, K. Xiao, G. Wang, Q. Zhang, H. Hu, H. Yao, In 

situ upgrading of bio-oil via CaO catalyst derived from organic 

precursors, Proc. Combust. Inst. 37 (2019) 3119–3126. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.06.078. 

[33] L. Jiang, S. Hu, S.S.A. Syed-Hassan, Y. Wang, C. Shuai, S. Su, 

C. Liu, H. Chi, J. Xiang, Performance and carbonation kinetics 

of modified CaO-based sorbents derived from different 

precursors in multiple CO2 capture cycles, Energy & Fuels. 30 



ZAHRAA  N. HUSSAIN , ALI A. JAZIE /AL-QADISIYAH JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING SCIENCES   13 (2020) 262–267                                                                                      267 

 

(2016) 9563–9571. 

[34] W. Liu, N.W.L. Low, B. Feng, G. Wang, J.C. Diniz da Costa, 

Calcium precursors for the production of CaO sorbents for 

multicycle CO2 capture, Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (2010) 841–

847. 

[35] N. Asikin-Mijan, H. V. Lee, J.C. Juan, A.R. Noorsaadah, G. 

Abdulkareem-Alsultan, M. Arumugam, Y.H. Taufiq-Yap, Waste 

clamshell-derived CaO supported Co and W catalysts for 

renewable fuels production via cracking-deoxygenation of 

triolein, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 120 (2016) 110–120. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2016.04.015. 

[36] J. Sun, W. Liu, W. Wang, Y. Hu, X. Yang, H. Chen, Y. Peng, M. 

Xu, CO2 sorption enhancement of extruded-spheronized CaO-

based pellets by sacrificial biomass templating technique, Energy 

& Fuels. 30 (2016) 9605–9612. 

[37] B. Engin, H. Demirtaş, M. Eken, Temperature effects on egg 

shells investigated by XRD, IR and ESR techniques, Radiat. 

Phys. Chem. 75 (2006) 268–277. 

[38] P.-L. Boey, G.P. Maniam, S. Abd Hamid, Performance of 

calcium oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel 

production: a review, Chem. Eng. J. 168 (2011) 15–22. 

[39] A. Buasri, N. Chaiyut, V. Loryuenyong, P. Worawanitchaphong, 

S. Trongyong, Calcium oxide derived from waste shells of 

mussel, cockle, and scallop as the heterogeneous catalyst for 

biodiesel production, Sci. World J. 2013 (2013). 

[40] A.A. Jazie, H. Pramanik, A.S.K. Sinha, Jazie et al., 2012a, Int. 

Proc. Comput. Sci. Inf. Technol. 56 (2012) 2012. 

[41] A.A. Jazie, H. Pramanik, A.S.K. Sinha, Egg Shell Waste-

Catalyzed Transesterification of Mustard Oil: Optimization 

Using Response Surface Methodology(RSM), Int. Proc. Comput. 

Sci. Inf. Technol. 56 (2012) 2012. 

[42] Y. Meng, C. Yao, S. Xue, H. Yang, Application of Fourier 

transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy in determination of 

microalgal compositions, Bioresour. Technol. 151 (2014) 347–

354. 

[43] Y. Xu, X. Zheng, H. Yu, X. Hu, Hydrothermal liquefaction of 

Chlorella pyrenoidosa for bio-oil production over Ce/HZSM-5, 

Bioresour. Technol. 156 (2014) 1–5. 

[44] P. Jackson, K. Robinson, G. Puxty, M. Attalla, In situ Fourier 

Transform-Infrared (FT-IR) analysis of carbon dioxide 

absorption and desorption in amine solutions, Energy Procedia. 1 

(2009) 985–994. 

[45] Y. Tang, X. Ma, Z. Wang, Z. Wu, Q. Yu, A study of the thermal 

degradation of six typical municipal waste components in CO2 

and N2 atmospheres using TGA-FTIR, Thermochim. Acta. 657 

(2017) 12–19. 

[46] N. Aliana-Nasharuddin, N. Asikin-Mijan, G. Abdulkareem-

Alsultan, M.I. Saiman, F.A. Alharthi, A.A. Alghamdi, Y.H. 

Taufiq-Yap, Production of green diesel from catalytic 

deoxygenation of chicken fat oil over a series binary metal oxide-

supported MWCNTs, RSC Adv. 10 (2020) 626–642. 

[47] Q. Liu, H. Zuo, T. Wang, L. Ma, Q. Zhang, One-step 

hydrodeoxygenation of palm oil to isomerized hydrocarbon fuels 

over Ni supported on nano-sized SAPO-11 catalysts, Appl. Catal. 

A Gen. 468 (2013) 68–74. 

[48] M. Mohammad, T.K. Hari, Z. Yaakob, Y.C. Sharma, K. Sopian, 

Overview on the production of paraffin based-biofuels via 

catalytic hydrodeoxygenation, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 22 

(2013) 121–132. 

[49] T. V Choudhary, C.B. Phillips, Renewable fuels via catalytic 

hydrodeoxygenation, Appl. Catal. A Gen. 397 (2011) 1–12.