p63-74_4015.pdf ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 SELBY ET AL. - THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY 63 THREATS TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF MOOSE MANAGEMENT IN FINLAND Ashley Selby, Leena Petäjistö, and Terhi Koskela Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40A, 00170 Helsinki, Finland ABSTRACT: The large population of moose (Alces alces L.) in Finland has resulted in increased - demographic and socio-economic conditions. Pre-conditions for hunting club membership occur in - and moose hunting. ALCES VOL. 41: 63-74 (2005) Key words: - The moose (Alces alces L.) is the larg- and its population in Finland has increased estimated pre-hunting season number in 2002 was about 180,000 animals, and the post- hunting population in winter 2002-2003 was 113,000 – 125,000 animals (Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute 2004) (Fig. 1). The desired size of the moose population, owners for moose damage (e.g., Helle et al. 1987), and measures to reduce moose-related road accidents (Haikonen and Summala 2000) are topics of public concern in Finland. The knowledge of the interested parties – the debate To address this lack of knowledge, the Finnish Forest Research Institute has con- the main interested parties. First, the structure 100,000 hunters. A mean input of 16.5 hunt- THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY – SELBY ET AL. ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 64 Until now there has been a strong cor- relation between the number of moose to be decline in farm numbers and the weakening demographic situation in rural areas, this paper were not interested in taking part in moose the moose hunters wished that the hunt was not so time-consuming. 2003), 60% of forest owners were found to because of moose damage. Forest owners who were also moose hunters were of the opinion that the moose population was too large, and damage in their forests. Forest owners who concerning control of the moose population the number of annual moose hunting permits is determined. opinion that the moose population was too large. One-third of respondents considered that the moose population could be 20% less than in winter 2004 (95,000), while 10% of respondents considered that the moose popu- - 0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 19 80 -1 19 82 -3 19 84 -5 19 86 -7 19 88 -9 19 90 -1 19 92 -3 19 94 -5 19 96 -7 19 98 -9 20 00 -1 20 02 -3 Moose winter population Moose harvest ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 SELBY ET AL. - THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY 65 - ment associations. - - one of the few remaining social institutions in rural Finland. The continuing decline in the and the aging of the remaining rural population - trends in Finnish municipalities for the period 1975 – 2030. Apart from the aging of the rural population concomitant with a low birth rate and out-migration, a striking feature of the demographics is the concentration of the future population in the region surrounding the capi- to other urban centres. Natural population growth and the effects of migration will cause the rural areas to lose between 20 and 40% of their population during the period 2000 – 2030. The relationship between these demographic effects and the current distribution of moose hunting clubs is shown in Figure 2. The ar- eas with the greatest concentration of moose the greatest effects of demographic change populated areas and 15% of the population and Haapanen 2002). The international trade in agricultural goods has forced radical changes in Finnish farms has declined from about 130,000 to remaining farms could be as few as 40,000 (Niemi and Pietola 2005). Changes in farming and other economic and demographic changes in rural areas will also affect the forest own- ership structure that in turn can affect moose management. In addition, the widespread - est regeneration on abandoned farmland that is associated with the decline of farming and ideal browsing conditions for moose (Heikkilä now in the 60+ age-group, while a further 45% are in the 40 – 59 age-group. These age other than that in which their forest is located. - tance of 125 km to their forests (Karppinen et al. 2002). - institutional arrangements for moose hunting. - bership of moose hunting clubs in 2002 and The assessment is made from the standpoint of club leaders. Club leaders are responsible THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY – SELBY ET AL. ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 66 to the issue of moose hunting permits. It is METHODS 5,200 moose hunting clubs that submitted reports for the 1999 moose hunting season. - - tionnaire was not mailed again to clubs that - geneous groups of cases based on selected club membership class percentages formed the cluster membership was assigned to each case - was applied. This test is a measure of how is that there is no association between row and - test has been applied to cell counts. RESULTS Membership Structure The largest single group are the local - 10% of members. The two smallest groups were non-local landowners (about 10%) and - -150000 -100000 -50000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 1 2 3 4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Population growth and migration effects Moose hunting club distribution 1: Sparsely populated areas 2: Core rural areas 3: Urban-rural interaction 4 4: Capital conurbation P op ul at io n ch an ge H un tin g cl ub d is tr ib ut io n, % the current distribution of moose hunting clubs. ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 SELBY ET AL. - THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY 67 account for 71% of moose hunting club members. Differences in club membership with respect to hunting methods (hunting with 12 = 14.6, P = 0.26, n = 319). Hunting clubs and associations of clubs are socio-economic, and socio-cultural, etc. The composition of club and association member- the moose hunting clubs was constructed. Membership Typology - 5 clusters (Table 1) that are interpreted as follows: Mainly local residents. - few local landowners. The cluster contained 54 clubs (16.9%). Mainly others. - contain a small proportion of local residents. The cluster contained 21 clubs (6.6%). Mainly local landowners. although a small proportion of non-local land- owners and local residents are present. This was the second largest cluster and contained 101 clubs (31.7%). Mainly local landowners and their relatives and friends. - residents and other landowners can also be found in this group. The cluster consisted of Mainly local landowners and local residents. local residents, with the occasional non-local landowners. This was the largest cluster, the 105 clubs accounting for 32.9% of clubs in Membership Trends 1 residents others landowners landowners and their landowners and residents F2 P Local landowners 12.9 3.1 72.6 29.5 38.1 227.5 0.000 Local inhabitant (non- landowning) 81.7 7.4 10.7 10.2 28.6 254.6 0.000 Other landowner (not 1.2 1.5 10.1 9.1 15.1 12.1 0.000 2.4 0 5.3 48.2 7.8 170.4 0.000 2.1 88.5 2 2.8 3.5 549.7 0.000 n 54 21 101 38 105 - tion. 1 2 The F 2 THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY – SELBY ET AL. ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 68 58% founded in the 1960s, 21% in the 1970s, 2). Of the remaining clubs, 13% reported an increase in membership and 16% reported a ( 8 = 3.36, P = 0.91, n = 327) regardless of - ferences in membership trends were found in the different membership groups (Table most stable membership – 82% reported no greatest increase in membership at some three greatest decrease in membership was found consistent with current rural trends that are depopulation. Membership Constraints - ers reported that applications for membership This suggests that more new members could membership than were admitted. had more applicants than openings (17%). - ing the openings for membership applications 8 = 20.72, P = 0.008, n = 316). It is not uncommon in social institutions for there to be pre-conditions for group mem- react to a set of pre-conditions for membership common pre-conditions were domicile in the hunting area (19%), land ownership in the and an understanding of the hunting culture as 1 Change in membership residents others landowners landowners and their landowners and local residents Total2 Increase 11.1 38.1 11.9 7.9 10.5 12.5 No change 70.4 52.4 73.3 81.6 69.5 71.2 Decrease 18.5 9.5 14.9 10.5 20.5 16.3 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 54 21 101 38 105 319 1 2 8 = 16.34, P = 0.04, n = 319. 2 2 2 ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 SELBY ET AL. - THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY 69 of the leaders reported that their clubs did not impose pre-conditions. The imposition of pre-conditions could be a factor restricting the growth of clubs, but the relationship between pre-conditions and changes in club size as such ( 12 = 10.98, P = 0.53, n = 317). the imposed pre-conditions for membership - local landowners were the least open (less than 20% were without pre-conditions). Domicile logical result. Land ownership in the hunting - of hunting culture were also common pre- - pre-condition, which suggests that the tacit - of the recommendation of a club member in club member as an important pre-condition is based on comradeship. were failed pre-conditions (63%), lack of trust 1 preconditions residents others landowners landowners and their landowners and local residents Total2 No preconditions 30.2 27.8 19.2 21.6 20.6 22.3 Land ownership and domicile in hunting district 5.7 0 14.1 13.5 15.7 12.3 Domicile in hunting district 22.6 0 16.2 13.5 24.5 18.8 Land ownership in hunting district 0 5.6 30.3 16.2 14.7 16.8 hunting district 1.9 5.6 8.1 8.1 2.9 5.2 Recommendation of club member 5.7 22.2 4 13.5 4.9 6.8 Other (e.g., hunting 34 38.9 8.1 13.5 16.7 17.8 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 53 18 99 37 102 309 No preconditions 30.2 27.8 19.2 21.6 20.6 22.3 1 2 24 = 68.22, P = 0.000, n = 309. 2 2 THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY – SELBY ET AL. ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 70 (26%), and a desire to limit club size (18%). - - tions concerning the reasons for restricting membership. Of these, the most common - ported that maintaining good fellowship was club is founded on comradeship in personal done so in order to maintain good fellowship. - - - ( 8 = 11.09, P = 0.21, n = 314). Continuity and Sustainability Two-thirds (65%) of club leaders in this age of members was in the 50 – 60 age group. in the distribution of age classes between ( 12 = 18.80, P = 0.094, n = 318). - - considered that the increase in the propor- members were now fewer (22%) or because 1 residents others landowners landowners and their landowners and local residents Total2 Not important 20 9.1 35 22.2 50 33.3 46.7 27.3 27.5 22.2 22.2 27.5 Important 33.3 63.6 37.5 55.6 27.8 39.2 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 15 11 40 18 36 120 1 2 8 = 13.26, P = 0.10, n = 120. 2 2 2 ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 SELBY ET AL. - THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY 71 1 Aging problem residents others landowners landowners and their landowners and local residents Total2 membership 14.8 35 18.6 19.4 26.9 21.9 2-Age has caused hunt demanding 7.4 10 17.5 11.1 13.5 13.2 Sub-total 1+2 22.2 45 36.1 30.5 40.4 35.1 of club 29.6 20 27.8 19.4 21.2 24.4 age of members has not brought changes in 48.1 35 36.1 50 38.5 40.5 Sub-total 3+4 77.7 55 63.9 69.4 59.7 64.9 Grand Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 54 20 97 36 104 311 1 2 12 = 11.98, P = 0.45, n = 311. 2 The remaining 65% considered that aging new members had maintained the mean age of members. the effects of aging were most often found landowner component also show signs of aging - tent with aging of the farming population. New membership was reported to offset - aged). From the standpoint of the future social renewal of moose hunting clubs, the answers - THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY – SELBY ET AL. ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 72 - showed the greatest interest were also those ( 9 = 29.0, P = 0.000, n = 323). DISCUSSION The rationalization of Finnish agriculture will result in a drastic reduction in the number farmland will be either reforested or left to - tions indicate that the rural areas will continue - in the annual moose hunt, while the remain- the period from October to December. This late autumn and winter conditions, often with low temperatures and deep snow. Hunting The current membership situation is stable, but warning signals seem to be present. The largest single group of moose hunters are - in hunting, as reported elsewhere (Vikberg et the aging process because the clubs in which age of members. Another cause for concern is the closed nature of moose hunting clubs – a fact that is strict membership pre-conditions it would seem that landowners are seeking to pre- argument, Koskela (2004) has found that the 2 1 people in hunting residents others landowners landowners and their landowners and local residents Total2 15.1 4.8 9 7.9 8.6 9.5 One or two 49.1 38.1 63 52.6 64.8 58.4 None 26.4 28.6 26 31.6 24.8 26.5 9.4 28.6 2 7.9 1.9 5.7 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 53 21 100 38 105 317 1 2 12 = 32.64, P = 0.001, n = 317. 2 ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 SELBY ET AL. - THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY 73 commercialisation of hunting rights. New moose hunting clubs are also rare, fact that the current moose hunting legislation is weighted towards landowners. This, and for new club formation. - of moose hunting in its present form. On the - ownership becomes concentrated in absentee increased demand for moose hunting oppor- or who are otherwise interested in hunting. To accommodate this new demand, the pre-condi- to enable new urban-based moose hunting clubs to operate. REFERENCES FINNISH GAME AND FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTI- TUTE Accessed December 2005. FINNISH STATISTICAL YEARBOOK OF FORESTRY. 2004. Finnish Forest Research Institute. HAIKONEN, H., and H. SUMMALA - - HEIKKILÄ - land. _____, and S. HÄRKÖNEN (Alces alces stands in relation to the characteristics 27:127-143. HEIKKINEN - - Taloustieteen laitos. HELLE, T., H. PAJUOJA, and K. NYGRÉN. 1987. Forest Economics 29:7-26. KARPPINEN, H., H. HÄNNINEN, and P. RIPATTI. 852. KOSKELA - mahdollisuus? Unpublished report to Foundation. Helsinki, Finland. _____, and T. NYGRÉN - 1999. Suomen Riista 48:65-79. M A A S E U T U P O L I T I I K A N Y H T E I S T Y Ö RY H M Ä . 2000. Ihmisten maaseutu - tahdon MARSDEN, T., J. MURDOCH, P. LOWE, R. MUNTON, and A. FLYNN. 1993. Constructing the - land. OORE, D. S., and G. P. MCCABE. 1999. Intro- duction to the Practice of Statistics. Third New York, New York, USA. ORMONT rural. Pages 21-44 in London, U.K. NEVALAINEN AAPANEN. 2002. Ikään- THREAT TO SUSTAINABILITY – SELBY ET AL. ALCES VOL. 41, 2005 74 NIEMI, J., and K. PIETOLA. 2005. Structural In J. Niemi and J. Ahlstedt, editors. Finnish Agriculture and Rural Industries 105a. PETÄJISTÖ - - _____, J. AARNIO, P. HORNE, T. KOSKELA, and A. SELBY - _____, _____, _____, A. SELBY, and T. KO- SKELA - - SELBY, A., and L. PETÄJISTÖ. 1994. Field afforestation in Finland in the 1990s: - _____, _____, and T. KOSKELA. 2003. Field - - _____, _____, _____, and J. AARNIO. 2005. 51: 69-82. User Guide. SPSS Incorporated, Chicago, Illinois, USA. VIKBERG, P., R. 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