4001.p65 ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 TODESCO - ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO 145 ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN NORTHEASTERN ONTARIO: 1997 – 2002 Charlie Todesco Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 1160, Wawa, ON, Canada POS 1KO ABSTRACT: Conservation Officers found 793 illegally killed moose in the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Northeast Region during the period of 1997 – 2002. Of these illegally killed moose, 365 were abandoned. The majority of abandoned moose were a result of illegal harvesting, as 68% of all abandoned moose had signs of positive human interaction with the carcass. Three hundred and twenty moose (40%) spoiled and were unsuitable for human consumption. Bulls were illegally killed at a significantly higher proportion, and calves at a significantly lower proportion, than their respective availability in the herd structure. Cow moose are illegally killed proportional to their availability. Illegal moose kills were positively and significantly correlated with moose populations, the number of applicants for adult validation tags, and the number of hunters checked by Conservation Officers. The illegal moose kill has both an immediate and a long-term impact on the regional herd population. An estimated 613 moose were not recruited into the regional herd as a result of illegal harvesting. Moose Watch, a program to reduce the region’s illegal moose kill was initiated in 2000, and was expanded province-wide in 2001. A toll-free 24-hour violation reporting line was established, and received 387 calls over 3 years regarding illegal hunting violations for a wide variety of wildlife species. During the 6 years, Conservation Officers in the region contacted over 108,000 hunters, issued 3,064 warnings, and laid 2,580 charges while conducting moose hunt enforcement duties. ALCES VOL. 40: 145-159 (2004) Key words: Alces, illegal kill, Moose Watch, poaching Based on a perceived increase in the number of illegally killed and abandoned moose (Alces alces) in the mid 1990s, On- tario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR) Conservation Officers began data collection in Northeastern Ontario. Initial data collection was started in 1995, and became standardized across the Northeast Region (NER) in 1997. The objective of this initiative was to collect intelligence on the distribution and impact of the illegal harvest of moose, and to deliver a planned enforcement response to deal with the problem. In 2000, the NER developed and launched the “Moose Watch 2000” program. This program was aimed at reducing the illegal moose kill through pub- lic awareness, a 24-hour toll-free violation reporting line, and increased enforcement effort. The Moose Watch program was expanded provincially in 2001. The focus of this report is on the number of illegally killed and abandoned moose throughout the region from 1997 – 2002. STUDY AREA The NER is a large (441,122 km2) and diverse land base, comprised of a variety of geographic and physiological features. It extends from the north shores of Lake Huron and Lake Superior to the James Bay and Hudson Bay Lowlands (Fig. 1). There are 2 forest regions located within the NER, the Boreal Forest in the northern portion of the region and the Great Lakes – St. Law- rence Forest in the south (Hosie 1979). Boreal Forest tree species are of fire origin, consisting of white spruce (Picea glauca), ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO – TODESCO ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 146 Fig. 1. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Northeast Region and Districts. black spruce (Picea mariana), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), balsam fir (Abies b a l s a m e a ) , w h i t e b i r c h ( B e t u l a papyrifera), and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides). The Great Lakes – St. Law- rence forest is comprised of conifers such as red pine (Pinus resinosa), white pine (Pinus strobus), eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and tolerant hardwoods such as red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), and red oak (Quercus rubra). Within the region, there are 9 OMNR Districts – Chapleau, Cochrane, Hearst, Kirkland Lake, North Bay, Sault Ste. Marie, Sudbury, Timmins, and Wawa (Fig. 1). There are 5-10 Conservation Officers sta- tioned in each district, and they patrol 28 Wildlife Management Units (WMUs), ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 TODESCO - ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO 147 including some that are extremely remote with little to no road access. Most WMUs have a moose archery season commencing from the Saturday closest to September 17 to the third following Friday, and a firearm season over the period from the Saturday closest to October 8 to November 15. Three WMUs have extended firearms seasons until December 15. METHODS Conservation Officers patrolling in the region collected data on illegal moose kills from 1997 – 2002. All unlawfully killed and all abandoned moose encountered were clas- sified as illegally killed moose. Standardized data report sheets were completed for each illegal kill and included information on age/sex, whether the moose was seized or abandoned, date of kill, and general comments regarding the moose. When abandoned moose were encountered, indications of human interaction with the carcass were recorded in order to estimate the number of abandoned moose that may be a result of wounding mortality. Human interaction with moose carcasses included gutting, concealment, and location of kill in relation to roads or waterways. Wildlife Management Unit data have been collected for each illegally killed moose since 1998. Only verified kill data were used, meaning that if a Conservation Officer “didn’t see it or didn’t touch it” the data were not in- cluded. The data in this report are consid- ered to be a conservative estimate of ille- gally killed moose for the NER. In order to determine the impacts on herd recruitment in the NER, a population model was designed using the age/sex struc- ture of the illegal kill, a low in-utero produc- tivity rate (0.95), and an annual mortality rate of 10% (G. Eason, V. Crichton, per- sonal communication). This model pro- duces conservative estimates. Moose popu- lation estimates in each WMU were ob- tained from the OMNRs “Ontario Moose Harvest Planning System” computer pro- gram. The number of adult validation tags (AVTs) issued to hunters for harvesting bull and cow moose were obtained from copies of “Ontario Hunting Regulation Sum- mary” for 1997-2002. Enforcement statistics were derived from the OMNRs “Compliance Activity Violation Reporting System” (CAVRS) computer program. This program is utilized by all Conservation Officers to record their enforcement efforts, violation statistics, and violator information. A standard calcula- tion of non-compliance rates was used (number of charges + number of warnings / field contacts). Statistical analysis of illegal harvest data included correlation analysis and for avail- ability – utilization analysis, a chi-square goodness-of-fit test and a Bonferroni z-test were used (Neu et al. 1974, Byers et al. 1984). Regression analysis was completed using the number of hunters contacted by Conservation Officers and the number of illegally killed moose to produce an estimate of the total number of illegally killed moose. The Moose Watch program promotional efforts were initiated through the produc- tion of posters, violation reporting cards, pens and pencils, and licence holders im- printed with the Moose Watch logo and the violation reporting line number (1 – 866 – 34 MOOSE). In the 3 years of operation, 10,000 each of posters, contact cards, pens and licence holders were distributed across the province to hunters and the general public through businesses or places of em- ployment, field contacts, outdoors shows, and presentations. Moose Watch was pro- moted in the “Ontario Hunting Regulation Summary” and all AVT holders were shipped a Moose Watch promotion note with their tags. During the period of September 15 – December 15, media releases and inter- ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO – TODESCO ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 148 T ab le 1 . I ll eg al ly k il le d m oo se in N or th ea st R eg io n 19 97 – 2 00 2. views were held with television, radio, and newspaper reporters promoting the pro- gram and releasing enforcement statistics. Public service announcements were pre- pared and were run by radio and television stations. News releases dealing with con- victions as a result of the Moose Watch program were released to all media sources. Ministry of Natural Resources enforce- ment staff located at the Provincial Coordi- nation Centre (PCC) in Sault Ste. Marie answered all calls to the Moose Watch violation line. All Conservation Officers in the province report at the start of their shift to the PCC, and PCC staff are able to pass violation complaints to on-duty officers or to the next officer starting their shift in the district from where the complaint was re- ceived. The traditional partnership with Crime Stoppers (a North American wide violation reporting system) has been main- tained, and allows for anonymous violation reporting by those that choose to do so. RESULTS Unlawful Trends There were 793 verified illegally killed moose in the NER over the period of 1997 - 2002, of which 46% were abandoned (Table 1). Wawa district had the highest illegal kill and the highest rate of abandon- ment each year since 1997. Six districts (Chapleau, Kirkland Lake, North Bay, Sault Ste. Marie, and Wawa) accounted for 78% of all illegal kills in the NER. Abandonment rates were also highest in those districts as well. Illegal moose kills in the NER peaked in the 1999 hunt, declined in 2000 and 2001, and rebounded in 2002. Abandoned moose declined in the NER from 1997 – 1998, remained relatively con- stant from 1999 – 2001, and increased in 2002 to levels initially observed in 1997 (Table 2). Of the 365 abandoned moose, 251 (68%) showed positive signs of human interaction with the carcass. There was a A B A N . TO TA L A B A N . TO TA L A B A N . TO TA L A B A N . TO TA L A B A N . TO TA L A B A N . TO TA L A B A N . TO TA L C ha pl ea u 10 12 6 11 6 13 5 11 4 10 14 21 45 78 C oc hr an e 5 7 2 10 0 2 3 5 2 5 3 10 15 39 H ea rs t 11 16 1 3 5 18 5 11 4 5 7 13 33 66 K irk la nd L ak e 8 14 7 19 3 10 7 13 10 14 9 13 44 83 N or th B ay 7 14 2 16 2 13 11 20 4 8 7 16 33 87 Sa ul t S te . M ar ie 5 15 3 17 10 35 10 25 4 8 6 14 38 11 4 Su db ur y 10 12 3 8 7 19 2 11 4 10 5 10 31 70 Ti m m in s 4 8 4 13 8 17 8 16 12 16 7 11 43 81 W aw a 18 31 11 23 17 41 5 25 11 26 21 29 83 17 5 To ta l 78 12 9 39 12 0 58 16 8 56 13 7 55 10 2 79 13 7 36 5 79 3 20 01 20 02 To ta l 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 TODESCO - ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO 149 strong, but not significant (P > 0.05), corre- lation between the number of abandoned moose and the number having human inter- action (r = 0.78, tabular value = 0.811, 4 df) Conservation Officers located 114 aban- doned moose with no signs of human inter- action. A total of 320 abandoned moose spoiled, resulting in approximately 64,000 kg of meat becoming unsuitable for human consumption (assuming 200 kg meat/moose). Wildlife Management Units The total estimated moose population in the 28 WMUs steadily increased over the study period (Fig. 2), although the moose populations in WMUs 35 and 36 steadily declined over the 5 years. The illegal kill in each of the WMUs was significantly corre- lated (P < 0.05, tabular value = 0.374, 26 df) to the population in the WMUs for 1998 (r = 0.587), 2001 (r = 0.548), and 2002 (r = 0.413) (Table 3). The illegal moose kill was significantly correlated to the number of hunter applicants (Pool 1 – Choice 1) who applied for AVTs in WMUs in 1998 (r = 0.761), 2000 (r = 0.510), 2001 (r = 0.547), and 2002 (r = 0.503). The illegal moose kill was significantly correlated to the number of AVTs issued for only 2 years, 1998 (r = 0.554) and 2001 (r = 0.479). Illegal kill data were not collected on a WMU basis in 1997. The illegal moose kill in 7 WMUs (21B, 28, 29, 32, 35, 36, and 41) accounted for 50% of the NER verified illegal kill from 1998 – 2002. Five of these WMUs (28, 29, 35, 36, and 41) have the major urban centres of Kirkland Lake, Timmins, Sault Ste. Marie, Sudbury, and North Bay located in or adja- cent to these respective units. Four WMUs (21B, 28, 29, 41) have the highest average moose populations, available AVTs, and AVT applicants. Of interest, WMU 32 had 49 illegal kills over the 5-year period. This WMU has 63% of its total area (11,424 km2) closed to hunting by the Chapleau Crown Game Preserve, resulting in a high illegal kill confined to a relatively small geographic area. In making AVT decisions for each WMU, a 10% non-hunt mortality estimate is used to account for losses to predation, disease, accidents, lawful harvest by abo- riginal people, and illegal kill. Annual illegal kills do not exceed the 10% threshold in any WMU; however, these kills constitute the only verified component of the non-hunt mortality estimate. Illegal Kill Structure Based on aerial survey data for the NER over the study period, the regional moose herd structure is comprised of 33% bulls, 48% cows, and 19% calves. The structure of the illegal moose kill has re- mained constant and with 1 exception (cows 2001), has not fluctuated by more than 5% over the period of 1997 – 2002 (Table 4). Overall, cows constitute 49% of the illegal kill, bulls 40%, calves 7%, and moose that could not be identified 4% (Fig. 3). The composition of the regional illegal kill is significantly different (P < 0.05) than t h e r e g i o n a l m o o s e h e r d s t r u c t u r e Table 2. Abandoned and spoiled moose ob- served in Northeast Region 1997 – 2002. 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total Abandoned 78 39 58 56 55 79 365 Human Interaction 52 29 31 23 48 68 251 Spoiled 58 33 60 50 51 68 320 Fig. 2. Estimated Northeast Region moose popu- lation 1997 – 2002. 48603 50893 4744848522 45431 46344 40000 45000 50000 55000 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO – TODESCO ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 150 M o o se P o p . A V T A V T A p p . Ill. M o o s e 1 8 B 5 2 8 1 0 9 1 8 6 2 1 9 1 6 9 0 2 9 1 7 4 2 0 2 1 A 3 2 0 5 7 9 0 1 9 9 4 9 2 1 B 3 1 0 5 8 4 5 3 2 1 6 1 1 2 2 2 6 0 0 1 3 0 8 0 4 9 2 3 1 3 0 0 1 7 6 7 3 0 6 2 4 2 0 7 4 1 6 4 1 1 8 4 5 2 5 1 6 5 6 1 3 0 1 3 2 1 2 6 6 7 5 4 5 4 3 4 0 2 7 1 8 3 4 1 4 0 8 7 3 2 2 8 2 7 6 2 5 6 1 4 4 8 5 6 2 9 1 6 2 9 3 5 7 2 4 6 4 1 6 3 0 2 8 2 7 2 6 5 1 8 7 2 1 3 1 1 8 7 7 1 5 1 1 4 9 1 3 3 2 1 1 8 7 3 0 4 6 6 9 3 3 1 2 6 6 4 7 3 3 7 6 3 4 8 0 1 2 5 2 2 0 2 3 5 1 4 3 1 1 5 9 1 5 3 1 1 8 3 6 1 6 0 1 1 9 1 1 3 3 8 1 3 3 7 9 9 3 5 9 5 6 4 9 3 8 2 5 6 4 3 7 5 2 9 8 9 1 4 3 9 1 2 0 0 1 7 5 1 7 1 4 4 4 0 2 6 9 3 2 9 5 2 9 6 2 9 4 1 2 3 2 2 4 9 0 4 1 9 8 4 4 2 2 8 4 4 2 4 1 1 9 7 3 3 4 6 3 4 9 4 8 4 1 3 0 4 7 3 8 9 2 3 0 2 1 3 8 3 4 8 1 1 5 0 3 4 5 2 8 6 1 2 T o ta l 4 8 5 5 2 6 8 6 4 4 4 3 1 1 1 6 7 W M U 1 9 9 9 M o o se P o p . A V T A V T A p p . Ill. M o o se 1 8 B 5 2 8 1 0 9 1 7 8 1 1 9 1 6 9 0 3 3 8 9 0 3 1 2 1 A 3 2 0 5 7 9 0 2 3 4 5 0 2 1 B 3 1 0 5 7 3 5 3 0 5 8 7 2 2 2 6 0 0 1 5 9 8 4 4 8 2 3 1 8 0 3 2 0 0 9 0 0 2 2 4 2 0 9 0 1 8 7 1 1 2 6 4 2 5 1 6 5 6 1 3 0 1 4 5 1 2 6 1 4 0 4 4 5 4 0 3 2 2 7 1 1 1 3 1 4 0 1 0 5 4 1 2 8 2 7 6 2 5 1 1 4 4 5 4 1 0 2 9 1 6 2 9 3 5 7 2 7 9 3 7 3 0 1 5 8 6 2 2 0 1 8 0 5 4 3 1 1 9 6 4 1 7 0 1 4 3 3 9 3 2 1 1 8 7 3 7 4 7 9 8 3 3 1 2 6 6 4 5 3 5 2 2 3 4 8 6 9 2 5 2 1 9 0 3 5 1 4 3 1 1 5 9 1 4 5 8 6 3 6 1 0 8 1 9 2 1 1 6 9 1 3 3 7 9 9 3 5 9 5 7 5 1 0 3 8 2 5 6 4 3 7 5 2 5 5 7 5 3 9 1 2 0 0 1 7 5 1 7 7 5 2 4 0 2 6 9 3 2 9 5 2 8 8 5 8 4 1 2 3 2 2 4 9 0 4 2 8 1 1 6 4 2 2 8 4 4 2 4 1 2 1 6 8 3 4 6 3 0 2 4 8 4 3 0 0 4 7 4 1 1 2 3 0 2 1 3 8 0 4 8 1 1 5 0 1 3 3 2 6 3 7 7 T o t a l 4 7 4 4 8 6 4 9 5 4 4 5 6 4 1 3 7 W M U 2 0 0 0 M o o se P o p . A V T A V T A p p . Ill. M o o se 1 8 B 2 8 5 7 2 1 6 1 0 1 9 1 6 9 0 3 6 4 1 0 4 4 0 2 1 A 3 2 2 0 7 9 0 2 3 7 1 3 2 1 B 3 1 0 5 7 3 5 2 7 2 6 1 1 2 2 2 3 0 0 2 3 1 1 0 8 6 5 2 3 1 7 5 5 1 8 6 7 9 1 1 2 4 2 0 9 0 2 0 1 1 1 5 6 2 2 5 1 6 5 6 1 4 7 1 6 5 0 2 6 1 4 0 4 5 0 4 4 2 2 2 7 1 1 1 3 1 4 0 9 9 0 1 2 8 2 9 7 0 5 0 0 4 3 4 4 1 1 2 9 1 7 2 7 3 0 2 2 1 6 0 7 3 0 1 5 8 6 2 2 0 1 7 6 3 4 3 1 1 9 6 4 1 9 2 1 5 5 6 1 0 3 2 1 7 0 6 1 3 9 7 5 2 1 1 3 3 1 3 3 0 4 5 3 0 0 0 3 4 8 6 9 2 5 1 9 6 0 3 5 1 4 3 1 1 4 4 1 3 5 0 5 3 6 1 0 8 1 9 2 1 0 2 9 5 3 7 9 9 3 6 6 6 6 4 1 3 8 2 1 3 2 2 9 0 2 3 0 1 1 3 9 1 2 0 0 1 2 5 1 6 6 3 1 4 0 3 2 3 6 4 0 7 3 1 3 3 4 4 1 2 9 9 8 5 4 1 4 3 1 2 7 4 2 2 8 4 4 2 7 8 2 4 6 3 6 4 6 3 0 2 5 8 4 2 2 1 4 7 9 2 5 2 6 2 2 1 7 9 3 4 8 6 9 1 1 3 3 2 3 4 8 0 T o t a l 4 8 6 0 3 6 7 3 5 4 3 8 6 7 1 0 2 W M U 2 0 0 1 Table 3. Moose populations, Adult Validation Tags (AVT), Adult Validation Tag applicants, and illegal moose kills in Northeast Region 1998 – 2002. M o o se P o p . A V T A V T A p p . Ill. M o o se 1 8 B 5 2 8 1 0 4 1 9 9 0 1 9 1 6 9 0 2 9 1 6 7 7 0 2 1 A 3 1 0 5 8 1 5 1 9 0 6 1 2 1 B 3 1 0 5 8 4 5 2 8 9 1 1 1 2 2 2 6 0 0 1 1 5 7 1 9 1 2 3 1 2 0 0 1 7 7 9 3 7 1 2 4 1 4 0 0 1 5 4 1 0 0 6 5 2 5 5 9 7 1 3 0 1 0 9 0 2 6 6 7 5 4 5 4 5 8 0 2 7 1 8 3 4 2 5 0 1 3 4 1 6 2 8 3 5 4 5 6 6 2 4 3 4 1 1 4 2 9 2 0 1 8 6 0 1 3 4 7 5 7 3 0 2 8 2 7 2 6 5 1 7 7 2 1 3 1 1 8 7 7 1 5 6 1 3 9 9 8 3 2 1 1 7 3 9 1 6 8 4 7 3 3 7 6 8 4 5 3 1 7 3 3 4 2 5 2 2 5 2 3 4 2 3 5 1 8 6 7 2 1 5 1 8 2 3 8 3 6 1 6 0 1 1 9 0 1 3 4 4 5 3 7 7 3 0 4 5 4 6 0 1 3 8 2 3 5 2 4 8 0 2 9 3 9 9 3 9 1 2 0 0 1 7 5 1 7 3 1 3 4 0 2 7 6 7 2 9 5 3 0 6 1 9 4 1 2 3 2 2 4 9 0 4 0 9 4 9 4 2 2 4 7 3 1 7 1 1 5 7 8 2 4 6 3 4 9 4 8 3 5 5 1 4 7 3 8 9 2 3 0 2 0 6 7 0 4 8 1 1 0 0 3 5 0 2 6 9 6 6 T o t a l 4 6 3 4 4 7 4 6 0 4 4 6 1 3 1 2 0 W M U 1 9 9 8 ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 TODESCO - ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO 151 Table 3 (continued). Moose populations, Adult Validation Tags (AVT), Adult Validation Tag applicants, and illegal moose kills in North- east Region 1998 – 2002. (Table 5). Using adjusted data for known age and sex ratios, moose were not killed proportional to their availability. Bull moose were illegally killed at a higher proportion than they occurred in the herd structure, and calves were illegally killed at a lower proportion than they occurred in the herd. Cow moose were illegally killed propor- tional to their availability. 129 120 168 137 102 137 17814611790 5428 0 100 200 300 400 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Illegal Kill Estimated Annual Recruitment Loss Fig. 4. Northeast Region illegal moose kill and estimated annual recruitment loss. M o o s e P o p . A V T A V T A p p . Ill. M o o se 1 8 B 2 8 5 7 2 2 7 8 1 1 9 1 8 6 1 3 6 0 1 1 1 2 0 2 1 A 3 2 2 0 7 4 4 2 3 9 7 0 2 1 B 3 1 0 5 6 8 5 2 8 7 4 1 0 2 2 2 3 0 0 2 0 7 1 0 4 5 2 2 3 1 7 5 5 1 8 7 8 0 0 7 2 4 3 0 8 0 2 6 1 1 2 6 5 4 2 5 1 7 1 5 1 4 7 1 4 9 0 2 6 1 4 0 4 5 0 4 1 5 1 2 7 1 2 6 9 1 4 0 1 0 6 8 6 2 8 3 0 3 7 5 0 0 4 2 7 8 1 3 2 9 1 7 2 7 2 2 1 2 3 2 9 9 3 0 2 8 7 3 2 0 0 1 7 4 1 8 3 1 1 9 6 4 1 5 4 1 6 3 9 7 3 2 1 6 5 0 1 3 2 8 9 9 1 4 3 3 1 3 3 0 4 0 2 9 1 2 3 4 8 6 9 2 5 1 8 7 1 3 5 1 4 3 1 8 8 1 2 8 2 7 3 6 1 0 8 1 5 0 8 7 9 6 3 7 8 9 9 3 5 6 3 2 6 3 8 2 1 3 2 1 8 4 2 2 8 6 1 0 3 9 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 6 1 4 1 4 0 3 2 3 6 3 8 6 3 4 5 2 4 4 1 2 9 9 8 2 6 2 4 0 7 6 9 4 2 2 4 3 0 1 4 5 2 4 9 9 7 4 6 4 2 6 5 0 4 4 3 0 4 7 9 2 5 1 4 5 2 2 6 3 1 4 8 6 9 1 9 1 4 1 3 1 T o ta l 5 0 8 9 3 5 5 8 9 4 3 6 0 6 1 3 7 W M U 2 0 0 2 Recruitment Loss The illegal moose kill has an immediate impact on the NER moose herd, as well as a long-term impact regarding potential re- cruitment that did not occur. Using a basic but conservative population model, an esti- mated 613 moose were not recruited into the regional herd over the 6-year period. This would result in a total loss of 1,406 moose in the NER from 1997 – 2002 (Fig. 4). Enforcement Effort Moose enforcement effort by NER Conservation Officers steadily increased from 1997 – 1999 and peaked in 2000 (the first year of the Moose Watch program) (Table 6). Conservation Officers checked over 108,000 hunters, with the highest number of hunters being checked in 1999. The overall non-compliance rate was 5.2%, with the highest non-compliance rate (6%) occurring in 2000. Conservation Officers issued 3,064 warnings and laid 2,580 charges while com- pleting field moose enforcement duties dur- ing the 6-year period. Penalties assessed through tickets or by the courts as a result of trials amounted to $822,186. Fines are paid into the “Fish and Wildlife Special 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total Bulls 53 47 65 57 39 59 320 Cows 60 59 83 69 58 64 393 Calves 12 11 14 6 4 10 57 Unknown 4 3 6 5 1 4 23 Total 129 120 168 137 102 137 793 Table 4. Northeast Region illegal moose kill structure. Fig. 3. Northeast Region illegal moose kill age and sex structure. 40% 49% 7% 4% Bulls Cows Calves Unkn. ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO – TODESCO ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 152 Table 5. Occurrence of observed and expected illegally killed moose in the Northeast Region. of hunters contacted per illegal moose was variable, but remained close to the 6-year average of 139 hunters contacted per illegal moose. Enforcement efficiency appeared to be steadily improving over the period of 1997 – 2001 as a result of increased viola- tion detection, but declined sharply in 2002. Using the number of illegally killed moose and the number of hunters contacted by Conservation Officers, a regression equa- tion (r2 = 0.85, Y = - 77.517 + 0.01158 X) was derived. This equation was used with the estimated number of moose hunters in the NER obtained through postcard surveys (1999 – 2002 data only available, P. Davis, personal communication). The annual ille- gal moose kill estimate was calculated to range from 557 to 577 (Table 7). Using the (Chi-square = 77.43, Tabular value, P < 0.05, 2 df = 5.99). 126 152 93 116 106 83 97 82 136 124 151141 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Enforcement effort (hours) Hunter contacts Fig. 5. Hunter contacts and enforcement effort per illegal moose in Northeast Region 1997 – 2002. NER Proportion Observed Expected Proportion Legally Killed Bonferroni intervals Preference Bull 0.33 319 253 0.417 0.362 < P1 < 0.472 + Cow 0.48 393 367 0.514 0.459 < P2 < 0.570 0 Calf 0.19 53 145 0.069 0.0409 < P3 < 0.098 -- Total 765 765 Purpose Account” and, along with hunting and fishing licence revenues, are used to fund fish and wildlife management and en- forcement programs. The number of illegally killed moose was positively, but not significantly (P > 0.05, tabular value = 0.811, 4 df) correlated to the number of hours spent in the field by Conservation Officers (r = 0.599). The number of illegally killed moose was posi- tively and significantly (P < 0.05, tabular value = 0.811, 4 df) correlated to the number of hunters contacted by Conservation Of- ficers (r = 0.919). Enforcement effective- ness was assessed by examining the number of hours of enforcement effort and the number of hunters contacted per illegal moose over the 6 years (Fig. 5). The number ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 TODESCO - ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO 153 average of 139 hunters contacted per illegal moose and the NER projected numbers of moose hunters, the annual illegal kill esti- mate ranges from 394 to 406. Based on these estimates, Conservation Officers may only be locating 20 – 40% of all illegally killed moose in the NER. Moose Watch Program The Moose Watch violation reporting line received the highest number of calls in 2001, the year when the program was ex- panded province-wide (Table 8). The NER accounted for 50% of all calls to the viola- tion reporting line in 2001 and 54% of all calls in 2002. Wawa and Sault Ste. Marie districts received the most Moose Watch violation calls in the region. Over the 3 years that the Moose Watch violation-reporting line was in operation, a total of 392 calls were received (Table 9). Violation reports of illegal or abandoned moose constituted 57% of all calls received, and overall, only 4% of calls received were from hunters reporting that they had killed an animal that they were not licenced for. Calls about illegal night hunting accounted for 7% of violations reported. In the ab- sence of a general OMNR violation report- ing line, calls were also received regarding illegal poaching of deer, elk, fish, and tur- keys, as well as other resource related infractions. Calls to the Moose Watch violation re- porting line were consistent over the 3 years Table 6. Northeast Region enforcement efforts 1997 – 2002.1 where the majority of calls provided viola- tion information that did not require an im- mediate enforcement response. Less than 20% of the calls received were of a nature requiring an immediate response by Con- servation Officers. DISCUSSION The number of illegally killed moose in the NER is of concern to enforcement staff, wildlife managers, and stakeholders, especially as the numbers in this report are considered to be minimum estimates. Wolfe (1987) broadly defined illegal harvest as the “taking of protected wildlife contrary to conditions prescribed by provincial / state / territorial or federal wildlife statutes”, and that most wildlife agencies consider reports of illegal kill by enforcement staff as a minimum estimate. Furthermore, the illegal moose kill has a direct socio-economic im- pact through reduction of hunting opportu- nities and lost licensing revenue. Table 7. Northeast Region verified and esti- mated illegal moose kill 1999 - 2002. 1 (Period - September 1 – December 31). 1999 2000 2001 2002 Ve rifie d Ille g a l M o o s e K ill 167 137 102 137 Pro je c t e d Ille g a l M o o s e K ill – fro m Re g re s s io n Eq u a t io n 573 557 577 560 Pro je c t e d Ille g a l M o o s e K ill – fro m CO Co n t a c t 404 394 406 396 Pro je c t e d N ER M o o s e H u n t e rs 56,152 54,790 56,491 55,026 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total Enforcement Effort (hrs) 10,588 11,635 13,892 14,569 11,835 12,780 75,299 Hunter Contacts 18,167 18,132 20,805 17,369 15,471 18,674 108,618 Charges 322 458 559 454 381 406 2580 Warnings 565 562 493 586 459 399 3064 Non Compliance Rate (%) 4.9 5.6 5.1 6 5.4 4.3 5.2 Penalties ($) 93,290 163,176 203,120 157,215 100,055 105,330 822,186 Illegal Kills 129 120 168 137 102 137 793 ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO – TODESCO ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 154 Table 8. Moose Watch violation report line calls 2000 – 2002. 2000 2001 2002 Chapleau 3 2 9 Cochrane 1 3 0 Hearst 2 4 2 Kirkland Lake 7 7 10 North Bay 8 13 10 Sault Ste. Marie 9 21 7 Sudbury 10 18 6 Timmins 6 15 10 Wawa 13 17 17 Total Northeast Region Calls 61 100 71 Total Provincial Calls 61 200 131 The reduced illegal moose kill in 2000 and 2001 appeared to be a response to the Moose Watch program; however, the 35% increase in verified illegal kills in 2002 indi- cates an apparent decrease in hunter com- pliance. A similar trend was observed in north central Ontario in the late 1970s – early 1980s by Timmermann and Gollat (1984) when hunting regulations were changed to prohibit party hunting. Charges laid by Conservation Officers during the moose hunting season declined following the first 2 years of regulation change, and sharply increased in the third year as a result of enforcement efforts and a less cautious approach taken by hunters. On- tario reported high non-compliance during the first year of the moose selective harvest system in 1983 (Wolfe 1987), and the illegal harvest of moose continues to be a serious compliance issue in northeastern Ontario 20 years later. The high number of abandoned moose is of great concern, and the majority of the NER abandoned moose were killed with unlawful intent, rather than by accident, based on human interaction. In a similar study, Beattie et al. (1980, citing Hardin and Roseberry 1975) reported that 20% of aban- doned deer carcasses on the Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge in Illinois had been intentionally abandoned. High abandon- ment rates of moose offend law abiding hunters and the general public, and resulted in 85 complaints to the Moose Watch viola- tion reporting line. Increased promotion of hunter ethics and increased enforcement effort are required to deter this behavior. Approximately 1/3 of the NER aban- doned moose showed no sign of human interaction, and may be a result of wounding mortality. Moose hunter shooting profi- ciency was studied by Timmermann (1977) and Buss et al. (1989) and they estimated that potential wounding loss based on shoot- ing exercises at life-sized moose targets by Ontario hunters could be in the magnitude of 25 – 30%, and close to 40% on moving targets. Wolfe (1987) reported that crip- pling loss of moose in Ontario was consid- ered to be of moderate concern. It is also possible that these moose were killed as a result of illegal activity. Pursley (1977) ob- served a 25% wounding mortality rate in unlawfully killed deer in New Mexico. Higher wounding mortality rates have been observed for night hunted deer, ranging from 27% in Manitoba (Bessey 1984) to as high as 50% on Manitoulin Island, Ontario (I. Anderson, personal communication). Little information exists on wounding rates in unlawfully hunted moose; however, it would be reasonable to assume that similar rates as observed in deer would apply to moose. Illegal harvesting of moose in the NER is a function of moose populations and hunter pressure. The 7 WMUs that comprise 50% of the regional kill are located near urban centres, have high hunter preference, and high competition for available AVTs. Per- ceived availability of animals is a primary consideration for those that are predicated to unlawfully taking wildlife (Bessey 1984, ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 TODESCO - ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO 155 Table 9. Violations reported to Moose Watch line 2000 – 2002. 1 NER only 2000, Province-wide 2001-02. Violation Reported 1 2000 2001 2002 Total Moose Poaching 17 60 60 137 Abandoned Moose 15 37 33 85 Turning Self In 6 5 5 16 Night Hunting 5 16 5 26 Aircraft Hunting 5 2 0 7 Deer Poaching 3 37 13 53 Fish Poaching 1 10 1 12 Elk Poaching 0 3 1 4 Turkey Poaching 0 1 0 1 Non-violations 9 29 13 51 Total 61 200 131 392 Glover 1982 as cited by Bessey 1984, Gregorich 1992). Strategic enforcement effort needs to be focussed on these 7 WMUs. Competition for declining levels of AVTs and opportunities to harvest adult moose may be pressuring some hunters to violate moose hunting regulations. For the 1999 and 2000 hunting seasons, the NER had the highest number of moose hunters in the province, and the second lowest number of AVTs (Bisset 2002). Hunter satisfaction is influenced by the ability to harvest an ani- mal, and in areas with high hunter densities, hunting techniques are selected to avoid losing preferred hunting locations to other hunters (Crête 1987). Hall et al. (1990) found a perception among migratory bird hunting violators that the temptation to vio- late was enhanced by the belief that more waterfowl were being killed elsewhere along the flyway. These situations lead to in- creased competition among hunters, and may influence some individuals to take in- creased risks in order to harvest a moose. Benson (2000) stated that in hunting “Op- portunity elicits actions that sometimes would not be considered”. In Sweden, where high moose populations and strictly regulated hunting occur (Cederlund and Markgren 1987), losses to poaching are considered to be negligible (Boer 1991). If moose populations and the availability of AVTs increase, the incidence of illegal harvesting of moose may decrease based on an improvement in hunter satisfaction. The relatively stable sex structure of the NER illegal kill indicates that there is differential vulnerability to poaching. It is reasonable that bull moose constitute a higher than expected percentage of the illegal kill based on their increased availabil- ity to hunters resulting from rut and post-rut activity. Calves are under-represented in the illegal kill as all licenced hunters in Ontario can lawfully harvest them in any WMU with an open moose season. Crête (1987) observed that when hunters can choose, vulnerability is determined by hunter preference for “large bulls, small bulls, large cows, small cows, and calves” in decreas- ing preference. Moose are being killed opportunistically as they become available to poachers. Bessey (1984) assumed that the majority of deer poachers were oppor- tunists who violated hunting legislation when opportunities were presented. The NER data suggest that moose are being killed opportunistically as they are encountered and abandoned if an adult validation tag is not affixed in a reasonable period of time. If the NER illegal moose kill were solely based on cow moose being mistaken for calves, the proportion of cows in the illegal kill would be significantly higher. An assump- tion may be made that the verified annual illegal kill does not constitute a sustainability issue, as it does not exceed the 10% non- ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO – TODESCO ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 156 hunt mortality estimate in any WMU. Of all of the contributing non-hunt mortality fac- tors, the only verified data that exists for any of these factors is the illegal moose kill data. Poaching is the only non-hunt mortal- ity factor that is actively managed or only factor that can be reasonably controlled at this time in the NER. Individual WMU moose population models and harvest levels may have to be adjusted in WMUs where known estimates approach or exceed the 10% non-hunt mortality estimate. There is little information on the impact of illegal kills on moose populations in North America (Wolfe 1987). Illegal kills may have a significant impact on moose populations when combined with other non- hunt mortality factors. Illegal harvest and brainworm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) are cited as contributing factors in moose p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e s i n N o v a S c o t i a (Timmermann 1987). Poaching and colli- sions were the highest cause of all known moose non-hunt mortality in Maine, Minne- sota, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick in 1970, and the illegal kill accounted for an average of 31% of the non-hunt mortality in these jurisdictions (Karns et al. 1974). The illegal kill has a recruitment impact on the NER moose herd, which will reduce the availability of moose for law-abiding hunters. There are 2 ways of looking at this loss in terms of hunting opportunities. One assumption would be that all illegally har- vested moose and recruitment loss consti- tutes the total loss of opportunities to the hunting community. Wolfe (1987) stated that every illegally killed moose could sup- port an additional 6 resident hunters or 3 non-resident hunters in North America. Using the verified illegal kill and estimated recruitment loss of 1,404 moose being una- vailable for lawful harvesting, this would represent a loss of opportunities to 8,424 resident hunters or 4,212 non-resident hunt- ers to hunt within the NER. The other viewpoint would be that the illegal kill and recruitment would have ac- crued into the NER moose population and been apportioned to hunters using the cur- rent allocation methods. In this example, the verified illegal kill and estimated recruit- ment loss would represent approximately 240 AVTs over the 6-year period (assum- ing a planned harvest level of 10% and a 50% success rate of filling an AVT). Each AVT has a multiplier value in terms of hunter opportunities. Provincially, 58% of all hunters apply for AVTs in groups (aver- age group size 4.25), and 42% apply as individuals. These 240 AVTs would have permitted an opportunity for a minimum of 643 individuals to legally hunt an adult moose. As all hunters can harvest calf moose in Ontario, the loss of approximately 175 calves has an extremely high multiplier effect. Regardless of the viewpoint taken, any re- duction in illegal harvest would have a com- pensatory value in reducing the non-hunt mortality estimate for wildlife managers, and allow for an increase in moose hunting opportunities. Estimates of illegal moose kill fluctuate across North America, ranging from 5- 100% of the legal harvest level, with a mean of 30% (Wolfe 1987). Wolfe (1987) re- ported that Ontario’s estimated illegal moose kill was 10% of the legal harvest based on a 1983 questionnaire. Mercer and Manuel (1974) estimated that the illegal moose kill accounted for 5 – 10% of the moose popu- lation in accessible areas of Newfoundland in the early 1970s. Violation simulation studies indicate low detection rates (< 1%) of violations by enforcement staff and low violation reporting rates (< 10%) by the public to enforcement agencies (Vilkitis 1971, Pursley 1977, Bessey 1984, Boxall and Smith 1987). While estimates of the number of violators and the number of ille- gally killed wildlife using these violation simulations have poor statistical precision, ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 TODESCO - ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO 157 the estimates are useful in that they suggest a higher incidence of illegal kill than previ- ously assumed (Wolfe 1987). Illegal moose kill estimates documented here are likely overestimated using the re- gression analysis, as the relationship is prob- ably more curvilinear than linear. How- ever, in the absence of any violation simula- tion exercises or other substantive esti- mates in Ontario for illegal moose harvest- ing, the 2 estimates derived in this report on annual illegal kill provide a baseline on which further testing can be made. Wolfe (1987) states “additional research is necessary to improve means of quantifying the magni- tude of illegal kill and of separating out the relative contribution of various components”. Efficiency and effectiveness of wildlife enforcement programs are difficult matters to assess and enhance to ensure violation deterrence and compliance with legislation (Cowles et al. 1979, Bessey 1984, Hall et al. 1990, Gregorich 1992). Hunter compliance with legislation is directly related to favorability of attitude towards the legisla- tion (Bessey 1984). While overall moose hunting non-compliance rates of hunters checked by Conservation Officers are less than 10% in the NER, there are limitations on the relevance of simple compliance esti- mations (Cowles et al. 1979). This is best illustrated by the 2002 statistics which had the lowest overall non-compliance rate, and a 35% increase in illegal moose kills from the previous year. Condonation of illegal wildlife harvest- ing occurs in many jurisdictions across North America (Vilkitis 1971, Bessey 1984, Hall et al. 1990, Gregorich 1992), and can limit the effectiveness of wildlife enforcement. The elimination of public acceptance of illegal wildlife harvesting and the imposition of penalties that are severe enough to pro- vide deterrence are required to reduce the illegal harvest of moose. One of the pri- mary purposes of the Moose Watch pro- gram was to increase public and stakeholder awareness, and to provide a general deter- rence through their involvement in compli- ance monitoring and violation reporting. The Moose Watch program has been effective in dealing with illegal harvesting activities and has received close to 400 calls since its inception, especially as other jurisdictions have noted low rates of violation reporting by the public (Vilkitis 1971, Pursley 1977, Bessey 1984, Boxall and Smith 1987). Despite calls that deal with non-enforce- ment matters or lead officers to investigate occurrences in which no charges are laid, the favorable public response to the pro- gram indicates the effectiveness of the pro- motional program and acceptance by the hunting and non-hunting community. Efficient enforcement action can be initiated by Conservation Officers investi- gating timely and accurate complaints. In 2000, the Moose Watch program had a $25,000 budget for initial start up costs and promotional materials. One call to the vio- lation reporting line in October 2000 regard- ing 2 illegal moose led to the discovery of a third illegal moose, and resulted in the con- viction of 6 poachers, fines totaling $34,500 and 29 years of hunting suspensions. This case alone paid for the entire Moose Watch program. The Moose Watch program is not the panacea for enforcement in the NER, but rather another tool available to Conserva- tion Officers. The illegal moose kill is not uniformly distributed across the NER WMUs, and strategic enforcement initia- tives are required in problem districts, in- cluding enhanced promotion and education, increased uniformed officer presence, and special investigations. Hall et al. (1990) state that “actions to reduce violations of recreational hunting regulations can be as effective as those that limited commercial hunting”. Continued hunter and public sup- port, and adequate and efficient law en- ILLEGAL MOOSE KILL IN ONTARIO – TODESCO ALCES VOL. 40, 2004 158 forcement presence will be required to re- duce the illegal harvesting of moose in the NER. CONCLUSIONS Illegal harvesting of moose in the NER is an issue affecting the general public, hunters, wildlife managers, and Conserva- tion Officers. The verified illegal kill of 793 moose from 1997 – 2002 represents a loss of viewing and hunting opportunities, a re- cruitment loss to the moose herd, and tar- nishes the image of lawful hunters. These verified kills represent a bare minimum number of illegally killed moose and demon- strate a non-compliance issue in localized areas within the NER. The actual level of illegal harvest is not known and modeling systems to determine the appropriate level of enforcement effort to suppress and deter this activity have not been developed. 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