AMQ106 Margaritora et al pc7 jpg.pub


   

 Available online http://amq.aiqua.it 
ISSN (print): 2279-7327, ISSN (online): 2279-7335 
 
 

Alpine and Mediterranean Quaternary, 33 (1), 2020, 115-132 

THE LOWER AND MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC SETTLEMENTS IN THE BALDO-LESSINI MOUNTAINS. 
RESULTS FROM A GIS INVESTIGATION. 

 
Davide Margaritora1, Alessandro Dozio1, Giorgio Chelidonio1, Maria Chiara Turrini1, 

Marco Peresani1, 2 
 

1 Università di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici, Sezione di Scienze Preistoriche e Antropologiche, Ferrara, Italy. 
2 Istituto di Geologia Ambientale e Geoingegneria, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Milano, Italy.  

 
Corresponding author: Marco Peresani <marco.peresani@unife.it> 

 
ABSTRACT: On the Monti Lessini and the Monte Baldo, two mountain areas of the Veneto Pre-Alps, studies grounded on human 
ecology, landscape use and site catchment analysis are still sparse or standing at a preliminary state. A factor of bias is the limita-
tion of the archaeological record that was subject to many paleoenvironment processes, compromising its conservation, with sub-
stantial loss of information in the open-air sites. In order to shed light on the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic settlements in these 
sectors we apply GIS analysis of location features, as a support provided by the methodological innovation in archaeological re-
search. The analysis is significant for the comprehension of territoriality and also provides tools available for the protection of ar-
chaeological and cultural heritage in these areas. Site location preferences are the result of a complex decision-making process. 
Using a methodology based on territorial and employment parameters, already successfully applied in other contributions, the 
results obtained are key issues in the understanding of subsistence strategies, territorial occupation and settlement patterns during 
the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic.  
 
Keywords: Palaeolithic, settlement, landscape, GIS, Venetian Prealps. 
 
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1. INTRODUCTION 
 

Since the end of the 19th century, the Monti Lessi-
ni and the Monte Baldo, two mountain areas in the cen-
tral southern Pre-Alps, are successfully surveyed for 
investigations on the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic 
sites, supported by excavations and multidisciplinary 
projects. Especially in the Monti Lessini, where the num-
ber of Mousterian sites counts the highest in Veneto, a 
great bulk of data was produced from deposits in caves, 
rock shelters and in open air sites; remarkable when 
compared to other mountain ranges in Italy. Therefore, 
the study of the settlement system is possible despite 
the increasing dearth of information as the evidence 
dates back in time to the oldest record of Palaeolithic 
archaeology. Aside the encouraging support provided 
by the methodological innovation in archaeological re-
search, studies grounded on human ecology, landscape 
use and site catchment analysis are still sparse or 
standing at a preliminary state. A factor of bias is the 
limitation of the archaeological record to mountain or 
hilly sectors that were lapped only by alpine glaciers and 
non intensively or only partially affected by periglacial 
processes, or those fluvial terraces spared by destruc-
tive post-depositional processes. As the preservation 
degree varies, not all the finds share the same informa-
tive potentiality. As a consequence, many aspects of the 
settlement system inferred from site exploitation territo-
ry, site function and raw material circulation can only be 
studied on a limited range of evidence, the more de-
tailed of which are provided by the stratified archives. 

The layout of these contexts allows exploring human 
behavior in relation to the environmental context. On the 
other hand, the open-air sites were strongly affected by 
post-depositional processes which caused the impover-
ishment of traces of past human activity with substantial 
loss of information. Anyway, their location features are 
equally significant for territoriality and site catchment 
analyses under the focus of the following work.  

 
2. BRIEF PRESENTATION OF THE MONTI LESSINI 
AND THE MONTE BALDO 

 
The Monti Lessini, also called "Lessinia", is a Pre-

Alpine mountain group located north of the town of Vero-
na belonging to the Veneto Pre-Alps. Morphologically 
identified as carbonate plateau, it bounds with Val d’Adi-
ge valley to the west and with Valle di Leogra valley to 
the east (Fig. 1). The group is limited by the Carega 
massif, which reaches up to 2260 meters of altitude, and 
by “Valle dei Ronchi” valley to the north, whereas on the 
south it gently dips towards the alluvial plain of the Adige 
River and other tributary rivers. The plateau reaches 
1860 meters of elevation and slightly bends southwards; 
it can be considered a monocline structure with a trape-
zoidal shape, where the shortest side is the northern 
one. It is radially dissected by several valleys developed 
along the tectonic lines of the whole area; some sections 
take the form of a canyon, locally termed vai. The top 
surface of the plateau could be interpreted as a Late 
Tertiary erosional surface, dissected by tectonic activity 
and eroded in correspondence of the NNE fault systems 

 

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Margaritora D. et al.  

(Zampieri, 2000). Generally, the plateau top and the 
summits of the ridges were mainly affected by weather-
ing, karst and slope processes which led to the develop-
ment of Terra Rossa type paleosols (Castiglioni et al., 
1990).  

As for Monte Baldo, it is an alpine group in the sub
-section of the Gardesane Pre-Alps, in the section of the 
Bresciane and Gardesane Pre-Alps (Marazzi, 2005). It 
bounds with the Garda Lake to the west, with the Adige 
valley to the east, with the Loppio valley to the north and 
to the south with Garda gulf, Caprino depression and 
the moraine amphitheater of Rivoli Veronese. It mainly 
consists in a mountain range, reaching up to 2219 me-
ters, that develops in the north-east/south west direc-
tion, and in a series of ridges, small plateaux and terrac-
es in the southern, eastern and northern sides. The 
group rises asymmetrically: the western side slope var-
ies from 40% to 80% at the top, while the eastern side 
consists in plateaux and depressions hanging on the 
steep right slope of the Adige valley. 

Geologically, the mountain area is constituted by a 
stratigraphic succession of carbonate rocks formed in a 
marine environment, with high presence of chert out-
crops (Bosellini et al., 1967; Carraro et al., 1969). De-
pending on their composition, position and permeability, 
the various formations exert an influence on the hydrog-
raphy hydrography - the structural and lithological con-
trol on the hydrography is strong - which is divided into a 
dense network of main valleys, to which other smaller 
valleys connect from the ridges (Pasa, 1954). These 
result both by the mechanical erosion and by the chemi-
cal erosion caused by water along fault lines and tecton-
ic fractures. Both the mountain and hill areas have few 
superficial water flows, - are mainly inactive or only tem-
porarily active -, while they are sculptured by a dense 
karst hydrographic network. The springs are closely 
linked to rainfall and the flow rate is not constant over 
time. Most of them are not perennial. 

The effects of karst processes are not only visible 
from the hydrographic network, but also from a series of 
different superficial and underground morphologies, 
developed because of the numerous faults and fractures 
that accelerate and facilitate the path of water through 
the rocks (Sauro, 1973; Mietto & Sauro, 2000). There-
fore, these morphologies are expression of fluvial- and 
tecto-karstic styles: that is well evident from the superfi-
cial forms, from the sinkholes, mostly present along 
fracture lines or along stratigraphic joints, especially 
between the Maiolica and the underlying Jurassic lime-
stone. 

During the Quaternary the area was partly covered 
by the Adige glacier or by the local glaciers attested on 
the upper part of the Monti Lessini, the Carega Massif, 
the summit of the Monte Baldo chain (Sauro, 1973; Sau-
ro & Zampieri, 1999). Periglacial conditions activated 
strong erosion of the paleosols, accumulations of slope 
deposits, especially in the central part of the plateau, 
loess sedimentation spread all over the relief from the 
Middle Pleistocene onward (Magaldi & Sauro, 1982; 
Castiglioni et al., 1990). Deposits in caves and rock 
shelters along the slopes provide data for estimate that 
the deepening of gorges and valleys occurred at least 
from the late Middle Pleistocene (Castiglioni et al., 1990; 

Cremaschi, 1990). Anthropogenic erosion during the 
Holocene strongly affected the main slopes especially 
starting from the Neolithic. 

The Lessini valleys are occupied by mainly gravelly, 
sandy and pelitic floods several meters thick, in addition 
to the frequent detrital deposits at the foot of the steepest 
slopes consisting of limestone and dolomitic formations. 
The Lessini and Baldo foreland include a large alluvial 
plain that mostly originated during the Middle and Late 
Pleistocene from the main river, the Adige and its tribu-
taries from the central and eastern Monti Lessini (De 
Zanche et al., 1977; Ferraro, 2009). Particularly the 
western sector, is an area situated where the Adige 
spreads from its long and deeply incised valley which 
dissects the mountain range up to the alpine watershed.  
 
3. HISTORICAL CONTEXT 
 

The Lessinia region can be undoubtedly considered 
one of the most prominent areas for the development of 
prehistoric archaeology in Italy (Aspes, 1984; 2003; 
Aspes et al., 2002). Some first paleontological observa-
tions already began in the first half of the 18th century: 
for example, in 1739 the priest Gregorio Piccoli de-
scribed the discovery of faunal bones in a cave locally 
called “la Taneséla” in proximity of Alfaedo (Piccoli del 
Faggiol, 1739; Curi, 2001). Consistent with biblical think-
ing, which permeated most of the researchers of the 
time, he interpreted those fossilized remains as "diluvial 
wild beasts" (Sauro, 2017). Few years later (Fortis, 
1786), several fossilized bones of Elephas meridionalis 
cromeriensis (and other coeval large mammals, such as 
Rhinos sp.) (Bon et al., 1991), where discovered at Ser-
baro di Romagnano and, similarly, classified as 
“antidiluvian”. The first scientific approach to paleontolog-
ical discoveries in the Lessini mountains was published 
by the Museum of Natural History of Vienna: the natural-
ist Abramo Massalongo, observed that carts full of Pleis-
tocene vertebrate bones (mainly of Ursus Spelaeus), 
extracted from the clayey layers of the karstic cave com-
plex Covoli di Velo, were brought downstream and sold 
as fertilizers (Massalongo, 1851). Associated to lithic 
artefacts, these findings were brought to the attention of 
the Academy of Agriculture, Arts and Commerce of Vero-
na, the Royal Venetian Institute of Sciences, Literature 
and Arts and the “Notiziario degli Scavi” by, for the most 
part, Stefano de Stefani. However, the rate of discover-
ies of new Pleistocene sites increased mostly in the first 
half of the 20th century, thanks to the untiring activity of 
Raffaello Battaglia, along with an intense scientific pro-
duction (Battaglia,1957; Latella & Sauro, 2007). His per-
severance in publishing the results of his research had 
positive repercussions in the Verona area, as did the 
reports from Giorgio Dal Piaz and the excavations and 
recoveries at the Quinzano quarries (Cave di Quinzano) 
executed from 1933 to the late ‘50s by Battaglia himself, 
Paolo Graziosi and Piero Leonardi (see Aspes, 1984, for 
a complete bibliography). 

During the Second World War and especially in its 
aftermath the researches were consolidated under the 
coordination of Angelo Pasa, Francesco Zorzi and P. 
Leonardi, leading the Natural History Museum of Verona 
to become a fulcrum for the activities in the fields of Pal-



   

 

 
 
117 

aeontology and Paleoethnology, even beyond the con-
fines of the Lessinia region (Zorzi & Pasa, 1944-45; 
Zorzi, 1959). The above-mentioned Quinzano excava-
tions were followed by findings of new artefacts from the 
surface, excavations in the Ponte di Veja caves, the 
discovery of Grotta del Mondo cave and the interven-
tions at Riparo Mezzena rock shelter by F. Zorzi, A. 
Pasa and Maria Vittoria Durante Pasa and those at Ri-
paro Zampieri by Arturo Palma di Cesnola. The untimely 
demise of A. Pasa in 1966 coincided with a quiescence 
of the scientific activity in the Verona area, compen-
sated by the Institute of Geology of the Ferrara Universi-
ty with the start of decades-long excavations at Riparo 
Tagliente rock shelter and of new researches in the 
Ponte di Veja caves (Broglio et al., 1963; Bartolomei & 
Broglio, 1975). This period of intense investigations was 
fundamental for the studies on the prehistory of the Ve-
rona area in the following years (Leonardi & Broglio, 
1962). Extended surface researches were led also by 
the Centro Studi e Ricerche (Center for Studies and 
Researches), headed by Giovanni Solinas between 
1950 and 1965, with numerous reports of sites and spo-
radic findings in the Lessinia localities of Ceredo, 
Lughezzano, Cà Verde and more. 

The activity of the Natural History Museum since 

the ‘70s and its dense network of collaborators (G. 
Chelidonio, F. Spadoni, L. Farello, A. Castagna and 
others) lead to the detection of one of the highest densi-
ties of Palaeolithic sites known on the alpine arc, not 
only on the Monti Lessini, but also on the Monte Baldo 
(Pasotti, 1970; Chelidonio, 1980; Chelidonio & Rosà, 
2011; Chelidonio et al., 2015). The traces distribute 
through a wide altitude range, between 80 and 1600 
meters (Battaglia, 1957; Zorzi, 1959; Leonardi & Broglio, 
1962; Peretto, 1980; Chelidonio, 2017; Dalmeri & Duch-
es, 2008), reaching the valley bottoms and the karst 
surfaces on the plateau. 

Cavities are much better represented, with Grotta 
di Fumane cave, Riparo Mezzena and Riparo Tagliente 
(for a complete bibliography on this last site until the 
beginning of the ‘80s see Bartolomei et al., 1982). Open 
air sites were reported in the higher Vajo di Squaranto 
and on the sub-structural terraces at lower altitudes on 
the ridges between the Mezzane and Illasi valleys. Along 
with the activities on the field, the Superintendence for 
Archaeological Heritage of Veneto sustained with con-
stancy projects of collaboration with local amateurs and 
projects for the revision of Palaeolithic industries, often 
finalized to the fruition of this rich archaeologic corpus in 
the museums of the territory. 

Fig. 1 - Map of Monte Baldo and Lessini Mountains showing the location of Palaeolithic sites analyzed. Technical notes: Coordinate sys-
tem: Monte Mario/Italy Zone 2 (fuso E) - Datum: Roma 40 - Projection: Gauss-Boaga - Fuso: Est - EPSG: 3004; Digital Elevation Model 
(base topography - Veneto Region DTM 5 m, http://www.regione.veneto.it/web/ambiente-e-territorio/geoportale), Garda lake (http://
www.sinanet.isprambiente.it/it/sia-ispra/download-mais/).  

 
 
The lower and middle Palaeolithic settlements in the Baldo-Lessini mountains. Results from a GIS investigation  



   

 

4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT 
 

The hefty collection of sites and finds ascribable to 
the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic or to a generic an-
cient Palaeolithic on the Monti Lessini and the Monte 
Baldo is associated with variable context conditions 
(Fig. 1). The Lower Palaeolithic finds are numerous but 
of extremely uncertain chronological positioning, due to 
the erosion and the deep post-depositional weathering 
to which these archaeological contexts have been sub-
jected. Their attribution was therefore assumed essen-
tially on the tecno-typological characteristics of the lithic 
artefacts, or by the degree of patination of their surfac-
es. The oldest lithic assemblages are composed of 
mostly thick flakes, sometimes retouched and in associ-
ation with some bifaces. Assemblages from the Quinza-
no quarries, Monte Gazzo and Cà Palui are more re-
cent, characterized by the association of Levallois arte-
facts and bifaces. The Quinzano quarries remain still 
the most important site, also because of the association 
with faunal remains of deer, elephant, fallow deer and 
roe deer (Zorzi & Pasa 1944-45), and a human occipi-
tal. This important pedo-sedimentological sequence 
was firstly described and interpreted by Zorzi & Pasa 
(1944-45) and Pasa (1956) and, few decades after, 
considered by M. Cremaschi as a record of potential 
reference for the geomorphological evolution of the 
landscape at the foot of the Lessini. The Lower and 
Middle Palaeolithic levels are embedded in the lower-
most macro-unit (Unit 1, Cremaschi, 1984), an alter-
nance of palaeosols and slope waste deposits, separat-
ed by erosional surfaces with stone-lines. Unit 1 is 
sealed by the fluvial sediments of Unit 2.  

The richest sources of information are the contexts 
preserved in the atrial cavities and under rock shelters, 
along stratigraphic deposits at times complex and artic-
ulated. These are key archives with information about 
chronology, evolution of natural environments and vari-
ous expressions of human behavior that have manifest-
ed during the last glacial cycle. Among the deposits 
systematically explored, we mention Riparo Zampieri, 
Riparo Mezzena, the “cave A” of Veja, Riparo Tagliente, 
Grotta della Ghiacciaia and Grotta di Fumane. Currently 
the data of greater detail come from the excavations in 
progress at Grotta di Fumane and Riparo Tagliente, 
whose deposits provide useful elements for developing 
studies on food subsistence, the organization of living 
spaces, the exploitation of land resources and human 
mobility in the territorial belt of the Lessini and the upper 
Po plain. Grotta di Fumane, in addition, is a key site for 
the Middle Palaeolithic transition with the Upper Palaeo-
lithic, with the oldest cultural attestations ascribable to 
the Anatomically Modern Humans.  

Grotta di Fumane preserves a 12m thick sedimen-

 
 
118 

tary sequence composed of four macro-units, S, BR, A 
and D covering a chronological range extended from 
MIS 5 to MIS 2 (Bartolomei et al., 1992; Martini et al., 
2001) with a cultural record ascribed to the Mousterian, 
Uluzzian, Aurignacian and Gravettian cultures. Assess-
ments based on sedimentological, pedological and pal-
aeontological analyses have been previously reported 
by Cassoli & Tagliacozzo (1994), Cremaschi et al. 
(2005) and López-García et al. (2015). Current investi-
gations are focusing on the late Mousterian levels with 
their dense scatters of lithic and faunal remains as in 
units A11, A10, A9 and A6 (Peresani, 2012; Peresani et 
al., 2011a; 2011b; 2017). Mousterian industries at Ri-
paro Tagliente are associated with amounts of faunal 
remains recovered all across the stratigraphy and espe-
cially in extensively explored uppermost levels 
(Bartolomei et al., 1982; Arzarello & Peretto, 2005). 
Grotta della Ghiacciaia preserves a short sedimentary 
series composed of three macro-units that record envi-
ronmental evolution in the first part of the Late Pleisto-
cene with evidence of human presence in the two upper 
macro-units (Bertola et al., 1999). Riparo Zampieri and 
“Grotta A” di Veia were settled approximately during the 
Late Pleistocene, despite dating programs are still lack-
ing. A different issue concerns Riparo Mezzena. The 
Mousterian assemblages recovered in this small shelter 
dates to the Late Middle Palaeolithic (Bartolomei et al., 
1980), although serious uncertainties affect the con-
sistency of the sedimentary sequence and particularly 
the chronological position of the presumed Neanderthal 
remains (Condemi et al., 2013), now directly dated to 
the Late Neolithic (Talamo et al., 2016). 

Sites poorer in archaeological data have been 
identified in open air at various points of the Lessini, 
mainly in the central-western sector, where vitreous flint 
and chert deposits abound. The same conditions are 
also found in the last open-air sites discovered on the 
Lessini at the highest altitudes (1400-1600 meters), in 
the high Vajo di Squaranto, and on sub-structural sur-
faces and terraces at lower altitudes along the ridges 
between the valleys of Mezzane and d’Illasi. 

Similarly, the Monte Baldo chain has also returned 
some of these evidences, represented by Levallois lithic 
industries on the surface, with extremely poor infor-
mation on chronology, environmental context and signif-
icance of human presence. Most of the sites located in 
the Basiana Valley vary between 1050 and 1068 meters 
a.s.l., an elevation range which was neither unreached 
by the erosional activity of the local glaciers nor covered 
by the lateral moraines of the Adige glacier. Basiana 
valley, along with Tasso valley, are part of a group of 
plateaux connected to the Monte Baldo syncline 
(Chelidonio, 2004). 

Finally, in 2017 the Vajo Salsone site was discov-

------ ------>>>> 
 
Tab. 1 - Archaeological sites (multilayered sites as singles cases) and their geographic area (Geog), altitude (H a.s.l.), geological substrate 
(Geol), context of find (cont), drainage basin (Dr Basin), topography position, slope value, slope range (Sl range), cultural assessment 
(Cult) and Reference. Note for geological substrate: Eocene limestones (Eoc L), Oolitic limestones (Ool L), Maiolica (M), quaternary de-
posits (Qu dep), Scaglia Rossa (SR), basalt (bas), Rosso Ammonitico Veronese (RA), Grigi Limestones (Grey L) and Ialoclastite (Ialo); for 
context of find: surface (surf), depression (dep), Karst grike (kg), dolina (do), plowed field (pf), stratigraphic layer (layer); for position: Alpine 
pass (Ap), Top of the ridge (Top), medium slope (med sl), bottom valley (bot);  for cultural assessment: Mousterian (Mou), Archaic Mouste-
rian (Arch Mou), Acheulean (Acheu).  

 
 

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119 

 
 
The lower and middle Palaeolithic settlements in the Baldo-Lessini mountains. Results from a GIS investigation  



   

 

ered on the right slope of the middle Valpantena.  
It is represented by huge amount of Levallois lithic arte-
facts and faunal bones contained in a karst pit devel-
oped in oolitic limestones and opened during a road 
cutting (Peresani et al., 2018). Being the entire archaeo-
logical record in secondary deposits and still undated, 
this makes the location of the original site uncertain. 
 
5. MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 

The territorial and spatial analysis of human occu-
pation during Lower and Middle Palaeolithic in Monte 
Baldo and Monti Lessini required a geo-localization of 
sites (caves, rock shelters and open-air sites). Their 
cultural attribution was based on lithic industry: The 
Acheulean was defined by the presence of bifacially 
flaked handaxes; the archaic Mousterian by Levallois or 
Discoid technologically-based industries associated to 
bifaces; the Mousterian by Levallois and/or Discoid 
industries, despite the presence or absence of re-
touched tools. 
 
5.1. Archaeological data set 

The analyses were carried out separately for the 
two distinct geographic areas: identifying 62 sites for the 
Lessini Mountains, for a total of 130 frequentations. Of 
these, 73 frequentations, for a total of 55 sites, are open
-air sites. In Monte Baldo area only 18 sites have been 
identified, none of which is multi-layered (tab. 1).  
For both areas, analyses were carried out on all sites, 
all sites count the multi-layered context a single case, 
all open-air sites and the open-air sites considering the 
multi-stratified sites a single case. 

The analyses were carried out separately for the 
two distinct geographic areas: identifying 62 sites for the 
Lessini Mountains, for a total of 130 frequentations. Of 
these, 73 frequentations, for a total of 55 sites, are open
-air sites. In Monte Baldo area only 18 sites have been 
identified, none of which is multi-layered.  

Based on literature, 11 categories of discovery 
areas were established: 
- "plowed field"  
- "quarry";  
- "depressions", a landform sunken or mountain sea-

sonal or permanent pools of unknown origin;  
- "dolina";  
- "caves", excavated deposits in caves and rock shel-

ters;  
- "layer”, a stratified deposit exposed during construc-

tion works;  
- "karst grike";  
- "surface", collecting during survey;  
- "bottom valley"; 
-  "slope".  

In several cases, evidence was not enough clear 
to assign findings to any of these categories. 
 
5.2. Methodology 

In order to record the exact position of each site 
mention by literature two weeks survey were conducted. 
38 sites were located using "Garmin 60" GPS model.  
When the precise finding area was no longer detectable 
coordinates were extracted by referring to the nearest 

 
 
120 

place name. In other cases, recent buildings and forest 
made the sites inaccessible. Thus, it was necessary to 
use the "Capture coordinates" function of QGIS for re-
cording their position and place them on the Regional 
Technical Map of the Veneto Region, 1:10.000 raster 
format. 

Then a database based on several attributes was 
developed. Some of them were extrapolated by direct 
observation during the surveys, whereas others were 
inferred from terrain parameters generated by the origi-
nal DTM, which was provided by the geoportal of Vene-
to and Trentino Alto Adige regions (1:10.000, cell size 
5m series). Attributes are listed below: 
I Absolute Altitude: the altitude of the site above mod-

ern sea level. For the examined area, the difference 
between modern and Pleistocene sea levels is irrele-
vant, since all the sites are located far inland and are 
not subjected to pericoastal factors. Furthermore, the 
potential magnitude of the still active tectonic disloca-
tions cannot be overlooked in the interpretation of the 
absolute altitude. Given the Alpine uplifting, that 
could be estimated to be of one meter every 1000 
years (Sternai et al., 2019), the primary elevation of a 
100 ky old site could differ by at least 100 meters 
from the present-day. However, given the isostatic 
rebound the Alpine chain underwent since the last 
deglaciation, every attempt to reconstruct the exact 
dislocation resulting from the combination of tectonic, 
geomorphic and isostatic processes (Mey et al., 
2016) remains problematic. 

II Drainage Basin: any area where precipitation collects 
and drains off into a common outlet. Drainage basins 
converge into other ones at lower elevations in a 
hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage ba-
sins, which in turn drain into another common outlet. 

III Topography: the position of every site related to the 
valley floor. Sites positioned at less than 10 m from 
the valley floor were included in the category "valley 
floor". Sites positioned within 10 m from the top of a 
mountain ridge are rated to the "Summit" category. 
"Pass" has been assigned to sites located near rele-
vant mountain passes. 

IV Slope: the magnitude of steepness or the degree of 
inclination of a feature relative to the horizontal plane 
expressed in percentage. 

V Aspect: the cardinal direction to which the cave 
mouth/rock shelter and open-air site faces. 

VI Geological substrate: the nature of loose sediment or 
bedrock. 

VII Insolation: the estimation in hours of the sunlight-
mean time received annually by each site. 

VIII Viewshed: the extension of landscape observable 
from each site, and the dominant direction of visibil-
ity, see paragraph 5.2.4. 

 
5.2.1. Hypsometry 

Terrain characteristics are important factors for 
determining settlement location and habitability of an 
area. Hypsometry specifically deals with categories of 
elevation that comprise catchments, or drainage basins, 
and related post-depositional factors in archaeological 
site assemblages. 

For each analysed area the DEM was recalculated 

 
 

Margaritora D. et al.  



   

 

based on altitudinal intervals of 100 m (Fig. 2). For each 
interval both the surface <(km²) and its covered percent-
age in relation to the entire area was calculated. Thank 
to this it was possible to observe whether the sites loca-
tion related to specific altitudinal ranges are attributable 
to cultural choices or, more simply, influenced by the 
area morphology, in which a certain altitudinal range is 
dominant. 
 
5.2.2. Slope 

The surface topography influences several factors, 
such as habitability conditions and mobility and accessi-
bility patterns. Regarding open air sites it might be also 
an indicator of the potential of the conservation. In order 
to calculate the slope, it was necessary to develop a 
slope model through the DEM. A classification into four 
categories of terrain slopes for the whole area was per-
formed. The categories are divided into ranges between 
defined percentages (0-10%, 10-20%, 20-35% and 35-
100%). The slope value for each site was obtained by a 
query function. 
 
5.2.3. Insolation 

Sunlight and sun heating are generally considered 
as important factors for a favourable habitability condi-
tion, especially during severe environmental conditions. 
In order to calculate the potential amount of sunlight 
hours received by each site, the insolation map was 
prepared using Bartorelli's tables (1967), which define 
the annual sunlight hours based of data derived from, 
latitude, the angle of exposure of the slopes and the 
percentage of steepness (Bartorelli, 1967). The expo-
sure map was reclassified in order to obtain 72 classes 
(i.e., values from 1 to 72) corresponding to a 5° range 
each. A reclassification of the slope map was made, 
obtaining values from 1 to 4, corresponding to the fol-

lowing slope ranges 0-10%, 10-20%, 20-35%, >35%. 
Subsequently, the parameters were recalculated based 
on a specific formula (slope values multiplied by 100, 
added to the exposure values) to obtain the values 
(from 101 to 472) to be reclassified with the rules of the 
Bartorelli tables. 
 
5.2.4. Viewshed 

Visibility is other important factor that might influ-
ence the choice of stationing sites and/or places to carry 
out specific activities. We proceeded by setting the ob-
server's height to 1.75 m and an observation radius of 5 
km was applied. The operation was carried out for all 75 
sites present. For each site the returned area was divid-
ed by circular definition, into sixteen equal parts, each 
corresponding to an interval of 22.5°. In this way, it was 
possible to establish which cardinal direction corre-
sponds to the portion of territory visible in relation to the 
observation point. 
 
6. RESULTS 
 

The examination of the Lower and Middle Palaeo-
lithic sites based on specific parameters reveals some 
evidence useful to comprehend criteria that mostly influ-
enced the human occupation in the analysed area.   
 
6.1. Monti Lessini 

Caves and rock shelters are the prevailing archae-
ological contexts (57 cases) in the Monti Lessini area 
(Fig. 3a), whereas finds in plowed fields (16) and doli-
nas (10) are less represented. Other discoveries took 
place on the soil exposed during construction works (7), 
in sediments within karst fissures (7) and in depressions 
(7), although the latter were not exhaustingly described 
in literature. Five archaeological sites have been report-

 
 
121 

Fig. 2 - a, Map of Monte Baldo area hypsometry based on altitudinal intervals of 100 m; b, Map of Monti Lessini area hypsometry based on 
altitudinal intervals of 100 m. Technical notes: Coordinate system: Monte Mario/Italy Zone 2 (fuso E) - Datum: Roma 40 - Projection: 
Gauss-Boaga - Fuso: Est - EPSG: 3004; Digital Elevation Model (base topography - Veneto Region DTM 5 m, http://
www.regione.veneto.it/web/ambiente-e-territorio/geoportale), Garda lake (http://www.sinanet.isprambiente.it/it/sia-ispra/download-mais/). 

 
 
The lower and middle Palaeolithic settlements in the Baldo-Lessini mountains. Results from a GIS investigation  



   

 

ed on slopes. 
Few findings occurred during quarrying activities 

(3), within streambeds of small tributary valleys (2) or on 
the soil surface (2). In 14 cases it was not possible to 
trace the context of discovery.  

Considering the multi-stratified 
sites as single cases (Fig. 3b), caves 
undergo a sharp downsizing (7) and 
match the number of dolinas. Plough 
zone contexts are still well represent-
ed (12), followed by grikes in lime-
stone bedrocks (5), depressions in the 
ground (5), findings occurred during 
construction excavations (5), findings 
along slopes (4), findings in 
streambeds (2), surface findings (2) 
and only one in quarry contexts. No 
context can be assigned for 12 sites. 

- As regard altitude (Fig. 4a), 
most of sites (112) lie under 800 m 
a.s.l., especially between 300-399 m 
(43) and 200-299 m (34), whereas 
finding between 800 and 1000 m are 
scarce (6). Above 1000 m a.s.l., evi-
dence of frequentations is absent, 
except for those into the ranges of 
1400-1499 m (4) and 1300-1399 m 
(3). Findings below 800 m a.s.l. pre-
vail even counting each multi-stratified 
context as a single item (Fig. 4b). 
Sites between 800 and 1000m de-
crease to four.  Beyond 1000 m the 

 
 
122 

number of sites is four, all of them located between 
1300 and 1500 m. In total, open-air findings confirm the 
most set below 800 m with a concentration between 200 
and 299 m (12), followed by 500-599 m (11) and 300-
399 m (11) (Fig. 4c). Above 1000 m a.s.l.  frequentation 
evidences are rare and never exceeding four sites per 
altitude range. Open-air sites considered as a single 
element (Fig. 4d) did not show significant variations 
compared to all open-air frequentation. 

According to the One-Sample Kolmogorov-Svirnov 
test of the data of the single sites (multi-stratified sites 
counted as single cases) (Fig. 5), this distribution seems 
to follow a normal distribution, and in consequence the 
concentration of the site between 200 and 700 m is not 
statistically significant, not even for the whole sample (Z 
=1,089, p 0,200). 

Regarding drainage basin attribution analysis, 
where the multi-stratified sites are counted as singles 
cases, many sites do not produce evidence (42). Most 
of the useful sites are associated with second order 
basins (9), followed by those related to third order ba-
sins (8) and first order basins (3). 

The relationship between each single site (despite 
multi-occupational ones) and the geological substrate 
(Fig. 6a) reveals Eocene limestones as the most occu-
pied (31), followed by Oolitic limestones (11) and Maioli-
ca (9 sites). Rosso Ammonitico Veronese (3), basalt (3), 
quaternary deposits (2), Scaglia Rossa (2), and Hyalo-
clastite (1) are rare. Open-air sites (multi-stratified sites 
counted as single cases) show a similar trend (Fig. 6b). 

Analysing sites according to their topography (Fig. 
7), a preference for medium slope (67) compared to the 
summit of the reliefs (39) and valley bottom (24) was 
detected. This range between medium slope and sum-
mit reduces (31 vs 27 respectively) considering multi-
occupation sites as single cases. Sites placed at the 

Fig. 3 - Archaeology discovery context of Monti Lessini: 3a, all 
sites; 3b, the multi-layered sites considered as single cases.  

 

Fig. 4 - Graph of the altitude range of Monti Lessini, with interval of 100 m: 4a, all sites; 
4b, the multi-layered sites considered as single cases; 4c, concerning all open-air sites; 
4d, the multi-layered open-air sites considered as single cases.  

 
 

Margaritora D. et al.  



   

 

bottom of the valley fall to three. Open-air findings are 
mostly located at the summit of the reliefs (39), while 
sites at the medium slope decrease significantly (32). 
Bottom valley sites are only two. Multi-stratified open-air 
sites counted as single cases are both located on the 
medium slope and at the summit count 27 cases. Only 
one site is positioned on the valley bottom 

A peculiar case of relation between elevation, geo-
morphology, sedimentary basin and tectonic uplifting is 
the Mousterian context of Cà Verde. Deposits are con-
tained in a dolina-like depression developed inside a 
paleo-channel track with partially preserved related sed-
iments of variable thickness, still preserved for over one 
km in length (Brunetto & Chelidonio, 1990). The site is 
located at 100 m of elevation above the Adige Pleisto-
cene flooding plain. Based on this evidence, Carton & 
Castaldini (1985) have argued that the Cà Verde track 
long pre-dates the Adige gorge at Ceraino. 

Data relating to the slope exposures (Fig. 8a), 
show that most sites occurred on places exposed to the 
south - west (37), to west (25) and to south - east (20). 
On the other hand, less than half of the previous ones 

are located near slopes facing north - west (6), north - 
east (5) and south (5). The less frequented slopes are 
those facing east (3), and north (2). Numerous frequen-
tations took place in flat areas with null slope exposure 
values (20). Considering multi-stratified sites counted as 
single (Fig. 8b), show that most sites are located on 
places exposed to the south - east (12). On the other 
hand, less than half of the previous ones are located 
near slopes facing south - west (6), west (6), south (5) 
and north - west (5). The less frequented slopes are 
those facing east (3), north - east (3) and north (2). Nu-
merous frequentations took place in flat places with null 
slope exposure values (26). For open-air sites (Fig. 8c), 
many sites are exposed to the south - east (17). The 
remaining sites are relatively exposed to the north - west 
(6), west (6), north - east (5) and south (5). The less 
frequented slopes are those facing south - west (4), 
north (3) and east (1). The other sites are in flat places 
with null slope exposure values (26). 

Open-air sites considered as a single element (Fig. 
8d) did not show significant variations compared to all 
open-air frequentation. 

The slope data refer to the total number of sites, 
with multi-stratified sites counted as single sites. Most of 
them lie on 0-10% (20) and 10-20% (18) incline, in com-
parison to 20-35% (12) and above 35% (12).  

Regarding the visibility, most sites show very fa-
vourable viewpoints to different directions. At a first 
glance we notice two groups: the most frequent have a 
wider range of view over the horizon, with several adja-
cent sectors; in 10 cases, however, the orientation of the 
visible is less wide, but opened on two distant cardinal 
directions, sometimes opposite one another. There are 
26 sites with visibility oriented in three or more contigu-
ous directions. The most striking result regards Ceredo, 
whose potential viewpoint covers all the cardinal direc-
tions. Finally, analyses have not been successful in 11 
cases. 

The estimation of the amount of sunlight hours per 
year (Fig. 9) shows that most of the findspots receive 
over 1500 hours (122 sites; 94%). Only 8 cases (6%) 

 
 
123 

Fig. 5 - One-Sample Kolmogorov-Svirnov test of the altitude 
data of the single sites (multi-stratified sites counted as single 
cases). Technical notes: Number of sites 62; Average value 
505,306; Standard deviation 308,137; Skewness 1,625; Kurto-
sis 2,758; D max absolute 0,138; D max+0,138; D max-1,205, 
K-S Z 1,089; P smaller than 0,200. Cumulative distribution 
function (cdf); OBS cdf =observed cdf; EXP cdf =expected cdf 
for a lognormal distribution; Z =Z Score. 

Fig. 6 - Geological substrate (multi-layered sites considered as 
singles cases) of Monti Lessini: 6a, all sites; 6b, only open-air 
sites. 

Fig. 7 - Topography positions of the sites in Monti Lessini, in red 
the quantity and percentage of all sites; in blue the quantity and 
percentage of only open-air sites.  

 
 
The lower and middle Palaeolithic settlements in the Baldo-Lessini mountains. Results from a GIS investigation  



   

 

record lower amounts and only one site (1%) stands 
below 1000 h/yr. Most recurrent values are 2547 (32; 
25%) and 1725 (26; 20%) h/yr. The value of 1725 h/yr is 
assigned by default to sites located on a flat area with a 
maximum inclination of 10%. The highest peak stands 
at 2613 h/yr. For multi-occupation contexts, considered 
as single sites, we observed that only six (6%) cases 
receive less than 1500 hours per year, while only one 
(2%) less than 1000. 34 (55%) sites fall in the 1000 - 
2000 sunlight h/yr with concentration around 1725 (20). 
Values above 2000 were assigned to 27 (43%) sites. 
The open-air sites (multi-stratified sites counted as sin-
gle cases) show the predominance of those with an 
amount of sunlight hours above 1500 h/y (49; 89%). 
The sites that fall in the 1000 - 2000 values are 32 
(58%). Values above 2000 were assigned to 22 (40%) 
sites. 

According to the One-Sample Kolmogorov-Svirnov 
test of the data of the single sites (multi-stratified sites 

 
 
124 

counted as single cases) (Fig. 10), these are not normally 
distributed, and consequently the concentration of the 
sites with 1725 (flat areas) of sunlight hours is statistically 
significant, referred for the whole sample (Z =1,681, p 
0,010). 
 
6.2. Monte Baldo 

In Monte Baldo there are no multilayered sites, sites 
in caves or under shelter. Among the archaeological con-
texts (Fig. context Baldo), findings on the soil surface 
prevail (5 cases). Other discoveries took place in depres-
sions (3), on slopes (2) and within streambeds of small 
tributary valleys (2). There are few fids in dolina (1), in 
sediments within karst fissures (1) and on the soil ex-
posed during construction works (1). In 3 cases it was not 
possible to trace the context of discovery. 

Considering elevation (Fig. 11), we note that all 
cases (18) lie over 600 m. The number of sites varies 
from 3 to 1 in the various altitudinal ranges between 600 
and 1900 m, except for the range 1200-1300 m and 1700
-1800 m which do not present any findings. Beyond 1900 
m no human presence was found for the chronological 
period in question. 

Regarding drainage basin attribution analysis, many 
sites do not produce evidence (16). All useful sites are 
associated with second order basins (2). 

The relation between each single site (despite multi-
occupational ones) and the geological substrate reveals 
Oolitic limestones as the most frequent (7), followed by 
quaternary deposits (3), Eocene limestones (2), Maiolica 
(2), Scaglia Rossa (2) and gray limestones (2). Rosso 
Ammonitico Veronese, basalt and Hyaloclastite are ab-
sent. 

Analysing the site topography, sites locate mostly 
on the medium side (9) than at the summit of the reliefs 

 
 

Margaritora D. et al.  

Fig. 8 - Slope exposure data in Monti Lessini refer to the: 8a, all 
sites; 8b, all findings, the multi-layered sites considered as sin-
gles cases; 8c, all open-air sites; 8d, multi-layered open-air sites 
considered as single cases. 

Fig. 9 - Values of the annual sunlight hours in Monti Lessini: in 
blue dots the values of multi-occupation contexts considered as 
single cases; in red dots the values of all open-air sites and the 
multi-layered sites considered as single cases. 

Fig. 10 - One-Sample Kolmogorov-Svirnov test of the annual 
sunlight hours data of the single sites (multi-stratified sites con-
sidered as single cases). Technical notes: Number of sites 62; 
Average value 1948,806; Standard deviation 395,417; Skewness 
-0,261; Kurtosis -0,335; D max absolute 0,213; D max+0,2013; D 
max-0,133; K-S Z 1,681; P smaller than 0,010. Cumulative distri-
bution function (cdf); OBS cdf = observed cdf; EXP cdf 
=expected cdf for a lognormal distribution; Z =Z Score.  



   

 

(4), on passes (4) and valley bottom (1). 
Data relating to the slope exposures, show that 

most sites occurred on places exposed to the north - 
east (3) and east (3). The less frequented slopes are 
those facing north (2), west (1), south - west (1), south - 
east (1) and north - west (1). No frequented sites are 
south facing. Numerous frequentations took place in flat 
places with null slope exposure values (6).  

Regarding the visibility, most sites show very fa-
vourable viewpoints to different directions with a wide 
range of view. In 3 cases, however, the orientation of 
the visible is less wide, but turned towards two far apart, 
sometimes opposite, directions. There are 7 sites with 
visibility oriented in three or more contiguous directions. 
Finally, analyses have not been successful in 1 case. 

The estimation of the amount of sunlight hours per 
year shows that all findspots receive over 1200 hours. 
Only 2 sites (1%) stands above 2000 h/yr. Most recur-
rent values are 1725 (6; 33%) h/yr. The value of 1725 h/
yr is assigned by default to sites located on a flat area 
with a maximum inclination of 10%. The highest peak 
stands at 2391 h/yr. 
 
7. DISCUSSION 
 

The GIS data produced in this study reveal the 
existence of a common trend among all the sites, de-
spite the circumstances of their discovery being not 
uniform. Concerning the Monti Lessini area, although 

most of the human frequentations were investigated in 
primary position in stratified cave contexts, a portion of 
sites is positioned on morphological settings which are 
subjected to severe erosion; this reduced the optimal 
conservation of the archaeological record. However, the 
frequency of these discoveries marks out the im-
portance of karst geomorphic processes for the conser-
vation of the anthropogenic evidence - despite its prima-
ry or secondary position - in territories intensively sub-
jected to erosive action. The development of this geo-
morphic process is closely related to the geological sub-
strate and to its aptitude to karst morphogenesis, de-
pending on the presence of faults and on the structural 
layout of the limestone formation. Data show that finds 
are located within dolinas, depressions in the ground 
and grikes. Most of these structures have developed 
into Oolitic limestones where lithic artefacts, loess-like 
deposits, palaeosols and reworked sediments are pre-
served, where otherwise would have disappeared. A 
representative example is the site of Contrada Barozze, 
discovered after a road cutting exposed a karst structure 
filled of loamy-clayey stratified sediments and pal-
aeosols (Cremaschi et al., 1990) with Lower, Middle and 
Late Palaeolithic artefacts (Chelidonio & Solinas, 1983). 

Most of the findings took place on Eocene lime-
stone formations, which leaves room for different inter-
pretations and hypotheses. The greater frequency of 
discoveries recorded on these limestones can be relat-
ed to a choice of the human groups targeted towards 

 
 
125 

Fig. 11 - Graph of the altitude range of Monte Baldo, with interval of 100 m concerning all sites.  

 
 
The lower and middle Palaeolithic settlements in the Baldo-Lessini mountains. Results from a GIS investigation  



   

 

places where this substrate emerges, alongside with 
other factors driving land use and distribution of re-
sources. One variable that explains the reason that 
many sites are located on Eocenic limestones is cer-
tainly the fact that these formations prevail in the foot-
hills area. Elevation could be considered as a driving 
factor, being the 400 m a.s.l. level largely below the 
lowermost position of the timber line during the Late 
Pleistocene. Besides, water springs are distributed on 
Eocene limestone bedrocks, sometimes in proximity of 
volcanic rocks. However, the intensive agricultural ex-
ploitation of the soils that developed on these bedrocks 
favours the surface findings, since ploughing enhances 
their visibility. It is therefore conceivable that the greater 
occurrence of findings on arable contexts and on sub-
strates of Eocene limestone in comparison to others is 
the result of bias rather than of a precise choice of set-
tlement. 

With respect to the valley floor, the greater number 
of sites is located at medium elevation along the slope 
and on the top of the ridges. Considering individual 
spots in valley bottom, their frequency increases, even 
though as a mere consequence of the multilayering at 
Tagliente, Mezzena and Ghiacciaia rock shelters. Given 
the sedimentary nature of the valley bottoms, it can be 
assumed that many frequentations located in valley 
floor areas, at the lowermost elevation, are now covered 
by thick alluvial sedimentary sheets and are thus no 
longer explorable. This is confirmed by the exposition of 
archaeological layers at Quinzano and Cà Verde after 
intensive quarrying, and by geological data achieved 
from pits in the middle and lower Valpantena at Grezza-
na and San Felice Extra. No chronological data are 
currently available on these sedimentary sheets. In the 
lowermost clayey layer (from -148 to -129 m) of the 
“Verona Est” pit, positioned at 52 m a.s.l., pollen associ-
ation reveals ecological conditions compatible with MIS 
5e or 5c (Sorbini,1993).  

In contrast, the high occurrence of places at sum-
mits might reveal systematic settling of the landscape 
along possible routinely paths covered by the hunter-
gatherers for reaching the highest elevations and eco-
tones. It must be considered, however, that locations on 
top ridges and medium slopes are more visible as a 
result of exposure caused by erosive processes, favour-
ing survey and surface discoveries.  

The distribution of sites in relation to the drainage 
basin does not reveal specific occupational preference 
for one area but can be considered as a result biased 
by differences in survey intensity. Our data do not out-
put possible correlations or specific recurring trends for 
the proximity to a precise hydrographic order, although 
we cannot neglect that this was an important parameter 
for settling down in the landscape. 

Relation between slope intervals and finding con-
texts does not reveal any trends, if we except surface 
collecting on ploughed fields, depressions and soils, 
which are the most frequent in the two lowermost inter-
vals (0-10% and 10-20%). We note the recurrence of 
caves in the > 35% range referring slope where they are 
located. Data relates to rough and steep slopes covered 
for reaching those favourable, stable positions. The 
distribution of single spots and multi-layered sites 

 
 
126 

(Fumane and Tagliente) on slopes reveals a prevalence 
of SW and W expositions, despite most of the findings 
are located on flat areas with undeterminable orienta-
tion. The lowermost value has been recorded for slopes 
oriented to the N and, slightly higher, to the S. It can be 
assumed that the great frequency of sites exposed from 
NE to SE and SW-NW reflects the morphological char-
acteristics of the ridges, aligned to directions converging 
to the North. Therefore, this result should be interpreted 
as an expression of the hilly landscape morphologies, 
rather than an evidence of locational preferences. 

To reinforce this hypothesis, we explored the cor-
relation between slope and solar exposure for all fre-
quencies. Although sites facing south get the highest 
exposure values, most of the frequentations occur be-
tween 50° N and 150° N, and between 200° N and 310° 
N, with lower insolation values in some cases with dis-
crepancies of over 1500 hours. The numerosity of sites 
exposed to the SE (112.5° N - 157.5° N) is remarkable: 
absolute values are high, between 2194 and 2428 sun-
light h/y and play in favour of occupational choices driv-
en by both the landform and profitable solar exposure. 
Therefore, insolation can be considered an important 
parameter in the settling of an area. 

The computation of the yearly amount of sunlight 
hours for each single site reveals a major occurrence 
between 1300 and 2200 hours, with peaks at 1742 and 
2451 and that these frequencies correlate to the peculi-
ar characteristic of the landscape. As before, places 
with insolation over 1500 hours were probably targeted 
for the implantation of the seasonal camps. Moreover, 
several sites with values >2200 h/y testify the settling of 
specific areas with favourable characteristics in sun 
exposure, despite their poor representation among the 
totality of the investigated area. 

From the data above, the occupational preference 
for some areas over others could be conceivable. In all 
cases, the most represented altitudinal range are 200-
299 m and 300-399 m a.s.l., however it has be noted 
that the southern offshoots of the ridges were more 
surveyed than other morphological traits of the land-
scape (Fig. 12). 

Being placed at medium-low altitudes, ridges 

Fig. 12 - Graph of percentage curves: in red the percentage of 
surface of altitude ranges, in relation to the entire area; in black 
the percentage of the sites located in each altitude range. The 
columns show the number of the sites contained in the altitude 
ranges. 

 
 

Margaritora D. et al.  



   

 

might have led to over-representing some data. Figure 
13 shows the correlation between the altitude of sites 
(multi-layered sites taken as single cases) and the an-
nual sunlight hours and does not in favour of hypothe-
sizing the existence of a specific strategy of settlement 
and territorial occupation. Criteria of settlement does not 
seem were influenced by the conditions of sun expo-
sure, showing a wide variability at all altitudinal range. 
We infer that the exploitation of the landscape at high 
and low altitude does not was driven by significant dif-
ferences in the sun light parameters for select a specific 
area. 

We have seen how low and high altitude sites do 
not differ in parameters related to sun exposure, like-
wise the visibility does not significantly vary in function 
of the elevation. The data show that most of the sites 
have views that cover several contiguous slices of land 
towards some of the cardinal directions, while in 10 
cases visibility is limited to two distinct directions. When 
we plotted the sites with a single large visual covering 
several contiguous cardinal directions, and the respec-
tive elevations, we noticed that the variability of width of 
the visual field does not follow a specific criterion as the 
elevation increases (fig. 14). The sites below 1000 m 
range in the number of visibility slices from one to eight 
cardinal directions, with a variability that does not indi-
cate a specific occupational strategy. For the two sites 
over 1000 m does not exceed two slices, it emerges that 
at higher elevations the occupational choice did not 
consider such parameter as a priority. Both of spots set 
over 1000 meters falls within depressions with severe 
limitation in the visible slices of territory due to the geo-

morphological context. Besides, a secondary position of 
the artefacts due to colluviation is conceivable in these 
sedimentary basins and, therefore, with bias in the di-
vergence between the spots located at low and high 
altitudes. Sites located in valley, like Còal del Bota in 
Vaggimal and Riparo Tagliente, have both visible field 
and directionality oriented in concordance with the val-
ley axis and morphological layout. Even for these cases, 
the visibility parameter does not seem to have been 
considered in the occupational choice. 
 
8. CONCLUSIONS 
 

The survey and geolocation of the Lower and Mid-
dle Palaeolithic sites and findspots on the Monti Lessini 
and Monte Baldo leads to the creation of an applicable 
database available for studies on settlement dynamics, 
for archaeological heritage archiving and for the devel-
oping of predictive thematic maps, archaeological risk 
evaluation and archaeological protection. This type of 
cartography would fill a gap between the tools available 
for the protection of archaeological and cultural heritage 
in such an important area for Prehistory. Using a meth-
odology based on territorial and employment parame-
ters, already successfully applied in various contribu-
tions (Miller & Barton, 2008; Garcia, 2012; 2013; Garcia 
et al., 2013), our results and considerations fulfil the 
proposed objectives. 

From our output data we notice how in several 

 
 
127 

 
 
The lower and middle Palaeolithic settlements in the Baldo-Lessini mountains. Results from a GIS investigation  

Fig. 13 - Kendal tau test for the correlation between the altitude 
of sites (multi-layered sites as single cases) and the annual 
sunlight hours. Wessa, (2017), Kendall tau Rank Correlation 
(v1.0.13) in Free Statistics Software (v1.2.1), Office for Re-
search Development and Education, URL https://
www.wessa.net/rwasp_kendall.wasp/. 

Fig. 14 - Kendal tau test for the correlation between the number 
of continuative visible directions of sites (multi-layered sites 
considered as singles cases) to their respective elevations. The 
graph does not include the sites located by place name and the 
sites that have returned two opposite portions of visible territory, 
to maintain compliance of the analysed data. Wessa, (2017), 
Kendall tau Rank Correlation (v1.0.13) in Free Statistics Soft-
ware (v1.2.1), Office for Research Development and Education, 
URL https://www.wessa.net/rwasp_kendall.wasp/. 



   

 

cases the parameters here analysed have been consid-
ered in the settlement choice, at least in a certain part of 
the territory. In many others, however, it seems clear 
that some recurring values may not be the reflection of 
the precise search for an area that meets specific re-
quirements. Rather, they would be related to the mor-
phological characteristics of that specific part of land-
scape. In addition, it has been noted that the greater 
representation of some values does not depend on a 
choice that takes into consideration well-defined em-
ployment parameters, rather it may reflect a research 
deficit which affected some areas more than others. 
The attributes related to the context of discovery show 
that, although most of the frequentations have been 
found in cave excavations, a great divergence arises 
from site to site. Data inhomogeneity and difference in 
the location degree of the findings therefore affected the 
analysis, causing limitations in internal comparisons of 
our record. 

Attributes inherent to the geological substrates are 
emblematic of this limit. The great representation of 
plough contexts on Eocene limestone substrates should 
not be interpreted like an evidence of a precise occupa-
tional choice, rather than of a research bias in favour of 
the ploughed fields, which were ubiquitously present 
only till the ‘70s of 20th century, often on the southern 
offshoots of the Lessini ridges. The same holds for posi-
tions on the top of the reliefs and on medium slope, 
where surveys were easier on ridges than in forested 
bottom valleys. Being ridges subjected to erosion, pos-
sibilities of making surface-type recoveries are en-
hanced compared to the valley floors, which are urban-
ized and covered by thick slope waste deposits and 
alluvial sediments. Nevertheless, in few but very mean-
ingful sites such as Cà Palui, Monte Gazzo and Passo 
di San Valentino, Lower and Middle Palaeolithic arte-
facts were found in concentrations very likely attributa-
ble to knapping activities in proximity of extended out-
crops of chert.   

In the valley floors, the only discoveries occurred 
following cave research and building excavations, that 
allowed examining soils and sediments in depth. The 
same deficit could affect the possibility of proposing 
recurring trends in the relation of the sites to the river 
basins, being most of the finding points placed at the 
top of the reliefs and straddling multiple orders. Taking 
into consideration the data relating to the slope, we can 
see that the greatest representation of discoveries in 
the 0-10% and 10-20% ranges is well attested, fre-
quently in ploughed fields, dolinas and depressions in 
the ground. On the other hand, the presence of five 
caves on >35% slopes attest the effort of encompassing 
steeped slopes for reaching stable and favourable nich-
es. The distribution of data on slope exposures does not 
reveal any occupational preference in relation to a spe-
cific cardinal direction, rather it reflects landscape fea-
tures of the Lessini area, with its ridges and slopes ex-
posed from NE to SE and SW to NW. The major repre-
sentation of the sites exposed to SE with insolation 
values between 2194 and 2428 hours per year leaves 
however the possibility that the choice of the settle-
ments might also be driven by favourable conditions of 
annual hours of sunshine. Our data, for ranges between 

 
 
128 

1300 and 2200 h/y, seem to indicate that camps were 
positioned basically in function of the landforms. On the 
contrary, the location criteria for settlements exposed to 
over 2200 h/y are mostly driven by the preference for 
areas with matching characteristics of sun exposure. 
When we plotted sun exposure data with elevation, we 
did not notice a correlation between the altitude and the 
search of high number of sunshine hours. From these 
data it is therefore possible to assume that this parame-
ter did not play a major role in settling within this hilly 
and mountain landscape, at least in relation to the alti-
tude of the site. 

The potential visibility related to each site indicates 
two general ranges. The most frequent are sites with 
multiple and continuous viewpoints, despite for only one 
slice of territory. In 13 cases, however, the orientation of 
the visible is less wide, but faces two markedly different 
directions, sometimes opposed one another. If we cor-
relate sites with multiple continuous viewpoints to their 
elevation values, we do not reveal any divergence in 
land use between sites at low and high elevation. 

In conclusion, we argue that parameters like geo-
logical substrate, position in respect to valley floor and 
attribution to an order of the river basin are affected by 
the degree of intensity of research.  

This was so high in certain areas to generate over-
representation of the most recurrent values.  

The great frequency of findings on flat zones does 
not seem to be affected by this deficit. 

Slope exposure compared to solar exposure al-
lows us arguing a direct dependence of frequentations 
from the landforms. However, the sites facing SE and 
sites with sunlight values higher than 2200 h/y confirm 
that sun exposure should be excluded as main criteria 
adopted to settle that section of landscape. 

Although sparse and fragmentary, current data on 
the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic settlement system in 
the hilly and mountain landscape of Verona reveal 
some aspects relatable with the paleogeographic, paleo
-economic and cultural contexts of the sites. These 
could be an expression of the seasonal nomadism prac-
ticed by the Pre-Neanderthal and Neanderthal groups 
based on the settlements in the valley bottom, the upper 
Adige alluvial plain and the mountain range. Traces 
from ephemeral to consistent are scattered at 1300-
1400 m a.s.l., peaking at 1600 m. Caves presumably 
had a main role thanks to their strategic position, being 
favourable for catchment in different ecological environ-
ments through short-range movements. The variety of 
hunted animal species confirms the possibility to diver-
sify the exploitation of resources of animal origin. If we 
add the possibility human groups had to easily access 
the primary exposures and secondary deposits of chert, 
we can argue that the presence of Lower and Middle 
Palaeolithic hominins in this mountain range was driven 
by a set of factors (Bagolini & Broglio, 1985). Whether 
mountain sites were the edge of a large settlement sys-
tem extended to the Po alluvial plain or were organized 
in a subsystem articulated in residential sites and spe-
cialized camps, it is however still far from being as-
sessed. 

 
 

 
 

Margaritora D. et al.  



   

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
The authors are grateful to Dr. Pietro Sternai 

(Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Uni-
versity of Milano-Bicocca) for suggestions on neotecton-
ic upliftings, to Tobia Fognani and Lucia Bartolozzi for 
revision of the English text and to Francesco Carrer and 
Ugo Sauro who contributed thorough revision of this 
work with considerable amelioration. Authors contribu-
tions: M.P. designed research, A.D., G.C., D.M. and 
M.C.T. produced data, all the authors wrote and edited 
the manuscript.  
 
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Margaritora D. et al.  

Ms. received: July 7, 2020 Revised: November 1, 2020 
Accepted: November 2, 2020 Available online: December 20, 2020