Imp.Cucchi&


GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE “ROSANDRA” VALLEY 
FOR A CULTURAL ENHANCEMENT 

Franco Cucchi, Alessio Mereu, Sara Oberti, Chiara Piano, Anna Rossi & Luca Zini  
Department of Geological, Environmental and Marine Sciences, University of Trieste; cucchi@units.it 

ABSTRACT: F. Cucchi et al., Geology and Geomorphology of the “Rosandra” Valley for a Cultural Enhancement. (IT ISSN 0394-3356,
2005).
The Rosandra Valley is located near Trieste (Italy), on the border of Classical Karst, and is a canyon-like depression excavated in ter-
tiary limestone. The origin of the valley is mainly due to presence of faults and overthrusts and different attitude to erosion between
limestone and marls, which makes it a beautiful example of lithological and structural control on morphogenesis. Furthermore, its slo-
pes are interested by extended and mature underground karst phenomena that contribute to making the whole hydro-structure more
interesting. The valley is also remarkable for its local vegetation, due to its particular climatic conditions, and to its prehistoric and
historical value, stemming from its geographic location. 

RIASSUNTO: F. Cucchi et al., Geologia e Geomorfologia della Val Rosandra per una sua valorizzazione culturale. (IT ISSN 0394-3356,
2005).
La Val Rosandra è ubicata in provincia di Trieste, al confine del Carso Classico, ed è una valle profondamente incisa in calcari terziari.
La sua origine è principalmente legata alla presenza di faglie e di sovrascorrimenti ed all’erosione selettiva dovuta alla presenza di litoti-
pi diversi come calcari e marne; tutto ciò ha creato un esempio spettacolare di forme influenzate dalla litologia e dalla tettonica. Inoltre i
suoi rilievi sono interessati da estesi e maturi fenomeni carsici ipogei così da creare una singolare idrostruttura. La valle è anche
attraente per la vegetazione locale, condizionata dalle particolari condizioni climatiche, e per l'interesse preistorico e storico dovuto alla
posizione geografica. 

Key words: Rosandra Valley, Karst, Geomorphology, Geology, Geopark.

Parole chiave: Val Rosandra, Carso, Geomorfologia, Geologia, Geopark.

Il Quaternario
Italian Journal of Quaternary Sciences
18(1), 2005 - Volume Speciale, 185-196

1. INTRODUCTION

"The Valley" – as the Triestines call it – opens
onto the Western side of the Trieste Classical Karst pla-
teau: it is constituted by the intermediate and the final
stretch of a creek – the Rosandra creek – that origina-
tes from the confluence of two water streams – the T.
Botazzo and the Rio Griza – whose springs are located
in Slovenia, a few miles away from the Italian border.

The initial stretch, now in the Slovenian territory,
consists of a normal wide verdant valley that, at one
point, deeply engraves white bare limestone rocks.
After some miles, it results in a plain overlooking the
Gulf of Trieste. 

The whole area, and in particular M.te Stena on
the right, is characterised by surface and underground
karst. 100 cavities have been surveyed, some of which
cover many hundred metres. Among them one of the
most beautiful cave can be found (the Gualtiero Savi
Cave, point 1, Fig. 2): it has rich speleothemes (no
important concretions dating back to later than 300,000
years ago have been found), an interesting morphology
of corrosive and sedimentary origin, and extends over
approximately 4,000 metres, thus testifying to the com-
plex geomorphologic and hydrogeological evolution of
the “Classical Karst”. 

Fig. 1 - Location map.

Ubicazione.



186 F. Cucchi et al.

On the left side, the valley was delimited by the
so-called “Via del Sale” (“Salt Road”), used in Roman
times and in the Middle Ages to transport salt to the
inland villages. The tracks of the first railway line con-
necting the Hapsburg port of Maria Theresa to Vienna
and Ljubljana (1887), have now been converted into a
cycle track, which means that the old path is still used
nowadays (point 3, Fig. 2). Caves with prehistoric
remains, ruins of castles and hill forts, mills, country
churches, ruins of the Roman aqueduct and abandoned
querries prove the intense and ancient settlements in
the area (Fig. 2).

The Valley’s peculiar climatic and geomorphologic
conditions (closeness to the sea, swift passage from
the sea level to an altitude of over 400 metres) and its
geographical location (the farthest Northern limit of the
Adriatic Sea still belonging to the European continent)
provide the Valley with utterly peculiar fauna and vege-
tation. The valley, which has been long regarded as
“special” for its outstanding naturalistic value, also pre-
sents an important and unique geological and geo-
morphologic heritage and is worth becoming an intere-
sting Geopark.

2. GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

As far as the lithostratigraphic succession is con-
cerned, the following items can be found (going from
the most ancient to the most recent one): the limestone
rocks of the “Opicina member” (Thanetian-llerdian),
belonging to the informal “Limestone Formation of
Trieste Karst” (Cucchi et al., 1989a), the “fucoidi” marls
(Lower Eocene), the Flysch (Lower and Medium
Eocene) and Quaternary deposits. 

As can be observed from the viewpoint of S.
Lorenzo (point 4, Fig. 2), the most abundant and cha-
racterising lithotype is the “Opicina member” limestone.
It includes compact limestones, usually of light grey but
also of black colour, fetid when struck, presenting
highly fossiliferous migrated oils (foraminifers, among
which alveolinids and nummulites, gastropods ed echi-
noids) sometimes spathized with fracturing from scale-
like to pseudo-conchoidal.

Limestone stratification is usually sharp and on a
decimetre scale but metre-thick limestone banks with
indistinct stratification are not infrequent.
Consequently, karstifiability ranges from high to very
high and erodibility from low to very low. According to
recent studies (Drobne, 2003, in press), the above-men-
tioned limestones were deposited in an “intermediate
photic zone” environment (Hottinger, 1997), i.e. with
bathymetries ranging between 40 and 80 metres. 

These limestones mainly testify to coastal marine
settings. Marly limestones characterize the upper-most
part of the member, showing an increasing occurrence
of planktonic foraminifers. These limestones indicate an
increasing depth and the decline of previous taxa, prior
to the drowning of the carbonate platform in relation to
terrigenous turbidites (Flysch).

At the top, the increase in terrigenous materials
progressively modifies the lithology, to reach facies of
grey and hazel marl-limestone with decimetre-scale
thickness (Cucchi et al., 1989b), thus testifying both to
the carbonate platform drowning and to a sharp change

in regional paleogeographical conditions. 
From a stratigraphic point of view, Eocene “fucoi-

di” marls follow: they are basically lamellar argillites
whose colour varies from grey to bluish (Fig. 3). They
reach their maximum 10-metre thickness on M.te Stena
hillsides along the cycle-track built on the ancient train
tracks (point 5, Fig. 2). 

If thickness is definitely modest, remarkable
instead are geomorphologic conditionings: due to its
plasticity, the horizon is often characterised by low-
angle reverse faults, in acts as non-kastifiable level, is
impermeable and shows rather high erodibility.

At a higher-contact level, the flysch that outcrops
is constituted by alternation of marl levels and sandsto-
nes with variable thickness. Marl thickness ranges from
millimetre- to centimetre-scale; sandstone thickness
from centimetre- to decimetre-, sometimes metre-
scale. Sandstones, which are usually predominant, are
moderately sorted, with average grain size being
approximately 0.1 mm. 

As they are carbonate-cement quartzo-feld-
spathic sandstones, they can be defined graywackes.
On average, they are composed by minimum 50% sili-
con oxide (containing 43÷53% quartz and 6÷11% flint)
and by feldspars (18÷26%), mainly plagioclase and
mica feldspars (4÷6%) with chlorite and muscovite pre-
dominating over biotite, carbonates (16÷20%, both
cement and often highly altered clasts), and a series of
other minerals present in minimum quantities (iron oxi-
des, glauconite, tourmaline, garnets, zircon, rutile:
cumulative percentage between 1 and 3%). These
mineral constituents are practically sterile, even though
some jellyfish rests have been found, alongside rare
globigerinae. 

Marls, whose mineral composition is fairly similar
to that of graywackes, but for a higher percentage of
carbonates than of other mineral constituents, are not
very rich in organic residues. The most abundant orga-
nic elements are plankton foraminiferans such as
Globigerinae and Globorotaliae. The fossiliferous frac-
tion of basal marls dates back to the middle-high
Cuisian age (Onofri, 1982).

This alternation confirms the progressive platform
drowning and the appearance in the basin of elements
deriving from the Alpine orogenesis in European and
Balkan regions. Sedimentary structures such as flutes
and burrow casts are frequent. 

Due to its plasticity, flysch presents low-range
folds giving it a good level of erodibility, plasticity and
substantial impermeability. 

Quaternary deposits are constituted by someti-
mes-cemented scree slope, by alluvial deposits and by
eluvial-colluvial coverings. 

In the case of slope debris, clasts are elements
mainly of limestone nature, belonging to the Opicina
member: they are sharp-edged and vary in size. Only
rarely do sandstone clasts, whose shape is more roun-
ded, appear; in the breccias, the cement is calcitic and
of reddish-grey colour. Its cementation level highly
varies from point to point and it sometimes affects the
surface layers only: consequently, also permeability and
erodibility can vary. 

Some landslide displaced materials are present:
they are generated by collapse and rolling of large
breccia blocks slid due to undermining to the foot of



187Geology and Geomorphology ...

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188

the side cemented on the surface, and by planar sliding
on stratum levels of sometimes-thick and wide limesto-
ne banks. 

The alluvial deposits present along the Rosandra
torrent are polygenic alluviums, with scarce fine-grai-
ned fraction, locally interbedded with sandy or sandy-
silt lenses. Pebble size – pebbles are often rounded in
shape and of mainly arenaceous and secondly calca-
reous nature (calcitic speleothems also) – varies from
centimetre- to decimetre scale. A coarse diversely
interbedded polygenic-alluvium escarpment, located
opposite the “Rifugio Premuda”, bears witness to pha-
ses of intense transport (point 6, Fig. 2).

The eluvial-colluvial coverings are generally silty
and clayey, mostly deriving from degradation of sandy-
marly formations and, limitedly, of carbonate forma-
tions. This red clayey soils, rich in iron oxides and
known under the name of “red soils”, constitute a thin
and discontinuous veil on the karst surface.

From a structural point of view, the Rosandra
Valley is part of the “imbricate structure of Čič arija”,
characterised by thrust wedges in a sequence of rever-
se faults and overthrusts that follow the Dinaric trend
(Placer, 1981).

An excellent panoramic view onto the tectonic
structure of the area can be enjoyed from the viewpoint
of S. Lorenzo (point 4, Fig. 2), located at 377 metres
above sea level in proximity of the village of the same
name.

If we assume a geological section oriented N-S,
from here the monocline imbricate structure can be
observed (M.te Stena on the orographic right of the
creek): it first follows an apparently synclinal trend,
along the axis where the valley has formed, and a
clearly anticlinal trend afterwards, thus conditioning
M.te Carso hillsides (on the orographic left of the
creek). The compression stresses coming from the
North-eastern sector gave rise to three main overthru-

sts among the rigid limestone masses and the plastic
flysch deposits (Fig. 4): the reverse-fault set located on
the orographic right of the Rosandra creek, on the hillsi-
des of M.te Stena; the overthrust known as the “Crinale
fault” (Ridge fault); the “M.te Carso overthrust”, low-
angle fault stretching towards S-E and originating the
tectonically imbricate structure of the Cicarija region
(Slovenia and Croatia). 

The first is a case of a small overthrust family
generally connecting Palaeocene-Eocene limestones
on “fucoidi” marls of Eocene age. Degradation and
fracturing (ranging from millimetre to centimetre scale)
of the latter lithotype makes this tectonic contact along
the route from the viewpoint of S. Lorenzo to the village
of S. Antonio in Bosco (point 7, Fig. 2) particularly evi-
dent. Here it is also possible to find flysch sandstones
enclosed in the underlying marls. 

The “Crinale fault” and the “M.te Carso overthru-

F. Cucchi et al.

Fig. 3 - “Fucoidi” marl outcrop.

Affioramento di marna a fucoidi. 

Fig. 4 - Lithological and structural scheme: 1- Reverse thrusts; 2- Crinale fault; 3- M.te Carso overthrust; 4- M.te Carso fault.
Lithology: Light grey = Limestone; Dark grey = Fucoidi marl and flysch.

Schema litologico - strutturale: 1- Faglie inverse; 2- Faglia del crinale; 3- Sovrascorrimento del M.te Carso; 4- Faglia del M.te Carso.
Litologie: Grigio chiaro = Calcari; Grigio scuro = Marne a fucoidi e flysch.



189

st”, both advancing towards WSW, identify three well-
outlined structural areas. 

The first block, the main one, is constituted by the
lithoid mass underthrusted in the “M.te Carso overthru-
st”. This block presents numerous deformation structu-
res due to hanging walls, many of which are brilliant
study cases, such as the hook-pattern of marls and
sandstones in vertical contact with the limestones, as
the case that is clearly visible in the Antro di Bagnoli
Spring (point 8, Fig. 2). 

The second block is constituted by a thrust
wedge located between the “M.te Carso overthrust”
and the “Crinale fault”. Its main features can be found
in two distinct sub-areas: the Northern one, mostly cha-
racterised by generally reverse faults and correspon-
ding with M.te Carso culmination, where the hinge of
“M.te Carso anticline” has been preserved (Martinis,
1971), stopping at another fault located SW – called
“M.te Carso fault” – oriented SW and with dip direction
E, thus identifying the Southern sub-area (Fig. 4). 

The third block is delimited by the “Crinale fault”,
structure with axis NW-SE, whose top shows a high
level of limestone-rock tectonisation. 

To summarize, the area is characterised by rigid
limestone masses that are either overthrusted, or raised
on reverse faults on flysch and on plastic marl rocks,
with NE dip-direction fault surface, an aspect that is
clearly visible from the numerous panoramic viewpoints
the valley is rich in. 

3. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The Rosandra Valley is a rare example of Karst

river valley with surface hydrology. 
The Rosandra creek originates from the confluen-

ce (occurring in the Slovenian territory) of two water
streams – the T. Botazzo and the Rio Griza – whose
springs are located in Slovenia, a few miles away from
the Italian border. Its basin extends over approximately
21 km2, of which 8 upstream of the confluence, 6 from
the point of confluence to the plain. Its main course
extends over 13 km from the sources to the sea, 5.5
before the confluence and 4 between the point of con-
fluence and the access to the plain. 

Along their course, they first erode the flysch sili-
con-clastic sediments; only afterwards, in proximity of
the village of Draga S. Elia, do they erode the limesto-
nes of the Opicina member and, finally, the flysch marl-
sandstone alternations (Potleca, 1997). 

The first stretch erodes a relatively erodible for-
mation, substantially impermeable. Its structure pre-
sents a wide undulating syncline with upstream dip
direction, in whose core the confluence between T.
Bottazzo and Rio Griza occurs. 

Downstream of the village of Botazzo, near the
State border, the passage from turbidites to marls and
to the underlying limestones is made apparent by an
over 30-metre-high picturesque waterfall (point 9, Fig.
2) that constitutes the mouth of the Valley.

The hillsides become steeper (with wide berms on
the right and structural hillside on the left), the creek
flows on the rocks, the first seepage phenomena occur
and we can see the formation of a deep canyon-like
depression of karst origins into the rock, rich in rapids,
pot-holes, small waterfalls, enclosed meanders and
basins (Fig. 5).

Geology and Geomorphology ...

Fig. 5 - Enclosed meandering.

Meandri incassati.



190

On the left, the creek is occasionally fed by a tri-
butary flowing along a reverse fault that borders the
North side of the M.te Carso anticline. 

The riverbed is subject to constant diversions
along the main discontinuity-set families up to Bagnoli
della Rosandra, where the slopes decrease and the tor-
rent flows on its ancient alluvial deposits until it reaches
its mouth into the sea beyond the Zaule plain. 

Noteworthy is again the ancient and massive
landslide displaced material due to planar sliding over
which the small country church of S. Maria in Siariis
rests (point 10, Fig. 2; Fig. 6). On the right, scattered in
the woods, massive breccia blocks can be seen: they
testify to the undermining process at the basis of the
scree slope, cemented in proximity of the river’s sharp
bend towards SW before reaching the village of
Bagnoli, and conditioned by the local tectonics – if not
neo-tectonics – and by a paleolandslide. 

A system of springs contribute to feeding the tor-
rent: the Zroček spring, on the Slovenian territory, the
Šturk spring (point 11, Fig. 2), nearby Botazzo village,
the Zaniér spring (point 12, Fig. 2), flowing from the
Antro delle Ninfe, the Oppia spring (point 13, Fig. 2)
located by the overthrust of the “Crinale” (Ridge) and
the Antro di Bagnoli spring (point 8, Fig. 2) in proximity
of the village of Bagnoli della Rosandra. 

The viewpoints of Moccò (point 14, Fig. 2) and S.
Lorenzo (point 4, Fig. 2) offer a privileged view on the
slopes overlooking the Rosandra creek. These slopes
are all characterised by rocky cliffs, overhanging rocks,
aiguilles and mighty scree slopes, expressing a faceted
lithology and complex tectonics.

The “grize”, karst gravel areas, are the hallmark of
the top of the mountains, alongside the rare rocky out-
crop and a poor and scarcely developed soil. 

The small landforms caused by superficial corro-
sion are widely extended over the whole limestone
area, characterised by medium to medium-high “karsti-
fiability”, and particularly on Monte Carso hillsides,
where the outcrop of limestone banks is more conti-
nuous and extended, and originates massive solution
runnels (Rinnenkarren). 

Underground phenomena are equally developed:
100 caves have been discovered so far, and some of
them belong to the some of the most widely extended
Trieste karst systems. M.te Stena, in particular, hosts a
comprehensive net of articulated and diversely shaped
cavities, basically organised on four levels, which stret-
ches totally over 7,000 metres, thus bearing testimony
to ancient geological and hydro-geological origins. The
best-known cave is the Gualtiero Savi Cave (point 1,
Fig. 2; Fig. 8), which covers an area of almost 4,000
metres and is the widest underground system in the
Rosandra Valley, thus being the second cave for exten-
sion in the whole Italian sector of the Classical Karst. It
is a series of sub-horizontal galleries, structural gullies
and large chambers located at 350 metres above sea
level, and of a set of meanders, smaller caves and
smaller galleries to be found at a lower level, approxi-
mately 50 metres above sea level (Cucchi et al., 1998).

Surveys conducted via air-tracing methodology
have ascertained that the Gualtiero Savi Cave is con-
nected to other cavities such as the Martina Cucchi
Cave (point 15, Fig. 2), the Gallerie Cave (point 16, Fig.
2), the Fessura del Vento Cave (point 17, Fig. 2), and
numerous minor ones, whose entrances open at diffe-
rent levels on the hillsides of M.te Stena. This is one of
the most complex and interesting karst drainage
systems of the “Classical Karst”, thus being a privileged
observation point on the spelological development not
only of the Rosandra Valley, but also of the entire karst
region.

Caves present highly remarkable chemical and
physical fillings. Among them, the polygenetic conglo-
merates that often obliterate galleries can be mentio-
ned; they also bear witness to intense transportation
phases along water streams originating from flysch-
facies basins present to the East (clasts, mainly of
marly and arenaceous origin, frequently present frag-
ments of speleothems). Also speleothems are very inte-
resting: some of them are now practically fossilized and
date back to over 300,000 years ago but numerous
active specimens – through which it is possible to trace
recent climate changes – still exist.

It should also be noted that on the left side of the
Rosandra creek we can find the Orsi Cave (point 2, Fig.
2), a fossil gallery whose filling deposits are still covered
by concretioned prehistoric animal remains (Ursus spe-
laeus, Rosenmuller & Hinroth) dating back to at least
120,000 years ago.

F. Cucchi et al.

Fig. 6 - The paleo-landslide with the Church of S. Maria in
Siariis on the orographic right of the Rosandra creek. 

La paleofrana con la chiesa di S. Maria in Siariis in sinistra oro-
grafica del Torrente Rosandra.



4. CLIMATE CONSIDERATIONS

Karst climatic conditions are peculiar due to its
geographic position. Karst has, in fact, a transition cli-
mate between the Atlantic and the Continental regime.
A similar transition exists between the Mediterranean
and the Alpine climate. As happens in all areas charac-
terised by contact between different climatic regimes,
here too local topographic influences acquire the utmo-
st intensity (microclimate), thus contributing to the plant
landscape diversification. The Rosandra Valley is a
clear example of this phenomenon, as it features parti-
cular microclimate and plant conditions. The upper part
of the Valley (from Klanec, 415 metres above sea level,
to Bottazzo, 186 metres above sea level) has a prevai-
ling Continental climate, both due to its altitude and to
the distance from the sea. It is marginally exposed to
the “bora” wind, and is mostly covered by trees. Two
hill slopes with different morphological characteristics
form the lower part of the Valley (from Bottazzo to
Bagnoli, 72 metres above sea level): they have, in fact,
different exposure to the “bora” wind and to solar
radiation, which leads to a still higher microclimate
diversification. The windward left hill slope (SW) is cha-

191Geology and Geomorphology ...

Fig. 7 - Evolution study of the Rosandra Valley (taken from
Cucchi et al., 1998) highlighting selective corrosion and karsti-
fication conditioned by lithology, tectonic structures and gene-
ral geomorphologic evolution.
B: beginning of the speleogenesis, conditioned by fault and
stratum planes.
C: development and expansion of the G. Savi Cave and of the
Gallerie Cave, while the underlying Fessura del Vento Cave
starts to form. The Valley deepens and the “Solco del Vallone”
starts to form on the left of the torrent
D: current situation with the high-level cavities visible. The
karst now evolves with prevalent diffused sub-vertical percola-
tion due to the wideness of the limestone surfaces exposed to
atmospheric agents.

Schizzo evolutivo della Val Rosandra (tratto da Cucchi et al.,
1998) con erosione selettiva e carsificazione condizionate da
litologia, lineamenti tettonici ed evoluzione geomorfologica e
paleo-ambientale generale. In B, si ha l’inizio della speleogene-
si guidata da piani di strato e di faglia. In C, la grotta G. Savi e
la Grotta delle Gallerie si sviluppano e si ampliano mentre inizia
a formarsi la sottostante Fessura del Vento. La Valle si
approfondisce e si imposta il “Solco del Vallone” sul fianco del
M. Carso in sinistra del torrente. In D, si ha la situazione attuale
con le cavità pensili e con prevalente percolazione ipogea sub-
verticale diffusa data l’ampiezza delle superfici calcaree espo-
ste agli agenti atmosferici.

Fig. 8 - Enchanting concretions in the Gualtiero Savi Cave
(photograph by Umberto Tognolli, taken from La grotta dei
sogni, RAFVG & CAI).

Incantevoli concrezioni nella Grotta Gualtiero Savi (foto di
Umberto Tognolli, tratta da: La grotta dei sogni, RAFVG & CAI).



racterised by a brief period of direct insolation; it has a
particularly rigid Continental climate, due to its limited
altitude, with a consequent delay of the beginning of
spring and earlier start of winter. The right hill slope
(NE) is made up of series of vertical walls, is always
leeward and exposed to the sun and, during most of
the day, it is characterised by Mediterranean climate
conditions. When it is not lashed by the wind, the rock
heats up, to the point that the air can reach maximum
temperatures of 40°C in summer and of 30°C in winter.
The temperature difference between the two hill slopes
can reach 10°C. 

5. CONSIDERATIONS ON VEGETATION

The Rosandra Valley is characterised by different
types of vegetation, due to the interaction between
diverse environmental factors (geomorphology, litho-
logy, microclimates) and flora: scree vegetation, karst
heath, steppe vegetation, karst scrub forest, karst
wood, riparian vegetation and pinewood. 

The vegetation that prevails in the Rosandra
Valley is referred to as the North-Adriatic “Dripeto” (rich
in Drypetes plants), from the presence of Drypis spino-
sa ssp. jacquiniana, which forms large pulvini scattered
on the scree slope. This cenosis is mainly present on
the left hillslope, where the scree slope reaches its
maximum accumulation: “from a naturalistic point of
view, it is probably the most valuable association of the
whole valley, if not of the whole Trieste Karst” (Poldini
et al., 1978). “Another distinctive feature of the North-
Adriatic “Dripeto” is the extremely high percentage of
endemic Iliric-Balkanic species, which makes it rank
first among all other Karst associations in this respect,
with a record of 53.3%” (Poldini et al., 1980).
Furthermore, given the severe microclimate conditions
characterising this hill slope of the Rosandra Valley,
scree cenosis shows a particularly high presence of
Orophytes (plant species that grow in mountain areas)
at exceptionally low altitudes, probably the lowest
recorded in their diffusion area. The presence of Alpine
elements is highly significant in the Rosandra Valley,
because it bears witness to the past phyto-historical
events that occurred in the valley itself. According to
the experts, during the Quaternary climate oscillations,
a penetration of the Alpine flora (in cold periods) and of
the Mediterranean flora (in hot periods) occurred,
whose traces were almost completely cancelled by the
local Illyrian flora that constitutes the current Karst
vegetation. Many of them managed instead to survive
in the Rosandra Valley thanks to its high microclimate
variety, thus enhancing the cultural value of the studies
on and the protection of the Valley. 

The karst heath develops on Monte Carso and
Monte Stena banks, where the slope is gentler and
rocks appear next to the scree slope. It is a disconti-
nuous herbaceous formation growing between the out-
cropping rocks, a typically zoogenous association due
to the century-long pasturing activity on deforested
areas. Its origins probably date back to the Brass Age
(approximately 1800-900 BC), which saw the insurgen-
ce of pasture farming on the karst territory. Given the
constant presence of Centaurea rupestris and of Carex
humilis, this pasturing cenosis has been called

“Cariceto-centaureto”. Besides these species, the
heath presents the most typical karst elements, among
which numerous endemic species can be found, mainly
of Illyrian origin (such as Genista tergestina, Pulsatilla
montana, Jurinea mollis, etc.). Where the iron-debris
nappe becomes particularly abundant, the heath also
features Sesleria juncifolia, a Gramineae plant with rigid
thin leaves and large clumps, particularly suitable to
resist to the ice-cold gusts of winter bora. Where rocks
combine with particularly dry soils, some elements of
Stipa eriocaulis can be found, an elegant Gramineae
plant of Mediterranean origin with long plumes fluttering
in the wind (from which the vulgar Italian name of “Lino
delle Fate” (Fairy Flax). 

Under conditions of exposure to the South,
marked steepness and strong substrate permeability,
the heath gives way to a steppe-like grass formation,
where the Illyrian elements decrease in favour of
Mediterranean species. This association reaches its
maximum flowering period between late summer and
autumn, and thrives on the rocky hill slopes over the old
stone laundry in Moccò and, on the hill slope on the
orographic right, on the slope dominating the rail tracks
at the entrance of the first gallery. The presence of dif-
ferent species of Mediterranean origin is highly valua-
ble, because these plants, as the Alpine ones, have wit-
nessed past climatic conditions. 

The typical karst scrub forest is mainly constituted
by low-stemmed Ostrya carpinifolia and Fraxinus ornus
trees and, despite being the most frequent cenosis in
the Trieste Karst, in the Rosandra Valley it acquires
some new peculiarities. First of all, it is of primary origin
(Poldini et al., 1978), whereas on the rest of the Karst
territory it developed after the cutting down of the great
Oak forests (which began during hillforts times,
approximately Brass Age). This association is precious
for the consolidation of unstable slopes, thanks to the
development of rooting apparatuses, and is enriched by
the presence of elements that are typical of fresh and
humid habitats where it declines towards the Rosandra
canyon-like depression. It is worth noticing the presen-
ce of abundant blooming of Galanthus nivalis and the
frequency of Polypodium interjectum, species typical of
humid and shadowy rocky habitats.

The karst wood is a tree formation characterised
by the presence of Sessile Oaks and Turkey Oaks
(cerri) next to the highly developed oak wood that pro-
bably covered the karst soil in prehistoric times, prior to
its destruction at the hands of Man. This association
develops in the coolest and most humid small valleys,
where colluvial soils accumulate. The fresh habitat, also
enhanced by the tree-crown closure, enables the
growth of woodland species typical of Central Europe
(such as Erythronium dens-canis, Hepatica nobilis,
Asarum europaeum, etc.). This oak wood is mostly
developed in the higher part of the Valley, on a marly-
arenaceous substratum. 

The Rosandra Valley is furthermore enriched by
the presence of riparian spinneys, which are a rarity for
karst soils, poor in surface hydrography. The most
abundant species are Salix purpurea, Alnus glutinosa e
Populus nigra, as regards trees, and Petasites hybridus
e Viola alba as far as the undergrowth is concerned.

The plateau of S. Servolo (Monte Carso) and
Monte Stena are characterised by Austrian Black Pine

192 F. Cucchi et al.



(Pinus nigra) pinewood. These reforestation processes
began in the second half of the XIX century, when
almost the whole Karst area was completely bare due
to the deforestation started during the Brass Age with a
view to acquiring new pasturelands. In the Rosandra
Valley, pinewoods are now formed by trees of advan-
ced maturity, which are progressively being substituted
by the pressing Karst scrub forest that has been deve-
loping inside the pinewood in the last decades. 

Worth mentioning is also the presence of species
that are either rare or scarcely widespread in the adjoi-
ning areas: Lilium bulbiferum, Lilium carniolicum (two
out of the three lily regional species), Moehringia tom-
masinii (endemic species, that is species that grow
spontaneously only in the area they are native to),
Asplenium lepidum (most rare fern of Mediterranean
distribution), Digitalis laevigata, Platanthera chlorantha,
Dactylorhiza maculata, Gymnadenia conopsea, the
most rare Genista januensis and Genista holopetala.

6. CONSIDERATIONS ON FAUNA

As far as the local fauna is concerned, the
Rosandra Valley presents almost all the species that
populate the Karst area. It is furthermore enriched by
some of the species that are usually found in humid
ecosystems, particularly rare in the Karst environment. 

As for the mammal fauna, the Roe Deer is quite
widespread, so that it can also be directly sighted
during the day. This ungulate mammal frequents the
Karst scrub forests and clearings. Another mammal
belonging to the Cervidae family that can sometimes be
found in the Valley is the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus),
coming from nearby Slovenia. Near to water ponds, it is
possible to find traces of the presence of the Wild Boar
(Sus scrofa). Among the rodents, it is worth mentioning
the Edible Dormouse (Glis glis), the Red Squirrel
(Sciurus vulgaris), which regularly frequents the
pinewoods, the Water Vole (Arvicola terrestris) and the
Yellow-necked Mouse (Apodemus flavicollis). Also two
hedgehog species can be found: a Western (Erinaceus
europaeus) and an Eastern one (Erinaceus concolor),
probably competing with each other because they
share the same diffusion area in the Karst environment.
The hare (Lepus europaeus), once common, is now
threatened by the introduction of the common
European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and by the
shrubs spreading in the Karst area. As far as the
Carnivores are concerned, one of the most widespread
species is the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), particularly pre-
cious from an environmental point of view because it
also feeds on carrion, thus contributing to preventing
the onset of various diseases. The Badger (Meles
meles), the Beech Marten (Martes foina), the Polecat
(Mustela putorius) and the Weasel (Mustela nivalis) are
the Mustelids present in the Rosandra Valley: they are
difficult to sight, though, because of their nocturnal
habits. During the last years, the sporadic presence of
Great Carnivores has been noted. Traces and sighting
prove the presence, or at least the passage, of the
Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) and of the Lynx (Lynx lynx),
whereas during the last ten years the presence of the
Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) has been ascertained. 

As far as bird species are concerned, the valley

hosts a few Blue Rock-Thrush (Monticola solitarius)
couples. The Blue Rock Thrush is a strongly territorial
bird belonging to the Turdidae family, a rocky species
whose diffusion area is limited to the three European
peninsulas - the Iberic, the Italian and the Balkan
Peninsula – and whose males have a metallic-blue plu-
mage colour. The Rock Partridge (Alectoris graeca) is a
blue-greyish member of the Phasianidae family that
perfectly camouflages itself thanks to its colour being
quite similar to that of limestone rocks. It is a typical
species of the Karst heath, once largely widespread
and now only rarely present, which can be considered
on the verge of extinction due to the spontaneous refo-
restation of the abandoned pasturelands. The progres-
sive disappearance of the species usually associated
with grass formations goes hand in hand with the
simultaneous diffusion of the species that nest inside
low-stemmed trees, such as the Rock Bunting
(Emberiza cia), a quite common species, easy to obser-
ve. In the winter months, also the Wall Creeper
(Tichodroma muraria) and the Crested Tit (Parus crista-
tus) find shelter in the Rosandra Valley. In particular, the
presence of this tit and of the Coal Tit seems to be
ascribable to the black-pine pinewood reforestation
process, which leads species normally nesting on the
Alps at an altitude of over 800 m to nest at lower altitu-
des. As far as the diurnal birds of prey are concerned,
the following species can be sighted: the Common
Buzzard ( Buteo buteo), the Northern Goshawk
(Accipiter gentilis), which nests in the pinewoods close
to clearings, the Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus),
which nests on the rocky walls above the old railway
line, and the Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), which,
though only 20-30-centimetre tall, hunts small birds in
the thick Karst scrub forest. Till some years ago, also
the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo), the largest member of the
Strigiformes order, used to nest on the Valley walls. Still
present now are the Barn Owl (Tyto alba), the Scops
Owl (Otus scops), the Little Owl (Athene noctua) and the
Tawny Owl (Strix aluco), which frequent and nest by the
entrance of cavities. 

The Rosandra Valley is also populated by a rich
herpetofauna, constituted both by definitely
Mediterranean species and by Illyrian-Balkanic and
Mediterranean ones. As happens for the vegetation, in
fact, Karst is respectively the Eastern and Northern
expansion threshold of their diffusion area. The different
species of Reptiles and Amphibians spread in the diver-
se Valley habitats according to their trophic and/or
reproductive needs. The most turbulent stretches of the
Rosandra creek are not suitable for the survival of
Amphibians eggs and larvae, whereas the calmer coves
host the larvae of black and yellow Fire Salamander
(Salamandra salamandra), Common Toad adults (Bufo
bufo), Yellow-bellied Toad (Bombina variegata), Agile
Frog (Rana dalmatina) and Edible Frog (Rana esculenta).
Along the torrent banks, it is possible to find the Grass
Snake (Natrix natrix), species that feeds on Amphibians
larvae, and the Minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus). Terrestrial
Amphibians such as the Black and Yellow Fire
Salamander, the Common Toad, the Edible and the
Agile Frog can populate riparian scrub forests; as far as
snakes are concerned, it is possible to find the Grass
Snake, the Aesculapian Snake (Elaphe longissima) and
the Western Whipsnake (Coluber viridiflavus carbona-

193Geology and Geomorphology ...



rius). The most humid areas of Karst scrub forests host
the Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis), the Aesculapian
Snake, the Western Whipsnake and, rarely, the
Bulgarian Viper (Vipera ammodytes). Away from the tor-
rent, more thermophilous Reptiles can be found, such
as the Green Lizard, the Dalmation Algyroides
(Algyroides nigropunctatus) and the Bulgarian Viper.
Karst woods are characterised by the presence of the
Green Lizard, the Slow Worm (Anguis fragilis), the
Aesculapian Snake, the Western Whipsnake, the
Smooth Snake and the Bulgarian Viper, though the lat-
ter species is not particularly abundant due to the
excessive insolation and the scarsity of preys. 

7. HYSTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Anthropogenic use of the Rosandra Valley is
linked with environmental, geomorphologic and geolo-
gical factors. The valley is a natural link between the
sea and the inland, and has thus been always exploited
for commercial traffic. The remains and antiquities
found in the caves demonstrate that Man had been pre-
sent since Prehistoric, Mesolithic and Neolithic Ages.
These and other peculiarities contributed to its exploita-
tion both at the hands of prehistoric Man and of the
tourists-excursionists today.

The whole area, and in particular M.te Stena on
the right, is characterised by both epigeal and under-
ground karst phenomena: approximately twenty cavi-
ties are quite interesting from an archaeological point of
view. In this respect it is probably worth mentioning the
Orsi Cave (point 2, Fig. 2) and the Gallerie Cave (point
16, Fig. 2; Fig. 9) (Catasto, 2003). The first one is loca-
ted on Monte Carso and consists of a single gallery that
stretches over a total area of 135 m. The cave name
comes from the finding – during exploration – of some
ten skulls, jaws, femoral bones and vertebrae belonging
to the Cave Bear species (Ursus spelaeus), besides
skulls and other bones of smaller-size animals. A parti-
cularly surveyed cave is the Gallerie Cave or Finestre
Cave (point 16, Fig. 2), located at the bottom of M.te
Stena, where archaeological excavation, started during
last century by the pioneers of Karst prehistoric studies,
is still ongoing today at the hands of unauthorised
researchers and antiquity collectors with no higher
aspirations. The quantity of terracotta articrafts disco-
vered here is higher than that found in any other Karst
cave, thus demonstrating that the cave had always
been frequented by large human settlements throu-
ghout all Prehistoric ages, thanks to the favourable
environmental conditions. Some specific ceramics fin-
dings suggest that vase-making activities were proba-
bly carried out in a chamber of the cave, probably the
Camino Cave.

Two prehistoric constructions have also been
recovered. They are two “hillforts”: one is located under
Monte Carso top (point 18, Fig. 2), where the ruins of
the enclosing wall – probably ascribable to the Iron Age
– are still visible today; the other is located on the top of
Monte S. Michele, and dates back to Protohistoric
times too (point 19, Fig. 2). The first (Marini, 1985)
appears to be the most widely extended hillforts in the
area of Trieste, and it also reaches the Slovene territory.
Its safe and easily defendable geographic location

made the complete building of the enclosing wall unne-
cessary, because the area was already partially protec-
ted by the impervious nature of the environment. From
the hypothetical reconstruction of the hillfort of S.
Michele (Canarella, 1989), it can be argued that three
defensive concentric walls surrounded it; the only wall
that is still visible today is the one enclosing the top of
the mountain. The place is likely to have been frequen-
ted also during Roman times, as the recovering of fibu-
lae belonging to that period demonstrates. 

At the mouth of the Valley, once left the settle-
ment of Bagnoli Superiore, it is possible to walk along
the line of the ancient Roman aqueduct for approxima-
tely 700 m (point 20, Fig. 2). This aqueduct is the only
one present in the Region: stretching over 14 Km, it
used to supply the town of Tergeste with drinking
water. It fed from the Fonte Oppia (Oppia Spring, point
13, Fig. 2), a spring of water once flowing from the foot
of a rock mass located along the Rosandra creek, and
now flowing from “stone ruins” located below the tor-
rent level, as the British made the ancient rock mass
explode during the occupation of Trieste. 

Also the “Via del Sale” (Salt Road) dates back at
least to Roman times: its path can still be walked along
today on the orographic right of the torrent (point 21,
Fig. 2). The road was functioning above all during the
Hapsburg Reign, and it served as a link between Zaule
salt marshes, near the village of Muggia, and the towns
and the inland villages. The road followed the ridge and
also reached the Church of S. Maria in Siariis (XII cen-

194 F. Cucchi et al.

Fig. 9 - Gallerie Cave.

Grotta delle Gallerie.



tury), which was completely restored in 1955, and
which is still interesting today for the peculiarity of its
location and for the panoramic view: on the orographic
right, it is in fact possible to see the viewpoint of Moccò
(point 14, Fig. 2), which rises on the remains of the
Medieval castle with the same name. Built before 1100,
it entirely dominated the Rosandra Valley and enjoyed
the beautiful scenery of the Gulf. According to the
popular tradition, the castle is supposed to have had a
gloomy and threatening atmosphere: it was built on a
square plan and enriched by a gallery with merlons
dominated by a smaller-size construction and by a
tower. The location of the ancient castle, which offered
an excellent viewpoint on the surrounding valley, made
it a most coveted stronghold, above all during the con-
flicts waged by Venice and Trieste for the supremacy
on commercial traffic. In 1511, the bishop Pietro
Bonomo succeeded in conquering the castle, seizing it
from the hands of the Venetians; after a short time, the
Triestines themselves destroyed it to avoid re-conque-
ring by the enemy. In the XVII century, the materials
used for the construction of the castle were re-used to
build the New Castle, always on a square plan, which
was seriously damaged immediately afterwards, during
World War Two and then irreparably destroyed by a
fire: today only the foundations can be seen. 

Another castle present in the valley is the Draga
Castle (point 22, Fig. 2), initially belonging to the
Vincumberg family and whose edification began in 1200
and continued until 1400. After passing from the hands
of the Venetians to the Triestines, it was completely
abandoned and destroyed in 1600. The castle, linked
with the Karst ridge through a drawbridge, was cer-
tainly connected with the Salt Road but the successive
excavations and the building of the railway obliterated
the initial course. Today its ruins can be seen on the
rocky spur in Slovenia. 

Thinking of recent times, the layout of the old
railway line needs mentioning (point 3, Fig. 2). The old
railway line connected the Hapsburg port of Maria
Theresa times to Vienna and Ljubljana; it was started in
1887 and used until 1959. Located on the orographic
right of the Rosandra creek, it is today a classical and
beloved path to walk along, offering a wonderful view of
the whole valley and leading from S. Antonio in Bosco
and from S. Lorenzo both to the villages of Draga S.
Elia and Bottazzo. This path is currently being re- eva-
luated, also thanks to its conversion into a cycle-track
linking Trieste with Draga S. Elia and with Slovenia as
far as Erpelle. At present, both the Rosandra Valley
stretch (as far as the border between Italy and Slovenia)
and part of the Campanelle - S. Antonio in Bosco stret-
ch have already been completed, whereas the town
and the Slovene stretches will take longer to complete. 

To conclude this brief but not exhaustive digres-
sion on Man and the Valley, what still needs to be men-
tioned is the second CAI mountain shelter at the lowest
altitude in Italy: the “Rifugio Premuda” (point 6, Fig. 2).
Located at the entrance of the Rosandra Valley, it was
opened in 1940, as a legacy of the Mountaineering
School founded in the Thirties by Emilio Cornici. The
valley is still today an important destination for excur-
sionists and nature-lover tourists, for speleologists and
mountaineers. 

8. CONCLUSIONS

The physical and environmental peculiarities of
the Rosandra Valley were officially recognised by Law
in 1996, with the Regional Law no. 042 of 30/9/1996,
Chapter II, concerning parks and reserves, which
declares "the establishment of the Regional Natural
Reserve of the Rosandra Valley”, defined by Art. 2 as
“… a territory characterised by a high-level natural and
environmental quality, whose conservation aim prevails
over other objectives…”

In parallel, in compliance with 79/409 and 92/43
EEC directives, put into force by the Ministerial Decree
of 3/4/2000, the area is included both in the Special
Protection Areas and in the Sites of Community
Interest.

Special Protection Areas, disciplined in complian-
ce with 79/409/EEC directive, are those areas that are
suitable – due to their extension and/or geographical
location – for the protection of the endangered bird
species as referred to in the Annex I of the aforementio-
ned directive concerning the protection of bird wildlife. 

Sites of Community Interest are defined as fol-
lows by 92/43/EEC directive: “… sites that, within the
bio-geographical area/areas they belong to, significan-
tly contribute to the adequate conservation or restora-
tion of natural habitats as described by Annex I, or of a
species as described by Annex II, and that can further-
more significantly contribute to the coherent approach
stated by Nature 2000 as referred to in Art. 3, and/or
that significantly contribute to the protection of biodi-
versity in the pertinent bio-geographical area/areas”.

So far, the Rosandra Valley has always been atta-
ched “special” importance, due to its high environmen-
tal value. As previously stated, its park is also a valua-
ble and unique geological, historical and geomorpholo-
gic heritage.

This is the reason why the Valley can be conside-
red a suitable candidate for the Geopark status, accor-
ding to the definition provided by the 29th UNESCO
General Conference (Paris, October 24 – November 12,
1997): “a Geopark is an area that has a peculiar geolo-
gical heritage and a sustainable territorial development
strategy… It ought to include a certain number of extre-
mely important geological elements, in terms of scienti-
fic quality, rarity, aesthetic characteristics or educatio-
nal value. The majority of the areas included in a
European Geopark are supposed to be part of the abo-
vementioned geological heritage, but their interest can
also reside in archaeological, environmental, historical
or cultural values”. 

REFERENCES

CANNARELLA D. (1989) - La Val Rosandra Edizioni Itinerari
Carsici 3 - Edizioni Italo Svevo, Trieste.

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