Lakonis, and Kalamakia. Some of these sites remain 
central to debate regarding the latest presence of Nean-
derthals in Europe and the Mediterranean basin, as 
continuous updates to chronological, archaeological, 
and palaeoanthropological records (Higham et al., 2014; 
Mihailović, 2020; Déviese et al., 2017; Tourloukis, 2021; 
Karavanić et al., 2024). From this perspective, the re-
gion bordering the eastern Adriatic and Ionian seas, with 
its diverse geographic, climatic, and ecological charac-
teristics - including coastal plains, rolling hills, and 
mountain ranges reaching elevations of 2,600-2,700 m 
a.s.l. - deserves consideration as an area that has wit-
nessed significant population movements since the Mid-
dle Pleistocene. Its rugged terrain, intersected by major 
SE-NW orientated fluvial valleys connecting the south-
ernmost part of the Balkans with the Adriatic region, may 
have provided refugia for temperate species and fa-
voured Pleistocene zoogeographic diversity from the 
earliest times (Palombo & Mussi, 2006). However, given 
the scarcity of Middle Palaeolithic sites in this region, our 
current understanding of Neanderthal occupations, loca-
tions, territories, and adaptations to environmental and 
ecological diversity remains limited. It is expected that 
Neanderthals adapted to this geographic diversity 
through varying mobility strategies and technological 
traditions, resulting in a cultural mosaic featured by a 
mix of expedient and curated technologies, shifts be-
tween continuity and disruption in different productions 

Available online http://amq.aiqua.it 
ISSN (print): 2279-7327, ISSN (online): 2279-7335 
 
 

Alpine and Mediterranean Quaternary, 38 (1), 2025, 5-30 https://doi.org/10.26382/AMQ.2025.01 

1. INTRODUCTION. THE MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC 
SETTLEMENTS OF THE WESTERN BALKANS: A 
BIASED SCENARIO ? 
 

Southern Europe was extensively inhabited by 
Neanderthals during the late Middle Pleistocene and 
Late Pleistocene. However, despite the available evi-
dence indicating variability in settlement patterns and 
mobility strategies, the reconstruction of Neanderthals 
cultures and adaptive behaviours remains biased. 
Among the three peninsulas forming this part of Europe 
- Iberian, Italian, and Balkan (Romagnoli et al., 2022) - 
the Balkan Peninsula, particularly its south-westernmost 
region, records a low number of Mousterian sites, 
whether single-layered or multi-layered. These sites are 
located along the fringes of the Great Adriatic Po Re-
gion (Peresani et al., 2021) and the Ionian region, as 
well as in the mountain ranges of Dinarids and Epirus, 
extending to the southernmost Greek peninsula 
(Dogandžić, 2023; Galanidou & Papoulia, 2023; Kara-
vanić & Banda, 2023). Cave sites are also present in the 
mountainous area at the southern periphery of the Pan-
nonian basin (Mihailović, 2020), while open-air sites are 
clustered along the main river basins of the Sava, Drina, 
and Morava. Currently, the most extensively investigat-
ed sites from north to south include Krapina, Vindija 
Cave, Mujina Pećina, Pešturina, Kozarnika, Crvena 
Stijena, Bioče, Theopetra, Asprochaliko, Klissoura, 

MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC IN SOUTHERN ALBANIA: 
PERSPECTIVES FROM THE LITHIC INDUSTRY OF THE ISTRAISHTA SITE  

 
Rudenc Ruka 1, Michele Bassetti 2, Stefano Bertola 3, Davide Delpiano 3, 

Ilirjan Gjipali 1, Marco Peresani 3, 4  
  
 

1 Prehistory Department, Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Albanological Studies, Tirana, Albania. 
2 CORA Ricerche Archeologiche, Trento, Italy. 

3 University of Ferrara, Department of Humanities, Prehistoric and Anthropological Sciences Unit, Ferrara, Italy.  
4 CNR, IGAG, Stratigraphic, Vegetation, Climate and Man Research Group, Lab. Palinology and Palaeoecology, Milano, Italy. 

 
Corresponding author: Marco Peresani <marco.peresani@unife.it> 

 
ABSTRACT: Neanderthal groups developed diverse mobility patterns and resource exploitation strategies across their territories. 
These variations are linked to different knapping methods and are likely to reflect adaptive strategies and responses at multiple 
ecological and cultural levels. Neanderthals associated with Discoid knapping are known to depend on context-specific, unplanned 
exploitation of lithic raw materials for daily subsistence and tend to be more mobile than those using different technologies. How-
ever, well-defined data are lacking for many geographical regions where this technocomplex has been identified. This study pre-
sents the open-air site of Istraishta, where the Mousterian industry is characterised by Discoid technology applied to the reduction 
of pebbles, thin plates, and flakes. Our multidisciplinary investigation includes an analysis on the lithic surface collection, an as-
sessment of the quality and diversity of lithic raw materials exploited at the site, and an analysis of soil preserved in localised 
patches. These new findings contribute to our understanding of Neanderthal behavioural variability in the southern Balkans. We 
contextualise them at a macro-regional level, drawing comparisons with numerous sites in the Adriatic basin, primarily dated be-
tween MIS 5 and MIS 3. 
 
Keywords: Lithic industry, Palaeopedology, Soil-micromorphology, Open-air site, Mousterian, Korça Basin, South-Western Bal-
kans.  
 
 



   

 

 

 
 

6 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 

Fig. 1 - Location and geomorphological map of the Basin of Korça with position of Istraishta site. 1, height spot in metres; 2; town or village; 
3, natural and channelised flowing talweg; 4, deep talweg; 5, epigenic gorge; 6, former abandoned course; 7, associated coarse spreading; 
8, Maliq lake in 1948; 9, marshes related to the lake in 1948; 10, recent alluvial fillings; 11, quaternary alluvial terrace; 12, Holocene 
spreading cone and glacis; 13, undifferentiated quaternary colluvial deposits; 14, active quaternary fault line; 15, fault line without proven 
recent activity; 16, supposed fault line; 17, flexure; 18, local cleavage; 19, faceted escarpment (normalized slope); 20, faceted fault scarp; 
21, steep fault scarp; 22, monoclinal steep slope; 23, pebble conglomerates; 24, ophiolites; 25, karstified limestone range; 26, Pliocene 
hills; 27, Neogene molasses (by Fouache et al., 2010, modified by Davide Margaritora). 



   

 

is covered by several non-active, coalescent Holocene 
alluvial cones and glacis. 

The hill of Istraishta stands in isolation (Fig. 2a) 
bounded to the north and south by two deep river ero-
sions: of the Kamenica stream valley to the north and a 
tributary of the Dunaveci River to the south. The relief is 
formed by the anticline of the nappe emplacement of 
Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic limestones and the Mo-
lasse of the Albanian Thessalian basin (Middle Oligo-
cene). The sequences are displaced by numerous nor-
mal faults orientated in a N-S to NNE-SSW direction. At 
the summit, a small morpho-structural relief is formed by 
an outcrop of Oligocene bioclastic calcarenites, approxi-
mately two meters thick, containing macro foraminifera, 
molluscs, and fragments of benthic colonial organisms. 
This unit overlies a sequence of alternating gravel-
sandy-siltstone deposits with siliceous conglomerate 
lenses - particularly in the lower section - and marls with 
neritic fossils. The eastern slope of the hill is affected by 
gullies that erode the marly-arenaceous molasse se-
quence. In recent times, the hill has been altered by 
military installations, including repeaters stations, and 
the limestone bank has been exploited as a domestic 
quarry. 
 
2.2. Discovery and research history of the site 

The Istraishta site was discovered in 2001 during 
excavations at the nearby Kamenica tumulus by Albani-
an prehistorians Ilir Gjipali and Skënder Aliu, who visited 
the location during their fieldwork. Gjipali affirmed the 
site’s early prehistoric nature, although lithic artefacts 
had first been noted in 1968 by Aliu, who neither pub-
lished nor pursued further research at the site. From 
2001 onwards, surface collections were conducted dur-
ing multiple visits, and the site was briefly mentioned in 
publications by Gjipali, variously described as an early 
prehistoric, Middle Palaeolithic, and Middle and Upper 
Palaeolithic site (Gjipali, 2006; 2011; 2012; 2014; Aliu, 
2020). In 2011, Istraishta was revisited as a part of a 
collaboration between Ruka and Gjipali for the former’s 
PhD research, which culminated in an overview publica-
tion on the early prehistory of the Korça Basin, including 
Istraishta (Ruka, 2018). From 2012 onwards, the site 
was revisited on several occasions (Peresani et al., 
2016) and examined in the framework of a long-term 
Albanian-Italian research collaboration. Initially the site 
was published under the name of the nearby village, 
Kamenica (Peresani et al., 2016). However, to avoid 
confusion with the excavated tumulus, it was later re-
named after the hill on which it is located.  
 
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 

The primary objective of the archaeological sur-
veys was to analyse the spatial distribution of the arte-
facts, their relationship with the karst surface, and po-
tential associations with surface deposits and soils pre-
served within karst fissures. Surface collection, GPS 
recording, and examinations of natural and artificial 
exposures on soil surfaces, gullies, and fluvial erosional 
banks were conducted (Fig. 2b). We considered poten-
tial sources of information related to the Quaternary 
context, including geomorphology, soil and sediment 
composition, and field and micromorphological features 
of palaeosoils. These analyses aimed to reconstruct the 
major geomorphic and pedological events responsible 
for shaping the present-day landscape. Additionally, we 

and tool manufacture, and diverse modes and rhythms 
of site occupation and resource exploitation. Yet, this 
broader picture remains incomplete.  

Given the current state of knowledge, this study 
aims to contribute to the reconstruction of Middle Palae-
olithic mountain habitation through the presentation of 
the data from a multidisciplinary investigation - including 
palaeopedology, petroarchaeometry, and technological 
analysis - of an open-air site located in the Korça basin, 
near the town of Korça, in southeastern Albania. This 
region, previously unexplored for Palaeolithic research, 
provides new evidence for future cultural-behavioural 
comparisons of Neanderthals employing different pro-
duction systems in the southwestern Balkans. 
 
2. PRESENTATION OF THE ISTRAISHTA SITE IN 
THE KORÇA BASIN  
 
2.1. The Quaternary and geomorphological context 
of Istraishta 

The hill of Istraishta (1010 m. a.s.l.) is located at 
the eastern edge of an intermontane plain in the south-
western Korça basin (Fig. 1). The plain slopes gently 
northward, with elevations ranging from approximately 
890 m a.s.l. in the south to about 820 m a.s.l. in the 
north. It is bordered on all sides by mountains rising 
between 1500 and 2000 m a.s.l. The mountains border-
ing the Korça plain - particularly in the south - are deeply 
incised by numerous small but high-energy streams and 
torrents that contribute sediments to the Korça depres-
sion. The Dunaveci River drains the southern portion of 
the plain and merges with the Devolli River in the north. 

Tectonically, the Korça basin is a graben that be-
gan forming in the Late Miocene (Xhomo et al., 2002; 
Lindhorst et al., 2015). The basin has an asymmetric 
shape, with a significantly higher escarpment to the east, 
where limestone bedrock emerges abruptly. In contrast, 
molasse formations extensively surround the basin to 
the west (Fouache et al., 2010). Tectonic faulting is par-
ticularly developed along the eastern boundary, where 
the plain meets Mount Morava (Mali Morava), composed 
of ultrabasic rocks, and along the northern periphery of 
Mali i Thatë Mountain, which consists mainly of Triassic 
limestone. During the Pliocene, an additional extensional 
phase of the regional graben system linked the Ohrid 
and Korça grabens, forming a unified lake-river system. 
Pliocene to present day tectonic activity, particularly 
subsidence, gradually isolated the Korça graben within 
its current geological borders, allowing the deposition of 
interposed Pliocene formations in the northern part of 
the basin (Tagari et al., 1993; Lindhorst et al., 2015).  

Subsidence led to the formation of graben-shaped 
Quaternary lakes and plains. During this period, the 
graben lakes of Korça, Elbasani, Zadrima, Tirana, 
Myzeqe, and others were formed. Holocene fluvial de-
posits overlie much of the central part of the Korça low-
land, consisting mostly of alternating and discontinuous 
layers of variably sorted gravel, sand, ground silt, and 
clayey silt. The maximum thickness of Quaternary de-
posits in the south-central part of the plain (in the Turan-
Bulgarec area) reaches approximately 300 m. Mixed 
alluvial and alluvial fan deposits are widely exposed 
along the periphery of the Korça plain (Eftimi & Sara, 
2022). These deposits mainly consist of interbedded 
gravel, clay, and silt in highly variable sequences, while 
the southern part of the basin is characterised by Qua-
ternary alluvial terraces. The eastern slope of the basin 

 
 

7 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  



   

 

assessed the macroscopic nature of lithic resources in 
the surrounding area to compare them with the arte-
facts, aiming to confirm their local provenance. Finally, 
the cultural technocomplex was defined based on the 
identification of the most typologically diagnostic arte-
facts, which were also analysed from a technological 
perspective. 

 
3.1. Soil field description and micromorphology 

Two soil profiles, IST_1 and IST_2, respectively 
located at the southern edge of the top of Istraishta hill 
in a karst fissure and in the central area of the plateau, 
were selected among other exposures identified during 
our surveys. These soils, which do not contain any lithic 
artefacts, are representative of soil patches scattered 
across the top of Istraishta hill in the same area where 
artefacts were collected. Soil horizons were described 
following FAO guidelines (2006), while soil classification 
and horizon definitions were based on the criteria of Soil 
Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014) and the ‘World Ref-
erence Base for Soil Resources’ (IUSS Working Group 
WRB, 2015). Soil colours were determined in a wet 
state and coded using the Munsell® Soil Colour Charts 
(Munsell Color, 2009). 

Profile IST_1 was selected for micromorphological 

analysis in favour of its completeness by respect to pro-
file IST_2. Four thin sections were analysed from sedi-
ment blocks extracted during surveys from horizons AB, 
Bw, 2Bt1b, and 2Bt1b of profile IST_1 within a karst 
fissure (Fig. 2b). Thin section preparation was carried 
out by Laboratorio Servizi per la Geologia (Piombino, 
Livorno) following the method proposed by Murphy 
(1986). The analysis was conducted using a Prior Scien-
tific MP3500A microscope with polarised light at 20x, 
40x, 100x, and 400x magnifications. Descriptions follow 
the criteria established by Bullock et al. (1985), Courty et 
al. (1989) and Stoops (2021), while interpretations are 
based on Stoops et al. (2018) and Nicosia & Stoops 
(2017). 
 
3.2. Lithic industry 

The lithic assemblage of Istraishta consists of 1467 
artefacts (see thereafter Table 4). Of these, less than 20 
artefacts are unidentifiable due to intense fragmentation 
and physical and chromatic alterations caused by ther-
mal stress, weathering, pedological processes, and oth-
er factors. These were, therefore, excluded from further 
discussion. Additionally, a subset of fewer than 40 arte-
facts, securely attributable to the Holocene - potentially 
belonging to Mesolithic, Neolithic, or later periods based 

 
 

8 

Fig. 2 - Views of Istraishta hill and soil profile: 1, DTM of Istraishta hill and surroundings with position of IST-1 and IST-2 soil profiles (from 
https://geoportal.asig.gov.al/); 2, the surveyed area looking north; 3, view of Istraishta hill from South-East; 4, the IST-1 soil profile.  

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 



   

 

The technological analysis is further supported by well-
established protocols derived from refinements of E. 
Boëda’s foundational definitions (Mourre, 2003). In addi-
tion to counting all artefacts larger than 1 cm, we con-
ducted a technological analysis on all the identifiable 
artefacts, using technological and morphological criteria 
to determine each flake’s role and position within the 
reduction sequence. The overall reduction sequence 
was broadly reconstructed based on qualitative reason-
ing, employing morpho-technical, diacritic, and morpho-
metric analyses of cores, complete blanks, and selected 
by-products considered significant in the production 
process. Certain reduction strategies, such as the ex-
ploitation of the ventral face cores on large cortical 
flakes, are classified as 'Kombewa-type', referring to the 
adaptation of Kombewa technology within the Levallois 
volumetric concept (Dauvois, 1981), which is also appli-
cable to the Discoid concept (Bourguignon & Turq, 
2003). Key typological features of retouched blanks are 
discussed in the following section. Due to the chemical-
physical (patina) and mechanical surface alterations of 
the artefacts resulting from long-term exposure, we did 
not consider functional analyses to be viable.  
 

on technological and typological grounds - was also 
excluded from the analysis, as it falls outside the scope 
of this study. The remaining assemblage, which exhibits 
diagnostic techno-typological features consistent with 
the Middle Palaeolithic, is examined in the following 
section. 

To broadly identify lithic sources, we conducted 
petrographic determinations on a representative sample 
of artefacts at the PetroPaleo Laboratory at the Depart-
ment of Humanities, following a standardised protocol 
based on macroscopic and mesoscopic scales of obser-
vation. Adhering to established nomenclature (Church, 
1994; Klein, 1999). The pebbles were examined with the 
naked eye and under a multivariable optical stereomicro-
scope Optika SZ series, 45X with camera Moticam 3+ 
USB 3, and progressive magnifications ranging from 5X 
to 20x (Yonekura et al., 2008). The colour was deter-
mined according to the Munsell® Soil Colour Charts 
(Munsell Color, 2009). 

The conceptual and analytical approach to the 
technological analysis of the Istraishta lithic assemblage 
follows Inizan et al. (1995), Boëda (1993), Peresani 
(1998), Bourguignon & Turq (2003), and references in 
Peresani (2003) regarding the Discoid reduction method. 

 
 

9 

Tab. 1 - Field description notes for three profiles at the edge of the Istraishta hill. 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  



   

 

 
 

10 

4. RESULTS 
 
4.1. Palaeopedology of profile 1 (IST_1) 

Profile 1 (IST_1) consists of two distinct 
pedological units forming a complex pal-
aeosoil. The lower unit is a Terra Rossa-like 
soil, 35 cm thick, truncated by an erosional 
surface. It comprises two horizons (2Bt1b 
and 2Bt2b) characterised by decarbonation, 
clay illuviation, and rubefaction. The upper 
unit represents the present-day soil (A-AB-
Bw), measuring 75 cm in thickness and char-
acterised by structural modifications caused 
by intensive grazing. For detailed field de-
scriptions, see Table 1. 

The thin section analysis of the transi-
tional AB horizon (thin section MM2; Table 2) 
reveals a complex microstructure, it exhibits 
a highly separated primary granular micro-
structure, a weakly separated secondary 
subangular blocky microstructure; and an 
intrapedal channel microstructure. In MM2, 
porosity increases compared to the lower 
portion of the soil (about 10%) with the pres-
ence of channels likely formed by tree roots 
(diameter >2.5 mm) or biogalleries (diameter 
<5 mm). These biogalleries contain discon-
tinuous and loose microgranular infillings 
(pedotubules, Brewer 1964) attributed to soil 
mesofauna activities. The relative frequency 
distribution between the coarse (>20 μm) 
and the thin fraction follows an open por-
phyric pattern. The coarse fraction (15%) 
ranges in size from medium silt and fine 
sand with polycrystalline quartz - characteris-
tic of the granoblastic texture of metamorphic 
rocks - being the dominant component. Addi-
tionally, rare subangular particles of yellow-
ish volcanic glass and microcrystalline chert 
are observed. The thin fraction consists of a 
reddish-brown ground mass composed of 
clay and slit-sized mineral grains, producing 
a crystallitic b-fabric. Amongst the identified 
pedofeatures, both discontinuous and contin-
uous loose microgranular infillings are pre-
sent. These are often associated with coa-
lesced or isolated ellipsoidal excrements 
produced by mesofauna. The voids contain dense, in-
complete infillings of impure clay. Furthermore, both 
typical anorthic impregnations of iron (hydr)oxide nod-
ules, as well as nucleic nodules with angular quartz 
grains inherited from ancient soils, are observed. Nota-
bly, fresh roots are found within the channels, along with 
Ca-oxalate (whewellite) crystals. 

The Bw horizon (thin section MM1; Table 2) close-
ly resembles the AB horizon in its microstructural char-
acteristics and mineral composition of the ground mass. 
However, in Bw, the coarse fraction is notably reduced. 
Among the identified heavy minerals, rare amphiboles 
were observed. 

Compared to thin section MM2, the organic con-
tent within the thin fraction decreases, while the pe-
dofeatures remain similar. The presence of monomor-
phic, planar-shaped amorphous organic material with 
clear, sharp edges - silt-sized in dimension - suggests 
traces of micro-charcoal, albeit in very low quantities 
(<1%). Fresh roots were also identified within channels 

containing Ca-oxalate (whewellite) crystals (Fig. 3). 
The horizon 2Bt1b (thin section MM3; Table 2) 

differs from the previously described horizons. Its 
ground mass is characterised by subangular and poly-
hedric peds separated by planar voids. The coarse frac-
tion consists of quartz grains (~10%), mica, rare chert 
fragments, and volcanic glass. The ground mass is com-
posed of an opaque, brown-reddish, b-fabric speckled 
clay. Pedofeatures indicate active mesofauna bioturba-
tion, evidenced by passage features, loose discontinu-
ous and continuous microgranular infillings, and coales-
cent ellipsoids excrements. As in the overlying horizons, 
dense incomplete infillings of impure clay and both typic 
and nucleic anorthic impregnative iron (hydr)oxide nod-
ules - sized similarly to fine sand - are common (Fig. 3). 
Additionally, this horizon shows an increased presence 
(5%) of amorphous organic material ranging in size from 
silt to medium sand, with micro-charcoal still present but 
in low quantities (<1%). 

The 2Bt2b horizon (thin section MM4) shares the 

 

Fig. 3 - MM1 and MM4 thin sections of the IST_1 soil profile: MM1, A, loose mi-
crogranular infilling; MM1, B, charcoal particle; MM4, C, infilling of impure clay; 
MM4, D, brown-reddish clay groundmass with anorthic impregnative iron (hydr)
oxide nodules. 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 



   

 

ture, palaeontological content, silicification degree, and 
overall integrity. Different types of cherts embedded 
within the Adria Triassic-Jurassic limestones, radiolar-
ites occur in the ophiolite sedimentary covers, and Neo-
gene cherts are found within flysch and molasse depos-
its. Additional knappable raw materials include quartzite 
from the metamorphic basement, ignimbrite from volca-
no-sedimentary formations, and silcrete from silicified 
encrusted soils. The post-collisional evolution of the 
region mainly relates to the formation and evolution of 
the Albanian-Thessalian foredeep basin, which has 
been progressively filled with flysch (since upper Creta-
ceous) and molasse (since Eocene). These deposits 
consist of siliciclastic sediments and shallow marine 
bioclastic calcarenites, which are locally silicified. The 
Korça basin, as part of this foredeep, overlies the Mirdi-
ta (ophiolites), Korabi (Palaeozoic), and Krasta-Cukali 
(Mesozoic platform-basin limestones).  

Our survey along the eastern slopes of Istraishta 
focused on conglomerate horizons, which are especially 
common within the Eocene-Miocene molasse. In con-

micropedological features of MM3, with the primary dis-
tinction being the pronounced rubefaction of the clayish 
ground mass.  

 
4.2. Lithic raw material sources in the Korça basin 

In the Central-Eastern Hellenides/Albanides, knap-
pable lithic resources exhibit significant heterogeneity, 
reflecting the complex diversification of the region’s geo-
logical macro-units. The western Adria plate (Pelagonian 
zone) contains Mesozoic limestones, Neotethys Jurassic 
ophiolites, metamorphic basement slabs, and volcano-
sedimentary sequences. This intricate regional geologi-
cal framework results from the closure of the western 
sector of the Neotethys Ocean (Vardar), whose rem-
nants persist as ophiolite nappes over the eastern mar-
gin of the Adria continental plate, as well as Palaeozoic 
basement plates (Schmidt et al., 2008; Bortolotti et al., 
2013; Sherreiks & BouDagher-Fadel, 2021) (Fig. 4). 

The sedimentary rocks of the basin and its slope 
contain chert nodules and layers with distinct character-
istics, including variations in size, colour, texture, struc-

 
 

11 

Tab. 2 - Micromorphological features observed throughout the IST_1 soil profile. 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  



   

 

deposits formed below the CCD (calcite compensa-
tion depth), possibly in the upper part of the ophiolite 
covers (Vardar) or along the Adria continental mar-
gins. Collected as detritus near outcrops. 

2. Si. Silcrete groups 
Si1. Vivid red chalcedony with massive and waxy trans-

lucency, with vacuolar porosities filled by microcrystal-
line quartz and locally with white quartz flames; gene-
sis linked to laterite processes on ophiolite rocks dur-
ing the Cretaceous; non-tectonised. Collected as peb-
bles.  

Si2. Yellow fine-textured silicified laterite with a brecciat-
ed texture. Vacuolar porosities mineralised by zoned 
white chalcedony. Formed through laterite processes 
on ophiolite rocks during the Cretaceous; non-
tectonised. Collected as pebbles.  

Si3. Laterite with a fine-textured silicified matrix, featur-
ing chromite mineralisation and quartz veins. Its gene-
sis is linked to laterite processes affecting ophiolite 
rocks during the Cretaceous; non-tectonised. Collect-
ed as pebbles.  

Si4. Very fine crystalline grey chalcedony with a white 
patina and waxy translucency. Contains lithoclasts 
and large green and dark minerals with altered red-
dish borders. Exhibits a brecciated texture with chal-
cedony and microquartz mineralisation in porosities. 
Formed through laterite processes on ophiolite rocks 
during the Cretaceous; non-tectonised. Collected from 
palaeosoils or alteration horizons (laterite).  

trast, the older flysch deposits are primarily 
composed of siltstones and sandstones. The 
pebbles within these deposits predominately 
derived from ophiolitic rocks, with additional 
lithologies sourced from eroded weathered 
formations. Among these, silcrete (Skarpelis, 
2020) was also identified. 

During the Late Miocene, the region’s 
tectonic regime shifted from compressional 
to extensional (Lindhorst et al., 2015), lead-
ing to the formation of several N-S orientated 
grabens (rifting) that were progressively filled 
with siliciclastic and lacustrine deposits. Ex-
tensional tectonics in the region remain ac-
tive today. As a result, cherts and other 
knappable raw materials have been redistrib-
uted through the Quaternary and present-
day terrace formations, as well as through 
torrential gravels in the Istraishta surround-
ings. Despite this rich lithic resource land-
scape, systematic petroarchaeological stud-
ies of lithic collections or field surveys of 
outcropping knappable rocks have yet to be 
conducted in this particular region. One of 
the most inclusive descriptions of the region-
al geological framework remains the National 
Geological Map of Albania and associated 
illustrative notes (Xhomo et al., 2002). 

Our preliminary analysis suggests that 
most of the raw materials exploited at the 
site were collected as pebbles from the mo-
lasse conglomerates outcropping in the hills 
surrounding the southeastern and northwest-
ern margins of the Korça plain (Fouache et 
al., 2010). The site itself is situated atop a 
molasse hill (Fig. 1). The pebbles could have 
been gathered both near the outcrops and 
from alluvial deposits. In the majority of cas-
es, the raw materials consist of rounded pebbles exhibit-
ing varying degrees of alteration, as indicated by yellow 
to dark patinas resulting from pedogenetic and lateritic 
processes. A smaller proportion of raw materials - spe-
cifically certain blocks of radiolarites and cherts - display 
fresh and unaltered surfaces, suggesting they were 
probably sourced directly from nearby outcrops. Ophio-
lite units and their sedimentary covers (radiolarites), 
from the southwestern margin of the Korça plain, in 
close proximity to the site.  

The identified raw material lithotypes fall into the 
following categories (Table 3, Fig. 5): 
1. Ra. Radiolarite groups 
Ra1. Grey-green radiolarites with reddish-brown altera-

tion surfaces, exhibiting low silicification. Contain 
poorly preserved white radiolarians and scattered 
sulphide deposits, some of which are locally oxidised. 
Evidence of hydrothermal metamorphism suggests an 
origin from the ophiolite covers (Vardar). Collected as 
pebbles.  

Ra2. Red microlaminated radiolarites with abundant 
radiolarians, infilled with chalcedony (dark appear-
ance) and pelagic mud (brown to pink). Show signs of 
hydrothermal metamorphism, indicating an origin from 
the ophiolite covers (Vardar). Collected as pebbles.  

Ra3. Bi coloured green and red radiolarites with well-
preserved, heterometric radiolarians infilled with chal-
cedony, micro quartz, or calcite. These non tectonised 
radiolarites are likely derived from partially calcareous 

 
 

12 

 

Fig. 4 - Schematic geological and tectonic map indicating the main units and ba-
sins of central-western Balkans. Key: 1, Adria derived thrust sheets; 2, Adria pla-
te; 3, Europe derived units; 4, External foredeep; 5, Miocene thrust belt; 6, Ophio-
lites and sediments; 7, Rhodope complex; 8, Tisza mega-unit (after Lindhorst et 
al., 2015, modified by Davide Margaritora); the red frame corresponds to Fig. 1. 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 



   

 

-basins system. Collected as pebbles. 
Ch4. Dark, low silicified, and massive bituminous chert, 

with dispersed calcite/dolomite rhombic crystals and 
thick lamination; Depositional environment: intra-
platform basins. Attribution: Triassic-lower Jurassic. 
Collected as rounded and altered pebbles. 

Ch5. Silicified light yellow to beige, fine-textured bio-
calcarenite, matte, with abundant white bioclastic 
detritus (benthic foraminifers and crinoids, spicules, 
bioclasts). Slightly tectonised. Depositional environ-
ment: continental margin (slope). Attribution: Adria 
(Pelagonian) Mesozoic platform-basins system. 

Ch6. Very fine-textured light grey chert with an ivory-like 
mudstone cortex; contains numerous small white radi-
olarians and a few small spicules. This pelagic facies 
is very similar to Maiolica limestone. Depositional 
environment: basinal. Attribution: Adria (Pelagonian) 
Mesozoic platform-basins system. Collected from 
paleosoils. 

 
4.3. Discoid manufacture 

The lithic assemblage reflects the typical variability 
observed in Discoid core volumetric patterns, which in 
turn suggest a range of technical options employed 
throughout the production sequence. This resulted in 
two operational chains that were applied across all lithic 
materials (Table 4). This approach aligns with findings 
from previous studies of similar assemblages across 

3. Qu. Quartzite group 
Qu1. Fine-crystalline streaked quartzite with numerous 

pressure-orientated diaclases, some of which are 
locally filled by reddish clay. Its genesis is attributed to 
metamorphic processes in the crystalline basement 
(Paleozoic). Collected as pebbles. 

4. Vo. Volcanite group 
Vo1. Light grey trachyte with alkaline-feldspar pheno-

crystals. 
5. Ch. Chert groups  
Ch1. Silicified light grey bio-calcarenite with sponge 

spicules, peloids, colonial-organism bioclasts, and 
benthic foraminifera, and a fine laminated structure. 
Depositional environment: Cretaceous-Oligocene 
Korça foredeep. Collected as evolute pebbles with 
dark alteration surfaces. 

Ch2. Silicified reddish grey bio-calcarenite to mudstone 
with small spicules, peloids, and bioclasts dispersed in 
a fine brown-pink matrix. Microfossils are often graded 
and re-sedimented; slightly tectonised. Depositional 
environment: Cretaceous-Oligocene Korça foredeep. 
Collected as evolute pebbles, with dark alteration sur-
faces. 

Ch3. Silicified colonial organism (probably a sponge with 
clearly visible porosities and cellular structures). Clas-
sified as framestone (Dunham, 1962); Slightly tec-
tonised; Depositional environment: external platform/
reef. Attribution: Adria (Pelagonian) Mesozoic platform

 
 

13 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  

Tab. 3 - Summary Tab.  of the main petrographic features of the raw materials exploited in the site. RR= big radiolarians; rr= small radiola-
rians; sp= small spicules; SP= big spicules; fbent= benthic forams; bcr= benthic crinoids; mol= molluscs; w= white; d= dark; pel= peloids; 
biocl= bioclasts. 



   

 

tation also induced some distinct modifications to the 
morphological outline of the cores, reflecting the varied 
technical strategies employed during manufacture. Con-
sequently, the convex flaking surface adopted a centrip-
etal pattern primarily during the main production phase. 
However, technological analyses reveal both quantita-
tive and qualitative variability in the flaking procedure. 
Various usable blanks were obtained at the onset of 
exploitation, including slightly elongated and partially 
cortical flakes. These flakes sometimes retain cortex 
along a lateral edge, opposite a cutting edge, and often 
exhibit one or two unidirectional detachments. When the 
exploitation extended along the lateral edge, preceding 
the typical alternation between the two main surfaces, 

Europe (see Peresani, 2003; Delpiano et al., 2018; Del-
piano & Peresani, 2017; Arrighi et al., 2009).  

The first reduction sequence involved the exploita-
tion of medium-sized blocks and pebbles (from 5 to 12 
cm on average), with primary products obtained already 
at the earliest stages, during both decortication and the 
creation of the core edge, which delimited the two core 
faces (Fig. 6). Some cores, measuring between 3.5 to 6 
cm, were discarded at this initial stage after producing 
only a few flakes; these have been classified as ‘partially 
exploited’ discoid cores. The full production sequence, 
culminating in discard, was organised around this pivotal 
crest. In accordance with the substantial accordance 
with the Discoid criteria of predetermination, this exploi-

 
 

14 

 

Fig. 5 - Knappable raw materials exploited at Istraishta, classified into the main lithological groups: radiolarite (ra1-ra3), silcrete (si1-si4), 
quartzite (qu1), volcanite (vo1), chert (ch1-ch6) (see table 3 for details). 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 



   

 

was punctuated by several readjustments and core 
preparations. The frequency of by-products displaying 
flaking errors is notably high, exceeding one hundred 
specimens. Some core readjustments involved the par-
tial removal of the core-edge and the reorientation of the 
exploitation onto a newly created surface. This technical 
behaviour, well documented in discoid core reduction, is 
evidenced here by 14 transversal or longitudinal crested 
flakes (2-3.5 cm) and a couple of discoid cores (2.5-3.5 
cm) structured around three main surfaces (Fig. 8).  

The second operational chain involves the exploi-
tation of flakes as cores (ranging 3-5.5 cm), following a 
Kombewa-type reduction. This approach partially aligns 
with the Discoid volumetric concept and reduction pat-
tern (Fig. 9). In this context, the core edge corresponds 
to the intersection plane between the two faces of the 
flake. Large cortical flakes are the preferred blanks for 
reduction, sometimes using the bulb as the primary 
volume of convexity. The exploitation process is rela-
tively simple and less productive, mostly unifacial and 
concentrated on the ventral surface. However, small 
detachments on the upper surface are frequently ob-
served, often associated with a partially worked crest.  

Beyond the exploitation of various types of chert, 
the assemblage encapsulates the full spectrum of Dis-
coid techno-economic strategies recognised elsewhere. 
The high frequency of intact cortical products suggests 
that core initiation occurred on-site and that the bifurca-

flakes with a natural back were produced. These flakes, 
which are well represented in the Istraishta assemblage 
(n=79), measure between 3.5 and 6.5 cm in length. As 
decortication progressed, flake size decreased, with 
simple removal patterns with one or two parallel or con-
vergent removals was progressively replaced by centrip-
etal patterns, in accordance with a reduction process 
gradually replaced by centripetal patterns, reflecting a 
reduction process applied consistently throughout the 
sequence.  

The main production phase yielded a variety of 
blank types, determined by the organisation of core re-
duction. Detachments serve both predetermined and 
predeterminant functions, ensuring adherence to the 
technical criteria of the core organisation, including the 
maintenance of surface convexities and angles. The two 
flaking axes - centripetal and chordal relative to the core 
outline - allow different approaches to shaping surface 
convexity. From the beginning of this stage, 25 dé-
bordant flakes and 24 centripetal flakes with cortical 
surfaces attest to the attainment of full production before 
the complete shaping and decortication of the core, 
which was discarded once it has been reduced to 2.5 to 
4.5 cm in length. The primary production process focus-
es on generating a characteristic range of Discoid 
blanks, including centripetal flakes (3-6 cm), core-edge 
removal flakes (éclats débordants) (2-4.5 cm), and pseu-
do-Levallois points (1.5-4.5 cm) (Fig. 7). This sequence 

 
 

15 

 

Tab. 4 - Composition of the Istraishta lithic assemblage. 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  



   

 

retouching is confirmed by the presence of two retouch 
flakes, attesting to the shaping of thick scrapers. 

Scrapers constitute the predominant tool type 
(n=15) (Fig. 10). Although most of the tools are frag-
mented, some simple scrapers made from chert can be 
identified, primarily characterised by a straight longitudi-
nal profile. Notably, two proximal fragments of double 
scrapers in red and green radiolarite are present. The 
first exhibits a double, simple, and straight retouch, 
while the second features a left direct scalar retouch 
and a right inverse flat retouch. Additionally, a fragment-
ed convergent scraper is also made on radiolarite. The 
largest retouched tool in the assemblage is a simple 
denticulated scraper, manufactured on a 7.5 cm flake 
with a natural back. The assemblage is further com-
posed of two notches, one denticulated tool, and three 
flakes with marginal retouch. Some other tools may 
belong to a more recent (post-Pleistocene) phase of 
human frequentation at the site. 

 

tion of Discoid production into two operational sequenc-
es followed broadly comparable proportions. This is 
evidenced by the number of cores-on-flake (n=46) and 
the Kombewa-type flakes (n=42). Some discoid cores on 
thin slabs (n=11) or flakes (n=36), ranging from 4 to 6 
cm in size, exhibit a very low degree of exploitation. 
These cores are characterised by a limited number of 
bifacial detachments, which shape a sinuous lateral 
edge, suggesting a deliberate search for exceptionally 
small discoid blanks. This interpretation is further sup-
ported by the diminutive size of the resulting pseudo-
Levallois points and core-edge removal flakes, some of 
which measure less than 2 cm. 
 
4.4. Tool shaping 

The number of retouched tools is relatively low 
(n=21). It is reasonable to suggest that some Middle 
Palaeolithic retouched tools may have been introduced 
into the site already shaped, given the significant diversi-
ty of raw materials. However, evidence of on-site tool 

 
 

16 

 

Fig. 6 - Discoid lithic assemblage: 1, Unipolar-bidirectional flake; 2-5, cortically backed flakes. 

Fig. 7 - Discoid lithic assemblage: 1-2, centripetal flakes; 3, 5, core-edge removal flakes; 4, 6-11, pseudo-Levallois points. 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 



   

 

differences are observed in blank selection and raw 
material properties, lithic production and economy re-
main consistent across the different lithological groups. 
Levallois technology is represented by a small number 
of artefacts, including seven cores and 14 flakes with 
prepared butts. Additionally, some cores and flakes 
exhibit knapping on a single surface and follow a similar 
volumetric concept with two hierarchised surfaces, albeit 
without the meticulous preparation of the striking plat-

4.5. Levallois flakes and cores 
The assemblage also includes Levallois blanks (2.5

-5 cm) and cores (4-6 cm), along with flakes detached 
for the reconfiguration and maintenance of cores during 
reduction (Fig. 11). The raw materials used for Levallois 
implements are similar to those employed for Discoid 
lithic artefacts, with fine-grained greyish chert being the 
most commonly exploited, while other raw material types 
are much less frequently represented. Although slight 

 
 

17 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  

 

Fig. 8 - Discoid cores: 1-2, typical discoid cores; 3, bifacial core with small detachment; 4-6, partially developed discoid cores; 7, discoid 
core on three surfaces. 

Fig. 9 - Discoid cores: 1,3,5, Discoid cores on flake; 2, core on flake with small bifacial detachments; 4, Kombewa-type flake. 



   

 

The presence of a coarse quartz fraction, combined with 
a fine clayish texture that imparts a porphyric-peripheric 
distribution to the groundmass, serves as clear evidence 
of an advanced stage of soil weathering. The coarse 
fraction, composed of less weatherable and resistant 
minerals such as quartz, is typical of highly weathered 
horizons, akin to those found in Oxisols (IUSS Working 
Group WRB, 2015) or laterites. Among the coarse com-
ponents, subangular particles of yellowish volcanic 
glass - identified as palagonite - were detected, albeit in 
low concentrations. Additionally, the presence of fine 
clayish, reddish material with a heterogeneous b-fabric 
is indicative of sub-superficial oxic horizons undergoing 
a high degree of pedogenetic evolution. Such horizons 
typically develop on ancient and stable surfaces where 
a rejuvenation does not occur, marking a case of long-
term pedogenesis. 

The polyhedric and angular microstructure, associ-
ated with a dense groundmass with an open porphyric 
c/f distribution, is characteristic of soil affected by cry-

form. 
 
5. DISCUSSION 
 
5.1. The polycyclic soil of Istraishta and its Qua-
ternary frame 

Profile 1 sequence of IST_1 resembles the 
features typical of polycyclic soils (Duchaufour, 
1983). The lower unit comprises horizons 2Bt1b and 
2Bt2b (thin sections MM3 and MM4 respectively), 
while the upper unit is formed by horizons AB and 
Bw (thin sections MM1 and MM2, respectively). Both 
units are entirely decarbonised. The lower unit pre-
sents distinctive ‘Terra Rossa’ features and can be 
classified as fersiallitic soil (Duchaufour, 1983) or 
Luvisol (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015). Such 
soils typically form a discontinuous layer of variable 
thickness - ranging from a few centimetres to several 
metres - overlying hard limestone and dolomitic rocks 
in karstic regions (Durn et al., 1999; Durn, 2003; 
Merino et al., 2006; Torrent, 2005). The soil colour, 
ranging from 5YR to 2.5YR (Munsell Colour, 2009), 
is a diagnostic feature of ‘Mediterranean Terre Ros-
se’ and reflects the intensity of the rubefaction pro-
cesses, particularly the preferential formation of 
haematite over goethite (Schwertmann & Taylor, 
1989). The parent material has a polygenetic origin, 
resulting from the karstic dissolution of the limestone 
substrate, followed by the pedogenetic evolution of re-
sidual clay and the incorporation of allochthonous aeoli-
an components (quartz, mica, volcanic glass, amphi-
boles). Concerning micromorphology, the deep horizon 
2Bt2b is characterised by a strong accumulation of ses-
quioxides. In addition to rubefaction and a clay-rich 
ground mass, there is a notable absence of textural pe-
dological features on void surfaces. This is consistent 
with the development of fersiallitic soil and suggests that 
intense bioturbation by mesofauna has led to the com-
plete incorporation of these features into the ground 
mass.  

The upper unit shows similar micropedological 
features to the lower unit but also displays distinct char-
acteristics in horizons Bw1 and AB (thin sections MM1 
and MM2, respectively). The transitional AB horizon can 
be identified by an increased organic fraction within the 
groundmass and a significant rise in biological activity. 

 
 

18 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 

 

Fig. 10 - Istraishta retouched tools: 1, simple denticulated scraper; 2, double scraper with alternate retouch; 3, double scraper; 4, notch; 5, 
fragmented scraper; 6-8, convergent scrapers. 

 

Fig. 11 - Levallois cores and products: 1-2, hierarchised cores on 
surface; 3, Levallois flake; 4-5, Levallois cores. 



   

 

weathering of the silt particles observed in IST_1 makes 
it difficult to identify their precise sources. Loess deposi-
tion has affected Istria and the Dalmatian Archipelago 
since the early Middle Pleistocene (Cremaschi, 1990).  

The formation of these strongly weathered pale-
osoils is related to a prolonged period of biostasy, unin-
terrupted by major climatic shifts throughout the Chi-
banian and Late Pleistocene. Consequently, most stud-
ies in Quaternary palaeopedology interpret Terra Rossa 
like a polygenetic relict soil that may have originated as 
early as the Tertiary, the Early Pleistocene, or during 
warm interglacial periods following the mid-Pleistocene 
climate transition (see Durn, 2003, for review). However, 
a more plausible interpretation is that these soils repre-
sent Vetusols (Cremaschi, 1987), in which pedogenetic 
processes have continuously operated over extended 
timescales since the Mid-Pleistocene (Bronger & Sedov, 
2002) or even the latter part of the Late Pleistocene, as 
observed in the southern Mediterranean rim (Gvirtzman 
& Wieder, 2001). At Istraishta, as in comparable con-
texts, this prolonged pedogenic phase was subsequent-
ly influenced by later land-use conditions, as evidenced 
by the confirmation of unstable conditions and the trans-
formation of the soil into brown.  

In summary, the geochronological position of the 
Istraishta Middle Palaeolithic industry, recovered from 
above the Terra Rossa soil at the top of the hill, remains 
broadly defined between the Chibanian and the Late 
Pleistocene. However, it may be further constrained 
between the earliest presumed appearance of Discoid 
technological assemblages in southern Europe and the 
Balkans, dating to MIS5e, and the latest occurrences of 
these industries in MIS3, as outlined in the following 
section. 
 
5.2. Discoid knapping on the edge 

Beyond the extensive use of the Levallois method, 
Neanderthals exhibited significant technical variability, 
with Discoid technology serving as a particularly illustra-
tive comparative case. Initially defined in the 90s in 
terms of its principal volumetric criteria (Boëda, 1993) 
and subsequently explored in greater detail to assess its 
variability of application (see Peresani, ed. 2003), this 
core shaping, exploitation, and maintenance strategy is 
traditionally considered less predetermined but more 
prolific and versatile/flexible than the Levallois method. 
Several factors support this interpretation, foremost 
among them being the inherently recurrent nature of its 
reductive and productive concept, by concatenating the 
exploitation of the core-faces and facilitating the detach-
ment of both predetermining and predetermined pieces 
without embedded phases of shaping. This adaptability 
allows the production of a wide range of functional prod-
ucts from a qualitatively wider range of raw materials 
than the Levallois and other technologies. As a result, 
Discoid technology is particularly well-suited to over-
coming ecological constraints and mitigating potential 
limitations associated with landscapes devoid of high-
quality knappable raw materials (Turq et al., 2017). Due 
to its applicability to a wide spectrum of different 
shapes, the Discoid reduction concept can also extend 
to the exploitation of flakes, with maintenance stages 
and resulting products that are fully comparable to those 
produced through Discoid reduction sequences on nod-
ules or pebbles (Bourguignon & Turq, 2003).  

At several European sites, the Discoid method was 
used with varying frequency within the broader produc-

oturbation. In addition, the presence of an overlapping 
microstructure with channels containing loose discontin-
uous microgranular infillings - often associated with coa-
lescent ellipsoidal faecal pellets - provides clear evi-
dence of mesofaunal biological activity and root penetra-
tion in the sub-superficial horizon. These pedofeatures 
caused by mesofauna activity, combined with fresh root 
traces in channels characterised by whewellite crystals, 
indicate a recent shift in land use, notably from wood-
land to pasture. This transition is reflected in the gradual 
superimposition of a granular intrapedal and channel 
microstructure over the original angular polyhedral micro 
aggregation - possibly also prismatic, although its exact 
morphology is difficult to determine at the thin section 
scale. Dense and incomplete impure clay infillings may-
be interpreted as illuviation phenomena and/or micro-
structural degradation resulting from vegetational cover 
loss. This phenomenon has also led to a significant in-
crease in porosity in the sub-superficial portion of the 
rare (<1%) microcarbon particles, appearing as amor-
phous and monomorphic organic material with flat 
shapes and well-defined surfaces, having been ob-
served.  

In the absence of direct dating, determining the 
geochronological position of the Istraishta Palaeolithic 
assemblage remains challenging. The only viable ap-
proach relies on the assumption that the red clayey soil 
analysed at the IST_1 profile is representative of the 
overall broader palaeopedogenetic context that devel-
oped atop the Eocene carbonate bedrock at the summit 
of the hill. The IST_1 palaeosoil has been classified 
within the subclass of soils commonly referred to as 
Terra Rossa, which is largely diffused across carbonatic 
bedrocks in the Mediterranean rim, including an exten-
sive belt in the Western Balkans (Durn, 2003). The pro-
cesses of total decarbonation, clay illuviation, rubefac-
tion, the enrichment of weathering-resistant mineral spe-
cies, and the high concentration of Fe (hydr)oxides all 
correspond to the characteristics of Modal Fersiallitic 
Red Soils (Duchaufour, 1983), developed under stable 
interglacial climatic conditions, especially at mid-
latitudes (Durn, 2003). Typically, these soils accumulate 
discontinuously, varying in thickness from a few centi-
metres to several meters, and are primarily preserved on 
surfaces, within cracks, sinkholes, or other depressions 
formed through the dissolution of limestones and dolo-
mites. Non-primary red-clayey accumulations, commonly 
termed Terra Rossa-like materials, are often found in 
karst depressions or as contributors to pedo-
sedimentary colluvial sequences; however, this is not 
the case at Istraishta. Given that the site is located on 
hard and permeable limestones and dolomite formations 
with a notably low insoluble residue content - consistent 
with other regions of the Balkans (Macleod, 1980) - it is 
likely that Terra Rossa soils here have incorporated 
external materials. These could have originated from 
volcanic events, aeolian streams, shallow water 
transport, and other processes, thereby diminishing the 
significance of the primary parent material derived from 
the insoluble residue of bedrocks (Yaalon, 1997). Evi-
dence suggests that aeolian and pyroclastic material 
from the Tyrrhenian area was transported across both 
sides of the central Adriatic basin during the Pleistocene 
(Chiesa et al., 1990; Šušnjara et al., 1994), with no ex-
clusion of wind-borne material from Africa (Rapp, 1984).  

The addition of aeolian and volcanic dust to the 
Istraishta soil is likely, although the high dispersion and 

 
 

19 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  



   

 

2015). The industry is typically represented by cores, 
thick flakes, pseudo-Levallois points, backed flakes with 
sharp opposing edges, polygonal and triangular flakes, 
produced through a main complex reduction sequence 
based on blocks and nodules, and a secondary, simpler, 
and less productive sequence based on flake-cores, 
either derived from by-products or directly introduced to 
the site. Furthermore, like the Istraishta assemblage, 
cores yielded usable blanks from the initial reduction 
stages, with core outlines gradually shifting from a unidi-
rectional to a discoid pattern. This process involved 
continuous modification, ultimately resulting in polyhe-
dral core shapes (Delpiano & Peresani, 2017; Delpiano 
et al., 2017; 2018). The retouched toolset includes 
scrapers, points, denticulates, and tools intentionally 
modified to create a backed edge, either through re-
touching or by adapting an existing back for manual 
handling or potential hafting. These modifications sug-
gest different levels of expertise and technical skill, rein-
forcing the notion that backing - although rarely ob-
served - was a typical characteristic feature of Neander-
thal technological repertoires (Delpiano et al., 2019). 
This feature is particularly prevalent in the Late Mouste-
rian Discoid technology (Gravina & Discamps, 2015; 
Bodu et al., 2014); however, it is not present at 
Istraishta. 

Few archaeological contexts are geographically 
close to Fumane Cave (Fig. 12). Among them is the 
open-air site of Monte Cason, which remains undated. 
Here, Levallois was applied to allochthonous chert, 
whereas Discoid was used on local raw materials 
(Bertola & Peresani, 2000). Further west, Discoid as-
semblages are present in the Ciota Ciara Cave (Daffara 
et al., 2014). A well-established MIS3 chronology is 
known for Rio Secco Cave, where this technology is 
evidenced by core-edge removal flakes and pseudo-
Levallois points, in a region notably poor in chert 
(Peresani et al., 2014). Beyond Rio Secco, the only 
documented evidence of Discoid industry and tools 
comes from Divje Babe I in the Slovenian Alps and 
Caverna degli Orsi in the Trieste Karst. Late MIS5 and 
MIS4 sediments yielded only end-products, including a 
few pseudo-Levallois points made from local and alloch-
thonous chert and limestone (Boschian, 1999-2000; 
Boschian & De Santis, 2011). At Divje Babe I, findings 
from layer 7 have been bracketed between the 14C 
dates of layer 6 (minimum age of 43.4+1/-1.4 cal ka BP) 
and layer 8 (maximum age of 45.1+1.5/-18 cal ka BP) 
(Nelson, 1997), with later ESR dating placing them be-
tween 49.0-50.1 cal ka BP (Blackwell et al., 2009). More 
recent publications recognise the presence of the dis-
coid cores alongside Levallois cores and products, sug-
gesting a broader use of the Discoid method throughout 
the stratigraphy, with a higher frequency in levels A, A/
B, E 2, F 2, and H (Turk & Turk, 2014; Turk, 2014). 
South of the Trieste Karst, in Istria, the Campanož open
-air site features a large and densely packed lithic scat-
ter, stratified between two horizons of Mediterranean 
Terra Rossa soil. Discoid production was organised on 
unifacial and bifacial cores and focused on small tools, 
with evidence of recycling of previously discarded arte-
facts. Retouched tools include scrapers and abrupt 
points (Banda et al., 2022). Beyond these, no other 
Discoid industries have been described in the Upper 
Adriatic region (Peresani & Tozzi, 2018).  

Similar to the Eastern Adriatic, Mousterian assem-
blages associated with Discoid technology are absent in 

tive systems, ranging from ephemeral to dominant, and 
even exclusive in certain contexts and temporal phases. 
Although this reduction technique was not solely a 
’supporting‘ procedure aimed at maximising production, 
it does not appear to reflect in-depth planning. Instead, it 
seems to be part of a place-provisioning strategy fo-
cused on short-term exploitation. In these cases, as 
previously investigated by Delagnes & Rendu (2011), 
the groups employing this technology would be charac-
terised by increased seasonal mobility. Lithic production, 
being internally diverse and highly ramified, would thus 
have had a high potential for immediate adaptability to 
varying needs. The advantage of the Discoid method 
appears to lie in its ability to maintain a high degree of 
adaptability and renewal through strategies less con-
strained by environmental factors. This behaviour of 
technological flexibility can be interpreted as a rational 
and planned response, consistent with recent evidence 
of logistical planning in economic organisation in semi-
local or exotic territories. This organisation would have 
been influenced by the quality and distance of available 
raw material sources, as well as by the systematic seg-
mentation of the operative chain (Delpiano et al., 2018). 
 
5.3. Discoid assemblages in the South-eastern Euro-
pean context 

The presence of industries employing Discoid tech-
nology is well-documented in Late Middle Pleistocene 
and Late Pleistocene sites across Europe (see Peresani, 
2003, and papers therein). Notable examples are also 
found in Eastern Italy and the Balkans, where this tech-
nology is recorded at a limited number of sites alongside 
Levallois reduction methods. However, these two tech-
nologies appear to have been applied differently de-
pending on the suitability of available raw materials for 
knapping. Levallois is generally associated with higher 
quality and occasionally allochthonous raw materials, 
whereas the Discoid is predominantly linked to strictly 
local resources, irrespective of quality. In such cases, 
Discoid technology seems to have been primarily em-
ployed to maximise the exploitation of local resources, 
with final reduction sequences serving only secondary 
purposes.  

In Eastern Italy, the distribution of Discoid-based 
industries spans geographical regions with diverse phys-
ical landscapes, lithic resources, and varying degrees of 
settlement system visibility, including the eastern Pre-
Alps, the Trieste Karst, and the stretch on the Adriatic 
coast (Peresani, 2003). Some of these lithic assemblag-
es were recovered from the surface at open-air sites 
lacking faunal remains and direct correlated pedo-
stratigraphic correlation.  

At Fumane Cave, the cultural significance of unit 
A9 has been highlighted on several occasions, both for 
its Discoid production technology and for various as-
pects of Neanderthal innovative behaviours, diet, and 
subsistence (Peresani, 2022, see references therein). 
The dates for A9 are older than 44.8 Cal ka BP, which 
marks the lower chronological boundary of units A5+A6. 
Unit A9 records an almost exclusive use of this technolo-
gy positioned between two Levallois units: A10 at the 
base and A6 at the top. The techno-economic structure 
of the A9 assemblage consists of complete reduction 
sequences carried out on local cherts, with occasional 
use of materials sourced from greater distances 
(Delpiano et al., 2018). Additionally, the assemblage 
includes patinated recycled artefacts (Peresani et al., 

 
 

20 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 



   

 

pean contexts. The increased frequency of Discoid as-
semblages toward the end of the Middle Palaeolithic 
aligns with the decline of Levallois industries and a rise 
in technological variability - an observable trend in Italy 
(Marciani et al., 2020) as well as in the Iberian Peninsu-
la (Romagnoli et al., 2022). This chronological and geo-
graphic distribution persists regardless of regional rela-
tionships, palaeo-environmental context, site typology, 
or associated faunal spectrum. Environmental data do 
not indicate a strong correlation between site type and 
industry, particularly in sheltered, multilayered sites. 
This pattern is evident in the Fumane sequence, where 
forest landscapes and ungulate associations remain 
stable despite shifts between Levallois and Discoid as-
semblages (López-Garcia et al., 2015).  

In the Balkans, at Mujina Pećina cave, along the 
Dalmatian coast in Croatia, has yielded rare elements of 
Discoid technology, including a core and possible pseu-
do-Levallois point (Karavanić et al., 2008) (Fig. 12). 
These finds have been attributed to the Late Mousterian 
(Boschian et al., 2017; Karavanić et al., 2021). Another 
noteworthy case is Podvršje-Šibenička glava, an open-
air site in northern Dalmatia, where several cores have 
been identified alongside various flakes, notches, den-
ticulates, and sidescrapers. Notably, Levallois cores are 
absent, with only a single Levallois flake recorded 
(Vujević, 2009; Vujević et al., 2017). Further inland, in 

the Mid-Adriatic region of the Lower Western Adriatic 
basin but reappear further south in the Italian peninsula 
(Fig. 12). In Santa Croce di Bisceglie Cave, although 
undated, pedo-sedimentary and paleontological data 
suggests a MIS 4 chronology. Here, the reduction se-
quence was aimed at producing sub-triangular flakes 
and pseudo-Levallois points (Arrighi et al., 2009). In the 
Salento region, Grotta del Cavallo records Discoid tech-
nology as complementary to unipolar débitage in layers 
M and L, while it becomes exclusive in the upper layers 
FIIIa and FII. These upper layers are stratigraphically 
separated from the lower, more Levallois-dominated 
assemblages. Throughout the sequence, raw material-
use strategies vary, and a notable miniaturisation in 
production is evident in layer M (Sarti et al., 2017). Inter-
estingly, a recurrent débitage on secant planes, exploit-
ing only part of the core, is reported. Following a similar 
reduction concept, Istraishta contains numerous cores 
on slabs or flakes, which we classify as ‘low exploited 
discoid cores’ used to produce very small blanks. Final-
ly, near Grotta del Cavallo, Grotta Mario Bernardini pre-
sents an analogous sequence, featuring both unifacial 
and bifacial variants of Discoid debitage, along with the 
reduction of the ventral surface of cores-on-flakes 
(Carmignani & Romagnoli, 2017). 

The timespan bracketed by these industries is no-
tably broad, highlighting their affinities with other Euro-

 

 
 

21 

Fig. 12 - Map of sites containing discoid industries: 1, Fumane cave; 2, Tagliente shelter; 3, Rio Secco cave; 4, Caverna degli Orsi cave; 5, 
Santa Croce cave; 6; Mario Bernardini cave; 7, Cavallo cave; 8, Divje Babe cave; 9, Campanož; 10, Podvršje-Šibeni glava; 11, Kamen; 12, 
Zobište shelter; 13, Visoko Brdo; 14, Londža; 15, Mališina stijena; 16, Crvena Stijena; 17, Bioče; 18, Golema Pesht; 19, Uzun Mera; 20, 
Mujina pećina; 21, Molondra; 22, Eleftherochori 7; 23, Mikro Karvounari; 24, Megalo Karvounari; 25, Morfi; 26, Asprochaliko; 27, Kokkinopi-
los ; 28, Dalani i Vogël. The position of Istraishta is shown (map created by Davide Margaritora). 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  



   

 

confirmed these findings in newly defined Layers B2 
and C1 (Derevianko et al., 2021; Shunkov et al., 2021).  

Further inland, in Northern Macedonia, systematic 
research on the Middle Palaeolithic remains limited. The 
most important MP site is Golema Pešt Cave (Fig. 12), 
where Late MP layers (6 and 5), contain both Levallois 
and discoid cores on quartzite, along with numerous by-
products. CI tephra has been identified in layer 2, which 
is believed to overlie Early UP layers. Preliminary ESR 
dating of layer 3 places it between 83-61.8 ka, serving 
as a terminus ante quem for the yet unpublished ESR 
estimates for layers 6 and 5 (Salamanov-Korobar, 2008; 
2019; Lowe et al., 2012; Blackwell et al., 2019). Addi-
tionally, the recently explored open-air site of Uzun Me-
ra has provided evidence of MP Discoid technology 
(Stojanovski et al., 2018). 

In Albania, small quantities of discoid cores and 
products have been found alongside larger Levallois 
assemblages in open-air sites across the western re-
gions of Mallakastra, Shkodra, and Dalani i Vogël. Nota-
bly, Levallois artefacts from Dalani i Vogël may date as 
late as 42.9 cal ka BP and 38.7 cal ka BP (Runnels et 
al., 2009; Ruka, 2023; Badino et al., 2025). 

Further south, in northwestern Greece and adja-
cent to southern Albania, 104 MP sites had been report-
ed by 2015, yielding a variety of assemblages (Fig. 12). 
The dated contexts range from MIS 5e or slightly earlier 
to the first half of MIS 3 (Elefanti & Gilbert, 2015). Many 
openair sites. often associated with Terra Rossa depos-
its, are dominated by Levallois method and products but 
occasionally contain discoid cores and products such as 
the sites of Kokkinopilos, Megalo Karvounari, Mikro 
Karvounari, Molondra, Morphi, Eleftherochori 1 and 3, 
Kastoria area, Samarina 1 and 2, and Lake Smixi 
(Dakaris et al., 1964; Kourtessi-Philippakis, 1986; Bailey 
et al., 1992; Papaconstantinou & Vassilopoulou, 1997; 
Papagianni, 2000; Galanidou, 2007; Ligkovanlis, 2011, 
2017 and 2018; Papoulia, 2011; Efstratiou et al., 2014; 
Biagi et al., 2017 and 2023; Papadea, 2019; Ligkovanlis 
et al., 2022). However, two MP sites in northwestern 
Greece stand out in relation to this study: Asprochaliko 
and Eleftherochori 7, both located in Epirus and relative-
ly close to Istraishta. Asprochaliko is a rock shelter that 
has been excavated and stratigraphically divided into 
two main units: the Basal Mousterian was thought to be 
dominated by Levallois technology, while the Upper 
Mousterian was characterised by an exclusive use of 
the Discoid technology. The Upper Mousterian has been 
dated using two conflicting 14C dates from layer 14, spit 
19: one falls within the Upper Palaeolithic range (32-
27.6 cal ka BP), while the second is regarded as termi-
nus ante quem (> 44.3 cal ka BP). This latter date has 
been generally regarded as Upper Mousterian. Similar-
ly, the Basal Mousterian has been dated using both 14C 
and TL methods. A single 14C date in layer 18, spit 30 
produced a relatively young result (> 50-37.1 cal ka BP), 
whereas two TL dates from layer 18, spits 38-40, 
ranged between 102±14 ka and 96±11 ka (Bailey et al., 
1992; Huxtable et al., 1992; Gowlett & Carter, 1997; 
Papaconstantinou & Vassilopoulou, 1997; Papagianni, 
2000; Facorellis, 2013). More recently, the initial techno-
logical interpretations of the Basal unit have been chal-
lenged and revised. It is now considered to be predomi-
nately Discoid technology, with a minor presence of 
cores-on-flakes, whereas the upper unit appears to 
show the reverse pattern. Notably, the Basal Mousterian 
assemblage contains 14 cores-on-flakes, which may 

the Hrvatsko Zagorje region, several significant cave 
sites have been identified. At Veternica Cave, the lithic 
assemblage is composed of non-Levallois reduction 
methods, including centripetal cores and ‘cobble wedge 
cores,’ which require further analysis before they can be 
definitively classified as discoid. However, due to the 
loss of stratigraphic provenance, the assemblage is 
broadly attributed to MIS 5e-5a or MIS 4 (Banda & Kara-
vanić, 2019). The same ‘cobble wedge’ cores were ex-
tensively used at Krapina Cave, whereas sidescrapers, 
notches, denticulates, and naturally backed knives domi-
nate the assemblage. While Levallois blanks appear 
throughout the sequence, they are not common, similar-
ly to Discoid cores, which remain occasional (Simek, 
1991; Simek & Smith, 1997). A comparable technologi-
cal pattern is also observed at the Late Mousterian site 
of Vinica cave, where a variety of reduction sequences - 
including unidirectional, discoidal, and bidirectional cores 
- were predominantly applied to quartz pebble. Although 
Levallois cores are absent, a few Levallois products 
appear to have been transported to the site as finished 
products (Vukosavljević et al., 2022).  

Regarding Bosnia and Herzegovia, despite the lack 
of systematic research, an extensive presence of discoid 
cores has been noted at several sites, including Visoko 
Brdo, Kamen, Londža, and Zobište. Among these, Zo-
bište is the only site in the region that has been TL dat-
ed, with results ranging between 97.5±7 ka and 85.5±8.5 
ka (Baumler, 1987; 1988). 

In Montenegro, three cave sites with Middle Palae-
olithic components have been identified, each containing 
different levels of Discoid technology (Fig. 12). However, 
an increasing prevalence of Levallois centripetal core 
exploitation over unidirectional reduction is observed in 
the later Middle Palaeolithic, particularly in sequences at 
Crvena Stijena and Bioče (Dogandžić & Ðuričić, 2017). 
Crvena Stijena is well-known for its extensive prehistoric 
sequence and recent multidisciplinary research. Discoid 
cores with one or two flaking surfaces, along with their 
associated products, appear throughout the sequence, 
from the deepest layers XXXI to layer XII. Notably, an 
emphasis on unifacial discoidal cores is recorded in the 
later levels XII and XIV. The overall sequence likely 
spans from MIS6/5 to the Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) 
eruption, which marks the final MP layer XII (Mihailović, 
2024; Morley & Woodward, 2011; Mihailović & Whallon, 
ed. 2017; Monnier et al., 2020).  

Bioče, another important site, was initially excavat-
ed between 1986 and 1997. Discoid technology, along-
side Levallois, was recognised early within a stratigraph-
ic sequence estimated to range from MIS 5 and MIS 4 to 
the CI eruption. The lithic industry, described as micro-
Mousterian, remains relatively uniform throughout the 
sequence (Đuričić, 1997; Dogandžić & Đuričić, 2017). 
More recent excavations (2010-2015) uncovered deeper 
layers with similar characteristics. Particularly significant 
is upper Layer 1, which contains 90% of the total arte-
facts recovered and is dominated by Discoid technology. 
Its association with the CI eruption has been considered 
evidence of late Neanderthal survival in the region 
(Pavlenok et al., 2017; Vishnevskiy et al., 2019; Drago-
savac et al., 2021).  

Mališina Stijena, the third site, has received com-
paratively less attention. Initial excavations in the 1980’s 
identified discoid cores and related products in layers 
3b13 (southern trench) and layers 13-12 (western 
trench) (Radovanović, 1986). Recent excavations have 

 
 

22 

 
 

Ruka R. et al. 



   

 

6. CONCLUSIONS 
 

Discoid industries were widespread across south-
ern Europe and other parts of western Eurasia, appear-
ing in diverse geographic and palaeo-environmental 
contexts, across various site types, and in association 
with different faunal spectrums and coexistence with 
other flaking methods. While the Middle Palaeolithic 
record of the Western Balkans shows a significant oc-
currence of the Discoid method, dedicated studies on its 
prevalence remain scarce, partly due to its limited 
recognition in the scientific literature. When identified, 
Discoid products appear in varying proportions, from 
minor occurrences to nearly exclusive dominance, often 
accompanied by small quantities of Levallois products. 
The latter pattern is evident at Istraishta, where Discoid 
technology predominates, similar to sites such as 
Asprochaliko, Eleftherohori 7, and further afield, Fu-
mane.  

While a general classification of these assemblag-
es under the Discoid core reduction method is justified, 
each site exhibits unique characteristics. For instance, 
at Fumane, backed pieces were intentionally prepared, 
whereas in the Basal Mousterian of Asprochaliko, the 
ventral sides of large flakes were used as striking plat-
forms for discoid cores. At Istraishta, Eleftherohori 7, 
and most of the Discoid industries, pseudo-Levallois 
points appear in varying frequencies, produced mainly 
from fully or partially developed discoid cores. A higher 
percentage of cores, along with a notably lower occur-
rence of cores on flakes, suggests a connection be-
tween Istraishta, Eleftherohori 7, and the Basal Mouste-
rian of Asprochaliko. However, do these variations re-
flect merely geographical adaptations, or do they indi-
cate broader chronological patterns and widespread 
cultural traditions? Given the current state of research 
on the western Balkans, it remains difficult to determine 
the underlying causes of these differences.  

Recent discoveries, including surface finds and 
open-air sites from field surveys in northwestern Greece 
and southern Albania (Gjipali, 2006; Forsén et al., 2011; 
Adam, 2014; 2019; Ruka et al., 2014; Galanidou, 2007; 
et al., 2018; 2021; Ligkovanlis & Kourtessi-Philippakis, 
2022), as well as along the eastern Adriatic fringe, have 
identified MP Discoid assemblages. Some of these find-
spots are related to Terra Rossa deposits, as is the 
case with Istraishta. Ongoing research in northwestern 
Greece has aimed to clarify the taphonomy and chrono-
stratigraphic relation of the MP assemblages with Terra 
Rossa deposits. However, despite continuous efforts, 
secure results have yet to be achieved (Ligkovanlis et 
al., 2022), and the current resolution remains insufficient 
for further interpretations. Similarly, in Serbia’s MP rec-
ord, the so called non-Levallois facies (Mihailović & 
Mihailović, 2023) appear to span from MIS 5 through 
MIS 3, up to the onset of the Upper Palaeolithic - a pat-
tern also observed in other parts of the Balkans 
(Dogandžić, 2023; Karavanić & Banda, 2023). Although 
chronological resolution remains limited, the variability 
seen in these assemblages likely stems from the inher-
ent adaptability and versatility of the Discoid method.  

As previously noted, the flexibility inherent in this 
reduction method would have facilitated the successful 
adaptations of highly mobile groups to diverse environ-
ments. Moreover, the evidence from these sites sug-
gests that the variety of exploited raw materials did not 
dictate the selection of a particular flaking method. In-

have repurposed flakes from earlier stages of Discoid 
production as blanks. These cores are ‘usually semi-
centripetally worked with the ventral faces of the flakes 
used as striking platforms’ (Ligkovanlis, 2016). Such a 
strategy does not appear in the assemblages of 
Istraishta or Eleftherohori 7, although end-products such 
as pseudo-Levallois points are particularly abundant at 
all three sites. In addition, Eleftherochori 7 is an open-air 
site that has been surface-collected and rescue-
excavated through 55 trenches. Its large lithic assem-
blage of MP and UP components is mixed between two 
layers. The MP assemblage is dominated by Discoid 
technology, which appears to closely resemble the Basal 
Mousterian of Asprochaliko (Ligkovanlis, 2013; 2017; 
Ligkovanlis et al., 2022). 

The current evidence from the aforementioned 
Western Balkan sites suggests a chronological range 
from MIS 6/5 to MIS 3, providing a general timeframe for 
the Istraishta assemblage. A notable characteristic of the 
Istraishta lithic assemblage is its resemblance to the 
micro-Mousterian industries of the Balkans and the Med-
iterranean area. These industries are defined by the 
small average size of the artefacts (Mihailović, 2020; 
Dogandžić, 2023) and are interpreted as the result of 
intense local raw material exploitation linked to Neander-
thal mobility and site occupation frequency (Mihailović & 
Whallon, 2017). This process also affected Levallois 
cores, which progressively diminished in size due to 
prolonged reduction, leading to fewer residual cores 
(Gowlett & Carter, 1997). The overall microlithisation of 
these industries maintains the same general artefact 
classes found in other Mousterian assemblages in 
southern Europe, including the Pontinian in Italy (Kuhn, 
1995; Rolfo et al., 2022). However, the reasons behind 
the small artefact sizes vary across contexts. In some 
cases, artefacts were made of small, locally available, 
low-quality raw materials, meaning their size was not 
necessarily the result of extensive core reduction and 
did not result from the overexploitation of natural cobbles 
(Karavanić, 2004; Dogandžić & Ðuričić, 2017; Banda et 
al., 2022). In other cases, the deliberate selection of 
small nodules, despite the availability of larger river peb-
bles, suggests that the production of micro-tools was an 
intentional technological choice (Ðuričić, 2006).  

Given that both raw material constraints and core 
reduction intensity can drive the overall reduction in arte-
fact size, it is difficult to isolate the effects of each. In 
most cases, the characteristics of lithic industries result 
from a combination of these effects. Micro-Mousterian 
industries are typically characterised by retouched 
flakes, sidescrapers, denticulates, and notched pieces, 
with sidescrapers generally being the most dominant 
tool type. However, some assemblages - such as those 
from Crvena Stijena and open-air sites along the Dalma-
tian coast - exhibit a notable prevalence of denticulates 
(Karavanić & Banda, 2023). Constraints in raw material 
provisioning may have led to increased tool reduction, 
as repeated rejuvenation stages were necessary to ex-
tend tool usability. This process was influenced by both 
the physical properties of the knapped stones and the 
constraints in raw materials provisioning. However, stud-
ies from Crvena Stijena and Bioče reveal that tool reduc-
tion was not primarily driven by raw material scarcity but 
rather by core reduction intensity, which resulted from 
the frequent and repeated occupation of these sites 
(Dogandžić & Ðuričić, 2017; Pavlenok et al., 2017). 
 

 
 

23 

 
 
Istraisha, a Middle Palaeolithic site in Southern Albania  



   

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors are grateful to the Italian Embassy and 
to the Italian Institute of Culture for their assistance with 
the joint work. They also acknowledge Gloria Cattabriga 
and Theppa Mudiyanselage Kalangi Irushika Rodrigo for 
revising the English text and Davide Margaritora for pre-
paring Figures 1, 4, and 12. 
 
Funding 

The archaeological collaboration in Albania was sup-
ported by the University of Ferrara through the “Start-
up” program (2013, 2014), the Albanian Institute of 
Archaeology, and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs 
(2014, 2015).  

Author contributions 
Conceptualisation: All the authors. Lithic technological 
studies: DD, RR, MP. Original draft: MB, SB, DD, RR., 
MP. Figures: MB, RR, SB, DD. Review and Editing: All 
the authors.  

Statements and Declarations 
Competing interests - The authors declare no compet-
ing interests. 
 

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Ms. received: October 11, 2024  Revised: January 21, 2025 
Accepted: March 2, 2025  Available online: March 14, 2025