LITHIC PRODUCTIONS DURING THE FIRST HALF  
OF THE MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE (MIS 19-12) 

IN THE ITALIAN PENINSULA: AN OVERVIEW. 
 

Brunella Muttillo 1, Giuseppe Lembo 2, Rosalia Gallotti 3,4 

 
1 Sez. Scienze Preistoriche e Antropologiche, Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Italy. 

2 Associazione Culturale ArcheoIdea, Campobasso, Italy. 
3 Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, CNRS, UMR 5140 Archéologie des sociétés méditerranéennes 

and LabEx Archimède ANR-11-LABX-0032-01, Montpellier, France. 
4 Université Bordeaux 1 UMR 5199 PACEA-PPP, Pessac Cedex, France. 

 
Corresponding author: B. Muttillo <brunella.muttillo@unife.it>  

 
ABSTRACT: Archaeological record of the Italian peninsula during the first half of the Middle Pleistocene is characterised by a 
limited number of sites. In the last decade, new systematic research allowed to refine chronostratigraphies and to improve the 
contextual and technological information. Here, we report an overview of the Italian archaeological sites between MIS 19 and MIS 
12 with the main aim to evaluate the current state of our knowledge on the technological behaviours from the earliest Middle Pleis-
tocene sites where Homo heidelbergensis appears to the emergence of hominins with Neanderthal-like morphology. 
 
Keywords: Lower Palaeolithic, Italian peninsula, Middle Pleistocene, lithic technology, small flaking and large cutting tools. 
 
 

Available online http://amq.aiqua.it 
ISSN (print): 2279-7327, ISSN (online): 2279-7335 

 
 

Alpine and Mediterranean Quaternary, 34 (1), 2021, 33-54. 

1. INTRODUCTION 
 

Archaeological evidence ascribed to the first half of 
the Middle Pleistocene has conspicuously improved 
over the last decades in Western Europe. However, 
notwithstanding increased research and more discover-
ies, the available information is highly fragmented and 
insufficient at different levels.  

From a technological perspective, the early Middle 
Pleistocene in Western Europe is marked by the emer-
gence of the Acheulean technology (e.g., Barsky & de 
Lumley, 2010; de Lumley et al., 1984; Desprièe et al., 
2010; Moncel et al., 2019, 2020; Piperno, 1999; Scott & 
Gibert, 2009), that some authors linked to the first ap-
pearance datum of Homo heidelbergensis (e.g., Moncel 
et al., 2019; Stringer, 2012).  

Nevertheless, assemblages lacking large cutting 
tools (LCTs1) and multi-layered sites with an alternation 
of lithic series with or with no or very rare LCTs are 
known in Western Europe and they do not pattern into a 
two-phase periodization (Abruzzese et al., 2016; Ashton 

et al., 1992; Aureli et al., 2015, 2016; Biddittu, 1971, 
1972; Carbonell et al., 1999; Cauche et al., 2004; 
Crovetto, 1993; Gallotti & Peretto, 2015; Moncel et al., 
2020; Nicoud et al., 2015, 2017, 2020; Parés & Pérez-
Gonzalez, 1999; Parfitt et al., 2005; Peretto, 1994; 
Piperno, 1999; Preece & Parfitt, 2012; Rocca et al., 
2016, 2019, 2020; Rose, 1992; Santagata, 2016; Segre 
& Biddittu, 2009; Tuffreau & Lamotte, 2010). 

In the Italian peninsula, there are no archaeological 
sites between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 19 and MIS 
17 and sites recorded in an indisputable stratigraphic 
context between MIS 17 and MIS 12 are few and frag-
mented both temporally and spatially. However, different 
interpretations have been proposed to draw the tempos 
and modes of the settlement in this time-span and the 
related technical behaviours (e.g., Grifoni & Tozzi, 2006; 
Orain et al., 2012).  

Here, we present an update of the data available in 
scientific literature on those sites systematically investi-
gated and with a constrained chronological framework 
(Fig. 1). Our main aim is to draw up an overview of the 

 

https://doi.org/10.26382/AMQ.2021.05 

- - - - - -                    - - - - - - 
 
1 LCTs are intended here as shaped or retouched tools with a length or width > 10 cm. They include massive scrapers, handaxes, picks, 
bifaces, and cleavers. Bifaces are intended in a technological perspective as LCTs whose morphology «résulte de l’aménagement simulta-
né de deux convexités, de manière à ce que l’une soit à l’image de l’autre en fonction d’un plan d’équilibre bifacial […] De l’intersection de 
ces deux convexités naît une silhouette «lissée» par retouche, qui se distribue par rapport à un plan d’équilibre bilatéral» (Roche & Texier, 
1991: 102). Cleavers (sensu Tixier, 1956) are intended here as LCTs obtained either by flaking only, or by flaking followed by shaping. The 
cutting edge must be left unretouched, i.e. it is the outcome of the flaking of the blank. Bifacial pieces with a bit achieved by shaping or by 
lateral tranchet blow technique are not cleavers but beveled handaxes (Inizan et al., 1999). 



   

 

 

 

34 

 

 
Muttillo B. et al. 

current state of knowledge on site context, chronostra-
tigraphies, faunal composition, and, in particular, on 
lithic analyses in the Italian peninsula between the early 
Middle Pleistocene sites (MIS 17/15; Piperno, 1999; 
Moncel et al., 2020) where Homo heidelbergensis ap-
pears and the emergence of hominins with Neanderthal-
like morphology, approximately dated to MIS 12 (Zanolli 
et al., 2018). 
 
2. AN OVERVIEW OF THE MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE 
SITES IN ITALY DURING MIS 19 - MIS 12 

 
2.1. Notarchirico (Basilicata, southern Italy) 

The archaeological site of Notarchirico is located in 
the Venosa basin (Basilicata), which covers more than 
60 km and is known for its prehistoric heritage since the 
19th century (Bulgarelli et al., 1999). The fluvial-
lacustrine Middle Pleistocene succession of this basin 
represents the sedimentary filling of a palaeovalley lo-
cated between the Vulture volcano and the Murge mas-
sif (Apulian foreland) (Caruso et al., 2012). The basin fill 
is composed of three litho-stratigraphic units (Lefèvre et 
al.,1994,1999, 2001, 2002; Raynal et al., 1998) which 
can be correlated with the sequence of eruptive units 
produced by Monte Vulture (Giannandrea et al., 2006; 
La Volpe & Principe, 1989, 1994). The oldest unit, the 
Fonte del Comune Formation, is contemporary with the 
initial phases of volcanic activity. It is surmounted by two 
embedded volcano-sedimentary units, the Piano Regio 
and Tufarelle Formations, contemporary with the major 
early Middle Pleistocene phases of the volcanic activity 
of Monte Vulture.  

The site of Notarchirico was discovered in 1979 
and excavated from 1980 to 1995 by M. Piperno 
(Piperno, 1999). The stratigraphic sequence is mainly 
composed of volcanoclastic sediments deposited and 
reworked in an alluvial environment belonging to the 
Piano Regio Formation (Lefèvre et al., 2010). During 

Piperno’s excavations in the 1980s, several archaeosur-

faces (, A, A1, B, C, D, E, E1, F, G, G1, H, and I) were 
discovered in a seven-metre thick fluvial-derived sedi-
mentary sequence rich in volcanic materials from the 
neighbouring Monte Vulture stratovolcano (Lefèvre et 
al., 2010). Above layer F several direct tephra fallouts 
are located (Raynal et al., 1999; Vernet et al., 1999), 
which form the Notarchirico Tephra Complex (levels 2-1 
to 2-5), dated to 640±40 ka by thermoluminescence on 
quartz (Pilleyre, 1991; Pilleyre et al., 1999). At the top of 
the site, levels 1-6 are composed of reworked volcanic 
sands, which geochemical composition highlighted their 
similarity to a major tephrostratigraphic marker of the 
Tufarelle Formation (Pereira et al., 2015; Raynal et al., 
1998). 

New radio-isotopic data assessed that the whole 
Notarchirico sequence was deposited in probably <70 
ka, between 670±4 ka (14 ka) and 614±4 ka (12 ka) 
(Pereira et al., 2015), i.e., mainly during the glacial MIS 
16, confirming the previous lithostratigraphic analyses 
(Lefèvre et al., 1999). 

Since 2016, new fieldwork at Notarchirico, directed 
by M.-H. Moncel, opened a 30-m-long trench on the side 
of Notarchirico hill, at the base of the previously studied 
sequence. Four archaeological layers were identified: 
three of them correspond to layers F, G, and I of the 
Piperno’s excavations; layer J was discovered at the 
very base of the sequence (Moncel et al., 2020). 
40Ar/39Ar constrain these layers between 668±6 ka and 
695±6 ka (Moncel et al., 2020).  

The faunal assemblage belongs to the ‘Ponte Ga-
leria’ faunal unit. The main species found are Elephas 
(=Palaeoloxodon) antiquus, Dama clactoniana, Bos 
primigenius and Bison schoetensacki. The lower layers 
(E/E1, F, and G) yielded poorly preserved faunal frag-
ments. Fauna from the higher layers (a, sub-a, A/A1, B 
and D) is in better condition, including new species such 
as Cervus elaphus and Megaloceros solilhacus. Faunal 

Fig. 1 - Middle Pleistocene Italian sites analysed, in relation to the chronology (a) and to the geographical location (b). 1. Notarchirico 
(Basilicata); 2. Cimitero di Atella (Basilicata); 3. Isernia La Pineta (Molise); 4. Valle Giumentina (Abruzzo); 5. Loreto (Basilicata); 6. Ficon-
cella (Lazio); 7. Visogliano (Friuli Venezia Giulia). See main text for references on archaeological site chronology. Chronological chart 
modified from Cohen & Gibbard (2019) (graphic processing: G. Lembo). 



   

 

 

 

35 

 

 

Lithic productions of the Middle Pleistocene in the Italian peninsula  

list of the Moncel’s excavation is almost similar to that of 

the youngest layers  and A of Notarchirico (Cassoli et 
al., 1999; Moncel et al., 2020). Two species are newly 
reported: Hippopotamus antiquus in layers G and I1, 
and Macaca sylvanus ssp. in layer G (Moncel et al., 
2020).  

Several species of micromammals were identified, 
principally in horizon E1 (Pliomys episcopalis, Chiono-
mys nivalis, Microtus sp. and Arvicola cantiana), indicat-
ing a cold climate typical of a Middle Pleistocene glacial 
period in the Italian peninsula (Sala, 1999). An open and 
cold environment is confirmed by palynological analysis 
(Cattani, 1996). 

In scientific literature, Notarchirico is recurrently 
presented as a site «characterised by repeated periods 
of occupation, for the most part related to butchery ac-
tivities, as illustrated by the Elephant Butchery area […] 
(Piperno & Tagliacozzo, 2001)» (Pereira et al., 2015: 
641). Nevertheless, an archaeozoological analysis has 

been performed only on the faunal remains from layer , 
showing that faunal remain accumulation evidences a 
multiple origin (Tagliacozzo et al., 1999), and from lay-
ers F, G, I1, I2, and J where no clear cut marks or an-
thropic bone breakages were identified (Moncel et al., 
2020). The association between artefacts and bones in 
the Elephant Butchery area (layers A-A1-B) has been 
taken as granted than proved, even if Lefèvre et al. 
(1994: 109) asses that: «[…] ces observations condui-
sent à distinguer la mise en place des sédiments de 
celle du crâne (pas d’apport en masse), mais ne per-
mettent pas d’aller plus loin en ce qui concerne le mode 
de dépôt de ce dernier (flotté puis échoué, ou mort sur 
place), à plus forte raison donc les causes de sa mort 
[…] Reste posée la question de la réalité de l’associa-
tion éléphant/restes lithiques. Si association il y a, tous 
les objets présents dans la lentille de gravier lui appar-
tiennent-ils? Sinon, comment les distinguer?». Thus, the 
association between elephant remains and lithic arte-
facts is still an open issue. 

In the upper part of the sequence (layer ), a frag-
ment of a human femur, attributed to Homo heidelber-
gensis, was discovered in 1985 (Mallegni et al., 1991; 
Pereira et al., 2015). 

The lithic artifacts recorded during excavations at 
Notarchirico are about 3600, approximately 2500 from 
Piperno’s excavation and 1152 from Moncel’s excava-
tion (Tab. 1). Part of the artefacts belonging to Piperno’s 
excavation were left on the archaeological surfaces for 
museum purposes (Piperno, 1999). Notarchirico is well 
known for the alternance of layers with “bifaces” (A, A1, 

B, D, F, G/G1, I2) and layers lacking “bifaces” (, C, E, 
E1, H, I, J). Two type of raw materials of local origin, 
abundantly available in the paleochannels, have been 
used: silicite2 pebbles, cobbles, nodules and tablets, as 
well as limestone cobbles and rare boulders. Flakes and 
cores are mainly on silicite and the heavy-duty compo-
nent (including LCTs) mainly on limestone cobbles 

(Piperno, 1999; Moncel et al., 2020). 
The lithic assemblages of the different archaeologi-

cal layers have not been entirely studied and according 
to a homogeneous approach (Tab. 1). If the LCTs have 
recently been analysed in a technological perspective 
(Moncel et al., 2019; Santagata, 2012, 2016), and some 
of them according to a techno-functional approach 
(Nicoud, 2011), small flaking is known for layers B, E/E1 
(Santagata, 2016), F, G, I1, I2, J (Moncel et al., 2020). 

Only the artefact assemblage from layer  have been 
entirely analysed following a typo-metrical approach 
(Piperno, 1999). 

In the basal part of the sequence (layers F, G, I1, 
I2, J) cores are unifacial, unifacial centripetal-cordal, and 
multifacial. They are mainly on silicite, very few on lime-
stone. Flaking follows the natural shape of the silicite 
nodules (semi-rotation of the cores to exploit more than 
one flaking surface), rectification of the striking platform 
is limited, and the technique is the freehand percussion. 

According to the flaking methods, flake butts are 
cortical or plain, rarely dihedral or facetted. Flaking prod-
ucts as well as raw nodules are retouched (5 to 20%) on 
one or several edges by marginal, abrupt or denticulate 
retouch. Convergent tools are rare.  

The heavy-duty component is composed by uni-
facial shaped cobbles (chopper-cores), some of which 
are pointed. Several LCTs on limestone cobbles or 
flakes and large silicite nodules were found (Tab. 1). 
The shaping involves a large part of the periphery and 
surface of the artefacts managing the bifacial volume 
and the equilibrium of the two faces and producing sym-
metrical or plano-convex cross-sections. Sometimes 
retouch regularizes the edges. 

In layer B, small flaking on silicite and limestone 
includes chopper-cores, multifacial multidirectional cores 
and bipolar-on-anvil cores. Shaping produces: 1) chop-
pers on limestone cobbles, some of them with two con-
vergent edges creating a point; 2) handaxes on lime-
stone and silicite, usually shaped on cobbles, showing a 
high morpho-technical variation; 3) cleavers-like on cob-
bles (Santagata, 2016). The latter are not cleavers sen-

su stricto (Tixier, 1956), because they do not show an 
unretouched transversal cutting edge belonging to flak-
ing.  

In layers E/E1, silicite cores with limited cortex, 
mainly unifacial unidirectional with a cortical striking 
platform, are smaller than those in layer B. Their size 
seems more related to the very small size of the blank 
than to an overexploitation. Cores with bifacial and multi-
facial irregular exploitation are also present and usually 
overexploited. There are no LCTs in these layers and 
shaping is limited to rare bifacial choppers. Some flakes 
were retouched into denticulated scrapers (Santagata, 
2016). 

Only data on LCTs are available for the other lay-
ers. Moncel et al. (2019) published the analysis of the 
LCTs identified in the Notarchirico sequence and as-
sessed that «hominins had the capacity to manage bifa-

- - - - - -                    - - - - - - 
 
2 In scientific literature, the terms flint and chert are controversial depending on whether they are used by geologists, archaeologists, pe-
trographers or sedimentologists. Following Delvigne et al. (2020), here we use the general term silicite for sedimentary silicified rocks of 
chemical, biochemical or diagenetic origin of various types including flint, chert, silcrete, and jasperoid.  



   

 

 

 

36 

 

 
Muttillo B. et al. 

 



   

 

 

 

37 

 

 

Lithic productions of the Middle Pleistocene in the Italian peninsula  

 

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cial volumes by alternate or face-by-face shaping during 
glacial stage MIS 16 (676-621 ka), when raw materials 
were of appropriate quality. Several series of removals 
contributed to rectify the edges and the tip. The tools 
present sinuous edges despite the sporadic use of final 
retouch, on account of the use of limestone pebbles 
instead of flint nodules. We observed a mixture of bifac-
es sensu stricto and not finished bifacial tools depend-
ing on the extension of shaping» (Moncel et al., 2019: 
20).  

However, there is no consensus on this interpreta-
tion. Results of the LCTs analysis performed by E. Ni-
coud (2011) adopting a techno-functional approach 
show that «D’un point de vue techno-morphologique et 
en comparaison avec le reste de l’outillage, aucun objet 
relevant d’une conception bifaciale singulière n’a été 
mis en évidence» and that lithic productions of macro-
tools are characterised by «[…] une chaîne opératoire 
courte de confection d’outil(s) sur galets […]» (Nicoud, 
2011: 324). 

 
2.2. Cimitero di Atella (Basilicata, southern Italy) 

Cimitero di Atella is an open-air site (ca. 480 m asl) 
located in the village of Atella (Potenza, Basilicata), 
about 10 km to the south of the Monte Vulture and 30 
km to the west of Loreto and Notarchirico. It has been 
investigated since 1990 under the direction of prof. Bor-
zatti von Löwenstern - Università di Firenze (Borzatti 
von Löwenstern et al., 1990, 1997, 1998) and, since 
2014, under the direction of R. Rocca in a new project 
led by the École française de Rome (Abruzzese et al., 
2016; Rocca & Aureli, 2019; Rocca et al., 2020). 

The site was located on the shores of a lake devel-
oped during the Middle Pleistocene (Borzatti von Lö-
wenstern et al., 1998). According to geological and geo-
morphological studies on the Atella basin area and on 
the basis of the presence of handaxes, the site was 
attributed to the early Acheulean (Borzatti von Löwen-
stern et al., 1997).  

Two archaeological layers (F and L) were identified 
within a stratigraphy composed of volcanoclastic and 
lacustrine sediments. The stratigraphic sequence pre-
sents, at the base, several sterile silt layers (A-E), lake 
deposits composed of limno-volcanic sediment. These 
are covered by the Acheulean layer (F) interpreted as 
landslides of the lake shores. At the top, there are a 
sandy deposit of lacustrine origin (I) and a volcanoclas-
tic layer containing a small lithic assemblage (L) 
(Borzatti von Löwenstern et al., 1997; Abruzzese et al., 
2016). These archaeological layers were heavily affect-
ed by post-depositional processes (Rocca & Aureli, 
2019; Rocca et al., 2020). 

In 2018 and 2019 several test pits in a new area 
contiguous to the Borzatti’s excavation revealed the 
existence of a less disturbed layer, at the top of layer F. 
This new layer, still under study, yielded lithic and faunal 
remains in a good state of preservation (Rocca & Aureli, 
2019; Rocca et al., 2020). 

The chronology of the site was constrained thanks 
to the correlation with Vulture eruptive events (Di Muro, 
1999). The dating of the Acheulean layer F should be 
comprised between 660-650 ka (UVS Masseria Bocca-
glie; layers A-E) and 480 ka (UVS Masseria Granata; 

layer L). However, this interpretation needs to be con-
firmed (Abruzzese et al., 2016; Rocca et al., 2016). 

The faunal remains, generally very altered, mainly 
consist of Palaeoloxodon antiquus (Borzatti von Löwen-
stern et al., 1997), Bos primigenius and cervids (Dama, 
Cervus and Capreolus) (Zucchelli, 2000; 2002). The 
revision of the historical collections and the preliminary 
data from the new excavations confirm the presence of 
Palaeoloxodon, fallow deer, and bovid. However, the 
distinction between Bos and Bison needs to be demon-
strated (Rocca & Aureli, 2019; Rocca et al., 2020). 

Lithic industry (Tab. 1) was mainly knapped on 
silicite pebbles/cobbles collected near the site, and only 
to a lesser extent on quartzite and porous radiolarite 
(with a higher degree of alteration) (Borzatti von Löwen-
stern et al., 1992; Sozzi et al., 2004).  

Previous typometrical analysis recognised a poorly 
structured lithic industry, composed by small flakes, 
cores, small tools (difficult to classify), knapping waste, 
and handaxes. The handaxes (n=50) were manufac-
tured exclusively on porous radiolarite. The small size of 
the industry was linked to the use of bipolar percussion 
on anvil (Borzatti von Löwenstern et al., 1997). 

The lithic industry of layer F was recently revised 
with a technological and techno-functional approach. On 
7887 pieces, only 638 (8% of the entire set) were ana-
lysed due to taphonomical reasons, excluding the non-
anthropic items (with a very poor state of preservation) 
(Abruzzese et al., 2016; Rocca et al., 2016). The select-
ed sample is composed by few cores (2%) exploited 
through a SSDA method (Forestier, 1993), flakes (42%), 
retouched flakes (25%, the majority are notches), small 
tools (30%), and few large tools (1%). The presumed 
handaxes are now interpreted as large tools unifacially 
shaped (bifacially shaped in only one case) obtained on 
large flakes of radiolarite (Abruzzese et al., 2016).  

On the other hand, the small tools represent an 
important part of the assemblage: shaped on natural 
blanks or flakes, are generally thick, with a flat surface 
opposed to a convex surface and with different cutting 
edges (front, convergence, denticulate) (Abruzzese et 
al., 2016; Rocca et al., 2016). The whole lithic industry is 
very altered, mechanically and chemically (mainly pseu-
do-retouch, smoothness and, to a lesser extent, patina) 
(Abruzzese et al., 2016; Rocca et al., 2016). 

Preliminary data from the new recently identified 
layer confirm the technological revision performed so 
far: the lithic assemblage is mainly composed by small 
flakes related to the confection/retouch of few small 
tools in silicite, lacking LCTs (Rocca & Aureli, 2019; 
Rocca et al., 2020). 

 
2.3. Isernia La Pineta (Molise, central southern Italy) 

Isernia La Pineta is an open-air site (of about 350 
square meters, over two different sectors) located a few 
kilometers from the town of Isernia (Molise). The sys-
tematic excavations, under the direction of prof. Carlo 
Peretto - Università di Ferrara, began in 1979 and are 
still in progress (e.g., Lembo, 2015; Peretto, 2013; 
Peretto et al., 2015). At 457 m asl, the site lies inside the 
main filling of the Upper Volturno river basin (Brancaccio 
et al., 1997; Coltorti & Cremaschi, 1983; Van Otterloo & 
Sevink, 1983).  

 

 

38 

 

 
Muttillo B. et al. 



   

 

than at present and the environment was characterized 
by an arboreal steppe, with the presence of pounds of 
water and deciduous forests in the surrounding area 
(Accorsi et al., 1996). 

The lithic industry (studied so far ca. 50% of the 
lithic assemblages, Tab. 1) is focused on small-medium 
flake production, lacking LCTs. It is made with local raw 
materials, mainly different types of silicite tablets and 
only to a lesser extent limestone cobbles, collected in 
secondary position in the immediate vicinity of the site. 
Until the first decade of the 2000s, the lithic industry of 
Isernia La Pineta was considered unstructured and op-
portunistic, lacking tools deliberately retouched. Based 
on the ‘80s -‘90s and early 2000s analysis on the lithic 
assemblages from a small portion of 3a and 3c, it was 
suggested that the tools were the accidental result of 
intense bipolar exploitation of silicite tablets (Crovetto, 
1994; Longo et al., 1997; Minelli et al., 2004; Peretto, 
1994). 

On the contrary, recent techno-economic studies of 
3c (Gallotti & Peretto, 2015) and 3coll layers (Peretto et 
al., 2015; Rivera Peréz, 2016) considerably reduce the 
use of bipolar technique on anvil (not documented in 3c 
layer; Gallotti & Peretto, 2015) and demonstrate that 
retouch was a deliberate and specific phase and not the 
occasional result of intense bipolar exploitation. 

In general, the silicite lithic industry of Isernia La 
Pineta is characterized by relatively long sequences of 
reduction which show a high degree of planning. The 
mental templates and the technical criteria employed in 
small flaking are not opportunistic and unstructured as 
previously inferred, witnessed by: the use of different 
methods (unifacial unidirectional, multifacial unidirection-
al, and discoid; Fig. 2); the mastery of the discoid meth-
od, regardless of the size and shape of the blank; the 
selection of specific forms for a specific production; the 
systematic use of retouch in order to produce small tools 
(denticulates, notches, and sidescrapers) (Gallotti & 
Peretto, 2015). 

The local limestone cobbles were exploited mainly 
for flaking and rarely for shaping (Arnaud et al., 2017). 
Small-medium flakes were obtained by direct hard-
hammer percussion through simple and short reduction 
sequences, mostly using a unifacial unidirectional meth-
od (Gallotti & Peretto, 2015) or by the exploitation of one 
to three not prepared striking platforms (Rufo et al., 
2009). Few choppers were recovered in the 3a and 3coll 
layers (Rufo et al., 2009); rare retouched flakes were 
recovered in the 3coll layer (Rivera Peréz, 2016). 

 
2.4. Valle Giumentina (Abruzzo, central Italy) 

Valle Giumentina is a Pleistocene open-air site, 
located in a small intermountain basin (at 740 m a.s.l), 
on the northwestern side of the Majella Mountain massif, 
in Abruzzo (central Italy). Several archaeological layers 
were identified in a ca. 25 m thick sedimentary se-
quence, made of alluvial and lacustrine/marshy deposits 
and paleosols. The site was investigated, in the 1950s 
and 1960s, by prof. Radmilli - Università di Pisa, over a 
surface of approximately 40 m2 (Radmilli, 1965). Attribu-
tion of Valle Giumentina deposits to the Rissian and 
Würmian glacial stades was based on sedimentary data 
and not on the typology of the lithic industries 

The stratigraphic sequence is made of fluvial, la-
custrine and volcanic sediments. From bottom to top, 5 
sedimentary units were recognized (Coltorti et al., 2005; 
Peretto et al., 2015): Unit 5, lacustrine clays; Unit 4, 
travertines; Unit 3, palustrine deposits with sands and 
thin layers of gravels, subdivided in several sub-units 
(3F, 3E, 3D); Unit 2, gravels with thin layers of sands; 
Unit 1, a colluvium sequence, including a pyroclastic fall 

dated at 499±13 ka (40Ar/39Ar, 2; Coltorti et al., 2005). 
Four archaeosurfaces (3c, 3a, 3s10 sect. I, 3a 

sect. II) have been identified and excavated. 
3c is the oldest occupation layer, contemporane-

ous with Unit 4: archaeological and paleontological re-
mains lie at the top of calcareous tufa. 3a is character-
ised by a high concentration of faunal remains (mostly of 
large bones) and of silicite and limestone artefacts. 
Above 3a, lies 3coll, a pyroclastic layer (debris-flow) rich 
in archaeological materials (Marrocchino & Vaccaro, 
2006). Previously dated at 610±10 ka (40Ar/39Ar; Coltorti 
et al., 2005), 3coll was recently dated at 586±2 ka 
(40Ar/39Ar; Peretto et al. 2015). 

The most recent chronological analysis constrains 
the age of the archaeosurfaces to the end of MIS 15, 
more precisely between 583 ka (Unit 4 deposition age) 
and ca. 561 ka, at the beginning of the full glacial MIS 
14 (Peretto et al., 2015).   

An isolated human deciduous incisor was discov-
ered in 2014 within the archaeological layer 3coll, relat-
ed to an undetermined Homo, i.e. Homo sp. (Peretto et 
al., 2015).  

Numerous macro-mammals have been identified, 
characteristic of the Middle Galerian, mainly consisting 
of the following taxa: Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus, 
Hippopotamus cf. antiquus, Stephanorhinus hund-
sheimensis, Bison schoetensacki, Praemegaceros 
solilhacus, Cervus elaphus cf. acoronatus, Dama cf. 
roberti, Capreolus sp., Sus scrofa, Hemitragus cf. bonali. 
Among the carnivores, the most abundant remains be-
long to Ursus deningeri. Only one tooth of Panthera leo 
fossilis and a mandible of Panthera pardus were identi-
fied (Ballatore & Breda, 2013; Breda et al., 2015; Chan-
narayapatna et al., 2018; Peretto et al., 2015; Sala, 
1996; Thun Hohenstein et al., 2004, 2005, 2009).  

Zooarchaeological analysis (Anconetani & Peretto, 
1996; Malerba et al., 2000; Peretto et al., 2004; Pineda 
et al., 2020; Thun Hohenstein et al., 2005, 2009) sug-
gests a relative homogeneity in the taxonomic represen-
tation models along the sequence. Evidence of carcass 
processing is documented through anthropic breakage 
(mainly on skulls, jaws and long bones) and in the form 
of cut marks on bone surfaces. The predominance of 
bison and, to a lesser extent, rhinoceros and bears, is 
the result of anthropic selection. The predominance of 
cranial elements and forelimbs and, among the remains 
of bison, the predominance of adult and sub-adult indi-
viduals is explained by the selective transport of the 
carcasses (Thun Hohenstein et al., 2009). 

Among the small mammals, the best represented 
species are Arvicola mosbachensis, Sorex aff. runtonen-
sis, Pliomys episcopalis and Microtus (Terricola) arvali-
dens (Sala, 1996). 

All these data, combined with pollen studies, sug-
gest that the climate was probably more arid and cooler 

 

 

39 

 

 

Lithic productions of the Middle Pleistocene in the Italian peninsula  



   

 

 

 

 

40 

 

 
Muttillo B. et al. 

Fig. 2 - Isernia La Pineta, layer 3c. Silicite artefacts. 1-6: unifacial unidirectional cores; 7, 8: retouched flakes with unidirectional negative 
scars on the dorsal face; 9, 13, 15: discoid cores; 10-12, 14, 16: retouched flakes belonging to a discoid flaking. Drawings: M. Pennacchio-
ni. 



   

 

 

 

 

41 

 

 

Lithic productions of the Middle Pleistocene in the Italian peninsula  

Fig. 3 - 1-8: silicite small tools from Loreto layer A (modified after Crovetto, 1993); 9-18: silicite discoid core (9), silicite small tools (10-15), 
and limestone flakes (16-18) from Visogliano, rockshelter A, levels 40-45 (modified from Abbazzi et al., 2000); 19-24: silicite cores (19, 20) 
and small tools (21-24) from Valle Giumentina, layer 33 (modified after Nicoud et al., 2015). 



   

 

(Demangeot & Radmilli, 1966).  
In particular, the archaeological layers were de-

scribed, from the bottom to the top, as: Clactonian 
(named “Evolved Clactonian of Valle Giumentina faci-
es”) (layers 20, 24, 30, 33, 40, 42), according to the 
presence of tools on thick flakes; Acheulean (layer 37), 
with only five handaxes and handaxe flakes; Levalloisi-
an (layer 45, 46), to design a mixed industry (probably 
not in situ) including Levallois products (Radmilli, 1982; 
Radmilli, 1965). The presence of the Acheulean layer 
among the layers assigned to the Clactonian, confirmed 
the hypothesis of scholars supporting the coexistence 
and contemporaneity of these two industries (Radmilli, 
1982). 

The rare faunal remains belong to Ursus sp. and 
Cervus elaphus (Radmilli, 1965). 

New systematic archaeological excavations and 
interdisciplinary research started in 2012 and still in 
progress under the direction of E. Nicoud, allowed to 
acquire new chronostratigraphical, paleoenvironmental, 
and archaeological data (Limondin-Lozouet et al., 2017; 
Nicoud et al., 2015, 2016, 2017, 2020; Villa et al., 
2016a). The new studies have reduced the marshy con-
tribution, recording glaciofluvial-lacustrine sedimentation 
during glacial periods and pedogenesis and/or alluvial 
sedimentation during interglacials (Villa et al., 2016b). 

Five main litho-pedostratigraphic units, named 
Sedimentary Units (SU), were recognised and correlat-
ed with the Radmilli’s excavation. From bottom to top 
(Villa et al., 2016a, b): SU5, a thick fluvial gravel depos-
it, which overlies the Miocene limestone bedrock; SU4, 
lacustrine and marshy calcareous sediments, indicating 
the formation of a shallow lake; SU3, clayey organic 
deposits, attesting the evolution from lacustrine to 
marshy environments, containing archaeological layer 
20; SU2, calcareous silt and clay, containing 24, 30, and 
33 archaeological layers; SU1, sandy/silty sediments, 
interbedded with four palaeosols, containing 37, 40, 42, 
45, and 46 archaeological layers. 

40Ar/39Ar dating, and other palaeoenvironmental 
and tephrochronological data, assigned the whole suc-
cession to the MIS 15-MIS 12 interval. More precisely, 
the Clactonian layers 24, 30, and 40 (LN-24, LAN2-30, 
and LABM-40, according to the new excavations) are 
dated at 556±6 ka, 531±5 ka, and 456±2 ka, respective-
ly (Villa et al., 2016a). Therefore, according to the recent 
dating, the Acheulean layer SLM-37 should be dated 
between ~ 530 and 450 ka. 

With the recovery of the excavations, a techno-
economic approach in the study of lithic industries was 
introduced and the use of ‘Clactonian’ term was dis-
missed (Nicoud et al., 2015). Only a small sample of the 
lithic assemblage excavated in the 1950s has been 
reviewed (Tab. 1; Nicoud et al., 2015). Therefore, data 
are partial and must be considered with caution. The 
lithic industry was made from blocks of different types of 
silicite, locally available and recovered in secondary 
position. The state of preservation is generally good. In 
20, 30, 33, 40, 42 layers exclusively short flaking se-
quences are attested. Cores are exploited through 
SSDA method (Forestier, 1993), producing flakes of a 
very varied morphology. Retouched flakes (mainly side-
scrapers and denticulates) are thick, cortical or semi-

cortical, with the retouched cutting edge opposite to a 
back (Nicoud et al., 2015; Fig. 3: 19-24). Only in the 
Acheulean layer (37) a shaping production coexists with 
one or more flaking sequences. In this layer, were re-
covered 11 flakes, three sidescrapers, six notches, two 
atypical points, five handaxes and 475 debris, of which 
the majority are thin flakes linked to the bifacial shaping 
(Radmilli, 1965) but also to flaking (Nicoud et al., 2015). 

As the research is still in progress, only preliminary 
data from excavation’s reports are available for the lithic 
assemblages from the recently excavated layers LABM-
40, SLM-37, and ABF-33 (Nicoud et al., 2017, 2020) 
(Tab. 1). The lithic assemblages of silicite are composed 
of cores, small flakes and small tools. A handaxe was 
recovered in LABM-40 (Nicoud et al., 2017). 

Complete and detailed data are available only for 
the recently excavated layer ALB-42 (Nicoud et al., 
2016). A technological approach combined with a tech-
no-functional analysis (Böeda, 2001) was used to ana-
lyse lithics (n=223) recovered in this layer. 

The ALB-42, investigated over a surface of ca. 48 
m2, is the last archaeological layer before the occur-
rence of Levallois and it covers the 456±2 ka dated layer 
(LABM; Villa et al., 2016a). The scarce faunal remains 
(n=32) belong to Cervus elaphus and Microtus arvalis. 
Striae and chopping evidence were detected on a tho-
racic vertebral spine (Nicoud et al., 2016). 

The lithic assemblage is mostly composed of flakes 
(n=183), retouched flakes (n=28), and few cores (n=3), 
suggesting a fragmentation of the lithic production. How-
ever, some refits indicate an in situ production and sug-
gest limited post-depositional disturbances. There are 
no LCTs in this layer. Several methods were used, in-
cluding: a “tranches de saucisson” method (Turq, 1989), 
an alternating surfaces method resembling the SSDA 
method (Forestier, 1993), and an orthogonal flaking 
(sensu Ashton et al., 1994). These methods were as-
cribed to a single concept of core volumetric structure, in 
which the block selection represents a crucial phase. 
The accurate selection of surfaces with suitable volu-
metric characteristics, allowed to exploit the core by a 
short series of removals without any preparation of the 
striking platform or the flaking surface. Backed flakes 
are frequent. The scaled retouch creates various types 
of cutting-edges on different kinds of blanks. Tools be-
long to the typological categories of scrapers (lateral or 
distal), back knives, notches, and denticulates (Nicoud 
et al., 2016). 

 
2.5. Loreto (Basilicata, southern Italy) 

Since the end of the 19th century, the site of Loreto 
in the Venosa Basin, located on a hill few kilometers 
from Notarchirico, has been investigated. A.C. Blanc 
conducted the first excavations between 1956 and 1961, 
directed by G. Chiappella. Between 1974 and 1981, the 
Musée d’Anthropologie préhistorique de Monaco carried 
out new research, directed by L. Barral and S. Simone 
with the collaboration of G. Chiappella. The archaeologi-
cal layer A was excavated on a surface of ~20 m2 and 
yielded faunal remains and lithic artefacts (Crovetto, 
1993).  

The faunal list of layer A includes Palaeoloxodon 
cf. antiquus, Dicerorhinus etruscus, Equus stenonis, 

 

 

42 

 

 
Muttillo B. et al. 



   

 

Equus cf. süssenbornensis, Equus hydruntinus, Equus 
altidens, Hippopotamus cf. amphibius, Bison schoe-
tensacki, Megaceros solilhacus, Dama nesti, Dama 
dama, Capreolus cf. affinis, Capreolus cf. süssen-
bornensis, Ursus deningeri, Canis cf. arnensis, Canis 
etruscus, Hyaenidae sp., Felis pardus, Homotherium 
sp., and Oryctolagus cuniculus (Alberdi et al., 1988; 
Bonifay, 1977). Several authors considered Loreto strat-
igraphic sequence and faunal composition older than 
Notarchirico site on the basis of (bio)stratigraphic corre-
lations (e.g., Belli et al., 1991; Caloi & Palombo, 1980). 
According to Bonifay (1977) and Caloi & Palombo 
(1979a, 1979b, 1980), this fauna belongs to the Günz-
Mindel glacial periods or to the beginning of the Mindel; 
other authors suggested they are of Cromerian stage 
(Angelelli et al.,1978); Alberdi et al. (1988), based on 
the study of equidae remains, assessing that fauna be-
longs to the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. 

New geological research based on a lithostrati-
graphic approach in the Venosa basin allowed a reap-
praisal of the Notarchirico and Loreto stratigraphic cor-
relations (Lefèvre et al., 1993, 1994, 1999, 2001, 2002; 
Raynal et al., 1998). The succession of Loreto deposits 
from the foot of the hill to the top is as follows (Lefèvre 
et al., 2010): 
1) banks of conglomerates with a reverse magnetic 

polarity (Gagnepain, 1996); 
2) highly heterometric conglomerates, formed by 

some hyper-concentrated lahar (sensu lato) flows, 
corresponding to Member A of the Tufarelle For-
mation; 

3) a succession of reworked tephras and horizontal 
limestone banks, indicating sedimentary lacustrine 
environments; two grey scoria fallouts are inserted 
into this unit which characterize the Member B of 
the Tufarelle Formation; 

4) ascending further uphill, the series gradually be-
comes less epiclastic in a sensu lato lacustrine 
environment where archaeological layer A lies on 
an encrusted emersion surface. These surfaces 
can be correlated to the base of Member C. This 
Member has been dated to 484±8 ka (Brocchini et 
al., 1994), 494±5 ka, and 530±22 ka (Villa & Buett-
ner, 2009) based on stratigraphic correlations; 

5) the upper facies of the basin fill which contains 
deposits related to the Upper Acheulean are diffi-
cult to characterise due to the absence of outcrops.  
Accordingly, layer A at Loreto site is younger than 

the Notarchirico sequence corresponding to the Member 
C of the Tufarelle Formation and is approximately dated 
to 500ka on intra-basin stratigraphic correlations 
(Lefèvre et al., 2010). Pereira (2017) confirms that this 
stratigraphic correlation is the most plausible, but the 
new 40Ar / 39Ar results unfortunately do not give a pre-
cise chronological constraint for this site.  

Layer A yielded 528 lithic objects (Tab. 1), ana-
lysed by C. Crovetto (1993). Crovetto’s study represents 
a pioneering technological analysis of a Lower Palaeo-
lithic complex in Italy. Furthermore, it is even more ex-
emplary because it concerns not only the entire artefact 
assemblage, but also the natural materials recorded 
during the excavation.  

Artefacts were flaked on silicite cobbles, pebbles, 

and tablets of small dimensions and larger limestone 
cobbles. Silicite assemblage (n=307) is composed by 
cores and flakes, most of them retouched (46% of the 
flakes). Silicite cores are unifacial unidirectional or bipo-
lar and multifacial multidirectional irregular or orthogo-
nal, some of them with a preferential flaked surface. 
Striking platforms are usually cortical or rectified by one-
two removals. The flaking method in not related to a 
specific blank. Knappers indifferently used rounded cob-
bles, angular cobbles, and tablets. Reduction sequences 
are short and cores show remaining cortical surfaces. 
Negative scars on the dorsal face of the flakes are in 
agreement with the flaking methods identified on the 
cores, but they are also centripetal. Retouched flakes 
are side-scrapers with denticulated and stepped re-
touch, denticulates, notches, end-scrapers, becks, and 
small points (Fig. 3: 1-8).  

Limestones assemblage is mainly composed by 
cobbles with few removals (simple cores sensu 
Delagnes & Roche 2005), chopper-cores with unifacial 
or bifacial removals, few cores and flakes, rarely re-
touched. Limestone cores are multifacial with an orthog-
onal exploitation. Knappers used the flat surface of an-
gular/rounded cobbles as first striking platform and con-
ducted an orthogonal multifacial flaking rotating the core 
and respecting the original orthogonal angles among the 
faces. Accordingly, this method shows a high capacity of 
adaptation to the natural blank. 

S. Simone (1980) also classified an “Abevillian 
biface”, not studied by C. Crovetto because at the time it 
was on display in the exhibition “I primi abitanti d’Euro-
pa” (Crovetto, 1993). 

 
2.6. Ficoncella (Lazio, central Italy) 

The site of Ficoncella is located near Tarquinia, 
northern Latium (central Italy). At ca. 70 m a.s.l., the site 
is part of the Plio-Pleistocene Tarquinia basin, which 
extends for almost 40 km along the Latium Tyrrhenian 
margin. Discovered during the 1990s, it was investigated 
since 2010 until 2015 under the direction of D. Aureli 
(Aureli et al., 2012, 2015, 2016). 

A small excavation area yielded, in a single ar-
chaeological layer (named FIC 1), a small lithic industry 
associated with parts of an elephant carcass, remains of 
ungulates, and a hyaena coprolite. Faunal and lithic 
remains may have been buried shortly after emplace-
ment by alluvial/floodplain deposits (Aureli et al., 2015, 
2016; Boschin et al., 2018). 

Three main depositional units were identified within 
a stratigraphic sequence containing floodplain deposits. 
The lowest unit (FIC 1) is made up of sandy to silty sedi-
ments, containing several tephra layers and the archae-
ological horizon. The features of FIC 1 are consistent 
with the ‘Fall A pumice unit’, from a Plinian eruption in 
the Sabatini volcanic district, dated at ca. 499 ka. A 2-3 
m thick ignimbritic deposit (FIC 2), dated at 441± 8 ka 
(40Ar/39Ar), cover this unit. This dating is consistent with 
the attribution to the ‘Tufo Rosso a Scorie Nere’ from 
Sabatini Volcanic Complex. FIC 3 is the uppermost unit, 
consisting of silty deposits (Aureli et al., 2015, 2016). 
Therefore, the human occupation occurred during the 
MIS 13. More precisely, the archaeological layer is com-
prised between a tephra layer attributed to a Sabatini 

 

 

43 

 

 

Lithic productions of the Middle Pleistocene in the Italian peninsula  



   

 

eruption (dated to ~499 ka) and an ignimbrite unit (FIC 
2), dated to 441±8 ka.  

The faunal assemblage (n=364) is mainly com-
posed by remains of a single elephant carcass 
(Palaeoloxodon antiquus) and largely fragmented bones 
of cervids and bovids (Equus sp., Dama sp., and Capre-
olus sp.). An impact notch on bone and some cone and 
conchoid flakes from intentionally fractured skeletal 
elements were found. Gnawing marks were identified on 
some elephant bones (Boschin et al., 2018). 

The lithic material was analysed through a techno-
logical approach combined with a techno-functional 
approach and use wear analysis (Tab. 1; Aureli et al., 
2015, 2016; Rocca et al., 2016).  

Despite the incompleteness and the fragmentation 
of the reduction sequence, the presence of refittings 
(n=10) and the state of preservation indicate that knap-
ping took place in situ. It is a small tool industry, in 
which LCTs are absent. The set (n=409) is composed 
by a large number of small debris (n=296), initial and 
production flakes, retouched flakes and cores (Aureli et 
al., 2015). Two major reduction sequences were identi-
fied: the first one, represented by few pieces, concerns 
the exploitation of large cobbles of local limestone, in 
order to obtain medium/large flakes with robust and long 
cutting­ edges; the second sequence, that represents 
the majority, is performed on marine/fluvial pebbles of 
silicite (and occasional on quartz) whose provenance is 
not known, in order to obtain ‘small­tools’, with several 
cutting­edges (Aureli et al., 2015, 2016).  

Three main groups of tools were identified, i.e. the 
spina (a small pointed part of the tool with a trihedral 
section, and a central ridge), the mini-rostrum (small 
robust bevel with an important angle with a slightly den-
ticulate delineation) and the rectilinear edges (Aureli et 
al., 2016). Although the blanks are issued from different 
stages of the reduction sequence (such as initial flakes 
and/or residual fragments), tools (n=27) are generally 
thick, with a flat surface opposite to a convex surface, 
with one or two backs. These backs, natural or prepared 
by a blow, may have played an important role in the grip 
and the transmission of energy (Aureli et al., 2015; Roc-
ca et al., 2016). 

The use­wear analysis revealed traces related to 
action on soft or medium hard materials, especially 
through cutting, whittling, and scraping (Aureli et al., 
2016; Boschin et al., 2018; Rocca et al., 2016). There-
fore, butchery activities related to skinning or meat ex-
ploitation may have taken place at the site, although 
there is no evidence of cut marks (Boschin et al., 2018). 

Ficoncella was interpreted as the result of different 
occupations in a short time range: between the death of 
the elephant and its burial, the area was probably fre-
quented alternatively in a very short period of time by 
animals and humans (Aureli et al., 2015, 2016). Howev-
er, even if we consider that the human occupation was 
linked to the elephant carcass (scavenging?), it is diffi-
cult to know: a) the order of their frequentation (animals/
humans) and their degrees of competition; b) if the hu-
man occupation is strictly coeval with the fauna accumu-
lation; c) if the animals died at site due to natural factors 
or if their carcasses where brought there by hominins 
(Aureli et al., 2015; Boschin et al., 2018). 

2.7. Visogliano (Friuli Venezia Giulia, northern Italy) 
The Visogliano shelter (110 m asl) is located in the 

Trieste Karst, in north-eastern Italy. The site, discovered 
in 1975, yielded lithic, faunal and human remains in two 
distinct areas of a karstic doline originated by the col-
lapse of a cave: in a rock shelter (Shelter A) and in a 
cemented breccia outside the rock shelter (Breccia B), 
about 30 m to the west of the shelter (Abbazzi et al., 
2000; Cattani et al., 1991; Tozzi, 1994). 

The infill deposit of the rock shelter A (about 12 m 
thick) is formed by: 1) an upper horizon (layer 10) 
formed by colluvia of red soils; 2) an intermediate hori-
zon (layers 11-39), composed of loess or loess-like sedi-
ments, deposited during a glacial period with alternating 
humid-cold and dry-cold phases; 3) a lower horizon 
(layers 40-46), deposited in non-glacial conditions and 
characterised by the presence of products of the col-
lapse of an underground karstic system. The deposit of 
the external breccia (Breccia B), about 3m thick, is 
formed by very cemented layers with sedimentological 
and paleontological characteristics similar to the lower 
horizon of the shelter (Abbazzi et al., 2000; Cattani et 
al., 1991). However, a direct stratigraphical correlation 
between the two areas is prevented by an erosion sur-
face, filled up with Late Pleistocene red soils and calcar-
eous blocks (Falguères et al., 2008). 

Combined ESR/U-series analyses dated the lower 
layers to a period between 350-500 ka, in agreement 
with micromammal and biostratigraphical studies 
(Falguères et al., 2008). However, these dates (obtained 
on herbivore teeth), must be considered with caution, 
due to the wide error range of the oldest analysed layers 
and some discrepancies with faunal, stratigraphic, and 
pedosedimentary context.  

The oldest analysed layers (44 and 41) range be-
tween 482 ka (482+99/-81) and 356 ka (356+46/-41) 
with a wide error range of 15-20%. These ages can be 
compared to the direct U-series age (390+indet./-229 
ka) obtained on the Vis.2 mandible fragment found in 
the breccia layers of locus B. However, the correlation 
between the two areas is not secure. The combined age 
estimates of the intermediate layers (39-24) range be-
tween 445 and 383 ka, suggesting a contemporary dep-
osition with the lower layers. This appears to be in con-
trast with the abrupt change in pedosedimentary condi-
tions and faunal content recorded between layers 40 
and 39. The available data from the uppermost layers 
(layers 13 and 11) provide too old ages, which are in-
consistent with all the other geochronological and strati-
graphic data (Falguères et al., 2008). 

The faunal assemblage can be referred to the Mid-
dle-Late Galerian. The entire stratigraphic sequence is 
dominated by Microtus cf. arvalinus, and the red deer C. 
elaphus acoronatus (Masini & Sala, 2007). While Cro-
cidura, Terricola, Macaca, and fairly abundant fallow 
deer (Dama clactoniana) occur in the temperate climate 
lower layers (Abbazzi et al., 2000). 

The human remains are represented by five teeth, 
two fragments of teeth, and a fragment of jaw. Four 
teeth were discovered in the lowest layers (45, 44, 42), 
which resemble the most ancient specimens of the Mid-
dle Pleistocene (Abbazzi et al., 2000; Mallegni et al., 
2002). More recently, a comparative high resolution 

 

 

44 

 

 
Muttillo B. et al. 



   

 

endostructural assessment of five teeth from Visogliano 
reveals a Neanderthal-like morphological dental tem-
plate, clearly distinct from the modern humans (Zanolli 
et al., 2018). 

On the basis of a typological analysis of the lithic 
industries (Tab. 1), different cultural traditions were 
identified. While the upper horizon is characterised by 
frequent carinated side scrapers mostly made of silicite, 
in the intermediate horizon, the tool assemblage is 
strongly microlithic with a high percentage of denticu-
lates. The set is made of silicite, except some rare lime-
stone artefacts. The lithic assemblage of the oldest lay-
ers (46-40 of shelter A and almost all of Breccia B) is 
mainly made on local limestone and more rarely on 
silicite and volcanic rock. The set is mostly composed of 
cores, choppers (cores?), flakes, and two protobifaces. 
The silicite assemblage shows ‘Tayacian’ traits: the few 
tools - mainly denticulates, side scrapers, Quinson-type 
tools, and Tayac points - are small and thick, with a high 
carinal index, with a simple and semi-abrupt retouch 
and an often-raised Quina-type retouch (Abbazzi et al., 
2000; Grifoni & Tozzi, 2006; Fig. 3: 9-18). 

 
3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 

 
This overview of the sites and lithic productions in 

the Italian peninsula between MIS 19 and MIS 12 shows 
that archaeological data are dispersed both in time and 
space. In addition, different theoretical/methodological 
approaches have been adopted in the study of lithic 
assemblages, which cannot be simply superimposed to 
each other without previously discussing them. In some 
cases, different approaches have been used to study 
the industries coming from different layers of the same 
site, in parallel to the methodological changes in the 
course of the research history (Tab. 1). The results of a 
holistic and homogeneous approach to the techno-
complexes are not yet available, despite the efforts 
made in the last decade. Accordingly, the informative 
potential of technical components may be taken with 
caution before using it as an index of cultural markers to 
identify technical traditions. 

The Middle Pleistocene opens with an absence of 
sites. A large chronological gap separates the late Early 
Pleistocene sites, Pirro Nord and Ca’ Belvedere di Mon-
te Poggiolo, which yielded core-and-flake based tech-
nology (Arzarello et al., 2012, 2016; López-García et al., 
2015; Muttoni et al., 2011; Peretto et al., 1998), from the 
earliest Middle Pleistocene site, Notarchirico, whose 
oldest layer is close to 700 ka. It is difficult to evaluate 
the duration of this interval because the ages of ~1.6-1.3 
Ma for Pirro Nord (e.g., Arzarello et al., 2012; López 
García et al., 2015; Pavia et al., 2012) and ~1.0 for 
Monte Poggiolo (Falguéres, 2003; Gagnepain et al., 
1998; Peretto et al., 1998; Peretto, 2006) have been 
recently criticized by Muttoni et al. (2011, 2018) based 
both on magnetostratigraphical and biochronological 
data. They proposed an age of >0.78 Ma for Pirro Nord 
and ~0.85 Ma for Monte Poggiolo (Muttoni et al., 2011, 
2018). 

This gap enables to discuss about a local origin of 
the Notarchirico industries, which represent one of the 
earliest Western European Acheulean documenting the 

production of LCTs in a period comprised between the 
MIS17/16 transition to the beginning of MIS 15 (Moncel 
et al., 2020). 

Moncel et al. (2020) assessed that the ability to 
manage bifacial volume is therefore observed in other 
Acheulean sites of Western Europe dated between 700 
and 600 ka (Antoine et al., 2016; Ashton & White, 2003; 
Despriée et al., 2011; Hurel et al., 2016; Iovita et al., 
2017; McNabb et al., 2018; Moncel et al., 2013, 2016a, 
2016b, 2018, 2019). Accordingly, Notarchirico is inter-
preted not as an isolate case, but as part of a common 
background documenting a technological shift from pre-
existing industries. However, E. Nicoud (2011, 2013), 
using a different approach, argued that LCTs from No-
tarchirico sequence do not belong to a bifacial shaping 
procedure, but they are just the products of short 
chaînes opératoires for cobble tool manufacture. Be-
yond the different interpretations, it is clear that the num-
ber of artefacts that can be attributed to the handaxe 
sensu lato category (to avoid the controversial uses of 
the term “biface”) is limited compared to the other com-
ponents of the lithic assemblages (Moncel et al., 2019; 
Santagata, 2016; Tab. 1). A recent review of the indus-
tries of the nearby Cimitero di Atella site reconsidered 
the attribution of many artefacts to handaxes, that are 
very poorly represented (Abruzzese et al., 2016).  

Notarchirico and Cimitero di Atella yielded also 
archaeological layers without LCTs. The alternance of 
“bifacial” and “non bifacial” units has been interpreted as 
the co-existence of human species that produced differ-
ent technologies, or as the outcome of different function-
al needs (Gallotti, 2016; Santagata, 2016). At the current 
state of knowledge, a detailed reconstruction of the early 
Middle Pleistocene technical behaviours in this area of 
the Venosa basin is premature. It is equally premature to 
explain the presence/absence of LCTs both from techno
-economic, techno-functional, and human biological 
perspectives. Firstly, the partial knowledge of the small 
flaking systems does not allow: 1) to analyse similarities 
and/or differences precisely in that production which is 
present in all layers of the sequence; 2) to identify the 
number and relationships between the different chaînes 
opératoires; 3) to interpret the status of the production of 
LCTs in the technical system. The contextual absence of 
taphonomic and functional data for most part of the ar-
chaeological layers does not allow to evaluate the role 
played by post-depositional processes and functional 
needs in the composition of the different lithic assem-
blages. 

Even if the production of LCTs from Notarchirico 
shares a common technological background on a West-
ern European scale, it remains a sporadic phenomenon 
on a local scale both at Notarchirico and at Cimitero di 
Atella. At ~500 ka, the production of LCTs disappears in 
the Venosa basin, as documented by the layer A indus-
try of the Loreto site (Crovetto, 1993). 

This evidence could be even more significant if we 
consider that, regardless the approach in lithic studies, 
LCTs production is almost totally absent in lithic assem-
blages between MIS 15 and MIS 12, before a surge 
from MIS 11 onwards.  

Many scholars have repeatedly highlighted how the 
numerically consistent presence of small tools in sites 

 

 

45 

 

 

Lithic productions of the Middle Pleistocene in the Italian peninsula  



   

 

with core-and-flake based assemblages is a common 
trait in the Italian peninsula between MIS 15 and MIS 
12. Following a typological approach in small and large 
tool analysis, Grifoni & Tozzi (2006) identified the emer-
gence of cultural traditions in this period: 1) a ‘Tayacian’ 
group, characterised by small lithic industry; 2) a 
‘denticulate’ group found exclusively in Visogliano A; 3) 
a ‘Clactonian’ group characterised by large, thick, but 
rarely carinated flakes, a large number of scrapers, few 
denticulates, absence or exceptionality of handaxes; 4) 
an ‘Acheulean’ group. Although this analysis also in-
cludes sites without an indisputable stratigraphic context 
and chronological constraints and although the research 
advancement has led to the abandonment of terms such 
as ‘Tayacian’ and ‘Clactonian’, results show the difficulty 
of typologically grouping the industries of the first half of 
the Middle Pleistocene into a uniform entity. 

The role played by small tools in drawing technical 
scenarios was earlier underlined by L. Cattani et al. 
(1991) and C. Crovetto (1993), who pointed out their 
technical similarities among Loreto, Isernia, Visogliano, 
and penecontemporaneous central European sites. 
Recent techno-functional studies compared assemblag-
es from central Europe with Italian sites confirming that 
small tools share the same “tools conception” (Aureli et 
al., 2015, 2016; Rocca 2016a, 2016b, Rocca et al., 
2016). R. Rocca (2016a, 2016b) identified in central 
Europe assemblages lacking LCTs characterised by a 
great variability of small tools on different types of 
blanks and the presence of original technical traditions. 
However, small tools are also present in Western Euro-
pean assemblages containing LCTs (Nicoud, 2013; 
Rocca, 2013; Rocca et al., 2016).  

A high percentage of small tools has been as-
sessed also at Isernia La Pineta thanks to a technologi-
cal revision of the layer t.3c industry (Gallotti & Peretto, 
2015). The technical features described are shared by 
other Western European sites dated between ~0.8 and 
~0.6 Ma, independently from the occurrence of LCTs. 
This is relevant in cultural terms, as the same techno-
logical knowledge seems to be shared by knappers in a 
specific time period. 

It is evident that the technical behaviours dated 
between MIS 17/16 and MIS 12 in the Italian peninsula 
are extremely diversified. The research of the last dec-
ade allowed to refine the chronostratigraphic framework 
of some sites and to investigate the "non-LCTs" compo-
nent in greater detail. However, a homogeneous and 
comprehensive study of all lithic series from stratigraph-
ic contexts is still lacking and prevents the possibility of 
detailed comparisons among the various industries of 
the Italian peninsula and of evaluating them in a Euro-
pean context. 

 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We are grateful to the editor and the reviewers for 
having contributed to the improvement of this paper. 
Special thanks to Elisa Nicoud who kindly provided 
drawings of artefacts from Valle Giumentina. 

 
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS 

B.M., R.G. and G.L. conceived and designed the 
paper. B.M. wrote the paper with the contribution of 

R.G. and G.L. All authors discussed the results and 
contributed to the final manuscript.  

 
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Lithic productions of the Middle Pleistocene in the Italian peninsula  

Ms. received: January 15, 2021  Revised: March 1, 2021 
Accepted: March 4. 2021  Avaiable online: March 23, 2021 



   

 

 

 

 

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