Available online http://amq.aiqua.it ISSN (print): 2279-7327, ISSN (online): 2279-7335 Alpine and Mediterranean Quaternary, 37 (1), 2024, 29-51 https://doi.org/10.26382/AMQ.2024.02 preserved and allow for more detailed stratigraphic re- constructions, which are meaningful to better under- standing time-space relationship between glacial and proglacial environments (Accorsi et al., 1990; Monegato & Ravazzi, 2018; Palmer et al., 2019). The sensitivity of glaciolacustrine systems to ice- mass and landscape changes (Carrivick & Tweed, 2013) makes them valuable archives of glacier dynamics, par- ticularly of deglaciation phases (i.e., Shaw, 1975; Orom- belli & Gnaccolini, 1978; Colman et al., 1994; Winse- mann et al., 2009, 2018; Nehyba et al., 2017; Lang et al., 2018, 2021; Kurjanski et al., 2021). Here, proglacial lakes act as sedimentary sinks, in which the glacier dis- charges huge amounts of sediments, with important spatio-temporal variations in the flow regime (Marren, 2005; Fielding, 2006; Duller et al., 2008; Cuffey & Pater- son, 2010; Carling, 2013; Dowdeswell et al., 2015; Fitz- simons & Howarth, 2018; Lang et al., 2021). They can be viewed as low-energy lakes receiving sediments from both glacial and fluvial-glaciofluvial input via a diversified range of steady to more episodic (e.g., slow fallout from the water column, density flows, supercritical flows) flows (Church & Gilbert, 1975; Gustavson et al., 1975; Bennet et al., 2002; Palmer et al., 2019; Lang et al., 2017, 2021). The prevailing depositional process is largely determined by climate-driven modifications of the glacier and landscape (Bennett et al., 2002; Fielding, 1. INTRODUCTION Understanding sedimentary processes of moraine systems is key to reconstruct past glacial dynamics. Most of the best-studied moraine amphitheatres (also referred to as glacial amphitheatres) are relatively large examples formed after long sequences of glacial oscilla- tions (Ehlers & Gibbard, 2004; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2018). Moraine (or glacial) amphitheatres correspond to semi- circular, concentric end-moraine systems, built up du- ring the Middle and Upper Pleistocene by glacier pied- mont lobes flowing out of the major Alpine valleys (Fig. 1a; Fairbrigde, 1968; Cremaschi, 1987; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004). Despite large glacial amphitheatres provide long- term sedimentary records that span multiple glacial and interglacial stages, the preservation potential of deposits and landforms, formed during each of these stages, is generally low (Gibbons et al., 1984; Cremaschi, 1987; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004; Monegato et al., 2017). In fact, glacier front advances are generally able to destroy the most of previous stage deposits, making it difficult to infer processes from the sedimentary record, including those governing sedimentation in proglacial environ- ments (Jopling & McDonald, 1975; Ehlers & Gibbard, 2004; Carrivick & Tweed, 2013). On the other hand, smaller moraine systems developed during the last gla- cial phases of the Pleistocene are comparatively better LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM GLACIOLACUSTRINE DEPOSITS FROM THE ADIGE MORAINE AMPHITHEATRE (RIVOLI VERONESE, NORTHERN ITALY): DISTRIBUTION, SEDIMENTARY FACIES, AND SIGNIFICANCE Andrea Pezzotta 1 , Guido S. Mariani 2 , Mattia Marini 1 , Mauro Cremaschi 1 , Andrea Zerboni 1 Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra “A. Desio”, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy. Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università degli studi di Torino, Torino, Italy. Corresponding author: Andrea Pezzotta ABSTRACT: Proglacial lakes formed between ridges, small fluvioglacial plains and glacier fronts of end-moraine systems are ex- cellent sedimentary archives capable of accurately recording environmental variations linked to deglaciation. The Adige Moraine Amphitheatre (AMA) at the outlet of the Adige Valley in the southern foothill of the Alps (Rivoli Veronese, Verona; Northern Italy) is a multi-moraine ridges system built during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) by two subsequent glacial advances of the Adige Glacier. Within the innermost moraine arc of the AMA, the topography of glacial deposits acted as a dam originating two separated proglacial lakes, collecting meltwaters. Geomorphological and geological mapping allowed identifying the vestiges of a complex glaciolacustrine system with a branching proglacial lake in which deltaic and ice-contact situations coexisted. Four sedimentary facies associations suggestive of ablating ice-front, glaciofluvial, deltaic, and glaciolacustrine depositional settings were recogni- sed, and their spatial relationship clarified through facies analysis. Results suggest the proglacial lake was likely enclosed by the glacier front, moraine ridges, and other glacial deposits that obstructed the pre-existent Adige Canyon, and that the two identified lake branches coalesced during the final phase of glacier retreat. The process controlling the draining of the lake is not completely known, but the occurrence of boulders (recurrently named as “erratics”) in the uppermost deposits of the Adige River glaciofluvial fan to the south of AMA suggests these may represent mega-clasts transported during the post-LGM collapse of the Adige Gla- cier. We propose that these mega-clasts were mobilized by a glacial lake outburst flood resulting from the collapse of the deposits obstructing the Adige Canyon upstream. Our results add to better understanding of the AMA deglaciation phases and to the recon- struction of the LGM-Post-Glacial transition period in the foothills of the southern Central Alpine region. Keywords: Proglacial lake, Adige Moraine Amphitheatre, Last Glacial Maximum, deglaciation, moraine amphitheatre. 2006; Winsemann et al., 2009, 2018; Palmer et al., 2019; Lang et al., 2021), which typically results in strongly cyclical facies associations that may be used to reconstruct sea- sonal to secular limnological and glaciological changes (Bersezio et al., 1999; Pawlowsky et al., 2013; Palmer et al., 2019). This contribution reports on glaciolacustrine deposits of the Up- per Pleistocene Adige Moraine Am- phitheatre (AMA), also known as the Rivoli Veronese moraine system (Cremaschi, 1987), which was part of the greater Adige-Sarca glacial system of Northern Italy during most of Pleistocene glaciations. The latter consists in the piedmont area by two sets of frontal-moraine systems characterized by a semi-circular amphitheatre-like shape, the Garda and Adige Glacial Amphitheatres (Fig. 1 and 2; Penck & Brückner, 1909; Venzo et al., 1969; Bini & Zuc- coli, 2004; Bini, 2012). Located at the termination of the confined Adige Valley and at the foothills of the Southern Alps, the AMA is one of the smallest yet best-preserved terminal moraine systems of continental Eu- rope (i.e., Penck & Brückner, 1909; Venzo, 1961; Cremaschi, 1987; Bini, 2012). Indeed, most of its recent construction, occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; Accor- si et al., 1990), preserved it from 30 Pezzotta A. et al >>>>> ------------------------------- >>>>>> Fig. 1 - (a) Map of the Alps illustrating the distribution of the maximum ice extent during Middle-Upper Pleistocene, hi- ghlighting the main glacial amphitheatres of North Italy (modified after Ehlers & Gibbard, 2004; Margottini & Vai, 2004; Bini, 2012; Ivy-Ochs, 2015; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2018). Countries’ borders from “World Country” (Porto Tapiquén, 2015). (b) Regional structural setting of the Sou- thern Alps and Po Plain (hydrography and 20m resolution DEM from ISPRA, 2012; redrawn after Bigi et al., 1990; Fantoni et al., 2004; Scardia et al., 2014). (c) Extension and age attribution of the moraine ridges formed during the Pleisto- cene by the Adige-Sarca glacial system. With dotted lines the main meltwater pathways in the area comprised between the two amphitheatres (redrawn after Venzo, 1957, 1961, 1965; Venzo et al., 1969; Cremaschi, 1987; Accorsi et al., 1990; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004; Monegato et al., 2017). Marked by the red rectangle the AMA (Fig. 2). structural block gently tilted towards the Po Plain (Fantoni et al., 2004; Scardia et al., 2015). Specifically, the lower Adige Valley is developed along the “Giudicarie deformation system”, a NNE-SSW trending polyphasic fault system (Fig. 1b), connecting the Lessini Plateau to the deeper western Lombardian basin (Venzo et al., 1969; Accorsi et al., 1990; Fantoni et al., 2004; Bassetti & Borsato, 2005). The bedrock outcrop- ping in the AMA area belongs to the Upper Triassic - Upper Eocene ‘so called’ Venetian series and is com- posed by limestones, marly limestones, and marls of Jurassic - Cretaceous age (Venzo, 1961; Venzo et al., 1969). The “Giudicarie deformation system”, active since the Mesozoic until the Quaternary, coupled with differential subsidence, influenced the geomorphological evolution of the Adige Valley, resulting in an over- excavation of the lower part of the valley (Venzo et al., 1969; Sorbini et al., 1984; Accorsi et al., 1990). Many authors investigated the dynamics of the Garda Glacier, reconstructing multiple glacial advances from the Early Pleistocene up to the LGM two-fold gla- cial advance, which separated the Garda and Adige glaciers (Fig. 1c) (i.e., Nicolis, 1899; Penck & Brückner, 1909; Cozzaglio, 1933, 1934a, 1934b, 1939; Ven- zo,1957, 1961, 1965; Habbe, 1960, 1969; Mancini, 1960, 1969; Fraenzle, 1965; Venzo et al., 1969; Cremaschi, 1987; Cremaschi et al., 1987; Accorsi et al., 1990; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004; Ravazzi et al., 2014; Monegato et al., 2017). Specifically, the area has been intensively investigated since the 19th century (Paglia, 1861; Sacco, 1896; Nicolis, 1899), leading to early recognition of the hills surrounding the Garda Lake as reworking and partial dismantling by further glacial ad- vances as much as by post-glacial processes. Because of subsequent phases of glacial retreat, terminal pro- glacial lakes formed in the innermost area of the AMA (Venzo, 1961; Venzo et al., 1969; Accorsi et al., 1990) and hosted glaciolacustrine sedimentation in a range of sub-environments (Fig. 2 and 3). The resulting deposits are almost well-preserved, although the outcrops are usually not extensive, and provide a valuable record of LGM glaciolacustrine sedimentation which may help constraining dynamics and mechanics of the final retreat of the Adige Glacier. This work aims at providing constraints on the paleogeography of the latest LGM advance of the Adige Glacier and describing processes acting at the onset of the deglaciation. To accomplish this task, we mapped the spatial distribution of the sedimentary facies associa- tions making up the proglacial deposits of the LGM Adi- ge Glacier through the combined use of geomorphologi- cal and geological mapping and sedimentary facies analysis of type sections and key outcrops. 2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND PREVIOUS WORKS ON THE QUATERNARY EVOLUTION OF THE GARDA AND ADIGE MORAINE AMPHITHEATRES From a geological point of view, the Adige Valley belongs to the Southern Alps domain, a fold-and-thrust belt formed during the Alpine orogenic phase (Laubscher, 1985; Picotti et al., 1995; Scardia et al., 2015). To the East, the Garda and Adige Glacial Amphi- theatres are bounded by the Lessini Plateau (Fig. 1b), a 31 LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre Fig. 2 - (a) Interpretation for the relative age attribution of the glacial units of the AMA; noting Adige canyon is also known as Chiuse d’Adi- ge canyon in the text (Fig. 2b). The investigated area discussed in this paper is marked by the blue rectangle (Fig. 3). (b) Satellite image of the Adige River Glacial Amphitheatre with topological references (Google Satellite, CNES/Airbus, 2021). Quaternary moraines (Tab. 1). Penck & Brückner (1909) framed these into their four-stage (Günz - Mindel - Riss - Würm) glaciation schema, which was later adopted with slight modifications by the detailed works of Cozza- glio (1934a, 1934b, 1939) and Venzo (1957, 1961, 1965). However, the chronostratigraphic attribution of these moraine ridges has been since long debated, highlighting the limitations of Penck & Brückner’s strati- graphic schema (Cremaschi, 1987; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004). A synthesis of alternative hypotheses on strati- graphic attribution and significance of the glacial depos- its in the Garda Glacial Amphitheatre is reported in Ta- ble 1. Starting from the seminal work of Penck & Brück- ner (1909), both relatively younger and older glacial deposits have been consistently recognised in more internal (closer to the Garda lake) and more external locations, respectively (Fig. 1c). Many scholars (Tab. 1) follow a substantial homogeneity in stratigraphic classifi- cation, modifying the four-stage glaciation schema by revising it and adding or removing stages of minor ad- vances (i.e., Würm I, II, III; Riss I, II, etc.; Cacciamali, 1914; Cozzaglio, 1932; Venzo, 1957, 1961, 1965; Ven- zo et al., 1969). Venzo (1957) recognized and separated the innermost moraine ridges based on their geological features - quite different between them and from the rest of the amphitheatre - but he was not able to move out the four-stage glacial schema (Bini & Zuccoli, 2004). Cremaschi (1987) reconstructed the Garda Glacier his- tory on correlations based on lithostratigraphy, magneto- stratigraphy, paleopedostratigraphy and archeostratigra- phy. He also further applied the correlations in a chronostratigraphic framework, recognizing 5 phases of glacial advance in the Garda Amphitheatre from the Early Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene (Tab. 1). Fur- thermore, he hypothesized the subdivision of the last glacial advance into two substages, with the first corre- sponding to the main moraine ridge (Cremaschi, 1987). Bini & Zuccoli (2004) and Bini (2012) adopted the con- cept of Allostratigraphic Unit (Richmond, 1962; Bini 1997a) to reconstruct the chronology, evolution, and palaeogeography of the geological deposits. Starting from the methodologies applied in the survey of the Ver- bano and Lario moraine amphitheatres (Fig. 1a; Bini, 1987; Bini 1997b; Bini et al., 2001; Bini et al., 2014), 32 Pezzotta A. et al Fig. 3 - Quaternary geological sketch map of the AMA innermost moraine ridge. The glacial units are summarized into three group, based on morphostratigraphic criteria: Glacial Advance 1, Glacial Advance 2, Glacial Retreat. Furthermore, we reported also Pre-Glacial Substra- te (Mesozoic limestones, Venzo et al., 1969; Accorsi et al., 1990) and Post-Glacial deposits. The outcrops and stratigraphic sections de- scribed in this paper are highlighted. Smaller kame terraces are highlighted on the northern flank of Mt La Mesa by glaciofluvial deposits (GF3). Cross sections are represented in Fig. 5. Cremaschi, 1987; Monegato et al., 2007; Gianotti et al., 2008, 2015; Bini et al., 2014; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2018; Monegato & Ravazzi, 2018; Rossato et al., 2018; Braak- hekke et al., 2020; Kamleitner et al., 2022). Monegato et al. (2017) identified fresh geomorphological, stratigra- phical, and chronological evidence extending the validity of the model to the Garda Glacial Amphitheatre (Fig. 1c). It is therefore reasonable to attribute a similar LGM behaviour to its Adige Glacier companion (Fig. 2 and 3). 2.1. Focus on AMA: geology, geomorphology and historical background The study area occupies an area of circa 6 km2 belonging to the innermost part of the AMA system, which lies at the outlet of the Adige Valley and to the East of the Garda Glacial Amphitheatre (Fig. 1). Yet, the smaller Adige Glacier impacted heavily on the surround- ing landscape, occupying with its amphitheatre an area of more than 15 km2 (Fig. 2). The elevation of the area is comprised between 87 and 460 m a.s.l., with an aver- age of 218 m a.s.l. (Fig. 2 and 3). The landscape is characterized by the presence of 7/8 semi-circular con- centric moraine ridges, arranged in an “amphitheatre” shape, that border a series of glaciofluvial and glaciola- custrine plains/terraces, downscaling towards the cur- rent course of the Adige River (Fig. 4). Figures 1c and 2a show the distribution of the AMA moraine ridges: the outer part of the system includes two major moraine ridges; in the inner amphitheatre, ridges decrease in elevation towards the valley and become more discon- tinuous (Fig. 3) (Penck & Brückner, 1909; Venzo,1961; Cremaschi, 1987; Accorsi et al., 1990). Furthermore, in the southern sector, the “Chiuse d’Adige” canyon is one of the main features (Fig. 2): it is a small pathway bor- dered by very steep oolitic limestone walls characterized by notches on different levels and a meander geometry, developed due to the interaction of karst and fluvial pro- they recognized up to 12 allo- and lithostratigraphic units in the western portion of the Garda Glacial Amphithea- tre, leading to the individuation of 8 different glaciations (sensu Richmond, 1986) from the Lower Pleistocene (MIS 100-96) to the LGM (MIS 2) (Bini & Zuccoli, 2004; Bini, 2012). There is widespread consensus in literature that during the Pleistocene glaciations, the Garda and Adige glaciers were part of the Adige-Sarca glacial system, a larger valley glacier bifurcating North of the city of Tren- to. One larger tongue descended the Sarca Valley form- ing a piedmont glacier in correspondence to the present- day Garda Lake, while a smaller glacier developed along the Adige Valley (Fig. 1a) (Lenotti, 1980; Cremaschi, 1987; Bini, 2012; Ravazzi et al., 2014). The extent and complexity of Adige-Sarca glacial system - c. 15.000 Km2 during the LGM, spanning a range of sedimentary, volcanic, magmatic, and metamorphic terranes - ex- plains the very varied lithological composition of its de- posits. These include allochthonous clasts of rhyolites, porphyries, granitoids and meta-granitoids derived from the erosion of volcanic bodies in the Eastern Alps and from the alpine crystalline basement (Baroni & Cremaschi, 1987; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004; Ravazzi et al., 2014). To the South, the Garda and Adige glaciers were probably confluent for most of the Pleistocene glacia- tions, forming a single glacial amphitheatre (the pre- LGM Garda Glacial Amphitheatre; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004). The two glaciers were in fact individual glacial bodies only during the last glacial advance, which terminated with separated end-moraine systems (Garda and Adige Moraine Amphitheatres; Fig. 1) (Cremaschi, 1987; Bini, 2012). Recently, several scholars reinvestigated many of the Italian Alpine Pleistocene glacial amphitheatres and proposed a two-fold glacial advance model during the LGM at the Southern Alpine margin (Bini, 1987; 33 LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre Tab. 1 - The different stratigraphical attributions of the glacial stages of the Garda Glacial Amphitheatre. cesses. Moreover, near Caprino Veronese, north of the AMA, older till deposits are found which, due to the ab- sence of absolute dating, can be doubtfully attributed to the Early - Middle Pleistocene (Cozzaglio, 1933, 1934a; Cremaschi, 1987; Accorsi et al., 1990). In Table 2 we report the correlations between dif- ferent stratigraphies adopted in previous studies (Nicolis, 1882; Penck & Brückner, 1909; Cozzaglio, 1933, 1934a; Habbe, 1960; Venzo, 1961; Venzo et al., 1969; Cremaschi, 1987; Accorsi et al., 1990; Ravazzi et al., 2014). In the first work describing the area, the “Carta Geologica della Provincia di Verona” (“Geological map of the Verona Province”; Nicolis, 1882), the author recognized glacial deposits and moraines surrounding Rivoli Veronese town but was not able to separate dif- ferent glaciations. Penck & Brückner (1909), in their seminal work on Alpine glaciers, attributed the outer- most moraine ridges to the Riss glaciation, and the inner ones to the Würm period. Later works followed this con- cept with some modifications, moving the attribution of one or more moraine ridges to the Würm or Riss glacia- tions. Cozzaglio (1933) hypothesised the existence of a Mindel age moraine in the subsoil in front of the AMA; furthermore, Cozzaglio recognized muddy sediments in the inner Würm moraine ridges and interpreted them as lacustrine-basinal sediments. Habbe (1960) attributed all the amphitheatre to the Riss glaciation based only on pedological analyses. In his comprehensive work on the Quaternary ge- ology of the Garda and Adige Glacial Amphitheatre, Venzo (1961) suggested a two-fold glaciation model to explain the formation of the Quaternary deposits of the AMA, respectively to the Riss and Würm glacial expan- sions. To explain the presence of more than two major moraine ridges (Fig. 2), Venzo (1961) subdivided both glaciations into multiple phases of advance and retreat and attributed the outer moraine ridges to the Riss glaci- ation and the inner system moraine ridges to the Würm glaciation. He further divided the latter into three stages (Würm I to Würm III), suggesting that the moraine sys- tem acted as a dam during the Würm II-Würm III inter- stage and triggered the formation of ice-marginal lakes at the mouth of the Adige Valley (Venzo, 1961). Howe- ver, in his following work (Venzo et al., 1969), he simpli- 34 Pezzotta A. et al Fig. 4 - Panoramic view from Mt Castello to the North (see Fig. 2 for the location). On the landscape are highlighted the moraine ridge and glacial deposits (G and red lines), particularly in foreground and in background. In the middle a series of glaciolacustrine and glaciofluvial (GL) terraces are shown. Tab. 2 - The different stratigraphical attributions of the glacial stages of the AMA. area is registered and related to the pedostratigraphical description of loess deposits (Accorsi et al., 1990). Ra- vazzi et al. (2014) attributed all AMA moraine ridges to the LGM, without distinction of different advance pha- ses, unlike the Garda Glacial Amphitheatre (Tab. 1 and 2). Other information on the evolution of the AMA come from studies involving the surrounding landscape. Sorbini et al. (1984) surveyed the Venetian Plain South of Verona and downstream the AMA. They reported large boulders embedded in alluvial deposits cropping out in the Venetian Plain, characterized by dimensions up to 2 m in diameter and petrography coherent to the Adige-Sarca glacial system (Sorbini et al., 1984). These features, combined with their position downstream circa 20 km South from the AMA and 15 km East from the maximum glacial expansion of the Adige-Sarca glacial system, suggest that the boulders are related to the final stages of the Adige glaciofluvial fan aggradation (Sorbini et al., 1984). 3. METHODS Mapping, data collection and interpretation pro- ceeded through the following path: remote sensing in- fied his relative chronology and attributed the previous Riss, Würm I and Würm II to the Riss glaciation, leaving the Würm III as the only deposits of the Würm glaciation (Tab. 2). Such revisions come after the completion of the survey of both the Garda and Adige Glacial Amphithea- tres (completed in 1965: Venzo, 1965) and for reasons of scale. Lenotti (1980) just gave some passing remarks to the discussion of the AMA formation and referred to previous authors. More recent investigations, based on the above- mentioned criteria for the classification of the Garda Glacial Amphitheatre (Cremaschi, 1987), permitted to attribute the outermost moraine ridge to the Sedena stage (late Middle Pleistocene), and all the inner ones to the Solferino stage (Late Pleistocene) (Cremaschi, 1987). Later, in Accorsi et al. (1990) Cremaschi made a review of the AMA and reattributed the outermost mo- raine ridge to the M.te Crivellino unit (Middle Pleisto- cene), the main moraine ridge to the M.te Police unit (Upper Pleistocene) and the other ones to the Fiffaro unit (Upper Pleistocene). In this framework, the pres- ence of glaciolacustrine deposits is related to the glacio- fluvial deposits of the Late Glacial paleochannel of the Adige River (Rivoli unit) (Accorsi et al., 1990). The pres- ence of occasional strips of older deposits in the AMA 35 Tab. 3 - Facies associations, facies types and codes. LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre vestigation, field survey with identification and descry- ption of key stratigraphic sections and outcrops, facies interpretation and morphostratigraphic correlations. For remote sensing investigations, we made combined use of 1:5.000 and 1:10.000 topographic maps and a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with horizontal resolution of 5 m (Regione Veneto, 2018). All outcrops and stratigraphic sections (Fig. 3 and S1) were mapped in WGS 84/UTM zone 32N coordinate system using QGIS (versions 3.4 and 3.16: QGIS development team, 2019, 2021). Each outcrop and stratigraphic section was associated to a code and georeferenced (material available through supplementary material - Fig. S1, Tab. S1). The depos- its were described by their properties (Bini, 1990), in- cluding context, size and geometry of the outcrop, defi- nition, grain size, texture, consolidation and cementa- tion, clast morphology and petrographic composition, sedimentary structures, colours (with the Munsell Soil Color Charts code), and sedimentary facies defined following classical schemes (Miall, 1977, 1978, 1996; Eyles & Miall, 1984; Bini, 1990; Bennet et al., 2002; Johnsen & Brennand, 2006; Winsemann et al., 2009, 2018; Bini et al., 2014; Lang et al., 2017, 2021; Lee, 2018; Palmer et al., 2019; Kurjanski et al., 2021). Seve- ral sedimentary facies were identified (Tab. 3), which were later grouped into four facies associations diag- nostic of as many depositional settings (Section 4.1), based on their spatial distribution, geomorphological meaning (Section 4.2), occurrence in key outcrops and logged stratigraphic sections (Section 4.3). The strati- graphic interpretation of the recognized units was ex- trapolated through the interpolation between DEM, to- pography, and outcrops data (Section 4.4), heading to a comprehensive morphostratigraphy of the AMA inner- most moraine ridge (Fig. 3 and 5; Gibbons et al., 1984; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2018). 4. RESULTS 4.1. Facies associations This section reports the four different types of fa- cies associations described in the study area, and de- tails the distribution, properties, and significance of faci- es associations. 4.1.1. Glacial diamictons (Facies association G) This facies association consists of a variety of ma- trix- and clast-supported gravelly diamictons forming moraine ridges, such those shown in the map of Figure 3. The deposit is represented by generally poorly-sorted sediment admixtures (Fig. 6a-b) with observed thick- nesses up to 6 m highly variable textures (Tab. 3). Gra- vel-grade clasts represent the dominant volumetric fra- ction, accompanied with variable proportions of sand and mud. Sands locally form discontinuous beds up to 0.6 m-thick with lateral continuity less than a few metres. Internally, these deposits are massive, except for relatively better sorted lenses, which can show cross- stratification and clast imbrication (Fig. 6a-b; Tab. 3). Clasts are angular to well-rounded, with average size of 16 cm and max size of 150 cm. The matrix grain-size ranges from clay to coarse sand, with a colour varying from 7.5YR 7/2 (pinkish gray) to 10YR 6/3 (pale brown). The lithological composition of the coarse fraction is well -diversified (polygenic gravel), with abundant limestone clasts (60-70%), a moderate quantity of purple and green rhyolites-porphyries (20-30%), and less frequent basement lithologies (orthogneiss and quarzitic parag- neiss, 10-20%). All clasts usually show very poor to poor weathering. Occurrence and interpretation: The sedimentary character and geometry of these diamicton deposits suggest they can represent melt-out and, secondarily, 36 Pezzotta A. et al Fig. 5 - The two stratigraphic cross sections of the AMA innermost moraine ridge traced in Fig. 3, showing the morphostratigraphy of the southern (A-B-C section, above) and northern (D-E-F section, below) sectors of the investigated area. Vertical exaggeration is by two. colour varying from 7.5YR 6/4 (light brown) to 5YR 6/3 (light reddish brown) to 5YR 3/4 (dark reddish brown). The lithological composition of the coarse fraction is well -diversified (polygenic gravel), with abundant limestone clasts (50-70%), a moderate quantity of purple and green rhyolites-porphyries (20-30%), and less frequent basement lithologies (orthogneiss and quarzitic para- gneiss, 10-20%). Disregarding their composition, clasts show very poor to poor weathering. Occurrence and interpretation: This facies associa- tion occurs in the uppermost terraced sitting on top of glacial diamictons of Facies association G (Section 4.1.1). Sedimentary structures and depositional geome- tries are suggestive of deposition in a glaciofluvial set- ting at the glacier ice-front, in which fluvial processes and traction organise sediments in a range of fluvial bar types (Jopling & McDonald, 1975; Bersezio et al., 1999; Bennet et al., 2002; Winsemann et al., 2018; Lang et al., 2021; Kurjanski et al., 2021). 4.1.3. Deltaic deposits (Facies association D) This facies association is composed of gravelly flow tills accumulated at the ablating ice-front. On the other hand, cross-stratified and better-sorted deposits are interpreted as the result of traction from stream wa- ters able to rework sediments so as to form medium- scale bedforms (Bini, 1990; Winsemann et al., 2009; Lee, 2018). 4.1.2. Glaciofluvial deposits (Facies association GF) This facies association is composed of clast- supported gravels and sandy gravels, forming rather monotonous sections up to at least 10 m (Tab. 3). The stratification of these deposits lays horizontally. The finer -grained component of the deposits is represented by up to 40% of sand and c. 10% of silt. Beds are erosionally based, with scours up to several tens of cm-deep or channelised (composite) basal surfaces. Internally, the deposit can be structured, with through- and planar cross-stratifications and occasional clast imbrication (Fig. 6c-d), and ungraded to crudely graded (Fig. 7b). Clasts are sub-angular to well rounded, with ave- rage size of 8 cm and max size of 50 cm. Matrix grain- size is comprised between silt and coarse sand, with 37 LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre Fig. 6 - Examples of facies from glacial diamictons, glaciofluvial and deltaic facies associations. (a) Matrix-supported, stratified diamicton with evidence of current reworking, ascribed as flow till (northern flank of Mt La Mesa, ID: 44). (b) Matrix-supported, massive diamicton, ascribed as melt-out till (North of Zuane, ID: 127). (c) Planar and through cross-stratified gravel (North-East of Zuane di Sotto exposure, ID: 110). (d) Clast-supported, imbricated gravel infilling a channel scour in matrix-supported massive diamicton (interpreted as till), highlighted by different grain sizes, clast-supported texture, and cementation (South-East of Mt Castello, ID: 41). sands and relatively rarer clast-supported gravels for- ming bedsets up to c. 5 m-thick (Tab. 3). The stratifica- tion of these deposits lay horizontally in all outcrops except from one locality (Napoleonic Monument expo- sure in Section 4.3; Fig. 7f), where it dips toward the NW with angles up to 20°. The finer-grained component of the deposits is represented by up to 40% of sand and c. 10% of silt. Bed bases are flat to slightly erosional. Internally, the deposit can be either massive (Fig. 8a) or structured, with through- and planar cross-stratifications (Fig. 7f, 9c-e) suggestive of migrating 2D and 3D dunes, and ungraded to normally graded (Fig. 9f and 10d). Notably, in the outcrop with inclined stratification these deposits are chiefly massive or normally graded, with little evidence of internal organisation, and interbedded with finer-grained glaciolacustrine deposits. Here, some beds show evidence of soft sediment deformation, likely related to incipient gravity-driven slumping. The character of gravel-grade clasts is similar to that of Facies association GF except for a relatively higher roundness and finer grain-size. Occurrence and interpretation: This sedimentary facies association is exposed at different localities along the slopes facing the Adige River (Fig. 3) and are locally vertically and associated with glaciolacustrine deposits (Facies association GL). Massive to normally graded beds with inclined bedding and soft sediment defor- mations, such those cropping out at the Napoleonic Monument exposure (Fig. 7f; Section 4.3), can be inter- preted as the product of deposition from a range of sub- aqueous sediment gravity flow types (including debris flows, hyperconcentrated turbidity currents and mass movements) in the relatively steep upper part of a delta front (Bersezio et al., 1999; Bennet et al., 2002; Johnsen & Brennand, 2006; Winsemann et al., 2009, 2018; Lee, 2018; Kurjanski et al., 2021). On the other hand, struc- tured deposits interbedded with glaciolacustrine deposits (e.g., in the Rivoli section) resemble hyperpycnal bed- load facies B1-B2 of Zavala and Pan (2018) and report- ed occurring on glaciolacustrine deltas by Lang et al. (2017), and are thus better interpreted as the product of deposition from long-lived, flood-generated density flows in pro-delta settings (i.e., Powell, 1990). 4.1.4. Glaciolacustrine deposits (Facies association GL) This facies association form a few to several m- thick bedsets which locally sandwich (e.g., in the Rivoli Section, Fig. 9) deltaic deposits (Facies association D). It is represented by very thin- to medium-bedded nor- mally graded deposits including a range of sandy gra- vels to gravelly sands and very fine well-sorted sands, silts and clays (Fig. 7c-f, 8b-d, 9b, e-g, and 10; Tab. 3). Gravels are generally erosionally-based and massive, with sparse out-sized mud clasts up to 5 cm. On the other hand, sands show flat bases and are internally characterised by through- and planar-cross stratification, 38 Pezzotta A. et al Fig. 7 - Outcrops from the northern investigated area. (a) Global view of the Zuane di Sotto exposure. (b) Normally graded pebbly gravel to granule and sand (deltaic Facies association D), particular from the upper Zuane di Sotto exposure. (c) Massive silt (glaciolacustrine Faci- es association GL), particular of the lower Zuane di Sotto exposure. (d) “Napoleonic Monument” exposure, showing planar- and cross- stratified sand (glaciolacustrine Facies association GL). (e) Lowermost portion of the Napoleonic Monument exposure, composed by mas- sive mud (glaciolacustrine facies association GL). (f) Outcrop near Napoleonic Monument, composed by deltaic and glaciolacustrine facies associations; the dotted lines highlight the bedding, the solid lines highlight the boundaries between facies associations. Notice the de- formed stratification in the sandy deposits, interpreted as slumping. ted by flood-generated hyperpycnal flows (Bennet et al., 2002; Winsemann et al., 2009, 2018; Lang et al., 2017; Fitzsimons & Howarth, 2018; Palmer et al., 2019; Suth- erland et al., 2019; Kurjanski et al., 2021). 4.2. Geomorphology and spatial distribution of sedi- mentary facies associations From a morphological point of view, the study area is characterized by the presence of c. 15 (moraine) ridges, constituted by glacial diamictons of Facies asso- ciation G, at elevations in the range 170-215 m a.s.l. in the western flat area, and at elevations in the range 180 -305 m a.s.l. on the northern slopes of Mt La Mesa and Mt Pipalo (Fig. 3). The northern slope of Mt La Mesa is also characterized by small (kame) terraces (at eleva- tions of 215 and 240 m a.s.l.), infilled mainly by glacio- fluvial deposits of Facies association GF (Fig. 3). In this setting, Mt Rocca, Mt Castello and the slope to the North of Zuane di Sotto exposure are constituted by Mesozoic carbonates (Fig. 3). The abovementioned western flat area (172-195 m a.s.l.) is composed of at least 10 m-thick glaciofluvial deposits (Facies associa- tion GF), which are exposed along a quite continuous escarpment (northern escarpment, hereafter), extending from the Zuane di Sotto exposure to the North and the Castello outcrop to the South. Furthermore, these de- posits surround the moraine ridges in the central and south-western portion of the area (Fig. 3). To the South of Rivoli Veronese town, glaciolacustrine deposits cross-laminations (Fig. 7d and 9d; Tab. 3). Very thin- bedded alternations of sands, silts and clays result in heterolithic bedsets up to c. 1 m-thick, in which sands can form isolated sandy ripples (Fig. 9b, 10c-f). Gravel-grade clasts are sub-angular to well roun- ded, with average size of 0.5 cm and max size of 5 cm. The deposit colour varies from 10YR 6/4 (light yellowish brown), 7.5YR 8/4 (pink), to 5YR 6/3 (light reddish brown), to 2.5YR 6/3 (light reddish brown). The lithologi- cal composition of the gravel fraction is well-diversified (polygenic gravel), with presence of limestone, purple rhyolites-porphyries, and quartz; among the sand-grade, limestones and purple rhyolites-porphyries clasts, mica and quartz are recognizable. Clasts are very poorly to poorly weathered. Occurrence and interpretation: This facies associa- tion tends to form monotonous thin-bedded sections several m-thick and can be stratigraphically associated to deltaic deposits. The heterolithic structure of the de- posits, in which beds with variable grain-sizes and sedi- mentary structures alternate, suggest deposition from numerous and discrete depositional events in a low- energy glaciolacustrine setting occasionally reached by sediment gravity flows. Silts and clays are the result of fall out deposition from suspension and may relate to homo- and hypo-pycnal flood-generated flows, originat- ing rhytmites. Conversely, the thickest sand beds repre- sent the product of en-masse and traction plus fall-out deposition from sediment gravity flows, most likely igni- 39 LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre Fig. 8 - Castello outcrop, northern sector. (a) Global vision of the outcrop. Gravel scours, characterized by clast-supported massive pebbly gravel (deltaic facies association D) are highlighted by an erosional surface above glaciolacustrine facies association GL. (b) Particular showing normally graded sand (glaciolacustrine facies association GL); the dotted line highlights the inclined lamination. (c) Ice-wedge cast within mud-prone deposit (glaciolacustrine facies association GL); the dotted line evidences the cast. (d) Particular from Fig. 8c, showing vertical and high-angle inclined lamination highlighted by dotted lines. 40 Pezzotta A. et al F ig . 9 . - R iv o li s e c ti o n w it h t h e ( a ) s tr a ti g ra p h ic l o g o f th e R iv o li s e c ti o n ( d ra w n w it h S e d lo g - v .3 .1 , Z e rv a s e t a l. , 2 0 0 9 ) a n d t h e m a in f a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n s c o m p o s in g i t. T h e p o s it io n s o f th e fa c ie s r e p re s e n te d i n b -g a re d is p la y e d o n t h e l e ft o f th e s tr a ti g ra p h ic l o g . (b ) R h y tm it e s c o m p o s e d b y h o ri z o n ta lly l a m in a te d a lt e rn a ti n g s ilt , v e ry f in e s a n d a n d c la y ( g la c io la c u s tr in e f a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n G L ) a t 1 7 .6 0 m . (c ) C e m e n te d s a n d , s a n d y g ra v e l a n d g ra v e l w it h p la n a r a n d t ro u g h c ro s s -s tr a ti fi c a ti o n ( d e lt a ic f a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n D ) a t 1 3 -1 4 .5 0 m . (d ) P a rt ic u la r fr o m F ig . 9 c s h o w in g t h e t ra n s it io n f ro m t ro u g h c ro s s -s tr a ti fi e d g ra v e l, t o p la n a r- a n d t ro u g h -c ro s s s tr a ti fi e d s a n d . (e ) P a rt ic u la r fr o m l o w e r F ig . 9 c h ig h lig h ti n g t h e p re s e n c e o f n u m e ro u s i n tr a c la s ts a t th e b a s e a n d w it h in p la n a r c ro s s -s tr a ti fi e d p e b b ly g ra v e l. ( f) S e q u e n c e o f c h a n n e l fi lls , c h a ra c te ri z e d b y n o rm a lly g ra d e d s a n d t o s ilt a n d g ra v e l to v e ry f in e s a n d o r s ilt ( g la c io la c u s tr in e (G L ) a n d d e lt a ic ( D ) fa c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n ) a t 1 -3 .5 0 m . (g ) P a rt ic u la r fr o m F ig . 8 f s h o w in g t h e c h a n n e liz e d s tr u c tu re s w it h g ra n u le s a n d p e b b le s a lo n g t h e b a s e o f th e c h a n n e l. v v v v v - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- v v v v v v F ig . 1 0 - M t L a M e s a s e c ti o n w it h t h e ( a ) s tr a ti g ra p h ic l o g o f th e M t L a M e s a s e c ti o n ( d ra w n w it h S e d lo g - v .3 .1 , Z e rv a s e t a l. , 2 0 0 9 ) a n d t h e m a in f a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n s c o m p o s in g i t. T h e p o s it io n s o f th e f a c ie s r e p re s e n te d i n b -g a re d is p la y e d o n t h e l e ft o f th e s tr a ti g ra p h ic l o g . (b ) G lo b a l v ie w o f th e s tr a ti g ra p h ic s e c ti o n . (c ) E ro s io n a l s u rf a c e s e p a ra ti n g r h y tm it e s c o m p o s e d o f s ilt , c la y a n d f in e a n d v e ry f in e s a n d ( g la c io la c u s tr in e F a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n G L ) fr o m b e d s c o m p o s e d o f n o rm a lly g ra d e d s a n d t o m u d a n d n o rm a lly g ra d e d g ra v e l to s a n d ( g la c io la c u s tr in e fa c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n G L a n d h y p e rp y c n a l d e p o s it ) a t 5 .2 0 -6 .5 0 m . (d ) F in in g u p w a rd s t re n d c o m p o s e d a t th e b o tt o m b y c la s t- s u p p o rt e d s a n d y g ra v e l w it h n o rm a l g ra d a ti o n a n d p la n a r c ro s s - s tr a ti fi c a ti o n ( h y p e rp y c n a l d e p o s it s ), p a s s in g t o t h e t o p a t rh y ti m it e s o f fi n e s a n d , s ilt a n d c la y ( g la c io la c u s tr in e f a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n G L ) a t 3 .9 0 .0 0 -5 .0 0 m . N o ti c e t h e i rr e g u la ri ty o f g ra v e l e ro s io n a l b a s e . (e ) E ro s io n a l b a s e o f th e s a n d y g ra v e l w it h e v id e n c e o f p la n a r a n d t ro u g h -c ro s s s tr a ti fi c a ti o n ( h y p e rp y c n a l d e p o s it s ) a b o v e f in e ly l a m in a te d /r h y tm it e s o f s a n d , c la y , a n d s ilt (g la c io la c u s tr in e f a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n G L ) a t 3 .3 0 -4 .0 0 m . (f ) F in in g u p w a rd s t re n d c o m p o s e d a t th e b o tt o m b y m a s s iv e s a n d y g ra v e l (h y p e rp y c n a l d e p o s it s ), p a s s in g u p w a rd s t o w a rd s f in e ly la m in a te d s a n d , s ilt a n d c la y , n o rm a lly g ra d e d f in e s a n d , a n d f in e ly l a m in a te d m u d ( g la c io la c u s tr in e F a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n G L ) a t 2 .6 0 -3 .4 0 m . (g ) N o ti c e t h e p e b b le ( m a rk e d b y t h e r e d c ir - c le ) in s id e m a s s iv e s ilt y m e d iu m s a n d ( g la c io la c u s tr in e f a c ie s a s s o c ia ti o n G L ) a t 0 .4 0 m . 41 LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre (Facies association GL) compose the flat area, adjacent to the lowermost moraine ridges of Mt La Mesa and to the West of a continuous escarpment (southern escarp- ment, hereafter), extending from the Mt Castello to the North to the Mt Rocca to the South (Fig. 3). Along the slopes connecting both the northern and southern es- carpments to the present-day course of the Adige River (96 m a.s.l.), glaciolacustrine deposits (Facies associa- tion GL) outcrop. In the specific, the northern slope dis- plays multiple terraces (with elevations varying within the range 128-155 m a.s.l.; Fig. 4). These deposits show an up to 50 m-thick overall coarsening-upward trend in the upper part of the slope and are locally inter- calated by erosionally-based, coarse-grained deltaic deposits (e.g., to the East of the Napoleonic Monument; Fig. 3 and 5). At the bottom of the slope, c. 3 m of gla- cial diamictons of Facies association G are exposed along the deeply incised creek to the South of the Napo- leonic Monument (Fig. 3). In the meanwhile, the south- ern slope shows a coarsening-upward trend with glacio- lacustrine deposits and heteropic erosionally-based coarse-grained deltaic deposits. The deltaic facies asso- ciation crops out to the South-West of Mt Rocca and more continuously from Mt Castello to the Rivoli section (Fig. 3). 4.3. Key outcrops and type stratigraphic sections This section presents a comprehensive summary of observations made at five key-sites and type- stratigraphic sections within the investigated area. These noteworthy outcrops are listed from North to South, contributing significantly to the realization of the cross-sections of Fig. 5. 4.3.1. The Zuane di Sotto exposure This exposure (Fig. 7a) is constituted by a series of relatively small outcrops straddling the northern escarp- ment in its north-eastern termination and located at ele- vations in range 170-178 m a.s.l. (Fig. 3). Proceeding from lower to higher elevations, glaciolacustrine, deltaic and glaciofluvial deposits crop out. Glaciolacustrine and deltaic deposits (Facies associations GL and D) are represented by interbedded heterolithic deposits and variously structured gravelly sands and sandy gravels, respectively (Fig. 7c). The eastern escarpment exposes c. 2 m of the glaciofluvial gravels of Facies association GF which demonstrably composes the topmost terrace (Fig. 7b). The boundary between glaciolacustrine and the glaciofluvial deposits is not exposed. However, based on morphostratigraphic relationships and obser- vations made along the northern escarpment, we may suggest heteropic transition and coarsening upwards trend from glaciolacustrine s.l. deposits (Facies associa- tions D and GL) towards glaciofluvial deposits of Facies association GF (Fig. 5). 4.3.2. The Napoleonic Monument exposure Compared to the Zuane di Sotto, the Napoleonic Monument exposure is located in a more southern posi- tion (Fig. 3 and 5) and at lower elevations (98-128 m a.s.l.). It consists of a series of scattered small outcrops in which from lower to higher elevations, a progression from thinly-bedded and generally fine-grained glaciola- custrine deposits (Facies association GL; Fig. 7d-e) to coarse-grained and generally less-organised deltaic deposits (Facies association D) is observed. Here, the bedding of deltaic deposits locally shows inclination angles as high as c. 20° associated with evidence of soft -sediment deformations, which suggest a relatively high- gradient delta-front slope subject to gravitational defor- mation and slumping (Fig. 7f). 4.3.3. The Castello outcrop One of the key outcrops of the northern sector is located further to the South, c. 350 m to the Northwest of Mt Castello and at an elevation of 170 m a.s.l. (Fig. 3). The Castello outcrop rests on top and to the north of a moraine ridge made of glacial diamictons belonging to Facies association G (Fig. 3). It is c. 10 m-long and ex- poses c. 1.5 m of deposits represented, from base to top, by glacial diamictons, trough cross-stratified sandy gravels resembling deposits of the deltaic Facies asso- ciation D, and heterolithic and thinly-bedded fine-grained deposits. The latter include finely laminated sand and mud, and massive mud (Fig. 8a-b) characterized by vertical sub-millimetric to millimetric discontinuities high- lighted by redoximorphic features (Fig. 8c-d) and inter- pretable as ice wedge casts (Cremaschi & Van Vliet- Lanoë, 1991; Shur & Zhestkova, 2003; Mariani et al., 2015). 4.3.4. The Rivoli section The Rivoli stratigraphic section is exposed along the upper (between 169-189 m a.s.l.) part of a laterally extensive escarpment located immediately below the town of Rivoli Veronese (Fig. 3). The section (Fig. 9a) is c. 20.30 m-thick but partly covered and starts with thin to medium bedded alternations of muds and graded gra- velly sands (Facies association GL) suggestive of depo- sition in a proximal glaciolacustrine environment (Fig. 9f- g). Above a partly exposed interval c. 7.5-thick, c. 5 m of planar-parallel and cross-stratified gravelly sands occur (Fig. 9c-e) interpretable as hyperpycnal deposits accu- mulated in a pro-delta setting (Facies association D). The section ends with a few metres of finely laminated alternations of clays, silts and very-fine sands (Fig. 9b), most likely representing a relatively distal glaciolacus- trine deposit. 4.3.5. The Mt La Mesa section This 6.90 m-thick section (Fig. 10a) is exposed between 185-191 m a.s.l. along a road cut at the base of the northern slope of Mt La Mesa (Fig. 3). The section is rather repetitive and overall finer-grained than the Rivoli Section. It is represented by an alternation of very thin- bedded graded sands and muds with abundant plant fragments (Fig. 10c-d). These are intercalated by rarer but thicker beds (thickness in the range 15-50 cm) of sands and sandy gravels locally rich in mud clasts (Fig. 10c-g) and can be interpreted as sediments accumulat- ing in a glaciolacustrine environment with occasional deposition from a range of sediment gravity flow types. 4.4. Morphostratigraphic units Based on sedimentary facies composition, spatial relationship between key sites, and geomorphological 42 Pezzotta A. et al strate and on Glacial Advance 1 deposits (Accorsi et al., 1990). This unit corresponds to previously attributed: Würm I and Würm II gravel moraines (Venzo, 1961); Riss gravel moraines (Venzo et al., 1969); diamicton from Solferino Moraine Stage - Late Pleistocene (Cremaschi, 1987); moraine ridges related to the retreat of the Adige-Sarca glacial system from the Fiffaro unit - Upper Pleistocene (Accorsi et al., 1990); glacial ridges of the LGM (Ravazzi et al., 2014). 4.4.4. Glacial Retreat This unit consists of Glaciofluvial gravels and sandy gravels (unit GF3), Deltaic sandy gravels (unit D3), Glaciolacustrine heterolitic deposits (unit GL3), and Glacial diamicton (unit G3) (Fig. 3). Unit G3 glacial dia- micton compose the tills of the moraine ridges surround- ing Zuane to the North and to the West, the ridges to the West of Mt Castello and Rivoli Veronese town, and the ones at the base of the northern flank of Mt La Mesa (Fig. 3). Unit G3 glacial diamicton are overlaid/ juxtaposed and partially eroded by units GF3, D3, and GL3 (glaciofluvial, deltaic and glaciolacustrine deposits). Glaciolacustrine deposits (unit GL3) overlay unit G3 glacial diamicton, and are composed by sand, silt and clay representing a proglacial lake system (see Section 4.1.4). Unit GL3 outcrops along both northern (between the Adige River, Zuane and Mt Castello) and southern (between Mt Castello, Rivoli Veronese and Mt La Mesa) slopes. Along the slopes, heteropic deltaic sandy gra- vels of unit D3 crops out near the Napoleonic Monument location, along the escarpment below the Rivoli Verone- se town, and to the South-West of Mt Rocca. To the South, unit GF3 glaciofluvial gravels compose the infil- ling of small kame terraces (length is c. 150-180 m) along the northern flank of Mt La Mesa, and dominate the western portion of the investigated area as an out- wash proglacial system, which erodes all the other de- posits and units. This morphostratigraphic unit differs from the other glacial ones by its inner position, highlighted by the con- centric and discontinuous moraine ridges. The upper boundary is the current topography and is characterized by a 50 cm thick 10YR to 7.5YR soil horizon, or some- times by the erosional surface of the Post-Glacial unit. Clasts are not weathered but some deposits are charac- terised by thin calcretes. The lower boundary with other units is an erosional surface. This unit corresponds to previously attributed: Würm II and Würm III gravel mo- raines, Würm II glaciofluvial coarse gravels and Würm III fluvio-lacustrine deposits (Venzo, 1961); Riss and Würm gravel moraines, Riss I and Riss II glaciofluvial gravels, Würm-Riss Interglacial fluviolacustrine deposits (Venzo et al., 1969); diamicton from Solferino Moraine Stage - Late Pleistocene (Cremaschi, 1987); moraine ridges related to the retreat of the Adige Glacier (Fiffaro unit - Upper Pleistocene), kame terraces and glaciofluvial deposits related to the retreat of the Adige Glacier (Zuane unit - Upper Pleistocene), glaciolacustrine de- posits of the Rivoli Veronese town and deposits of the Late Glacial paleochannel of the Adige River (Rivoli unit - Late Glacial) (Accorsi et al., 1990); glacial ridges of the LGM (Ravazzi et al., 2014). features of the morphostratigraphic unit mapped in Fi- gure 3, this Section addresses the stratigraphic architec- ture of the innermost moraine ridge of the AMA. These units are coded with an acronym: the letters indicate the dominant facies association and the depositional setting (see Section 4.1 “Facies associations”), while the num- ber denotes the glacial stage as reported in Figures 2 and 3. 4.4.1. Pre-Glacial Substrate The bedrock in the area is composed by nodular limestone, well-bedded marly limestone and oolitic lime- stone, reported as undistinguished Mesozoic limestones (unit C) in Figure 3. The substrate crops out to the North of the Zuane di Sotto exposure and on most of Mt Cas- tello; to the South, limestones crop out to the North of Mt Pipalo and constitutes Mt Rocca (Fig. 3). Limestones are eroded and covered by most successive units. This bed- rock is reported in literature by Venzo (1961) as “Cretaceous and Pre-Cretaceous series”, with refe- rences to Cozzaglio (1934); Venzo et al. (1969) attribu- ted the sedimentary succession as Bajocian-Lower Ti- thonian in age. 4.4.2. Glacial Advance 1 This unit consists of Glacial diamicton (unit G1) (Fig. 3). These deposits compose the tills of the moraine ridges in the Mt Pipalo area, at the southernmost point of the investigated area. Compared to younger glacial units (see Section 4.4.3 and Section 4.4.4), ridges belonging to this unit are comparatively less continuous and more external (Fig. 2 and 3). The upper boundary is the cur- rent topography and is characterized by a 50 cm thick 10YR to 7.5YR soil, or alternatively by an erosional sur- face from Post-Glacial, Glacial Retreat and Glacial Ad- vance 2 units. The clasts are not weathered but most of its deposits are characterised by thin and discontinuous calcretes and CaCO3 nodules. The lower boundary is not exposed; however, based on morphostratigraphic interpretations we hypothesise an erosional surface above the Pre-Glacial Substrate. This unit corresponds to previously attributed: Würm I and Riss gravel mo- raines (Venzo, 1961); Riss gravel moraines (Venzo et al., 1969); diamicton from Solferino Moraine Stage - Late Pleistocene (Cremaschi, 1987); moraine ridges of the greatest glacial expansion from M.te Police unit - Upper Pleistocene (Accorsi et al., 1990); glacial ridges of the LGM (Ravazzi et al., 2014). 4.4.3. Glacial Advance 2 This unit consists of Glacial diamicton (unit G2) (Fig. 3). These deposits compose the tills of the moraine ridges on the northern flank of Mt La Mesa and at its top, in the southern portion of the investigated area. This unit differs from the other glacial phases by higher and more continuous ridges, and sometimes doubling ridges (Fig. 2 and 3). The upper boundary is the current topography and is characterized by a 50 cm thick 10YR to 7.5YR soil, or alternatively by an erosional surface from Post- Glacial and Glacial Retreat units. The clasts are not weathered but most of its deposits are characterised by thin calcretes and CaCO3 coatings on clasts. The lower boundary is an erosional surface on the Pre-Glacial Sub- 43 LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre 44 Pezzotta A. et al Fig. 11 - Proposed reconstruction model of the ice-contact proglacial lake of the innermost moraine ridge of the AMA. (a) Last advance stadial phase with moraine ridge build-up and meltwater streams passing through the moraine ridges. (b) Onset of the proglacial lakes. Here the lake is split by the bedrock of Mt. Castello. (c) Coalescence of the two lakes due to the progressive glacial retreat. (d) Final GLOF of the proglacial lake generated by the breakthrough in the sedimentary plug. glaciolacustrine sedimentation. Whereas along the southern slope, comprised between Mt Castello to the North and Mt La Mesa to the South, glaciolacustrine sediments show a coarsening upwards trend, with alter- nating mud-prone and sandy deposits heteropic to del- taic facies association. In this context, the presence of coarser-grained deposits in the Rivoli section can attest to a proximal/deltaic setting respect to the finer-grained sediments of the Mt La Mesa section, which can testify distal glaciolacustrine environment. Studied sections and facies associations show that proglacial lakes included delta systems, transitioning laterally to direct contact of the ablating ice-front to the proglacial lake (Fig. 11). In this context, the glaciolacus- trine setting is characterized by shifting from deltaic system to proximal and distal glaciolacustrine deposi- tional environments. Delta systems show great mobility in their sedimentary distributary pattern, with erosionally -based gravelly deltaic heteropic to sandy and mud- prone glaciolacustrine deposits. This reflects how the proglacial lake depositional style is dominated by a se- ries of gravity flows driven processes, such as debris flows, hyperconcentrated and concentrated density flows, high- and low-density turbidity currents, slumping, up to fall out settling, but also related to fluvial proces- ses with tractive currents and hyperpycnal flows (i.e., Bersezio et al., 1999; Bennet et al., 2002; Winsemann et al., 2009; Lang et al., 2017, 2021; Palmer et al., 2019). These depositional processes may have an epi- sodic to quasi-steady nature led by different trigger mechanisms, from remobilisation of sediments to sus- tained flows of turbidity currents originated by meltwater and deltaic input, to currents generated by more or less continuous river floods (i.e., hyperpycnite). Erosional activity is recorded by scours, intraclasts, and gravelly erosional bases (Bennet et al., 2000, 2002); although they may correspond to water level fluctuations, no ba- sin-wide unconformity was recognised. In this setting, the potential water depths is not very high with maxi- mum water depth circa 25-50 m. The infilling of the ba- sin is also a matter of discussion, since there is no in- contestable evidence of a single cycle of basin-fill before the final lake drainage happened during glacial retreat. While we do not exclude a priori the possibility of multi- ple cycles of basin-fill, the absence of recognizable lake- wide unconformities suggests a single cycle model (i.e., Bennet et al., 2002). The rapid variations of the depositional environ- ments can be related to different factors, such as the available accommodation space, the fluctuations of the glacier front, the sedimentary input pathways (delta vs ice-front), and the quantity of water vs sediments dis- charge (i.e., Bennet et al., 2000, 2002; Winsemann et al., 2018; Palmer et al., 2019). All these factors can change between the northern and southern branches, which show great affinity but also some divergences. Among them, the different stacking of facies associa- tions suggests the plausible development of two sepa- rated lacustrine branches during part or all of the final stage of glacial retreat, possibly coalesced together (Fig. 11b-c). Frost action, recorded by the occasional presence of ice-wedge casts formed into glaciolacus- trine sediments (Fig. 8), was also effective during the 4.4.5. Post-Glacial This unit consists of Alluvial deposits (unit A) and Slope deposits (unit S) (Fig. 3). Unit A deposits are com- posed of silt, sand and gravel, which presence is limited to the banks and terraces on the current course of the Adige River. Unit S deposits are formed by colluvium and slope debris and derive from the dismantling of pre- vious glacial, glaciofluvial and substrate deposits. The lower boundary with other units is always an erosional surface. The upper boundary is the current topography and is characterized either by the absence of soil cover or by a 10YR to 5YR soil up to 50 cm thick. 5. DISCUSSION: BASIN-FILL ARCHITECTURE AND EVOLUTION OF THE AMA INNERMOST MORAINE RIDGE Morphostratigraphic investigations show different types of facies associations occurring in the study area that can be attributed to different units of Late Pleisto- cene (glacial, glaciofluvial, glaciolacustrine) and Holo- cene (related to fluvial or pediment systems) deposits (Fig. 3). Furthermore, field survey indicates that two different glacial advances occurred in the area, followed by a glacial retreat. Notably, these phases are marked by tills forming moraine ridges and double ridges. This context implies a complex glacial history occurred in the LGM and pedogenesis affecting deposits only during the Holocene (Accorsi et al., 1990). The age attributions are based on morphostratigraphic markers and correlations made according to literature (Cremaschi, 1987; Accorsi et al., 1990; Bini & Zuccoli, 2004; Bini, 2012; Monegato et al., 2017) due to the lack of absolute dating. Once the Adige glacier retreated behind the inner- most moraine ridges (Fig. 11a), meltwater infilled the depression, also thanks to the low permeability of the underlying tills (Anderson, 1989; Bersezio et al., 1999; Fig. 11b). Two different interpretative models can ex- plain such setting: 1) a kame terracing sequence, with a series of younger downscaling terraces during glacial retreat; 2) the infilling of the AMA innermost moraine ridge by one or more proglacial lake systems. We pro- pose the glaciolacustrine hypothesis. The morphostrati- graphic approach suggests that such proglacial lakes were a continuum between an ice-contact proglacial lake and a glaciolacustrine delta system (Fig. 11b-c); further- more, the proglacial lakes were dammed by moraine ridges and other glacial deposits, as well as by the gla- cier itself. Such barriers also occluded the pre-existing Adige Canyon, thus constraining the meltwater drainage pathways of the Adige Glacier to move West, cutting down the moraine ridges during both glacial advances and retreat (Fig. 1, 2 and 11). Along the innermost moraine ridges of the AMA, the glaciolacustrine succession is almost continuous, occasionally interrupted by deltaic sandy gravels. These intercalations may be related to more continuous and sustained hyperpycnal flows or to aggradation and back- stepping of delta systems. The northern slope, com- prised between Zuane di Sotto exposure to the North and Mt Castello outcrop to the South, shows a general coarsening-upward trend from mud-prone to sandy de- posits, suggesting a transition from distal to proximal 45 LGM glaciolacustrine deposits from the Adige Moraine Amphitheatre glacial retreat phase at the end of LGM as well as dur- ing previous periods (Cremaschi & Van Vliet-Lanoë, 1991; Mariani et al., 2015). These casts show the occur- rence of freeze-thaw cycles at the surface of the depos- its and mark clear evidence of seasonal permafrost formation in a periglacial environment after the desicca- tion of proglacial lakes. The presence of redoximorphic features inside the casts can indicate successive water saturation processes possibly related to a warmer cli- mate phase (i.e., Cremaschi, 1990; Cremaschi & Van Vliet-Lanoë, 1991; Shur & Zhestkova, 2003; Mariani et al., 2015). In the final retreat of the Adige Glacier the pro- glacial lake disappeared (Fig. 11d). This can possibly relate to the reopening of the Adige Canyon. In fact, we postulate that the canyon was already incised before the LGM, considering the tectonic, seismic activity, and subsidence movements that characterized both the Venetian Plain and Lower Adige Valley since the Plio- cene up to the Middle Pleistocene, and still seismically active in historical times (Sorbini et al., 1984; Scardia et al., 2015; Martin et al., 2020). The Adige Canyon (Fig. 2) is a small passageway bordered by very steep lime- stone walls and a meander geometry: the formation of such incision must have required an erosional work much longer than the post-deglaciation time-window. Since the canyon threshold is significantly lower than the AMA level, meltwater would have preferentially passed in it instead of eroding the AMA moraine ridges, making it implausible to forming proglacial lake inside the AMA and meltwater pathways between the two mo- raine amphitheatres. The obstruction of the canyon is confirmed by the presence of notches (inland karst notches, Shtober-Zisu et al., 2015) on the walls in the passageway and of glacigenic sediments on both sides of the canyon. Furthermore, another portion of the Adige River path is incised in the bedrock between Parona and Verona (Fig. 1; Dal Piaz et al., 1968; Venzo et al., 1969; Sorbini et al., 1984). Furthermore, the canyon obstruction is corroborated by the morphology of the AMA, which shows how the LGM meltwater pathways from the Adige Glacier flowed towards the West, cutting moraine ridges and bending South in the lowlands be- tween the Garda and Adige Glacial Amphitheatres (Fig. 1 and 11; Venzo, 1961; Venzo et al., 1969; Cremaschi, 1987). This condition would have lasted until the final recessional phase, when the Adige River finally ma- naged to break the sedimentary plug and started to flow through the canyon, as is the current river setting (Fig. 11d). The presence of glacial deposits filling most of the canyon is supported by the occurrence of boulders in the LGM Adige glaciofluvial fan sedimentary succession near the city of Verona, c. 20 km South the AMA and 15 km East the maximum glacial expansion of the Adige- Sarca glacier (Cozzaglio, 1933; Sorbini et al., 1984). In fact, during the LGM glacial tongues did not reach the area of Verona, making the occurrence of these mega- clasts (named in literature “erratics” or “glacial erratics”) only possible through transportation by high-con- centrated floods. Considering these points, we propose that the opening of the Adige Canyon was a sudden, dramatic event, likely a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF; Fig. 11d). The GLOF could have been triggered by a landslide of glacial sediments and/or ice in the ice- contact lake or by a huge and rapid high-density meltwa- ter discharge from the proglacial lake. GLOFs have been reported from numerous locations in other sectors of the Venetian and Friulan Plain (Northern Italy) and they are also common in other glaciated areas of the world (i.e., Desio & Orombelli, 1983; Hewitt, 2009; Monegato et al., 2020; Panin et al., 2020; Emmer, 2023). In such perspective, the sedimentary process in charge of the placement of the ‘Verona Erratics’ is more similar to the one proposed by Desio & Orombelli (1983) to interpret the origin of the ‘Punjab Erratics’. Further- more, the drainage of the proglacial lake generated a fluvial erosional surface, composed by erosional river terraces and channel (i.e., Bennet et al., 2000, 2002; Panin et al., 2020). 6. CONCLUSIONS The mapping and sedimentary facies analysis of the innermost moraine ridge of the AMA gives a com- plex insight on the Adige Glacier evolution during the LGM and the critical phase of the last deglaciation, re- gionally dated between 24 and 17 ka (Fontana et al., 2014; Ravazzi et al., 2014; Wirsig et al., 2016; Monega- to et al., 2017; Braakhekke et al., 2020). In our study we could assess that:  The main and outermost moraine ridges of the AMA were built during at least two glacial advances, while the inner ones during a glacial retreat. In the absence of absolute ages, morphostratigraphy suggests that these advances can be correlated to LGM multi-fold advances (i.e., Monegato & Ravazzi, 2018).  Landscape evidence, morphostratigraphy and deposi- tional architecture from the sedimentary facies asso- ciations of the AMA innermost moraine ridge indicate that this area was occupied by a two branching pro- glacial lake, dammed by moraine ridges and glacial deposits as well as by the glacial front.  The basin-fill of the proglacial lakes shows that this setting can be interpreted as a continuum between an ice-contact proglacial lake and a glaciolacustrine delta system, with many vertically and laterally shifts of facies associations.  The reconstruction of the drainage of the proglacial lakes leads to a GLOF hypothesis related to the re- opening of the Adige Canyon. This is supported by the presence of boulders (“erratics”) along the LGM Adige glaciofluvial fans (Cozzaglio, 1933; Sorbini et al., 1984) and by the formation of a fluvial erosional sur- face in the innermost moraine ridge of the AMA. This model is in accordance with similar dynamics from other Southern Alpine contexts (i.e., Fontana et al., 2014; Monegato et al., 2020) and adds a key piece in the transition from the LGM to the deglaciation in the region. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to thank two anonymous revie- wer who greatly ameliorate the quality of the original manuscript. Additionally, the authors extend their appre- ciation to the Editor in Chief Dr. I.Mazzini and Associate 46 Pezzotta A. et al Switzerland). Southern Alps Quaternary Geology, IGCP 378 Meeting, Lugano Oct 1995. Geologia Insubrica, 2 (2), 21 - 46. Bini A. (2012) - I ghiacciai del passato. In: Bonardi L., Rovelli E., Scotti R., Toffaletti A., Urso M., Villa F., (Eds.), I Ghiacciai di Lombardia. 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