ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 190 community theatre and environmental education: the ukwu orji bus park project aghamelu, helen udumaga department of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka hu.aghamelu@unizik.edu.ng abstract environmental issues in recent times are gaining greater attention globally. every community is witnessing one form of the environmental problem within its locality. these environmental problems include but are not limited to the following; water pollution, erosion menace, oil spillage, desertification, and flooding. various environmental policies have been put in place by the government and its environmental agencies to tackle these problems but the menace remains persistent because the target has not been reached. to achieve the targeted goal, there is a need for the public to be duly educated on environmental protection using appropriate media that can easily impact the grass root. this paper advocates that community theatre should be used to educate the public on the dangers of environmental degradation and the benefits of its protection. the paper is anchored on bertolt breckt’s theatre of the oppressed which emphasises theatre that propels the spectator to action. using qualitative research for data collection and analysis, the paper explores community theatre as a means of educating the masses on environmental matters. the paper concludes that for the government to win the war against environmental degradation, a medium of information dissemination that involves the people is needed. it, therefore, aghamelu: community theatre and environmental education… 191 recommends the use of community theatre in this regard to take the message of environmental sanitation closer to the people. keywords: environment, environmental education, community theatre. environmental awareness, introduction every community in nigeria is battling with one form of environmental problem or the other. as the arid part of the country is battling desertification, the wetlands are battling flooding and erosion. the cities are not left out, as industrialisation has ushered in air and water pollution due to poor waste disposal and other human activities that contribute negatively to the environment. the importance of the environment in man’s life is so much so that it affects his dress, occupation, what he eats and drinks, where he lives and how he lives, and where he goes. it even affects the manner he worships and relates to his creator. putting it more succinctly, yaki and babagana see the environment as “the total of all conditions, living and non-living that surround man at a given time. it is the common heritage of mankind” (1). the state of the environment is the basis for man’s survival in the physical world, hence the need for its protection. the importance of the environment is further highlighted by alami and adekunle when they stated that “the quality of the environment affects the quality of our lives. our actions as producers, consumers, voters and procreators have a cumulative impact on the quality of the environment that sustains it” (25). agenda, 21 of the global agenda adopted at the 1992 earth summit in rio de janeiro, advocates for environmental education that will reflect the need for sustainable development in the 21st century. in ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 192 line with the above, environmental agencies and stakeholders in nigeria have been saddled with the task of taking the message of environmental protection to the masses to aid in the control and prevention of environmental degradation in the country. various efforts have been put in place by the nation’s ministry of environment, national conservation foundation and other environmental stakeholders towards solving the environmental problems in nigeria. despite all the noticeable efforts, the resultant implementation has yielded little or no positive fruits. this can be attributed to a lack of awareness and other factors on the part of the people. therefore, a need arises for adopting a more effective approach to taking the message of the environment to the people. environmental education is a way of enhancing the awareness of people on environmental issues, understanding the environment and the importance of its conservation and protection, to find a lasting solution to the numerous environmental problems in their community. it aims to inculcate the people the skills and needs to handle environmental problems for better living conditions. thus tayo and alaba define it as “a new approach to education which is hoped will bring some solution to the deteriorating relationship between man and his environment.”(1326). the above is saying that environmental education creates awareness for people to understand the environment and make intelligent decisions that will take care of it for the good of mankind. for clearer understanding, the unesco document defines it as: a living process that increases people’s knowledge and consciousness about the environment and associated challenges develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges and foster attitude, motivation and aghamelu: community theatre and environmental education… 193 commitment to make informed decisions and take responsible actions (52). environmental education is primarily, information on environmental issues that are meant to guide the individual to a better understanding, and consequently, better handling of the environment for optimal benefit from the immediate environment. it provides factual information that will lead to an understanding of the environment and its problems, and encourages people to develop concern for environmental protection and safety. katie kinner defines it as “a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in problem-solving and take action to improve the environment” (np). the importance of environmental education is that it informs the people of the manner and need to safeguard the environment by imbibing positive environmental habits to sustain the balance of the ecosystem. according to alami and adekunle: environmental education aims to develop a citizenry that is aware of and concerned about the total environment and its associated problems and has the knowledge, attitudes, motivation, and problems, as well as the prevention of new ones (25). in the words of william stapp: environmental education aims to produce a citizenry knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to help solve them and motivated to work towards their solution (34). from the above, one can deduce that environmental education creates creative environmental consciousness towards ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 194 environmental protection for positive living conditions. it is pertinent that people need to understand the environment and their responsibility towards its safety. given this, the need arises for people to be educated on matters relating to the environment because it promotes awareness and mobilises the people to action on environmental protection. observations have shown that this important education aimed at salvaging the environment is lacking at the grass root hence the poor environmental habits being displayed by the people. alaba and tayo attested to this by stating that” the people at the grass root lack environmental consciousness; hence there is a need for more campaigns to help change people’s behaviour at the local community level (1326). ubong nda points out that the global environmental problem needs serious attention and calls for “the enunciation of creative ideas that would take the message of environmental salvaging to persons of different classes and ages” (142). community theatre is a creative medium of communication that is informative, educative, entertaining and at the same time works directly with people irrespective of class or age. dang’a and kabela define it as: a participatory theatre in which the people themselves engage issues about their own lives for their immediate consumption and which promotes development by stimulating dialogue within them using their familiar artistic expressions like songs, dances proverbs, mimes, local norms and culture, etcetera (17). community theatre is a unique art bound with its originality and readiness to intervene in the developmental discourse by aghamelu: community theatre and environmental education… 195 employing its overwhelming adaptability to social situations. according to john cohen-cross, it is a “community-based theatre, a popular mode allied with identity politics and targeting underrepresented groups in the quest for creative expression” (115). for obadiegwu, community theatre is “a practice by which theatre is placed at the service of the people to discuss and work out strategies for dealing with their problems “(ix). this type of theatre is people-oriented hence the general acceptance of community theatre as a theatre for the people, by the people and with the people. thus chukwu okoronkwo sees it as a process of “discussing development as a group and catalysing the discussion rather than presenting a solution to the community” (686). being a process and not a finished project, community theatre is a continuous project that allows for follow-up visits the viability of community theatre in educating and informing the masses can be attributed to its uniqueness in dealing with the problems of the host community using theatricalities available within their vicinity. its participatory nature also gave it an upper hand ahead of other communication media. as adie okoro and orim rightly put it, “one cannot effect change without being involved in the larger process of change” (np). this participatory quality of community theatre encourages collaboration with the host community and allows them to voice out their perception of the issue at hand with a view to proffering solutions. they are mobilised to actively evolve intellectually, and materially to come to a thorough understanding of their problem and in the process, proffer solutions. eyo (1986) quoted in adie, okoro and orim observed that the “implication of using community theatre as a participatory tool for social change is quite enormous as it allows for discussion, interaction, mobilisation to bring out communal ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 196 changes”(np). through community theatre, therefore, the host community develops new strategies for tackling issues inherent in their community for a desired positive change okhaku and evawoma-enuku observed that: in community theatre, drama is used as an educational springboard and not necessarily entertainment, through which the community can deal with the issues of concern to its members and associates (np). on the usefulness of community theatre for development, obadiegwu observed that community theatre: is used by development agents as an alternative medium to confront and combat apathy in a given situation. it is also a means of addressing communal problems by motivating members of such a community to change (77). aba (1990), quoted in adie, okoro and orim further states that: community theatre is not a professional affair and therefore does not require professional attitudes to harness it. what it requires is the collective aspirations and decisions of people wanting to use theatre to develop their environment … community theatre entails the use of communal participation from problem identification and research to staging (np). this paper is specific on the use of community theatre to educate the people on the need for environmental protection for a healthier and wealthier living using “ukwuorji minimarket pallava”, a community theatre project executed by 2021/2022 300 level students of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, as a case study. aghamelu: community theatre and environmental education… 197 community theatre helps in conveying sensitive information to a given community. it presents the host community with situations that can easily engage them emotionally, aesthetically and intellectually. the sole objective of community theatre is to stimulate the community into action to address and identify communal problem(s). this is the objective behind the ukwu orji market project. the bus park is a mini park with a flourishing fruit and vegetables mini market located in a residential area in ifiteawka, awka south local government area in anambra state. it is a community of civil servants and petty traders. the park is experiencing serious environmental problems resulting from human activities, such as poor sanitation and neglect. when the crew first visited the community for fact-finding, the following information was gathered: 1. the drainage in front of the park is filled with refuse, thus blocking them. 2. the culvert leading into the park is broken 3. inside the park is littered with rotten fruits and vegetables abandoned by the sellers. 4. there are pocket heaps of refuse at different spots within the park. the crew also discovered that the market women are not cooperative hence the dirty state of the environment. they also discovered that the refuse dump opposite the park has not been evacuated for a long time because the community members have been defaulting regularly on the payment of sanitation levy. hence the area is filled with a pungent odour emanating from the dump ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 198 with flies roaming about in their numbers in and around the park. this reduces the number of buyers patronising the fruit market because the fruits are believed to be contaminated. this environmental condition also affects the bus drivers as passengers preferably patronise the keke (tricycle) drivers outside the park because of the unhealthy condition of the park. on these facts, the students, in collaboration with the community members, weaved a story titled “ukwu orji market palava”. “ukwu orji market palava” is a drama skit with a simple storyline that is woven around environmental protection and its benefits. in the drama, the market women and the bus drivers are dragging over whose responsibility it is to keep the park clean. the drivers insist that it is the traders’ responsibility since they are the ones that litter it with remnants from their stalls. the traders on the other hand are adamant that the park should be cleaned by the drivers because they and their passengers contribute to its dirtiness. the park chairman intervened to save the situation and scheduled a compulsory meeting for all members of the park to discuss a way forward. after the meeting, which also has in its attendance, the representative of the anambra state waste management agency (aswama), an agency of the ministry of environment that bears the responsibility of evacuation of refuse in the state. after the meeting, both groups were made to understand the importance of keeping the park clean for the growth of their business. they are made to understand that the responsibility of keeping the park clean falls on every member of the community. through the aswama representative, the government promised to ensure the regular evacuation of the refuse from the refuse dump and urged the community members to be regular with their payment of sanitation levy. they are advised to open up the drainages for free movement of flood and desist from the habit of dumping refuse inside them. a short speech on environmental protection was given by the aswama representative and in appreciation for their aghamelu: community theatre and environmental education… 199 understanding, free refuse bags were shared and safer refuse disposal methods were taught to the sellers. the meeting was rounded off with a dance in appreciation for the new development. achievements at the end of the performance, the salient point made is that if environmental protection is included in the day-to-day activities of the people, they stand to gain more from it. following this, the chairman of the park promised to ensure that the environmental condition of the park is improved. the project helped in informing the sellers of the need to keep their business environment clean to increase patronage from customers who are more likely to patronise them if the environment is cleaner. the drivers also promised to open up the drainages for the easy flow of flood. on the part of the government, the aswama boss representative, invited to the performance by the students, promised to ensure that the refuse dump opposite the park is regularly evacuated. conclusion the project aims to make the park occupants see the need for keeping the park/mini market clean. though we are aware that we are not in the position to solve the entire problems of the park, as we are not in the position to provide the trash cans or employ the cleaners, we were able to bring to the knowledge of the members of the community that their behaviours and habits contribute either positively or negatively to the environment. nigeria, and indeed, the entire universe is facing serious environmental challenges. in the face of these challenges, community theatre can be used to educate people on the extent their behaviours and habits can help in tackling the global environmental problem. community theatre is participatory in nature. in addition ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 200 to this, it also employs dialogue in discussing and working out strategies suitable for handling every problem it encounters in the host community. this allows the people to reflect on their problems and their causes, and then decide on possible solutions. the use of drama as an educational springboard in addressing an identified communal problem stimulates the people to action towards solving such a problem. ukwuorj market palava is proof that community theatre places theatre at the service of the people for environmental education. through this theatrical performance, members of the community are encouraged to discard their negative environmental attitude and replace it with a more positive one to ensure the safety of their environment. references adie, edward. okoro, lilian, a. and orim, eugenea, g. “exploring the potentials of community theatre as a toll for social change: the participatory communication method”. in journal of integrative journalism,4.1(2014): retrieved, 14th june 2022. https://philapapers.org/rec. alaba, sofowora, o. and tayo, omisope, k. “a study of the effectiveness of socio-drama learning packages in promoting environmental knowledge and behaviour of secondary school students in osun state, nigeria”. mediteranian journal of social science. 5.23 (2014): 13261330. retrieved, 14th june 2022. https://www.richman.org/journal. https://www.richman.org/journal aghamelu: community theatre and environmental education… 201 brecht, b. brecht on theatre. j. willet, (ed), london: methuen, 1964. chukwu, okoronkwo. “trends in the development of alternative theatre practice: the ahmadu bello university, nigeria example”. academia-research international. 2.3 (2012): 682-689. diang, a recheal and kebeya, charles. community theatre and development practices in nyenza region, kenya. retrieved, 18th june 2022. https://www.ajol.info>article>view. john, cohen-cruz. “practice and policy in theatre for development” in banham, m., gibbs, j. and osofisan, f.(eds.) african theatre in development. oxford: james curry, 1999. katie, kinner. “why environmental education is important for kids” https//www.rubicon.com. accessed, 14th june 2022. obadiegwu, chiduo, c. beyond the fourth wall. nkpor: brystevand publishers., 2015. okhaku, marcel and evawoma-enuku, usiroma. “enhancing correctional education through community theatre: the benin prison experience” the free library, alabama: project innovation, 2011. accessed, 14 july 2022 https// www.thefreelibrary.com. sabitu, alimi, olatunji and olatumile, adekunle. “assessment of environmental protection awareness among universal basic education students in nigeria”. advances in social http://www.thefreelibrary.com/ ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 202 sciences journal. 3.7 (2016). retrieved,18th june 2022. https://www.researchgate.net ubong, s. nda.” utilizing drama in the teaching of environmental issues to primary school pupils.” international journal of education administration and policy studies. 4.6 (2012): 141-146. accessed 14th june, 2022, https//www.academi journals.org william, b. stapp. “the concept of environmental education”. retrieved, 4th june 2022. https://www.hiddencorners.us>html. yaki, akawo,angwal and babagana, mohamed. “community environmental education awareness: a panacea for transformation in nigeria”. accessed,4th june 2022. https://www.repository.futminna.edu,ng>jspui>han... ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 104 the psychology of camera shots: a determinant for audience perception of film images teddy thaddeus hanmakyugh faculty of arts, department of theatre & film arts university of jos, jos, plateau state thamaque@gmail.com abstract in the beginning was the camera, a humongous invention that captured images from a static position. the size, weight and challenges of this new invention were a great impediment for movement of the camera from one position to the next when recording images on a film strip. the cinema audience of that period was no different from a theatre audience who watched the performance sitting front row center. david wark griffith was the first american film director to move the audience into the scene on the screen by using a series of connecting shots, camera set up and viewpoints to tell the audience, “look here, look there” so as to affect them in a face-to-face encounter with a character on the screen. to get the audience involved on the screen is the most dramatic and interesting approach to telling a visual story. this paper brings to the fore some of the cinematic elements which filmmakers use to consciously direct the audience attention as well as get them involved as active participants in a scene. in summary, the paper establishes that camera shots are the most effective way to tell a visual story which entice and fascinate the audience to get themselves involved in the cinematic action. in this way we can justify the appellation of film as a universal language understood by all and sundry. the paper finally recommends that filmmakers should acquire the knowledge and imbibe the use of these cinematic elements so as to impact and achieve effective visual communication with the audience. keywords: shots, viewpoint, perspective, camera angle, cinematic elements introduction film is a powerful medium of communication. like the print media, film is regarded as text for reading by viewers and critics. the major role of cinema or film in the society is to inform, educate and entertain. however, as a business venture, film may be seen as a commodity, produced and teddy thaddeus hanmakyugh the psychology of camera shots: a determinant for audience … 105 marketed by a specific industry as pleasure; as entertainment and enjoyment as well as a communicative system. in order to achieve the above objectives, filmmakers consciously pay attention to the creative presentation of visual narratives to their audience in order to capture their attention as well as fulfill the popular axiom that film is a universal visual medium. as a cultural product, film influences our social and political values. film is universally acknowledged as a popular medium of entertainment and one’s knowledge of film analysis increases his enjoyment, appreciation and understanding of the way film uses images or shots to tell a compelling story. the camera is one of the most vital equipment used in film production. motion picture cameras have lenses which are similar to the human eye in many respects but there is one important difference. the human eye is selective, focusing on what it wants to see, overlooking many details and unimportant distractions. the camera however, sees everything and those distracting elements will show up in your picture unless care is taken while composing the shots. it is therefore, very necessary to select and organize framing to get the best result. there are several approaches to consider for arranging the mis-enscene which is the visual theme of everything that appears before the camera and its arrangement such as sets, props, actors, lighting, costumes and composition based on framing, balance, rhythm, proportion and symmetry. in this way, the filmmaker uses the camera to show the audience things from different viewpoints and perspectives. watching a film is quite different from watching a stage performance. caldwell explains that; when watching a play, we see events on a fixed stage from a stationary seat; from the same position. however, when viewing a film, we are placed in a different position relative to the action each time one shot finishes and another one begins. for every shot in a film, the cinematographer has to decide on the angle, level, height and distance of the camera in relation to the subject filmed (59). similarly, in assessing the way filmmakers engage viewers with images on the screen, bennet, boydbowman, mercer and woollacott rightly observed that; as a complex form of language speaking to us from particular sites and which we freely consent and pay to listen and see; film deploys certain strategies and processes to involve us, to make us enjoy certain shots, images, sounds, music which produce moments of ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 106 secrecy and revelation, tension and resolution, loss and jubilation (197). this paper has attempted to highlight and explain those technical elements of film production that filmmakers employ to captivate and direct the viewer’s attention and get them involved with the visual narratives on screen. camera angles and view point. the camera angle otherwise known as view point is the angle subtended at the lens by the main subject in the picture area. when a character is photographed at the eye level position, it shows people the way we would expect to see them in real life. psychologically we feel that we are seeing eye-to-eye with that person as this type of shot encourages and engages the viewer to identify with the subject on the screen as if he is a part of the scene. whereas the high angle shot with the camera pointed from a high elevation looking down a character denotes submissiveness, humiliation, vulnerability, powerless or being beaten down; a low angle shot with the camera looking up enhances the character’s stature as big, powerful, imposing, menacing, authoritative or dominant. in this later context, the view point is said to be high, low, near or distant. several camera angles and view point abound for use by the cinematographer but this obviously depends on how the film director wants to present the subject matter to the audience. the straight angle or eye level camera placement for example at the height or eye-level of the actor could also be considered as the audience objective view of the actor. films are usually shot with the camera placed at the eye-level of characters. this corresponds to the manner and natural way we humans see things in real life either from a sitting or standing position. meyers-levy & peracchio (1992) relied on research by several authors (kraft 1987; mandell and shaw 1973; tiemens 1970) in their assumption that when an object is photographed from a low angle, so it seems that the viewer would seem to be looking up at it, the object was judged more positively (eg. larger, stronger, bolder) than when the same object was photographed from a high angle. when the object appeared to be at the eye level, viewer’s judgments were in between the two extremes. when the camera is positioned high above looking down at a subject it is called a high angle shot. the high angle camera position produces a dramatic effect of intimidation. it communicates an impression of the person being belittled denigrated, vulnerable, powerless, threatened, teddy thaddeus hanmakyugh the psychology of camera shots: a determinant for audience … 107 insignificance or inferiority, it also creates the impression that the character is weak and lower in status. the high angle shot is very ideal in the portrayal of a convict as he is being sentenced to jail by a judge in a court of law. the low angle shot on the other hand is achieved when a camera is positioned to film the actor from below. by this position of the camera, the audience appears to be looking up at the character. this camera angle gives the impression of one who is powerful, one with great authority as the character appears dominating and overwhelming, prestigious and threatening. low angle shots of a judge passing sentence on a convict, shots of idi amin in the film “the rise and fall of idi amin” (1981) and adolf hitler in “life of adolf hitler” (1961) define the essence of this camera position. joseph goebbels, hitler’s minister of propaganda made sure that hitler though a homunculus was photographed from low camera angle position to give him that look of a giant, a symbol of power, authority and strength. the camera angle is one of the most powerful technique which enables the film maker to express the emotion and psychological content of a scene. the position of the camera determines the area and viewpoint of the lens. the use of subjective camera angle which allows the action to be seen through the eye of one of the character is another effective means of expressing the state of mind of a character. using the subjective angle as the eyes of the audience makes the spectator a participant, and the filmmaker evokes the spectator’s emotions through his involvement in the action. mascelli postulates that; the subjective camera films from a personal viewpoint. the audience participates in the screen action as a personal experience. the viewer is placed in the picture, either on his own as an active participant, or by trading places with a person in the picture when anyone in the scene looks directly into the camera kensthus establishing a performance – viewer eye – to – eye relationship (14). point – of – view (pov) point-of-view shots put the audience right into the mind of the character creating the impression to the audience that what the camera is seeing is what the audience sees from the point-of-view of the character. mascelli explains that; a point-of-view shot is as close as an objective shot can approach a subjective shot – and still remain objective. the camera is positioned at the side of the subjective player – whose viewpoint is being ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 108 depicted – so that the audience is given the impression that they are standing check-to-check with the off-screen player. he sees the event from the player’s viewpoint as if standing alongside him (22). the subjective point-of-view shots involve the audience move intimately with event than do objective scenes. the mood of the shot will depend largely on camera placement. in general, shots looking up to full face; give a strong image and shots looking down a weak image. marner has noted that; the viewpoint selected by the director is an important dramatic tool at his disposal. the angle which we look at characters in a motion picture is itself a significant part of the narrative since it is capable of describing the importance of a character; his relationship with others in the scene; his state of mind or his immediate intention (115). the camera angle determines both the audience point of view and the area covered in the shot. it also heightens the dramatic visualization of the story. it is an established fact that the subjective camera angle impacts on the viewer by transporting him from his seat into the scene on the screen thus associating oneself with what is happening in the film. this effect on the audience is actualized by carefully editing the various shots taken from different viewpoints during production. lighting lighting is one of the elements of cinematography that enables the cameraman to compose shots that would add psychological impact, create the correct mood in a scene and to draw the attention of the audience. the main purpose of lighting is not just to provide enough illumination for the camera to register images. motion picture lighting can be invaluable in setting the mood and effectively illuminating the subjects to their best advantage, but it must be carefully thought out and planned before the shooting begins. it is very important to creatively demonstrate how, where and when to give objects in the scene dimension with modeled lighting so as to provide character and emotional key to each scene through the use of lighting. the filmmaker and an artist use lighting in the same way to get the desired colour and tone: to express mood and to create an atmosphere, to reveal the character of a person, to unify the structure of his painting, and to create a surface reality through a sense of depth. lighting can create a mysterious effect, boringly dull and characterless. it enables the camera lens to see and record an image; it is also a major contributory factor to audience’s responses. roberts explains that, teddy thaddeus hanmakyugh the psychology of camera shots: a determinant for audience … 109 generally speaking, the filmmaker will use dark illumination to establish a somber, tragic mood; bright illumination to establish a happy, gay atmosphere, or any variation of these two extremes to fit a variety of moods. such uses of light will invest the scene with emotional tone that will affect the spectator and evoke in him the proper feeling for appreciation and understanding of the filmmaker’s purpose (61). different types of lighting could be used to achieve the above depending on the subject matter. the following are commonly used lighting techniques in filmmaking: low key lighting, high key lighting, the key fill and back light. depending on the light intensity and the lens aperture there are some instances whereby the cameraman would like to shift the attention of the audience from one character to the other. this is achieved by a technique known as “split focus” or differential focus. the use of this facility of a lens enables the main subject to be shown in sharp focus against an out-of-focus background. this technique enables the cameraman to draw the attention of the audience as he gets involved with the action taking place on the screen as marner warns that, the device is seen most frequently in commercials and if one derives the use of such technique from its commercial application, there is a danger that pulling focus will appear a meaningless gimmick. pulling focus, like any other technical context must have its motivation within the context of the film. it has to be part of the dramatic structure without distracting the audience by its petty or unusual effect (108). the eyes of the audience are directed to a particular actor on the screen when the cinematographer shifts emphasis from actor a to actor b, or isolates an individual in a crowd by using a long focal length lens. sivasamy (2017), points out that “cinematography” is not a result of instincts or coincidental spontaneity, much forethought goes behind choosing the kind of shot angles, camera movement and lighting. these which comprise a cinematographer’s bag of tricks go a long way in controlling what the viewers watch. filmmaking offers great scope for usage of one’s power of imagination and this manifest in the composition of shots. the basic shots employed in filmmaking are; extreme long shot (els) long shots (ls). the extreme long shot is an extremely wide angle shot filmed from a high vintage point, an establishing shot which depicts the vastness of a setting; ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 110 revealing the setting or the geography of the locale where the action takes place. mascelli explains further that, such massive shots set the scene for what follows by putting the audience in the proper mood and providing them with the over-all picture before introducing characters and establishing the story line... whenever possible, extreme long shots should be filmed to open up the picture on a grand scale and capture the audience interest from the start (25-26). the extreme long shot covers a vast area of landscape similar to a shot of a city taken at a great distance. this shot establishes a setting that orientates the audience before moving into the successive shots to create new scenes. aerial shots like the extreme long shot covers a vast area which give the audience a bird’s eye view of the action; these shots are either taken from a helicopter, plane or a drone fitted with a camera. the medium shot (ms) displays a natural distance between people and the camera. in the case of a human being, it includes the head and shoulders as well as the upper chest. here, the viewer’s emotional response is neutral, yet part of the scene, but only an observer. the close-up shot it is the close-up shot that draws the attention of the viewer to a specific area of interest in a picture. the close-up shot is more intimate than other shots because the expressions and emotions of an actor are more visible and affecting and is meant to engage the character in a direct and personal manner. a relationship between the character and the audience becomes more intimate and impacting. cardwell (2010) outlines the significance of the close-up shot stating that; close-ups also create drama and tension by giving single objects and small movements a lot of importance. in the final shootout in sergio leone’s “the good, the bad and the ugly”, there are multiple closeups of the guns hanging off the men’s belts with their hands hovering above them. this highlights how much the character’s lives rest on how quickly they can draw their guns. here the audience is transported to the screen as they sit at the edge of their seats wondering what happens next at such an intense moment. it is the close-up shot that does the magic by bringing the viewer and the character on the screen into interactive relationship. according to mascelli, teddy thaddeus hanmakyugh the psychology of camera shots: a determinant for audience … 111 the close-up may transport the viewer into the scene; eliminate all non-essentials, for the movement and isolate whatever significant incident should receive narrative emphasis. a properly chosen, expertly filmed, effectively edited close-up can add dramatic impact and visuals clarity to the event. close-ups are among the most powerful story telling devices available to the filmmaker (173). with a close-up shot, the subject dominates the screen as the shot covers the subject from head to shoulders. this shot enables the audience to establish a more personal intimate connection with the subject on the screen. sharples (1971) collaborates that the close-up shot enables the filmmaker to exercise complete control over what the spectator will see; excluding all the essential and concentrating the spectator’s attention on the one vital element. in essence, the close-up shot derives its power not only from what it shows but also what it excludes. the impact of shots in film editing a complete edited film ready for showing is cut together using the following basic shot types: extreme close-up, big close-up, close-up, medium close-up, medium shot, medium long shot, long shot, very long shot, extreme long shot, two-shot and over-the-shoulder shot. all these shots engage and affect the viewers in several ways as deem fit by the film director. when people walk around, their viewpoints and what they see is constantly changing in a similar way we experience change of shots on the screen when watching a movie. besides giving the story a smooth flow, editing cuts made in a film engage the viewers and guide their perceptions and emotions. a cut to a new angle is not just to maintain the viewer’s interest but to also point out objects of interest as well as what in the scene is important and to tell a story. the object of editing is to show the development of the scene by guiding the attention of the spectator now to one, then to the other separate shot elements. according to braudy and cohen (8-9), the lens of the camera replaces the eyes of the observer and the changes of angle of camera – directed now on one detail, now on another – must be subject to the same conditions as those of the eyes of the observer. the film technician, in order to secure the greatest clarity, emphasis and vividness, shoots the scene in separate pieces and, joining them and showing them, directs the attention of the spectator to the separate elements compelling him to see as the attentive observer saw. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 112 the above view expressed by braudy and cohen underscores the manner in which film. editing can stir up the emotions of the audience when watching a film. the basic significance of constructive editing is to build scenes from separate shots of which each concentrates the attention of the spectator only on the elements important to the action. from the foregoing, one can again see the intended symbolism and psychological impacts each element of cinematography possesses. the camera and the viewer trade places as the camera’s viewpoint becomes a viewer. conclusion this paper has striven to enumerate, highlight and explain the various cinematic elements at the disposal of the film director and camera operator to engage the attention of the viewers to what takes place on the screen. the effectiveness of the visual language of film in communicating with the viewers is encapsulated in the way different types of shots are used to express meaning and affect people. the choice of camera angles or viewpoints chosen to shoot a subject becomes the most effective tool of communication as visuals engaged the audience in the narrative process. this paper encourages the creative use of these elements as they do not only enhance the various compelling narratives that entertain, educate and inform but also are a great way of continuous improvement upon the ways filmmakers visually hold their audience spell bound. works cited bennett, tony et al. (1981) popular television and film. london: the open university press. braudy, leo, marshall cohen (2004). film theory and criticism. 6th. edition (ed). new york: oxford university press. cardwell, thomas (2010). film analysis handbook: essential guide to understanding analyzing and writing on film. st. kilda victoria, australia: insight publications. marner, terrence st.john (1972). directing motion pictures. london: the tantivy press. meyers-levy, j & peracchio, l. a. (1992), getting an angle on advertising: the effect of camera angle on product evaluations. journal of marketing research, 29(4). pp 454-461 mandell, l.m. & shaw, l.s. (1973) judging people in the news – unconsciously. the effect of camera angle and bodily activity. journal of broadcasting. 17(summer) pp.353-362 teddy thaddeus hanmakyugh the psychology of camera shots: a determinant for audience … 113 mascelli, joseph v. (1965). the five cs of cinematography. hollywood: cine/graphic publications. roberts, kenneth h. & win sharples, jr. (1971). a primer for filmmaking. indianapolis: pegasus. savasamy, nivetha (2017). retrieved 12th, july 2018 https://www. yaabot.com/28305/cinematography-and-psychology-how-thecamera-decides-what-we-feel/ tiemens, r.k. (1970) some relationships of camera angle to communication credibility. journal of broadcasting. 14 (fall) pp.483-490 abunike & arinze-umobi: professionalism as an aid to character profiling in… 71 professionalism as an aid to character profiling in nollywood films: ramsey nouah and kenneth okonkwo in focus 1chibuike m. abunike, and 2somtoo arinze-umobi, phd department of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, cm.abunike@unizik.edu.ng, s.arinze-umobi@unizik.edu.ng abstract poor acting has negatively affected some nollywood films over the years because several actors-enthusiasts tend to jump into acting without first understanding the demands of the profession. the essence of acting is to re-create real-life situations believably and a combination of talent and training helps an actor to interpret a role efficiently. in other words, effective character portrayal in films is based on an actor’s willingness to hone his skill through training. the paper focuses on professionalism as a panacea for character profiling in nollywood films. the content analysis approach of the qualitative methodology was used to gather data for the study. konstantin stanislavski’s the method acting formed the theoretical basis for the work. two major characters in living in bondage – breaking free were analyzed to discuss the importance of character profiling in nollywood films. the research recommends that there is a need for actors to engage in constant training to enhance their interpretative abilities. introduction whiting frank has described acting as ‘the most glamorous and fascinating” art of the theatre (185). this is possible since the actor is almost an indispensable member of a production team due to the strategic position he occupies as the image maker in film production. one can say that the actor is a necessary tool used to send a message to viewers. removing the actor or performer from a film production is like removing the head from the body of which ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 72 we know that the body cannot function without the head. as the “image maker” of film production, the actor needs to maximize his potential through training to ensure viewers willingly suspend their disbelief whenever he mounts the set. actors construct characters by using their bodies and voices. michael kirby notes that “to act means to feign, to simulate, to represent, to impersonate”. (3). from kirby’s statement we can deduce that acting is an instinct because right from birth, children imitate and enact experiences around them. in line with the above, barclays ayakoroma posits that: in life, man is seen as an actor naturally because we play various roles every day, you see that boss playing tough at the office, that lecturer trying to be very strict, going to the privacy of their homes, and their wives may be bossing them. the outsiders (the audience) only see the masks (the roles) they are playing. (46). however, every day acting cannot be compared to professional acting. although there have been some disputations regarding who a professional actor is, since acting is ideally “inborn” and need not necessarily be learnt, bergman blix’s opinion on professional acting paints a picture of what professionalism in acting supposedly is. according to her; a professional actor has to learn new roles constantly, and her or his professional knowledge is not restricted to the roles she/he plays, but rather concerns role-playing as such, i.e., how to make new roles come to life…actors live the part of a role using their body, voice, imagination and feelings. they professionalise the acting we all do in everyday life; they control an ability we all have to some degree, but perhaps are not so aware of. (161) abunike & arinze-umobi: professionalism as an aid to character profiling in… 73 in reporting an event, one may be short of words thus acting out the incident will be the only remedy. to successfully convince viewers or listeners to believe what is been said or postulated, the method of acting may be used. acting gives a better understanding of what a preacher or teacher teaches thus a better way of passing a message. nigerian actors unlike before have been accepted in society and they have become the cynosure of all eyes. the 21stcentury nollywood actor has successfully broken through international barriers. american, chinese and indian movies no longer dominate the world film industry. the nigerian government is getting more interested in the industry and is likely to construct a film village for the industry. effective character interpretation is the hallmark of a professional actor. in other words, the ability of an actor to efficiently interpret any role assigned contributes significantly to the artistic quality of a film. many actors keep emerging in nollywood but not all truly understand the demands of the profession. most actors have emerged as stars in nollywood owing to their distinctive proficiencies as far as role interpretation is concerned. this study focuses on two such nollywood actors; ramsey nouah and kenneth okonkwo. theoretical framework acting method theory is similar to classical acting. classical and method acting share the same goal: creating performances based on natural human behaviour and honesty. however, each technique builds off of a different foundation. classical acting relies on an actor’s extensive training to create characters, while method acting relies on an actor’s personal experience. through the age and era of acting, acting style and techniques evolve. according to duruaku, “technique is truly personal in the sense that every actor executes his notion or movement in such a way as to achieve certain distinctiveness” (47). whiting further posits that: ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 74 no responsible person including stanislavski would argue that the creative approach alone is enough. after all, acting is not life. there are obvious differences and these differences are commonly referred to as techniques of acting (207-208). duruaku adduces that an actor can executive his role without speaking but we can say the same of movement. the actor technique is the ability to stand, walk, sit and gesture, like someone else. nigeria video film acting: a brief history the nigerian movie industry popularly known as nollywood over time has grown into a robust one, and its prospects continue to improve. the industry is currently the second largest and third position in terms of revenue in the world. the name nollywood was coined to resemble the big shots in the industry that is bollywood and hollywood which are the indian film industry and that of america respectively. actors like kenneth okonkwo, kanayo o kanayo and bod-manuel odogwu are the nigerian version of die-hard actors. they made the first impression of what a film looks like, they starred alongside other selected igbo casts in the earliest nigerian home video – living in bondage, produced by kenneth nebue when films were shot with vhs cameras and edited in television studios using a couple of (gone extinct) vcr machines. the problem of quality in the industry has generated questions even from its viewers who are often found engrossed in discussions with the circle of critics of the fast-growing industry. tracing the factors responsible for this poor quality, poor finance and lack of professionalism are identified as the greatest challenges faced by the industry. when one looks at the industry today, a question comes to mind; how many professionally trained hands are there in the industry? according to jonathan haynes, nigerian abunike & arinze-umobi: professionalism as an aid to character profiling in… 75 feature film production began in 1970, just a few years after the beginning of cinema in francophone countries; the distribution system continues to be largely closed to indigenous filmmakers. he further explained that one crucial difference between nigerian and other west african cinema is the autonomy, or isolation, of nigerian cinema. according to alfred opubor, nwuneli and oreh; the first film to be exhibited in the country was at the glover memorial hall, lagos in august 1903 by a european merchant, stanley jones. the film shown then included scenes of the coronation of king edward vii (2). though film became a potent medium of mass communication in nigeria, with the above development, it has been observed that it remained under imperialist control (ayakoroma, 29). he adduces that it has been observed that the late ogunde attempted to produce local films in 1945, but the improvement of nigerians in the cinema industry was actually after independence. though the late chief ogunde, the doyen of professional theatre practice in nigeria, initiated moves in 1945 toward producing local films, nigerians only became seriously involved in film production after independence; and this was at the time the feature film was gaining prominence. professionalism and character interpretation professionalism involves the display acquisition of knowledge and competence according to the ethics of a particular field or profession. similarly, eliot freidson defines a profession as an occupation that controls its work, organized by a special set of institutions sustained in part by a particular ideology of expertise and service. i use the word ‘professionalism’ to refer to that ideology and a special set of institutions. (10) furthermore, laura taylor quoting hamilton states: the years of deliberate practice required for expert performance not only help to perform artists master necessary skills but also help them cultivate high levels of discipline through sustained levels of hard work and the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 76 frequent self-denial required to focus on a particular domain (6). professionalism in acting is interwoven with having expertise in role interpretation in any given circumstance being one with the character. it is pertinent to acquire both theoretical and practical knowledge on the fundamentals of on-screen acting as this will help hone one’s innate talent hence turning one into a professional. a professional actor is supposed to possess the ability to interpret scripts/characters and understand how humans behave and express emotions. tony noiceand helga noice explains that: the role acquisition process appears to take place in two distinct stages. first, the actors extract from the script the underlying intentions of the characters, a procedure that often calls for extensive analysis, because the intentions in well-written plays are rarely explicit or obvious. the deep processing involved calls upon such learning factors as perspective-taking, problem-solving, elaboration, causal attribution, distinctiveness, and over-learning. following the analytical phase, actors rehearse and perform their roles by using an approach the authors call “active experiencing” which involves the activation of those cognitive-emotivemotor processes inherent in all genuine human transactions. (7) before the age of three, children recognize and spontaneously engage in a wide variety of pretences and role-play activities. however, “a professional actor differs from a child to the degree of perseverance and perfection the professional must manifest in the role he simulates” (goffman 100). proper role interpretation is the parameter for judging and distinguishing a professional actor from an amateur actor. it is indeed the criteria for knowing a well-trained actor. successful role interpretation is achieved through meticulous character analysis and the entire abunike & arinze-umobi: professionalism as an aid to character profiling in… 77 script. an actor should not just understand but feel a character’s emotional state while interpreting a role which is what character mood intensity (cmi) supposedly suggests. however, no matter how intensely an actor feels the emotions of a character he or/she is interpreting at any given moment, such feeling may be of little or no use if not given visible expression on set. reaching an emotional understanding of a character is a prerequisite for finding adequate bodily expressions to make that character come alive. for the audience. ayakoroma affirms that: acting, in a simple sense, is playing a role that is not your true character… acting then means making an audience believes that what is not true is true, or what is not real is real. and of course, this is premised on the actor’s belief in the role he is playing. the actor has the responsibility of making the audience believe in his actions. (45-46) what the above assertion means is that acting is the art of wearing a temporary mask and portraying another character’s life, thoughts and values. in the narrative style of constantine stanislavsky’s acting book entitled “an actor prepares”, he explains clearly how an actor is expected to analyse the script and interpret his role. according to him, as an actor; you should, first of all, assimilate the model…you study it from the point of view of the epoch, the time, the country, conditions of life, background, literature, psychology, the soul, way of living, social position, and external appearance; moreover, you study character, such as custom, manner, movements, voice, speech, intonations. all this work on your material will help you to permeate it with your feelings. without all this, you will have no art. (21). ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 78 he further adds that; …the actor creates his model in his imagination, and then, just as does the painter, he takes every feature of it and transfers it, not onto canvas, but onto himself… (21). based on stanislavsky’s view, an actor can be referred to as being professional after nurturing his talent, he can interpret any role he is assigned to effortlessly. however, it is unfortunate to note that the problem of poor acting has inadequately reduced the quality of product content of the nigerian movie industry, and too many ambitious nigerians jump into acting without understanding the needs and expertise in the art of acting but simply searching for fame and money. the poor quality of acting owns to the problem of incompetence and inadequacies on the part of untrained, but ambitious individuals who parade themselves as actors. synopsis of living in bondage – breaking free living in bondage: breaking free is a continuation of the story of cultist andy okeke from the 1992 production living in bondage. andy’s second wife has a son named nnamdi okeke. after the demise of his mother, nnamdi grows up with his aunt and her family. growing up as a smart ambitious man, nnamdi wants all the good things in life. he is fascinated by good cars and a luxurious lifestyle. it is his quest for this good life that makes him start up his own advertising company called infinite media. in the process, joins a cult with politician chief omego and wealthy businessman richard williams. suddenly, he starts getting contracts from all corners, all from a one-room apartment. nnamdi then becomes a man that moves with the high and mighty in the society, unknown to him, his benefactors belong to a cult. a blogger named uzoma is trying to bring down this cult associated with numerous ritual killings. he then contacts andy okeke who is now a pastor. he needs the help of andy for information as an ex-member of the cult so he can take down the brotherhood. this will also give andy okeke the chance abunike & arinze-umobi: professionalism as an aid to character profiling in… 79 to save his son from this deadly cult which offers you power, influence, and wealth in exchange for your soul. character portrayal in nollywood films ramsey nouah is one actor who ‘knows his onions’ as far as acting is concerned. he took his experience in nollywood to analyse and deliver his role in living in bondage, breaking free as the leader of the six cult group. during an office presentation where nnamdi pitches his campaign for an upcoming rail network, billionaire tycoon richard williams is impressed by his ingenuity. he mentors nnamdi professionally, and the latter is catapulted into high society status, acquiring vast wealth and recognition, but his new life comes at a price. plate 1: richard williams (ramsey nuoah) at the initiation ceremony of nnamdi okeke. source: film screenshots unknown to nnamdi, richard is the new leader of the six and is on a mission to lure him into their cult. due to andy's past, the okeke lineage is eternally bound to the dark side. a second aspect of the “triad” for actor professionalism and expertise for proficient role interpretation is emotion. the emotion is expressed through proper training of the physical. the emotions of the actors are observed in their duplicating the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 80 breathing patterns that accompany six emotions, researchers have carried out research on this by measuring actor’s galvanic skin response, heart rate, respiration, blood chemistry, and so on. during participants’ imagined situations of varied emotional valances. (noice and noice 13-14). as observed by elly konijn, saying: most film productions represent human interaction and human conflict. in principle, all the emotions of daily life can be touched in a theatre piece. dramatic action is usually characterized by great diversity and high concentration of emotions, varying in quality and intensity…behaviour an actor exhibits on stage which, in the eyes of the audience, appears to be an expression of a real emotion...the living characters who the actors are on stage are measured with the same standards with which we judge people in daily life. a character’s emotion is a representation of real emotion. (59-60) kenneth okonkwo as andy okeke. it was interesting for example to see kenneth okonkwo acting as andy okeke in this sequel about 27 years after its first production in 1992. due to andy's past, the okeke lineage is eternally bound to the dark side. having experienced cultism himself, andy attempts to warn his son after uzoma informs him of nnamdi's existence, and tries to save him from the six before time runs out, but it was to no avail. abunike & arinze-umobi: professionalism as an aid to character profiling in… 81 plate 2: andy okeke (kenneth okonkwo), expressing shock at the appearance of the leader of the six cult group. source: film screenshots kenneth okonkwo’s usage of lucid facial expressions can be said to aid in the story interpretation following the proper response in the scene in which he meets face to face with richard williams, who is the new leader of the six cult group inside the church which explains his shock as everyone will react in everyday life. this expression shows an intense feeling of anxiety. nnamdi okeke, andy’s son’s interpretation of his role in the film is quite empathic. his igbo mannerisms and facial expressions show he internalized not just the lines but his role well. conclusion to keep professionalism and character interpretation in nollywood films, the nigerian actor must be innovative and be ready to submit themselves to the ethos of acting training and techniques to be role models to upcoming artists who have a wrong notion of the acting career as simply a scheme for quick wealth and fame. the actors must constantly work on improving the quality of their actions and also clear erroneous perceptions some people have about nollywood as a low-rating movie industry in terms of quality in the world. works cited ayakoromabarclays, “from the stage to the screen: the exegesis of adaptation in acting”. creative artist: a journal of theatre and media studies. vol. 3, no. 1. 2009 (45-57) blix, bergman stina. “stage actors and emotions at work”. international journal of work organization and emotion, ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 82 vol. 2, no. 2. geneva: inderscience enterprises ltd, 2007. (161-172) duruaku, a. b. c. hand book on drama and theatre. owerri: colon concept ltd. 1997. freidson, eliot. professionalism reborn: theory, prophecy and policy. uk: cambridge, polity press, in association with blackwell publishers, 1994. goffman, erving. encounters: two studies in the sociology of interaction. indianapolis: the bobbs-merrill company, 1961. kirby, michael. acting and not-acting: a formalist theatre. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, 1987 konijn, a. elly. acting emotions shaping emotions on stage. translated by barbara leach with david chambers. netherlands: amsterdam university press, 2000. living in bondage: breaking free. dir: ramsey nouah. swanky jka, and david jones, playnetwork africa, 2020. okome, o and jonathan haynes, cinema and social change in west africa. jos: nigeria film corporation, 1995. konstantine stanislavski,an actor prepares. transl. elizabeth reynolds hapgood. london: eyre methuen, 1917. -------------,an actor’s work: a student’s diary. transl. and edit. by jean benedetti. new york: routledge taylor and francis group, 2008. taylor, e. laura. acting strengths: the development of resilience and character strengths in actors. master of applied positive psychology (mapp) capstones project, 70. the university of pennsylvania scholarly commons, 2014. whiting, franks. an introduction to the theatre. third edition. california: harper and row publishers, 1954. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 52 thematic preoccupation and hermeneutics of selected songs/music of paul odi: a 21st century approach godwin onuche department of theatre arts kogi state university, 1anyigba e-mail:godwinonuche10@gmail.com mobile:+234-803-601-5156, +234-905-062-7821 and esther o. onwuka faculty of arts department of theatre arts university of abuja e-mail: estomale2@yahoo.com mobile : +23408033119555 abstract it is no longer an aberration to say that songs in traditional african cultures continue to suffer a setback possibly as a result of inadequate attention given to songs and music in traditional african societies. many african scholars and practitioners often gloss over traditional african songs/music conceivably as a result of their religious affiliation. this paper therefore provides a perspective on which socio-cultural music and songs of paul odi can be perceived artistically towards cultural education in nigeria. against this background, this paper adopts interviews and content analysis for its research methodology. the findings reveal that, songs in traditional african societies are yet to assume their proper place in contemporary socio-milieu. in view of this, some selected songs of paul odi of igala north central nigeria will be x-rayed to situate him among other oral poets whose songs serves as agent of social control among other things. the paper therefore concludes that, there is a need for increased social awareness and patronage towards proper artistic appreciation of traditional music/songs in a globalised world. introduction it is evident within the contemporary african cultural milieus that most of the african youths in the 21st century inadvertently ignore to pick interest in listening to contents and messages from traditional african songs/music godwin onuche & esther o. onwuka thematic preoccupation and hermeneutics of … 53 despite its contribution and relevance towards national development. the reason(s) for this may not be far to fetch. this is in view of the fact that, in contemporary epoch, traditional songs/music is often not set apart from its social and cultural context. in a similar vein, at the mentioning of traditional songs/music, most african youths out rightly perceive it as something that shouldn’t be mentioned on the tabloid of african entertainment in this modern time. majority of the african youth often consider traditional songs/music as ‘primitive’ and ‘archaic.’ some argue that their interests in listening to traditional music are persistently marred as a result of its language and lack of modern instrumentations and ideology. this perhaps seems to be one of the reasons mariam iye and godwin onuche agreed that there is conceptual confusion and misinterpretation about traditional medium of communication. in their opinion, at the mentioning of the term ‘traditional’ the general view or notion indicates that traditional songs/music is something out-dated or primitive (128). extrapolating from this view, it is disheartening to note that right from the outset; traditional songs from igala land have suffered a tremendous setback. this is in view of the fact that traditional songs in african society are yet to assume both national and international colouration. to buttress this point, baba ojonugwa opined that, each time igala music is played, some igala sons and daughters ‘frown’ and ‘makeface’ (iv). it may be agreed as an established fact that oral poets are entertainers and subsequently agent of social control. paul odi of igala north central nigeria is one major igala traditional poet whose songs continue to be relevant in contemporary nigeria society till today. the lyrics and thematic preoccupation of his songs if properly interpreted and applied can contribute to attitudinal change towards making the society better. paul odi poetically uses his songs to address political issues vis-a-vis people’s plight and the socio-cultural conditions of the african people. he was often prophetic in his songs. for example, in his collection of songs titled eli gba mi kedo which was sang around 1980s, when buhari became the military head of state, paul odi vehemently condemned corrupt practices via his songs. he categorically appraised muhamodu buhari as his government has a zero tolerance for corruption. he equally enunciated the fact that if one indulges in corrupt practices especially in buhari’s government, there is every tendency that, he or she may end up in jail. many at that time thought it was a mere song sung by paul odi in his traditional dialect that may not have national interpretation or international colouration in terms of its contents and ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 54 instrumentation, but lo and behold, in this contemporary epoch especially in the 21st century, president buhari is currently a nigerian civilian head of state still maintaining zero tolerance for corruption. people are often cautious in indulging in sharp practices. peradventure one is caught in the act; the fellow may face the full wrath of the law. it is in view of this known fact among others that this research is out to investigate how relevant odi’s songs are in terms of its hermeneutics, cultural exchange and its socio-political preoccupation using a 21st century approach in cautioning nefarious attitudes of the masses towards a better society. igala people and their origin it is imperative in the course of this research to be acquainted with the igala people and their society. the paper paradoxically dwells on the traditional songs and music of paul odi, a singer of igala origin. historically, tom miachi opined that, a history of the igala on its own and in the context of the history of nigeria is yet to be written (74). tom miachi citing boston enunciates that, whatever is known of the historical background of this people (igala) who has exerted so much influence in the political, cultural, and economic life of the peoples of the niger and benue valleys has come mostly from oral traditions rather than from archaeological or written evidence (75). the above assertion underscores one of the reasons we delve into socio political organisation of the igala ethno-nationality in terms of their traditional songs and music. for instance, different versions abound historically in terms of igala origin. first, there is this perception and believe that, the igala people migrated from (amidst) the yoruba ethnic group. another is this perception that considers igala to have come from the jukun, while the third account holds that, igala particularly the ruling class come from the benin. be that as it may however, as brain dawtrey rightly posits, the most definite historical statement that can be made about the igala is that, they had a common origin with yoruba and that the separation took place long ago to allow their considerable linguistic differences (21). this claim by dawtrey is evidently buttressed by the facts that, about (40%) of the names of things are similar and the songs and musical affinities that exist between the two languages are glaring. in a similar way, one of the most populous oral history common amongst the igala is that which says that, igala came from benin. this account became very prominent and acceptable by some persons owing to the fact godwin onuche & esther o. onwuka thematic preoccupation and hermeneutics of … 55 that there is eju beju-ailo (the wooden mask which is always worn over the neck of attah as a symbol of authority and lordship). dawtrey contends in a report that the origin of igala kingship was not jukun but benin. brain dawtrey further asserts that, beyond a certain geographical plausibility, we can point to the fact that the famous brass mask by the act is most probably of benin workmanship, that the wearing of bead on the wrists as a symbol of chieftaincy is common to benin and igala (23). in the midst of all these perceptions of the origin of the igala people, the position of miachi holds sway; there is still no cogent consensus about the origin of the igala people. theoretical framework this research leans on oral-formulaic theory developed principally by milman parry in the 1920s to explain how homeric epics could have been passed down through many generations purely through words of mouth, and why formulas appeared in it in the way they did. it is evident that the locus classicus for oral formulaic-theory was established by the work of parry and his student, albert lord on the serbian oral epic poetry of what was at that time part of yugoslavia, where oral formulaic composition could be observed and recorded ethnographically. the wikipedia, free encyclopaedia (on line) reiterates that the theory of oral formulaic composition seeks to explain two related issues: one, the mechanism whereby some oral poets are bound to improvise poetry and two; why orally improvised poetry has the characteristic it does. according to this theory, poets have a store of formulas (a formula being an expression which is regularly used, under the same metrical conditions, to express a particular essential idea) and that by linking these in conventionalised ways, they can rapidly compose verse. paul odi’s oral formula is angale. using this formula, odi explores the social problems of his society. his repertoire in oratory covers a wide array of socio-economic and political issues even though he is not involved in partisan politics. he brings this formula to bear in all of these spheres depending on the nature of the performance. odi as igala oral poet often calls for peace, unity, and love among african people through his songs. odi’s philosophy and the thematic relevance of his songs to begin with, it is imperative to note that the concept of music in igala land is quite different from the european concept. that is why phrases like iya (play), eli (song) are at various times used to refer to music making, music performance or the art of music in igala land. unlike the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 56 contemporary political sycophant who often picks delight in praise singing, odi’s traditional songs continue to remain as a social conscience of his community and african people as a whole. one major significant fact about odi is the dexterity with which he often uses his songs to report and comment on current affairs and politics in nigeria. he also believed in using his songs to reflect and subsequently mould public opinion (oral interview). corroborating this view, baba ojonugwa opined that, the norms and values of the traditional igala society are handed down from one generation to the other by oral means; music being a dynamic medium is used to pass this down and to subsequently enforce these values. some igala lyrics advice people on how to live, walk, relate and to follow socially accepted norms of the land (25). deducing from the above assertion, one could notice that the relevance of odi’s song is often timeless and corrective in nature. his songs are often epigrammatic and metaphorical in its efforts to correct societal ill. odi once used his songs titled eli gba mi kedo (song embraced me) to examine buhari’s political power in the 1980s when he condemned greed, corruption, exploitation and poverty in the midst of abundant natural resources in nigeria. juxtaposing the dexterity of odi and uko akpan of ekere of akwa ibom state for instance, one may contend that odi and uko akpan shared a similar vision in their music career and proficiency. this may underscore why uwemedimo iwoketok appraising the philosophy and oral poetic skill of uko akpan reiterates thus: there is hardly any of his compositions that does not have idea of unity, harmony, and peace expressed either implicitly or explicitly… his years of commitment to the art, affirm his philosophy that folksongs should not just amuse or entertain but should arouse the consciousness of the audience towards positive change for a better society. in other words, he perceives folksongs or ‘sung poetry’ as a formidable instrument for achieving socio-political and cultural equilibrium (23). comparing the above assertion on uko akpan with paul odi, one may not be out of place to say that uko akpan and paul odi shared in the same ideology. baba stressed further that, music is the greatest weapon of mass mobilisation on earth (26). commenting on paul odi’s song, baba enunciates that, paul odi the angale expert in one of his songs described incest as taboo when he sang thus: igbo ki nw’ulo abia, ifuje: meaning that, igbo man admired the dog and ate its meat. again he sang that obuko godwin onuche & esther o. onwuka thematic preoccupation and hermeneutics of … 57 ki nw’ulo iye nwu ifu’ hi. this means that, the he-goat admired his mother and made love to her. in view of the fact that in igala cosmology, committing incest is often considered as a social taboo and societal crime, perpetrators of this crime are often punish, humiliated and disgraced. odi’s songs and music continue to remain a potent tool for social control among the igala north-central nigeria. didactic and hermeneutic survey of odi’s songs it is evident that igala people have influenced a large number of other ethnic nationalities over the years with their culture and kinship tastes. songs and music are vital and very significant to the average igala person. they are fluid with music. according to festus ainoko, igala songs, like many others, are usually developed through compositions. some are situational; others are didactic, while many are exclusively meant for rites, solemn festivals, and social events. some talented individuals with exceptional music and song prowess take to singing as profession, specializing in the various branches of igala music (viii). traditional songs among the igala are often noticed in various branches such as angale, agwom, ogba, ibele, alo, abele, idologo, iya ogwu, igba, oye, anukikpo, and olele. these songs are so important due to the moral lessons from those songs. within the igala cultural milieus, songs are often used to sensationalise messages, relieve tension, re-vitalise depleting strength especially on the farm or while doing vigorous exercise. most igala musicians generate discussions on contemporary issues and events. they run commentaries on any topical development and takes position unequivocally. for instance, ainoko avers that, in 1984 when buhari struck and dispatched president shagari and his regime to terminate the second republic, paul odi released an album to support the intervention of military in the politics of nigeria (22). the song was occasioned by the insensitivity of the npn government headed by alhaji shehu shagari and his cohort who abused power excessively. they allegedly used their positions in office to invade public treasury and flaunted the looted wealth with impunity. contracts were awarded arbitrarily to party loyalists who normally collect mobilisation fees and abandoned the projects. non payment of staff salaries, political victimisation, partisanship, etc became the trade mark of npn government at all levels throughout the federation. in view of this scenario, paul odi in his song taunted the corrupt tendencies of the ousted civilian government through the use of metaphor. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 58 he pictured buhari as an enraged lion on the rampage in the forest that roared and sent gazelles and antelopes to flight. he sang thus: buhari eni ame ya-a-a-a-a! alapa arule, ogoli arule this means that, “buhari echoes a fierce shout and the stag and deer scamper…” also, in another track of the same album dedicated to buhari’s coup against shagari, odi taunted the sudden slide in the fortunes of the former public office holders in the ousted regime who were playing god previously. he passed across the message that the evanescent comforts of an office are neither worth relying on, nor corruption worth taken for a lifestyle. he sang thus: ama kuma anmo omi ago ojole ama jomo anmo omi ukode yi todu okowa kuma gbaje… buhari ona the above lyrics means, the men who previously where feasting with glass cups now feast and drink with spoons because of our money they embezzled… buhari, you are a man. it is evident that most of odi’s songs are commentaries on social events and issues. for instance, odi frown at desecration of cultural practices in the land. it was once said that, ekwe, one of the most revered, sacred and dreaded incarnate being of attah igala had started gracing ogba, an exclusively entertainment dance gathering. in an interview with my correspondent, it was said that ekwe’s outing should only be for sacred occasions and very important function of attah. ekwe is not a dance incarnate being among the attah incarnate beings. apart from ekwe’s ritual and spiritual relevance, its glamorous costume, shape, and gait in fashion of a hedgehog do not permit ekwe to dance. commenting on the relevance of ekwe incarnate being tom miachi in an interview with chief ebiloma anekwu supported by achimugu ochala avers that, ojima duu k’ata ne, ekwe nwo ne ge. meaning, “all the respect, honour of glory that the ata has, are also given to ekwe.”(282). because of the spiritual importance of igala kingship, it is dangerous treating certain traditions which form the basis of the kingdom’s foundation with spite. bearing this godwin onuche & esther o. onwuka thematic preoccupation and hermeneutics of … 59 in mind, odi came out offensively in a track, titled; chenwu k’ayegba ji… to denounce such sacrilege and reminded those involved of what it took ayegba omaidoko to establish and preserve igala kingdom. within a unique force of poetic skill, odi lamented the desecration of the kingship’s ritual order with the following lyrics: chewnu k’ayegba ji onwu me tu yi nile! o! ile na go yio! ile! enwu me bie le, ile! odi, again asks rhetorically: meaning: are you not untying what ayegba knotted? o men! i am only making supplication! o men! you are indeed desecrating the land! o men in a similar instance, ata ayegba om’idoko was the most popular king igala people ever had. according to ainoko, ayegba ascended the throne around 500 ad (28). he tried his best possible to expand the territory of igala kingdom and had even the igbos as his vassal subjects. ayegba is perceived as one of the classical igala patriot who used five of his children for sacrificial passages to ensure the preservation of his kingdom. it is believed that he introduced many rites and observances in the palace with well laid out rules as a central force of the principles for preserving the throne of igala kingship. he instituted the nine ceremonial ata incarnate beings and two sacred others called adugbe and ekwe for critical ritual and sacred festivals. these orders have been observed by all atas who succeeded ayegba until that attempt to abuse it. odi saw no need for such abuse in view of the price paid to institute it and the grave danger that follows the abuse. he used his song’s lyrics to document thus: ayegba om’idoko ibioma melu, ile; inikpi ma mudu gwaji udeju’deju, ile onojaliga mamudu gwaji udeju’deju, ile ogado, mamudu gwaji udeju’deju, ile omaodoko mamudu gwaji udeju’deju, ile onojaligbe mamudu gwaji udeju’deju, ile. odi in the above musical lyrics listed five children ata ayegba had to bury alive at each threat to the foundation of his kingdom. the above lyrics can be interpreted thus: ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 60 ayegba om’idoko had five children, o men inikpi the princess was buried alive, o men princess onojoaliga was buried alive, o men princess ogado was buried alive, omen princess omaodoko was buried alive, o men princess onojaligbe was buried alive o men. recommendations it is disheartening how some scholars and elite who ought to be promoting nigeria’s cultural heritage now frown at the carnivals and festivals which are essentially marked by traditional music, dance, and acrobatic display in the 21st century. some of these scholars considered music and dance and traditional songs as a mere cultural jamboree considering the huge amount of money that are usually spent in the organisation of such event, therefore, it should be deemphasised. in view of this obnoxious scenario, culture managers, that is, the ministry of culture, tourism and national orientation and their parastatals must be alive to their responsibility in the promotion and sensitization of traditional songs and music towards encouraging national integration. researchers should do more on traditional songs and music which are didactic in nature especially in this 21st century that most activities are often coloured by the western ways of life. there is urgent need to shift attention from where we are at the moment, to identifying and carefully adapting nationally-beneficial moral lessons from african traditional songs and music. the need to discourage pervasive forces of modernity on nigeria’s cultural songs and heritages become sacrosanct in the 21st century. conclusion it has been observed from the foregoing that civilisation and modernity tend to pose threat to the cultural values of the igala especially as it relates to their traditional songs and music. rev. father fedelis egbunu opined that, to give regard and respect to the cultural values does not connote primitivity, backwardness, brute-likeness, irrationality, non-sophistication or belongingness to the indigenous religious sphere (8). it therefore means that cultural values as evident in odi’s traditional music and songs in its lyrics and nuances denote positive elements of igala culture and should be regarded as part of the common inheritance of a social group among the igala northcentral nigeria. godwin onuche & esther o. onwuka thematic preoccupation and hermeneutics of … 61 works cited ainoko, festus. communication among igala. lokoja: mastery printing press, 2005. baba, ojonugwa. the concept of music in igala land. awka: global select, 2009. dawtrey, brain. journal of igala land. vol.1 (1) anyigba: agricultural development project, 1978. mariam asabe and onuche godwin. “reinvigorating the indegenous flute in african dance performance” (ejotmas): ekpoma journal of theatre and media arts. vol.5 number 1&2 (2016): 127-137 oyibo, nelson. forms and content of igala funeral. a dissertation in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of masters of arts (m.a literature) department of english, benue state university makurdi, 2011. onalo, muhammed (odi). eligbami kedo musical album. produced and marketed by sule-papa musical production, no 1 central motor park anyigba. kogi state.2011. onuche, simon. personal interview 12/04/2018. okpanachi, jonathan personal interview 14/04/2018. uwemedimo, iwoketok. beyound entertainment. bukuru: african christian textbooks (acts), 2011. okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 203 costume design for theatre productions: from concept to realization: a case study of the production of obotunde ijimere’s woyengi 1 okeke, tochukwu j., phd, and 2 chukwuma, lilian chiamaka 1,2 department of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka abstract costume designs for theatre productions require the designer’s knowledge of the functionalities of costumes, first as dress and, most importantly, as visual aids to character interpretation and roleplaying. the designer’s cognition of the characters in the play and how the costumes should help the actors in their role interpretations inform the costume design concept. therefore, this study aims to interrogate the processes involved in creating costumes for a theatrical production to show the creativity and interpretations involved in costume design. using teresa amabile’s creativity theory, the study demonstrates the intricacies of constructing the costumes for a theatrical production using the performance of obotunde ijimere’s woyengi as a case study. the study concludes that the effective realisation of costumes for theatrical productions, especially in educational theatres, requires the designer’s expertise and knowledge in costume/fashion design. introduction the costume is the closest of the design elements to the actor’s body. it is the conglomeration of what the actor wears in the interpretation of his role. the costume of the actor communicates to the audience so much information about the ideology of the play; from the social strata of the character, through his beliefs, religion, ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 204 sex, and mood, as well as the environment of the play, the character’s psychology and his relationships with other characters. hence, costume refers to the dress style peculiar to an individual, nation or period in history. according to emmanuel oga: costumes are important in the theatre not only for the comfort they provide the actor as he performs his interpretative art....costumes convey information to the audience through their texture(whether coarse or delicate) their colour (whether dull or bright) and through their shape (whether crème de la crème, gaudy, or outlandish). (52) costume thus, gives an insight into the world of the play and the nature of the characters. the audience is thence, further enlightened about certain vital information regarding the production. no matter the nature of the costume, it should serve as wearable clothing to the actor. it should ultimately give the actor comfort because the actor dwells, sits, walks, tumbles, runs, models and sleeps with his costume in the world of the play. in other words, the actor’s comfort is imperative when designing costumes; they (costumes) should be designed to aid the actor in his role interpretation. costume designers, on the other hand, should be skilled individuals knowledgeable in the art and willing to bring to life their preconceived ideas of the costumes. the designer, therefore, becomes a visionary, someone who foresees the costumes from his/her mind’s eye before anyone else. for effective costuming, the designer is expected to be grounded in the script where the characters emanate because the script is the creative source material from which the costume concept emerges. this paper will analyze the processes involved in the making of the production costumes for the performance of woyengi as directed by alex asigbo and staged at the arts theatre, nnamdi azikiwe okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 205 university, awka on 8th december 2021 by the department of theatre and film studies. the study will use the qualitative datagathering method to analyse the case study. here, the primary data gathering method is the participant observation method and the non-participant observation method. in the participant observation method, the designer took part in constructing the costumes of woyengi production to obtain first-hand information about the processes involved in the design process. other sourcesdata sourcese; the library, the internet, conference proceedings and academic journals. theoretical framework the creativity theory by teresa amabile will be used to analyse the study. creativity theory is concerned with the parameter of how creativity is measured and determined. the theory explains creative development and its different stages in realizing a work of art. for creativity to thrive, certain factors determine its success. this, according to amabile is the “componential theory of creativity”. amabile asserts that there are four components necessary for creativity response. these include: --domain-relevant –skills ---creativity relevantprocesses ---intrinsic task motivation ---the social environment the domain –relevant-skills the domain-relevant –skills highlight the importance of one’s proficiency in costume designing. it emphasizes one’s expertise in his/her skill area of specialization. having professional knowledge in creativity areas is key as it motivates its success. this aspect of the theory can be seen in the construction of the costumes ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 206 of woyengi in which the designers constructed the costumes from start to finish. the designers can be said to have possessed the domainrelevant-skill, the primary skill needed for costume design: the practical knowledge of costume design. the creativity –relevantprocesses the creativity –relevant-processes is one’s ability to develop new ideas different from existing ones. it challenges one’s thinking abilities. it inspires an individual to innovate new concepts of doing things. to amabile, “people are most creative when they feel motivated primarily by the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself...”(3). this is evident in the construction of costumes for the woyengi production as the designers set out to design and construct the production costumes by challenging their creativity notwithstanding the technicality involved in the costumes. tracie utoh-ezeajugh further explains this in her “costume and make-up design....” thus: the skills of a costume designer are seen in her creations. for a designer to prove her worth, she may need to do less borrowing and more creating. the ability to exhibit this skill as a result of any form of limitation greatly undermines the expertise and credibility of the designer. (43) in costume design, one’s intelligence is being tried as the designer conceptualises the ideas in making the costumes and goes further to make them a reality. intrinsic task motivation intrinsic task motivation states that people are most creative when they feel primarily motivated by the work's interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge and not by extrinsic motivators. for example; the designers of woyengi costumes were okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 207 motivated to embark on the task of constructing the costumes as a result of the passion they have for costume designing. regardless of the challenges in making and creating complex costumes, they still went ahead with the creation. the social environment the social environment is having a good environment that stimulates creativity. here, amabile indicates that creativity can thrive when the designers are being encouraged to develop new ideas, and having a good team who is collaborative, supportive and not criticizing new ideas can spur one’s creativity. however, political problems within the organisation, a conservative low-risk attitude among top management and excessive time pressure can block one’s creativity. the success of the production of woyengi costumes was a result of the support the designers got from the production team. woyengi: the synopsis woyengi is a historical play that is set in the ijaw kingdom. the eponymous character –woyengi is a powerful goddess of creation who creates her creatures in accordance with their wants and fate. the supreme goddess gives her creatures the freedom to choose with wisdom the kind of beings they would be on earth, their sexes as well as their deaths, but none will eat their words as their choices are irreversible. lakpe chooses to become a fruitful woman to bear children as much as she wants. other creatures opted to be warriors, farmers and ogbanje (a spirit child that dies in her prime). ogboinba chooses to command the earth at her will and never in her life will she bear children. she becomes powerful and is revered in the land and suddenly becomes dissatisfied with her gift, as she becomes envious of her pregnant friend – lakpe whose house is filled with the laughter and cries of children. she dares the goddess ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 208 and embarks on a journey to the world of the spirit to challenge the goddess, woyengi and reverse her destiny. she is intercepted by spirit beings who foresaw the futility of her adventure. isembi; the king of the forest; the cock; the ruler of the last kingdom of things that die and, olokun; the god of the sea. she conquers them and goes to challenge the supreme goddess– woyengi. woyengi becomes furious and chases her from heaven back to earth. ogboinba takes refuge in the body of lakpe where the goddess pronounced her to remain in the eyes of the pregnant woman till eternity. a character-by-character analysis of costume demands in ijimere’s woyengi effective costuming in theatre productions requires meticulous analysis of the characters in the script and a full understanding of the concept of the play concerning the setting, the period of the play and the style of the production. in the construction of woyengi’s costumes, the following was considered by the designer: the texture of the fabric, the colour, the character trait, the mood of the play and the style of the play. woyengi is the eponymous character whom the play is titled after. she is a goddess of fertility. woyengi symbolizes purity, productivity and fame hence throughout the play, she exudes these traits. woyengi’s characterization demands that she is adorned in costume(s) that project her supernatural nature. again, she must wear apparel that will accentuate her divine nature and not impair her movements as the celestial being. ogboinba: she is the antagonist in the play. her insatiable greed and selfishness are seen in her character. having chosen to be barren and possess mysterious power to command the earth, she okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 209 suddenly had a rethink and went back to woyengi to change her destiny so that she willfully chose herself. she is seen throughout the play battling with spirits like isembi, the cock and olokun that tend to prevent her return journey to the spirit world to challenge woyengi. ogboinba’s costume demands that she wears costumes that will portray her conflicting personality and her restless spirit which brought about her confrontations with other spirit. she must wear a costume that will accentuate her divine nature while retaining her human personality. her costumes should be designed to soothe her personality and enable her in the acrobatic movements on stage. ogboinba’s spirit power this is the character that represents ogboinba’s powers. this character’s costume demands that he wears the same costume as ogboinba since he represents her powers. item: this is the king of the forest, the first spirit being to wrestle with ogboinba against her journey to the spirit world. isembi’s costume demands that it portrays his character as the king of the forest and the spirit being. his costume should also give him freedom for physical combat with ogboinba. isembi’s spirit power this is the character that represents isembi’s power. the costume of this character demands she wears exactly the attire of isembi. olokun: this is the king of the sea and the second spirit is to wrestle with ogboinba. as a supernatural character, his costume should portray this. understanding that the character will be ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 210 involved in a dance and a physical combat, his costume should however not impair his movements and dance on stage. olokun’s spirit power just like other spirit powers, the character should be a replica of olokun in her costume representation. the cock: the cock is the ruler of the last kingdom of things that die. he is the last being to wrestle with ogboinba. his costume should also portray the character of a cock. the cock’s costumes should be designed and constructed to aid his line delivery as well as in the dance movements and the fight with ogboinba while still exhibiting the characteristics of a cock. the cock’s spirit power this is the spirit being of the cock. this character costume demands that she is also seen as a cock. lakpe this is ogboinba’s pregnant friend that chooses the fate of marriage and fruitfulness. she represents the character of a true african woman. her kindness is seen throughout the play as she tries to save ogboinba who threatens to kill her children from woyengi’s wrath. lakpe’s costume should depict her character as a true african mother while accentuating her pregnant body. conceptualising costume designs for the production of woyengi woyengi is a stylized play that demands an appreciable level of creativity and artistry, especially in costume design. hence, conceptualizing costume design for the play commences from the okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 211 script analysis stage down to the casting and rehearsals proper. having understood what the costume demands for each of the characters are, the designer went ahead to detail the requirements for making costumes befitting for each of the characters. during rehearsal, for instance, the designer noted that woyengi delivers her lines amidst song renditions and dance steps as the director had laced the performance with songs and dance. this was part of what informed the design of woyengi’s costume because suitability and comfort are key factors considered in costume design. hence, the costume designers ensured the costume for woyengi allowed her to perform especially when climbing to the ‘heavens’ without much inhibition. fig 1: woyengi’s costume and headgear plate 1: woyengi ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 212 the goddess was costumed in a white thick bridal silky material. white signifies purity, and chastity and white is generally used to represent celestial beings. gillette further explains colour interpretations. according to him “the meaning of colour is constantly changing. colour meanings are influenced by many factors: cultural background, age, personality, adjoining colours and individual mood (91).” being the goddess of creation, the shiny white thick bridal was appropriate for her character. crystal stones were used to embellish the robe of woyengi which created lovely and sparkling aesthetics as she sits on stage. her costumes were made in two layers; the inner gown which was made sleeveless and embellished with ruffles at the ankle region thereby covering her legs. it was made to flow on her body to avoid impairing her movement on stage. the outer layer, a robe, covered the sleeveless nature of the inner costume, thereby creating a larger-than-life aesthetics. the silhouette of woyengi’s costume enhanced her appearance on the stage as a celestial being. her hands and feet were covered with gloves and stockings, all white. she was made a white tall hat accessorized with white cord lace and glittering crystal stones. she was made of white hair that complements her costume. ogboinba fig 2: ogboinba’s costume okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 213 plate 2: ogboinba the design of ogboinba’s costume was considered by her character evolution. ogboinba appeared in the first scene as a creature in the hands of woyengi, then she was given magical powers to command the earth. her character and costumes transited from an innocent creature in the hands of woyengi into a tyrannical being who wants everything to go following her will and desire. however, the designer ensured her costumes characterized her, thereby interpreting the style of the play. ogboinba is energetic, she does a lot of dance and acrobatic movements in the delivery of her lines; these informed the designer’s choice of making a pant and body hug for the character. the nature of ogboinba’s costume a costume that is suitable for ogboinba’s character was made. firstly, the costume designer, having studied her personality and her actions in the play chose baggy pants to aid her acrobatic movements on stage. she was also made a sleeveless bodice, embellished with cowries, snail shells, mirrors and rattles. the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 214 colour of her costume was off-white with a red cotton hair band that was beaded with cowries. the choice of ogboinba’s colour was a result of her selfishness and greed. her costume colour would have been immaculate white but for the fact that she rebelled, she was given the off–white. isembi fig3: isembi’s costume with leaf motif plate 3: isembi okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 215 being the king of the forest, his costume was designed to depict the environment of the play– the forest. the colour of his costume for instance is brown which symbolizes the earth. his brown fur-like costume was embellished with green leaves giving a clear impression of vegetation. his head was covered with a dark brown hair-skin cap also creating the illusion of soil. olokun fig 4: olokun’s costume and headgear with fish motif plate 4: olokun and the spirit power ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 216 the king of the sea was costumed in a white costume creating the illusion of the sea. the sea–blue and white effects are the colour of his costume. the designer used a blue fabric to construct fish on his costume. sea creatures’ shells were also embellished in his costume. the king of the sea costume was made with white jampad material. the texture of the fabric is coarse, suggesting the shell of a fish. the costume was embellished with a blue fish design depicting the personality of the king of the sea. the blue colour is suggestive of the sea environment. the costume has cowries as well as the shell of crabs. his neckpiece was constructed with white crafted beads that suggested the teeth of the sea creatures. his hair was braided white giving the impression of water being. a snake-like fabric was used to construct a snake for the sea god to complement his costume and his character. the cock plate 5: the cock okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 217 fig 5: cock’s costume the costume designer created the cock from a white furlike fabric resembling a real cock-fur. the head was constructed to look like a real cock, thereby ensuring that the cock speaking role wasn’t hindered in the construction of the beak. hence, the costume designer created the cock beak that allowed the character to deliver his lines. analysis of the realization of the costume demands of woyengi in the realization of the costumes for woyengi, the designers had the freedom to explore new ideas just like amabile’s postulation on “creativity –relevant-processes”. here, they had a supportive production crew who loved creativity and innovations, they never criticized the new ideas of the designers and this contributed to the designer’s success in the making of the costumes. the designers had enough time to work on the costumes instead of experiencing excessive time pressure that would have ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 218 hampered their creativity as postulated in amabile’s theory. the designers in the woyengi production possessed the domain relevantprocesses of costume designing as highlighted by amabile. the costume design crew of woyengi had the practical knowledge of costumes that aided the realization of the costumes. for instance, the designers did the cutting and sewing of the costumes from start to finish. they underwent different stages to ensure the success of woyengi costume production. these include careful and adequate script analysis to understand the story and the characters in the script, incubation of the ideas of the costumes: here, the designers went ahead to conceive the various styles of the costumes to be constructed. after the styles were conceived the crew selected the different designs that would soothe the different characters in the play, this motivated them to carry out a market survey on the prices of the fabrics and the accessories to be used in the creation of the costume. a budget was drawn to obtain the cost implications of the various materials used in the design. after the approval of the budget by the director and the producer of woyengi, all the fabrics were purchased and the design team commenced the drafting, cutting, and sewing of the costumes and the acquisition of accessories worn by the actors, this lasted for a period of one month. upon completion of the costumes, the actors were called to fit their costumes and then adjustments were made accordingly. on the evening of the dress and technical rehearsals; a costume parade was made and the the actors modelled their costumes they were made to walk and sit in them to ensure they did not impair their movements on the production date. the costume parade helped the costume design crew to make final adjustments to the costumes. for instance, it was observed during the costume parade that woyengi’s costume needed to be reduced in length to enable her to climb the throne built by the scenic designers. okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 219 the team equally integrated the elements of design; shape, line, texture, colour, mass, measure and position in the making of the production costumes. these were evident in the final rendition of the costume as could be seen in the costumes for isembi, olokun and the cock where some motifs were sewn into the fabrics. the crew also ensured that the shape of the costumes of the actors fit their body sizes and their sizes did not hamper other elements on stage. the colours of the various costumes used were chosen following the different roles and backgrounds of the characters. for instance, the character woyengi was given an immaculate white coloured costume because of the association of the colour white with purity and celestial presence. the designers also considered the ‘line’ element to enhance the aesthetics and silhouette of the costumes. we notice lines because of their dimension and quality. we attach meaning to their character. lines attract attention as their complexity increases... lines that contrast strongly with their surroundings or backgrounds draw more attention than those that don’t. curved lines are more distinctive than straight lines of the same length (gillette; 70-71). this is very evident in the cock’s costume; the cock’s costume was made very distinctive and illustrative with exaggerations in proper dimensions. the costume of the cock has ‘v-shaped lines that enhance the appearance of the cock costume. the textures of all the fabrics used for the production were skilfully selected to interpret the different roles of the characters as well as their backgrounds. for instance, the texture of the goddess’ costume highlighted her status as she was given a rich high, quality fabric, thick bridal satin, which was accessorised with crystal stones. ‘mass’ and the ‘position’ as design elements were considered in the realisation of the costumes. the crew considered ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 220 the proportion of the body sizes of the characters and ensured that the costumes made for them were not overtly heavy so as not to discomfort them during the performance. the costumes were made to fit in the space provided for the actions in the play without inhibiting other elements on stage. for instance, the costume design team worked with the scenic designers to ensure the costumes did not collide with the scenic properties. conclusion costume is a very expressive element in the visual composition of stage productions. in the design for any theatrical production, the costume and its accessories are conceived and constructed to help the actors’ interpretation of their roles and to enhance the audience’s understanding of the production. the costume designs for the performance of woyengi at nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, in 2021 have shown that aesthetic and artistic variations exist in the costume productions of the play. the design and realisation of costumes for the woyengi production were successful due to an experienced and skilled costume design crew who understood the intricacies of designing costumes from concept to realisation while adhering to the play’s overall production concept. it was observed that the costumes made by the designers in woyengi were skilfully conceptualised to delineate the environment of the play, thus helping the characters in their role interpretations and helping the audience appreciate the play’s message. works cited amabile, teresa; theory of creativity. harvard: sage publications. 2013 gillette, michael; theatrical design and production. 4th ed. new york: mcgraw hill, 2000. ijimere, obotunde; woyengi. oxford: heineman, 1996. okeke and chukwuma: costume design for theatre productions… 221 oga, emmanuel. c; “costume and makeup as expressive arts: a case study of selected productions of ola rotimi”. theatre experience: a journal of contemporary theatre practice. 2.1 (2003): 51-91. abel idebe towards effective conflict management in local communities: the impact of … 79 towards effective conflict management in local communities: the impact of theatre for development abel idebe department of english gombe state university (gsu), gombe. e-mail: idebeabel20@gmail.com abstract several local communities across the nation are faced with serious conflicts that have hindered the peace and development of their communities. often a time these conflicts have become so age old that it become difficult or impossible to have them erased and as such the community continue to be stunned in growth and stability. more scathing is the fact that some of these conflict have led to serious violence and killings at different times in these communities. the need to therefore advance approaches to ameliorating the hazards of conflicts becomes fundamental. more often than not stakeholders and official agencies who are into rural and community development do not give proper attention to development and conflict management approaches that ensure that community members becomes the greater owners of the process and making them to become central in the processes of intervention. this paper therefore argues that it very important that active participation of local communities through processes that stimulates their greater commitment and desire for change become very vital. the paper therefore explores the theatre for development (tfd) approach to addressing and managing community conflicts. it reveals the importance and impact of tfd praxis in harnessing people potentials and better participation for peace, social synergy and community collaboration. key words: conflict, conflict management, theatre for development (tfd), peace and communities introduction issues of conflict have existed with man and his environment over the ages. it continues to shape the development of his society. as a human phenomenon, conflict has always created a fundamental challenge which must be rightly addressed to make for peace and sustainable growth. however, it is important to state that the process by which conflict is ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 80 approached or handled can make or mar the attainment of collective goals and objectives in the society. conflict can occur in different forms, it could occur at intrapersonal and interpersonal levels. it could also be expressed at group levels that is community, local, state or national levels. conflict can also assume international dimension when the situation is between two or more nations. our main focus in this paper will be community conflict as reflected within the nigerian society. in nigeria over the years, community conflict situations more often than not, degenerate into serious violence as experienced in various local communities. these situations range from religious, ethnic to political conflicts. idebe notes that: the ideological diversity of many communities in nigeria have often led to a lot of parallel views on many issues that concern their cooperate existence. this disharmony that exists among them has often been the cause of violent conflicts in many nigerian communities. in the course of these frictions a lot of lives and properties are lost. the aftermath of these conflicts is a strong disaffection created in the heart of one group against the other (5). community conflicts have in no little way contributed to the social and political dislocation of many communities and the nation as a whole. more so it has often threatened the cooperate existence of the national structure. in tackling the issue of conflicts in nigeria, different mediums and measures have been employed by government and stakeholders. in spite of these methods applied, the management and transformation of conflict in a number of communities seems intractable. the reasons for these may include incompatibility of conflict resolution methods or lack of commitment on the part of stakeholders involved. but quite disturbing is the fact that most mediums employed to handle conflict situations are topdown and imposing in approach. more often than not the people are not carried along in the process of mediation and conflict transformation of the conflict situation. the implication is that whatever decisions are reached, will be forced down on the people, thereby leaving the community no better than they were. it is in this regard that this paper advances the use of theatre for development (tfd) as useful channel for conflict management and transformation. it examines the down-top method of communication in the tfd practice, as well as its designed participatory method in conflict management and transformation mechanism. abel idebe towards effective conflict management in local communities: the impact of … 81 the concept of conflict as a social phenomenon, conflict arises from the pursuit of divergent interests and aspirations by individuals and/or groups in a defined social and physical setting. different scholars and researchers have offered diverse views on this concept which they see as an inherently prevailing phenomenon in the labyrinth of human existence. isaac defines “conflict as the breakdown in communication between two or more parties of differing social, cultural, economic, ideological or political learning” (21). otite citing coser, in an elaborated definition states that conflict can be defined: as a struggle over values or claims to status, power, and scarce resources in which the aim of the conflicting parties are not only to gain the desired values but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals. such conflicts may take place between individuals, between collectivities or between individuals and collectivities. inter-group and intra group conflicts are perennial features of social life (2). from the above explanations, conflicts are generally viewed as inevitable and conscious acts involving personal or group contact, over incompatible interests. these interests range from religious, cultural, social, political and economic interests. as a human experience, conflict is not static in nature, but it is expressive, dynamic and dialectical. in this regard, best (65) while citing fisher et.al identifies five stages of conflict as follows: i. the first is the pre-conflict stage, a period when goals between parties are incompatible, which could lead to open conflict. at this stage, the conflict is not well known because parties try to hide it from public view, but communication is undermined between them. ii. the second stage is that of confrontation at which point the conflict becomes open or manifest. this is characterized by occasional quarrels, low levels of violence, and search for allies by parties, mobilization of resources, strained relations and polarization. iii. the third stage is the stage of crisis which represents the peak of the conflict. in violent conflict, this is the stage of war and intense fighting, leading to killing, injuries, population displacements, and the use of dangerous arms and weapons. iv. the fourth is believed to be the outcome stage. there is an assumption that all conflicts will pass through this stage, one way or the other. one side wins and the other losses, or a ceasefire may be ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 82 declared; one may surrender, or the government or other third party intervening forces stronger than the warring parties intervene to impose or suggest a solution and stop the fighting. the critical issue at this stage is that the violence is decreased which follows room for some discussion to commence, or alternative means of settling the conflict. v. the fifth is the post-conflict stage. at this stage violence has either ended or significantly reduced and the parties have gone past the crisis stage. this is the stage to address the underlying causes of the conflict, those incompatible goals which created the conflict in the first instance, such as needs and fears of the parties. if they are not tackled at this stage, the conflict cycle may be re-enacted and a return to the pre-conflict stage with consequent re-eruption of violence, is a possibility. these conflict stages are also referred to by other names, such as “conflict process” or a “conflict progression”. the concept of conflict management although conflict may generally exist whenever incompatible activities occur and may result in a win-lose character, the management of conflicts may produce a “win-win situation”. it is important to state that conflict, although has been mostly depicted as totally negative and destructive can also be constructive, depending on how it is handled. the concept of conflict management is “the process of reducing the negative and destructive capacity of conflict through a number of measures and by working with and through the parties involved in that conflict” (best, 95). this term is sometimes used synonymously with “conflict regulation or prevention”. the term conflict management is perhaps an acknowledgement of the fact that conflict is inevitable, but that not all conflicts can always be resolved therefore what can be done is to manage and regulate them. wilmot and hocker cited in otite (11) identify some ideas for managing conflict. this include clarification of communication which involve: the speaking out what is in one’s mind or heart, listening carefully, expressing strong feelings appropriately, remaining rational, asking questions, maintaining a spirit of give and take, avoiding harmful statements, asking directly what is going on, telling others one’s opinion, looking for flexible “shades of gray” solutions, recognizing the power of initiating a cooperative move, identifying conflict patterns, and engaging in negotiations abel idebe towards effective conflict management in local communities: the impact of … 83 of agreements and settlements. appropriate communications skills and channels are curial in conflict management. conflict management should occur in a polite atmosphere and context. otite (12) further remarks that conflict managers must be skilful to overcome the generally chaotic and disorderly scenarios associated with the behavior of conflicting parties. emotions or sentiments and irrationality must be controlled and managed. simple common language and the use of metaphor normally make positive contributions to conflict management. conflicts need not be portrayed as warfare or violence. ebo (52) explains that: conflict can be managed to become the antithesis of a given situation, which is what brings about a change in an original situation. proper management of conflict can bring positive changes in the society. however, conflicts that are not properly managed degenerate to crises and violence, protests, youth restiveness, gender violence, kidnapping etc. the position given above, highlight and presents an insight on why creative and participatory mediums such as the tfd practice which allows for a serene, peaceful, active and united participation of all stakeholders involved in the conflict need to be explored. it is important to state that the idea of managing conflict to bring about change in conflict situation is quite central in the tfd process of managing conflict. this is so because, it is only in this way that the society concerned can gain the needed development which they lack. the concept of theatre for development (tfd) tfd is a theatrical approach to development issues that gives emphasis to active participation, critical consciousness and dialogue among participants. the practitioners of this theatrical form are seriously committed to community transformation through theatre. issues and problems affecting the community usually form the thematic thrust of this type of theatre. it ensures that a clearly worked out process or workshop is taken to engage the community in order to get them attend to the challenges of their social realities. this form of theatre is also known by different nomenclatures. these include; theatre for integrated rural development (th.i.r.d), participatory theatre, grass-root theatre, theatre for integrated development (t.i.d.e), theatre of the oppressed and community theatre. abah, defines tfd as “the practice by which theatre is put at the service of the disadvantaged rural and urban poor for ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 84 the purposes of discussing and working out strategies for dealing with their socio–economic conditions” (17). commenting in a similar vein, ifeanyi (71) state that “theatre for development is a process of stimulating and sustaining participation with the target community along development lines, using the world of theatre to achieve real solution to practical life problems affecting the people”. the functionality of the tfd process in bringing the community to the awareness of the key role they play in shaping their hopes and prosperous livelihood is here emphasized. the community using paulo freire’s term is “conscientized” and made to realize the potentials they have in harnessing their individual and collective energy towards addressing the myriads of problem they are faced with; instead of picking up arms against each other that further cause destructions to lives and properties. ahura (55) thus gives an elaborate explanation of the concept by stating that it: …emphasizes the mass mobilization of the rural masses for the purpose of upgrading themselves intellectually and materially, so that they come to a thorough understanding of themselves and their environment. by this understanding they as a group come to full knowledge of the structures that are injurious to them and those that enhance their prestige as human beings. they therefore prepare themselves to control their destiny by seeking to change the existing situation. how theatre can be used as a rallying point to bring about the needed change in the community is here emphasized. how it allows the community to be released from bottlenecks and unfavourable conditions such as conflict that hinders community growth and stability, thereby spurring them into a new experience wherein they see themselves as a collective-force for sustainable development is central to this form of theatre. the importance of tfd in conflict management theatre is a creative and expressive area of human activity which provides a powerful source of peace – building energy and passion that is not always apparent in the formalized processes of political conflict management. (ramsbotham, 347). it is worthy of note that theatre in general work in a familiar terrain when it is utilized in a project dealing with conflict. this is because by its very nature, theatre involves conflict and the management and transformation abel idebe towards effective conflict management in local communities: the impact of … 85 of conflict as an embedded mechanism in both its conception and realization (kafewo 160). jeyifo (7) further argues that: more than any other arts, drama deals at highly concentrated level with contradiction of social existence. a dramatic piece, which does not in one form or another deploy as its organizing structural criterion, a physical or emotional conflict, moral or spiritual contest of will, is almost inconceivable equally important is the fact that drama does not merely subsumes conflict as its organizing structural motive, beyond this, drama also axiomatically attempts a provisional synthesis in the conflicting pulls within its constitutive actions. drawing from the ideology of the larger frame work of drama and theatre as a whole, tfd uses dramatic performance at the grassroots level to unfold and analyze development problems of the community and raise critical awareness and potentials to solve these problems. kafewo further observes that: theatre here functions as a cooperative, with common leadership and ideological orientation, without a director as such. the audience’s direct involvement is sought in order to create a drama specific to its interest and the materials are structured through improvisation and discussion (161). it is in the light of the foregoing points that the significance of a tfd workshop aimed at looking at the challenges of conflict is found. the issue of conflict management and transformation through theatre and drama is a practice that has pre-occupied several theatre scholars over the years. practitioners through different mediums of theatrical explorations have actively advocated and preach the gospel of managing conflict affecting different ethnic, religious, social, geographical and sectional affinities. nwosu (35) explicitly argues: …that the conflict management and transformation attribute of the theatre is age – long and therefore time – tested is a truism. for instance, as far back as the pre-colonial era, the traditional theatre functioned as a veritable instrument for handling issues of conflicts. the traditional african theatre is not alone in its conflict management agenda. today the modern and post – modern theatre studies have also given concrete attention to the issues of conflict management and transformation. one of the most effective ways used to achieve this agenda is through theatre for development. the attention and exploration given to this form of theatre by today’s practitioners, is borne out of the emphasis it places on the bottom – up model of communication. this model of ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 86 communication gives power to the people affected to decide greatly the outcome of their predicament. the basic idea behind this theatrical form is to enable members of a conflict group to interact in a friendly and approachable manner rather than a coercive manner; as well as giving an objective insight into the different parties’ mutual condition. a main thrust to this theatrical methodology, is to destroy negative stereotypes held by parties in conflict situations against each other and help to re-humanize their relationships. by learning together how to respond to conflict, through the tfd experiences, the parties to community conflict are made to realize that they can actually work together at solving their problems. nwosu (ibid) thus states that theatre and drama in this way …act as a catalyst that stimulates change in modes of behaviour and perception of thoughts, which is capable of reshaping the social structure of a people for a more conducive and comfortable living. thus theatre has a high rate tendency of conflict management and transformation. this it does through analyzing past conflict, highlighting mistakes and guarding against future occurrence of conflict. in this way, they are helped to gain a realistic understanding of what conflict is and what it is not. they are also made to have a better understanding of the cost of violent conflict. as a problem – solving process for conflict management, the dominant questions in a tfd setting will be; how can the parties to a conflict peacefully participate and work together to develop a community they both share? how do the parties develop relational empathy? in terms of conflicting cultures, how do the two cultures merge into the production of what broome describes as a “third culture”. third culture as broome (404) informs can only occur in a conflict situation “through interaction in which participants are willing to open themselves to new meanings, to engage in genuine dialogue, and to constantly respond to the new demands emanating from the situation”. this is a very essential prerequisite for conflict management and transformation. still writing on how the “third culture” manifests, casmir and asuncion–lande (294) further describes that: through beginning with contrasting perceptions and behaviours, two individuals through their interaction, create a unique setting for interaction. in the conjoining of their separate cultures, a third culture, more inclusive than the original one is created, which both abel idebe towards effective conflict management in local communities: the impact of … 87 of them now share. thus a third culture is not merely the result of the fusion of two or more separate entities, but also the product of the “harmonization” of composite parts into a coherent whole. to achieve this harmonized experience, the tfd process becomes very sensitive and cautious as regard issues and values which are peculiar to the different parties as well as those issues which seem to be commonly acceptable by them. while issues which are very peculiar to both parties are de-emphasized, values and social experiences which are common and acceptable by both parties are emphasized and brought to the fore. in this way both cultures are synthesized to bring about a culture of love and mutual respect. the tfd approach can be considered a very useful method in dealing with conflict, as its outcomes are usually self-supporting in the sense that it takes into consideration, all parties concerned. the essence of tfd in conflict management can be viewed in the light of what kelman (ix) remarks in discussing the importance of problem-solving procedure. he states that problem-solving procedure is meant to: …empower the parties, meet their vital needs for identity and security, and lay the foundation for a stable co operative relationship consistent with the welfare and development of each party. such changes imply some re – distribution of power as well as the gradual creation of a new – culture shared by the former adversaries without, of course abandoning their separate cultures. this is exactly what tfd practice aim at achieving between conflicting parties. the opposite parties are led to a new orientation that demands collaborative and progressive culture as well as a diplomatic attitude towards one another. over the years a number of theatre practitioners have achieved great result using this medium of conflict management and transformation. a good example in this regard is the hammock to bridges (th.i.r.d) experience. it was organized by the theatre section of the department of english, university of yaoundé, cameroon. here, there was a serious conflict between the konye, ngolo – bolo and ndoi villages in cameroon. the conflict situation was so serious that butake bole one of the resource persons in the community theatre trip, described it as a “psychological war”. this negative situation made it impossible for them to agree on building an accessible bridge to replace a hammock over the mungu river for their effective transportation., but after the interventionist medium through the tfd process, the conflicting communities were able to resolve their differences and therefore saw the need of coming together to build a brigde that will replace the hammock. it was this beautiful ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 88 achievement that made the organizers titled the community theatre experience as “hammock to bridges”. another example is provided by steve abah in his book performing life. he recounted how the dispute that emerged in otobi benue state, over the usage of a grinding machine, meant for the good of the general community was resolved, using the tfd process. to further establish the commitment and potentials which practitioners make out of the tfd practice in bringing about conflict management and transformation, uzoji and iorapuu (101) generates a new concept termed theatre for transformative peace and conflict which they define as “as an instrument of cultural power that provides the connection between theatre, democracy and conflict resolution, where community participants articulate and critically question their assumptions and perspective”. here they conceive of a tfd experience that is capable of generating more critical and spontaneous response by community members in changing the negative conditions that hinders peace and harmony in the community. it is an attempt to make out a more revolutionary outcome of the tfd process. while making an example of what can be achieved through the theatre for transformative peace and conflict, uzoji and iorapuu (102) give vivid account on the strategic impact which the approach played in panyam, mangu l.g.a of plateau state. prior to the 2007 elections, yarac used dramatic skits to engage the panyam community on elections, how to vote, freedom of choice, electoral conflicts and voters’ mobilization. the community actually took over the process. they owned the story and ensured that the final performance was successful. the result of the performance was spontaneous as the audience (community) engage better by speaking to the issues in the performance. elders, politicians, women and youth leaders spoke. there were instant resolutions on the way forward. youths resolved not to allow themselves as conduits for political violence. although a relatively new concept that is capable of generating more meanings and perspectives, it necessarily brings to light the level of impact which employment of tfd agenda can be in bringing about community peace, transformation and sustainable development. conclusion communal conflict still continues to plague our national landscape. a lot of communities keep retrogressing in the nation as a result of steep abel idebe towards effective conflict management in local communities: the impact of … 89 divisions that that have hampered their growth and development. the government and stakeholders seem to be more concerned with the stability and peace of urban and commercial towns with little or no commitment to ensuring that local communities enjoy peace and social development. even when some attention is given to intervening on communal conflicts and social challenges, it is more of lording it over them without making real commitment to getting them actively participate in the process of interventions. this paper which explores the importance of tfd approach to conflicts in communities have shown the need to advancing creative and participatory approach to communication wherein the community members are empowered to become stakeholders in sorting out and ameliorating the effect of conflicts in their society. it advances how participatory modes of communication ensures that the people become more interested in the path of managing their differences and misgivings against each other thereby giving them that impetus to commit themselves to the peace, synergy and collective development of the community. references: abah, steve. “participatory theatre: issues and cases”, hager iyorwhuese (ed.). the practice of community theater in nigeria. lagos: sonta, 1990. ahura tar. “population and participatory theater for conscientization: the question of methodology”, hager, i. ed. the practice of community theatre in nigeria .lagos: sonta, 1990. albert, isaac. “the socio – cultural politics of ethnic and religious conflict”, ernest uwazie et-al. (eds.) inter – ethnic and religious conflict resolution in nigeria. oxford: lexington books, 1999. best, shedrack. introduction to peace and conflict studies in west africa: a reader. ibadan: spectrum books, 2006. broome, b.j. “management difference in conflict resolution: the role of relational emphathy”, dennis j.d sandole and hugo van der merwe (eds.) conflict resolution theory and applications. manchester and new york: manchester university press, 1993. ebo, emma. “j.p. clarks the wives’ revolt and the imperatives of conflict resolution in the niger delta”, asagba, o.a. theatre and minority rights perspectives on the niger delta. ibadan :kraft books, 2010. idebe, abel. theatre for development (tfd) as a community conflict management and transformation strategy: a study of the zangon tama (tfd) experience. an unpublished m.a dissertation submitted to the department of theatre and performing arts ahmadu bello university, zaria, 2013. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 90 iorapuu tor. “theatre for transformative change, counter – revolution to theatre for development (tfd) practice in nigeria: lessons from the april 14 and 21 general elections” asagba o.a. (ed.) theatre and minority rights: perspectives on the niger delta. ibadan: kraft books, 2010. kafewo, samuel. “rhythm of transformation: theatre and conflict resolution in northern nigeria”, new theatre quarterly, vol. xxiii. london. cambridge university press, 2007. jeyifo, abiodun. the truthful lie. london: new beacon books, 1985. kelman, herbert. “forward”, denis sandole and hugo van de merwe (eds.) conflict resolution theory and practice. manchester: manchester university press, 1993. otite, onigu. “on conflicts, resolution, transformation, and management” otite onigu and albert isaac (eds.) community conflict in nigeria: management resolution and transformation. ibadan :spectrum books, 1999. shedrack, best et – al. “communal conflict and the possibilities of conflict resolution in nigeria: a case study of the tiv-jukun conflicts in wukari l.g.a, taraba state”. otite onigu and albert isaac community conflict in nigeria: management, resolution and transformation. ibadan: spectrum books, 1999. uzoji, emmanuel and iorapuu, tor. “theatre, terrorism and genocide in nigeria: an examination of the theatre for transformative peace and conflicts in plateau state”. kafewo samuel (ed.) nollywood and theatre for development (tfd): exploring the bridges of interaction. abu, zaria: sonta conference book of proceeding, 2011. casmir, m.l and assuncio-lande, n.c “inter cultural communication revisited: conceptualization and methodological approaches” communication year book, (12) california sage, 1989. ogu-rapheal ifeanyi. the medium of the theatre as an alternative conflict resolution mechanism: a case of the niger delta. www.uidaho.edu/martin_archive, 2009. date retrieved: 12th december 2011. woodhouse,t. and ramsbotham,o. peace keeping and conflict resolution. london: frank cass publishers, 2000. abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 141 the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin people as a paradigm abbe, josephine ebiuwa department of theatre arts, university of benin, benin city jossyeabbe@gmail.com abstract change as a dynamic phenomenon is constant in reflecting the present situation of things. it either alters an existing form or brings about a fresh one. when the latter is the case, the former may either go into extinction as it becomes (in most cases) an outdated form which appeals mostly to the generation that experienced it. but when change is an alteration of an existing form, it tends to revive and sustain it by appealing to the sensibilities of both the old and new generations. most traditional african dances have experienced a lot of changes due to interactions with other cultures which result(mostly) from colonization, and have consequently gone into extinction for lack of constant performance. the ritual dances are the most endangered form due to context criteria, newfound religions and lack of adequate documentation. the best method of documenting african dances lies in constant performance. thus, the need to secularize some of these ritualized dances to save and preserve them for posterity. this approach however does not prevent the dances from serving their original ritual purposes when the need arises. this paper examines the ohogho ritual dance as a form that can be secularized for entertainment to ensure its preservation and continuity. introduction dance as a non-verbal form of expression is a common feature in all societies both traditional and modern, occurring in most celebrations to serve one purpose or the other. it thus follows mailto:jossyeabbe@gmail.com ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 142 that dance is a universal art form. “its origin might be lost in antiquity”(royce 3)but this may justify the fact that it is the oldest form of all arts as the movement of the human body in time and space has always been a portrayal and manifestation of man and his activities thereby reflecting the total of the doings of a people. this line of thought perhaps prompted lange to state that man in expressing his innermost thoughts to his supreme creator resorted to the nonverbal means of codification dance. hence he sums up dance as “the art of expressing the sentiments of the mind, or passions….”(5). does dance in present society serve such purposes as before? is it still a manifestation of life? of course, dance in modern society, especially in africa, does not occur in the nature it did during precolonial times, but it is still employed in today’s society to portray man and his activities hence its occurrence at both social and sacred ceremonies just like the old times. the difference between both societies’ usage of dance lies mostly in the focus of life in each of these epochs. in precolonial times, emphasis was on a sacred form of life where man was more conscious of supernatural forces. dance therefore as a means of expression and communication is realized through the human body (the only instrument) and movement thus becomes its language of expression which carries the intention of the dancer (abbe 6). bakare reacting to the fact that dance is calculated motions of the body states that it is the"rhythmic movement of the human body in time and space to make a statement" (2). the indication of bakare’s statement is that dance exists solely in performance, codifying the norms and values of a people in and through movements. explaining the significance of african dance, ediri (122) refers to it as a "well from which various shades of historical experiences can be drawn."it is a cultural product that captures the essence of a people. hence dance transcends what meets the eye as its meaning goes beyond the general one, too, in most cases, having abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 143 specific meanings. this is because every dance has a focus and function. and mcfee notes that the understanding of a particular dance presupposes the understanding of the traditions from which it emanates (112). determining the nature of dance therefore will require the understanding of the purpose of such dance, for a dance is the aim and focus which determine a large extent the physical efforts put into the realization of the dance. ugolo calls this notion the "attitudes and intentions that underlie african dance” (127). the purpose (intention), he reiterates, gives birth to the attitude that is manipulated to give birth to a new form. the nature of dance implicates its essence, the examination of its characteristics and qualities. dance as a non-verbal means of communication is transient leaving its audience with a spectacular impression. this ephemeral nature calls for the need to constantly and continuously perform it. dance thus far is established as the movement of the human body, a channel of communication, an expression and act of life that projects the human body, the movement it makes, the music it responds to and the meaning it conveys which, ugolo (1998) opined, needs clarity and precision." and bakare (2019) sees it as a medium of communication that easily lends itself to mobilization efforts through awareness creation and dissemination of information (64) and it can only be expressed through the act of dancing ojuade (2) which is performance. dance serves the different needs of individuals and communities. these needs could be culture and individual-based attesting to the fact that the purpose of dance varies for different cultures. the purpose is the intention and motivation behind the movements created and the ordering of the movement, arrangement of dancers in space (floor pattern), employment of songs and instrumentation as well as the general organization of the dance. dance is thus a deliberate and conscious effort. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 144 the purpose of dance as noted by monyeh could be for entertainment, enlightenment or religious reasons. the various functions notwithstanding every dance serves two basic functions of sacred and secular forms in african societies. the sacred dances are religious and ritualistic. they are a means of worship employed by man to reverence and relate with supernatural forces. these are found in various festivals and ritual ceremonies honouring and imploring one god or the other to bequeath their blessings on the land and the people. sacred dances are serious, having specific participants; specific simple, stylized and symbolic steps; specific rhythm and pattern, performed for religious worship, burial ceremonies, ancestral deification etc. that is, they are not performed outside their specified contexts. also, there are other sacred dances whose movements are very fast and sometimes complex. their secluded nature makes it impossible for a larger audience to watch or know the importance of such dances. the secular dances on the other hand are social and entertainment-based, they are performed mostly for larger audiences in marriages, birth/naming ceremonies, coronations, installations, and festivals, although sacred dances can still occur as part of ritual procedures in the above-listed. social dances as cultural activities may involve every member of the family, set or community; they are less serious in content and form, having a celebratory nature. the dances are free in style and rhythm having neither fixed form nor format in terms of the movements involved and the patterns unlike the sacred danceswhich movements, patterns, costumes and makeup can be altered or enhanced to heighten entertainment need any time. history and performance of ohogho dance abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 145 plate 1: ohogho dancers (university students) at the theatre hall, university of benin in 2017. courtesy: the researcher the benin people are a major ethnic group in edo state of nigeria, situated in the southern part of the country. the state has distinct ethnic, cultural and linguistic groups whose ancestry is traced to the ancient benin kingdom. these people form the great benin empire which has waned and succumbed to social changes that have affected all nations of the world. the benin empire spanned several centuries and recorded great achievements in religious, cultural and socio-political (governmental) spheres that it was likened to a major european city (osagie, 13). the benins have a strong cultural identification base which has survived various upheavals the people have experienced. a most prominent cultural heritage by which the people are known is the benin arts and crafts (benin bronzes), lots of ceremonial activities like festivals, dances and songs commemorating past memorable events. these patterns of learned behaviour are transmitted from one generation to the other distinguishing them from other people’s culture. the origin of the ohogho dance is lost in antiquity. the accounts that abound in tradition seem to contradict each other to some extent. the first source holds that the dance originated during the reign of oba ewuare the great c1440-1473ad when a certain ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 146 witchdoctor (eriase) from ugboko-numagbae in orhionmwon local government of edo state was said to have gone to the bush on eken day to acquire more spiritual powers. eken day in benin is a rest day for human beings and a day of activity for the spirits. no one in the kingdom goes to the farm or market on this day and returns the same. as eriase wanders in the thick forest, he came across spirits performing some rites of which the ohogho dance was one. he hid in a corner to prevent being seen while he watched the fascinating dance performance. the spirits soon perceived the presence of a human being in their midst (agbonwiakpuma). they searched around them and soon found eriase and brought him to their midst. he was taught the dance and was asked to go home and teach his fellow human beings after which he would return to the spirit world in three months. on getting home, he narrated his experience in the bush to his people and taught them the dance. his people were amazed at the discovery and encounter eriase had in the bush. three months later, eriase died. the second version states that the dance originated during the reign of oba orhogbua c1550-1578ad through a hunter who encountered some spirits singing and dancing while performing rites in the bush. he was caught and detained by them (spirits) in the forest for seven days before he was released to go back to his people and teach them the dance. whatever the origin, ohogho dance exists among the benin people as a religious cult dance belonging to physicians (ebo or obo group). it consists of strong senior members of the eroghae and the eghele age groups. the eroghae in traditional benin society is strong and energetic male youths in the community who are between the ages of 15-30 years. they perform menial jobs for the community. on the other hand, the eghele (30-50 years old) are soldiers of the community in charge of the general security of the villages and towns. they also specialized in building, farming, hunting and trading for the community (aisien 136). the age grade system in benin was very organized and formidable before abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 147 colonization. but, benin’s interaction with the british, like in most parts of nigeria, has left a most debilitating dislocation in a once organized society. ohogho dance is a protective dance meant to ward off evil, epidemics, wars as well as general calamities from the land. it is traditionally a male dance which, according to some opinions, is performed to worship the ovia god (the ovia river). it is also sometimes performed during second burial ceremonies and at the eho festival (aisien 86). an eho festival is a yearly event where the ancestors of the benins are feasted (aisien 183). the dance is performed by the ogba community in oredo local government area and the people of ugboko-numagbae in orhionmwon local government areas of edo state (aisien 167). dancers in the ohogho dance are called igbohogho. in its original context, the dancers, prior to performance, are said to undergo fortification and sanctification rituals (a common occurrence with ritual ceremonies) to ensure a successful performance. ohogho performance often begins with the entrance of the dancers as led by the lead dancer who carries a wooden receptacle (ukpabo) containing ritual objects and burning leaves on his head. he dances straight to the centre of the performance area and drops the burning receptacle on the ground, thereafter he joins the dancers who have formed a circle around the object in the middle. movements in the dance are strong, energetic and warlike typifying the nature of warriors and the native doctors that prepare them for war. it thus requires agility, strength and vigour. in the revolving circular floor pattern, dancers perform various movements ranging from stepping, stamping, sharp and spontaneous turns, kneeling, bending, hopping, jumping, spinning, and forward and backward movements. there is a general uniformity of motion, and the mood is intense having the aura of worship and team spirit. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 148 each movement is associated with a particular song that is repeated, and there are several brief lyric songs in the dance. there is an entrance as well as an exit song in the dance. the songs and movements of the dance are intertwined and the music and instrumentation are supplied by dancers while dancing. the instruments are made up of voice, gong and gourd rattles, no drums. the duration of the dance could be between 5 and 20 minutes depending on the enthusiasm, strength and vigour of the dancers and the choreography. at the end of the performance, the carrier (omukpabo) again leads out bearing the receptacle on his head. this description is practically the same as the secularized form except that the receptacle containing the ritual object is not included in its performance. also, females can dance in its secular form as opposed to the "all-male affair" of the ritualized form. songs in ohogho dance are not limited to the list below: a. igbohogho ni re ohogho dancers have come ima mie nor ma mwon ode none to show me the way ito bo mwen hen ode owa i know the way to my house by myself erhinmwin ghi bi bio de spirits do not miss their way b. aiyo, eee, aiyo ebo o, you do not dare, you do not dare charm aiyo eee, eee o, eee o e you do not dare. c. akha mwen n’owina o my akha of owina (guild) ugha mwan mwen ghi vbo where is my axe ghe he vbe zierhan look at it at the base of a tree ugha ya so ne rie gumwen o when you have finished tearing with it, return it to me ugha mwan mwen ghi vbo where is my axe ghe he vbe zierhan look at it at the base of a tree ughe re 3x look at it 3x abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 149 d. ugbe kogho, in kogho farm obokpa erhinmwin gbe ghe spirit dance dance in one direction e e e, obokpa erhinmwin gbe ghe spirit dance dance in one direction e. ima mie no tio khue mwen gu mwen ko i cannot find anyone to call my okhue for me e e e okhue ri’udo ohhh, okhue has gone to udo f. irio ologho ooo i am going to ologhooo ogho gho’ren gbo de o ehi o brand of firewood with fire blocks the way, my guardian angel ogbo de, ogbo de, ehi o 4x it has blocked the way, it has blocked the way, my guardian angel g. oghe mwen whoever is looking at me h. lele mwen gha rie, oghe mwen should follow me home, whoever ohogho costume is red skirt and top (ebuluku vbo vbi’ewu). while the major prop is ukhunmwun, a small wooden bowl meant to ward off evil, others are musical instruments used as hand props. secularization of ohogho ritual dances ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 150 plate 2: some members of secularized ohogho dancers during the oba ewuare ii coronation procession in 2016. courtesy: the researcher. secularization is the act of converting something, especially from religious use to secular (general) use. dance secularization in this context refers to the transformation of dance from its ritual to social context. kafewo in the year 2006 had expressed fear over the erosion of african and indeed nigerian cult dances when he stated that “…in the next few years, the next generations may only read about our dance performances” (273). this statement was made from his observation of how the various cult (ritual) dances in nigeria using the northern part of the country as an example were being downplayed due to the influence of christianity and islam on african indigenous religions. also, bakare in the same year, noted that for any nigerian traditional dance to survive it has to be “adapted to the new changes occasioned by contacts with other parts of the world, otherwise it risk(sic) abandonment and consequently death” (71). the above statements by ojo rasaki bakare, a dance and theatre scholar, dancer and choreographer of no mean repute and abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 151 late kafewo, a theatre arts scholar (in nigeria) were made seventeen years ago. the import of their comments is the need to secularise traditional african dances to preserve them against extinction. obviously, any form that refuses to submit to the whims and caprices of change will certainly meet its waterloo in oblivion. in proffering a solution to the above concerns, bakarerecommends context criteria as a determinant factor to state under what circumstances a traditional dance can be altered and what traditional dance should be altered (65). the inability to distinguish these two contexts, he stressed, could cause a rift. he argued further that it would be a dream to think of a continuous existence of original traditional dances in a fast-changing nigeria. he stressed the above line of thought in the detailed quotation below: perhaps we should ask: in nigeria where foreign religions are gaining converts daily and the majority of those who refuse to be converted are not ready to give their attention to some gods that demand (sic) kola nuts, palm oil and blood, how many worshippers of the traditional religion to which most of our traditional dances are central will remain in the twenty-second century? with the rate at which nigerians are abandoning rural life in preference for the cities where they get integrated into a 'new' culture for political, economic and social reasons, how much of these dances will a nigerian born in the twenty-second century know in their original forms? with the desire to acquire modern technology at all costs, how many of our traditional instruments which are, of course, very essential to our traditional dance will nigerians of the twenty-second century still be playing? if we are therefore realistic about preserving our traditional dances for the future generation, we must be sensitive to the dynamic nature of our modern society and then accept that the only realistic method of preservation is by making these dances to be always relevant to the temperament and sensibilities of the contemporary society through adaptations, recreations and ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 152 hybridization of the techniques presently used by most contemporary nigerian choreographers (72-73) from the above explanation, the secularization of african ritual dance is quite apt and requires the efforts of the contemporary choreographer who is a creative artist, bridging the gap between two worlds (old/new) by harnessing traditional materials as raw materials to evolve new forms. this will not only ensure survival, but it will also as well encourage continuity by the constant performance of the form. this is culture – a progressional phenomenon; a way of life of a people in any given time and place organized out of past experiences and adapted to present circumstances (72). culture, he stressed, changes as people strive to meet new challenges of living. although we are born into it, it is not static, it responds to time. culture may not necessarily be a return to the custom of the past but it could be the custom of the present being given birth to by the customs of the past. this is to meet with a present challenge as well as give birth to its own for future use. it is thus expedient and natural for dance to change as the people's ways of life alter, or else it becomes irrelevant to the people. dance is a reflection and reaction to people's ways of life. as earlier noted, ohogho ritual dance is a cult dance performed only by initiates. the songs, movements, and chants are sacred to the ceremony. although the need for secularization has downplayed the sacredness of the form, the content of the form such as songs, chants and movements still holds its aura of intense worship among the dancers. ohogho dance maintains a strict revolving circle when performed in a ritual context. this can be expanded to include more intricate patterns associated with secular forms of dance. the major alteration the dance has outside its ritual context is the removal of the receptacle containing the burning ritual objects, and the variation of floor patterns from the strictly circular form to other intricate patterns. the movements remain the same depending on the choice of the choreographer, the pattern to abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 153 a large extent is still much circular, except for a few serpentine patterns which are often infused at the point of exit. when secularized as it gradually is, it can still serve both sacred and entertainment needs depending on the context of the performance. when serving a sacred function, it can maintain its standard of keeping strictly to the rule. on the other hand, the entertainment function of the dance makes room for innovation in terms of varying the movements, floor patterns and the costume involved. in any case, dance occurs in present-day society as a form of entertainment but retains its usual nature of having the receptacle at the centre of the performance. plate 3: some members of secularized ohogho dancers (dressed in red) with the researcher during oba ewuare ii coronation in 2016. courtesy: the researcher conclusion dance is a significant and enduring cultural heritage. apart from serving as a means of documentation and preservation of history, it is as well an expressive and entertaining mode that features in ceremonies of life that need to be marked with one form ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 154 of dance or the other. as there exist no tangible means of documenting african dances like their western counterparts, a lot of its dances (especially the ones with ritual connotations) are constantly exposed to the dangers of extinction. so far, the best method of preserving dances lies in their constant and continuous performance. but some african ritual dances that abound due to context criteria negate this "constant" performance nature. the situation is further worsened by the influence of various external religions which question the foundation on which these dances stand. the various technological advancements also, which have so much exposed the african child to western culture, have not, so to speak, favoured these dances. to salvage an endangered culture, the form and content of some of the african ritual dances (like the ohogho) could be altered, not necessarily to erase an old form but rather to make it relevant to the present for continuity. to secularize african ritual dance is to make it a social form that is accessible to a larger audience. that is, taken it beyond the confines of its original purpose by extending it to serve entertainment functions as well. this is because most sacred dances, to some extent, restrict and or determine their audience, but the secular forms make room for a wider audience as they serve entertainment needs. why do we need to secularize these ritual dances especially those already being faced with extinction? several factors are responsible, but the primary factor is the fact that the beliefs that underlie some of these forms are no longer tenable, thereby undermining the strength and vigour they once had. this in turn affects their continuity. in its ritual context, these dances can only serve a few people. of course, that is why they are a ritual form. but when secularized, they serve a wider audience as their performance at public events promotes cultural history. dances in benin fall within the two basic categories of sacred and secular forms as mentioned above. most of the sacred dances and songs are peculiar to a ceremony and are not performed abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 155 outside their original contexts. however, this strict stance has begun to yield to the pressures of current cultural realities as some of these dances with ritual backgrounds have either yielded completely to secularization or are now serving both secular and religious functions depending on the context. the eghughuagba dance of the benin people is one such dance which have been completely stripped of its ritual forms it now serves purely entertainment function. while ohogho dance which is the subject matter of this discourse is one of the sacred dances which now serve both sacred and secular functions. this paper proposes that being an energetic dance with varied movements, this dance should be expanded in terms of its choreography for entertainment. this will encourage its patronage as well as continuous survival. the secularization of ohogho dance is thus a response to new desires and behaviours. works cited abbe, j.e. “the dance art in nigeria” in ugolo, chris (ed.) perspectives in nigerian dance studies. ibadan: caltop publishers, 2007. aisien, ekhagousa.“dances and songs of edo land” in uwaifo (ed) edo cultural voyagelagos: hanon publishers ltd. 2006. ----------- “the otu and age-grade system in old benin” in igbe (ed) from birth to death: a benin cultural voyagethird edition benin: mindex publishing co. ltd., 2017 ---------“the eho festival of the benin kingdom” in igbe (ed) from birth to death: a benin cultural voyage third edition benin: mindex publishing co. ltd., 2017. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 156 bakare, o. r. rudiments of choreography: an introduction.gaskiya corporation ltd. zaria, 1994. ----------“the contemporary choreographer in nigeria: a realistic culture preserver or a harmful distortionist” in ahmed et al (ed) critical perspectives on dance in nigeria.ibadan: kraft books ltd. 2006. ---------“dance pedagogy in nigeria” in adumati a. o. and asigbo a. c. (ed) theatre scholarship: dialogue series.a publication of society of nigeria theatre artists (sonta), october 2019. ediri, o. j. “between the physiotherapy clinic and the dance hall” in asagba (ed) nigeria theatre journal. osasu publishers, benin city, 1995, p. 122. kafewo, s. a. “cult dances in northern nigeria: an appraisal” in ahmed et al (ed) critical perspectives on dance in nigeria. ibadan: kraft books ltd. 2006. lange, roderyk. the nature of dance: an anthropological perspectives macdonald and evans ltd., london, 1975, p.5. mcfee, graham. understanding dance. routledge, london, 1992, p.112. monyeh, m. p. “dance and national development” in ugolo (ed). perspective in nigeria dance studies.ibadan: caltop publications (nigeria) ltd., 2007, p.106. ojuade, j. o. the secularization of bata dance in nigeria. retrieved 13/2/2023 from http://studylib.net osagie, j. i.“nigeria history in pre-colonial times – southern nigeria” in nzemeke and erhagbe (ed) nigeria peoples http://studylib.net/ abbe: the secularization of african ritual dance: ohogho dance of the benin… 157 and culture. 2nd edition benin: mindex publishing company ltd., 2002, p.13. royce, a. p. the anthropology of dance. london: indiana university press, 1980. tume, tosin k. african traditional dance as old wine in newskins: the nasarawa state performing troupe experience in dance journal of nigeria. a publication of the association of dance scholars and practitioners of nigeria. june 2014. ugolo, c. e. introduction to dance choreographybenin: new era publication, 1998. ---------“attitude and intention in african dance: the abane wrestling dance paradigm of igbide people” in adelugba, dapo and okhakhu (ed.) theatre arts studies: a book of readings.lagos: amfitop,2001, p.127. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 158 totemism in idoma history and culture odeh, godwin onuh, phd department of history, sokoto state university, sokoto-nigeria email: godwin.odeh@ssu.edu.ng abstract this paper examines the breakthrough in the usage of totems in reconstructing the histories of village-size chiefdoms, of which the idoma people of north central nigeria are an example. the construction of the early history of the idoma, like most ethnic nations of africa, has been made difficult due to the dearth of documentary evidence and a lack of archaeological data. this challenge becomes worrisome because of the heated debate over the utilitarian value of oral tradition as a source of history despite its worldwide recognition decades ago. the debate is yet to thoroughly simmer down. the emergence of totems as one of the methodological devices in handling pre-colonial history saves scholars of idomaextraction from the eurocentric absurdity of bastarbastardisingistories of the people as the society possesses a wide range of totems which are amenable to historical scholarship. this paper concludes that totems remained one of the oldest forms of identification of a group and therefore a veritable tool in the reconstruction of local history. introduction the idoma people occupy the broad valley of river benue in modern-day central nigeria. a plethora of academic work exists on the origins of idoma and as a result that will not be given attention in the paper. idoma has early interactions with the diverse groups that inhabit the nigerian state. one of the elements which demonstrate the idoma relationship with some nigerian ethnic groups in terms of origins, similarities and mailto:godwin.odeh@ssu.edu.ng odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 159 differences is totems. totem, therefore, where it exits is a useful instrument in the understanding of the history of preliterate people. however, studies on totems, have not been adequately exploited in writing the history of african pre-colonial society. the paper is structured into the introduction, conceptual clarifications, categories of totems, utilitarian value of totems in idoma history, usage of totems in writing local history and finally, the conclusion. conceptual clarifications totems attracted great scholarly attention in the 20th century, the flowering age of sociology and cultural anthropology. the concept is derived from ojibwa algonkian, an indian word ototeman,i meaning: brother-sister relationships. in this sociological context, the term refers to varieties of relationships including genealogical, between social groups, animals or other natural objects; a kind of relationship that had existed between man and his material environment in the process of his territorial development. totem should not be confused with an animal having a relationship with one person, whether as a guardian spirit or source of spiritual power; neither is the transformation of an individual into an animal, as in shamanistic possession by animal spirits, or supernatural owner of an animal to be designated as totems. essentially, totems connote forbiddance (iho) which could be an animal, a plant or a material object. totemism among other things refers to the theory of origins and relationship of a group of people to nature.ii for the idoma people, it is an emblem or symbol of the group’s solidarity and the contrasting identity and relations to their immediate neighbours; tivs, igala and igbo respectively. a totem may be a feared or dangerous hunted animal, an edible plant; or any staple food. totem is hedged about with taboos of avoidance or strictly restricted contact the principal contributors to the discussion on totems are: j.f. mclennan, in his first significant theoretical ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 160 work; “the worship animals and plants” published in1869 and the first comprehensive work on totems was provided by james frazer, in his work “totemism” published in1885 and republished as “totemism and exogamy” in 1910.iii categories of totems historians have identified three broad categories of totems. these are; primary or kinship type, secondary or political type and tertiary or economic totems type.ivin the understanding of totemism, a totem become primary where a social group for instance holds, owa snake totems or any other species of snakes regardless of their present geographical locations. the point is that if other groups have similar totems, it means they might have related to one another at one point. if the claim to a common ancestor or descent could be backed up with adequate genealogical connections between the various members of the groups, the owa snake totem becomes the primary totem.v this kind of totem is also referred to as the baganda system. if the members of owasnake totems, for instance, moved to another state ruled by red monkey (obagwu) totems, and as a result of political allegiance to the new rulers, adopt the red monkey totem, the obagwubecomes the secondary totem. this, on the other hand, is referred to as banyoro system.vi instances also abound where in the course of migration several unrelated groups (mixed multitudes)dwell together or take one migratory route.viithe category of totem taken by such a group is called tertiary or economic totem. some idoma and igala groups that took the same migratory route from kwararafakingdom to settle in their present locations are good examples of this kind of totem. it is against this backdrop that some idoma group traced their ancestry to the igala land because they were believed to have settled there as a bus stop during their migration before arriving and settling in their present abode. odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 161 utilitarian value of totems in idoma history among the idoma people; owuna bird, ogonopo fish,agba fish, red monkey (obagwu) black monkey (eka), owa snake, civetcat (anwu), crocodile (ikwu) and leopard (orgwu) have been identified as totemic symbols. the following presentday kindreds observe the owuna bird totems, ojentelle, ugboju, ai-oko, entekpa, orada, the royal kindred of otukpo. genealogically, each group is unrelated to others going by kinship totems. the reverence of the owuna bird totem has been largely explained in economic terms. sources have it that after the 1630s, several ethnic groups left kwararafa for the benue south. the new homeland, also called apa, was located in modern makurditowns. on their arrival, they were hosted by ugboju chiefdom whose royal totem was the owuna bird. although not asked to pay tributes in the form of rent to their host to continue holding on to their land as new immigrants that came out of kwararafa, they adopted the owuna bird totem in addition to their different kinds of totems.viii details of idoma group and their totems are furnished in a subsequent part of the paper. the question that readily comes to mind is, what is the utilitarian value of totems in studies in early history particularly, idoma? the following may serve as the answer; first, totemism as a theory of origin aid students of idoma history in the analysis of the origins of various idoma kindred groups. for instance, it was believed that the kindred group which observe the ogonopo fish totem descended from a common ancestor, ode. although geographically scattered in several settlements in idoma land, the ogonopo fish totemic group refers to themselves as ai-ode (i.e. descendent of ode, the founder of the group). ode, according to traditions lived in kwararafa, but left that cradle land c: 16251655, probably as a result of both centrifugal and the centripetal ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 162 forces from the east.ix he later founded another settlement at the mouth of rivermuin the present day makurdi. it was there he died and left behind four sons whose names are; eje, oguche, ona and ala. these four separated; with three moving towards the modern idoma land and alamoved towards the upper area of the cross river basin and founded his group.xthe other three settled separately but were later united in 1900 by the colonial administration into one division. the descendants of these three sons founded umogidi, ugbokpo and oglewu settlements in the present idoma land. secondly, studies in totems help students of idoma history to assess cultural nigeria at large in the dim past. historical evidence abounds that there was a cordial relationship between the igbirra chief and the leader of owuna bird totems group, oga between c.1625-1655. oga was noted to be interested in trade in locally manufactured cloth-opa in which igbirra, oga, was also believed to have borrowed igbirra social institution called ekwuafia. idoma historical tradition indicates that the ekwuafia was used by the igbirra people in strengthening their chiefdom against internal and external attacks. it was equally used during the installation and burial rites of their igbirra chiefdom.xi this institution was later acquired by oga, which he used in strengthening his chiefdom. over time, the ekwuafia institution and owuna bird became synonymous. third, totemism demonstrates the past social, economic and political setting a group of people, found themselves in the past. for instance, one of the characteristics of the group who once lived in ancientkwararafa is that each of the group had its primary totems. among the jukun for example, the following are identified; manatee and ahura fish, while that of the idoma are ogonopo fish, agba fish, the civet cat, black and red monkey and snails; all of which suggest the ecology in which the jukun and idoma ancestors lived and worked.xiipolitics comes in when, in the course of migration, groups come under the dominion of other odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 163 groups and out of compelling necessity and survival strategy adopted another totem which is often secondary. fourth, totems a kind of national emblem and symbol served as identification marks in the analysis of the group’s solidarity and differences. durkheim and his adherents rightly maintained that social order is primarily an assemblage of totems.xiiitotems, therefore, demonstrate the differences and the commonality between idoma, igala, tiv, igbos, yoruba, hausa and other nigerian groups. erim cited in usman and odeh, agrees with this position: … totems often provided the basis for a variety of social, economic and political links in the pre-colonial period between the various states and people which were natural predecessors of modern states in africa…it was this network of pre-colonial ties which over the centuries created a solid basis for the development of modern nationality in africa. that these nation-states today lived within ill-defined boundaries is dictated primarily by the consideration of european power politics as well as the process of ”modernization”.xiv the above underscores why a revered or feared animal and taboo are sometimes similar to those of other ethnic groups in nigeria. for instance, there are various similar food and sex prohibitions across nigerian cultures today that are indicative of nigerian unity. fifth, totemism renders obsolete the so-called pure tribe theory. although pre-colonial african historians have rejected the “pure tribe” phenomenon, it has not been easy for them to demonstrate that modern african nations are an amalgam of diverse ethnic and linguistic groups. with the emergence of totemism,pre-colonial historians have been to prove that modern african ethnic groups were created out of a multi-ethnic ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 164 community. the idoma case has shown that the various groups that today answer the name idoma, came from various sources and directions as showcased by the existence of western and eastern routes in the course of migration from the kwararafa kingdom.xv finally, totems can be used in conjunction with other sources of historical writings to generate knowledge about idomapast. in other words, when other sources are inadequate in the analysis of the past, totems may be used. based on linguistic evidence, armstrong, the idoma linguist rejects the position that idoma and jukun are ethnically related. he contends that…it must be realized that the idoma are not jukun…the two languages are related to each other only in the sense that most of the languages of southern and central nigeria are distantly related.xvi the claim to jukun-idoma common origin is further disregarded by the different totems among the two people. according to webster, none of the jukun totems are present among the idoma.xvii from available historical evidence, none of the groups in modern idoma land belongs to aputse fish totem. reliance on one source alone, therefore, is not sufficient. philips stephens jr. buttresses thus: …finally, he must use oral traditions (totems inclusive…emphasis added) as a guide for comparative research. element in traditions must be cross-checked with other traditions, with anthropological studies, with archaeological data, with results of linguistic methods such as glottochronology, and with written records.xviii the argument here is that a situation where a writer relies completely on one source, particularly the one that favours his people portends a danger to historical enterprise. thus, diverse sources should be jointly employed to have a balanced picture of the past. odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 165 totems in the writing of african local histories: example from idoma totemism is a welcome development in the writing of african local histories, whichidoma has demonstrated its usage. in east africa, primary totems mean kinship ties. from idoma experience it is obvious that primary totems connote political, social as well as economic ties. the fact remains that it is not the order in which the totem is adopted that is of historical significance, but the crucial thing is the circumstances of its adoption. the circumstances determine what is primary and what is not. besides, whatever degree of success attended the use of totems as a historical device in the reconstruction of the past, either in east or west africa, it is necessary to remind ourselves that much remains to be done in that direction. in the first place, evidence does not yet abound of systematic collection of totems over a wide area in any part of africa. as a consequence, it is difficult at this stage among idoma scholars to categorically classify crocodile totems as either primary or secondary without detailed information from other ethnic groups that once lived side by side in the kwararafa kingdom. the table below contains kindred and some totems in idoma land. table 1: totemic kindred fleeing from kwararafa between c. 15351745 s/n kindred location kingship totem political first totem second point of depart ure date of depar ture 1. adogoji oje (agatu) leopard 16251655 2. adagba (agatu) “ “ 3. abogba (agatu) “ “ ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 166 4. ai-agbo (olokam) “ “ 5. oju (oju) hawk “ bat south of idaha “ 6. osiroko (agila) snake “ “ “ 7. onwa (agila) snail “ “ “ 8. angbetta (agila) “ “ “ “ 9. angbetta (agila) “ “ “ “ 10. ogboloko (agila) “ dog lizard ankpa “ 11. idogbodo (agila) leopard “ “ 12. onyegede (onyagede) civet cat “ bird “ “ 13. ai-agbo (ichama) snail dog lizard “ “ 14. okoto (ugboju) civet cat “ “ “ “ 15. ai-oche (okpga) civet cat leopard bird “ 16551685 16. ingle (edumoga) crocodile “ snake “ “ 17. amuda (edumoga) dogs “ “ “ table 2: totemic kindred fleeing from apa i,1685-1805 s/n kindred location primary totem secondary & tertiary totems point of departure date of departu re 1. ugboju royal kindreds (ugboju) bird (owuna) civet cat (anwu) modern tiv land 2. adoka royal kindreds (adoka) black monkey (eka) “ “ 3. ologba (agatu) monkey (red & black) “ “ 4. ojigo (edumoga) crocodile “ 5. amejo & red odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 167 okonobo (edumoga) monkey phase ii 1 aku (agatu) black monkey modern tiv land 17151745 2 ooji (ochekwu) “ “ “ 3 agbaduma (agatu) crocodile “ “ 4 ai-agaji (oglewu) red monkey bird (owuna) “ “ 5 ojantelle (ochekwu) civet cat “ “ “ 6 ugboju aiomaga “ “ “ “ 7 ai-oko (olokam) “ “ “ “ 8 egba (agatu) “ “ “ “ 9 ai-ede (onyagede) “ “ “ “ 10 ajobe (ugboju) “ “ “ “ 11 agadagba (onyagede) “ “ “ “ 12 ai-agbo (ochobo) “ black monkey south of alagoland “ 1. a-onyilo (ochobo) “ “ “ “ 2. ai-agabi (ochobo) “ “ “ “ 3. ai-ogbebeche (ochobo) “ “ “ “ 4. ai-ajibo (igumale) “ “ “ “ 5. aiagboidogwu (igwumale) leopard “ modern wakari “ phase iii 1. entekpa (adoka) civet cat bird (owuna) modern tiv land 17451775 2. auke (ochekwu) “ leopard “ “ 3. okpagabi (ochekwu) “ civet cat “ “ 4. ijaha “ “ “ “ ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 168 (ochekwu) 5. umogidi (adoka) fish ogonopo civet cat “ “ 6. ugbokpo (ochekwu) “ “ “ “ 7. ijami (oglewu) “ “ “ “ 8. idabi (oglewu) “ “ “ “ 9. alaglamu (oglewu) “ “ “ “ 10. eboya (oglewu) “ “ “ “ 11. adana (oglewu) “ “ “ “ 12. akpeko (agatu) fish (agba) “ “ “ 13. ikpele (agatu) bird okohokpa “ “ “ 14. ikpari (akpa) leopard (eje) “ “ “ 15. ifu (akpa) “ “ “ “ 16. mbo (akpa) “ “ “ “ 17. ijaha (oglewu) civet cat bird owuna southern alagoland “ 18. ijaha (akpa) “ “ “ “ phase iv 1. iga (agatu) fish (agba) southern alagoland 17751805 2. iga (ochekwu) “ black monkey “ “ 3. adija (ochekwu) “ “ “ 4. ugboju (ochekwu) “ “ “ 5. ochuekwu (ochekwu) “ “ “ 6. otukpo royal kindress (otukpo) red monkey civet cat “ 7. otada (olutpo) “ “ “ 8. ataganyi (ochekwu) civet cat “ 9. akpachi (ugboju) bird civet cat “ 10. akpachi crocodile civet cat, “ odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 169 (otukpo) bird 11. ijaha (onyagede) civet cat bird (owuna) “ 12. ai-agboke (oglewu) snake (idili) “ 13. ai-oga (oglewu) “ “ “ 14. anwule (oglewu) “ “ 15. otada (otukpo) civet cat (bird owuna) “ 16. okpailo (otukpo) bird (iwele) “ 17. ajobe (otukpo) snake (idili) “ table 3:the earliest western immigrations from igala land c. 16251685 s/n kindred location kingship totem political first totem second point of depart ure date of depar ture 18. adogoji oje (agatu) leopard 16251655 19. adagba (agatu) “ “ 20. abogba (agatu) “ “ 21. ai-agbo (olokam) “ “ 22. oju (oju) hawk “ bat south of idaha “ 23. osiroko (agila) snake “ “ “ 24. onwa (agila) snail “ “ “ 25. angbetta (agila) “ “ “ “ 26. angbetta (agila) “ “ “ “ 27. ogboloko (agila) “ dog lizard ankpa “ 28. idogbodo (agila) leopard “ “ 29. onyegede (onyagede) civet cat “ bird “ “ 30. ai-agbo (ichama) snail dog lizard “ “ 31. okoto (ugboju) civet cat “ “ “ “ 32. ai-oche (okpga) civet cat leopard bird “ 16551685 33. ingle (edumoga) crocodile “ snake “ “ 34. amuda (edumoga) dogs “ “ “ ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 170 source: e.o. erim “cultural totemism and idoma pre-colonial history,”, 63-72 the tables above show varieties of totems in idoma early historical development particularly before and after migration from apa land on the one hand, and her relations with other cultural groups in the nigerian region. it demonstrates some elements of cultural, social, economic and adaptation as they tried to adjust to the realities of the time. conclusion this paper focused on the concept of totem and totemism, categories of totems in history and their utilitarian value in the pre-colonial history of africa with particular emphasis on idoma has been examined. steps towards effective utilization of totems in historical reconstruction have been suggested. the paper contends that while totemism is a welcome development in the writing of local african histories, it should not be undertaken mainly with the sole aim of legitimizing the history of one group over another. in writing a history of people like idoma for instance, an integrated approach should be adopted rather than a parochial perspective which may only cause disunity. this does not mean local differences should be suppressed but, situated within the overall context of the larger idoma society. along this line of argument, smith cautions that when writing about a precolonial period where written sources are deficient, conditional statements such as “it would appear’ or “probably” should be adopted.xix if this is adopted, contending issues in writing precolonial histories would be minimized. conclusively, therefore, totems when properly utilized assist the pre-colonial historian to destroy the myth of the “pure tribe” in african history. odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 171 endnotes iyeshua llan et al: the new encyclopedia britannica vol.11, 15th edition, london 1768, 864. ii e.o. erim: “cultural totemism and the idoma pre-colonial history” the calabar historical journal (2) 2, 1978, 56. g o.odeh,the creation of ohimini local government and its impact on okpiko clan, 1996-2006. (unpublished b.a. project, department of history, benue state university, makurdi), 2007, 33-34. iii yeshua llan et al: the new encyclopedia britannica vol.11, 15th edition, london 1768, pp. 864-865. iv e.o. erim: “oral tradition and the development of nationality” perspectives and methods of studying african history. enugu: fourth dimension publishing co. ltd, 1984, 40. v e o. erim: “cultural totemism and the idoma pre-colonial history” the calabar historical journal, 57. itodo ejembi, c90 years, an elder;interviewed at okpiko-ukpobi anyuwa, ohimini local government area of benue state on 3rd april, 2007. vi e o. erim: “cultural totemism and the idoma pre-colonial history” …. 57. vii e o. erim: “oral tradition and the development of nationality” perspectives and methods of studying african history….40. viii e o. erim: “oral tradition and the development of nationality” ….45. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 172 ix e.o. erim: the idoma nationality 1600-1900 problems in studying the origins and development of ethnicity, enugu: fourth dimension publishers 1981, e.o. erim “cultural totemism idoma pre-colonial history”, 61. x olo antayi, c80 years, an elder interviewed atukpobi-ipiga in ohimini lga on 2nd april, 2007, e.o. erim “cultural totemism and idoma pre-colonial history”… 61. xi j.i. elaigwu: “self-regulation in a traditional society: integration and orders in pre-colonial otukpo of nigeria” in benue bulletin, n.d. 13. xii t.n. tamuno (ed), “people of the niger-benue confluence” a thousand and years of west african history, ibadan: university press, 1965, 201-202. xiii o. erim: “cultural totemism and the idoma pre-colonial history”…,56. xiv a.f usman, and g.o.odeh, “when contact is not enough: issues in a century of intergroup relations in nigeria” police academy (polac) international journal of humanities and security, (1)1, (maiden edition), 2015, 84. xv r.g. armstrong: “the idoma speaking peoples” in the peoples of the niger-benue confluence, london, 1955, 97. xvi j.b. webster: “animals of the kingdom: crocodiles and hippos, manates and fishes” benue valley papers cited in e.o. erim cultural totemism and idoma pre-colonial history, 60. odeh: totemism in idoma history and culture 173 xviie.o. erim: the idoma nationality 1600-1900: problems in studying the origins and development of ethnicity, 23. xviiiz.d. goshit, “some controversial issues and problems in ngas history, plateau state” essay in honour of late dr. c.c. jacobs, presented at the benue state university, makurdi on 30th may, 2005, 3. xix r. smith, “explanation in african history: how and why” tarikh, historical method (6), 1, 1978, 9. chisimdi udoka ihentuge & nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara nollywood and fanaticism in… 151 nollywood and fanaticism in football fan base in nigeria: lessons from selected video films chisimdi udoka ihentuge theatre arts department, alvan ikoku federal college of education, owerri, imo state. e-mail: ihentugechisimdi@ yahoo.com mobile: 0803 622 8131 and nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara department of theatre and film studies nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state. e-mail: etor01@ yahoo.com phone: 0803438529 abstract sports occupy a pride of place in the life of the contemporary society. this applies to football with greater emphasis. it has also been observed that a serious negative trend has gripped football fan base in nigeria and indeed other african countries as football activities of distant countries are now rallying points for our youths to the point of fanaticism. the quantum of violence, loss of human and material resources occasioned by this negative trend is so grave with no possibility of stopping in the nearest future. it becomes more worrisome to note that this is done at great expense to the future of sports in nigeria as these youths show great apathy to the local football and other sporting activities within and around us. since the present generation is an audio-visual one, our film makers have also tried in documenting this in films as a way of curbing this trend. through a critical content analysis of selected video films, this work x-rays the contributions of nollywood, the video film industry in nigeria, in this regard. the media concept of afghanistanism and the theory of agenda setting serve as conceptual and theoretical backings. the paper concludes that much still needs to be done to curb this menace. recommended are ways parents, religious institutions, government, the academia, and, most importantly, nollywood can help ameliorate this situation. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 152 key words: fan base, fanaticism, nollywood, afghanistanism, agenda setting theory. background information the importance of sports to the human society cannot be over emphasized. sporting activities have been part of humanity from the earliest times. man utilized sports for reasons ranging from the satisfaction of his aesthetic needs, to relaxation and purposes of healthy living. hannah okediji gives some insight into the concept of sports saying sports are the various activities which man engages in from childhood to adulthood which promotes the acquisition of mental, physical, spiritual, aesthetic, emotional and educational well being to make the individual contribute meaningfully to the development of the society. sports are divided into the following categories: athletics, gymnastics, individual/dual sport, team sports, rhythms dance, martial arts and combative sports. there are other types of sports like: football, volleyball and so on (2015, p. 189). sporting activities in their early stages continued in the crude and haphazard ways of practicing them until some form of formalization were introduced. in like manner, over time some negative trends crawled into sporting activities both on the side of participants and spectators. worthy of note also is the fact that in contemporary time, the indispensability of sports to the contemporary society applies to football (soccer) with greater emphasis. and so does the impact of negative trend in sports apply to football with greater quantum. the increasing love and awareness of football as well as the growing negative trends in the game has become of serious concern to the generality of the society especially in nigeria and other african nations. every strata of the polity has shown one form of concern or the other. our audio-visual literature is not in any way left out here. nollywood, the nigerian video film industry, has ventured into passing critical comments on the fast spreading negative trends in sports orientation in nigeria. the essence of this paper is to x-ray the contributions of nollywood, the nigerian video film industry, towards the fight against this negative trend in soccer in nigeria through a critical reading of the contents of selected video films. chisimdi udoka ihentuge & nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara nollywood and fanaticism in… 153 conceptual/theoretical backings this paper is anchored on the conceptual and theoretical backings of the concept of afghanistanism, and the agenda setting theory which is also traced to tilt towards the diffusion of innovations theory. the concept and theories are inevitable in the achievement of the set objectives of this work. the concept of afghanistanism the wikipedia cites webster's third new international dictionary, (unabridged version 2002) as defining afghanistanism as “the practice of concentrating on problems in distant parts of the world while ignoring controversial local issues” (wiktionary). to the wikipedia, afghanistanism is a term, first recorded in the united states, for the practice of concentrating on problems in distant parts of the world while ignoring controversial local issues. in other contexts, the term has referred to "hopelessly arcane and irrelevant scholarship," "fascination with exotic, faraway lands... the exact origin of the concept of afghanistanism is still irreconcilably controversial. the wikipedia cites the oxford english dictionary as listing afghanistanism to be a us colloquialism and providing the first written citation to be from 1948 thus: “j. lloyd jones in probl. journalism (amer. soc. newspaper editors convention) 73, i don't wish to belabor this subject of afghanistanism, this business of taking forthright stands on elections in costa rica, while the uncollected local garbage reeks beneath the editor's window.” (n.p) continuing, the wikipedia also states that “...columnist joe klein wrote in time magazine in 2010 that the term originated in the 19th century when "the british press defined afghanistanism as the obsession with obscure foreign wars at the expense of domestic priorities.” (n.p) apology is here rendered for the use of the wikipedia here. this was occasioned by the fact that the researcher could not lay hands on other sources for more vivid discussion of the concept of afghanistanism. the wikipedia was therefore the last resort. brayton colin tries to discuss the concept of afghanistanism in the nigerian context. to him, the term afghanistanism is a word that is a bit on the creative side. he further states thus: ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 154 … the practice of writing about far-away issues while shying away from tackling the problems at home. it originally applied to editorial writing but had come to be applied to all forms of journalistic writings. dare (2000) points out that during the buhari era, commentators and analysts took to afghanistanism, writing earnestly and candidly about tyranny and human rights violations in virtually every spot on the globe except nigeria. he however added that all those other places were simply a metaphor for nigeria. afghanistanism can be as a result of fear or lack of courage. since charity should begin at home, if the mass media shy away from tackling serious local or national problems by pre-occupying themselves with harmless discussions of issues which are largely irrelevant to a majority of their audience, then the journalists who work in these media are irresponsible and unethical, failing in their duty which the society expects them to perform with courage and dedication (para. 4). the agenda setting theory the idea of this theory is said to have began much earlier before it was introduced as a media function. in 1922, walter lippman came up with a work titled public opinion in which he argued that ...people aren’t able to deal effectively with the variety and subtlety of their environments. most people are protected from their own surroundings by elites. these elites, or media representatives, interpret the motives and beliefs of politicians (cited in muin, 2011, pp. 1 2). ifeanyi ojobor summarizes lippman’s work as saying that the media help to “put pictures in our heads” (2002, p. 21). bernard cohen was to further expand this view in 1963 when he opined that “the press is significantly more than a purveyor of information and opinion. it may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling readers what to think about” (cohen, 1963, p. 13). this, says muin (2011, p. 2), “became the basis for what we now call the agenda-setting function of mass media.” agenda setting theory was formally propounded by maxwell mccombs and donald shaw and extensively discussed in their work “the agenda– setting function of the media” (1972). in a study conducted in the chapel hill, north carolina in which they interviewed registered voters during the 1968 presidential elections in the usa, they found significant chisimdi udoka ihentuge & nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara nollywood and fanaticism in… 155 relationship between pubic ordering of issues and media coverage. in the exact words of adams, harf & ford, “these two theorists saw an association between mass media and society’s opinion and as a result, theorized a cause-and-effect relationship between the power of the press and the public opinion that is known as the agenda setting theory” (n.d., p. 2). the core proposition of the agenda setting theory, according to mccombs (2005, p. 546), is that “elements prominent on the media agenda become prominent over time on the public agenda. the media not only can be successful in telling us what to think about, they also can be successful in telling us how to think about it.” having studied the political campaigns of 1968, maxwell mccombs and donald shaw arrived at a proposition that “people learn from the media what the important issues are” (mccombs & shaw, 1972, p. 176). by its agenda setting function, the media indirectly tilts towards the diffusion of innovations theory. in his book diffusion of innovation (1962), the professor of rural sociology, everett rogers, popularized the theory of the diffusion of innovations. ojobor (2002, p. 21) cites katz et al (1963) as defining diffusion as ...the process of spread of a given idea or practice, over time, via specifiable channels, through a social structure such as a neighbourhood, a factory or a tribe. similarly, melvin defleur defines diffusion as “the way in which more members take up the new item over some time span” (2010, p. 229). once an innovation is made, many years may be required for it to spread. according to little john and foss (2008, p. 322), “rogers states, in fact, that one purpose of diffusion research is to discover the means to shorten the lag.” in their work communication of innovation: a cross –cultural approach, rogers and shoemaker define innovation as ...an idea, practice or object perceived as new by an individual. it matters little, so far as human behaviour is concerned, whether or not an idea is ‘objectively’ new as measured by the lapse of time since its first use or discovery. it is the perceived or objective newness of the idea for the individual that determines his reaction to it. if the idea seems new to the individual, it is an innovation (cited in defleur, 2010, p. 229). ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 156 with the above definition, it becomes clear that ...even such common objects as a form of popular music, a clothing style, the use of lipstick, an automatic rifle, a different code for sexual behaviour, a set of religious beliefs, or even a slang term can seem to be an innovation to a person who has not encountered it before (defleur, 2010, p. 229). for an innovation to diffuse there must be awareness stage, interest stage, evaluation stage, and trial stage. hence, diffusion of innovation refers to “the pattern by which something new is taken up by members of a group or society” (defleur, 2010, p. 229). the diffusion may be by personal adoption, within group, or between groups. the rate of the adoption or diffusion depends on perception of the innovations relative advantage and its compatibility with existing values and experiences. diffusion scholars believe that the media can and should lead the people into getting aware of the existence of an innovation. from there, they get interested, make an attempt to evaluate it, give it a trial touch before making up their mind to acquire it. it should be pointed out here that there are five different types of adopters namely: (1) innovators (2) early adopters (3) early majority (4) late majority and (5) laggards. synopsis of the selected films crazy fans 1 & 2 the story of crazy fans revolves around janet (patience ozokwor) and barnabas also known as mr man u (chiwetalu agu) who runs football viewing centres individually. janet is an ardent supporter of chelsea football club and dedicates her football viewing centre to the club. hence, she is also known as madam chelsea. on the other hand, barnabas is ardent supporter of manchester united football club. he dedicates his football viewing centre to the club as a result of which he is also known as mr man u. the football viewing centres also double as beer parlours. madam janet and barnabas are arch enemies because of their fanatic support to these rival football clubs. as the film progresses, they both get information about an oncoming match between chelsea football club and manchester united football club. to attract more people to their individual stores, both of them separately organize road shows to sensitive the fans of their clubs. on the day of the match, there is great tension between the fans of the clubs in the viewing centres. as the match progressed, the generating set in mr man u’s viewing centre develops fault which forces the fans watching the tension soaked match there to chisimdi udoka ihentuge & nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara nollywood and fanaticism in… 157 relocate to madam chelsea’s viewing centre. meanwhile, chelsea football club began to trail behind the manchester united football club by two goals to one. in their frantic efforts to equalize, their rival, the manchester united football club, sealed the match by adding another goal. in their bid to celebrate the winning, fans of the manchester united football club incurred the wrath of the fans of the chelsea football club which led to the stabbing to death of a fan of manchester united football club by martins (junior pope), a fan of the rival club, chelsea football club. martin is arrested and taken away by the police to be appropriately dealt with in accordance with the laws of the land. synopsis of mr ibu the chelsea fan this film makes much use of episodic plotting. in the film, sampson (john okafor) is an ardent supporter of the chelsea football club. his wife is a supporter of the manchester united football club; while their only son, jay jay (osita iheme), is a fan of the barcelona football club. sampson wants every member of his family support the chelsea football club. he threatens his wife and son at every slight provocation to be chelsea fans or leave his house. he also threatens to stop eating any food prepared by his wife unless she becomes a fan of chelsea football club. close to a football match between chelsea football club and arsenal football club, he takes a giant goat, clothed in the jersey of chelsea football club, to a native doctor to request for the victory of chelsea football club. there, he meets two fans of the arsenal football club who also came to request for the victory of their club. because the said fans of arsenal football club came with a small fowl, the native doctor chased them away on sighting the giant goat brought by sampson. the same day, he gets home to see the wife putting on the jersey of the manchester united football club. he did not waste any time before beating her. on the day of the match, arsenal football club won chelsea football club which makes sampson angry at home to the extent of going on hunger strike. during the course of the film, sampson sacks his driver for being a fan of arsenal football club. he decides to drive the commercial bus himself only to quarrel with any passenger who supports any football club other than chelsea football club. as such, he kept loosing monies as such passengers are refunded before they are discharged. as the film progressed, we also see two beggars, musa and belle always quarrelling because each of them supports a different football club. we also see a motorcyclist who is a fan of chelsea football club refusing to carry a passenger who is a fan of arsenal football club. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 158 lessons from the selected video films two major negative trends are brought to the fore in the films above. these are fanaticism on the part of fans of various clubs, and sports betting. these two negative trends have led to violence that have consequently occasioned very have loss of human, material and man-hour resources in nigeria and indeed africa as a whole. fan violent fanaticism and criminality a number of definitions have been attempted for the concept of violence. but so far, one of the most acceptable definitions is given from the sociological point of view is by mimica, bogdanović (2007, p. 346). it states that violence encompasses all acts and activities which may be designated as the use of force or the threat of using force by the agent (offender) against the object (victim), regardless of the type of force, with the aim to directly or indirectly inflict pain or cause fear and suffering to the victim so as to place the victim’s behaviour under the control of the perpetrator of violence (cited in milojević, simonović, janković, otašević & turanjanin, 2013, p. 8). violence is criminality defined as an extreme form of aggression. it is a complex social, political, cultural, psychological and ethical phenomenon implying the use of force, threat or the abuse of power against another person. in recent times, violence has come to characterize very many aspects of human endavours including sports where it applies with double emphasis. violence-related offences in sports are considered criminal offences in some countries and are qualified as misdemeanours in other countries. in the exact words of kostić, (2008, p. 59), “violence in sports implies each word or action of a sportsperson, coach, referee, parent, spectator or other participant in a sports event, which inflicts injury on those involved in the event” (cited in milojević et al, 2013, p. 10). this is most common in contemporary time among spectators or fans. there is no specific statutory definition of fan violent criminality. yet, it’s most common understanding point to violence or disorders which involve sports fans. it is a serious social problem affecting various parts of the world. aggressive-violent activities are typical of adolescents and very young adults and mostly result in loss of property, injuries to persons, and even deaths. deserving chisimdi udoka ihentuge & nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara nollywood and fanaticism in… 159 of special attention is fan violent criminality in football. this is so because of the notable massive scale of football/soccer. football fan-violence criminality can be induced by a number of factors including the nature of football, too much emphasis on result, behaviour of players, referee decisions, behaviour of supporters of the other club, and other events taking place on the sidelines of the match. it can also be induced by betting (staking) behaviour of fans prior to the match. this will be isolated and treated under a different heading. instances of football fanviolence criminality abound in the history of football. as a social institution, football has its followers and admirers. it also has its fanatics who also strongly associate with their clubs as an extension of their own sense of personal and collective achievement and ego. hence the strong support and love for their teams with include attempts to attack perceived oppositions or obstacles. in the films under scrutiny in this paper, instances of this abound. in crazy fans, the characters of janet and barnabas are arch enemies because they are supporting two rival football clubschelsea football club and manchester united football club respectively. it got to the extent of janet refusing to give out her daughter’s hand in marriage to a suitor who is close to barnabas and by extension a fan of the manchester united football club. we also see such antagonisms among fans of other clubs including best friends such as martin and his close friend in crazy fans, as well as musa and belle in mr ibu the chelsea fan. the height of it is reached in crazy fans when a fan of manchester united football club is stabbed to death of by martins who is a fan of the rival club, chelsea football club. instances of such fan violence that have led to death abound in nigeria. umeasiegbu and agbanusi (2002) chronicled some of such in nigeria and indeed africa. in more recent times, the death of igeniwari george who was killed in mokola area of ibadan after rangers knocked out stationary stores of lagos in an fa cup in 1995. igeniwari was then a player with rangers international of enugu, and was shot by hooligans after an fa cup game against stationery stores. he later died from the gunshot injury. fresh on our minds also is the violence that followed the uefa champions league final match between manchester united football club of england and barcelona football club of spain which ended in favour of the latter team. mackey robert (2009) reports the incident thus: ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 160 ... a fan of the losing side in nigeria apparently took out his frustrations by plowing his minibus into a crowd celebrating barcelona’s victory (para. 1) reuters reports that the disappointed manchester united fan was arrested after he killed four people and injured 10 in the town of ogbo. a police spokeswoman told the news agency: “the driver had passed the crowd then made a u-turn and ran into them” (para. 2). reuters notes that both teams “have large fan bases in nigeria.” last summer, when manchester united played an exhibition game in abuja, nigeria, fans from across the country converged on the stadium, and a star player said that support for the club there was “quite unbelievable” (para. 3). in mr ibu the chelsea fan, we witness a situation where a commercial motor cyclist who is a fan of the chelsea football club refused to carry a passenger who was putting on the jersey of the arsenal football club. the major character of the film sampson is a fan of the chelsea football club while his wife is a fan of the liverpool football club and his son, jay jay, a fan of the barcelona football club. this brought various shades of confrontation in several instances in the film to the extent of sampson withdrawing his promise of financial supports to his son. the film also presents a scene where sampson sends the driver of his commercial bus parking because the driver is a fan of the arsenal football club. there is another dimension to this negative trend that is worth discussing here. it is the link between alcohol intake and violent sports fan criminality. drinking of alcoholic beverages is an activity that provokes the fans to act in a violent nature. yet, the business of football viewing (commercial showing of football) and the sale of alcohol complement each other in nigeria. it is only on few occasions does one see them exist independent of each other. the nollywood films crazy fans and mr ibu the chelsea fan contain instance to prove this point. in crazy fans, madam janet (madam chelsea) and mr barnabas (mr manu) are involved in both businesses. bottles of already consumed alcoholic drinks are also freely displayed in manners suggestive of product placements. it was an empty bottle of star larger beer in madam chelsea’s shop that martins broke to stab the manchester united fan. a major source of worry and concern is occasioned by the fact that the supporters in nigeria are making enemies among themselves for clubs playing their games in europe and other continents. a major bulk of these chisimdi udoka ihentuge & nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara nollywood and fanaticism in… 161 fans does not even know the teams playing in their domestic leagues not to talk of the players of such teams. this seriously tilts towards afghanistanism. hence, martins admonishes in crazy fans saying: on the day this incident happened, i realized that drogba, john terry, mikel, they are all there making their money. and i’m here dying for them even to the extent of taking a life… i want to tell everyone out there, every dedicated fan of any club that we all should not fail to enjoy football because it is not but a game. and in every came comes a winner and a looser. i’m sorry. i’m sorry. even the character of musa in mr ibu the chelsea fan points out the nature of afghanistanism football fan base in nigeria and other african nations saying “… football is made in heaven, played in europe and enjoyed by people in africa.” sports betting sports’ betting has become common place in the contemporary nigerian society as sports betting platforms marginally by the day. this phenomenon could be said to have started with the pool betting. betting in sporting activities come in the gambling fashion. in gambling, money or anything of material value is staked on an event with relatively uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money or material goods. in sports betting, people engage in the activity of staking money to predict sports results to win some more money if the eventual outcomes favour their prediction. generally, the probability of earning more money easily is a leading motive for the engagement in sports betting. in the films selected for this paper, we see instance of betting in sporting activities notably football. in mr ibu the chelsea fan, we see instance of sports betting in the scene where sampson abandoned his wife and jay jay their son. as the due were tracking home, jay jay had to excuse his mother to settle a bet of how many arsenal players featured in the last world cup competition. as the film progress, we are also presented with another scene where two young men came to jay jay to settle a bet of two thousand naira staked for the most successful club in england. the nastiest of the betting is seen in crazy fans between martins and his friend. martins had staked that chelsea football club will win arsenal football club. unfortunately, their stake this time is not money or any material goods but their girlfriends. and when finally, martins won the bet, he took the benefit of the bet to the last by making love to his friend’s girlfriend. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 162 conclusion it has been established in the course of this paper that sports fan violent criminality and sports betting are two negative trends that have griped sports orientation in nigeria in recent time. youths and young adults are the most affected. this has to be arrested in the best interest of this nation. the paper believes that the media can do well in curbing this menace. of the other media, the medium of film can better serve this purpose because of the pride of place it occupies in the contemporary audio-visual friendly generation. nollywood film makers should rise up to the challenge and put the sociological functions of the art to bear. yet, care must be taken in screening scenes of violence and bloodshed in such films. references adams, a., harf, a., & ford, r. (n.d.). agenda setting theory: a critique of maxwell mccombs & donald shaw’s theory. a first look at communication theory. april 20, 2016 from www.chapman. edu/ojs/index.php/mc/article/download/902/1052. brayton, colin. (2008). “afghanistanism in nigerian journalism.” accessed on 2nd may, 2017 from www.tupiwire.wordpress. com/2008/07/08/afghanistanism-in-nigerian-journalism. cohen, b.c. (1963). the press and foreign policy. princeton, nj: princeton university press. defleur, m. l. (2010) mass communication theories: explaining origins, processes and effects. new york: allyn and bacon. little john, s. w. & foss, k. a. (2008). theories of human communication (9th ed.). belmont usa: thomson. mackey, robert. (2009). “4 barcelona fans killed in nigeria.” the lede, 28th may, 2009. accessed 2nd may, 2017 from www. thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/05/28/4-barcelona-fans-killed-innigeria/comment-page-1. mccombs, m., & shaw, d. l. (1972). the agenda-setting function of the media. public opinion quarterly, vol. 36 (pp. 176 187). milojević, s., simonović, b., janković, b., otašević, b. & turanjanin, v. (2013). youth and hooliganism at sports events. belgrade, serbia: organisation for security and co-operation in europe mission to serbia. accessed on 2nd may, 2017 from www.files.ethz.ch/isn/180014/english.pdf. muin, m. j. (2011). agenda-setting theory and the role of the media in shaping public opinion for the iraq war. m. a. research paper, department of communication university of central missouri. chisimdi udoka ihentuge & nnamdi onyenonachi olekwara nollywood and fanaticism in… 163 accessed april 20, 2016 from www.ndc.gov.bd/lib_mgmt/ webroot/.../role_of_the_media_in_iraq_war.pd ojobor, i. j. (2002). “mass communication theories” in chinyere stella] okunna (ed) teaching mass communication: a multi-dimensional approach. (pp 3 – 26). enugu: new generation books. okediji, h. (2015). “the relevance of sports to the development of education in nigeria, 1904 till date.” in history research, vol. 5, no. 3, (188-196). accessed on 2nd may, 2017 from www.davidpublisher.com umeasiegbu, g. o. & agbanusi, e. c. (2002). “violence in sports: implications for national development.” in rose c. ebenebe & lilian-rita akudolu (eds) education for national development and integration (pp. 179 – 186). awka: faculty of education, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. videography andy chukwu, dir. mr ibu chelsea fan. with john okafor, andy chukwu & osita ihem. andy best production, ifeanyi anakwe, dir. crazy fans 1 & 2. with patience ozokwor, chiwetalu agu, junior pope, & diamond okechi. double edge production, 2011. nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 23 the marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria: the carnival calabar as paradigm nwadigwe, francisca a. phd department of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. email: f.nwadigwe@unizik.edu.ng abstract the economic potential of carnivals as a product of cultural tourism is immense. the cultural tourism subsector can yield substantial revenue and raise nigeria’s gdp. this research examined the marketing strategies adopted for carnivals using the carnival calabar programme as a paradigm, it explored ways of improving the status quo for optimal results. hence, philip kotler’s 7ps marketing mix was applied in interrogating the problem. the study adopted the participant observation method for primary data collection. it was found that though carnival calabar is a model in cultural tourism promotion in nigeria, the fiesta still costs the government a lot due to ineffective marketing strategies that fail to generate enough revenue from the private sector. the study recommends a policy review to give the private sector a free hand to manage and market the carnival while the government focuses more on making supportive policies and creating an enabling environment for the cultural sector to grow. it concludes that if the present marketing structure is decentralized and revised to apply the 7ps marketing mix and “push and pull” concept, calabar carnival would actualize its potential as an economic resource for the people and their government. introduction: the carnival and marketing objectives the carnival is not only a theatrical and cultural event but equally a product. however, theatre scholars often concentrate on ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 24 the costumes, visual designs and aesthetic spectacle that characterize the carnival presentation and give less research attention to the marketing of carnival as an artistic product. indeed, marketing this cultural product requires many creative approaches. the cardinal factor to be noted in this regard by the promoters is the need for adequate planning. developing a marketing plan for the carnival event requires proper marketing research and application of the marketing mix to achieve effective results (kotler 25). following global best practices, carnival producers often make some initial investments to enhance the marketing project. this includes funding for market research, publicity and promotions, public relations, opening and maintenance of sales outlets outside the carnival destination (liaison offices), security arrangements and audience engineering approaches. these measures will constitute part of the unique selling points of the carnival product. professional carnival marketers usually develop a marketing strategy based on their knowledge of their target consumers. this will be shaped by the results obtained from their thorough market surveys or audience research. the application of the marketing mix helps the carnival production team to strategize and put their product at the right place, time, and price. according to philip kotler, a marketing mix is a powerful tool that is hinged on a seven-p (7ps) pedestal. these 7ps often associated with marketing in the service industry are “product, price, place, promotion, people, process and physical evidence” (9). the carnival event falls within the service industrial subsector but its unique appeal is that consumers do not pay directly to the producers. on the other hand, the consumers pay indirectly for the product and the value is spread across various sectors and ancillary service providers in both public and private sectors. some of the dividends are immediate such as payment for goods purchased and services enjoyed during the carnival nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 25 programme. but some of the gains are indirect and take some time to materialize, such as new business investments, bilateral trade agreements and subsequent employment of people in the tourism/carnival destination community. the marketing mix can be applied to carnival marketing as follows. product in applying the 7ps marketing mix to carnival marketing, the producers could first consider the product; the carnival performance itself, and ensure that it is properly packaged and has qualitative content enough to attract tourists and give them value for their money. kotler observes that there is nothing more frustrating and counterproductive than trying to market a bad product. in one of his famous quotes reprinted on the cover of his book, kotler explains that: marketing is not the art of finding clever ways to dispose of what you make. marketing is the art of creating genuine customer value. it is the art of helping your customer become better off. the marketer’s watchwords are quality, service and value. (cover page) following this principle, product patronage is expected to add value and be sustainable. price on the factor of price, the carnival marketers could focus on support services in the host city to reduce the cost of visitors’ stay and participation in the carnival programmes. for instance, if transportation, accommodation, food and souvenirs are available, accessible and affordable in the host locality, then the carnival has the potential of attracting more tourists. the combination and application of the marketing mix would expectedly enhance the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 26 patronage of the carnival product at the right price, particularly from international customers. place the place is the location of the service being marketed. the carnival host city or environment will need to be part of the marketing campaign. the carnival destination should be easily accessed through air, rail, road, and water transportation where possible and at affordable costs. according to stephen page, tourism officials often overlook “the contribution of economics and geography to the analysis of tourism transport”. similarly, practitioners including researchers do not often see and analyze the link between tourist transport and marketing. page thus observes that “in the case of marketing, the number of studies focused on tourist transport is limited because there is a tendency for marketing to be more visible and result-oriented than based on the impact of transportation or academic analysis of good practice” (61). on their part, horner and swarbrooke affirm that: the diversity of transport modes used in tourism (i.e. air, rail, water, road and off-road transport) makes it difficult to generalize about transport and marketing. this is further complicated by the private, public and voluntary sector organizations involved in transport for tourism that all have different marketing objectives. (319) therefore, even though the transportation is controlled by various operators, it should still be considered as part of the carnival package because good and affordable access to the carnival venues is a selling point. following the “push and pull” concept of tourism as advanced by crompton, transportation consideration is vital in attracting tourists to a place and can be one of the “pull factors” that should be exploited in marketing the nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 27 carnival event (411). since a venue can make the event, the carnival place itself should be clean, safe and attractive to tourists. promotion promotion is at the heart of marketing. this will involve various techniques of direct and indirect advertising campaigns using traditional and new media channels such as print, radio, television, and social media as well as other internet-based platforms to promote the carnival event. page observes that tourism promotion generally can be situated midway between advertising, public relations and propaganda. since “promotional material and advertising campaigns constitute a major investment in time, money and creative thinking, with companies reluctant to highlight good practice that might undermine their future business potential, the tourism marketers combine different advertising and promotional techniques to highlight their selling points and mask their challenges” (62). people a carnival event is about people and their cultural productions and heritage. thus, marketing a carnival product is not merely the promotion of a cultural event located at a place but also the projecting of the people and their positive values as part of that cultural fiesta. the carnival marketers could focus on the positive attributes of the local communities, their proud history, heritage, hospitality, unique traditions, peaceful disposition and warm reception of visitors. this is complemented by an attitudinal reorientation programmed for the people to adopt friendly attitudes towards visitors, especially during the carnival period. process the process of the carnival can also be built into the overall marketing strategy, beginning from the planning meetings and workshops, media interactive programmes, the stages of the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 28 rehearsals, costume design and production processes, the processional dry runs and the launch of the programme of activities before the opening day. each stage of the carnival programme and production process offers a diversity of materials to marketers with immense potential for promoting the event and stimulating the artistic appetite of potential tourists. physical evidence physical evidence is the root of marketing in the service industry because it provides the conviction required by potential patrons to use the service. unlike products which could be distributed, tested and confirmed in different parts of the world, the service industry needs the patron to visit the location and use the service. the physical evidence of the carnival marketing campaign lies in the testimonial techniques. this should focus on the testimony of different tourists from various regions, countries and cultures who have visited, participated in the carnival programmes and are not only satisfied but willing and eager to visit again. therefore, marketing the carnival event is not only about securing funding partners and service support agencies; it is mainly about making the event an attractive brand that will yield returns on investments. marketing the calabar carnival the calabar carnival is a programme of artistic and cultural activities that are hosted in the city of calabar, cross river state, nigeria. the event takes place in december, lasting for one month, and culminating in the main carnival event, tagged “street party” which features a procession of hundreds of performers, drawn from five major bands, dressed in colourful, magnificent and peculiar costumes accompanied with music and dance (odigha 8). the calabar carnival has become an annual programme since 2004, managed by the calabar carnival commission with the support of other government agencies in cross river state. nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 29 although the five official bands are responsible for raising funds and managing their participation and activities, it is the carnival commission that manages the entire programme with the executive secretary of the commission serving as the director. the commission is primarily responsible for marketing the carnival events, raising funds, supporting the bands, setting rules and standards, negotiating sponsorship and entering into partnership agreements with various local and international groups and agencies. over the years, the carnival commission has adopted a marketing policy and pattern which focuses on steadily increasing the involvement of the private sector in funding the programme and attracting more international partners and participants by increasing the global media visibility of the events through promotional strategies. the idea was to reduce the financial burden on the state government which had been a major financier of the programme since inception. the cardinal marketing policy of the commission is to treat carnival calabar as a brand, a product that will be patronized by individuals, agencies and corporate organizations and thus yield dividends in different ways. the government believes that the carnival is the property of cross river people hence the dividends obtainable from the programme should primarily circulate among the citizens in different ways such as youth empowerment, increased return on private investments, employment opportunities, and increased sales and higher turnover in the patronage of goods and services offered by residents. a marketing objective of the commission is to reduce the amount of taxpayers’ money that goes into the running of the carnival programme. in addition, the carnival is projected to attract foreign and local investors to boost the economy of the state to the benefit of the people. the commission, therefore, focuses on selling the carnival to corporate organisations who take up sponsorship deals in return for publicity and patronage of their ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 30 products and services by the public. as a project of the state government, the underlying idea is that its patronage and sponsorship by the corporate establishments will also bring the sponsors some goodwill and enhance their chances of doing business with the government. critical perspectives a critical evaluation of the carnival calabar marketing policy shows some shortcomings which affect their ultimate impact on the creative industry and the local people. the ideal marketing objective should have been to move the carnival away from government bureaucratic control and make it private-sector driven. the commission is an agency of the state and still relies on the government for many things, including funds. as a product, the carnival should be a marketable brand and the programme should be self-sustaining. even though the bands are funded by private sources, including the procurement of their costumes and accessories which is capital intensive, the commission struggles yearly to raise funds to run the carnival programmes. hence, the government often comes in to assist by mandating different agencies of the state to offer their services free to enable the carnival to survive. many of these agencies such as crbc, cultural centre board, calabar municipal and all local government councils, clean and green agency, state tourism board, and others, including security agencies, will still need the assistance of the government to be able to deliver the required services during the carnival period. the pricing of the carnival product is also another challenge in its marketing approach. since the product is intangible, the marketers do not have a standard value for each prospective sponsor. the amount of publicity given to all sponsors is virtually the same, despite the amounts they contributed. the only difference is that such companies like dangote group and first bank plc are regarded as “major” sponsors for the year but their nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 31 company flags, logos and billboards are displayed alongside other “minor” sponsors. from business analysis, this may not encourage future investment as investors usually analyze the actual and potential returns on investments before committing funds in future. the only difference between the “major” and “minor” sponsors is in the potential recognition and patronage which such “major” sponsors could get from the state government in future. there should be a clear difference in the publicity and business deals offered to major and minor sponsors to encourage investors. furthermore, the partnerships should have a value to the commission which can be monetized and thereby reducible to specific amounts. but at present, the carnival commission’s foreign partners constitute some financial strain to the establishment. the commission has to raise money and pay them for their services, often in foreign currency, then pay for their flight tickets, accommodation and daily maintenance when they arrive. but, if the relationship is a “partnership”, and not patronage, it raises a question about what the partners are giving the commission in return. the marketers of the carnival will need to analyze the financial implications of their partnerships and work towards a better deal that will bring in foreign investment as well. it was expected that the local professionals would take over from the foreign partners after a few years of mentorship, to save costs but this has not happened yet. the reputation of calabar, the venue of the carnival, as a clean, safe, serene and hospitable city has endured over the years even before the carnival programme was initiated. indeed, it appears the carnival benefits from this status and image of calabar city. hence, the marketers have not done much to sell the city. it was expected that marketing deals could have been explored with airlines, road transport companies, and inland waterways to offer special services during the carnival period and add value and additional attraction to the event. at present, these organizations ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 32 merely make profits from the carnival event due to increased patronage but do not give something back to support the event. the carnival commission has put in place, a network of promotional activities to market the carnival to investors and tourists. this ranges from direct advertising to public relations and product promotions using the traditional mass media, satellite television channels, carnival website, tourism board website, press agentry and associated publicity strategies. the objective is to keep the carnival alive in the minds of target audiences all through the year. the promotional activities heighten and reach a peak in the last quarter of the year. however, field observations show that the promotional activities for the carnival are virtually inactive until the last quarter when they are activated using the carnival theme launch, which is a media event, as a springboard. the promotions are gradually increased as december approaches. this faulty marketing strategy may be attributed to insufficient funds. throsby emphasized the economic importance and implications of planning and early decision-making for tourists before choosing a tourist destination to visit (12). the carnival promotion should be active on primetime television all through the year, to keep them in the consciousness of the target tourists to enable them to plan towards patronizing the brand. it was also observed that the promoters are not using frontline satellite television channels like cnn, bbc and aljazeera for a wider global audience reach which will attract more international tourists and potential investors. this is the norm across many countries in the world that market their tourism potential. the people of cross river state, as the hosts of carnival calabar, regard the fiesta with some pride due to its relative success and popularity. but the marketing strategies for the carnival should also focus on youth empowerment to give the people sustainable livelihood all through the year rather than targeting bumper sales during the carnival period only. the marketing strategy should aim nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 33 at binding foreign partners from alienating the local community but to localize and domesticate their expertise and technology to enable the local people such as artisans, designers and other creative artists to become more involved in the carnival productions. indeed: african carnival executives could where necessary, hire the services of foreign experts to teach new or emerging technologies to local designers. the indigenous designers can then teach the skills and techniques to others. this trainthe-trainers approach will engender sustainability in the industry, develop the local human capital and save the muchneeded foreign exchange which can then be ploughed back into other sectors of the creative industry. (nwadigwe and nwadigwe 57) in this regard, the marketing campaign for the carnival would include selling the indigenous creativity, productive endeavour and artistic heritage of the local people thereby enabling them to take full ownership of the carnival. a cultural product does not exist in isolation. it is a part of the people that create it, their identity and heritage. hence, marketing a carnival is invariably marketing the host city and its people who all together make the carnival fiesta brand by creating a warm and friendly atmosphere for visitors. the tourist can thereafter go back to testify that they had a great experience at the carnival. this becomes a credible testimonial and a strong selling point to market the carnival to others. it is the physical evidence that customers need to convince them to patronize a product or service in future. policy directions the staging of a carnival is capital-intensive and therefore requires a sustainable funding structure to thrive. as an annual event, there are always some expectations that each year’s production should equal or surpass that of the previous year in ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 34 terms of glamour, creativity, attendance and organizational standard. this requires more work in aggressive marketing, increased funding and prudent management of resources. carnival programmes across the globe are predominantly private-sector driven. governments cannot sustainably carry the funding responsibility every year without a serious impact on their statutory duties to their citizens given competing demands in other sectors of the economy. this is a major reason why some state governments in nigeria were unable to sustain or even launch their carnival programmes despite their lofty objectives and attractive concepts. a government that is struggling to pay workers’ salaries can hardly consider the funding of carnivals as a priority. there is therefore the need for policy directions and refocusing to give the private sector the job of managing the carnival while the government focuses on making supportive policies and creating the enabling environment for the cultural sector to grow. even in situations where a public–private partnership exists, the government should not go into yearly funding of carnivals, especially in developing countries where resources are lean and the political climate unstable. the danger is that it may not be sustainable because if subsequent governments fail to finance the carnival project, the programme will fold up, to the detriment of practitioners in the industry. the calabar carnival needs competent and creative marketers who must set high targets that will be pursued aggressively. the present marketing structure, concentrated on okhma global limited which is the official marketing company for the carnival, is not quite effective. hence the commission keeps going to the state government to bail them out financially. a revised funding policy is required to make the carnival selfsustaining and yield profits in due course. the commission should rethink the monopoly of okhma global limited and decentralize the marketing structure. one way to achieve this is by breaking the carnival programme into segments and inviting other marketers to nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 35 come into the programme through a transparent bidding process. with different companies marketing the various segments and events of the programme, there will be healthy competition among them and this will likely produce better results for the commission. in doing this, marketing team(s) should seriously consider applying the 7ps marketing mix which gets good results in service industries. the partnership agreements being entered into by the carnival commission should ideally be part of the marketing strategies. hence, it should give profitable deals to the commission rather than draining its resources. the foreign partners should, as a clause in the agreements, train local artists, producers and managers over a specified period to develop their skills to become experts and self-reliant. this will in the future yield significant dividends by saving the huge funds being spent on foreign partners every year as well as empowering the local people sustainably. this model is also suggested for the bands that still import their costumes, accessories and designers either from abroad or outside the state. it is a welcome development that some new bands such as calasvegas are coming into the carnival calabar programme but they should focus their marketing strategies on creating homegrown models and continue to build the capacity of local designers, artists and artisans to make their skills marketable beyond the carnival season. the new marketing policy being suggested for carnival calabar should explore the possibility of exploiting local resources in production designs and service delivery. for instance, local transport operators can be brought in to give special services to registered tourists at a reduced cost. such tourists may need to pay, register online and get slips or numbered tags for easy identification on arrival. this strategy can be extended to airlines, inter-state transporters and city shuttles. the ease of movement will not only attract more visitors but yield additional revenue for the commission through a percentage-sharing formula. it equally ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 36 makes the local people feel proud as part owners of the carnival fiesta. the commission is currently diversifying the programmes of the carnival such as introducing the food fair, bikers festival and old skool costume parade. this is a step in the right direction. but the commission and its marketers should also explore the opportunities that abound in the aquatic entertainment subsector. calabar is a coastal city with abundant water resources such as creeks, rivers, harbour and the atlantic ocean. the waterfronts can be exploited to introduce aquatic events such as boat regattas, pleasure cruises for tourists, swimming competitions, and seafood bazaars. globally, the water-based funfair is known to attract a lot of foreign tourists and calabar has immense potential in that regard. smith affirms that the “diversification of tourism products” ultimately leads to “an increase in demand for cultural activities, which are becoming an integral part of the visitor experience” (207). such diversification would increase the “pull factors” and revenue generation capacity of carnival calabar. the marketers will need to extend their media promotional campaigns to the frontline global media such as aljazeera, bbc and cnn. this will help immensely to pull more international tourists to the event. relying on the website and internet blogs may not get the results for international visitors because nigeria still ranks low on the global and even the african tourism destination index. foreign tourists usually rely on international ratings in the industry to make decisions about their vacation destinations. a country like malaysia had a similar campaign on cnn for a long period. today, malaysia has become a choice destination for cultural, business and academic tourism. the internet platforms can only support the international satellite television media in this competitive quest to capture international tourists. nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 37 conclusion globally, cultural tourism has become a significant economic resource that adds substantial inputs to a country’s gdp. the carnival remains a crowd-puller and revenue-generating resource for various sectors of the economy (apeh 148). nigeria and other developing nations can tap from this resource to support their national economy, tackle unemployment and promote their identity and heritage (endong 13). nigeria needs this diversification because of its economic challenges amid enormous cultural and tourism resources as well as the dwindling and unstable oil revenue in the global market. to achieve this, the management of the carnival calabar and other carnival programmes in nigeria will need to transform their marketing policies using professional marketing outfits and adopting innovative mixes and strategies for effective results. the cross river state government has set a good example in promoting cultural tourism in africa. but this is having a considerable strain on the government treasury because the marketers are not raising enough funding and sponsorship deals to meet the growing needs of the yearly fiesta. the bands are already self-supporting and private-sector driven, thereby substantially removing government expenses on them unlike the case when the carnival was at an early stage of development. the private sector initiative should be extended to the carnival management. the carnival calabar remains a model for arts and cultural promotion in nigeria. the project should therefore be supported and sustained through policy frameworks and private sector participation. at present, the carnival has assumed political relevance in cross river state. due to its popularity, successive governments in the state have been using it to win votes from the electorate. this is one of the key reasons why the governments have continued to finance it despite their lean resources having lost much of their oil wells to a neighbouring state which reduced their capital allocations from the federation account. but if a ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 38 government decides to withdraw funding in future, the carnival may not survive. therefore, the carnival commission must assume some autonomy and set up an effective and result-oriented management structure devoid of the current civil service laxity and bureaucracy. they can then launch an aggressive marketing programme as a private sector and profit-oriented agency, using different marketing outfits to market various segments of the fiesta, to take the carnival to greater heights without depleting the government treasury. marketing strategies are constantly informed by consumer behaviour. the managers need to routinely conduct consumer behaviour research and apply creative techniques to audience engineering to achieve better results. it will be useful for the marketers to consider the “push and pull factors” in tourism promotion as advocated by john crompton and focus their marketing campaigns in the direction of the “pull factors” applying kotler’s 7ps marketing mix in innovative ways for better results. the carnival calabar is promoting jobs and supports the livelihoods of many artists and the general public in the host community and beyond. it is a big boost to the local creative industry. efforts should be made to sustain the product given economic uncertainties in the country and its potential impact on government funding and patronage of the culture and creative industries. works cited apeh, columba. sociology of tourism, carnival and processional arts in nigeria. calabar: university of calabar press, 2017. crompton, j.l. “motivations to pleasure vacation” annals of tourism research 6:4 (1979): 408-424 nwadigwe: marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in nigeria… 39 ending, patrick f., “nigerianness versus foreignness in calabar festival and carnival calabar”. international journal of english, literature and social science 2:3 (2017): 4-15. horner, s. and swarbrooke, j. marketing tourism, hospitality and leisure in europe. london: international thomson business press, 1996. kotler, philip. marketing management: analysis, planning, implementation and control (6th edition) new jersey: prentice-hall, 2016. smith, melanie. issues in cultural tourism. london: routledge, 2009. nwadigwe, f. and nwadigwe, c. “design, technology and human capital: exploring the paradigm shift in contemporary nigerian carnival performance”. african performance review 8:2 (2016): 44-60. odigha, glory. carnival calabar preview 2012. calabar: cross river state carnival commission, 2012. page, stephen j. transport and tourism: global perspectives. essex: pearson educational ltd, 2005. throsby, david. the economics of cultural policy. cambridge: university press, 2010. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 40 greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between drama and human ecology uzoji, emmanuel ebere department of performing arts and film studies lead city university, ibadan, oyo state. emmnaauelebere@yahoo.com abstract the earth is in peril. climate change, plagues, conflicts, environmental degradation and drought now stares the human race in the face. over the years, changes in climatic conditions have intensified a near-desperate quest to salvage the remnant of humanity from the now-existent eco-crisis. this paper investigates the relevance of literary drama to the eco-challenges of subsaharan africa. the objective of this study is to x-ray the thematic importance of arnold udoka’s inyene in the discourse of ecology and the environmental crisis now confronting nigeria. the paper finds this dramatic text as one of such literary discourses that interface with a scientific phenomenon such as ecology. it thus recommends that the subject of ecology and the crisis of the environment needs to be re-evaluated to embrace the contributions of the arts, especially drama. keywords: ecopedagogy, ecocriticism, drama, conflict and ecology climate change, global warming, ozone depletion – all these have become popular clichés that have characterized various global summits aimed at confronting the environmental challenges of the 21st century. nations of the earth have risen in one testament – the earth’s charter to forge a common cause aimed at addressing mailto:emmnaauelebere@yahoo.com uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 41 a reality that stares all in the face – a human race under peril due to the absolute disregard for nature. the first paragraph of that document reads: we stand at a critical moment in earth’s history, a time when humanity must choose its future. as the world becomes increasingly interdependent and fragile, the future at once holds great peril and great promise. to move forward we must recognize that amid a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms, we are one human family and one earth community with a common destiny. we must stand together to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice and a culture of peace. towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of earth, declare our responsibility to one another, to the greater community of life, and future generations (echarter.org). natural and man-made disasters of catastrophic magnitude now ravage the entire globe. from flash floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, forest fires, drought, hurricanes, erosions, desert encroachments, air and water pollution, and oil spills, every part of the earth shares one sad story or the other. in africa, humans have to grapple with the twin devils of both natural and man-made disasters as well as conflicts and their attendant natural consequences of hunger, destitution, disease and poverty. amidst these realities is the question of the role of drama in addressing the ecological concerns of the earth. as stated by chauduri, ecological victory will require a transvaluation so profound as to be nearly unimaginable at present and the arts and humanities, including drama, must play a role (25). mckibben equally adds his voice to this believing that playwrights, poets and artists need to create works which will place climate change deeply ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 42 in the imagination (ashdendirectory.org.uk). drama holds the power to help us see “something about ourselves” by touching some parts of our identity construct. theatre is life – a reflection of who we are and what we do. humans cannot be disconnected from the environment and hence, theatre needs and ought to reveal the common reality of the earth – the home of all human beings. this is more apt as “our human identity and the identification of what we refer to as nature, are now forever intertwined and dependent upon one another” (mckibben, 11). the green theatre theory to understand the relationship between theatre and nature one must first refigure the relationships between ‘culture’ and ‘nature’ that all humans inevitably inherit. modernist traditions of european ‘enlightenment’ pitched nature and culture, ‘man’ and the environment against each other in what kershaw says has turned out to be a potentially disastrous opposition (12). nature is human and humanity forms the whole ensemble that nature represents. since theatre is life, then it only amounts to the fact that all human life is theatricalised and dramatised, including, crucially, its interactions with other species and the environment. the performance paradigm was thus a major generative force of an age of ecology that emerged in the final five decades of the second millennium (kershaw, 14). the concept of the “green theatre” is such that is shrouded in a lot of complexities because the word “green” is not easily collocated. the green terminology spans several disciplines from medicine to politics. we have heard of the word – the british green party, green capitalism, green consumerism, green theory, green socialists, green ecology, greenpeace, green shirts, the german green party, the american green party, the green economy, etc. however, the concept of ‘green’ today has developed into a universally understood notion that non-human nature is given uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 43 status, and that to protect it, the concept/ideology has come to include socio-political ideology. the traditional green theory includes a critique of growth, environmental concern, scientific ecology, philosophical holism and the granting of status to nonhuman nature (wall 29). wall in his study reveals that in seeking to solve environmental problems, “greens” have been forced to consider human affairs and embrace a set of political, economic, and cultural principles. “any description of green demands an exploration of approaches to human society. solving perceived ecological problems undoubtedly demands a transformation of attitudes and institutions” (wall 29). the world’s economy as its stands today is largely driven by forces that put both man and nature in peril. gaseous emissions from industries and exploitation of forest reserves can only be checked by an absolute change of not only attitudes but also of institutions that perpetuate this trend. green theorist schnaiberg supports this crucial element by reminding us that “all environmental problems are social problems regarding both their causes and effects” (17). based on the foregoing, we can safely state that the contemporary green movement is not only an environmental movement but also a socio-political movement. heinlein’s study of proto-environmental performances in contemporary western theatre traced the history of this movement to the summer of 1962 when marine biologist rachel carson, previously a noted author of marine life books, stated the following: as man proceeds toward his announced goal of the conquest of nature, he has written a depressing record of destruction, directed not only against the earth he inhabits but the life that shares it with him. the history of the recent centuries has its black environment passages. now to these and others like them, we are adding a new chapter and a new kind of havoc, the question is whether any civilization can wage such relentless war on life without destroying ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 44 itself, and without losing the right to be called civilized (sale, 3). today, more than fifty years after, the world is stunned by the truth of carson’s prediction. humans now turned predators are preying on their kind as conflicts ravage the entire globe. the quest for life’s natural resources has been a major catalyst for war and other genocidal killings especially in africa not to mention the complete disregard for the environment in the wake of the continued plunder of natural resources. no doubt the state of affairs calls for a social revolution and drama is one tool for such a revolution. the socio-theatrical work of augusto boal – theatre of the oppressed puts him as the philosophical forerunner to contemporary green theatre. boal validates performance as a weapon for social revolution, a means by which identity can be initiated (14). contemporary green practitioners have always sought revolutionary change not only in behaviour but also in the structures that give ambivalence to nature and the whole concept of safe earth. green theatre, therefore, presupposes a performance that is socially relevant and maintains its efficiency as a tool for creating widespread socio-ecological change (heinlein 25). for gare, the world lacks stories or narratives of sufficient power and complexity to orient people for effective action to overcome environmental problems and to relate the multiplicity of social and cultural forms implicated in or affected by environmental destruction. though, environmental problems are global yet there is a need to formulate stories, craft performances and write plays about the lives of people and the history of societies in terms that gare says will enable them to be understood in the context of and as part of nature (45). the environmental challenge in many parts of the third world especially africa is not the same in developed nations. gare’s argument that global capitalism dominated by transnational corporations and financial institutions, uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 45 and controlled by a new international bourgeoisie has exposed some of the most basic cultural structures on which western european civilization in general and modernity in particular have been based is quite timely (114). if this is the case, then there is a need for a new kind of civilization – a green civilization that is not only trans-historically and culturally relevant but also challenges this global hegemonic culture of transnationalization. this challenge can only be met when people are oriented in practice and in their daily lives to pursue the pathway of creating an environmentally sustainable civilization and drama as stated earlier is one such weapon that has the potential to meet this challenge. already, there are contradictions in the global quest to solve the world’s eco-crisis. the concept of sustainable development seems to globalize environmental problems and consequently implies that only global solutions should be sought for ‘local’ ecoproblems. this partly explains the seeming eco-hesitation by african critics of the global eco-crisis as conceptualized by the west. africa today stands on the wrong side of the divide in the futile attempt to globalize the eco-crisis. while the continent continues to writhe in pain of the worst kind owing to a degenerating environment orchestrated by decades of exploitation of natural resources to fuel developed economies, increasing poverty has no doubt exacerbated bloody conflicts, genocide and terrorism. this trend no doubt puts respect for life and nature in utter disregard. maathai wangari, a renowned african environmental activist was awarded the nobel prize for peace in recognition of her efforts to halt deforestation in kenya. for her, “peace on earth depends on our ability to secure our living environment” (http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/contemporary-01.html). she was arrested and jailed severally by kenyan authorities for her doggedness in challenging the very institutions that encouraged the continued plundering of kenya’s forest reserves. it is quite ironic that in africa, those who challenged the forces that perpetuate ecoama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 46 degradation have been met with stiff opposition. nigeria also shares a similar story in ken saro wiwa who was summarily executed alongside eight others by the then military authorities for daring to challenge the continued devastation of the niger delta ecosystem by oil merchants. since then, this region which holds the key to nigeria’s survival has not known peace. african efforts at sustainable development have been targeted at fighting poverty by enriching scarce resources. for africa, the only way to guarantee peace which is one of the goals of sustainable development is by meeting the needs of the current generations without jeopardizing the needs of future generations. this was the motivation for wangari when she founded the green belt movement which succeeded in planting 30 million trees to halt deforestation in kenya. for her, “people are fighting over water, over food and other natural resources. when our resources become scarce, we fight over them. in managing our resources and in sustainable development, we plant the seeds of peace” (http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/contemporary-01.html). glover’s analysis of escobar’s work captures the current contraptions of sustainable development which he says are: 1) a ‘saving the world mentality’, which promotes the global at the expense of the local; 2) a belief that the world’s poor create environmental problems, but which ignores how capitalism creates poverty in the first place; 3) a faith that capitalism’s market structures can resolve ecological problems (54). to overturn these structures and engender a pathway for development that is africafriendly, drama is and should be seen to be at the forefront to secure an environment of peace that guarantees the well-being of all peoples of the earth. a brief synopsis of arnold udoka’s iyene inyene – an annang word for wealth is used as a metaphor for the abject poverty amid plenty (rich country, poor people) that has become the lot of the niger delta. the play which is a dance uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 47 drama explores the lack of sensitivity to the environment which lays the golden egg, the neglect of corporate social responsibility and the breeding of a culture of vulturism. there is also a depiction of the futility of violence and other strategies which undermine the search for peace in the region. the play calls for restraint and understanding on the part of the multinational corporations, and the compassionate intervention of the educated elite amongst niger deltans to resolve the knotty issues. inyene is also a token of hope, a prophecy that the people’s wealth would be truly theirs someday soon. the play centres on inyene, who was born in a riverine environment but left for the city to become a successful businessman who later returns to assist his people. he comes home to bawkeng only to find that many of his kinsmen and women have either died due to confrontations with oil merchants or diseases arising from the effects of environmental pollution. preba, one of the women who challenges the guards of the oil expatriates is shot in one of the many protests by the people. however, inyene has a different idea. he initiates a dialogue with the oil merchant, adam smith and this move pays off as the people can reach a mutual agreement on how to end the conflicts and halt further pollution of the environment. the play ends with adam’s workers emerging with all sorts of cleaning equipment to sanitize the environment. using the leafy branches in their possession, the women and the men join in cleaning up the environment. adam walks up to the gas flaring pit and turns it off. with the aid of the workers, he connects the gas flaring pit to several cylinders. eco-issues in the play from the play, four typical issues are identified as common sights of eco-degradation in the niger delta. they are gas flaring, soiled fishing nets, oil spillage and conflicts between natives and oil industries. the flaring of gas in the niger delta has continued ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 48 unabatedly for several decades. apart from the huge economic loss to the nigerian state, it has impacted heavily on the quality of air in that region. the people’s livelihood is tied to the environment and when the waters are soiled with oil, their means of survival and collective well-being are cut off. oil spillages are now a common occurrence in the niger delta and on each occasion, the devastation brought to both land and water-dependent animals is quite considerable. one of the characters in the play – the priest encapsulates the importance of the environment to the people thus: for all these, our gods and ancestors, we are grateful. let the rain come in its season. and let the sunshine in its season. and our waters; may they continue to bear all manner of water animals. and may the fishes they bear not tear our nets. may these waters continue to run free to our shores and keep our swamps green in peace all year round (2). the ideal is what the priest prayed for. the niger delta is rich in seafood and other water resources. the ideal niger delta environment is ever-green and the tranquil nature of the fields makes it a peaceful habitat both for humans and animals. the ambience of its forests, waters, creeks and canals resonates with the sound of eco-wealth but all of these are now threatened due to the exploitation and other oil-related activities since pre-colonial times. the priest in the play captures the impact of ecological disasters now plaguing the niger delta thus: we were very happy people until one day, a strange and violent tide swept from the depth of the ocean to our shores. none of us knew what type of dam to build to stem that tide. its winds were so destructive that even the ramparts of our shores were blown away. where then do i as a priest appease our gods? in the water or the land? it is now a curse uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 49 to claim bawkeng as a homeland. the pain in our souls degenerated into fear, indignation, poverty and death. who invoked this despoliation on our land? who? in bawkeng that strange and violent wind changed us to the proverbial rich land with poor people…(23). in the play, we also see the height of impunity and indifference to the plight of the local natives. oil spills have just been discovered to have littered the entire community and all the oil merchants care about is the profit. the conversation between the foreman, the workers and the engineer reveals the intent of such exploitations and displays the global hegemonic economy which prefers profit above any other humane consideration. foreman: master, master there is a mistake the oil is flowing but on the ground. on the water and the farmland workers: there’s an error error error error there’s an error engineer: oh no! oh no! but it’s no one’s fault oil spillage is it no big deal there are other waters for the natives to fish there are other lands for the natives to till the oil flows well that’s all i need to make my money back… (26) ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 50 in movement three, there is a depiction of the consequence of resistance. the people’s revolt has often been met with fatal responses by government agencies and private personnel hired by the oil merchants. preba, a woman who mobilized others to protest against the ecological disasters caused by the oil industry was brutally shot and killed by the security guards at the gate. this was captured in the priest’s lamentations shortly after saying: for a challenging environmental crisis, preba was killed. demanding practices to maintain health and survival of life, preba paid with her life. to seek the reordering of the relationship between nature and community, preba lost her life. her ecological consciousness to regenerate the land of bawkeng and reduce the death toll occasioned by the oil spillage and gas flaring condemned her for elimination (35). the scenario above proves that the fight against ecodegradation especially when this affects the free flow of proceeds from exploration and exploitation has come with its consequences. many lives have been lost and are still being lost due to the crisis in the niger delta. however, there is a glimmer of hope as can be seen from the play. the return of inyene in movement five appears to lift the spirits of the downcast people of bawkeng. as he enters to hear the tales of woe, the masquerades enter bearing the following inscriptions on their wide masks: “spirit of death, the spirit of famine, the spirit of drought, breathe and die, drink and die, on kyoto protocol we stand” (47). these inscriptions spur inyene on to confront the reality of eco-degradation that has cut off the livelihood and survival of the people. he bares it all to adam smith, the oil merchant saying: uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 51 we are dealing with environmental degradation and pollution here. these constitute the dispute. it’s not all about money. my people protest the way and manner you throw your master on them. that’s all! we must find solutions to these mishaps and poverty (50-51). this is the central message of the play – the clean-up of the niger delta and the amelioration of poverty that has become the lot of the majority of the inhabitants of the creeks. eco-degradation as indicated by this play breeds poverty and when the people become desperate, they will agitate. in most cases, these struggle takes a violent dimension. legal conventions for eco-sustainability in the play – inyene, one of the inscriptions borne by the masquerades reads: “on kyoto protocol, we stand”. this presupposes that there are legal frameworks that ought to guide the way humans treat the environment. one such is the kyoto protocol. over the years and at several international conferences, meetings have been held to streamline activities that pose a danger to the earth, especially by the developed west. these conventions have also inspired individual nations to enact environmental laws to protect their environment as may apply to their peculiar circumstances. environmental law in the opinion of barau is a framework for achieving ecological sustainability. these include laws, pacts and penalties to guard, govern and guide individuals and institutions at local and global levels to stick to ways that favour the environment (101). the kyoto protocol to the united nations framework convention on climate change is one such pact that seeks to engender a safe earth that guarantees the future of generations yet unborn. this convention was adopted in new york on the 9th of may 1992 by 39 western industrialized nations with a fully grown market economy or transiting to same. the objectives of this ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 52 protocol are: to achieve enhancement of energy efficiency in relevant sectors of the national economy; protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases; promotion of sustainable forest management practices, afforestation and reforestation. others include the promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change considerations and the encouragement of appropriate reforms in relevant sectors aimed at promoting policies and measures which limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. under this protocol, each party is expected to minimize adverse social, environmental and economic impacts on developing countries. (united nations framework convention on climate change). another convention on climate change is the montreal protocol of 1999. this convention also aims at taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete the ozone layer, with the ultimate objective of their elimination based on developments in scientific knowledge. the convention further acknowledges that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries, including the provision of additional financial resources and access to relevant technologies. (united nations environment programme). these conventions stipulate that the reality of global warming needs a concerted and practical approach, especially by the industrialized west to arrest the threat. countries such as the usa, japan, china, britain and a great deal of western europe emit more greenhouse gases than the rest of the world put together. this is a consequence of their massive industrial activity and hence, there is a need to sign a pact that will ensure that there is a process of eliminating these carbon emissions. however, more than fifteen years down the line since these agreements were made; gas is still being flared all across the niger delta. the entire region is a cauldron of burning fuels by mostly western oil companies with no practical steps to end such emissions. uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 53 in nigeria, some laws and policies have been enacted to somehow give impetus to the drive to arrest the threat of environmental degradation and ecological drift that the country has been going through in the last half a century. nigeria presently has twenty-eight legislations that serve as an instrument for environmental protection, planning, pollution, prevention and control. section 20 of the 1999 constitution for example makes it an objective of the nigerian state to improve and protect the air, land, water, forest and wildlife of nigeria. section 12 establishes, though implied that international treaties (including environmental treaties) ratified by the national assembly should be implemented as law in nigeria (environmental law research institute). there is also the national policy on the environment drafted in 1998 by the federal environmental protection agency (fepa). the goal of this policy is to achieve sustainable development in nigeria through securing a quality environment adequate for good health and well-being; conserving and using the environment and natural resources for the benefit of present and future generations; and restoring, maintaining and enhancing the ecosystems and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere to preserve biological diversity and the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems. other ways through which this policy intends to achieve sustainable development include: raising public awareness and promoting understanding of the essential linkages between the environment, resources and development, encouraging individual and community participation in environmental improvement efforts; and cooperating in good faith with other countries, international organizations and agencies to achieve optimal use of transboundary natural resources and effective prevention or abatement of transboundary environmental degradation (federal environmental protection agency). a return to the full implementation of these international treaties, laws and policies is what the play – inyenecalls for. this is ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 54 significant especially now that the world is moving to the era of sustainable development with a focus on cleaner and renewable energy. with the fall in oil prices, a major catalyst for the crisis in the niger delta, nigeria remains on the wrong side of history if practical steps are not taken to diversify the economy and ease the tension that oil politics generated over the years. at the moment, there appears to be no end in sight to stop gas flaring in the niger delta. oil spills continue to become the daily experience of the people in this region. inyene calls for a stop to gas flaring as indicated at the end of the play. conclusion this paper x-rays the intricate connections between dramatic arts and the subject of human ecology. as the world grapples with the realities of its helplessness in the hands of a warming planet, arts have begun to question its stake and relevance in the field of science. the issue of agitations and crisis within the niger region of nigeria has continued unabatedly and playwrights in the last decade have found the parameter of ecodrama as a subject of enquiry and engagement. udoka’s inyene is one such literary discourse that stakes its relevance in this area. recommendations • nigeria and indeed the entire globe hangs on a precipice due to the exploitation of the earth’s resources and its attendant consequences. therefore, she must continue to seek and domesticate strategies to deal with her ecological problems. • government at all levels, groups and individuals must continue to seek avenues of dialogue and engagement to resolve all areas of conflict within the niger delta. • the subject of human ecology and the crisis of the environment is no longer the exclusive preserve of the sciences as the arts and drama in particular has continued to interrogate and interface with this area of study in recent uzoji: greening the arts: arnold udoka’s inyene and the connections between… 55 times. hence, there is a need to further re-evaluate the curricula within the field of literary drama to embrace this growing and engaging subject area. works cited ashden directory. “where are the plays? asks bill mckibben”. ashden directory. may 2005. the ashden directory, 12 october 2005. <http://www.ashdendirectory.org.uk> barau, aliyu salisu. “bridge–building between literature and environmental values of africa: lessons from things fall apart” in themes fall apart but the centre holds. eds. ushie, j. & abdullahi, d. lagos: association of nigerian authors (ana), 2009. pp. 92-105. boal, augusto. the rainbow of desire. new york: routledge, 1995. chaudhuri, una. staging place: the geography of modern drama. university of michigan press, 1997. echarter.org. “the earth charter: preamble”, www.earthcharterinaction.org/content. accessed 17/04/2019 environmental law research institute. “a synopsis of laws and regulations on environment in nigeria” <elring.org/newsandrelease2.html> accessed 10/10/19 federal environmental protection agency. “national policy on the environment”. abuja, 1998. http://www.nesrea.org/ images/ national policy on environment. pdf accessed 10/102019 gare, a. postmodernism and the environmental crisis. london: routledge, 1995. http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/content.%20accessed%2017/04/2019 http://www.nesrea.org/%20images/%20national%20policy%20on%20environment.%20pdf http://www.nesrea.org/%20images/%20national%20policy%20on%20environment.%20pdf ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 56 glover, l. postmodern climate change. new york: routledge, 2006. heinlein, k.g. “green theatre: proto-environmental drama and the performance of ecological values in contemporary western theatre”. a dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty of the louisiana state university and agricultural and mechanical college, december 2006. kershaw, b. theatre ecology: environments and performance events. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2007. mckibben, b. the end of nature. new york: andor books, 1999. sale, p.f. our dying planet: an ecologist’s view of the crisis we face. los angeles: university of california press, 2011 schnaiberg, a. & kenneth a.g. environment and society. new york: st martin’s press, 1994. udoka, a. inyene: a dance drama. ibadan: kraft books limited, 2009. united nations environment programme. “the montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer”. nairobi: unep, published 2000. http://www.unep.ch/ozone. montreal-protocol. montreal-protocol2000 . accessed 9/8/2015. united nations framework convention on climate change. “kyoto protocol”. http://unfcc.int/resource/docs/convkp/ kpeng.html. accessed 9/7/2015. wall, d. green history: environmental literature, philosophy and politics. new york: routledge, 1994. womeninworldhistory.com “today’s nobel peace prize heroes: linking present to past“.<womeninworldhistory.com/ contemporary-01.html> accessed 22/12/2014. http://www.unep.ch/ozone.%20montreal-protocol.%20montreal-protocol2000%20.%20accessed%209/8/2015 http://www.unep.ch/ozone.%20montreal-protocol.%20montreal-protocol2000%20.%20accessed%209/8/2015 http://www.unep.ch/ozone.%20montreal-protocol.%20montreal-protocol2000%20.%20accessed%209/8/2015 http://unfcc.int/resource/docs/convkp/%20kpeng.html http://unfcc.int/resource/docs/convkp/%20kpeng.html ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 96 a critical exploration of the narrative structure and the humane qualities in gold statue 1ola-koyi, s. joseph bankola and 2obumneme, francis anasi 1department of theatre arts, university of ibadan, ibadan sundayolakoyi05@gmail.com 2department of english and literary studies, ebonyi state university,abakaliki daddyobumneme@gmail.comkeywords abstract the composition of literary or film narrative is permitted to borrow ideas from different experiences, ideologies or cultures but when a wrong concept is imported into a narrative at the expense of cultural values/humane qualities of omoluwabi such adventure must be queried. the function of literature [film] is to provide the bank of images as a guide for acceptable behaviour, that is of crucial importance to a people’s development in any community or country. using the library research, the studio analysis approach and nonlinear structural analysis, as basic research methods; isola’s theory on “humane qualities” and otunla’s concept of omoluwabi as theoretical frameworks, the study examines the narrative structure and the humane qualities of selected traits/characters in the film: gold statue. findings reveal that components of nonlinear technique (i.e. non-chronological order of presentation, a story within a story/parallel plot lines, anachronism and flashback) are creatively and effectively deployed in this narrative. however, the narrative in gold statue only succeeds in reflecting corrupt levels of government officials and in measuring success in terms of materialistic substances and monetary gains. in this film, material values are placed over and above the humane qualities of mailto:sundayolakoyi05@gmail.com mailto:daddyobumneme@gmail.com ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 97 love and patriotism. for the fact that the lead role, adewale esho could not be seen as an ideal man, thus, the film fails to fulfil the basic function of projecting a model for young viewers to copy. it is therefore recommended that scriptwriters and film directors should ruminate and ponder more on the traits of their lead roles and use such in promoting acceptable behaviours, to prevent cases where corrupt images are projected as models for the public to copy. keywords: gold statue, nonlinear narrative, humane qualities, omoluwabi, film evaluation introduction anyone who is seeing the movie gold statue for the first time is likely to be taken in by its cinematographic quality in which the director creatively deploys helicopter/drone shots in establishing different locales and settings for its actions and to bridge the scenes. some symptomatic impressions in gold statue could be traced back to another film, figurine araromire. discernable and parallel features in gold statue and figurine araromire includes the attitudes of the youth (especially nysc members) toward ancient artefacts. while the production of figurine araromire discourages the daring spirit of the young ones in trying to use the sacred artefact for any personal ambition/ gains by revealing a disastrous ending for such an attempt, the gold statue production encourages the prodigal venture of selling the ancient artefact to a merchant for monetary gains or personal aggrandisement. both films reflect the length in which young ones could go in achieving personal goals and they do not mind stepping on toes to achieve their inordinate ambitions. for instance, the antagonist in the figurine araromire does anything possible to accomplish his ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 98 impossible love while the protagonist in gold statue endures many body pains to sell his ancestral artefact for material wealth and personal gains. isola’s translation of the proverbial prodigal son that “…a child not built-up morally will sell the house built by the parents” specifically captures the theme of the film gold statue. the lead role, adewale esho (gabriel afolayan) does not mind giving his parents traumatic experiences, destroying his family name and betraying his clan because of his inordinate ambition of selling the ancestral gold statue. in projecting the theme of this film, the director employs the nonlinear narrative technique, which to some levels, makes the production an interesting experience for the audience. using a nonlinear analytical metric system, isola’s theory on “humane qualities” and otunla’s concept of omoluwabi as evaluative yardsticks, the study examines the narrative structure and the humane qualities of omoluwabi in selected traits/characters of the movie gold statue. conceptual framework linear and nonlinear narrative structure in demonstrating how linear and nonlinear work ola-koyi opines that: …the linear structure works with a unidirectional mode of association which is based on rational logic, while the nonlinear structure works with a multidirectional (metaphoric) mode of association that may appear irrational to physical order. hence, a nonlinear structure could be used in explaining occurrences in abstract form or events in the metaphysical realm of existence such as the vision of metaphysical encounters, invisible experience, spiritual activities, mental sphere or human memory. (49) ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 99 the features of nonlinear narrative technique: the discernable features of nonlinear narrative techniques that are often used as yardsticks for analysing creative work can be succinctly itemised thus: one, a non-chronological order of presentation. this is a narrative technique which does not follow the direct causality pattern of the events but follows any other format except a 1-2-3 order of presentation; two, having multidirectional lines of presentation. that is incorporating techniques such as story within a story or parallel plot lines, dream immersions, anachronism, flash-forward or flashback; three, depicting a character-oriented mode of presentation. it focuses more on the character and his/her actions without the constraints imposed by a linear feature of logical cause and effect structure and registers a basis for a strong thematic unity. it is usually used as a driving force in building tension and suspense within a narrative and deployed as a basis for strong thematic unity. qualities of omoluwabi theory on humane qualities/ in his paper on ‘in whose image’, isola discusses the theory of humane qualities and the identified values he sees as components of intangible cultural heritage. while linking the humane qualities with physical development (or personal success) in a given society, he opines thus: without intangible development, there can be no sustainable development. there is a tendency to define and measure development through methods and measures that are primarily material: constructing roads, schools, hospitals, factories, dams, buying vehicles, ships and aircraft. but the truth is that these material goals cannot be ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 100 sustained by material means alone. to make these material goals socially sustainable, people require not only knowledge, skill and vision but also those humane qualities that constitute the intangible aspects of development honesty, dignity, hard work and so on. otherwise, as a yoruba proverb says: a child not built up morally will sell the house built by the parents. (59) the identified humane qualities from the foregoing if considered from otunla’s concept of omoluwabi could be extended to include honour, integrity, love and patriotism. in his words: omoluwabi is, all that we know as recommended in the ancient yoruba systems of thought and code of behaviour based on the twin ethical foundation of honour, integrity. its uniqueness resides in the humanity of its ethics… in this capsule, the individual is expected to conduct all social relations – inclusive of the political and economic, within and upon the basis of all that is honourable and with the highest regard for integrity, these are the “commandment” that the good and virtuous person but the yoruba (omo oduduwa) in particular must abide by for personal and group sanity in a sane society. (22) the features of humane qualities/qualities of omoluwabi: the main attributes of isola’s and otunla’s theories could be summarised thus, that the humane qualities of omoluwabi comprise honesty, dignity, hard work, honour, integrity, love and patriotism etc. furthermore, the humane qualities of omoluwabi incorporate the intangible values that are required in human relationships, without which tangible development/personal ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 101 success could not be obtained or sustained. finally, it is erroneous to measure success or development only through materialistic substances. synopsis of gold statue the story in gold statue is an adventure of a young man, adewale esho (gabriel afolayan) and his friend chike okereke (kunle remi). these two are inspired at the university in unearthing the ancestral gold statue that was buried under a modern prison yard in ilesha. after making the necessary plan, adewale contacts bryan (kalu ikeagwu) bryan uses the modern gadgets at his disposal as a consultant archaeologist to trace this ancient artefact. to have access to this gold adewale esho decides to spend some time in prison by committing minor crimes and he is jailed and sent to ilesha prison. his parents are traumatised because they could not understand the reason why a universitytrained child would want to steal a car. during his sojourn in prison, under the name samuel okon, adewale esho sells the idea of a jailbreak to “capone” (rycardo agbor) the head of the inmates who consults hammer (kevin ikeduba) his right-hand-man. having received the required tools for the excavation of the gold statue, under the pretence of a jailbreak and several weeks of carving and moving through the tunnel, they excavate the gold statue and load the precious metal on a waiting truck while some inmates flee before the local security men catch some of the prisoners in their attempt to escape. the excavated and telecast statue becomes a tussle between national and state governments. this gold statue which could have earned the linage of esho incorruptible international or state honour is sacrificed on the altar of personal greed and the craving for wealth/materialism. to get this artefact sold in the international ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 102 market, adewale esho bribes his way through some corrupt government official representatives. thus the glorified state artefact is miraculously returned to adewale esho’s den from where it is shipped overseas for sale, while the proceeds from its sales are shared between him, his cronies and some corrupt state officials. the exploration of the narration in gold statue the manifestation of a non-chronological order of presentation in the movie: gold statue, opens with an “in-mediares” technique which is a style of commencing a story in the middle of the series of actions. the first frame in frame 1 reveals a medium-wide shot of agitating crowd and like the audience, two boys are running toward the mob. the suspense in this opening is strong enough to activate the viewer’s interest in knowing what is going on, on screen. in other words, a spontaneous act or the emergency gathering of people who must have left their various homes to accomplish different intentions for the day, suddenly aborting their purposes to assemble on the street is capable of inciting curiosity. thus it could be stated that the deployment of this in-mediares technique in gold statue succeeds in capturing the audience's attention and propelling them into seeing the film through. as a member of the audience, one is compelled to find out through the second frame in 1, why adewale esho is been attacked by an angry mob. in satisfying this curiosity, the film further introduces the flashback technique which is another component of nonlinear structure. the flashback used is combined with voice-over. this documentary style of presenting what ekwuazi regards as “a family pattern of story development” (2002), leads the audience back to ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 103 the beginning of the story. the use of this voice-over narrative technique is sufficient to qualify this film as a docu-drama. in deploying the anachronism/flashback technique, the director uses helicopter/drone shots to establish some of the panoramic views of selected locations within the lagos metropolis. then fades back into an amusement park, where adewale esho and his friend chike are having fun. specifically, in frame 2, the drone shot flies through the main gate of the university of lagos campus and cuts into a large lecture theatre, where in frame 3, a lady professor is delivering a lecture on the ijesa people and their ancestral gold statue. the presentation of activities in the lecture hall again unfurls another component of nonlinear narrative structure. the process in which a professor shares her lecture with both the onscreen students in the lecture hall and the off-screen audience at home is a system of “sharing a story within another story.” it is a style of developing a parallel plot technique in a narrative. as employed in this film, the technique is invoked with the aids of multimedia gadgets deployed as teaching aids for the lecture. during her oral delivery of the lecture, the teaching aids reveals some film clips and slide shots as evidence to support the professor’s claims. the combination of these two components (the parallel plot technique and the use of the multimedia system) eventually enhanced and boosted the narrative quality of the film. moreover, one could see that the flashback or the anachronism technique is invoked to give an explanation or offer reasons behind certain actions and to establish the state of events. furthermore, an anachronism is used in explaining why capone (rycardo agbor) is on the execution list at ilesha maximum prison and why he blindly supported the idea of jailbreak. the invocation ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 104 of the anachronism style equally helps in portraying gold statue as a movie based on a character-oriented mode of presentation. the plot of this narrative is structured to give a mixed and fluctuating range of story information. for example, many pieces of information are revealed through the lines, the actions and the thoughts of the lead role: adewale esho. less than thirty per cent of the total events in this story are shown without his presence. therefore, it would be appropriate to say that gold statue combines elements of both the restricted and unrestricted story presentation format. in other words, the restricted range of information often reveals events in a story through an individual who must be present at all the scenes, while the unrestricted range of story information is an omniscient narration system that divulges information through multiple means because information could be gotten from any of the characters or locations featured in the film. to do away with the constraints imposed by a linear feature of logical cause and effect structure, this movie, gold statue uses a mixed method of story information to focus more on the lead character and his actions. this method allows the viewers to share the various depths of both the physical and psychological experiences of adewale esho. consequently, viewers can see how the inordinate desire of the lead role to unearth the gold statue is used as a strong thematic unity that runs throughout the film. this desire to sell his ancestral heritage is used as a driving force in building tension and suspense within this narrative. having analysed the nonlinearity features in gold statue, attention will be shifted to diagnosing identified features of the humane qualities of omoluwabi. in this assessment, the manipulation of the depth of story information or the depth of viewers’ knowledge will be explored further. fundamentally, the depth of story information is used to reveal both the objective and ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 105 the subjective traits of a character. while objective mannerisms are deciphered through physical qualities of body, voice or motivations, subjective traits are accessed through the perceptual subjectivity of sound, optical and mental components. it could be established that there are some shots in gold statue which could be used to analyse objective traits of some characters (adewale, chike, granpa esho, mr esho, and mrs esho). for instance, the composition of the shots in frames 4 and 5, could be diagnosed to reveal external behaviours – actions, movements or speeches of adewale esho and chike. a semiotic interpretation of “the body attitudes” of both adewale and chike in 4 and 5 reveals other useful pieces of information on the personalities of these two individuals and tells a lot about these two dominant characters. in decoding the objective depth of knowledge in these frames, the semiotic/diagnosing variables or the identifiers of the external behaviour that would be used include appearance, posture, stance, proximity or dialogue. to be more specific, one could see that in appearance, both adewale and chike are young men between the ages of 21 to 28, from their costumes, the setting of the room and other accessories used, one could see that they are from well-to-do families. while their mannerism – body language, skills and compositions indicate that they are not only students but active individuals with bright futures. in frame 4, the facial expression of adewale reveals him as a figure lost in his thought, as a forward-looking personality, he gazes on as if staring into the camera. the second figure on the left side of the frame, chike is shown as a studious student who is jotting down information from the ongoing lecture on ijesa people. similar attitudes are depicted by these two roles back in their room at the hostel (frame 5). while chike is studying, adewale is busy chatting on whatsapp, looking for the means of actualising his dream. the nondiegetic element on the screen in ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 106 frame 5: the whatsapp subtitle graphic equally complements the intention of adewale. the sitting arrangement in the lecture hall and their placement in their room at the hostel confirm the closeness of these two. that is in proximity, these two are close friends both in school and at the hostel and this equally adds up to the pieces of information on these characters. grandpa esho (peter fatomi) in appearance is depicted as a wise old man in a white costume which in the yoruba worldview connotes purity of body and soul. in posture and proximity, pa esho is close to his children and very friendly with his grandchildren. this old man is a true traditionalist and through his dialogue, one could see that he is trustworthy and instance, he is a custodian of cultural heritage who could not be lured into revealing secrets. mr. esho is like his father grandpa esho in stance and speech. he is revealed as a disciplinarian who will not condone any act of indiscipline from adewale or his wife’s over-pampered attitude towards her children. in proximity, mr esho is not so close to his son due to adewale's lackadaisical attitude. a critical look at the frames in frames 6 and 7 reveals an appropriate use of facial resemblance/ physique in the casting of these personalities and their roles: peter fatomi as pa esho the grandfather; richard mofe-damijo as mr esho, the father and gabriel afolayan as adewale esho, the son. the three men shared in common facial features of beards and moustaches. pa esho in appearance has grey hairs, a grey moustache, and a greybeard, while mr esho maintains a bald head, grey facial stubble and greybeard in appearance and adewale esho the youngest of them all in appearance has black hairs, a black moustache and black beard. thus these roles in appearance maintain convincing and believable family resemblance/physiques. mrs esho (sola sobowale) in appearance is a business tycoon dealing in clothing materials and accessories. she could be called a societal woman and a fashionable lady of elegance. instance, posture and expression, she is a highly emotional woman ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 107 and a dedicated mother. in proximity (frame 8), she is very close to adewale and ready to indulge him with whatever he wants. according to bordwell and thompson, viewers can deduce subjective facts from on-screen images through sound, optical and mental perspectives. in revealing the psychological/inner motifs for adewale’s actions through the subjective perceptual procedure, the plot of gold statue grants viewer access to what this lead character sees, hears and thinks. therefore, these perceptual elements of sound, optical and mental views would equally be used to determine the qualities of omoluwabi in adewale esho. the frequent elements of the perceptual subjectivity used in portraying the psychological traits or the inner mind of adewale in gold statue are the sound and optical views. in evaluating the qualities of omoluwabi / humane qualities in adewale esho, one could recall that the narrative uses flashback and anachronism systems to offer the reasons behind some of adewale’s actions, that includes his reason for attempting to steal a car and the beating thereafter, his desiring to unearth the gold statue by all means and at all cost, and the revelation on how he comes to ilesha while he is supposed to go to elsewhere for his nysc programme. all these motifs are revealed on screen through the subjective/inner views of adewale esho. a specific example could be drawn from the first introduction of the flashback cum voice-over technique where viewers are taken through an audiovisual sequence which goes back into the lecture hall in frame 3 where a professor is delivering a lecture on ijesa people and the worth of the gold status. according to adewale, the experience shared in this lecture corresponds with a story pa esho once shared with him but the worth of the statue is not mentioned. consequently, this flashback/audiovisual sequence enables the viewers to conclude that the worth of the gold statue indicated in the lecture in frame 3 causes adewale to ruminate further on how to unearth this statue in frame 9. through the sequence in frame 9, viewers are allowed to access and dwell further in adewale’s mental concept where they ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 108 can hear him wishing for his grandfather to die soon so that he could move on with his selfish interest of unearthing the gold statue for sale. from all moral standards, the act of wishing a family member evil, due to a personal desire of selfish gain is a vice. and it is contrary to the integrity virtue of omoluwabi, where love and integrity “…ensure that one does not benefit, especially by design, from situations at the expense of or risk of obvious disadvantages to the other in social relations.” the inner thought of adewale esho reveals in frame 9, equally depicts him as a self-centred being that will do anything to have his way. if not that pa esho has not died naturally, adewale could have murdered the old man. to buttress the identified evil traits in adewale, one could see in frame 6 where he tries to persuade his grandpa in telling him the location of the hidden gold statue, and when the old man refuses, adewale devices other tactics through which he can unravel the mystery behind the location of this statue. another scene where his unhealthy manipulating skill is displayed could be found in frame 8. having convinced his mother she follows him to see his father, mr esho where they plead with mr esho so that he could ask his friend at the nysc headquarters to change adewale’s nysc posting to oshun state. but when mr. esho refuses to dance to his tune, he still finds his way to ilesha to accomplish his mission at all costs which brings emotional torment and sorrow to his parents. it is obvious again that adewale’s actions in the sequence are contrary to qualities embedded in the omoluwabi concept. physically and psychologically adewale esho’s actions could be interpreted as someone who lacks human dignity and integrity. he is willing to go to jail because of the material gain. thinking from another perspective adewale could be seen as a dishonest, stubborn, and ruthless young man. if adewale is capable of putting his parents (especially his mother) through emotional torture, there is no one he can not run over in the course of achieving his desire. ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 109 as a deceptive being, adewale esho lures some of the inmates into excavating the gold statue for him under the disguise of “a jailbreak.” luckily for him (adewale), none of the inmates bothers to question his motif. as soon as the ancestral statue is unearthed, he also succeeds in enticing other gullible cohorts. and any government officer or agent who tries to stop him is invited to have a share of the proceeds from the sales of this statue. in frame 10, a mental perceptual view is again deployed to reveal adewale esho’s tricks after putting up a charade before national and international television channels announcing that the gold statue is to be donated to the government. this generates a tussle between his home state government and the federal government. this mental perceptual style enables adewale esho to directly address the viewers and confess his sins as if talking to a friend. there and then he formally re-introduces his cohorts and the corrupt government officials/collaborators and their roles in achieving his material success, as he unfurls the strategy, he deployed in retrieving the gold statue after it had been donated to the government. in assessing the qualities of omoluwabi through other selected characters, one could see that contrary to the values of dignity, honesty and patriotism. some of the state/government functionaries projected in this narrative lack all these qualities. to be precise, the head-warder (ali baba), is depicted as a corrupt man with some elements of kindness. the zonal commander of prison service (segun arinze) is projected as a deceptive and corrupt brute. the minister of mineral resources is revealed as an unpatriotic being that lacks any spirit of loyalty. with these crops of characters in a narrative, one could say that the film practically promotes and glorifies the desire and craving for materialism that currently permeates nigerian social space and government services. thus, the monetary value of the gold statue is placed over and far above the humane love to preserve the ancestral artefact as cultural heritage. even the governor or the representative of state ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 110 government is busy arguing for some percentage of the total monetary worth of the ancestral artefact which is then put at ten billion dollars instead of conversing about the preservation of the gold statue on television. findings in this study the following exercises have been carried out: critically demonstrate how a non-chronological order of presentation is creatively used to capture and retain the viewer’s interest as well as create tension and suspense. reveals how other techniques of nonlinearity such as story within a story or parallel plot lines, anachronism and flashbacks are effectively deployed to enhance the narrative qualities of the film. objectively examines the traits of selected lead roles in this narrative and analyses how the character-oriented mode of presentation is deployed to create a strong thematic unity without the constraints imposed by a linear feature of the logical cause and effect. in evaluating the humane qualities or the qualities of omoluwabi in the lead role, the study used subjective depth of story information in assessing the driving motifs behind most of adewale esho’s actions. demonstrate how some of these driving forces are used in building tension and suspense within the plot of this narrative. conclusion even though, the narrative techniques used and the deployment of advanced digital cinematographic methods enhanced the dramatic and filmic qualities of the film, in terms of humane qualities, except for two or three characters, the qualities of omoluwabi exhibited by the lead role: adewale esho and some government officials are very discouraging. even though, some viewers might argue that the film reflects the corrupt aspects of the modern society in nigeria, the lead roles could have been made a sample of omoluwabi, an image, any young man or woman could ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 111 emulate. because the function of literature (ditto for a film) is to provide a bank of images as a guide for acceptable behaviour and the humane qualities of omoluwabi are parts of the intangible aspects of human achievement/development. thus it could be stated that instead of projecting a genuine ideology of success and development, the movie gold statue deliberately glorifies moral decadence and debauchery. and the level of perversion displayed through the actions of some characters in this narrative is nothing but samples of corrupt beings which no viewer should emulate. recommendation hence, it is recommended that scriptwriters and film directors should ruminate and ponder more on the traits of their lead roles and that of other major characters. actors on screen are models and they should be used in promoting acceptable behaviours, to prevent cases where corrupt images are projected as models for the public to copy. references ajayi, s. a. african culture and civilization, city?: atlantic books. 2015. bordwell, d. and thompson, k. film art: an introduction (7th ed.) new york: the mcgraw-hill companies. 2004. ekwuazi, hyginus. a new approach to the screenplay. jos: nfi. 2002. isola, akinwunmi. in whose image. foluke ogunleye (ed.) african through the eye of the video camera. manzini, swaziland: academic publishers. 2008. ola-koyi s.j.b. the anatomy of visual narrative in tunde kelani’s maami and abeni films. an unpublished m. phil ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 112 dissertation in the department of theatre arts, university of ibadan. 2019. otunla, tao. omoluwabi: the pursuit of virtue. ilesha:lagemo (nig) ltd. 2008. westhuizen, millie van der. linear vs. nonlinear narratives: definition & structure video ... https://study.com/academy/lesson/linear-vs-nonlinearnarratives-definition-s. 23-01-2019. williams, r. marxism and literature oxford university press, london. 2007. film: ogidan, tade. gold statue. ogd pictures. 2019. ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 113 frame 1: an in-media-res technique reveals an ongoing action where the furious mob unleashes terror on adewale esho after a failed attempt to steal a salon car… frame 3: the interior set of the large lecture theatre where a professor is delivering a lecture on ijesa people… frame 2: a drone shot flies over the main gate of the university of lagos campus, where a lecture is going on …. frame 4: the facial expression of adewale reveals him as a figure lost in his thought, while chike is busy jotting down information from the on going lecture frame 5: the facial expression of chike reveals him as a studious person, while adewale is busy chatting through whatsapp … ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 114 frame 7: mr. esho like his father, is a disciplinarian who will not condone any act of indiscipline from any of his children especially adewale frame 6: adewale tries to bribes his grandpa with edible material: food, fruits and drinks in an attempt to cajole him into telling him the location of the gold statue…but the wise old man suspects his inordinate intention towards this ancestral heritage and declines in revealing the exert location of the statue to him. frame 8: in stance, posture and expression, mrs esho is highly emotional woman and a dedicated mother. frame 9: viewers are granted an access into adewale esho’s mind through voice perceptual technique where he wishes his grandpa should die soon… ola-koyi & obumneme: a critical exploration of the narrative structure… 115 frame 10: after the putting up a charade of donating the gold statues to the government, adewale esho and his friend chike okereke come home to celebrate with their cohorts and corrupt government officials, their victory and the intended sales of the ancestral statue which if well preserved could be a cultural monument for tourists to visit. for tourism. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 222 looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african indigenous knowledge and technology in response to 21st century challenges. perspectives from j.p. clark’s ozidi 1omeje, oguejiofor v and 2ezeugwu, cindy anene 1. humanities unit, school of general studies, university of nigeria, nsukka 2. department of theatre and film studies, university of nigeria, nsukka email: cindy.ezeugwu@unn.edu.ng abstract this paper evaluates the ideology of indigenous knowledge and technology (ikt) in nigeria as an african cosmology. the younger generation is bereft of the potency of ikt because the colonialists termed her ikt practices unscientific. thus, the development of ikts to the advanced and exporting stage may have needed to be improved by colonialism and its allies mainly foreign religions in contemporary nigeria. studies show that there are prospects of growing ikts such as artificial intelligence, bullet and fireproofs, ethnographic medicines, orthopaedics, weaving, iron-smelting and pottery. j.p. clark’s playozidi used this fact by portraying witchcraft for self-defence and warfare. these inchoate ikts are indices that nigeria has all it takes to become a global technological giant if not for some colonial resentments. the apparent failure of modern scientific technologies to solve rising global challenges such as hunger, poverty, sickness, terrorism and general security has intensified the demand for african ikts as alternatives. adopting historical/ textual analytical design, the study explores the possibilities and prospects inherent in african ikt. the paper aims to buttress the aptitudes of ikts for sustainable development and growth. it concludes that given the cost-effectiveness and safety of african ikts in nigeria, the phenomenon should be given a pride of place by incorporating it mailto:cindy.ezeugwu@unn.edu.ng omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 223 into the nigerian educational system to help theorise, modernise and remove unnecessary ritualistic encumbrances to enable it to compete viably, with other global technologies for practical and scientific purposes other than mere aesthetics which many people assume are ritualistic in nature. keywords: africa, indigenous knowledge, technology, craft, development, j.p clark. introduction before colonial times in africa, indigenous knowledge and technology, hereafter referred to as itk, was one of the most patronised arts in nigeria. this is a result of its evaluability and indispensability in society. the itks are known to perform diverse functions, including but not limited to orthopaedics, artificial intelligence, bullet and fireproofs, ethnographic medicines, weaving, iron-smelting and pottery, among others. to this end, practitioners of itk were held in high esteem, and ikt was one of the veritable tools for propagating african indigenous technology. consequently, more practitioners were often being incorporated into the trade to reach out to more people needing one service or the other. during that era, the practitioners were known to impact society positively without religious or colonial interference. however, it is deplorable to note that the period when ikts prospered and were highly valued has vanished and is now replaced by the lacklustre attitude of modern times. more worrisome is that africans, supposed to be transmitters of our cultural values to posterity, regrettably take sides with western technology they religiously follow. this act of notoriety portends the demise of nigeria’s robust ikts in the 21st century. thus, the dwindling state of acceptance and patronage of ikts is fast relegating it to the dustbin of history if something is not done quickly to address the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 224 menace. this can be done by decolonising the minds of nigerians to awaken their consciousness and stand up against this ugly trend. in light of the above, the choice of ozidi for this study is informed by the period the play was set in ijawone of the over two hundred ethnic tribes that existed before the colonisation of nigeria began in the early 19th century; when the colonialists started introducing western democracy, alongside the formation of modern city-states in africa. the storyteller in ozidi, assuming an omniscient narrator, confirms the above information thus: “…perhaps, you think this is a quaint custom that we are propping up cobwebs that we ought to sweep clean out of the house with broom and brush. well …aren’t we living in a free democratic country?” (1-2). this shows that the prehistoric ijaw custom about to be re-enacted has been abandoned over the years, hence the ‘quaint custom’ probably due to colonisation. elaborating on this new development, the storyteller mentioned the newly created citystates like” lagos, ibadan, enugu and kaduna where the ijaws move in droves in search of wealth (big money) – these towns in the days of their (ijaw) forefathers, where not bigger than mere cattle market” (4). ozidi is probably one of the few literalised aesthetic displays in dramatic form that demonstrates just an aspect of a vast body of knowledgeindigenous knowledge and technology designated by the colonising culture as witchcraft. the term' craft' is of utmost interest to the researchers, corresponding to skill. thus, witchcraft or wizardry is positively used to qualify one with exceptional professional talent. therefore, we are often inundated with terms like computer, literary, mathematical wizard or wizard of law, and so on. arising from the above, the researchers are compelled to ask, ‘when then has witchcraft hence, wizardry becomes a derogatory form of expressing competence of one’s profession’? omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 225 perspectives on indigenous knowledge and technology (ikt) indigenous knowledge is a body of knowledge developed within a person or group of people before the advent of the modern scientific knowledge system. in the words of senanayake s.g.j.n, “it encompasses many areas of importance to the society like security, agriculture, eco-system and so on. it is variously known in different parlance as local knowledge, peoples’ knowledge, traditional science or wisdom” (87). these names go a long way to buttress the idea of indigenous information, skill, and application for development; they give clues to the operational and characterising ideas of what is and how it is developed within a given cultural area. the difference between indigenous knowledge and technology and modern scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the latter is a product of higher institutions of learning – universities and research institutes while the former is generated orally and transmitted from generation to generation (tharakan; 2017, ugboma:2014, and senanayake: 2006). indigenous knowledge and technology are empirically grounded, while modern scientific understanding is theoretically grounded. analysis of indigenous knowledge and technology raises the question of appropriate technologies that a given community deems fit to satisfy its need. ozidi focuses on warfare and the security needs of the ijaw people at the time; within the precolonial era, fear was the primary agent of societal destabilisation. an influential person or community often becomes a threat to its neighbour. in addition, wild animals, natural disasters, hunger and diseases were significant threats at the time. all these threats were controlled through various indigenous knowledge and technology. with other ikts that existed long before independence, there were high hopes that nigeria would soon become a technological giant beyond the shores of africa with the creation of such ikts like kwagh-hir puppet theatre in tiv, benue state, fire and ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 226 bulletproof exhibition and sango theatrical performances in south west, ‘wonder’ masquerade theatrical performance in enugu state, south east (a crane-like technology manipulated to oscillate masquerades to unimaginable heights, though it is not intended to lift objects as cranes do). furthermore, there is the control and manipulation of natural forces by the ijaws of the niger delta in the south-south region of nigeria, as seen in j.p. clark’s ozidi. ikts can also be found in orthopedics (bone setting techniques), medicine (herbs), weaving, iron smelting, pottery, food and wine processing and agriculture. it is important to note that all the ikts are not domiciled only in one locality or state. on the contrary, as senanayake avers, “they can be found in diverse forms in every tribe in nigeria; either as a different knowledge of similar things, a different knowledge of different things, different ways of organising knowledge or different ways of perceiving and transferring knowledge” (46). by independence, it was assumed that nigeria had extricated herself from all forms of economic, political, social, cultural and religious censorship by the colonisers. nigeria could now chart her developmental course without the interference of any document from the west. with these high hopes and aspirations, writers like clark, achebe, soyinka, rotimi and others were optimistic that within a short period in nigeria, there would be a harvest of technological breakthroughs, knowing the level of attainment already in existence in the country. this dream was so evident that soyinka concluded that nigeria had arrived, compared to her african counterparts. but soyinka soon realised and lamented these aliens' inimical nature and attitude towards african cultures' innovative and creative roots, which caused a tremendous loss of african skills (xvii). chinua achebe submits that “during the early years of nigeria’s independence, high hopes of rapid developments was evidenced as a declaration of ambition to become an advanced nation preferably by the year 2020 was made” (9). by this omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 227 declaration, nigeria is expected to be among the comity of world powers within forty years of independence in 1960. apart from oil wealth and agricultural products, what assured nigeria of greatness is her reliability on ikts. but, while leopold sedar senghor of senegal laments the reduction of african ikts as mere myth, areole oyebola insists that; black people need an absolute legend translated into concrete achievement in science and technology, industrialisation and military strength, not a tale of futility and irrelevance, characterised by profuse displays of ritual and bare-breasted dances during national entertainment international shows. in the series of coups that snowballed into a civil war (119). oyebola further laments that “nigeria missed a unique chance in history to tap the resources of her local geniuses after the civil war” (120). nigeria did not use the experience and creative talents of men and women of the research and production institute, who, during the civil war in desperation, produced nigeria’s first rocket from rusty milk pipes. thus, nigeria was progressing rather towards senghor’s vision of achievement. nigeria was generally believed to be enveloped by an assurance of endless possibilities of unbridled destiny and overwhelming excitement about life determination uninhibited by any knowledge of providence. there was untainted optimism about nigeria achieving this greatness in every sphere of human endeavour compared to ghana. it is on the bases of oyebola’s lamentation that the researchers stand to insist that while the chances for achieving this greatness are still rife, the old inferiority attitude, the lack of self-confidence to reach the goal, religious interference, ethnic politics and corruption have continued to militate against the lofty ikt advancement in contemporary nigeria. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 228 an overview of indigenous knowledge and technology in the pre-colonial era oyebola stated that “the level of ikts from the pre-colonial era was very high that before the civil war ended in 1970, nigeria scientists were known to be improving on their design for the production of a ten-mile rocket” (119). during the war, it is on record that the biafran side invented nearly a five thousand feet range anti-aircraft rocket. within the restriction of the war, nigeria also invented explosives, beer, and batteries, among others (119). it shall be noted that nigerian ingenuity to produce all these technologies were not developed within just seven years – from 1960 of independence to 1967, when the civil war broke out, and up to 1970 when the war ended. in other words, craftsmanship in nigeria started long before the independence without the aid of the colonising agents. confirming that there are un-methodized scientific trappings in many african indigenous therapeutic, herbal or medicinal practices, ola, oloidi notes that “all instruments or infrastructure for existence and development were already in place before colonisation” (34). this means that europeans did not bring new ideas but new methods or approaches to improve existing ones. oloidi noted, “apart from these modern pure sciences that are very foreign to african or nigerian indigenous traditions, all modern disciplines in the universities or colleges are directly or indirectly made operational from the people’s local traditions” (34). aware of these potentials since 1949 in nigeria, zik decrying the ‘logic of imperialism’ buttressed by a false belief about the incapacity of the colonised nigerians to develop initiative, declared that “… it is our considered opinion that factors of capitalism and imperialism have stultified the normal growth of nigeria” (159). confirming zik’s view, margaret ugboma believes that “zik’s position about the logic of imperialism and its effect on the omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 229 colonised to develop initiative is true considering that ikts have not been given the rightful position in development initiatives” (14). zik’s declaration was motivated by the potential wealth in vast human and natural resources like gold, coal, tin, iron ore, tantalite, lead, diatomite, uranium, and lignite, among others; a great majority of nigerians still live in abject want. zik continued to criticise imperialism as; a crime against humanity because it enables any section of the human race which is armed with the techniques of modern scientific knowledge without justification to dominate a less fortunate area of society, simply because the latter are unequal to the task of resisting the force and which buttresses such domination (158). zik’s view about imperialism above shows that the relevance and potency of itk in nigeria, as in many other african countries, were largely suppressed by the europeans in the bid to promote their technologies. we shall investigate the efficacy and manifestations of itks in the study text. synopsis of ozidi ozidi is an encounter with a group of practitioners in witchcraft. they displayed the knowledge of the craft mainly for self-defence, warfare and general security purposes. the people of orua – an imaginary kingdom in ijaw, in the niger delta area of the present south southern nigeria are about to crown their new idiot king. a human head is needed to cleanse the throne, but the people of orua do not deem such sacrifice fit for their silly king. but seeing it as a task that must be accomplished, they conspired against the king’s only brother, a warrior called ozidi and killed him. this sets the pace for the first encounter with the ikts in the play. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 230 manifestations of indigenous knowledge and technologies in j p clark’s ozidi the challenge with most ikts as can be seen from ozidi is that they existed in mythical and ritual forms. that is, they are shrouded in rituals, mysticism and esotericism; but their values cannot be overestimated because as we shall soon see, there is every likelihood that modern technologies evolved from such myths. indigenous knowledge here means the know-how for the production and control or manipulation of various devices otherwise known as charms for various purposes. some of these devices and their uses as found in ozidi include: bulletproof (odeshi). this is a charm that protects an individual from any object that can inflict physical wounds such as tearing or cutting of the flesh. it could be a charm worn over the body or it could be conjured or injected into the body as immunity against bullets, matchet cuts, stones or any harmful object. in the play ozidi, oreame took ozidi her grandson to bouakarakabiri to invest bulletproof charm for him. even though oreame also knows the full recipe of the charm, she would not do it on her grandson for an ijaw adage has it that ‘the housewife often has no stomach for her broth’ (ozidi,44). this means that no physician can successfully cure himself. when ozidi was ready for the headhunt, we learnt from the stage directions of the play that he fortified himself with his battledress ‘a brief white skirt mounted with bells and cowries and cap flying seven feathers of the eagle (ozidi, 21). this attire may look simple or weird but it is vested with bulletproof (odeshi) an indigenous/local protective charm/mechanism. the conspirators know that ozidi is so protected, thus, their leader ofe gives the following instructions to his men that the only way omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 231 open to get rid of ozidi is to beat him till he dies. so he confirms the potency of the charm thus: ofe: for remember that bullet in contact with the man turn to water, spears splint off him; and do not let it stick in your eyes that not only do blades go blunt on his skin but arrows bounce off his body (ozidi, 22). they waylay ozidi, and pummel him with clubs and fists until he dies, but the problem is that no cutlass could cut his skin whether dead or alive unless the secret of the indigenous knowledge to soften his body is revealed. this they got through ozidi’s wife before his head could be severed from his body. ballistic missile/drone on several occasions, oreame sends thunderbolts to destroy her targets. for example, when azezebaife was set to fight, oreame takes ozidi to the shrine where she made prayers to ayi oyin tamara for guidance, protection and victory for ozidi, this results, according to the stage direction, “to a sudden clap of thunder which breaks across the clear morning sky. as oreame hears it, she performs certain rituals inform of homage to the thunder by touching the ground with her forehead and with thrown arms …”(ozidi, 76). that is not all as ozidi is about to engage ofe in another battle, we read that: “three sharp claps of thunder break suddenly overhead, racing one another across the sky. all wince visibly, but the effect upon oreame was like a bell to action” (ozidi, 87). the implication of this is that oreame has the indigenous knowledge that could deploy thunderbolt for specific purposes. immediately oreame receives a signal from the thunder, she prompts ozidi to attack and kill ofe. another incident that points to oreame’s power to control thunder is that after ozidi ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 232 killed tebesonoma, oreame feels that tebesonoma’s sister and her little child would be a threat to ozidi in future. so oreame takes ozidi to tebesonoma’s sister’s house. her husband agonosin had gone to the bush to attend to his fish pond. before the woman and her son died, oreame had sent thunder to kill agonosin in the bush; and a neighbour narrates what happened thus: neighbour: a terrible thing has happened! a terrible thing! out of the clear sky fell a thunderbolt at one stroke, it ploughed a path, all the way to where agonosin stood by a point, moving him down to earth. if you’ll come out, all the bush is burning about him and not the entire town bearing pots of water can put out the fire (ozidi,105-106). in modern science, a rocket or missile has a launching ground from where the projectile takes off; but in this case, oreame uses a magical hand fan as a launching pad for the thunder; though, it is not that she puts the missile on the magic fan before igniting it. the magic fan is already configured to activate any purpose it is meant to achieve. as their common weapons of warfare, azema carries a crown of violence on her hands (ozidi,112), and oreame carries a thunderbolt in the hollow of her hands too (ozidi,113). special fan the special magic fan used by oreame is a multi-purpose device. it is used as a source of energy to affect the strength flow of a person or thing. for example, when ozidi is too weak to engage in a fight, oreama beats him lightly but briskly all over the body with the special fan. this action energises him and spurs him to fight (ozidi, 77 and 105). omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 233 at other times, it is used to: stir up the wind (p. 79), neutralize ofe’s disappearing acts mechanism (p. 86), dry up the water in ozidi’s dream (p. 92) and other spiritual effects. artificial intelligence artificial intelligence should not be viewed in this sense as a machine. the notion of a machine invokes the idea of modernity. artificial intelligence should be seen as any device that has the ability or power to perceive its environment and can take the necessary actions required of it with little or no human effort. for instance, it can perceive a threat within a given location or environment and maximize or repel it successfully. oreame has a mirror which serves as a camera that can pick up and send pictorial information to her. at a point when ofe wanted to avoid directly engaging oreame and ozidi in a duel, he employs every strategy including feigning cold; but ewari reminds him that oreame will not believe that because she sees everything in that mirror glass (ozidi, 82). sometimes, through its rays which serve as infrared light, oreame injects, induces or feeds her enemy with poisonous substance inform of magical food; as she did to ofe (ozidi,87) and tebesonoma (ozidi,100-101). this weakens the enemy and renders him susceptible to defeat. with this mirror, oreame sees when ozidi is in trouble and subsequently makes an appearance on the scene. aero dynamics in the opening scene in the public square where ozidi and azezabife are interlocked in mortal combat, drumsticks are left suspended in mid-air (ozidi,78) and oreame is sighted scurrying in the clouds as she monitors the atmosphere of war preparation in ofe’s compound. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 234 aerial trapping device seeing that oreame can also fly in the air, sigirisi develops special net technology with which to capture her (ozidi, 83-84). though he succeeds in enwrapping oreame with the net midair, it is of no effect for no sooner had the net hung over oreame than she shook her shoulders and the net fell off her. transfixing devices oreame uses special ikts to transfix people, thereby demobilising them. she applies it to the old wizard bouakurakarabiri (ozidi, 43) and tebesonoma ( ozidi, 99). disappearing acts this indigenous knowledge is often used by ofe (ozidi, 86) to escape being captured but oreame has it too. she uses it to perform espionage, leading to the successful digging up of ofe’s protective pot of herbs buried in his garden (85). in addition to the act of disappearance is that oreame has the art of turning into a tsetse fly (113) or any other creature at will. alfred alex. anedo posits that this charm sometimes affects the “ability to vacate or remove the user from the scene of danger unhurt. not only does it assure the user of safety, but also saves him from being trapped by sending the person far away from danger zone irrespective of the suddenness or swiftness of the incident” (39). from the foregoing discourse therefore, one can agree with oloidi that “nearly all the disciplines or courses taught in colleges and universities were, and are still popularly or informally represented or practised…”(32). he listed among other disciplines, medicine, engineering and so on, of which, we have sieved from ozidi. it is worth noting that even the acclaimed western technological advancement started in this mythical form. advancing on this, segla dafon aime, while encouraging africans to follow the example of what took place in the west, in the days omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 235 of renaissance and the enlightenment, insists that africa “must maximize the myths yet at the same time, start with the said myths, extract from the intuitive, tacit and implicit knowledge for analytical and speculative study given establishing the foundation for innovation and modern development” (32). there is no gainsaying that africa, especially nigeria has a lot of innovative acumen emanating from her indigenous knowledge and technological myths and the proof, that such innovative skills abound in nigeria is part of the 21st century challenges which this paper showcases. moving away from ozidi, ikts are currently in vogue despite the campaign against the practice. in igboeze south local government of enugu state, in nigeria, it is a common practice to invoke the ube deity to recover stolen items and subsequently punish the offender through (induced suicide by hanging). if these acts were inactive, people would have abandoned them long ago. before we conclude this paper, we must refer to the three most recent incidents bordering on african ikts within the last quarter of 2020 and the first quarter of 2021 in uwasota town in edo and ogwashi uku town in delta state; both are in south southern states of nigeria. the third incident is in the ezeagu local government area of enugu state. these references will show how important it is that in-depth research is done in the field of african ikts for it to achieve global visibility and deployment for the solution of humanitarian problems. in a video that went viral in november 2020 in uwasota town in benin city, nigeria, the master of ceremony for the wedding reception explained that as soon as the bridal dance was ready to commence on a bright november dry season afternoon. suddenly, the weather became overcast, thunder and lightning rent the atmosphere and heavy downpours took over just within the area of the reception event. in less than thirty minutes, the breeze has blown off the canopies, the seats, the musical amplifier burnt, the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 236 arena flooded with water and thereafter, the sun reappeared again as the rain mysteriously receded (opera news, 2020). the second incident which took place in january 2021, is a video of a trader who sold bags of rice worth hundreds of thousands of naira to an unknown customer who paid cash. shortly after the customer drove off with the goods, the whole money he paid the vendor turned into white papers the size of naira currency notes (linda ikeji blog). it was also reported in the same video that this type of incident is now rampant in edo state. the last incident is a scenario in ezeagu local government area of enugu state where “palm wine was being poured into a porous basket without it leaking”( patience adama). these are typical african ikts which are often relegated to metaphysics, magic or others akin to modern science and technology. for this reason, people resent further inquiry into it and the practitioners take advantage to keep the knowledge secret further. the researchers argue that most modern sciences and technologies started as a figment of one’s imagination, something like magic and then developed from the unknown to the known state. they insist that until african ikt is given scholarly attention, the practice will continue to exist in its present state. conclusion the superiority of african ikts could be sought in their durability, economy and precision, and we can use surveillance devices to explain this. several factors can make modern surveillance devices to fail. for example, an expert can dismount or cover the lens of a modern surveillance device, several factors can make the device’s power supply malfunction, it could raise false alarms when an animal instead of a human being crosses the boundary and so on. but all these cannot apply to african indigenous technological surveillance devices. its function is direct to the target, for example, if it is deployed to protect a yam barn omeje and ezeugwu: looking back to move forward: re-evaluation of african… 237 from theft; for instance, any thief that gets into the barn and attempts to steal the yam gets stuck in the barn until the owner surfaces. it does not stop people from trespassing. its main function is to safeguard the yams from being taken away by unknown person(s). this does not mean, however, that there are no demerits of african ikts but that they are minimal compared to modern ones. the abandonment of ikts over time and the need to return to them for the yoke of modern technological backwardness to be broken in africa is yet another 21st century challenge. chinweizu affirms that “one of the wonders of our time is that african indigenous knowledge has captured the interest of the imperialists. they now sponsor studies of what they profoundly despise. but why”? (40). chinweizu’s question here needs an in-depth critical examination. for example, why have western pharmaceutical companies suddenly become interested in african herbs and their uses? these were the same plants our ancestors developed and used to maintain their health over time, and when the colonialists invaded africa, they derogated these traditional practices and attempted to outlaw most of them. today they have developed a new interest in them to the extent that many western academic institutions sponsor programmes for their development. this sudden interest is tricky and poses a further threat because a lot of successful experimental works on african ikts have been done by african intellectuals as ‘impact factor papers’ with their results domiciled in western countries, journals and libraries. they may modernize and then sell them back to africa at huge costs. the researchers are worried about this perceived ugly trend and therefore recommend that nigerian ‘the giant of africa’ 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http://www.iclc.us/cliei/c/38ugboma.pdf ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 114 transforming the actor through costuming: the design process in stage production monsuru oladotun olajide olaajiddemonsuru68@yahoo.com and stellamaris osazuwa stellyosass@gmail.com department of performing arts & film studies lead city university, ibadan abstract costume helps to define the style in a stage production, demonstrate relationships among actors, reveal the essence of actors, set the social and cultural environment and tell the story. other significance of costume in a performance includes specifying the actors’ social and professional roles, establishing time and place and meeting the practical needs of production. to achieve these, the costumier engages in research, brainstorming with the director and the other production crew. this is then followed with the sourcing of materials and building of the costumes. as tasking as these stages are, documenting costume design process in play productions could be more engaged. this work was then inspired to itemize and record the process of conceptualizing and realizing the costume of “idia” as a stage production. the researchers used majorly participant observation for the research work. the report of the production process and pictures served as data with which the work was carried out. this study recorded the process of conceptualizing and realizing the costume of ‘idia’ as a stage production. it was the convocation play of the department of performing arts and film studies, lead city university ibadan for the year 2018. findings revealed that for a stage play such as ‘idia, the sketching beforehand helped note the considerations for time in –between scenes. the sketching helped note costume changes that needed to be performed quickly and also aided in the process of sewing. also, the materials used for the ‘idia’ production were not very appropriate to the picture of the play but close substitutes were used. the play tells monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 115 about the benin kingdom, and each actor was costumed to portray the character given according to the play. costumes and accessories worn by actors were not the ideal materials, based on the low fund that was allocated to costume. therefore, some of the materials gotten were the replacement of the ideal materials. the work then recommends that costumer should be able to work with the available fund allocated especially in an academic production. also, he or she should have a backup plan in sourcing for production materials. introduction theatre is a collaborative art form that uses live performers, typically actors or actresses to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. the performers communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience. the specific place of the performance is also named by the word theatre as derived from the ancient greek “théatron” which means a place for viewing. modern western theatre comes in large measures; from the theatre of ancient greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres and many of its themes, stock characters and plot elements. modern theatre includes performances of plays and musical theatre. there are several aspects of dramatic theatre expression such as acting, costumes and staging, design make-up, directing, choreography, light design, music and dance. among all of these arts, costume and make-up are known in drama as the most personal aspects of the visual arts in the theatre because clothes are worn by actors on stage, likewise make-up and other accessories like bracelets, mask, hairstyle and other body properties are used by actors during performances. costume and make-up play important roles in play production because they add value to the play in terms of colour, shape and texture. the presence of costume and the use of makeup must be felt just as costume and make-up used in the theatre are different from our everyday dresses. costuming could mean habit and particularly the manner of dress and clothing worn at different period by different people. costume is the distinctive style of dress of an individual or group that reflects their class, gender, profession, ethnicity, nationality, activity or epoch. the term also ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 116 was traditionally used to describe typical appropriate clothing for certain activities, such as riding costume, swimming costume, dance costume and evening costume. appropriate and acceptable costume is subject to changes in fashion and local cultural norms. costume often refers to a particular style of clothing worn to portray the wearer as a character or type of character at a social event in a theatrical performance on the stage or in film or television. in combination with other aspects of stagecraft, theatrical costumes can help actors portray characters and their contexts as well as communicate information about the historical period, geographic location and time of day, season or weather of the theatrical performance. costume is referred to as an actor’s second skin. however, dressing in character is no trivial matter, for costumes differ from everyday clothes (tanner 193). in drama, costume sends signals similar to those used in everyday life to the audiences. in the theatre, costumes relay the information in performance with regards to status, sex, age, occupation, cultural or ethnic identities and many more. however, costume plays a primary role for the actor to impersonate a character. costume cannot be seen in isolation, it has to be considered with the other technical aspects of the theatre to form a harmonious whole in any theatrical production. these four art (costume, make-up, scenery and light) must meet so as to convey the colour motif of the production at hand in order to avoid a bizarre spectacle on stage and this has to be done in relation to the concept of the director. in her words, felner captures the costume design process thus: costume designers are usually engaged after a project has been selected. like the designers, they come to an understanding of the characters and their world through a close analysis of the text, discussions with the director and the rest of the production’s creative team, and through research. they ask themselves what needs to be revealed about the characters through the costumes and what demands the dramatic action makes on the clothing the actors will wear (286). in other words, costume is very crucial in any theatrical performance be it on stage or screen because it plays an important role in character creation, visual aesthetic as well as practical elements in a production. theatrical costume can illuminate the stage atmosphere and characters portrayed, while the basic elements of theatre are nothing more than the actors and the scripts. most theatre productions are not complete without the addition of costume. good costume gives the audience key information about a monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 117 character at first sight. for example, if a character is a wealthy one, the costuming of that particular character may be reflected in form of expensive, neat and ironed cloth and expensive accessories coupled with a tidy hair and beards which enhance the story telling and the realism of play. costumes also serve as a chief indicator of the time and place of a play. in most stage play, costume is the most visible and often deployed art. for dramatists who know the value of costume, they pay close attention to it even at the level of text. capturing the premium that the father of modern drama; henrik ibsen placed on costume in driving home characters’ realization in his works, ajami posits thus: in his plays, ibsen gives us detailed description of the appearance of characters and their costumes. he visualizes and gives life to the written persona by describing their looks and way of clothing. moreover, ibsen illustrates his characters by his comments about their apparel and characterizes them visually. in ibsen’s dramas, the characters interiority and beliefs are reflected by their external appearance hence costumes have a significance role in projecting a character’s personality. in his dramaturgy, ibsen also uses costume to illustrate symbols and metaphors. therefore, costumes not only signify characters’ moods, identities and social positions, but also they have wider meanings (11). theatre is seen as the most complex of all the arts, since in a single production many other arts are utilized. the playwright, the director, the actor, the scene designer, the costumer, the make-up artist, the choreographer and so on are all part of a production. this complexity therefore has led many to refer to theatre as a mixed art, because it is a combination of the written words of a literary artist, visual background of the scene designer and painter, the speech and movements of an actor and so on. costume, however, ought to perform some distinct functions such as establishing the style of the production, indicating the nature of individual characters or groups in a film or stage production, as well as their occupations, personalities and status. costume must also indicate the historical period of the production and the locale in which it occurs and so on. costume conveys the relevance of individual characters where necessary. furthermore, costume should be expressive of the psychological nature of its wearer (actor or actress) by trying to project the truth about him or her. the character, through his costume and makeup shows the difference between his or her usual self and the role he or she is playing. the costumier should therefore strive to establish a ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 118 comprehensible relationship between the actor and the audience through costume since the audience first feed their eyes on characters physical appearance before they are heard. the essence of costume in a production sanders, succinctly captures the essence of costume in a production to an actor and how it helps the audience’s understanding of a performance thus: from the time an actor first enters the stage the audience should be able to tell quite a lot about their character, even before they speak. the actor themselves, through posture, stance, gait, and general demeanor can communicate much, but their costume, much like our own clothes, establishes a lot of what the audience infers about that person at first glance… costume design is the artful creation of wardrobe that tells the stories of the play’s characters. good costume design accomplishes the looks required by the production while preserving the comfort and flexibility of the performers and addresses wardrobe maintenance concerns for the run of the production. it is an art that relies on knowledge of period detail, fabric construction, tailoring, and costume craft (59). good costume will give the audience key information about a character at first sight. for example, if a character is in a depressive state, the costuming may reflect this in the form of unkempt, dirty and wrinkled clothing. this enhances the storytelling and realism of the play. costumes are a chief indicator of the time and place of a play. makeup and hairstyles should also be coordinated to match the setting of the play, though some concession is made in makeup styles for the sake of avoiding wash-out. the director and costume designer will often work together in creating a visual aesthetic for a show that goes beyond the practical concerns. this type of planning not only enhances the vision for the drama and storytelling; it helps create a theatrical experience that is richly enjoyable from a visual standpoint as well as a dramatic one. costume serves an important purpose for actors, too. though the primary work that actors do in creating their characters is done during the weeks of rehearsal and individual practice leading up to a show, seeing them transformed visually into a character is often a powerful source of inspiration. also, beyond setting and character, costume plays an important role in visibility and aesthetic. costumes are clothes worn by actors and actresses, which assist them to assume different forms of characters aside their true selves. traditionally, it is very essential in theatre and possesses the ability of transforming a character. among the theatrical elements, costumes have monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 119 always assumed a major stand in every successful production. one may view costume as clothes, which we wear, but they are very essential in the theatre based on the functions so far alluded to. this proves the indispensability of costume in any theatre presentation. it is meant to serve as a blending factor to the actor’s role in interpretation of the character he is portraying both on stage. also the relevance of costume in productions cannot be over emphasized because costume aid understanding and interpretation of a performance. this is achieved by embarking on a thorough research of the script from costumier’s perspective. whereas the actor seeks to embody his understanding of character through movements and voice, the costumier uses the elements of costume design such as texture, colour, and line and so on to create a visual counterpart of the action. in the theatre, costumes send us signals similar to those in everyday life. however, as with other elements in theatre, there are significant differences between costumes of everyday life and those in theatre. in the words of landis: there is often confusion between costume design and fashion design; however, these two fields and their objectives are very different. fashion designers have labels and sell their clothes, while costume designers have no labels and are focused on creating authentic characters in a story. costume designers create both beautiful gowns for a glamorous entrance and everyday clothes when required by the script. they must know “who” characters “are” before they create a closet of clothes and accessories for the characters. a costume is worn by one actor, as one specific character, in a specific scene or scenes in the story. most important, the audience must believe that every person in a story has a life before the movie begins (2) although stage costumes communicate the same information as ordinary clothes with regard to sex, positions and occupations, this information is magnified because every element in theatre is in the spotlight. also, on the stage, costumes must meet other requirements not normally expected in everyday life. stage costumes should help establish the tone and style of a production indicate the historical period of a play and locale in which it occurs and help to show the nature of individual characters or groups in a play, their stations in life, occupations and personalities. costumes should show the relationships among characters; separating major characters from minor ones, contrasting one group with another, symbolically convey the significance of individual characters of the theme of the play. also, the costume should meet the needs of individual performer making ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 120 it possible for an actor or actress to move freely in costume in order to change quickly from one to another. costume must also be consistent with the production as a whole especially other visual elements. on the practical side, the costume designer clothes the actor and ensures that the actor is able to perform without constriction due to their costumes (crist 5). furthermore, costume on stage must meet other requirements apart from those stated above because theatrical clothing sends us signals similar to those in normal life. this is why an actor or actress should always strive to feel and acts like the character he or she is portraying. theatrical costumes can exaggerate some aspect of a character. sometimes theatrical costumes literally mimic what the costume designer thinks the character would wear if the character actually existed. on the other hand, oftenstylized theatrical costumes can exaggerate some aspect of a character. through the use of appropriate costumes, the time and place, the occupation and lifestyle, the culture of a group of people, the economic and social status, the mood and atmosphere, as well as gender and age of actors, as well as the period of the play are established (kwakye-opong and dennis 83). the costume design process of “idia” sketching phase for costume design in ‘idia’ production script reading: the script is always the foundation of any play work. it therefore necessitates a proper reading for understanding. more especially as many will put descriptive passages into their scripts to help set the tone for their story, our job was to collaborate with the director and agree on what he wanted the costume for the play to look like. during the process of reading the script, we broke down the script into several categories to form an outline that will become the performance. we had a book, and in this book, there was all the pertinent information that we needed on a day-to-day basis to perform my duties as the costumiers. it consisted of all the characters in the play, which scenes they were in and how many costume changes they had over the course of the story. reading of the script was very important, because it aided the understanding of the play, during the pre-production stage of ‘idia’, reading the script aided our understanding about what each actor should be wearing for each scene, what colour of fabrics, texture etc. we met with the director to discuss the approach with the director, and other members of the design team. monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 121 knowledge of period and/or style came from research while reading. the reading was done outside rehearsal and while rehearsing. script analysis: script analysis is the breakdown of the script from start to the end of the story. it covers all aspects from the first time we see an actor on stage to the last. all the script reading was to enable us create a better script analysis as it helped establish the tone and style of a production of ‘idia’. it helped also to indicate the historical period of a play and the locale in which it occurs. also, we were able to indicate the nature of individual characters or groups in the play, their stations in life, their occupations and their personalities, and show the relationships among characters; separating major characters from minor ones, contrasting one group with another. where appropriate, we could symbolically convey the significance of each character in the script ‘idia’. it also helped to meet the needs of individual performers, making it possible for an actor or actress to move freely in a costume, to change quickly from one costume to another. we were consistent with the production as a whole, especially other visual elements because it is then we could match up the characters in the script with the scenes that they appear on stage. then we created a costume plot for each character in the script, and we created a look and provided a costume for each member of the cast, and also selected fabric suitable for each role, accessories. character analysis: this is a process for analyzing characters as would be played by actors and creating the perfect match in terms of costume. analysis of character begins with the script as usual. these include finding clues into their personal history, their family history, where they live, who they have relationships with, age, social status, religion. these are all useful to discovering the characters comprehensively. in the case of 'idia', there was a long list of questions asked on characters’ age, socio-economic status, time period, geographical location, housing, etc. that’s always a great place to start, as we moved into image research. in ‘idia’, the queen mother idia and oba esigie were the most interesting actors to work with. we began with clues from the text that described them. we also looked at the actors’ practical circumstances. both actors represented benin culture, rulers of the benin kingdom and also great warriors. these things all informed the choices for costume. their several attires were combination of many colours and patterns to distinguish it from the other single coloured costumes on stage. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 122 even though there is often extensive work on actors, there is also a larger picture that one has to address with costume. how does it look with the set? is the story made clearer with the costumes that were put on stage? do the costumes help you know where to look on the stage? the job of creating a world and helping tell the story of the play is collaborative. everyone on the team had something to contribute to the production as a whole. costume plot: the costume plot is chart for the productions listing actors’ appearances in each scene, what they are wearing and their overall movement throughout the play. this helps track the specific costume needs of every actor. it can also identify any potential costume challenges, such as very quick changes between scenes. the next step along the way is to add pertinent notes to each actor and change in ‘idia’. for instance, an actor has to appear powerful for example oba esigie in ‘idia’, a character has to appear impeccably neat for example imaguero in ‘idia’. there were actors that had change in costumes for different scenes, so we had to think and then be prepared to have some numbers of such outfits. everything we can garner from the script related to the character and the relationship to their costumes was noted in our book. if an actor was meant to change for multiple roles, then we needed to create different costumes. in the production, the two actors who had to change mostly were oba esigie and queen mother idia, for each scene both actors had four different attires to change to. for the first scene which is the coronation, both oba esigie and queen mother idia wore different attire and colour related to the scene, and also at the war scene, the both actors had to change to particular war attires different from the royal attires, and there were other scenes they had to change. while queen mother idia and oba esigie had about four changes early during the production, some other actors too had change of attire for different scenes. for these attires, notes were attached to different costumes to indicate. so while creating a costume plot, we used the columns to write the names of each roles the actors were playing (and the actor’s name). then we used the rows to write in the scene from the production. after meeting with the director to discuss our vision for the costumes, from colours, to periods, to specifics for the main actors, then we began to determine what each actors will wear and write it in the appropriate box for each actor and each scene. sometimes the same outfit will be worn by one or more actors for the entire production. other actors may make full costume changes from scene to scene. monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 123 a sample of costume plot for ‘idia’ production (queen idia and oba esigie) act/scene actor costume pieces accessories scene 1 idia red wrapper, bead blouse, crown coral beads scene 2 idia blue wrapper, crown, bead blouse coral beads scene 3 idia wine wrapper, crown coral beads scene 4 idia war costume (white, black, leopard skin gown) leopard skin scarf scene 5 idia red wrapper, bead blouse, crown coral beads act/scene actor costume pieces accessories scene 1& 2 esigie white skirt and blouse, bead blouse, crown coral beads and neck choker scene 3 esigie red skirt and red blouse, crown coral beads scene 4 esigie war costume (leopard skin top) with red skirt, crown coral beads scene 5 esigie white skirt and blouse, bead blouse, crown coral beads and neck choker the costume plot’s enabled us to look through the various types of costumes and accessories available and find the ones that are intended for each actor. without a costume plot, it would be very easy for us to forget how many costumes wderfe required for each actor due to various events occurring during the performance. it would also be very easy for actors’ costume pieces or accessories to be forgotten. the costume plot helped to also point out areas that may have been forgotten to provide for in the definition of the actors through costumes. costume sketching: if the production is set in a specific historical era, the fashions of this period will need to be researched. to stimulate the flow of ideas at the first meeting with the director and the design team, well after several meetings which the director, we presented a few rough costume sketches. and also, appropriate time to check with the director on the exact number of actors needing costumes, as well as any nonama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 124 speaking characters the director included on the stage that were not in the script. it was our responsibility to sketch these out. this helps track the specific costume needs of every actor. it can also identify any potential costume challenges, such as very quick changes between scenes. after the director approved our preliminary sketches, we drew up the final costume designs. the final designs are done in full-colour which shows the production the style, silhouette, textures, accessories and unique features of each costume. sourcing phase for costume design in ‘idia’ production budgeting: in sourcing, the first thing is the budget of what needs to be used. each production has a labour budget and a materials budget. with the materials budget, a rough estimate is made of the amount of money allocated to each costume. the best term to describe this is “creative financing” as obviously some productions will cost more and some less. we began an exhaustive discussion in which each costume is broken down into its various components. this allows us to get a sense of the design direction and to establish design priorities or fabric and style options. buying: after the budgeting and costume breakdown has been completed, we went shopping for materials needed, went to some markets in ibadan to get all the materials needed. there may be several buying sessions, or one or more complicated sessions during which most of the buying were completed. the first trip to gbagi market consists of switching (buying small pieces – swatches – of fabrics to assess their colour and ability to be broken down) and purchasing the major fabric pieces. the second trip to ogunpa and oja oba markets consists of buying trim and other accent pieces. footwear and accessories were purchased aleshinloye market during the third buying trip. not all costume were purchased however because the department had some of the costume used. cutting and sewing: tailors began their work-term with an extensive discussion where the practical, technical and design aspects are discussed. due to the challenge i had with the machines in costume room, the materials were moved outside for tailors to sew, and it was not easy for us to monitor the sewing. this was because we had to keep attending rehearsal to see if the director made any character changes or costume changes. collaboration occurs, as a tailor offers invaluable input as to how a design can be fully realized. every costume is basted together prior to a fitting, then, after alterations have been made in the fitting, the costumes monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 125 were taken apart, basted together again and finally, after the second fitting, permanently sewn together. costumes were cut to closely recreate the historical period in which they are set, but they must also accommodate the requirements of a modern physique and the performance demands of the actor. dress rehearsals: the dress and technical rehearsal is the first time the actor wears his or her costume on stage. it was this time; all the elements of the production came together: set, props, costumes, lighting and sound. once the costume reaches backstage, it becomes the charge of the dresser who works during the performance and is responsible for getting the actor into costume to see if there is any change to be made or if the costume were okay to be used. we made sure that every changes made during the tech dress was noted. final work of the costume design process of ‘idia’ production phase: this phase is all about the final result of each costume, accessories that has been put together for the production of ‘idia’. before the final piece was used or showcased we went through several challenges, starting from research on the play while reading the script, it was not easy for us to understand everything about the script, concept, so we had to meet with the director to tell us about his concept of the play. then we did script analysis, character analysis, got some ideas on different looks for each characters. then we met with the director, told him about our ideas, we searched for more ideas and agreed on these final costumes design. another challenge was the cutting down of budget because not much fund was allocated to us for costumes which led to getting cheaper materials that were not suitable for some of the roles in the play, but that was the only way out of the situation, the materials gotten were only managed. audience didn’t know if they were made from cheap materials or not, changing of designs that are not achievable was also a challenge because at a point the director rejected some costumes and had to be returned for changed and amends before the production day, sewing were also done outside the costume room because the atmosphere was not conducive, the sewing machines were faulty , but the end result or final piece of each actors’ costume used in the stage play ‘idia’ was well sorted and turn out well, which is being analyzed. all these are exemplified in the following actors. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 126 queen idia this role was played by ademola ayomide, she played the major role in the play. queen idia is described as the symbol of women’s liberation. history has it that she played a very significant role in the rise and reign of her son. she was a strong warrior who fought relentlessly before and during her son’s reign as the oba (king) of the edo people. she exuded power, skill, loyalty, and feminine beauty and there are artistic works that portray her as both a warrior and a mother. idia was the first queen mother of benin kingdom and she paved the way for nigerian women of yesteryears and present times to have their part in decision-making as touching the political issues. idia received much of the credit for esigie’s victories as his political counselor. her mystical powers and medicinal knowledge were viewed as the reason for esigie’s success on the battlefield. to reward and honor her, esigie created a new position within the court called the iyoba or “queen mother,” which gave her significant political privileges, including a separate residence with its own staff. we and the makeup artist did a good job in transforming the actress into the idia character. the first costume she wore in the play was when she appeared on stage mourning her late husband oba ozolua. she was dressed in a red wrapper, embroidery designs in gold, crystal and a beaded blouse, neck bead called ive-uru in benin, hand bead called ivie-obo in benin, crown which was designed with coral beads, the crown is called okuku in benin. this is the most important part of her dressing, which signifies royalty. and for the next scene which the contest/coronation scene, she was dressed in a blue wrapper embroidered with stone all over, with the same beaded blouse and accessories and this costume worn by idia. the choice of colour was to indicate that there was a huge ceremony and she had to appear glamorous. she was dressed in a wine plain wrapper, but without her beaded blouse, but just hand and neck bead, with her clown in the next scene where she meant uke in the bush path, the same outfit and accessories was worn in the next scene, but this time with her beaded blouse. for the war scene which was the following scene, idia was dressed in a gown which was made of three different colours, black, white, and leopard skin with cowries’ embroidery. she was with no accessories or crown, she tied scarf made with leopard skin material, and she was with a sword. at the end of the play she was dressed in a red wrapper had gold crystals embroidery at tip of the wrapper, with a beaded blouse made with red coral monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 127 bead, a crown made with coral bead, neck and hand bead which were red coral beads. fig. 1 image of idia costume in scene 5 ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 128 fig. 2: idia in her war costume monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 129 fig. 3 idia in her coronation costume oba esigie this role was played by john david. oba esigie was an oba (king) of benin who ruled the ancient benin kingdom. at the time of his father oba ozolua's death, esigie controlled benin city with major assistance and support from his mother queen idia. esigie became oba of benin. esigie later fended off an attack from the igala people. esigie started a tradition in benin by conferring his mother with the title of iyoba (queen mother) and providing the eguae-iyoba (palace of the queen mother) in lower uselu for her use. during his reign, the mischievous oba ẹsigie who had some scores to settle with chief oliha devised a plan to put the disaffected chief oliha in his place. for the first scene he appeared, he wore a white skirt and blouse. the blouse is called iyeruan and the skirt is the akhuankhuan or ikekeze in benin, though the costume wore by the actor in the picture was just an improvisation of what the original outfit worn by the oba of benin kingdom. he also wore a male beaded blouse made of coral bead, a crown made with coral red bead called ede in benin, a neck choker made with coral bead called ikiro, and several other neck beads, hand bead, and he was holding a staff made with coral beads, which symbolizes authority, this costume was worn during his coronation. the same costume was repeated in the next scene but without his beaded ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 130 blouse and neck choker, and his crown was changed to another, for the scene of his meeting with oliha wife. he was seen wearing a red skirt and blouse, with bead accessories on his neck and hand. at the war scene he was dressed in a blouse made with leopard skin with cowries’ embroidery and red skirt, with his crown and hand bead. and at last scene, he dressed in the costume he wore for the coronation, with the same beaded blouse, neck choker and accessories. fig. 4: esigie in his coronation costume monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 131 fig. 5: idia and esigie in their war costume imaguero the wife of oliha was played by reginald amarachi. she was very famous for her beauty and chief oliha felt very lucky to own such a breath-taking female. imaguero particularly loved expensive coral beads; she couldn’t get enough of them. and this weakness was used against her. this led to her betraying her husband trust by getting involved with the king and it led to her death. for her first scene appearance she was dressed in a pink wrapper with blue and gold embroidery, bead all over her hair, neck bead and hand bead, for the next scene her encounter with the king she was dressed in wine wrapper which had stone or crystal embroidery at the tip of the wrapper. and for her last scene {death scene} she was dressed in a plain brown wrapper with no accessories, just her head bead. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 132 fig. 6: imaguero in her costume when she met with the king. monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 133 fig. 7: imaguero in her costume before her death uke uke the royal jester, the role was played by gisman pius. he was a humble and loyal servant to the king. he was the one who the king sent on a mission to entice imaguero with royal coral bead, he was the most trusted servant of the king. he didn’t have change of costume like the other actors he was seen wearing white skirt and neck bead. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 134 fig. 8: uke in his costume oliha he was one of the chiefs. oliha won’t stop bragging about his most beautiful wife in the palace, he was envied by his fellow elites. as time went by, and he was betrayed by his wife and the king, which made him join forces with the kingdom enemies to rage war. the role was played akisanmi oluwasijibomi. he had two costumes: a white skirt with neck bead and hand bead, and he the war scene he was seen dressed in a red skirt and a red blouse with cowries’ embroidery alongside his warriors all wearing red and black blouse and shorts. monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 135 fig. 9: oliha when he sentenced imaguero to death. fig. 10: chiefs in their costumes ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 136 fig. 11: images of women in idia cult costume the portuguese explorer there were four actors who played the role {two females (osazuwa stellamaris; one of the reserchers and adediran oreoluwa) and two males (iwague timothy and noah micheal)}, who came to benin kingdom to explore. the females were dressed in white shirt and a black long gown with white bow design and different colour of shoe, the male were dressed in white shirt, black or white trouser, black jacket, black bow tie, black hat and red scarf around their waist, and different colours of shoe. fig 12 monsuru oladotun olajide & stellamaris osazuw transforming the actor through… 137 fig 13: images of dancers conclusion this study has been concerned with examining the costume design process in a stage production with all the constraints involved in the stages. the general view taken is that costume apart from being used for indicating such things as age, social status, locale, historical sign posting of productions, it can also be used for the purpose of preserving culture. in the course of this study attempt has been made to document the costume design process in stage performance of “idia”. it is in this wise the script reading, script and character analysis, costume research, costume plot, costume sketching, budgeting, buying, cutting and sewing, fittings, dress rehearsals were looked at in order to acquire more ideas on the processes involve in designing costume in a stage play. the challenges in the process and the techniques employed to overcome them were also examined. by and large, it is ultimately the culmination of the designer deep research into the script with consultation with the director and using the correct tools in order to work with the entire ‘idia’ stage production team that has enabled the costumiers to accomplish the job and to create the masterpiece. and this work will definitely serve as a purpose of research to any scholar that wants to know more about the process of designing costume for a stage production. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 138 recommendation a costume designer should always work within the fund allocated to costume. he or she should always have a replacement or alternative for any material for costume that could not be gotten in case if the fund allocated to costume is not enough. costume could either be hired or borrowed, for any production, as a replacement for the ones that could not be bought. furthermore, the atmosphere should be conducive enough to work, the sewing machine should be replaced if spoilt and serviced when needed some days before sewing starts, and be in a good working condition. reference ajami , sahar. “ibsen and costume” : a case study of the rat wife” pp. 11. crist, brianne. “the art of costuming: interpreting the character through the costume designer’s eyes.” pp. 274. felner, mira. think theatre. pearson. 2013 kwakye-opong, regina & dennis, albert. “from text to performance: the costumier versus other personnel in the theatre.” global journal of arts humanities and social sciences vol.2, no.4, 2014, pp. 83. landis, deborah nadoolman. “costume design: defining character.” https://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/teachersguidecostumedesign-2015.pdf sanders,tal. an introduction to technical theatre. pacific university press, 2018. tanner, fran averett. basic drama projects. clark publishing, inc., 1995. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 62 old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the newmedia: a study of alibaba’s 2016 january 1st concert performance. awaritoma agoma department of theatre arts, faculty of arts, university of abuja. email – oma2omagcon@gmail.com mobile – 08034503394 abstract stand-up comedy is sometimes regarded as a shallow and emerging performance genre in nigerian theatre practice. therefore, the paper argues that stand-up comedy has been well represented in nigerian theatre. moreover, the origin of this genre can be traced back to the times of oral literature (orature) and they are a regular part of virtually every function, where there is enough space for the solo performer to perform. thus, the subject matter during the period of orature is not different from what is obtainable in stand-up comedy performances today. this paper’s objective is to reveal that the nature of solo performance (one-man show) illuminates the performer more and performances; it can be seamlessly recorded for transmission in especially the new media platforms that connects the local sphere with the entire global community. this paper is anchored on the ‘avant-gardist theory’ of the theatre that allows ample room for experimentation during performance; as well as the ‘less is more’ concept of the theatre, that gives little room for extraneous materials. the field study and descriptive approaches, of the qualitative research methodology are adopted for this research because it emphasises the importance of observations made rather than numerical data. findings reveal that orature is thriving in the performances of stand-up comedians and as a popular art, when properly refined, stand-up comedy could be used to sell other performance arts and other rich elements of the nigerian culture to the rest of the globe. the paper concludes that the stand-up comedian’s art enjoys audience followership and serves the same purpose as the storyteller’s art. hence, it can fit into the new media through the growing electronic performance culture. awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 63 introduction historical facts indicate that stand-up comedy is an entertaining performance that metamorphosed from older nigerian theatre genres like the wanderin minstrel and story-telling. however, the new stand-up comedy genre in nigeria is a product of socio-economic changes and change in taste and demand of contemporary nigerian audience. though, every stand-up comedian is a solo performer but not all solo performers are stand-up comedians. solo performance is a broad umbrella that accommodates every one-person performer on stage but this paper focuses on the stand-up comedian whose origin can be traced to the origin of man and story teller, a major performer in almost every culture of the world. globally, the stand-up comedian: a performer who could be described as a modern day version of the story-teller and the monodramatist; is known and remains part and parcel of theatre practice and contemporary entertainment. this genre of the theatre is very easy to market especially with the advent of the new media because one camera can easily record one person on stage than five or six persons on the same stage as has been observed in the conventional stage. “thus, african theatre in its paradigm shift has been antagonistic, responsive, and accommodating interplay of cultural, traditional, colonial, socio-economic and political forces, years of experimentation and cross-fertilization of intellectual and ideological conceptions” (canice chukwuma nwosu, 150). conceptual clarification an illumination of the key concepts: ‘performance,’ ‘oral literature (orality),’ ‘stand-up comedy,’ ‘subject matter’ and the ‘new media’ is an appropriate starting point that will position this paper on a clear pedestal for better understanding. richard schechner believes, “performance is an extremely difficult concept to define”; but ervin goffman, according to schechner, believes “performing is a mode of behavior that may characterize any activity. thus, performance is a “quality” that can occur in any situation rather than a fenced-off genre” (22). it is believed that traditional african theatre, which is the generality of original performing arts, brewed on african soil and untainted by european civilization over the years, may have started as solo; as history indicates the presence of the shaman, bard or storyteller. akporobaro states that, “the written word today is only an outcome of the “oral forms orality” which are man’s earliest and original medium of self-expression and artistic creativity”. (1) ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 64 oral forms are therefore the beginning of african theatre. and ruth finnegan in oral literature in africa also posits that, there is no mystery about the first and most basic characteristics of oral literature – even though it is constantly overlooked in collections and analyses. this is the significance of actual performance. oral literature is by definition dependent on a performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion. (4) whether it was the shaman or the storyteller, the occasion has a bearing on the performance. f. b. o. akporobaro explains further, “an oral literary expression exists as a performance, as a speech act accentuated and rendered alive by various gestures, social conventions and the unique occasion in which it is performed.” (3) to isidore okpewho, oral literature is, “literature delivered by word of mouth.” he continues: “and has turned out to be a very useful concept for those scholars interested in examining the cultural relationships between those who can read and write and those who cannot.”(3) ‘word of mouth’ does not mean that body gestures and facial expression are absent, as the body even in a state of sleep is known to respond to that (sleeping) activity accordingly. rather, it shows that even the words themselves are loaded with actions. oral literature has been described variously as traditional literature, orature, folklore, verbal art and folk literature. they all point to the time when africans, according to finnegan in the oral and beyond, were experts at ‘doing things with words’. she claims: “it envisages words in the context of action. that is, it is more concerned with what people do with words than with language as an abstract, cognitive or somehow independent system.” (2) she says of her book, “the volume’s prime focus is on people doing things with words orally – spoken, vocalized, unwritten.”(3). it is worthy to state clearly here, that it is almost impossible to talk without moving; especially your hands and facial expressions definitely will confirm further the meaning of these words. in other words, gestures, body movements with facial expressions will always accompany voice/words. finnegan argues further in the oral and beyond that, “africa is celebrated above all for the treasure of her voiced and auditory arts, and as home of oral literature, orature and orality, and the genesis and inspiration of the voiced tradition of the great diaspora.”(1) the above assertion indicates that a lot of the solo performers in the western world may have been influenced by the orality from africa, perhaps as a result of the slave trade. jan vansina sees, “oral tradition as awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 65 verbal messages which are reported statements from the past beyond the present generation. the definition specifies that the message must be oral statements spoken, sung, or called out on musical instruments only.”(27) performances recorded in the memories of the performer and passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth are described as orature. the solo performer therefore, in traditional african theatre, even though he was not recognized by that title, was the story-teller, bard, court fool, shaman, groit whose activity is inherent in the performance of the modern day solo performer. and vansina captures their mode of performance succinctly when he opines, that “the best known situation of performance is the telling of tales. a performer sits, often in the evening, surrounded by listeners and spins a tale.” it is not a mere recitation, he adds: the voice is raised or lowered, used as a means of dramatization. nor does the story-teller just sit there. the tale is acted out with body gestures, even when the storyteller is sitting. sometimes he or she may stand up, move around, and mime parts of the action narrated. in most cases the public is not just watching. the public is active. it interacts with the teller, and the teller provokes the interaction by asking questions, welcoming exclamations, and turning to a song sung by all at appropriate points of the action. the teller and the public are creating the tale together. the teller leads the event but responds readily to the public and leads his or her public to experience the tale. he or she tries to frighten, delight, worry, and put them on tenterhooks, in turn and skillfully builds on the passage which move the audience most, expanding the exciting parts and condensing or transforming the ones where the attention of the audience lags. (34-35), vansina’s postulation above is an appropriate summary of what the actions, whether then or now of what solo performance entails. they do not just recite, they perform. then and now the standards remain the same, the performer must be creative enough to hold an audience and there is always some kind of interaction between the performer and the audience. he also claims that some storytellers are more creative than others and that they have better techniques for making their tales come alive more than others. then he goes further to say some are better at ‘dramatization’ (monodramatist) while some are experts in the area of “comic relief” (stand-up comedians); and while describing some as ‘spellbinders’, others he says are good at “involving the public”. vansina believes “performers ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 66 could be specialists or not.” (36) okumba miruka says, “the word ‘performance’ is generally understood to mean the delivery or rendition of an item” (57). furthermore, he avers: the idea of performance nominally implies a demarcation between the performer and his audience. the performance is even guided by certain tacit regulations to which every participant subscribes. there is an orderly sequence of events and the context of performance is defined. for instance, narratives are traditionally told in the evening; there is one performer at a time.” usually the evening narratives take place in very informal settings where the narrator is even at liberty to suspend his tale to attend to domestic issues and come back to continue. (57) performances can take place anywhere including the home of the storyteller. gichingiri ndigirigi buttresses this point, the narrator (usually the mother) of an ogre story for example, might break off in the middle of a story to attend to the pot cooking the family’s dinner, or to comment about the goat in the shed that never stops bleating. or the neighbor might drop in to borrow salt, or snuff, as the children are left wondering what happened next. (4) in traditional african theatre which has been described as oral literature or verbal art, performances come mainly as riddles, proverbs, oral poetry and narratives. the above exposition is aimed at revealing the stand-up comedian as a solo performer wearing the shoes of the storyteller. and stand-up comedy is defined as a performance by one person before an audience with the main intention of entertaining – evoking laughter. the stand-up comedian lives for laughs; he may have messages to communicate but his major medium is comedy, historically in africa, he is also rooted in the storyteller. tony allen devoted the entire chapter two of his book attitude to the “history of stand-up comedy.” allen is also of the opinion that stand-up comedy is rooted in storytelling and he says, the story teller chooses “the right story for the occasion. the rest is in the telling”. he claims: a good story teller will rarely repeat the same story word for word, and the same story from a different story teller can often be unrecognizable to the lay listener. the story teller/writer, as a general rule, selects the bare bone of an existing story and then customizes it to suit his own style. the process can involve describing and interpreting each scene and character through all five senses and in terms of a choice of passing or pervading moods. the whole text can awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 67 be enriched and decorated using a personal repertoire of mnemonics, schematic sequences and structural devices. in the actual telling, she can inhabit and personify just about anything she chooses, investing every detail, every phrase, and every word-verb, noun and adjective, every vowel and syllable, with energy or meaning. she could do sound effects, sing, snort, spit and gargle. characters and their actions can be described in their own particular language, rhythm and sentence structure. (2) the storyteller had and still possesses the skills and complete attributes of a present day stand-up act and could be seen or referred to as one of the first practitioners of the art of stand-up comedy. the village “idiot” or “fool” or “drunk” has been known to possess some useful skills in comedy. this accounted for why, in most royal courts or palaces, these ‘idiots’ or ‘fools’ were used to entertain guests and important guests at that. most highly placed people or even great kings in history, used to keep ‘court fools’ for their own personal entertainment and more. to validate this point, iyorwuese h. hagher says the following about the court fool or wawan sarki in hausa-land while talking on the functionality of comedy: theatre is also being used for child and adult education as well as mass literacy and mobilization campaigns. conversely in nigeria the feudalistic emirs have always used the principle of catharsis for suppression of the masses and maintenance of status quo. at annual sallah festivals the traditional performances are incorporated into secular expression for feudal rule. in fact without ever hearing of aristotle each emir has perfected a cathartic device for robbing the subject-spectator, of action against oppression. this is done through the institution of the emir’s court theatre whose major actor the hero, wawan sarki enacts the frustration of the commoners against the emir’s misrule, on these occasions, and he abuses the emir in satiric humour to the delight of the spectators. he dances and dashes forward pointing to the emir and throwing sharp jokes and abuses at him but nothing happens to the wawan sarki. (6-7) it was a perfect strategy, which kept the masses in check. they enjoy the wawan sarki’s performances because it speaks their hidden fears and they get relieved even though nothing changes after then. this is akin to what alibaba does when performing for the president and other top government functionaries as would be revealed much later in the analysis of his performance. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 68 the activities of this one-man performer today in nigeria, is best represented in especially the performance of stand-up comedians who still have very little or no attention and appreciation from especially, the academic community, disregarding the words of vera mowry roberts who posits that “any theatre activity, i sometimes think, is better than no theatre activity” (6) mowry roberts also adds: ”the amount of learning that goes on as a result of experiencing comedies in the theatre is in many cases, if not all, implicit and not explicit; hardly anyone ever goes to theatre of any kind expecting to learn something anyway.”(178-179) this means that the average theatre audience goes to seek entertainment which does not say learning does not take place in stand-up comedy because according to kyle haenisch, the subject matter in stand-up can range from the basic day-to-day activities of the comic to his views on current social issues. there is an atmosphere of anything goes in stand-up comedy today,….no subject is taboo. drugs, sex, violence, and drinking are all common topics of discussion. no one is safe, anyone in public eye is fair game to the stand-up comedian. (2) louis catron also supports the above assertion when he says, “there are many solo subjects as there are solo performers” (3). what the above signify is that a lot of learning takes place even if it is just laughter that is expected from the performance. no doubt, stand-up comedy is masses oriented and is concerned with social change. therefore, the subject matter in oral literature is not different from what is obtainable in the performances of stand-up comedians and even conventional play performances. the “new media” refers to the entire body of social network sites, the internet, blogs, chatrooms, podcasts, personal web pages, face-book, instagram, twitters, whatsapp etc. just with any smart phone anybody can record a performance and in seconds it is uploaded into different international networks; for onward transmission worldwide. and with stand-up comedy which is a one-man show, with total emphasis on the actor, the camera or phone does not need to wonder away from the performer. even in advertising the shows, the social media is employed to a great extent. and while events are still going on, members of the audience can record and stream live to their friends and associates, unless they are censored from doing so, which is what is obtainable because most of the stand-up comedy shows are packaged for sale or exclusive broadcast by supporting media houses. awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 69 avant-gardism and emerging nigerian performance genres this paper is anchored on the avant-gardist theory of the theatre. standup comedy as solo performance has been described as an experimental and rebellious theatre; this is because comedians are individuals who create their own rules as they perform. they are not boxed in by any rule of the theatre, to them, they need change and there are no rules but the presence of the compulsory elements of actor, audience and space for the performance. every other element is expendable. an ‘avant-gardist’ is a revolutionist whose main preoccupation is with the essentials for a performance. vera mowry roberts buttresses this point when she states that, “the core of the theatre is the actor-audience relationship. with it there is theatre, without it there is none. this is the only absolute and always present factor.” (283) emeka nwabueze also affirms, “the term avant-garde, was used to describe the concept of modernism, hence it became a rallying point for movements that rejected tradition and statusquo and hungered for radical change” (133). historically speaking, theatre is rooted in the activities of one man – thespis; and with modernism, a lot of experimentation or rule breaking is the rule. so, one-man shows or stand-up comedy is not a new phenomenon. nwabueze writing on the ‘origins of drama’ avers: in the middle of this presentational activity, one of the chorus members broke away from the choral group….this sole actor impersonated and imitated the hero instead of singing about him, or chanting his praises, thereby turning a purely storytelling and praisechant activity into a dramatic form before the ecstatic spectators. the man who performed this historic act was thespis, the greek artist credited with the discovery of drama, and who eventually became known as the first actor. (11-12) and john cairney corroborates the above claim with his assertion that “theatre is back where it started with one man telling the story to the group around the fire. in theater, as in life, there is nothing new under the sun.” (198) theatre started as solo and solo began with the theatre. cairney also reiterates the fact that the only constant element that makes a theatre happen is the actor and the audience: “however one factor remains constant and that is the direct actor-to-audience relationship,...everything else, lights, costume, sound, setting, are extra to this central action which is at the core of drama.”(18) ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 70 married to the above theory is the “less is more” concept of performance which has been elaborated in minimalism – poor theatre. one man can conjure fifteen or more characters as well as vehicles, trains, mountains, rivers, animals, trees during his performance and because of his dexterity, he prods the audience into participating through their imagination and they can actually visualize more images and props on stage than a stagnant and monotonous set would convey. this is exactly what the stand-up comedian does – conjuring different characters in one story; with the solo performer, less is indeed more. catron elucidates on the ‘less is more’ concept. he opines that, “typical monodramas observe the less is more artistic concept originated by robert browning.” furthermore, he avers: “the goal is restraint, removing excesses to leave an elemental beauty of form that matches purpose. in theatre, ‘less is more’ means tightly restrained productions, discarding nonessentials to focus attention on the character and story.” (33) this actually allows the audience to focus more on the actor and the performance than on other extraneous materials introduced by way of multiple characterization, elaborate set and scenery, costumes, props, make-up, lighting and sound effects etc. catron argues further that the simplicity of the monodrama’s production style is based on jerzy grotowski’s submission in towards a poor theatre which portrays elaborate theatrical productions as “ornate and complicated” which makes it “distract from the key elements of actor and audience thereby inhibiting or even destroying theatre’s ability to communicate effectively with audiences.” poor theatre production focuses on the core of theatre: actor and audience and avoids lavish staging techniques. stand-up comedy is almost the same with monodrama the main difference being the depth of ‘acting’ that takes place in monodrama is much more dexterous and the expectations of the audience in stand-up comedy being mainly an endless chain of laughter. otherwise, they are both solo performance; with one being skillful at ‘dramatization’ and the other skillful at ‘comedy.’ this is revealed in the researcher’s field study that facilitated information gathering. this is also combined with descriptive approach of the qualitative research method that illuminated the significance of observations made. consequently, the observer could be present during the event or view the performance through a recorded video. furthermore, the direct observation brings the researcher face-to-face with the subject and this is also very effective and “the qualitative approach’s objective” awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 71 according to sola fajana’s “collecting the data” ed. by imoisili c. imonitie is, to see the social world from the point of view of the actor….close involvements with the subjects are emphasized….the emphasis is on discovery of novel or unanticipated findings and the possibility of changing the research plans as unanticipated events occur. (16) this researcher was privileged to see face-to-face alibaba’s 2016 january 1st concert performance and on request was given the unedited copy of the video recording. context analysis of aspects of alibaba january 1st concert in lagos, 2016. note: alibaba’s entire performance ran for about 25minutes but this analysis because of space captures only a few of the jokes he performed that night. alibaba: happy new year every one (3ce). thank you ‘nigeria army steel band’. remain there; be still…the nigerian army steel band represents a section of the nigerian army that i need to celebrate tonight. my dad worked and retired as the 2ic of the nigerian army education corps in ojo cantonment and i think today, no matter how much you give to him as allowance, my dad still goes to asaba to collect his allowee. you tell him daddy, what they are paying you is just a hundred thousand naira. he said, “yes, i worked for it and they must pay me till i die”. and so today, to all our officers who slave and die at the battle front even when people who should make them comfortable and pay their salaries don’t pay their salaries…i’d like us to please rise and honour all our departed soldiers that are fighting our battles, all the people who have put their lives on the line…(loud applause, standing ovation) to serve this country, some of them don’t even have uniforms like adadevo…keep your applause together for them, men who put on the boots to make sure that our streets are safe even when they are not properly armed like my dad. and so please, with another round of applause can you celebrate the nigerian steel band…nigerian army steel band (the band commences another round of music). alibaba (to audience), please be seated. (audience sits and band plays on). analysis: the first paragraph by alibaba represents his introduction, greetings (bonding with the audience) as well as explanation for his costume. the army uniform, the army steel band, his retired army-officer father and later on the jokes on military are all connected. they foreground ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 72 the fact that presently in nigeria, there is a new government which is like a dictatorship because of mohammadu buhari. also trending is the very distinct reference to the topical issue (subject matter) of the former nsa (sambo dasukiaka, dasuki-gate), who supposedly diverted moneys meant for procurement of military hard-wares and officers’ upkeep towards politics. alibaba uses nigerians’ disaffection with dasuki to buy over the audience and win them to his side for the rest of his performance. lines 7 – 11 captures this effort to use present revelation in the ‘dasukigate scandal’ to his advantage, where people who put their lives on line for this country do not even have uniforms and are not paid what is due them by people like sambo dasuki. it is the ‘kill’ that sold the ‘thrill’ and very aptly employed by alibaba, preparing the audience for a very fruitful relationship for the rest of his performance. alibaba: and that’s my name that they are playing…’alleluya’…thank you (2ce). (alibaba moves down stage centre – like a run way for models – and repositions the microphone stand. he has a cordless microphone in his hand with which he performs…the band continues playing…people are still streaming in and one of them walks by the front of the stage and actually shakes alibaba furtively (the ordinary eyes would not have noticed it but for the camera that caught the action…the band continues playing). alibaba: that’s eh…that’s the problem when you ask army band to play, if you tell them to stop, they’ll stop only when they want (pockets of laughter)…if its police band now, i’ll say stop now…but army band...they can play anything they want and stop any time they want (laughter). thank you. now, rmd told you something about how i walked into his office in 1989, he was publishing a magazine called the “mr” magazine…”mr” magazine (left hand up like a school teacher soliciting answers from his students, with the right hand firmly clutching to the cordless microphone in his mouth…from a member of the audience – moa – we hear “mr&mrs” obviously in response to alibaba’s question. but that was the name of another entirely different magazine). alibaba: alright, then rmd was a publisher, big boy, warri boy wey don hammer, so we had to relate with him. but em, we also remember that e be like say the hammer never too strong that time…because one time i was with rmd in the car and police stopped us by that bend by sheraton, we were driving to okpebi…they said, “park, come down, open your booth.” rmd said, awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 73 “i’m not opening my booth.” but the car was not too strong (laughter). rmd came out of the car very upset…”i’m not opening the booth”…and closed the door, gbam…the booth opened…(loud audience laughter). analysis: the second paragraph is a continuation of his ‘intro’; more stage description. firstly, it is obvious the show was still in its infancy as some moa were still streaming in, and then we observe that one moa passes very close to the stage and shakes alibaba’s hand. this action can take place in a stand-up comedy event as well as storytelling events because of the closeness of the performer with the audience. alibaba cleverly reveals one of the very bad features in a dictatorship or what has been described as milito-cracy – military in democracy – buhari. the problem of having an ex-soldier as president who does things when he wants without regards to those who voted him there. this is gleaned from the army steel band that refused to stop when alibaba asked them to as revealed in lines 1 – 3 of this second paragraph. then the connection with rmd a nollywood star, whom alibaba uses as the butt of his first joke; this attracts a lot of laughter, because if alibaba can make jest of rmd, then any other person is fair game, the bigger the name, the greater the laughter. knowing rmd’s status presently as a nollywood star, it is difficult to believe that he once drove a ‘scrap’ or jalopy as his own car. this is another plus for alibaba who positions himself appropriately to gain more audience confidence. note also, the response from the moa when alibaba asked a question in lines 5-8 and got a wrong answer from the audience in line 7. alibaba did not respond to the man because that was not the expected answer or maybe he did not hear him, but we heard him from watching the video repeatedly. nonetheless, it shows a very active audience like in every stand-up comedy show. alibaba: now, now…you may not…i just talked about rmd’s own, let me tell you about my car…i had a jetta…not the ‘executive’, not the ‘champion’…jetta, ‘personal assistant’, it was the one before all the…this jetta, i bought it off a mechanic…many people are going ah-ah…never buy a car from a mechanic…because if the mechanic is selling it, it means that he couldn’t fix it (audience laughter). and then, when you are buying a car, never buy a car that has ‘gerican’ on it…it means that you will die of fuel (audience laughter) because you will buy fuel continuously…(laughter). now, i had this jetta and sometimes i’ll take larry isamoje…now larry ichejele. then, we would drive to ogun state, to produce his ‘bournvita programme’. so one time, the car broke down and so he left…i was trying to fix ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 74 the tire and the shaft. you know that shaft that comes off…you have to hit it back in and use something to tie it and hold it in tact, till you get to the next place…one woman slowed down and saw me. she said, “ah, sorry-o…was the accident serious? (loud audience laughter), i said, which accident? she said, “did the car somersault or something?” (more audience laughter) i said, madam why are you insulting me…she said, “sorry” and then drove off. when she left, i walked back (walks up centre stage [amidst lots of audience laughter] and turns), took a look at the car…and drove from there to the mechanic and dashed him…(audience laughter). know what the mechanic told me…”oga, we nor get space-o!” (very loud audience laughter). analysis: here, alibaba makes himself the butt of this joke; this makes it easier for him to take on anybody. once you have gotten the laughter from ridiculing yourself then the audience is ready to also enjoy the hammer that will drop on virtually anybody that is in the public domain and it does not matter their status. in fact, in stand-up comedy, the higher they are the bigger the fall and the greater the laughter. according to frank catalano: “the subject matter of most stand-up monologues is contemporary topics including current events, politics, famous personalities and generic situations such as family, friends, marriage, dating and work.” (13) the message from the first two jokes portrays many big shots today as people who actually started small, they paid their dues. this is to encourage indigent nigerians not to give up, especially with the recession. the apc government does not seem to have answers to most of the problems facing the nation despite all the promise of overnight ‘change’ and after several months on the saddle, there is now so much suffering in the nation and things are going awry. but this comedy concert is here to feed the people with laughter as well as put food on the table of the entertainers. alibaba: i need to say this…we are in such very tight corners right now, moneys are drying up… you know…before now, when you walk into a store…when dollar was still like one twenty-one thirty…you walk into a store…this is how you pick…have that…that 46…and this one…you have a blue…yes, and this other one…that one on top there…yes the green one…okay yes, all of them…how much? now (presently)…ehn…is that one on discount? (loud laughter)…is it on sale?...no…so, leave that one…what of this other awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 75 one…okay when are you people doing sales? (very loud audience laughter). i don’t know whether it has happened to you…if you walk into a store, let’s say the store is like here…let me use this microphone (stand) and show you something (goes to take the microphone stand)…let’s say what you want to pick in the store is here and you walk into the store…pa,pa,pa,pa,pa,pa…that’s six steps…how much is this? and they say three thousand pounds. do you know the distance between here and the door now becomes very far? (very loud audience laughter)…i don’t know if it has happened to you. that’s when you now turn away (turns to demonstrate) and then the first thing that comes to your mind is…what even brought me to this store ehn? i would have gone into another shop (loud laughter)…this people with their prices! analysis: this joke is about state of the economy – the fallen crude oil price, the fluctuating state of the dollar and the naira and the inflation it has engendered. he hits the hammer directly on the nail in line one “moneys are drying up”. then he takes the audience through the ‘set-up’ of how people used to buy and how they now buy. rich people’s pride has been humbled by the harsh realities orchestrated by a government that promised to turn one naira to one dollar and alleviate poverty. most have turned out to be empty promises. this joke focuses on the bourgeoisie, who patronise only expensive supermarkets. and they are many in the audience. perfect delivery and very impactful, evoking the right dose of laughter. alibaba: ladies and gentlemen in honour of the nigerian army and in honour of the nigerian police that is why we are out here in this uniform…i will go and take it off…i would have worn some dark shades because i’ve had some relationship with some military men lately. especially the one that was given a letter to become minister in this new regime. buhari sent him the letter, the man was very happy…did thanksgiving… everything… thanksgiving. we had a party in lagos, i mceed, he paid… then showed up on tuesday in abuja because they wanted to meet on tuesday before the federal executive council (fec) meeting. and when he got there they said… “sir…” “i’m very happy to serve the country”. so they said, “you will bring your tax clearance for the last ten years (laughter)…we heard that you used to be a military administrator, so you’d give us your declaration of asset before you became military administrator and after military administrator and we’d take it from there”. he said, “yes sir, yes sir” and came to lagos. he did a medical ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 76 report and sent back and said because of his health (loud laughter)…he can’t take the office…it will be too much work for…(loud audience laughter). he is my friend…it will be too much work for him…he can’t…. analysis: the comic reiterates the reason he is in military attire because with buhari’s tyrannical administration, nobody could tell their reaction against a comedian who appear on stage, in military garb. buhari’s body language is the subject matter in this joke. apc came on board on the platform of fighting corruption and so, even a retired military officer nominated for a ministerial position quickly tenders a medical report that he had health challenges, when he heard the terms of engagement. this joke got very loud audience laughter because this story was widely reported in the nigerian dailies and the audience could easily identify with it. very current, purposeful and very entertaining joke. alibaba closed with a joke on ‘excreta’. ordinarily, one would think such things should not be discussed in public but the loud laughter the joke received from the audience speaks volumes of its acceptability. the pressure to excrete is natural; especially when you have to use the ‘nigerian public toilet’ if you are lucky to be in a place with public toilet. it is a very ridiculous experience to the observer of the victim. a very hilarious performance because of the subject matter; people hardly talk about excreta in public and alibaba’s boldness to delve into an area where angels fear to tread is what evokes the best of laughter and takes his performance to the peak. he realizes this and like every good stand-up, he bows out when the ovation was loudest. the message is very clear – when nature calls, gentility or nobility is thrown to the winds. alibaba’s performance generally, portrays daily issues in the lives of nigerians, it also obvious that ‘anything can go’ in stand-up comedy and they deal with current social issues and no issue is a taboo and anybody in public office is fit news for use by any comedian. the large attendance portrays nigerians’ as lovers of stand-up comedy. the topicality and functionality in these jokes cannot be over-empasised even if it is only laughter. but the less is more concept where total attention is on the performer although we have occasional capturing of the audience because they are the dialogue in the monologue and therefore a very relevant part of the performance. awaritoma agoma old stand-up comedy, orality, subject matter and the new media: a … 77 conclusion and recommendation stand-up comedy is one of the forms for the continuation of oral literature or orature and the performers have license to experiment a lot on stage in order to satisfy their audience. as a performance art, it is individualistic and this makes a lot of stand-up comedians depend on their raw talent, not wanting to hone their talents. alibaba’s performance is not different from that of ay, basket mouth, bovi, oma oma, i go die, gandoki, seyi law, gbenga adeyinka, akpororo, holy mallam, onome da saint, mc amana, mandy, helen paul and so on. and they are all reminiscent of the performers in the time when africans where experts at doing things with words. the very nature of total attention on the performer makes it easy for exploitation by the new media proponents, who are in search for easy and fast ways to sell their products. furthermore, that, stand-up comedy is a very popular art and highly loved and accepted by the mass majority of the people because of the topicality and functionality of the form they deal with subject matters that are just happening, it does not need long rehearsals, the ability to be spontaneous and deal with current event stands the performers out and makes this sub-genre of the theatre very relevant to a vast majority of the people. jokes are shared online, subscribers of mobile companies sell jokes of stand-up comedians and a lot of people subscribe to daily jokes from the comedian of their choice. and unlike the time of orality where performances are handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation, the performances of today’s stand-up comedians are now being handed down, from generation to generation, indirectly from phone to phone, facebook to whatsapp, you-tube to instagram, tv stations to radio stations and vcds to dvds, and flash drives, through hard drives to computers. stand-up comedy is tailor made for the new media. it is therefore our recommendation that all the above, is enough reasons for theatre scholars and critics, to begin to look for ways of not just recognizing and acknowledging the contributions of stand-up comedians to the theatre as well as furthering the age long tradition of orature, but to seek urgent ways of synergizing with these stand-up comedians in order to use it to help put live conventional theatre back on track. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 78 works cited akporobaro, f.b.o. introduction to african oral literature. lagos: princeton publishers, 2012. cairney, john. solo performers – an international registry. north carolina: mcfarland and jefferson publishers. 2001: 1770 – 2000.. catalano, frank.art of the monologue. self publication. 2007. catron, l.e. the power of one – the solo play for playwrights, actors and directors. portsmouth: heinemann, 2000. fajana, sola. “collecting the data.” social research methods for nigerian students (ed.) by imoisili c. imonitie published by institute of personnel management of nigeria and malthouse press.1996. finnegan, ruth. oral literature in africa. open book publishers. 40 devonshire road, cambridge, cb1 2bl, united kingdom. 2012. finnegan, ruth. the oral and beyond: doing things with words in africa. james currey(oxford), the university of chicago press (chicago) and university of kwazulu-natal press (pietermaritzburg). 2007. haenisch, kyle. “the genre of stand-up comedy” http://www. tarleton.edu/~popken/haenisch.htm hagher, iyorwuese. the practice of community theatre in nigeria. published by society of nigerian theatre artists (sonta). 1990 miruka, okumba. encounter with oral literature. east african publishers, nairobi.1994. ndigirigi, gichingiri. ngugi wa thiongo’s drama and the kamirithu popular theatre experiment. african world press, 2007. nwabueze, emeka. studies in dramatic literature. abic books, 2011. nwosu, canice chukwuma. “shifting paradigm in theory and practice of theatre: implications for emergence of contemporary nigerian theatre genres.” imsu theatre journal: a contemporary journal of arts and theatre practice. 3.1. owerri: department of theatre arts, imo state university, (2016):144 154) okpewho, isidore. african oral literature: backgrounds, character, and continuity. indiana university press, bloomington and indianapolis, 1992. roberts, vera mowry. the nature of theatre. harper and row publishers inc., new york. 1971. schechner, richard. performance theory. routledge classics. london and new york. published in the taylor and francis e-library.2004. tony allen “attitude – wanna make something of it? the secret of stand-up comedy” a sample chapter on the internet by gothic image publications publications@gothicimage.co.uk vansina, jan. oral tradition as history. james curry, london and heinemann kenya, nairobi; 1985. dvd alibaba’s january 1st concert, 2016 ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 116 visual interpretations of magical effects in nollywood horror films: a critical study of ernest obi’sidemili ajiwe, uchechukwu chimezie department of theatre & film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. email: uc.ajiwe@unizik.edu.ng bature-uzor, nkechi a. asiegbu department of theatre & film studies, university of port harcourt email: nkechi.bature-uzor@uniport.edu.ng abstract this paper looks at the way magical effects are used in communicating african ideologies in nollywood horror genres. even though there have been recent attempts in some igbonollywood movies and a few yoruba movies in which special effects and visual effects (cgi) were combined to enhance the narrative. there is still much left to be explored on the quality of visual effects, computer graphics (cgi), animation and special effects used in nollywood. this paper, therefore, hinged eco umberto's semiotic theory and used ernest obi’s idemili(2014) in pinpointing the meanings as culturally bound in igbo cultural realities in nollywood horror genres. in the end, this paper submits that the application of visual effects in distorting images to create iconic horrific images communicates meanings that are easily understood by its audience. visual effects, computer generated images, nollywood, horror genre, semiotics . introduction mailto:nkechi.bature-uzor@uniport.edu.ng ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 117 nollywood narratives are believed to have come to the limelight with the debut of a horror movie titled living in bondage directed by kenneth nnebue. much later, other horrific narratives that are categorized within the same genre were produced. there are other genres embedded with horrific images and sound effects, genres like ritual and some epic movies. however, these narratives were filled with some horrific images with it’s accompanied by eerie sound effects that elicit tension, and fear but x-rays the igbo cultural ideologies. the images are manipulated through photo tricks, which is evident in the disappearing act of the ghost character of merit. recent nollywood horror films such as kunlenafonlayan’sanikulapo, rampson noah’s living in bondage: breaking free(2019), nneka the pretty serpent (2020), with some earlier 2014& 2015 movies such as ernest obi'scalabash and idemili which have elements of horrific effects in the films exhibited a much-enhanced technology in the application of visual effects and computer generated images. there is no doubt that nollywood films are embedded with socio-cultural ideologies. nollywood films have made a positive impact in promoting the image of nigerian culture, and society at large to the world. unfortunately, there are other elements such as the use of sophisticated special effects, visual effects and sound effects to enhance the efforts of the characters projected by the actors. though there have been recent attempts in some igbo-nollywood movies and a few yoruba movies in which special effects and visual effects (cgi) were combined to enhance the narrative. there is still much left to be explored on the quality of computer graphics (cgi), animation and special effects used in nollywood. film’s visual language in recent times transcends filming of natural objects to communicate to the audience. thus, critical accounts of filmic codes tend to differ in the ways they are broken down, or categorized for analysis, which is based on the film’s key communicative procedures. all film narratives hold simple objects that represent the ideas of their creators. these objects or marks stand for an idea or series of ideas. these objects are ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 118 representations of real-life images and scenarios. roland barthes emphasizes that film is not to reproduce reality; the reconstruction is not an attempt to imitate the concrete aspect of the original object, but a simulation, a product of technology. of course, these objects are creatively imbedded in the creation of a film narrative which are signs of social and cultural values. these messages (basically anything from making a phone call, waving of hand or the clothes we wear) are based on codes and culturally defined systems of relationship. barthes claimed that there is only one exception to the rule "no message without a code": the photographic image, because it shows us something reproduced without human intervention (using a mechanical-chemical process). this idea has been much criticized, particularly after the breakthrough of digital photography which seriously challenges photography's earlier ontological status. jia(2014)explains that the development of visual symbol language in modern times not only transcends the traditional drawing and design field but involves dynamic advertisement, film, television, and animations. the form and transmission of visual symbols with typical image features arguably have gone to the front and centre of human civilization landscape and the two elements play a more and more important role in information and cultural communication. film semiotics has been defined as the production of meaning through composition, which is a representation of cultural realities. eco umberto widens the subject and role of semiotics in the exploration of reality of human existence when he writes that, “semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign. a sign is everything which can be taken as significantly substituting for something else. this something else does not necessarily have to exist or to be somewhere at the moment in which a sign stands in for it” (eco, 1976, p. 7). moreover, it can be visualized as an approach to a wide variety of systems of signification and communication or it can be visualized as a description of those various systems focusing on their mutual ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 119 differences or their specific structural properties such as the transformation from verbal language to gestures or from visual images to body positions. it can investigate those various systems either at the elementary level of their sequential units such as words, colour spots, and sounds or at the more complex level of the texts which is, narrative structures or figures of speech (eco, 1977). filmic codes are a form of technical code because filmic equipment is needed to create them, e.g. cameras, microphones, lighting, etc. in semiotics there are three basic types of signs and codes: • iconic signs and codes are created to appear exactly like the thing they represent, e.g. an image of a bird looks like – signifies – a bird. but… importantly, iconic codes always act to represent more than the thing itself, e.g. when we see an image of a cowboy, our culture associates ideas of toughness and action with this particular iconic code (which also acts to reinforce what masculinity ‘means’ in our culture – an ideological meaning). • indexical signs are different. they are signs that are physically connected with the object. they have a logical, common-sense connection to the thing or idea they represent. their interpretation takes a little longer than iconic signs since we learn them through our everyday experiences (jacqueline, (1983, p.136). they act by indirectly “pointing” or suggesting what they mean by acting as ‘cues’ to existing knowledge, e.g. smoke signifies fire, sweating suggests hotness or exercise. these codes are a kind of media shorthand. they are very common and useful to media producers. based on a phenomenological understanding of the semiotic term index, jockenhövel furthermore agrees with bazin’s understanding of “realism”, by dismissing the classical concept of the “representation of reality” and instead focusing on the results of experiencing a (possible) reality—an “illusion of reality.” • symbolic codes act as signifiers of meaning disconnected from what they denote, e.g. a red heart shape acts only to symbolize love; a white dove symbolises peace; red symbolises danger, power ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 120 or sexuality, white symbolizes innocence, etc. jacqueline (1983,p.136), states that “symbolic signs stand for something through a process of consensus. they have no logical connection and so have to be taught. these signs are greatly influenced by social and cultural considerations symbols may be complex but once the meanings are learned, they are less subject to idiosyncratic interpretation.” as lester (2000) puts it, symbolic signs usually evoke stronger emotional responses from viewers than the other types of signs because the symbols have deep roots in the culture of a particular group. in communication production and reception, the meaning of signs may shift from one type of sign to another as the communication act progresses. an important realization is that the meaning a code communicates is always culturally determined, i.e. we learn the meaning as we grow up in a particular group, society or culture, e.g. the national flag means much more than its denotation of a piece of coloured cloth; it also acts to connote patriotism and pride. an important filmic and media code is the enigma code which works by creating an intriguing ‘question’ that the media text will go on to answer. cinema trailers and posters use enigma codes to tempt the viewers. in the words of siu see mei, (2013)explained that some movies take us to an exhibition hall, and others take us through the corridors of the interconnected rooms. we can find access routes between different cities and villages in these movies, but we can see different spatial and temporal origin elements juxtaposed and interacting (p, 27). thus, meaning comes out of an interaction between the message and its reader (viewer). while watching and studying a film text, one must consider not only its structural components but also the relation between those components, all the impression it has created and the techniques used for creating such impressions as well. when the images urge us to react, we are aware of their effect upon us, which is resulted from myths, ideologies and connotations embedded in the images. thus it is through a detailed and critical semiotic analysis that the meaning ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 121 of a film narrative from the obvious ones could be derived. film semiotics deconstructs the communicative message in a film narrative while attending to its meaning and ideology. nollywood through the film medium promotes african cultural traditions and develops authentically african film forms by creating mythical characters and objects that seem real but are a symbolic manifestation of the filmmakers' mind. as such, these mythical images are surrealistic. african film narratives are populated by the engagement of various film genres and mystical characterization beyond the realms of plausible human, animal and inanimate activities. these images are created with the use of cgi, such as animals depicted mystically which sometimes may be abstract, and often symbolic. they are characters such as humans with magical or supernatural powers like we see in the film ijele as the protagonist possesses the power of the gods, inanimate objects with mythical abilities populate film narratives in africa. the nollywood film industry has undergone tremendous changes that reflect increasingly globalized issues which project african cultural values, thereby telling the history and cultural backgrounds of diverse cultures. to a great extent, nollywood has been utilizing nigerian cultural values in portraying their world views. in so doing, they tell their stories from their perceptions. thus, the early epic, ritual, supernatural, and witchcraft films have exceedingly set a standard that till today is yet to be forgotten in films such as igodo(1999), ijele(1999), evil passion (2010), evil men (2015), nneka the pretty serpent (1992), battle of musanga (1996), egg of life(2003)and several others. the later films which have been referred to by charles okwuowulu (2015) as new nollywood, and some of these films include idemili(2014), calabash (2015), python girl (2016), and several others, tend to show that there has been improvement in the use of cgi in nollywood film narrative. in this regard, enna, idakwo & akpovye (2015, p.177) submit that the contents of some of these films “are latched with magical stunts, ritual and witchcraft scenes, and ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 122 extreme belief in the supernatural, have the propensity to interpret nigeria’s worldview externally. they are expressed through symbols and items like shrines, statues, drawings, clothes of special colours (red, black and white), and extra-mundane communication and dramatic actions like incantations and diabolism. the purpose for these may be good or evil, depending on who uses them.” in this respect, ekwuazi (1991) sees these film images as a cultural index; cultural reflectors, a socializing agent and therefore the instrument of cultural dynamics” (as cited in alawode, uduakobong, 2013, p.22).haynes(2011, p.82) in his write up african cinema and nollywood, states that; videos constantly address the problems of nigerian society through a whole repertoire of genres and symbolic complexes. a deep and wide moralism is inextricably bound up with almost all its products—bound up intimately even with its constant displays of garish, meretricious wealth. this moralism is directed at individual and social behaviour and so, arguably, obstructs proper ideological thinking and hence is conservative (adesokan, “practicing ‘democracy’ in nigerian films”). the myriad stories about money rituals, which have been a hallmark of nollywood thematics since living in bondage, can be taken as a sign of superstitious backwardness; but they can also be seen as a powerful symbolic figure for and critique of nigeria’s predatory ruling class, whose acquisition of unearned oil wealth through opaque politico-economic processes organized around murderous cartels is indeed occulted from public view, if not an occult phenomenon in a magical sense (haynes, “nnebue”). such are the kinds of issues facing an interpreter of this film tradition. african cinema and its critics have not had difficulty understanding one another, for the most part; they have been partners in a joint project, ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 123 articulated in complementary dimensions. but there are deep differences between the purposes and mentalities of most of the video filmmakers and the academics writing about them, and therefore more necessary work of interpretation. in this regard, alawodeand uduakobong(2013, p.22) states that “ekwuazi further explains that the film constitutes an industry whose production is directly ideological.”this implies that visual effects in the nollywood video film narrative seek to portray images from the filmmaker’s perception of the nigerian worldview. and as such, the film seeks to sell what it wants its audience to understand and what it wants its audience to imbibe. this is why it is pertinent to view the video as an image maker for nigeria. adenugba further opines that as “film is a popular culture and as expected, it must mirror, recreate and tell stories of the societies in which it subsists. the nigerian film industry is no exception.” these images are not just seen as forms of entertainment, but as ernest-samuel (2012, p. 54) described; means of preservation, presentation, and promotion of indigenous arts and culture of the people. this perhaps, is very true of the video film, which is now believed to be the most popular of all arts in africa. until the development of the nigerian video film industry, the more popular films from nations like america, india and china enjoyed great patronage in nigeria. this explained and bollywood actors and actresses were greatly loved and admired by nigerians. on this note, okwuowulu, c. (p.104) expresses that “nollywood films have failed to harness both the dramatic and technical narrative forms of semiotics for effective communication. this gives rise to the stereotypical and archetypal interpretative nature of nollywood films.” in this regard, alamu ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 124 hinges nollywood’s failure as described by okwuowulu on the producers who provide the funds to procure good equipment for filming. therefore, modest budgets have also led to the production of films lacking in special effects, cgi and digital visual effects. he thus advises that; given that the esoteric world of the supernatural is a common theme in nigerian films, filmmakers should create a unique way of presenting these phenomena to enhance their realism, perhaps by following the example of hollywood films that deal with the same themes or with science fiction. mastering high-level computer-generated images(cgi), which enables technicians to create characters, objects and settings that are composites of real images, can provide additional assistance. nigerian filmmakers should look into the production of animated (cartoon) films, which have become a popular genre among children in many countries of the world. on the contrary, akudinobi (2015, p.140) asserts that “in many respects, nollywood practitioners have entered a phase of critical self-consciousness: redefining the scope of their creativity, adopting more pragmatic approaches, seeking to refine modes of production, and aiming at structural changes essential to the industry’s sustenance.” as such, representations in nollywood films are symbols that the audience resonate with. uwah (2013, p.52) posits that nollywood films “buttress the everydayness of nigerians where their landscape, songs and proverbs, attires and rituals are unique indicators of ethnic cultural representation in them.” he further explained that “nollywood films are encoded with the ideological frame of mind that reflects the proximate background of their makers within the nigerian context and by watching them; an indigenous audience can easily decipher what is encoded and the meaning therein laid for their viewing pleasure; ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 125 whether the storylines are crafted on national themes or couched with ethnic symbols.” in other words, nollywood films are replete with images as symbols which underscore cultural implications. visual effects in horror films horror movies are noted by heavy eerie sound effects coupled with gory-looking images infused to give the illusion of a monstrous being. thus, visual effects are utilized to instil anxiety and fear in an audience viewing a horrific movie. in this regard, xiangyi fu (2016, p. 3) fear is one of the most basic and important human emotions. at the very beginning of movie history in 1895, when the audience first saw the lumieres bothers’ the arrival of a train at la ciotat station on the big screen, almost the entire audience tried to escape from the theatre. the image of the approaching train caused fear. to intensify feelings of fear in the audience, film artists use sound, lighting, timing, motion and other stylistic devices. among the wide range of film genres, especially horror movies aim to trigger a physiological and psychological response of fear in the audience. within the genre, horror films differ widely from each other based on their period, sub-genre, and regional differences including religious and cultural motifs. since horror films are meant to instil fear in the viewers, filmmakers create cg images and sound effects to intensify feelings of fear in the audience, film artists use sound, lighting, timing, motion and other stylistic devices. among the wide range of film genres, especially horror movies aim to trigger a physiological and psychological response of fear in the audience. when creating visual and sound effects for films, designers and editors do not generally concern themselves with the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 126 verisimilitude or accuracy of the sounds they present. the designers are concerned about creating gory images and sound effects which give awful and eerie feelings bearing in mind that people are aware of how such a thing sounds and looks. in the same view, chandler (2007, p. 60) reiterates that in horror films, the unification of ‘film language’ will form a message. the message is delivered through visual and auditory images to the audience’s brain and the audience will decipher the message to form a concept. this concept will create fearful feelings while watching a horror film (as cited by bianus, achin, dawam, &sareya, 2014, p. 1). therefore, the believability of an image that is horrific is important. the job of designing the effect is mainly an issue of creating a conjectural visual image (either special or cgi images) and sound which feeds the audience’s expectations while still suspending disbelief. christopher boyer a sound designer who designed the sounds for star wars and worked with directors who were not just looking for powerful sound effects to attach to a structure, was playing with sound (and not just sound effects, but music and dialogue as well) all through production and post-productions. what directors like francis coppola, walter murch, george lucas, and ben burtt, found is that sound began to shape the picture. sometimes as much as the picture shaped the sound, the reception by the film sound community was unanimous in its praise, and to this day the sound job is regarded as the ne plus ultra in terms of creative use of the medium. the soundtrack of the movie, apocalypse now, was crafted in san francisco by a large crew headed by walter murch, whose sound design credit was accorded billing block status on posters (tom kenny 1998). generally, every film genre is determined by the cultural background of the narrative. in this regard, the nollywood horror film genre is read within the cultural framework that surrounds the narrative. it could be argued that the elements of horror are found in the nollywood ritual film genre. according to uwah (2013, p. 182) quoting oha, films of this sort are read based on “construction ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 127 and or frameworks of beliefs which have originated from the people’s world view.” uwah further explained that it “may be culturally relative and difficult for an ‘outsider’ to understand, but for the indigenes or insiders, it is an authentic way of explaining, comprehending and intervening….” this reaffirms xiangyi fu's view that horror film genres differ widely from each other based on their time, sub-genre, and regional differences including religious and cultural motifs. as such, in nollywood video films, elements of horror are seen in ritual films. and the audience, according to uwah (2013), elicits pleasure from the resonance they have therein. bianus, achin, dawam, &sareya (2014, p. 1) states that; it is undeniable that society nowadays is intrigued when it comes to a matter that is out of the box or beyond the edge. hence came the idea to portray the existence of ghosts in various appearances to create a horror sense among the audience. some reckoned that horror films that are made these days are pure entertainment. hollywood has also produced similar film genres yet western society has been doubting a mystical existence in their respective life and surely they can assume that those types of films are merely entertainment. this is contrary to local society nowadays because the belief in matters related to ghosts or the supernatural still exists. to create gory and eerie visual images in horror movies, film designers play with dark and light backgrounds. xiangyi fu (2016, p. 14) believes that horror movie viewers enjoy the movieviewing process. he thus states that “enjoyment and fear, two opposite emotion responses, both arise when people sit in a theatre to watch a horror film. in sigmund freud’s essay “the uncanny,” he argues that mystery and fear emerge from something with which we are familiar but have always been oppressed. freud’s uncanny theory proved to be influential and inspired much theoretical ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 128 research on horror films.”in herbert zettl’s book sight, sound, motion: applied media aesthetics, (2013), as cited by xiangyi fu, (2016, p. 14) he points out the five basic elements of the media: light and colour, two-dimensional space, three-dimensional space, time and motion, and sound. xiangyi fu applied zettle’s analysis and theory of these five basic elements to examine several classical and modern horror movies. following herbert’s standards, and using deductive abstraction methodology, xiangyi fu applied herbert’s theory of these fundamental elements (light, colour, composition, time, and sound) to study how they are applied in horror movies and to understand how horror movie sub-genres use media aesthetics elements differently. synopsis of ernest obi’sidemili (2014) season 1&2 ekema, a lady from a lineage of osimini, an offspring of idemili, has been betrothed to an honourable prince but on the eve of her engagement, while the virginity test was being carried out, something magical and fearful happened revealing she was from a lineage of the powerful diviners. she's on an adventurous and fearful journey to seek her foundation and during this quest realized how powerful and gifted she was. a critical reading semiotics of cgi in ernest obi’s idemili (2014) season 1,2&4 the narrative started with a prologue where ekemma is seen running and stops to look around while breathing heavily. and the sound of a crow (in igbo okwa) is heard as she continues running. then, in a long shot, she is seen running with the long raise of smoky dust trailing her. this dust is a visual effect to indicate the speed at which she is running for her dear life. then three crows are seen already perched on the tree she stopped to rest while looking out in fear. suddenly, birds fly down transforming into demonized women with wings, longhairs and elongated breasts. the transformation of the crows to demonized human form ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 129 is achieved with visual effect stimulation. likewise, the dusty effects raised as they landed with a loud banging sound showing the weight and force at which they landed. and the synchronization of the dusty effect and the loud banging sound signifies the strength of the evil force after her. this also creates horrific effects which startles anyone who sees the scene. the scene is a typical representation of the filmmaker’s concept of witchcraft in africa. this makes the audience experience and re-experiences their cultural worldview. moreover, in the scene where ekemma and okwadike are discussing in his house, the rays of light from the light used were readjusted with visual effect to give a focus on the two lovers who are prevented from getting married due to cultural rights. again, in the scene in which okwadike is preparing himself with charm to go to war and rescue ekemma, the smoke effect is used to portray the nigerian belief system of preparing oneself for bullet penetration or knife penetration into the body. the reverse effect of the smoke effect back into the pot and his body signifies the potency of the charm. it also serves the purpose of covering up the nudity of okwadike while he is performing the ritual process of fortification. as ekemma steps into the threshold of the gods, her eyes start glowing white and her black iris becomes faint. this signifies that she has been possessed by the gods. a medium shot of dusty effect is used to cover the distance between her heels and any other person within the premises. this indicates the powers which she possesses, indicating that she is no ordinary person but of the gods. immediately she enters the shrine of osimiri, and an electronically enhanced splashing of water at each step she takes is seen. this indicates that she is spiritual with the goddess osimiri. later on, a masquerade is seen with the chief priest standing and chanting praises to it. it then starts hitting its head on a tree. the entire picture shakes as a thundering sound is produced from banging his head on that tree. the shaking of the entire vicinity symbolizes that the ground quakes once he hits his head on the tree. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 130 after he had turned round and sat, the tree starts smoking from the trunk where he hit his head. then it splits open and ekemma jumps out from it as if she was pushed out. as she is coming out, she comes out as a claylike human and transforms into herself. then she meets with the masquerade which raises its head and covers her with flashes of glowing bluish-white light. this signifies the acquiring of power from the ezemmuo masquerade. she then runs out as the masquerade follows suit. readings of meanings produced from horrific representations in idemili, season 1, 2 and 4 plate 1: screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: dust effect animated bird fling ekemma sound effect: the beaking of owl-like birds. then, fast-paced beats in rhythm with ekemma’s racing. ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 131 plate 2: screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: animated birds sound effect: whistling sounds of birds plate 3: sealing of ekemma’s mouth. source: film visual effect: sealing of ekemma’s mouth as a result of witchcraft in her dream sound effect: no sound effect ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 132 plate 4: screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: the glowing effect of the newly crowned priestess's eyes sound effect: plate 5: screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: smoke effect receding into okwadike’s body signifying acquiring of protective power or charm. sound effect: whistling effect ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 133 plate 6: a screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: ekemma, in her dreams, is seen appearing through an eruption of dust particles in a secret gathering. sound effect: the visual effect is accompanied by eerie and echoing sound effects mixed with cracking, rattling and splashing water sound effects which give a chilling and scary feeling. plate 7: a screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: ekemma appears amid the smoky dust effect sound effect: ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 134 plate 8: a screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: a close-up shot of ekemma’seyes being transformed, the camera zooms in into the blurred whitish iris sound effect: plate 8: a screenshot from the movie scene. source: film visual effect: a closeup shot of when a river wave recedes and her eyes glow more with her fingers generating electrifying lightning effects. ajiwe & asiegbu bature-uzor: visual interpretation of magical effects in nolly… 135 at the end of this season, okwadike and his men are seen intruding into the circle where the final procession is to be made, insisting on taking ekemma. immediately the chief priest strikes his staff on the ground and changes from her natural eyes to smoking brownish white. okwadike sends one of his men to go carry her. as he stretches his hand towards ekemma, a shielding splash of red and yellow rays of light prevents him by draining him and he turns to clay, after which, he breaks into pieces with his hand breaking off first and his head falling off as if it is being chopped off with a machete. then ekemma’s eyes go from brownish white to light green and then to her normal eyes. the smoking brownish-white colour symbolizes anger, as something too dangerous and hot to handle. whereas the light green symbolizes calmness. love and fertility. conclusion based on the above discussion, film cgi effects elusively enhance visual image which eventually enhances the perception of the audience on the film story. visual effects, therefore, is a kind of simulation which involves the mixing and matching of real images filmed separately or of real and artificially created images; (2) visual effects are used to increase the realism of a scene and mode of perception of the audience of their real-world; (3) visual effects are not used to represent the blurring of the distinction between reality and simulacrum. simulation (special effects) is used to heighten the impression of realism; conversely, the simulation itself cannot be represented through simulation (special effects). reality can be represented through simulation; however, simulation cannot be represented through simulation but only by realistic means of representation. this accounts for the lack of inappropriate application of cgi effects in some nigerian films, even when the films deal with a supposed simulated reality of a supernatural world. the overuse of visual effects in the representation of the idemili, as regards reality, simulates the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 136 simulacra nature of a typical african worldview: thus cgi boosts the visual and aural representation of the nollywood film narratives which allows the viewer to recognize the already established meanings of the codes used in film text. references darley, a. 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(2010). film theory: a introduction through the senses. new york: routledge. enna, idakwo, e. p., &akpovye, o.d., (2015). the impact of the “magic” in nollywood: an analysis. in american international journal of contemporary research. vol. 5, no. 5, usa: center for promoting ideas. www.aijcrnet.com. online. ekinci (2015, designing research questionnaires for business and management students. (mastering business research methods), sage publications ltd. eklund, t. 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(2016). audience reactions to the different aspects of nollywood movies. volume 5.2, u.s.a: university of pittsburgh press rédei a.c. towards a cognitive semiotic approach to cinema: semiotics vs. ‘semiology’ ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 140 rose, g. (2007, an introduction to the interpretation of visual materials, second edition. sage publications. sebeok, thomas a. 1994 signs: an introduction to semiotics, toronto: university of toronto press. shilo m., (2004). silicon spirit. the impact of digital visual effects on story craft in filmmaking. a ph.d. thesis submitted to the university of technology, sydney. faculty of humanities and social sciences. sydney: university of technology sydney ukadike, n. f. (1994). black african cinema. california: university of california filmography title: idemili (2014) screen play: ernest obi d.o.p: tunde possible producer: martins onyemaobi director: ernest obi starring: pete edochie, patience ozokwo, ernest obi, nse etim company: onye-eze production ltd untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 30 eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’swake up everyone and dandaura’s venom for venom emmanuel e. uzoji department of theatre and media arts federal university lafia email: emmanuelebere@yahoo.com abstract this paper examines postmodern playwriting and eco-pedagogy in nigeria; especially in the wake of environmental challenges the country now faces. environmental degradation, climate change and global warming have occupied both international and local discourses in the 21st century. no doubt, the impact of climate change is real on every part of the globe. hence, the focus of this paper is to explore the new parameters for which we can begin to seek the relevance of drama and the dramatic text to issues of contemporary importance such as the sustainability of the earth for future generations. the objective is to prove that drama can be used as a pedagogic tool to question and seek answers to the fast eroding lifeworld. mbajiorgu’s wake up everyone and dandaura’s venom for venom are among the many examples that the concern for the environment is now taking centre stage in nigeria’s contemporary drama. the paper investigates the preoccupation of theatre practice in nigeria and its relevance to the eco-challenges of this sub-saharan african nation. it further makes a case for the engagement of nigerian theatre in the global quest for enviromental sustainable development thrives. the study reveals that human activities contribute to environtal degradation. it concludes that postmodern approach to playwriting can help the enlightenment campaign on environmental degradation. keywords: ecopedagogy, ecocriticism, drama, conflict and ecology introduction climate constitutes the total experience of weather and atmospheric behaviour over a number of years in a given region. rafferty says it is not just the “average weather” and variability and the frequency of various occurrences (2). as natural as it may sound, yet, it can be affected by emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 31 human activities. as rafferty put it, “no region is untouched by human influence” (2). the release of waste products from domestic and economic enterprises (burning fossil fuels, synthetic chemical use, trash production,) alters the composition of the atmosphere, and gases and particulates related to these activities travel to all parts of the globe. therefore, from the simple method we dispose of waste from homes and offices and the smoke that emits from our generators and cars, we are either killing the earth or sustaining it. climate change on the other hand, is a product of cumulative anthropogenic releases of heat-trapping gases that consequently warms global climate. this is popularly described as a crisis (glover 1). losses to ecological values and human societies due to climate change are potentially catastrophic, and will be long-lived, largely irreversible, and remain for the most part unpredictable. climate change also refers to the changes in the composition and behaviour of the earth’s atmosphere. mintzer and leonard state that the last 10,000 years has seen a constant concentration of the most important gases in the atmosphere but the last two centuries, human activities – including industrialization and agricultural expansion have caused the release of large quantities of gaseous pollutants into the atmosphere (xi). these emissions have affected the average temperature at the earth’s surface. the impact of climate change are felt today in the areas of agriculture and food security, access to water resources, impacts on human health and geopolitical relationships (conflicts due to competition for resources) (richardson, steffen and liverman 102). this predicament is the outcome of modernity and the contemporary issue born out of industrial society (glover 1). it is a global crisis yet with a local impact. every part of the earth feels the effect of this ecological catastrophe. climate change is considered as a gradual but devastating threat to the continued existence of life on earth. it is a subject that calls for everyone to wake up. todd traces africa’s experience with climate change to six millions years ago when one of the most dramatic set of changes on africa’s ecological stage took place at the end of the miocene epoch. for millions of years africa had been in lush tropical forests, offering easy travel, safe shelter, and abundant water and foodstuffs here. then the ice age, which had begun in the middle miocene, drastically altered the african continent. though the ice itself never reached africa, falling global temperatures cooled the continent significantly. as more and more water became locked ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 32 up in ice, sea levels plunged – the mediterranean shrank to an island sea – and africa experienced an extensive period an acidification. the net effect of this climatic change was the devastation of africa’s rich miocene forests (todd 27). no doubt the planetary crisis speaks of the greatest mass extinctions of all time. harthaway and boff paints the picture thus: the combined dynamics of the deepening poverty and accelerating ecological degradation are creating a powerful vortex of despair and destruction from which it is becoming increasingly difficult to escape. if the postmodern dramatist who is the contemporary dramatist fails to act with sufficient energy, urgency and wisdom, we will soon find ourselves condemned to a future in which the potential for living with meaning, hope and beauty has been immeasurably diminished (2). the literal meaning of postmodernism is “after modernism” and in many ways postmodernism constitutes an attack on modernist claims about the existence of truth and value – claims that stem from the european enlightenment of the 18th century. quayson relates postmodernism to a literary and philosophical tradition of representation which could be said to have its own peculiar historical and social trajectory in western thought (647). he further typifies this theory as a vigorously anti-systemic mode of understanding with pluralism, borders and multiple perspectives being highlighted as a means of disrupting the centralizing impulse of any system (649). one major trait of the postmodernist cultural movement is the dominance of inaccessible and impenetrable prose that characterise many postmodern philosophical texts. this is however intentional and reflect specific claims about the nature of language and meaning. in disputing past assumptions, postmodernists generally display a preoccupation with the inadequacy of language as a mode of communication. among the major postmodern theorists are french philosophers jacques derrida and michel foucault and psychoanalyst jacques lacan. derrida originated the philosophical method of deconstruction, a system of analysis that assumes a text has no single, fixed meaning, both because of the inadequacy of language to express the author’s original intention and because a reader’s understanding of the text is culturally conditioned – that is, influenced by the culture in which the reader lives. thus texts have many possible legitimate interpretations brought about by the “play” emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 33 of language. derrida stresses the philosophical importance of pun, metaphor, ambiguity, and other playful aspects of language traditionally disregarded in philosophy. thus, the author’s use of language sometimes does not detect his identity. his method of deconstruction involves close and careful readings of central texts of western philosophy that bring to light some of the conflicting forces within the text and that highlight the devices the text uses to claim legitimacy and truth for itself, many of which may lie beyond the intention of its author. although some of derrida’s ideas about language resemble views held by the analytic philosophers wittgeinstein, quine, and davidson, many philosophers schooled in the analytic tradition have dismissed derrida’s work as destructive of philosophy. however, despite the disagreements and arguments on what constitutes the postmodernist paradigm, ihab hassan (123-4), believes that postmodernism has its major traits that distinguishes it from modernism. these include dadaism as against symbolism, antiform as against form, antithesis as against synthesis, deconstruction as against totalization, decreation as against creation, misreading as against reading, antinarrative as against narrative, among others. foucault created a searing critique of the ideas of the enlightenment, such as reason and truth. like derrida, foucault used close readings of historical texts to challenge assumptions, demonstrating how ideas about human nature and society, which we assume to be permanent truths, have changed over time. from an array of historical texts foucault created “philosophical anthropologies” that reveal the evolution of concepts such as reason, madness, responsibility, punishment, and power. by examining the origins of these concepts, he maintained, we see that attitudes and assumptions that today seem natural or even inevitable are historical phenomena dependent upon time and place (carpenter par 4). he further claimed that the historical development of these ideas demonstrates that seemingly humane and liberal enlightenment ideals are in reality coercive and destructive. though postmodernism is still epileptic in africa, canice chukwuma nwosu one of the formost african postmodernists says that; creativity is the focus of african postmodern theatre; therefore, it glorifies individual, collective and communal creativity. it is important to note that creativity here is governed by the free creative spirit and devoid of conventional authenticity that fetter experimentations. the postmodern creative spirit emphasizes the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 34 dualities and vicissitudes of life prevalent in the creator’s environment. (167) nwosu’ postmodern theory has provided new parameters for contemporary dramatist to engage in individual creativity of solo plays and exploration of environmental vicissitudes of life like climate change. hence, we can begin to study the works of innovative playwrights like: sam ukala, emma dan daura, greg mbajiogu kene igwonu and so on from the postmodern point of view. the trend of eco-engagements in the arts especially drama is now taking centre stage as the global threat of a warming planet and its attendant consequences is now a matter of concern. the drive for sustainable development and protecting the earth’s natural heritage provides a platform for dramatists in nigeria to engage. soyinka’s early dramatic works such as the lion and the jewel, dance of a forest and the swamp dwellers can be viewed for any of the ecocentric dimensions. the same goes for osofisan whose play – morountodun will pass for not just a postmodernist dramatic text but can be also reviewed from the perspectives of eco-radicalism. tess onwueme’s plays such as then she said it and the desert encroaches make a strong case for climate change and environmental justice both in the niger delta and the northern part of nigeria. environmental education and eco-pedagogic theory darder’s poem quoted below captures the whole essence of this study. drama is a creative and expressive area of human activity which provides a powerful source of peace-building energy and passion that is not always apparent in the formalized processes of political conflict resolution (ramsbotham, woodhouse and miall 347). one of the attributes of ecopedagogy is to educate the individual on the need to love life and protect same. this is the pathway to sustainability. darder in his poem laments over environmental degradation thus: we spill our unholy wars upon her belly’s tender flesh, blazing dislocated corpses, ignite her agony and grief. still, in love with her creations, she warns of our complacency to cataclysmic devastation, rooted in the alienation of our disconnection, our rejection, our oppression, our scorn. and still, we spin ungodly tantrums of injustice against her love, against ourselves, against one another. __ darder (cited in kahn x). emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 35 we live in a world where humans must struggle to regain their humanity by going back to history to locate their connection with nature and redefine their civilization. as the world now yearns for a new civilization that underscores our common heritage in mother earth and life, a critical understanding of issues in eco-literacy becomes imperative. the other dimension that gives justification to this new zeal is the fact that the poorest regions of the world have the worst ecological problems. the poorest regions of the world are or have been the most exploited regions in terms of human and natural resources. the poorest regions of the world are also the regions that have seen the worst conflicts angst by growing poverty, social injustice and the scramble for scarce resources. eco-pedagogy hence, emanates from these contentions as a body of scholarly discourses in the field of critical pedagogy. martin and te riele believe that it is an outgrowth that is not older than 30 years and owes a lot to works done by paulo freire and augusto boal. it has been at the centre of efforts “to construct social alternatives that are both credible and compelling. this has included creating new social contexts and encounters that value alternative meanings, knowledge and actions” (23). this allusion of a three-decade eco-presence in literature may be true for western literature but in africa and particularly nigeria, eco-pedagogy has been present in our dramatic writings for more than half a century. some of the works of soyinka used in this study were written in the 1950s and in them we find images and messages that challenge the injustice done to the environment by humans. environmental education is a multi-discursive field. it is a space of both struggle and opportunity for the reconstruction of a web of relations between humans and the environment and with each other. this web has faded with the advance of civilization, but could enable us to develop new treaties between cultures, societies and nature and give rise to new values, languages, and meanings that could lead us responsibly to the social change that is so critical at this time (gonzalez-gaudiano & meira-carter 14). eco-pedagogy is a form of non-formal popular education which kahn says is borne out of developed ideas and practices of environmental preservation and conservation that centres on self-consciousness, awareness and the need for action by self-realization (5). as an outgrowth of critical pedagogy, it questions the status quo, and liberates the mind towards change from dehumanization to humanization. the world’s ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 36 economic structure as well as the adoption of globalized capitalism has no doubt created a serious dichotomy not only in the distribution of wealth but also in the human environment. in the same earth, we have those who live in affluence and comfort and those who battle with diseases every day. such is the dehumanization which freire says marks not only those whose humanity has been stolen, but also (though in a different way) those who have stolen it (44). this he said, is a distortion of the vocation of becoming more fully human and “this distortion occurs within history; but it is not a historical vocation” (44). he further believes that the world as we have come to terms with today is engaged in a struggle led by the oppressed peoples of the earth against those who made them less human and was quick to advise that this struggle to regain their humanity must not turn the oppressed to become oppressors of the oppressors. this is quite reminiscent of the flashes of several agitations we have seen in nigeria’s niger delta. the militarization of the struggle and the seeming criminality this struggle takes all in a bid to free the area of further exploitation takes the wind off the sail of genuine efforts at resolving the evident eco-crisis in the region. for freire, both the oppressed and the oppressor have lost their humanity and the struggle should be aimed at restoring the humanity of both (44). this is one problem eco-pedagogy and eco-literacy seeks to address. one strong strand of the concept of eco-pedagogy is the love of all ‘life’. the last three decades have been a seemingly wake up call for all peoples of the earth to consciously embrace lifestyles and attitudes that promote the sacredness of life. but everywhere we look “social relations of oppression and contempt for human dignity abound” (mclaren 22). for mclaren, gobbling up the global life world in the quest for an endless accumulation of surplus value has produced some world – historical excretory excesses, turning the world into a global toilet of toxic waste while adding legions of marx’s reserve army of labour (20). while this remains the true story of many developing nations, the arts in most cases have celebrated the apollonian heights humans have achieved but at the expense of a dying earth. this is what brings to light the need for an ecoliteracy that is place – efficient and can serve the needs of local communities. nanda and warms in this light and draw our attention to the position that national narratives show history as a march of progress: they celebrate the founding and development of corporations rather than the violence that often accompanied such events. they focus on emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 37 the lives of the wealthy and powerful or sometimes, the infamous. the lives, the struggles of families, of members of ethnic and religious minorities, of women, and of children are often omitted from the record. their voices are silenced (343). such is the scenario when we have an art that is not only classicist but marks the semblance of the ethos of a bourgeois society. ecopedagogy hence seeks the reversal of this trend and pursues the emergence of a new body of knowledge and the awakening of a multi-disciplinary approach to peace, safe earth and sustainable development. as the world continues to grapple with the reality of depleting resources, the battle rages on for the remaining natural resources. standlea believes that an unprecedented expansion of human population coupled with an america-styled propagation of unlimited economic “growth paradigm” is forcing a critical historic transition portrayed by ruthless competition over earth’s remaining natural resources (1). “it is unlikely that the current state of affairs and the rate of greed and acquisition, especially characterising american economic consumption, will prevail at this pace without forcing severe environmental and social conflict and chaos” (standlea 1). it is quite obvious as recent global events have proven that where there is oil, there is war. where there is diamond, there is blood. we cannot extricate the world’s deadliest conflicts from the quest and struggle for natural resources as exemplified in nigeria’s delta regions and elsewhere in other african countries as well as the gulf nations. the politics of these conflicts have been the continued desperate quest especially by western nations for these resources. sadly enough, these conflicts or wars have left in their wake environmental havoc of the worst kind not to mention the devastation the continued exploitation of these resources bring to local communities. postmodern nigerian drama and eco-pedagogy climate change and the reality of global warming has been a topical issue in literary discourse in the last three and half decades. even so, it is a rarity to find any substantial engagement of ecological concerns in any major work of art including drama. in nigeria, postmodern drama is still few; hence ecoliteracy through postmodern drama is still very low despite the fact that the country is gravely affected by ecological disasters in recent times. in september 2012, nigeria’s two major rivers – the benue and the niger overflowed its banks and rendered many homeless and helpless. major cities such as onitsha, lokoja, and makurdi as well as the niger ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 38 delta were flooded. roads were cut off and travellers were stranded for weeks. this situation is just one of the harsh realities of climate change. at the moment, the unpredictability of rainfall patterns leaves the entire populace with the gloom of drought and famine with its attendant high cost in food prices. this reality requires a critical response and for this to be possible there is every need to question the very idea of the environment. harthaway and boff in their study of deep ecology came up with the fact that there is no “environment” separate from humanity. humanity is seen as part of the natural world, a part of the greater “web of life”. “when we poison the air, water, and soil, we poison our very selves. when we diminish the beauty and diversity of the planetary community, we also diminish our humanity.” (harthaway and boff 63). what then should be the major discourse of the playwright in nigeria in the global quest to demystify the planetary crisis and create a sustainable world where all life can thrive? drama in the last decade has woken up to this challenging question. there is a strong urgency to awaken the consciousness of society to this eco-neglect that spells doom for everyone. in the philippines in 2008, a group of children and youths in banaba used theatre performances as a tool for advocacy in disaster risk reduction (drr). using singing, dancing and acting, they communicated their perceptions of local hazards such as flooding and river bank erosion, and the potentially destructive impacts of these hazards on people’s livelihoods, properties and lives. they also took the challenge using theatre dynamics to communicate risk reduction activities such as tree planting and solid waste management (tarner et al 62). in other climes and indeed africa, we have seen the role music plays in throwing up issues and contradictions within society. the nile project sprang up in egypt to address the ecological concerns of the nile. the impact the group is making clearly indicates that music can also be used to transform human consciousness towards saving the earth. information posted on its webpage shows that the nile project is already transforming what it called the nile conflict by inspiring, educating, and empowering an international network of university students to cultivate the sustainability of their ecosystem (nileproject.org). this project shows that when applied, ecopedagogy can indeed serve as a catalyst for transformational education and awareness about the global as well as regional concerns of a degrading environment. the nile project’s model emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 39 integrates programmes in music, education, dialogue, leadership, and innovation to engage students across disciplines and geographies on the need to address the nile basin’s cultural and environmental challenges. using music to spark cultural curiosity, the nile project engages musicians and audiences, encouraging them to feel connected to the world’s longest river and to explore new approaches to its large-scale social, cultural, and environmental problems (nileproject.org). popular music has served as a tool for creating awareness and educating the populace in contemporary times. yanni, a non-lyrical jazz artiste used his music to draw the attention of the world to the beauty and magnificence of nature as well as the communality of all human beings. yanni was not only eclectic but his musical pieces served as a voice for nature. this we find in nightingale, a walk in the rain, rainmaker, the rain must fall, november sky, highland, etc. world acclaimed king of pop – michael jackson also sang for the earth in earth’s song and heal the world, where he drew the attention of the world to the devastation being done not only in africa but elsewhere through war, drought and exploitation. unlike drama, popular music in nigeria no doubt has engaged the spectrum of the nigerian society, bringing to light ills perpetrated in the society. ogaga (51) believes that nigerian artistes have insisted on not only foregrounding the pedagogical province of art, but have equally captured the realities of everyday existence in postcolonial nigeria. adeola also adds his voice to these accolades saying; “popular music has been an important tool in the march towards the growth and development of the nation” (81). he strongly believes popular music has been used over the years to move the nation forward or otherwise at different stages. this is seemingly true when the music of legendary artistes like fela anikulapo kuti onyeka onwenu, christie essien igbokwe, sonny okosuns and the likes are considered. however, a closer view of the present day nigerian dramatists shows that a few of them have captured nigerian ecological issues because environmentalism is one of the issues that postmodernity erupts at the top of the literary discourse. the artist justifies his or her relevance and lays claim to the grip of contemporary discourse through his or her engagement with the planetary crisis. glover gives credence to this saying that despite the complexities and contradictions, there has emerged a distinct set of responses to the concepts of postmodernity giving rise to a postmodern environmentalism (19). for glover, the term postmodern conflates at least ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 40 two possibilities: firstly, an attack on the understanding and condition of modernity; and secondly, to sketch out a future different from the present (20). it was inaugurated by the progressive triumph of the market, fluidity of identities, the collapse of communism and the “end of history” (roberts 3). to be postmodern as goodman puts it, “is to understand the limits of modernity and to believe that modernity can be successfully overcome only by going beyond it” (13). for her, while modernists see solutions to all our problems as potentially existing within modern parameters, postmodernists see the root cause of the problems in the assumptions of the modern paradigm. “there can be no real change unless we challenge the entire foundation of modernism” (goodman 12). the postmodern dramatist is concerned with a rejection of the status-quo – a seeming refusal of modernity or the reinvention of the remnants of it. according to canice c. nwosu: afro-postmodernism is rooted in cultural interaction not subjugation, reflecting in the process africa’s socio-economic, political and cultural experiential issues where modernism failed. afropostmodernism should be seen in the first instance in contemporary socio-cultural and economic predicament of the african. it should be a radical departure from mono-culturalism, tailored towards “commodification with commitment” and “satire with bite” (160) the postmodern dramatist through his or her work turns history against itself to define or redefine a new path for the future. this forms the basis upon which drama in the 21st century nigeria must critically re-examine the current socioeconomic and geopolitical structures that plunders the nigerian ecosystem and put its future on the path of peril. this explains the resonance of ecological themes and concerns in a few play texts that managed to surface in recent times. sam ukala for example created harvest of ghosts to challenge the destruction by oil pollution of the environment of the niger delta and the execution by the abacha regime in nigeria of the playwright ken saro-wiwa. the play while offering a graphic visual statement of these atrocities “carries a universal message about greed, corruption and the destruction of the environment” (banham 155). other plays include greg mbajiorgu’s wake up everyone and dandaura’s venom for venom selected for study. emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 41 eco-pedagogy in wake up everyone: a postmodern analysis heim says that mbajiorgu’s wake up everyone has a purpose: … to support impoverished farmers, to educate, to build resilience against the effects of climate change in rural nigeria. the information on climate change is familiar, too, the belief and disbelief, the sometimes awkward juncture of different kinds of experience, the social power implicit in different kinds of knowledge (122). the playwright in the preface to the play writes that his effort was quite tasking as the subject of climate change is scientific and hence not easily adaptable to the stage (6). mbajiorgu said he was quite surprised that despite the frightening effect of climate change, only a few plays have been produced on it globally. with climate change encroaching on us and the global future looking bleak, our world is dire need of a paradigm shift with regards to how we relate to our planet. to guarantee the future of our world, drama is one of those salient strategies we can employ. the time for jaw jaw is over. this is the time for action, let’s join hands and bring about the needed change (mbajiorgu 3). wake up everyone captures the ignorance that pervades the nigerian landscape on the subject matter. the encounter between the local government chairman and professor aladinma in the first scene clearly shows that climate change still sounds like a fairy tale to many even leaders. in that scene, professor aladinma says: “things are no longer the way they used to be, and even a child must have noticed the changes in our climate...” thechairman cuts in saying: “but these are expected, prof. aladinma. doesn’t the bible say that in the last days things like these will happen...” (13). this situation clearly interprets the ignorance that is responsible for the hesitation in tackling the eco-crisis that faces the african. there is always a religious explanation to every natural disaster rather than face the fact that these disasters are precipitated by human activities. in that scene, the professor assumes the role of an ecopedagogue as he makes a futile attempt to de-stool the chairman of his erroneous contraptions about the planetary crisis. this three act play written in simple language brings to its audience the reality of climate change and several adaptive measures that can be employed to ameliorate its effect. in the play, we have professor aladinma, desmond, a phd student from the uk and the professor’s ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 42 green theatre troupe – an assemblage of fresh graduates brought together to dramatize the message of global warming. on the other hand, we have peasant farmers who dwell and depend on the land for survival and there is also the political class as typified by the hon. ochonkeya, the local government council chairman. professor aladinma, armed with enough information on climate change and the pending danger it poses to ndoliland, goes to the hon. ochonkeya, with a proposal on how to arrest this looming catastrophe. the chairman pretentiously accepted to look into the proposal with the promise to present it before the legislative council but only to cast it aside soon after the professor left his office. meanwhile, professor aladinma returns to his rehearsal studio and with the arrival of desmond, continues with the sensitization of local farmers. the farmers in the characters of odukwe, okosisi, nnadozie and others were to be taught on local ways of adapting to climate change by planting drought resistant crops and other modern methods of agro-practice that takes into cognizance of reality and unpredictability of a changing climate. however, a much bigger disaster lay in wait for the land. this is further aggravated by the refusal of hon. ochonkeya, the chairman to attend to the professor’s proposal which would see the government and other international agencies working together to arrest the coming flood. ndoliland lies in the coastal plains and has been under severe threat of eco-degradation owing to years of exploitation by oil companies. the topography of the land also makes it susceptible to flooding. the play ends with the flood submerging the farmlands as predicted by the professor. the farmers are enraged by this development and in the full knowledge of the nonchalant attitude of the council chairman; they decided to go for their pound of flesh at his residence. thematic concerns of the play one of the clear messages we get from mbajiorgu’s wake up everyone is that natural disasters are a direct consequence of human insensitivity to the plight of the environment. professor aladinma in act one, scene one says: what we are witnessing now is nothing else but planetary reactions to man’s mindless activities, period. our soil and rivers have become unproductive because of chemicals and oil spillages. the floods and erosions we experience are caused by our senseless attempts to emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 43 reclaim wetlands. what about the carbon monoxides from power generators and poorly maintained automobiles, and the unfriendly substances flared up into the air by oil companies on daily basis? the problems of our world today are caused by us and yet we are reluctant to find solutions to them (mbajiorgu 2). natural disasters as natural as they seem do not just occur. they are triggered by humanity’s actions and inactions. what the world faces now in the name of global warming, ecological degradation or climate change are nothing but offshoots of what humans do or fail to do. quite typical of this is the level of corruption in oil politics at the expense of the land and the people who depend on it for survival. the play brings this dimension to the fore and raises questions about the so-called amnesty programme for niger delta militants. the disarmament of the youths to a reasonable extent calmed the frayed nerves in the region but the continued plundering and mindless destruction of the environment has continued unabatedly and the creeks smell of the filth continuous oil spillage. the chairman, hon. ochonkeya in this same scene dialogues with his long time friend and partner saying: chairman: i saw oil the spillage incident a grand opportunity to get back at the multinational oil companies. when the event occurred, i got a fiery lawyer that has been at the vanguard of environmental issues to institute a legal action against the oil companies. when they perceived the legal consequences and the attendant damages they resolved to invite me, as the plaintiff, for alternative dispute resolution. jango: choi!! na lie – o – o, how the mata come take disappear nah? chairman: through my lawyer, of course. we agreed that they pay three hundred million naira (mbajiorgu 11). this situation chronicles the hypocrisy and approach to the agitations and so-called environmental activism that has been the lot of the niger delta for many years, the level of damage done to the eco-system in this region ends up in compensations that are largely unaccounted for and absolutely nothing is done to commit the oil companies to clean the filth and make it safe once more for human habitation. the impact of climate change on agriculture is another matter of topicality in the play. dimkpa, one of the farmers in the play draws attention to the deteriorating farms saying: “go there and see for yourself. my farmland is dry and barren, with nothing at all to justify all my efforts during the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 44 planting season” (mbajirogu 16). we also see in the play that the reality of a changing climate especially in nigeria calls for an urgent response in the area of education and empowerment. there is a great need to educate the masses and rural dwellers whose mainstay is farming on the new strategies of combating or adapting to the effect of global warming. ugodiya, another farmer responded to dimkpa’s dilemma blaming him for his loss saying: you have nobody to blame but yourself. we had series of meetings with the professor on what species of seed yam to plant and how to plant in this difficult time of change in climate. we were also introduced to different crop varieties and animal species (mbajiorgu 16). this clearly shows that climate adaptation remains one of the remedies for africa and nigeria in particular. when people cannot change the reality of a warming planet, they have to adapt and the mode of adaptation remains the greatest challenge in a continent where literacy and access to information remains elusive. today we are seeing the effects of industrialized driven economy sparked off by the age of modernity. emission of a greenhouse gases, deforestation, and loss of natural landscape and subsequent extinction of the life-world are just a few incidences that stare all in the face. the intellectual discourse between the professor and desmond in act two, scene two reveals a dimension to this trend that has become a reality in modern day nigeria. here we see in vivid pictures that the pursuit of modernity has further aggravated humanity’s crisis with the environment. the impact of climate change and its causative factors are staring all in the face even in the rural areas of nigeria. desmond blames it on the quest for so-called development fuelled by western-styled civilization and modernity saying: “that’s why we are discharging all kinds of poisonous substances into the atmosphere in the name of industrialization and modern technological supra-efficient machines” (mbajiorgu 37). the play also brings to light the causes and effects of climate change. act two, scene three sees professor aladinma using his green theatre troupe to narrate the story of climate change. with his cast working in his studio, they use various dramatic techniques as a tool for raising the consciousness of the local farmers on the possible causes of climate change and the resultant effect of this crisis on human habitation. the scene of the rehearsal shows the current reality of global warming and emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 45 where the world stands today. obioma, adaora, ekene and nweke – all part of the cast engage in this dialogue: obioma: what have you done? bio diversity minimization and emission of harmful and dangerous substances into the atmosphere and you know the adverse effects? adaora, ekene & nweke: we don’t. obioma: they are numerous, where do i even start, (counting with her fingers as she lists them). increase in global atmospheric temperature, melting of polar ice, rising sea temperatures, sea level rise, appearance of radiation-related concerns, change in the pattern of precipitation, change in agricultural yield, proliferation of a thousand other diseases and health problems..(mbajiorgu 39). this shows that the eco-crisis as it is today is the making of changing climate. this eco-catastrophe is felt in every part of the globe and more so on african shores. nigeria’s response to these ecological challenges over the years has been that of silencing the voices that dare to speak out either by military might or by monetary inducement in the name of paying compensations. nweke reminds us in this same scene that the nation has not responded with the right antidote to arrest this situation. she states: look at those men carrying heavy weapons. look at them, all around us, murdering our heroes for daring to stop the spillage of oil and flaring of gas. and there is the mighty rig, the monstrous equipment that rapes and pollutes our waters. (stares in the distance). what am i seeing? (pause). what are they doing? (runs to the imaginary scene). hei! stop! leave those little boys alone, they are too young, too young to handle that heavy military equipment. take your fetish amulets off their necks! can’t go find something better to do than turning this whole land into corpses and coffins? all you know is how to shoot and maim (mbajiorgu 40). the ken saro wiwa saga and how they were summarily executed by the than military junta comes to mind as one ponders on the scene above. the resultant militancy that grew soon afterwards, the merchants of death armed by oil thieves ferrying off stolen oil overseas is also captured by nweke’s statement. we also see the effects of hunger precipitated by poisoned sea life. nweke further illustrates this saying: “here in ndoli, our source of living has gone forever, our fishermen have exhausted what is ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 46 left of our sacred waters, carting home tender fingerlings that hold the secret of future harvest” (mbajiorgu 41). this explains the current spate of importation of sea life. nigeria’s waters lie empty due to prolonged and desperate quest to harvest whatever is left from a once rich and abundant sea life. fishermen now grovel through the filth of the waters in search of fish that no longer exist. even the famous preserved and conserved waters that once served as an international tourist destination such as the argungu fishing festival has gone with the winds because the giant fishes that wore the attraction of this festival can no longer be found. the ineptitude, nonchalance and indifference of nation’s political leadership to the reality of climate change is another subject matter in the play. in act three, scene three, professor aladinma captures this message in this dialogue with desmond saying: look, desmond, this country is asleep. great leaders in other parts of the world are busy, embracing serious ideas like how to produce alternative energy sources that will replace fossil fuel. here, our leaders are busy sharing oil wells and buying fuel tankers (mbajiorgu 50). desmond’s response to this statement brings to light another dimension to the eco-discourse by exposing the nation’s lack of will to adapt to the realities of climate change. he states thus: it is despeakable, most of the cities in this country are stuffed with hotels, filling stations, shopping malls, exotic mansions, and no breathing space at all; no trees, no flowers, no parks, no forest reserves and no pedestrian walk ways. in every corner, you will find one structure or another without adequate waste disposal system, unfriendly buildings facing and suffocating one another. yet more people are procuring cement and moulding blocks in these already congested cities (mbajiorgu 50). a look at our cities today reflects this reality. the slums are swelling daily as more people migrate from the hinterlands in search of a better life. as the cities grow in population, nearly non-existent infrastructure is over stretched and this also impacts greatly on the environment. emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 47 the conflict of greed and eco-degradation in dandaura’s venom for venom in another vein, dandaura’s venom for venom leads the eco-discourse further by exposing the impact of western styled companies to the degradation of the nigerian environment. the play tackles the hypocrisy in the so-called development efforts of the west on nigerian soil. kevwe, one of the elders in the play questions this hypocrisy and flagrant deceit of these companies saying: “we believed the company which deceived us that they would turn our community into paradise overnight.” (9). briggs, another elder added that, “instead of development, our land has been pillaged by the company. our rivers are no longer productive.” (9). dandaura’s venom for venom presents the subject of greed as the driving force behind all forms of environmental degradation and exploitation especially in the niger delta. the play explores the motivation behind the militancy and the violent approach to the eco-struggles of the region in recent years. the play opens with two central characters – ogenero and tega who represent different ideological divides in eco-activism. ogenero is a selfish insurgent who cashes in on prevailing exploitation in his community to milk the resources of the elites and that of the multinationals through kidnappings, hostage taking and robbery. tega on the other hand, decamps from ogenero’s group to lead a non-violent campaign aimed at educating the people to reject the continued plundering and devastation of the environment. this he achieves by mobilizing the people through the power of art (drama). the play further portrays the consequences of violent militancy as represented by ogenero who in the end failed tragically while tega’s group and their approach brought about a revolution in the hitherto restless community. they play ends with the people embracing peace and getting the needed result they deserve as everyone comes to a realization that violence is not the best antidote for achieving peace and development. in scene two, we see the real agenda that gave impetus to the resurgence of militancy in the niger delta. ogenero, leader of the militants in the play addresses his comrades-in-arms saying: my brothers, they call us terrorists, but you and i know that we are not terrorists. the real terrorists are the foreign companies that have connived with our brothers uphill to exploit us. they destroyed our land, polluted our environment. even the water, our people’s means of livelihood has been muddled up and poisoned (dandaura 13). ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 48 no insurgency erupts without a cause. the insurgency in the niger delta was primarily angst by the growing deprivation, exploitation of oil wealth and subsequent alienation of the people from nature’s good. the growing poverty index and the mass population of unemployed youths provided a ready and willing army for a violent and deadly campaign that further exacerbated the conflict in the region. in all, the environment is further left battered and bruised by the simmering rivers fuelled by leaking oil from blown-up pipelines. the creeks are left unsafe and impregnable as gunwielding militants lurk on every side. venom for venom also brings to light the true purpose of eco-activism and the environmental crisis especially in the niger delta. the play shows us the two strands of the niger delta struggle. ogenero is a violent militant with a selfish bent whose modus operandi has a criminal bent. tega is a non-violent activist, a social crusader with a pro-environmental ideology. the confrontation between these two characters partly explains the dichotomy that pervades the insurgency and the eco-struggles of the niger delta. this scenario also explains the rise of criminality within the claims and agitations of the various contending groups. there are those who took to arms to perpetuate mayhem for their selfish gains such as hostage taking, kidnappings, oil theft and vandalism. on the other hand we have those who push for the safety and productivity of the environment in the face of oil exploitation. tega says: “we must not lose focus. our movement is geared towards total emancipation of our people and the environment, not murder and arson! we must not commit same crimes that have warranted our struggle (16). just soon after this statement, he got kicked out of ogenero’s camp. what then is the present state of the niger delta that catalyzed these agitations? scene four of the play provides an answer. at a drinking and relaxation centre owned by mama etteh, characters simply known as 1st man and 2nd man provides a reality that has characterised the entire niger delta environment saying: 1st man: my worry is that our crops have all withered. there is this strange dust colouring every plant in the farm. even grasses and trees are gradually dying. i am afraid we may not have any harvest this season if this problem is not addressed soon. 2nd man: haven’t you noticed the disappearance of fishes from our rivers. the water these days is as coloured as banga soup. at emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 49 first, i reasoned that the gods were angry with us, but only this morning, my friend explained that it is oil spillage from the company’s pipes that has polluted the waters (dandaura 25). this situation no doubt explains the danger and uncertainty that prevails in oil producing communities. it typifies the reality that the primary source of livelihood of ordinary citizens which is agriculture is severely threatened by the activities associated with oil exploration. what this portends for future generations becomes more worrisome owing to the fact that the niger delta still grapples with ecological crisis till date. at the moment, there are no realistic measures to arrest this trend other than just providing amnesty for supposed repentant militants. in the play, we also see the potency of non-violent resistance. scene seven shows tega calling on the people to shun violence but yet to courageously lead a struggle that ultimately engages the minds of the people to act for change. he says: do not be scared of what the powers that may be will do to us. so long as we succeed in sensitizing the people, the people themselves will decide on how best to liberate themselves. that is my problem with the violent approach; it robs the people of the revolutionary zeal (dandaura 40). the eco-pedagogic importance of drama was also captured in this scene. drama is identified as one effective tool for social change with the potential to galvanize the energies of the people to change what they do not want and bring about what they want. tega also amplifies this saying: “through such performances, we could teach out people to rediscover their identities and regain confidence in their capabilities, limitations and potentials” (dandaura 42). this clearly indicates that drama indeed serves educational functions that reinvent the innate abilities of the people to transform their societies especially their environment. this scene also provides us with a self-reflective dimension to change which ecopedagogy brings in the discourse with forces that militate against the environment. the ideology of change according to the play should and must be seen to begin with the people and the war against these alien forces must be targeted at the conscience. we see this in the resolve of the youths at the end of scene seven who declared thus: “we shall never exploit the people or collaborate with those who exploit the people. our weapons should pierce the consciences of our oppressors and never their bodies” (dandaura 44). ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 50 conclusion the import of these plays shows the multi-faceted dimensions to the main causes of ecological disasters in africa. there is no doubt that industrial activities largely controlled by multi-nationals have contributed in no small measure to the desecration of the once peaceful, surreal and sublime temperate nigerian climate. the constant production of unrecyclable waste comes largely from the west and in most cases the nigerian environment is a dumping ground of some sort. as the world’s eco-system continues to deplete with every passing day, the question remains what role humanity can play to salvage what remains of the global life world. the interconnectedness between nature and culture provides an impetus for arts especially dramatic literature to engage. the reality of climate change dawns on africa with its attendant consequences, drama can indeed mediate and act as a catalyst not just for change but also for healing a dying earth. dandaura’s venom for venom and mbajiorgu’swake up everyone as presented in this paper is indicative of the potency of drama in creating the needed advocacy for a safe and cleaner environment. works cited adeola, t.s. “contemporary nigerian popular music: a tool for national development” in nigerian theatre journal. ed. akinwale, a. 6 (1) 80 – 85, 2001. banham, m. “puppet & politics”. african theatre: playwright & politics. banham, m., gibbs, j.m. and osofisan, f. (eds). oxford: james currey, 2001. dandaura, s. venom for venom. lagos: dat and partners logistics, 2010. carpenter, a.n. “western philosophy”. microsoft® encarta® 2009 [dvd]. redmond, wa: microsoft corporation, 2008. derrida, j. monolingualism of the other, or prosthesis of origin (1996). trans. mensah, p. stanford: stanford university press, 1998. freire, p. pedagogy of the oppressed: 30th anniversary edition. new york: the continuum international publishing group. 2006. glover, l. postmodern climate change. new york: routledge, 2006. goodman, a. now what? developing our future: understanding our place in the unfolding universe. new york: peter lang, 2003. gonzalez-gaudiano, e & meira-carter, p. (2010) “climate change education and communication: acritical perspective on obstacles and resistances. in kagawa, f. & selby, d. (eds.), education and climate change: living and learning in interesting times new york: routledge. 13-34. emmanuel e. uzoji eco-pedagogy in a postmodernist’s reading of mbajiorgu’s wake up … 51 harthaway, m. & boff, l. the tao of liberation: exploring the ecology of transformation. new york: orbis books, 2010. kahn, r. critical pedagogy, ecoliteracy, & the planetary crisis, new york: peter lang, 2010. martin, g. & te riele, k. “a placed – based critical pedagogy in turbulent futures”, in critical pedagogy in the twenty-first century: a new generation of scholars. (eds) malott, c.s. & portfolio, b., charlette: information age publishing, 2011. mbajiorgu, g. wake up everyone: a drama on climate change. abuja: palace press limited, 2014. mclaren, p. capitalists and conquerors: a critical pedagogy against empire. oxford: rowman & littlefield publishers, 2005. mintzer, m.i. & leonard, j.a. negotiating climate change. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1994. nanda, s. & warms, r. l. cultural anthropology, belmont: wadsworth cengage learning, 2011. nile project. http://www.nileproject.org/about/html accessed 13/07/2015. nwosu, canice chukwuma. postmodernism and paradigm shift in theory and practice of theatre. onitsha: eagleman books, 2014. nwosu, p.u. “the role of okonko society in preserving igbo environment”, in journal of human ecology, (ed) kamla-raj, 31(1), 2010. ogaga, o. “african china, nigerian popular music, national development and the search for musical idiom”. musica: journal of music reasearch in africa, 8 (2), 50 – 59. quayson, a. “postcolonialism and postmodernism” in olaniyan t. & quayson, a. eds. african literature: an anthology of criticism and theory. oxford: blackwell publishing, 2009. ramsbotham, o. woodhouse, t & miall, h. contemporary conflict resolution, cambridge: polity press, 2011. richardson, k., steffen, w., & liverman, d. climate change: global risks, challenges and decisions. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2011. standlea, d.m. oil, globalization, and the war for the arctic refuge.new york: state university of new york press, 2006. tarner, t., garcia, m., lazcano, j., molina, f., molina, g., rodriguez, g., tribunalo, b., & seballos, f. “children’s participation in communitybased disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change”. participatory learning and action: community-based adaption to climate change. ashley, h. kenton, n. & milligan, a. (eds). london: the international institute for environment and development (iied), 2009. pp. 54-75. todd, t. minds and gods: the cognitive foundations of religion. oxford: oxford university press, 2010. umenyiliora: post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for… 57 post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for ‘theatrepowerment’ umenyilorah, uzodinma chukwukelue department of theatre and media arts, federal university oye-ekiti, ekiti state chukwukelue.umenyilorah@fuoye.edu.ng abstract the year 2020 ushered in reports of coronavirus ravaging china, and consequently, grounding their economy, various countries shut their borders to curtail the spread as a preventive measure and nigeria also followed suit by imposing an emergency lockdown which affected all economic activities. the economic impact has affected nigerians, as they complained of untold hardship, hunger and strife, increase in crime rate, violence, rape, robbery, and kidnapping among others and this has motivated this study. despite various support from government and non-governmental funding organisations, nigeria still witnesses low economic growth. the study, therefore, investigates the effect of covid-19 on nigeria's economy and seeks to determine how theatre facilitates and provides socio-economic support in nigeria using ‘theatrepowerment’. the study adopts a qualitative research method through interviews and observation by participation, to assess the effect of covid-19 on nigeria’s economy. the study finds out that the covid-19 pandemic has had a substantial impact on the economy of nigeria which has resulted in considerable disruptions in supply chains, the loss of jobs, and a reduction in income, among others. the study among other things advocates ‘theatrepowerment’, for socio-economic change in contemporary theatre practice. keywords: theatrepowerment, coronavirus, recession. mailto:chukwukelue.umenyilorah@fuoye.edu.ng ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 58 introduction the pandemic of covid-19 has had a huge influence on the world economy, with numerous nations enduring recession and economic disaster. one of africa's greatest economies, nigeria, has been severely impacted by the pandemic, which has resulted in high inflation, job losses, and a steep fall in revenue. okeowo emphasises that: the pandemic has had a significant impact on the nigerian economy, which was already struggling with a range of structural and systemic issues before the pandemic hit. the pandemic has resulted in the loss of jobs, income, and livelihoods for millions of nigerians. the impact of the pandemic has been felt across different sectors, including healthcare, education, transport, and tourism (31). the decline in the price of oil, which has traditionally been nigeria's primary source of export money, has made an already difficult situation for the country's economy considerably worse. as a direct consequence of this, the revenue of the country has significantly decreased, and the government is having a hard time meeting its financial obligations. other structural and systemic difficulties, such as poor infrastructure, weak institutions, and inadequate social services, contribute to nigeria's already difficult economic situation and make it much more difficult to address. adeojo notes that “almost forty per cent of the population of nigeria lives in conditions that are considered to be poor” (211), giving nigeria one of the highest poverty rates in the world. moreover, the nation has one of the highest unemployment rates in the world, with more than 33 per cent of the population being unemployed or underemployed at any given time. the informal sector, which is responsible for employing a sizeable share of nigeria's labour force, has also been impacted negatively by the pandemic. the pandemic has had a particularly devastating effect on the informal economy, causing the closure of umenyiliora: post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for… 59 a large number of companies, which has resulted in a loss of both jobs and income. the epidemic has also contributed to a drop in tourism, which has had a significant negative effect not only on the hospitality business but also on the economy as a whole. imhonopi explicates that: covid-19 has impacted the informal economy, which produces a large part of nigeria's economic drive. the pandemic has closed many informal companies, causing job and income losses. tourism has dropped dramatically because of the pandemic, weakening the hospitality industry and economy. (55) to lessen the impact that the epidemic will have on the economy, the government of nigeria has implemented several different policies, such as fiscal and monetary policy initiatives. small and medium-sized businesses (smes) play an essential role in the economy of nigeria; as a result, the government has enacted fiscal stimulus packages to lend assistance to these businesses. via several social safety programs, the government has also offered financial assistance to households that were previously considered vulnerable. the increasing rate of hunger, strife, lack of even distribution of palliatives, robbery and famine is another impact of covid-19 on the economy. the situation is worse in the slums and ghettoes whereby, social connectedness is the currency that nurtures the much-needed resilience/succour for communities to persevere in the face of crisis, as isolation, social distancing and quarantine are enforced, thus breaking this social cohesion. suffice to say it that, the federal and state government provided palliatives: food, clothing, and cash gifts to citizens, but the majority of the masses didn’t benefit hence, they resort to self-help, through all available sinister means. a casing point is the fact that, during the lockdown, some random group called one million boys are operating in groups, to rob citizens and dispossess them of their ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 60 valuables in lagos, ogun and ibadan. this is happening, just as the imf on 14th april, warned the global community to brace for tough times ahead due to the recession. ozili notes that: the crisis presents a very serious threat to the stability of the global financial system. following the covid-19 outbreak, financial conditions tightened at an unprecedented speed…. the world economy will shrink by 3% rather than expand by 3.3% as thought back in january. (11) the pandemic has also had a substantial negative impact on the tourism industry in nigeria, which is a significant contributor to the country's economy. the closing of international borders and the imposition of migration restrictions has led to a decline in tourism, which in turn has led to a loss of revenue and employment opportunities. assessing the impact of covid-19 on nigeria’s economy in nigeria, the recession is not new, in 2016, nigeria witnessed an economic recession, and the monetary authority in nigeria aided the local currency from forced devaluation against the dollar and adopted a managed float foreign exchange system, which worked well from 2016 to 2019. however, the looming recession is more dangerous than the previous ones, because the developed countries that ought to aid nigeria, cannot participate in economic activities as well, for fear of contracting the virus and secondly, their economy is also affected negatively. according to ozili: the covid-19 pandemic affected the global economy in two ways. one, the spread of the virus encouraged social distancing which led to the shutdown of financial markets, corporate offices, businesses and events. two, the rate at which the virus was spreading, and the heightened umenyiliora: post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for… 61 uncertainty about how bad the situation could get, led to flight to safety in consumption and investment among consumers and investors…there was a consensus among top economists that the coronavirus pandemic would plunge the world into a global recession.3 top imf economists such as gita gopinath and kristalina georgieva stated that the covid-19 pandemic would trigger a global recession. (7) from ozili’s view, the global economy is shrinking and many investors have reduced labour hire, declined in business activities, and brought about a reduction in the income, tax and igr capacity of their countries. thus, many countries like the united states, canada, australia, italy, nigeria etc reviewed and slashed their budget, while some other countries had to obtain loans to support their budget. some states have also reviewed and slashed their budget in line with the new socio-economic realities and consequently, many companies had to retrench their workforce. according to aljazeera.com, over 44.2 million workforce were terminated as of july in the united states, as a result of the receding economic crisis of the companies. with these developments, coupled with the huge debt profile of nigeria, gross embezzlement and mismanagement of funds, it is obvious that, the socio-economy of nigeria and indeed the world at large is gradually dwindling, there is a looming disaster as the society may witness a spike in the volume of atrocities: hooliganism, thuggery, violence against women and girls, robbery, kidnapping, armed insurrection, insurgency, militancy, etc. there is, therefore, a need for the nigerian government to bell the cat, by engaging in proactive measures that could avert the looming disaster, through a public-private partnerships, investment in the entertainment industry, entrepreneurial skills and youth empowerment. this is because, any government that must witness socio-economic stability, must ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 62 give credence to the youth, because of their innovation, creativity, vigour, commitment, hard work and team spirit. as the nation continues to deal with the economic repercussions of the epidemic, it is vital to seek out innovative ways to foster economic recovery and expansion. this essay examines the role of theatre in motivating individuals and communities to overcome the pandemic's economic concerns. using the unique power of ‘theatrepowerment’, nigeria may promote entrepreneurship, job creation, and economic development, leading to a brighter future for its population. imperatives for theatrepowerment in nigeria theatrepowerment is a coinage of two wordstheatre and empowerment. it denotes the empowerment avenues or initiatives within the praxis and practice of theatre, that can salvage the situation, hence government, multinational organisations, and stakeholders should explore this avenue, to quickly recover the economy from the shackles of recession. olusola emphasises that “theatrepowerment is the ability of theatre to empower individuals and communities by providing a platform for creative expression, promoting social change, and fostering personal growth and development” (3). through 'theatrepowerment', a person's capacity for self-expression, creative endeavour, and overall development can all be enhanced through participation in theatrical activities. the theatrical profession provides employment opportunities for performers, directors, authors, technicians, designers, and stagehands, among others. these jobs contribute to the entire economy by providing individuals and families with work opportunities and revenue earnings. there is no gainsaying the fact that there are numerous outlets/avenues for empowerment in the arts and theatre industry, a mastery of these skills/vocations will create self-sufficiency and cushion the harsh economic conditions of nigerians during and umenyiliora: post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for… 63 after the coronavirus pandemic. these avenues include but are not limited to makeup design, costume design, photography, filmmaking, comedy skits, music, acting, directing, dance, painting etc make-up design: beyond decorative functionality, make-up is an art that gives smoothness and glamour to the appearance of a person. this skill is relatively cheap to acquire and beyond film production and theatrical performances, it’s one of the most lucrative jobs for youths, virtually all birthday photoshoots require the services of a make-up artist. weddings, burials, and naming ceremonies are filled with different make-up artists, who make up a guest at a token. even more profitable is the new trend of making headgear (gele), as a special brand, with different designs and shapes to reflect the creativity of the artist. photography: according to wikipedia.com, photography is the art, application and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically utilizing an image sensor. in the past, it used to be a job for illiterates and dropouts, nowadays, it is one of the lucrative professions whose services are essentially required in society. with the innovation of digital cameras and hd lenses, people are now turning to studio shoots for different celebrations, while they are specially hired to cover events/programmes, they are specially paid for this on-express delivery. some photographers take different shots of guests unannounced, edit and print them without the guest’s consent, and then bring it for the guest to pay, the guest who sees a more glamorous picture of himself/herself will not refuse this offer, because more often than not, pictures speak memories and memories are part of our lives. (thanks to innovation in ict and technology). ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 64 filmmaking: nollywood is becoming a global brand, after being ranked the second largest film producer in the world in terms of quantity, after bollywood (india film industry). it provides close to 500,000 direct and indirect jobs, contributing to the gdp of the nigerian economy. this is because, for a movie production to happen, different services will be needed, directors, actors, location managers, scriptwriters, editors, continuity managers, cameramen, lighting designers, set managers, props managers, make-up designers, costume designers, etc. during this pandemic, when all other sectors were declining in igr, the entertainment and telecommunications industry was blossoming, netflix witnessed a surge from its previous value and increased to about 50 million$, because people were bored at home and only movies could brighten their day. this infers that, if the government can concentrate on the entertainment industry more, there will be an increase in the economy of nigeria. tie and dye: this is an aspect of technical theatre that deals with the tying of fabrics to produce different patterns and designs. this aspect remains unexplored in the art and creative industry, the local production of these materials and fabrics can sustain the economy if imported, beyond the shores of nigeria. the prospect lies in the fact that it can be applied to english wears, trousers and shorts, to exhibit creativity and aesthetics, should the youths be empowered in this dimension, there is no doubt they will create more employment opportunities and propagate these skills. comedy: while the world was at a standstill, and the harsh realities were gripping the global space, nigerians were dominating twitter space, blogs and instagram, creating comic skits to relieve the people, some groups and persons gained prominence and increase the number of followers, due to the content of comedy, taoma, mr macaroni, cute abiola among others are typical examples. by creating short dramatic skits and uploading them on youtube, umenyiliora: post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for… 65 nigerians could start earning from these skits, (of course, the content must be original, creative and hilarious) as soon as their viewership increases. music: this is one of the lucrative avenues of theatrical performance, countless dropouts have changed the fortune of their families and carved a niche for themselves through music. while numerous concerts are held outside nigeria by nigerian artists to entertain their fans across the globe during the lockdown, these musical artists started streaming live concerts, live instagram, featuring other artists and increasing their income. if the nigerian government can empower the youth to look towards these avenues, the current gdp will also increase. some successful nigerian musical artists include joeboy, burna boy, don jazzy, p-square, tuface idibia, tiwa savage, p square, korede bello, reekado banks, whizkid, and davido. painting: this is an aspect of technical theatre. in times past, painting used to be a mere decoration on the wall to represent colour, but nowadays, painting is now a form of communication and expression. different paints are now used to show creativity in films, backgrounds, wallpaper, houses and offices. during the pandemic, pictures of painting about restoring mother nature and humanity were appreciated and handsomely paid for. if the government can empower the youths with the right materials, this art can be exhibited and auctioned even in the global community. dance: this is the act of creating and expressing one's feelings, through one’s body, in a rhythmic way. according to wikipedia, dance is a performing art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. this movement has aesthetic and symbolic value and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture. this is a lucrative avenue, whereby people pay heavily for dancers to come and entertain ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 66 them, even on social media/applications like zoom. despite the lockdown, dance training sessions were going on and different people have to pay to subscribe to dance classes online, because more often than not, dance is beyond mere expression, it is a way of life of a people. segun adefila, bakare ojo rasaki, kaffy, and poco lee are some of the people that have carved a niche for themselves in this field. acting: this is the most popular aspect of the make-believe profession, it involves the representation, the reenactment, and the imitation of a role in line with the demands of the director. most people aspire for fame and a name in acting, but the stiff competition of who is who, soon chokes them and thus, they may resort to chasing roles through all means possible like sex, money, bribery or diabolic means. some successful actors in nigeria include, but not limited to: toyin oshinaike, olu jacobs, joke silva-jacobs, omotola jalade, genevieve nnaji, segun arinze, omoni oboli, funke akindele, jim iyke, ramsey noah, mercy johnson, olu jacobs, hilda dokubo, odunlade adekola to mention a few. several of them have featured and produced international films. we have genevieve nnaji who has graced the legendary oprah winfrey show, and omotola jalade-ekeinde (united nations goodwill ambassador). etc. theatre troupe: this is the organisation and management of performances by a group of people, for entertainment/education. the national troupe of nigeria has represented nigeria in foreign competitions and promoted our cultural heritage, however, nigerian youths can key into this and explore it for economic growth, one could run a series of shows/performances in one night and the income alone can sustain more than 10 families. there are some successful private theatre troupes like the jos repertory theatre, ado repertory theatre in ado ekiti, ankara and black umenyiliora: post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for… 67 playhouse in lagos, bolanle austene-peters production in lagos, renegade theatre in lagos, crown troupe of lagos, etc. directing: this is the art of coordinating all the dimensions of production to achieve a successful performance or film/music production. there are two dimensions to production, one is the artistic: which involves the performers, the scripts, music, characters etc while the other is technical: the light, set manager, location, continuity, sound cues, editing, props manager, etc. the job of the director is to harmonise these two creatively and create a performance/film/music for the audience’s interest. there are many successful theatre, musical and film directors, who are multimillionaires today, among which we find, but not limited to tunde kelani, clearance peters, tade ogidan, bakare rasaki, ahmed yerima, kunle afolayan, anthony onah, chico ejiro, toyin abraham, kemi adetiba, sam dede, etc. costume design: beyond wearing mere garments, a costume is an essential tool for communication, and nigerians have taken the fashion space to a global level by showcasing exquisite designs, a mixture of materials from silk and cotton, many reputable fashion houses have emerged, and some top nigerian celebrities are fashion ambassadors and brands. the aso ebi culture is still in vogue and the more creative a costume designer is, the greater the demand for his/her services. folake coker, yemi osunkoya, oshodi frank etc are among the successful costume designers we have in nigeria today. suffice it to say, government alone cannot help the plight of the ailing economy, there is a need for commitment, transparency, discipline, accountability, and passion on the part of the government, while there is a need for the youths to also learn marketing skills, branding and packaging, innovation, creativity, competency, proficiency, efficient human and resources ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 68 management so that these efforts will not go down the drain. while the nation is still battling with the post-pandemic era, there is a need for extensive measures to be taken to reduce person-to-person transmission of covid-19. special attention and efforts to protect or reduce transmission should be applied in susceptible populations including children, health care providers and elderly people. conclusion the covid-19 epidemic has had a substantial impact on the economy of nigeria, worsening the economic issues that were previously present in the country. the pandemic has affected several different areas of the economy, which has resulted in considerable disruptions in supply chains, the loss of jobs, and a reduction in income. although the government of nigeria has already taken several steps to reduce the negative effects of the epidemic on the economy, there are still other steps that need to be taken to stimulate economic recovery and growth in the country, one such is to deploy 'theatrepowerment' avenues to revive the ailing economy. ‘theatrepowerment’ can provide individuals with possibilities to earn a living and enhance their economic well-being. theatrical productions necessitate a variety of skills and abilities, including acting, directing, costume design, and stage management. by giving training in these talents and opportunities to work in the theatre, it is possible to create jobs and produce revenue. this can be especially significant in regions with high unemployment or few other economic options. furthermore, theatrepowerment’ can attract tourists and visitors to towns and regions, hence generating economic benefits for local businesses and communities. theatrical festivals shows, and performances can contribute to the expansion of the tourism industry by attracting international visitors. furthermore, through umenyiliora: post covid-19 coronavirus and economic crisis in nigeria: imperatives for… 69 education and training, ‘theatrepowerment’ also provides individuals with useful skills and knowledge applicable to a variety of businesses, such as marketing, public relations, and event management, among others. because theatre is a component of the creative industries, which also include film, television, music, and other art and entertainment disciplines, these industries contribute significantly to the economy through ticket sales, item sales, license fees, and other routes. the study, therefore, advocates that any post-covid-19 economic recovery strategy will need to re-prioritise the conditions necessary for the rehabilitation of health systems, the creation of culturally sensitive protection and community, peace and cohesion. the government should also embrace building measures that integrate, the recovery of lost livelihoods as well as setting an agenda, for a quick return to a path of economic growth, recovery and stability through human capital development, and the arts & entertainment industry offers such privilege. interventions funds should be put to judicious use by political office holders and privileged entrepreneurs in the society should aid government efforts by sacrificing a token, from their material and financial reserves. works cited ahmad, saheed, hafeez, siddqui, ahmad, et al. “review of covid-19 (coronavirus disease-2019) diagnosis, treatments and prevention”. ejmo: euroasian journal of medicine and ontology, vol4, no 2, 2020, pp 116–125. “coronavirus: which countries have confirmed cases?”. aljazeera.com. accessed aug 1, 2020. nwachukwu, owen. “covid-19: fg fumes as nigerians shun face masks, social distancing.”. guardian newspapers,05/05/2020. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 70 ozili, peterson. “covid-19 pandemic and economic crisis: the nigerian experience and structuralcauses.” research gate: ssrn electronic journal. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340439471. 2020. the day of retrieval is missing financial times: global recession already here, say top economists. https://www.ft.com/content/be732afe-6526 11ea-a6cd-df28cc3c6a68. okeowo, arisekola. “the dynamics of population and economic growth in nigeria." journal of economics and development studies. vol 5.3, 2017. pp 79-86. adeojo, opeyemi. "urbanization processes and child breadwinner in lagos metropolis." journal of culture, society and development. vol 2, no 7, 2017. pp 30-40. imhonopi, david. “maternal mortality and maternal health care in nigeria: implications for socio-economic development”. macedonian journal of medical sciences 7, no. 5, 2020. pp 49-60 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340439471.%202020 https://www.ft.com/content/be732afe-6526-%2011ea-a6cd-df28cc3c6a68 https://www.ft.com/content/be732afe-6526-%2011ea-a6cd-df28cc3c6a68 ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 164 drama, national identity and sustainable development angel nguemo yakubu and jerry idah odeh department of theatre arts, benue state university, makurdi angellyakubu@gmail.com; odehidah@gmail.com abstract this study examines the role of drama in formulating national identity and engendering sustainable development. the study aims at affirming the factorial attributes of drama in the formation of national identity and the transformation of any nation of the world. this is because drama expresses the feelings, thoughts, emotions, yearnings and aspirations of the people, thus, it is an appropriate mechanism for engendering development. the study uses qualitative research methodology through which content analysis approach is used for analysing soyinka’s death and the king’s horseman. the study finds out that the formation of a formidable national identity ultimately depends on the commitment level and the love citizens’ exhibit towards the nation as a whole. the study concludes that, for good national identity to be created and sustained, a collective and decisive response to the challenges in the country must be done. the study recommends the olunde spirit as panacea for national development and therefore encourages nigerians to emulate the life of olunde who demonstrates total allegiance and patriotism in order for his society to develop. the study also encourages playwrights and directors as well as other theatre stakeholders to intensify their research into various cultural dimensions of the country and portray a good image of her. keywords: drama, national identity and sustainable development introduction the development trajectories of any nation of the world to a large extent are anchored on the nature of identity collectively formulated and exhibited by the people. the feeling of belonging, patriotism, nationalism, angel nguemo yakubu & jerry idah odeh drama, national identity and sustainable… 165 commitment and selflessness exhibited towards the affairs of the nation are factorial indicators that determine the development level of the nation. countries with such predisposition among their citizens find it easy to key their citizens into the nation’s agenda, articulate this agenda, push for reformations, call for referendum, return and discard erring political office holders. however, a close examination of the nation’s development would reveal that, in spite of her enormous natural and human resources the country is still lagging behind. perhaps, this has necessitated government, institutions, public spirited individuals and private organisations to examine the situation with the hope of finding lasting solution to the problem. this paper defines the role and contributions of theatre, with special interest on drama in this regards. drama is formidable in the formulation of a good national identity and in spurring social mobilisation and development. according to ojemudia: drama helps man to form a view of the world; a true and large-scale assessment of events; get a rational, reasoned orientation of the world around him; and make a true assessment of his own self. it aesthetically expresses man's emotional-intellectual world in his relationship to the environment. national or personal identity is a direct result of the presence of elements from the shared activities such as drama performances, cultural practices and other common factors in people's daily lives including language, history, culture and consciousness. in nigeria, drama has played significant roles in forming and consolidating ethnic and national identities. drama therefore is an effective instrument for identity formation. (33) this is a clear attestation of the providence of drama in national development. as a resume of a people’s culture, drama touches every aspects of human endeavour. it helps man to understand himself, formulate a self-concept, understand and be able to engage his immediate environment. it also mobilises, orients and re-orients citizens, build their emotional and psychological power and above all teaches them how to solve their problem by themselves. it is on this pretext that this article examines the role of drama in the formulation of national identity and how it transforms into national development. conceptualizing drama, national identity and sustainable development it is fundamental to note that identity is a construct. the way people conceive an individual or group of people who come to form a nation depends on the kind of image which they create for themselves. this is ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 166 reflected in their way of life; their values and norms, aesthetics, leadership, culture, law, ideology and philosophy as well as their mode of interaction with others. concomitantly, sieyes in schieder conceptualizes a nation as "the totality of individuals united by living under a common law and represented by the same legislative assembly" (122). this unification leads to the establishment of a society or communities which anderson in dhoest refers to this as “imagined communities”. cultural diversity, multiethnicity and individual differences form the bases of anderson’s description of a nation. it explains a situation where commonality is placed above individual and cultural differences; where people agree to live together in spite of these differences in order to pursue set goals. dhoest further posits that nations are not only ‘imagined’, but also ‘imaged’ (http://www.portal comunicacion.com). dhoest’s position is congruent to our earlier statement on how a nation is responsible for the kind of identity they project. suavi bifurcates identity into two thus: the first one is recognition and identification while the second one is the sense of belonging. recognition and identification are related to how an individual is recognized by the society and how he defines himself. the tool for this is language and culture. belonging comes out when an individual feels included to any social group. (in gelişli http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu) one’s recognition within his or her immediate society coupled with his or self-concept defines the love or sense of belonging expressed towards his or her society. it also defines social roles and commitment to national agenda and subsequently national development. erkan’s conceptualises identity as: a dynamic formation shaped by expectations ascribed to social roles in the process of socialization. the sense of belonging is effective on this formation to a large extent. however, when the identity is only shaped by the sense of belonging, it brings about individuals without identities. identity and belonging are two closely related concepts full of contradictions. while revealing his identity, one does not compromise on creativity and originality, one who voice his extreme loyalty to the community that he belongs to may shift away from his identity and personality in addition to losing his creativity and originality since people who have extreme loyalty to a certain group adopt the conscious of feeling in the same way and assimilation. the necessities of individual characteristics are of secondary importance for those people. in fact, the need for the sense of belonging and individual necessities should be fulfilled equitably. (http://kozadergisi.com) angel nguemo yakubu & jerry idah odeh drama, national identity and sustainable… 167 from another perspective, yanik writes that: the construction of identities uses materials from the history, geography, biology, productive and production-directed institutions, collective memory, personal fantasies, power devices, and religious revelation. however, individuals, social groups and communities process all these materials and rearrange the meaning of all these material based on the social structure in which they live, social conditions resulting from space / time frame and cultural projects. (228-229) herper in this regard states that, identity is, formed by a variety of environments, and some social institutions, particularly by society and adaptation to them influences identity. for example, it is specified that by adapting to communication tools and the effects of media, we create social worlds and identity is formed in this context. types of music people listen to, the fashion magazines they choose reflect the personality traits of those people. herper indicates that communication, fashion magazines, other means of communication, media sources and the internet that we always encounter in the social world shape our identity in this manner. social identities are constructed in this process (http://www. sagepub.com). the acclimatisation of both the old and younger generation towards social media where they assimilate and formulate new identities in dissonance to the nigerian identity has affected the pace of development today. this is because they imbibe ways of life that are diametrically opposed to ours. in such instances there are rise in panics due to misinformation, conflicts, violence, criminality, rape and so on in the nation. these are elements and or components of underdevelopment. according to bellù, development: is a multi-dimensional concept in its nature, because any improvement of complex systems, as indeed actual socio-economic systems are, can occur in different parts or ways, at different speeds and driven by different forces. additionally, the development of one part of the system may be detrimental to the development of other parts, giving rise to conflicting objectives (trade-offs) and conflicts. consequently, measuring development, i.e. determining whether and to what extent a system is developing, is an intrinsically multidimensional exercise. (2) development applies to every aspect of human life. it applies to the physical, emotional, psychological, economic, socio-political, and cultural dimensions of human life and living. while it is difficult to achieve ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 168 equilibrium in the development of any nation of the world, societies with this understanding have thrived to balance the situation in order to avoid the rise of internal dissatisfactions among nationals leading to social instability and subsequent underdevelopment. that notwithstanding, bellù further clarifies that: event constituting a new stage in a changing situation” or the process of change per se. development is implicitly intended as something positive or desirable. when referring to a society or to a socioeconomic system, “development” usually means improvement, either in the general situation of the system, or in some of its constituent elements. development may occur due to some deliberate action carried out by single agents or by some authority pre-ordered to achieve improvement, to favourable circumstances in both. development policies and private investment, in all their forms, are examples of such actions. (2) within the context of this paper, development is understood as a positive change in the socio-political, economic, cultural and religious aspects of the nation; a paradigmatic shift and or improvement in the life of the nation. synopsis of death and the kingshorseman soyinka’s death and the kings horseman captures the tale of elesin, the horseman whose duty is to escort the oba to the afterlife. following the death of the king, the yoruba culture demands that his horseman performs the ritual of self sacrifice to continue his job of serving the oba in the afterlife and most importantly bridge the gap created by the death of the king between the living, dead and the unborn. this duty, the elesin carries out, but, he is trapped by the beauty of the world. lost in the beauty of a young lady, elesin desires to have the young lady before he transcends to the underworld. the elesin receives series of warnings and plea from the iyaloja, praise singers and other community members, but he never yielded. his insistent to have the young lady and other worldly pleasures delayed his transition to the underworld to the point where the british interrupted the ritual ceremony and he is stopped from committing the ritual suicide. his son who is fully aware of the tradition of his people, returned from abroad to bury his father only to discover that he is still alive. he takes the place of his father in the ritual; this act forces elesin to kill himself. belatedly, though, his son takes his place in the afterlife thus making his death worthless and meaningless to the entire process. angel nguemo yakubu & jerry idah odeh drama, national identity and sustainable… 169 national identity and sustainable development in death and the kings horseman the death of the oba instantly stagnate the society. thus, his death leaves elesin, his horseman between the threshold of life and death. the same goes for the oba who without his horseman may not be able to journey to the underworld. with this, the community becomes stagnated and this point in dare need of a mediator in the death of the elesin for it to move on. metaphorically, for the society to move on connotes development, transformation, and continuous growth. societal growth is deterred because the socio-economic and political activities that sustain it are put on hold still the ritual sacrifice is carried out. therefore, the death of elesin oba is highly significant and symbolic within the yoruba cosmology. elesin’s death determines whether his immediate society will move on or remain static. this is because the burden of the society lies on his shoulders. this self-sacrifice therefore, is an act of resilience and patriotism to the society that birth elesin. ibitokun in dameh maintains that: in yoruba culture, death is not something that is feared, it moves the earthly confines of the body and soul to a better place. death functions as a means to achieve honour in the society... but for the yoruba, death is not annihilation of being. it is the simple rite of passage, from human to divine essence...other rites of passage include, birth, naming ceremonies, circumcision rites, conferment of chieftaincy titles, kings’ installation, etc.(3). the character of elesin can be likened to that of armed enforcement agent who upon appointment signs his or her death warrant in defence of the territorial integrity of the nation and to ensure peace and social stability. his or her job is to make sure there is progress and total societal transformation. without this set of people society becomes lawless and development is deterred. the seat of the horseman is therefore, very vital to the progress or otherwise of the yoruba society, and most insightfully, a position and civic duty that the horseman cannot escape. elesin corroborates this point when he says that: elesin: i was born to keep it so. a hive is never known to wonder. an anthill does not desert its roots. we cannot see the still great womb of the world-no man beholds his mother’s womb-yet who denies it’s there? coiled to the navel of the world is that endless cord that links us all to the great origin. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 170 if i lose my way the trailing cord will bring me to the roots. (death and the kings... 18-19) the horseman on assumption of office instantly becomes a martyr because he gives his life for society to experience change when the need arises. he knows from the beginning that he is living for the day when he will give his life for society to move on. dameh further maintains that “for the yoruba’s, death is more than the termination of human breath, but the termination of the continuum that exists between the world of the living, the world of the dead and that of the unborn. this cyclical world view is interdependent and allows for the continuation of the human race. any break, any chasm created will lead to the annihilation of the entire race (3). elesin’s death will therefore, fill the vacuum created by the death of the king. however, trapped in the euphoria of earthly pleasures, elesin demanded that he bed a new bride before his passage right is completed. elesin’s request is outrageous, given the importance and immediacy of the ritual to the continuity of his society. however, the fear that he may derail from the course if his demands were ignored forced community people to grant his wishes. also, in order to commit him to the course, they do everything humanly possible to make him commit the ritual suicide. this explains while iyaloja had to break tradition and give elesin a betrothed young girl elesin: and that radiance which so suddenly lit up this market i could boast, i know so well? iyaloja: has one step already in her husband’s home. she is betrothed. elesin: (imitated): why do you tell me that? (iyaloja falls silent. the women shuffle uneasily) iyaloja: not because we dare give you offence. elesin, today is your day and the white world is yours. still even those who leave town to make a new dwelling elsewhere like to be remembered by what they leave behind. elesin: who does not seek to be remembered? memory is master of death, the chink in his armour of conceit. i shall leave that which makes my going the sheerest dream of an afternoon. should voyagers not travel light? excessive load, all that may benefit the living. angel nguemo yakubu & jerry idah odeh drama, national identity and sustainable… 171 woman (relieved): ah, elesin oja, we know you for a man of honour. elesin: then honour me. i deserve a bed of honour to lie upon. iyaloja: the best is yours... (20) the cynical and cocky attitude of elesin runs him into trouble because such inappropriate actions delayed his ritual obligation. elesin took advantage of the situation to demand for the things he yearned for but did not have the opportunity to get. his hunger for flesh demonstrates his short sightedness and uncontrolled appetite over the course which society depends on. iyaloja sensed neglect in his action and even though she puts her concerns to him politely, he did not listen. iyaloja: (smiling broadly, completely reconciled): elesin, even at the narrow end of the passage i know you will look back and sigh a last regret for the flesh that fleshed pest your spirit in flight... you wish to travel light. well, the earth is yours. but be sure the seed you leave in it attracts no curse. (23-22) it is difficult to correlate and or decipher the connection between committing ritual suicide and developing an instantaneous feeling to bed a young lady who just passes bye. elesin’s uncontrolled conjugal appetite demonstrates his less concern and or commitment to the progress of his community and a great pointer to why he jettisoned the process at the end. he does not care if the girl is betrothed or not, as the high power of the society, following the death of the ruling oba and his critical position as the horseman whose ritual death will bring about continuity and social stability, he leveraged on this to exploit the people and more provokingly to commit an act of abomination. despite the warning that the girl is betrothed, he resented the caution and asked that she be brought to him. the major implication of this delay is the reproach he gets from the british officers domicile in the region. pilkings: amusa’s report. listen. ‘i have to report that it come to my information that one prominent chief, namely, the elesin oba, is to commit death tonight as a result of native custom. because this is criminal offence i await further instruction at charge offence. sergeant amusa... (jane comes out onto the veranda while he is reading) jane: dad i hear you say commit death? pilkings: obviously he means murder ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 172 jane: you mean a ritual murder pilkings: must be. you think you’ve stamped it all out but it’s always lurking under the surface somewhere. jane: oh. does it mean we are not getting to the ball at all? pilking: no. i’ll have the man arrested. everyone remotely involved. in any case there may be working to it. just rumours. (26) ironically, local people who have the knowledge of the custom and traditions are used as instrument to stop elesin from carrying out this ritual rite. such locals are converted from the known traditional religion to christianity. a worrisome attitude of these converts is how they suddenly turn a blind eye on their ancestral religion and contribute in no small measure to prevent elesin from carrying out his civic duty. amusa in this light maintains thus: amusa: madam iyaloga, i am glad you came. you know me. i no like trouble but duty is duty. i am here to arrest elesin for criminal intent. tell these women to stop obstructing me in the performance of my duty. iyaloja: and you? what gives you the right to obstruct our leader of men in the performance of his duty? (36) it is unacceptable to the people for an unbeliever, an outsider to take over their land and determine what happens in their society. the impunity of the whiteman on the cultural practice of the people, more that it is perpetrated by indigenes is tantamount to the destruction of the society itself. the magnitude of destruction that is likely going to take place in the society informs iyaloja’s outburst. woman: you ignorant man. it is not he who calls himself elesin oba, it is his blood that says it. as it called out to his father before him and will to his son after him: and that is in spite of everything your white man can do. (35) the thinking is that, indigenes who work with the british government should be the ones educating them on the essence of the ritual death to the existence of the society and not the arms men used in deterring the elesin from exercising his civic duty. in no instance did the society prevent patriotic individuals from exercising their civic rights except such act or action contravenes societal rules and regulations. olunde saw as thus, every member of the society that his father’s action is heroic and a course that will move the society forward. while the whiteman’s moves to angel nguemo yakubu & jerry idah odeh drama, national identity and sustainable… 173 prevent elesin from performing the ritual death lingers, olunde only returns from the whiteman’s land to bury his father. he expresses his anger when he heard of the attempt to stop his father from performance the ritual suicide thus: olunde: (mildly): and that is the good cause for which you desecrate and ancestral mask? jane: oh, so you are shocked after all. how disappointing. olunde: oh i am not shocked mrs. pilckings. you forget that i have now spent four years among your people. i discovered that you have no respect for what you do not understand. jane: oh, so you’ve returned with a chip on your shoulder. that’s a pity olunde. i am sorry. (an uncomfortable silence follows) i take it then that you did not find your stay in england altogether edifying. it is the expectation of mrs. jane that olunde’s stay in england would change his thinking and belief in his culture. however, he still holds his cultural practices dearly and ready to take over the seat as the next horseman to the next king. however, olunde who is kept in the dark on the state of his father is questioned on how he got wind of the situation and has returned to the land in such hast. in his response he maintains thus: olunde: a relation sent it weeks ago, and it said nothing about my father. all it said was, our king is dead. but i knew i had to return home at once so as to bury my father i understand that. (52) jane: but you don’t think your father is also entitled to whatever protection is available to him? olunde: how can i make you understand? he has protection. no one can undertake what he does to night without the deepest protection the mind can conceive. what can you offer him in place of the honour and veneration of his own people? what would you think of your prince if he had refused to accept the risk of losing his life on his voyage? this... showing the flag tour of colonial precessions (53) olunde’s disposition is that, the whiteman has no right to stop his father from carrying out his obligation. this act of self suicide gives elesin eternal veneration. without his completion of the ritual, the connection ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 174 between the living, dead and the unborn is perpetually broken. olunde further notes that: olunde: don’t think it was just the war. before that even started i had plenty of time to study your people. i saw nothing, finally, that gave you the right to press judgement on the peoples and their ways. nothing at all. (54) again his contention is that, every human culture has their peculiar practices. in such circumstances, no culture is above the other, no culture has the right to regard other cultures as savage or barbaric. the whiteman’s culture is also fraught with issues and ill practices as well. his point is that the ritual is indispensible and must therefore be carried out to the later. this explains why the death of his father is not considered tragic, but a heroic death that enables society to move on. olunde: yes mrs pilkins, my father is dead. his will-power has always been enormous. i know he is dead. jane: (screams): how can you be so callous! so unfeeling! you announce your father’s own death like a stranger’s body! you’re past a savage like all the rest. (55) olunde: i have a funeral to arrange. excuse me (going) one thing jane failed to understand is that once you are elesin oba, your faith is already decided and known by the people. that is why the people celebrates the horseman as he journey to the afterlife rather than grieving. olunde further expatiates this: olunde: all these things are part of it. and any body, my father has been dead in my mind for nearly a month. ever since i learnt of the kings death. i’ve lived with my bereavement so long now that i cannot think of him alive. on that journey on the one who must perform the rites over his body. i went through it all again and again in my mind as he himself had taught me. i didn’t want to do anything wrong, something which might jeopardise the welfare of my people (57). olunde knew the calamity that will befall his community following his father’s dalliance in committing himself to the afterlife. as a son who understands his culture and societal need, he gave his own life in place of his father for his society to grow. nigeria undoubtedly needs leaders with the character disposition of olunde; leaders who are willing to place national interest above personal angel nguemo yakubu & jerry idah odeh drama, national identity and sustainable… 175 interest; patriots who are capable setting formidable goals and are able to commit and or key their followers into actualising such goals. unfortunately, such kind of leaders are merely found today, even the few who are willing to work are deterred by the existing political ideology of “it is our turn to chop”. in this instance, cultural and religious affiliations as well and “who knows who” become the criterion for election leaders and offering of political appointments. this explains why it has become very difficult for nigeria to develop. in soyinka’s death and the kings horseman, every community member commits themselves to the course of social transformation; they ensured that elesin pulled through with the ritual sacrifice. this is a virtue the contemporary voters must imbibe; leaders must be made to deliver on their campaign promises for it is the only way that development can be guaranteed. conclusion and recommendations soyinka’sdeath and the kings horseman has not only critically examined the question of national identity and development in nigeria but has more fundamentally offered tangle solutions on the problemtics. on this premise this paper encourages playwrights and directors as well as other theatre stakeholders to intensify research into various cultural dimensions of the country and portray a good image of the nation. when this is done, nigeria’s image would be appreciable and her diplomatic and or international relations would be strengthened and in turn would bring about development in the country. nigerians must be encouraged to emulate the life of olunde who demonstrates total allegiance and patriotism to his society. olunde knowing full well that it is not yet time for him to commit death for his society to move on did so in place of his father who failed his society. elesin’s character typifies a greedy and selfish human being who is only interested in himself than the good of the larger society. his unpatriotic attitude held the entire society to a standstill. such individuals are capable of destroying the society and must therefore, be expunged for society to be controlled by reasonable people who will drive the society to greater heights. olunde is one of such persons whose love for his society outweighs his personal interest. he scarified himself for the cyclical nature of the living, dead and the unborn to be sustained. this is a rare sacrifice given the nature and calibre of people we have in our society today. that notwithstanding, the presence of the likes of olunde in the nigerian society will go a long way in enhancing the development of the country. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 176 finally, our cultural heritage must be revived. it is the responsibility of all cultural stakeholders in the nation to revitalise, promote and strengthen our cultural heritage for posterity. we must together hold and develop our culture and pass it on from one generation to the other. the understanding of our cultural heritage and how to apply it norms and values in our daily life and living is a bold step towards development. work cited bellù g. lorenzo development and development paradigms: a (reasoned) review of prevailing visions. easypol module 102, 2011. erkan, b. http://kozadergisi.com/kimlik-kavrami-uzerinden-toplumsal-birdayatma-aidiyet. erişim: 13.02.2014. http://www.portal comunicacion.com. accessed 14th april, 2018. ojemudia, c. chika. “drama as an instrument for national identity formation”. ujah: unizik journal of arts and humanities. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ujah.v14i3.3. accessed 14th april, 2019. schieder, theodor, "typoloogie und erscheinungs-formdes nauon alistaats in europa," nationalismus. ed. heinrich august winkler. athenaeum: konigsteinrrs, 1985. soyinka, wole. death and the kings horseman. norton, 2002. yücel gelişli. “the development study of national identity perception scale”. international journal on new trends in education and their implications. vol. 5, issue: 4, 2014. http://cite seerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.301.740&rep=rep1 &type=pdf. accessed 14th april, 2019. ekweariri & iwuoha: teaching the performative art in a pan 83 teaching the performative art in a pandemic-prone era: critical issues and challenges, prospects and prognosis ekweariri, chidiebere s. phd. department of theatre arts, alvan ikoku federal college of education owerri, imo state. elderses5@yahoo.com iwuoha, emmanuel. a department of english language and literature alvan ikoku federal college of education owerri, imo state. iwuohae22@gmail.com abstract performance is an aggregation of people who are drawn together to enjoy the communion of life which is the theatre experience. their appetite for art and the insatiable quest to communicate, educate, entertain and provide useful information requires that they must comingle, interact physically, engage in rehearsals and associate with the audience. indeed, it calls for many hands, for teamwork during which everyone involved feels, thinks and utilizes the imagination to bring results. this interaction and comingling are not without risks and challenges, especially given the number of persons and materials involved in the pre and postproduction processes. an investigation by the writers reveals that since the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic, performative studies have suffered a setback. rehearsals are no longer conducted effectively as there are mutual distrusts amongst everyone. scepticism has set in, the fear factor has increased and the confidence to practically comingle again has been at the lowest ebb. even the use of face masks as advised by the government and international agencies has not done much because of its potential to affect the respiratory efficiency of actors as rehearsals are usually vigorous and involve energy-sapping activities. however, it is the opinion of the writers that new approaches and innovations such as digital theatre and online teaching with segmented mailto:elderses5@yahoo.com ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 84 rehearsals, expansion and well-equipped classrooms, reduction of new intake and total overhaul of the teaching methodologies should be employed. these in the long run will provide the magic wand that will revitalize the performative art and ensure its continuous survival. keywords: teaching, performative arts, critical issues, prospect and prognosis introduction whether theatre arts, creative arts, communication arts or performing arts, we refer to a discipline of creative artistry and performance. the nature of performance involves a conglomeration of people who are saddled with the responsibility of harnessing artistic talents through rehearsals and productions for the satisfaction of the audience. nwamuo (2006:p.14) argues that: a theatre audience is a group of people drawn to a theatrical event by the appetite for art at a certain time and place and that is aware of itself as a homogeneous group of art lovers. the theatre audience is drawn together by the social as well as the artistic experience called the theatre and is a group that has come to the event of the live performance. as a collaborative art form, it “produces artistic goods and services” (ekweariri, 2014. p. 96) and further concerns itself “with the presentation of the real or imagined event by actors to a specific audience at a specific place” (nwamuo, 2017: p. 10). through this process, mutually beneficial ideas are shared for artistic gains while serious attention is given to knotty theatrical issues. going by the above, artists and collaborators comingle freely without inhibitions and engage in diverse pre and post-production processes. within this period, artists’ imaginative impetuses and creative abilities are stretched to the limit in an attempt to authenticate or reflect societal happenings and challenges. most times, rehearsals drag for weeks ekweariri & iwuoha: teaching the performative art in a pan 85 depending on the nature of the play and the calibre of artists involved. however, the prevalence of the covid-19 pandemic changed very many things in the performative art discipline. indeed, the covid-19 insurgency has placed very serious constraints on the coming ability, associability, collaborativeness and practicability of performative courses on one hand and the involvement of audience members on the other hand. such constraints have not only become antithetical and debilitatingly suffocating but have also posed a great obstacle to the survival of live productions. nowadays, rehearsals are no longer conducted effectively as there are mutual distrusts amongst everyone. scepticism has set in, the fear factor has increased and the confidence to practically comingle again has been at the lowest ebb. be that as it may, this paper is poised to find ways possible to navigate these constraints and probably channel them to better advantage of the performative arts. for this research, therefore, performative, creative, communication and theatre arts are going to be used interchangeably. theoretical framework this paper is anchored on the theory of constraints (toc). it was propounded by dr eliyahu goldratt and introduced to a wide audience through his bestselling 1984 novel, “the goal”. since then, it has continued to evolve and has influenced manufacturing processes and production. the core concept of the theory of constraints is that every process has a single constraint and that total process throughput can only be improved when the constraint is improved. a very important corollary to this is that spending time optimizing non-constraints will not provide significant benefits; only improvements to the constraint will further the goal (achieving more profit). thus, the theory of constraints seeks to provide a precise and sustained focus on improving the current ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 86 constraint until it no longer limits throughput, at which point the focus moves to the next constraint. the underlying power of toc flows from its ability to generate a tremendously strong focus towards a single goal (profit) and towards removing the principal impediment (constraint) to achieving more of that goal. goldratt considers focus to be the essence of toc. the theory of constraints takes a scientific approach to improvement. it hypothesizes that every complex system, including manufacturing processes, consists of multiple linked activities, one of which acts as a constraint upon the entire system (i.e. the constraint activity is the “weakest link in the chain”). indeed, the ultimate goal of every manufacturing company is to make a profit – both in the short term and in the long term. the theory of constraints provides a powerful set of tools for helping to achieve that goal, including the five focusing steps (a methodology for identifying and eliminating constraints); the thinking processes (tools for analyzing and resolving problems) and throughput accounting (a method for measuring performance and guiding management decisions) (https://www.leanproduction.com/theory-ofconstraints/). one of the appealing characteristics of the theory of constraints is that it inherently prioritizes improvement activities. the top priority is always the current constraint. in environments where there is an urgent need to improve, toc offers a highly focused methodology for creating rapid improvement. constraints are of course anything that prevents the organization from making progress towards its goal. in manufacturing processes, constraints are often referred to as bottlenecks. interestingly, constraints can take many forms other than equipment. indeed, it has always been argued that every process has a constraint (bottleneck) and focusing improvement efforts on that constraint is the fastest and most effective path to improved profitability. it argues that the most common form of constraint (by far) is the policy constraint. since policy constraints often stem from long-established and widely ekweariri & iwuoha: teaching the performative art in a pan 87 accepted policies, they can be particularly difficult to identify and even harder to overcome. it is typically much easier for an external party to identify policy constraints since an external party is less likely to take existing policies for granted. when a policy constraint is associated with a firmly entrenched paradigm, a significant investment in training and coaching is likely to be required to change the paradigm and eliminate the constraint. theatre is a manufacturing plant where artistic goods and services are produced. these products may not be in tangible form as espoused by gondo (2008. p.11), yet, they are aimed towards satisfying the audience, who are often regarded as the better half of the performance. with the prevalence of covid-19 pandemic, there have been serious constraints on the production of artistic goods and services. the situation is further exacerbated by the policy of the government that social distancing must be observed, face masks must be worn and constant washing of hands strictly adhered to if performances must take place. theatre involves the gathering of actors in a confined space called theatre, and with the above directives, coupled with the way most theatres are structured, it becomes practically difficult to engage in rehearsals without running into problems. however, this paper desires to find ways possible to navigate the constraints and ensure the survival and sustenance of theatre practice. the nature of performance in the pandemic era the period of the covid-19 pandemic was a serious and challenging era not only for the artistic discipline but also for every aspect of humanity. it ravaged the economy and ridiculed the ingenuity, expertise; intellectual sophistry and mental prowess of the world elites. it demystified the meaning of existence as there appeared to be no meaningful ways to combat it. at a point, people felt tired of staying indoors amid lack, hunger and deprivation, and in a desperate act of survival, ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 88 decided to take their destinies into their hands. this act of survival also manifested itself in the performative discipline. therefore, it will be illogical to argue that theatre productions died completely during the pandemic era, rather the point of argument is that the frequencies with which performances were mounted were on a lower ebb. the injunction that events involving a larger number of persons should be jettisoned while smaller crowds should maintain physical distancing and ensure the adornment of face masks affected the production of artistic goods and services. in the words of gondo (2008, p. 2) the theatre produces artistic goods and services and this comes in the form of performances. a performance is a service consisting of a bundle of intangible attributes that satisfies the audience and it is received in exchange for money... (this bundle) gives the theatre audience certain psychological satisfaction that may even be more important than the functional satisfaction... a performance is the cornerstone of any theatre organization. indeed, most departments downed tools and lecturers and students merely came to the department for coming sake. those who defied the odds temporarily and engaged in rehearsals did so skeletally and with scepticism and were equally very conscious of the perilous circumstances of the time. feelers on the ground and from personal experiences indicate that the adornment of a mask during such rehearsals presented huge respiratory challenges to the actors as rehearsals involve laborious activity. rehearsals “call for many hands, for teamwork during which everyone involved feels, thinks and utilizes the imagination to bring result” nwachukwu-agbada (2011, p. 133). during such skeletal rehearsals, the face mask became a jaw mask because most actors and actresses preferred to put the mask on the jaw instead of having it cover their mouth ekweariri & iwuoha: teaching the performative art in a pan 89 and nose thereby increasing the chances of theatre workers infecting themselves. on account of this, many rehearsals and productions were called off and those that continued simply left their chances of contracting the virus to fate. however, some departments succeeded in mounting some productions but very many of them were not successful because of the absence of an audience. indeed, the success of any theatrical production is dependent on the number of persons who have come to watch such a performance. nwamuo (2003, p. 24) affirms that “...theatre is a performance in which an actor and audience are physically present and sharing the events at the same time, it uses live actors who impersonate and who must be physically present.” as earlier stated, the period under review had debilitating economic challenges and potential audience members were busy trying to provide food for themselves and large families, and as such, did not care much about entertainment. of course, they were expected to adorn face masks which they must buy. regrettably, face masks that used to be sold at the rate of fifty nairas, one hundred naira or less before now, became a luxury and a class thing. there was also a serious restriction on movement with military and police roadblocks here and there. those who were caught violating this directive were not only beaten up, humiliated and made to part with huge sums of money but were equally quarantined for two weeks. social media then were awash with cases where people who were guilty of this infraction were thoroughly dehumanized and given a beaten-off life. the resultant effect of the above was that government succeeded in instilling fear in the people and made them become withdrawn and recluses in their homes. this also affected the patronage of live performances because there was this understanding that it’s only a man who is alive that thinks of tomorrow. audience members, therefore, became reticent and aloof to anything theatrical and amusement. therefore, the covid-19 pandemic ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 90 presented a crisis of opinion on the future of live theatre in nigeria and the need to keep it afloat. navigating the constraints for survivability and sustainability theatre is one of the performing arts but differs by its particular relationship to time and space, its principles of organization, the nature of its audience, and course, its mode of presentation. it is a business enterprise and every business has its downturns which the owner must navigate to survive and make appreciable progress. in the face of the present reality occasioned by the covid-19 pandemic, theatre practice needs to be “repackaged if it has to breathe a breath of fresh air in the realm of artistic entertainment (ayakoroma 2016, p. 5). what the theatre needs, especially in this post covid-19 era is “a new renaissance in the creation, distribution and sharing of information, knowledge and creative work” and a “move from industrial content production towards community-based intercreativity (that) holds the potential for severe and controversial disruptions to the established status quo” (bruns, 2008, pp.1617). overhauling the status quo entails a marriage of the old and new methodologies of wooing the audience to the theatre. it has often been said that one cannot be using the same method and expect different results. stakeholders in the artistic discipline must think beyond the box and innovate. innovation has always been a very important survival strategy in business, particularly in a period such as this. as stated by albert einstein “insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results” (cited in downey, 2016). innovation is business, and creativity which contributes to organizational value. this value may be cost savings, increased profit or doing the same thing differently, greater market shares, or new ways of marketing a product. there is an imperative for ekweariri & iwuoha: teaching the performative art in a pan 91 nigerian theatre artists to innovate particularly at the level of packaging the product for greater appeal and effective marketing. part of the innovation being talked about can include the use of new and emerging platforms such as youtube, instagram, facebook and other publicity approaches with new communication devices. indeed, the surges in social network sites (snss) have transformed information sharing in today’s society...the social network site or social media is one part of the technology-driven media that have witnessed great patronage in the past ten years (udenze, 2018, pp.117-118). furthermore, if the theatre is not patronized by the people, it is therefore expedient of it to explore other measures that will attract the people to it thereby getting the wherewithal to be able to carry out performances and earn a living. one of the surest ways of generating patronage for the theatre is by synergising with new media to attract people and possibly sell theatrical products to them using new media platforms such as social networks (facebook, twitter and linkedin), media sharing networks (instagram, snapchat and youtube), social shopping networks (polyvore, etsy and fancy), and sharing economic network (airbnb, uber and tasrabbit) (asen 2019, p. 67). in this way, theatre can be in a better position to interrogate societal issues dispassionately and accommodate a wide audience especially those who are technology-driven. for instance, as part of the awareness of the dangers of the covid19 pandemic, the department of theatre arts, alvan ikoku federal college of education, owerri did a three-minute film skit which was posted on the college portal and instagram page. the department received ovations for it, and this could be ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 92 further explored to serve as a money-making venture for the department. exploring the dynamics of video games and animation will also broaden the perspectives of new methodologies in the teaching of the performative arts in the post-covid-19 era. esuh (2016, p. 107) writes that “video games offer virtual reality experiences and are becoming a more popular advertising medium.” indeed, digital theatre can reach a wider audience across the globe at once through the deployment of technology. even with the seeming decline of the covid-19 pandemic, there is however a dire need for artists to be cautious in the conduct of rehearsals and other activities related to teaching and learning. part of the ways to navigate this challenge is to ensure the segmentation of rehearsals especially where very many persons are involved. this segmentation is different from special rehearsals because it does not concern itself with problematic scenes which special rehearsals accommodate. rather what is espoused here is a system of ensuring that crowd is minimized which will at the same time make us become responsible adults and comply with the covid-19 protocols. however, this segmentation requires a well-equipped and spacious studio for interaction. with this arrangement, good and effective distance will be maintained between and amongst actors and the sweating of several bodies, synonymous with rehearsals with its inherent hazards (ekweariri 2015, p. 103), would have been reduced thereby making the use of face masks during rehearsals compatible. furthermore, theatre as a course of study needs to be effectively taught to dispel the myth and misconceptions surrounding it. the period of the covid-19 pandemic was antithetical to the effective teaching of the performative art, and indeed, made many persons redundant. to keep the system going and stakeholders busy, institutions in nigeria, within the period, adopted online teaching which these writers applaud as ekweariri & iwuoha: teaching the performative art in a pan 93 a welcome development and a right step in the right direction. even with the obvious difficulties associated with online teaching, performative art should sustain it and make it part of its curriculum. this has become necessary because of the peculiar nature of performative art which requires constant interaction and cross-examination. conclusion the covid-19 pandemic is a quasi-inevitable phenomenon given the fact that it has ravaged countries that ordinarily have the proclivity to combat it. based on this, most informed people and experts view covid-19 as a kind of fatalism or the end of the world but also as another challenge to overcome, through appropriate survival strategies. the theory of constraints implies that every process has a single constraint and that total process throughput can only be improved when the constraint is improved. indeed, the underlying power of toc flows from its ability to generate a tremendously strong focus towards a single goal (profit) and towards removing the principal impediment (constraint) to achieving more of that goal. the paper has identified the covid-19 pandemic as a constraint to live performances and has outlined viable ways of surmounting this challenge. this, therefore, justifies the choice of the theory for this research. therefore, in times like this, players in the theatre business should think outside the box and come up with innovative strategies to remain relevant and survive the pandemic. rehearsals should be repackaged such that they will accommodate fewer persons. pockets of rehearsals in the form of special rehearsals should be maintained in the interim. online teaching and google classroom opportunities should be vigorously pursued as this encourages students and lecturers to become computer-compliant which is necessary in the 21st century teaching methodology. artists should not wait for audience members to come to them; rather they should take ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 94 their products to the targeted audience. this should be done through streaming their plays online using the myriad of advertising platforms available. every theatrical idea must be developed and channelled into a productive venture in the theatre. in the words of fosudo (2008, p. 265) “...the theatre is validly an idea, and ideas can be transformed into valuable services which can be provided to satisfy the needs of a segment of the consuming public.” therefore, the challenges of the covid-19 pandemic should not be seen as an end to live theatre productions but rather as an avenue to broaden the horizon of theatre practitioners and students alike through ethical reorientation, innovative thinking and practical application of acquired skills. references asen, m. (2019). towards effective marketing of theatrical performances through new media in nigeria. the crab. no. 14. 64-83. bruns, a. (2008). blogs, wikipedia, second life, and beyond: from production to produce. new york: peter lang. ekweariri, c. s. (2015). theatre hazards and safety: an introduction. owerri: o’desy concerns ltd. ekweariri, c. s. (2014). marketing the arts through effective branding and packaging techniques in nigeria: the role of designers. in s. ododo & o. fosudo (eds.),. marketing contemporary nigerian theatre and cultural entertainment. maiduguri: sonta. gondo, d. e. (2008). performing arts development: a marketing approach. makurdi: st. kalemba educational marketing. nwachukwu-agbada. j.o.j. (2011). teaching for development: approaching the learning of language and literature from new prisms, nka. no. 13. ekweariri & iwuoha: teaching the performative art in a pan 95 nwamuo, c. (2003). essentials of theatre administration. calabar: university of calabar press. nwamuo, c. (2006). theatre audience engineering in nigeria: paradigm and syntagm. the university of calabar inaugural lecture. nwamuo, c. (2017). theatre, economic recession and survival strategy. calabar: optimist press nigeria company. 2017. ayakoroma, f. (2006). barclays. live theatre can still thrive in nigeria despite recession. national institute for cultural orientation. retrieved, from http://www.live-theatrecan-still-thrive-in-nigeria-despite-recession-nico.com/ accessed march 2022. downey, j. (2016). “innovation: your key to success and survival.”business journal: the fourth executive women, 23 (1). 15-23. esuh, p. (2016). maximizing returns on investment in marketing communications. the parnassus, 12(1), udenze, s. (2018). whatsapp: an alternative to sms. new frontiers 2(1) 13-20. fosudo, s. (2008). business and marketing imperatives for the revival and development of nigerian theatre. the parnassus. vol. 4. http://www.live-theatre-can-still-thrive-in-nigeria-despite-recession-nico.com/ http://www.live-theatre-can-still-thrive-in-nigeria-despite-recession-nico.com/ okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 1 the dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen – eguare annual festival performance of egoro kingdom in esan west local government area of edo state – nigeria okhaifo phillandar, eseigbe department of theatre arts, igbinedion university okada edo state, nigeria. okhaifo.eseigbe@iuokada.edu.org. abstract traditional african festival performance is the conglomeration of the entire life and culture of the african worldview. the major problem with traditional african festival performances is that they are mostly subsumed in dance and dancing activities. this paper aims to validate dance as the central purveyor on which a typical traditional african festival rests. the study shall further demonstrate that the ihuen – eguare festival performance of egoro kingdom in esan west local government area of edo state; is a mirror of the way of life, an embodiment of the people’s philosophical and religious thought and generic symbol and a reflection of their art form; verbal, visual and mimetic. methodically, the paper utilized the participant and observation methods of data gathering. the literary method of research also aided the study as primary and secondary sources. the paper noted that one of the telling qualities of the ihuen – eguare annual festival performance is its graceful and uncluttered prose, coupled with its ruthless exclusion of convoluted, tortuous or obscure expressions from the musical expressions. the study however discovered that the festival of eguare egoro people is founded on dance as dance is what made up the actions that brought about the excitement and euphoria of the entire celebration. therefore, this paper recommends that the traditional festival of african inclination could be extrapolated as an intellectual discipline with the introduction of a viable guild system; with specialists in music, mailto:okhaifo.eseigbe@iuokada.edu.org ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 2 dance and drama as well as other aesthetic articulation so that our festivals can become a repertory in the search for an alternative in contemporary performance module in theatre or performing arts. introduction the role of dance in the festival is most dramatic and entertaining, although some of these dances are ritualistic in form and style. by dramatic, it means that the dance is responsible for the entertainment and communication experienced in the entire celebration. this is because the dance forms the core and it is captured as the confluence stage where the physical and the supernatural interact to affirm a leadership role. it must be noted from the onset that there is no specific number of dances that are exhibited in the eguare – egoro annual festival. there are no specific dancers as well. they dance according to the motivation of the rhythm of the music. as already established, dance in the – eguare festival thrives on spontaneous action caused by mood resulting in improvisation created through the structural content. as long as dance has something to transmit through its medium; it certainly belongs to art in the widest sense of this word. in these dances, particular shapes (designs) are employed but their arrangements are not consciously selected. this contributes to the promotion of unified mood and action. whereas, the imitation of ‘action’ is the essence of drama or poetry as the case may be. in reality, though, it seems more probable that the universality of human nature secures a similar response in similar conditions: producing certain social attitudes and similar forms are applied. the functions are for amusement and solidarity. everyday activities of life are wrapped and exhibited in the process of the dance accompaniments. improvisation is a basic feature of the eguare – egoro festival performance, with dance as its focal point ‘’… whereby individuals have the license to, within the confines of the performance; exhibit different styles of movements that may be different from the groups’ performance – but still maintains the okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 3 general rhythm (atmosphere) of the performance. it is instantaneous (spontaneous) in nature, lasting but for a few seconds or moments’’ (abbe, 154). logically, the ritual of the dance performance captures the sociological essence of the egoro people’s cultural artefact portraying communal interaction among the people. with this unified background; the community thrives in all spheres of human interaction. to buttress this point, emoruwa asserts that, ‘‘dance as an art, communicates, interprets and expresses ideas, thoughts and emotions of human minds through movements, gestures, symbols, colours and other nonverbal theatrical elements’’ (101). being that the problem of the traditional african festival is subsumed in the art and act of dancing, therefore this study shall specifically be relevant in scholarship in that it shall narrow down the effects and excitements of traditional african festival performances to the issue of dance. whereas, researches about the particular relevance of dance in traditional festival settings of african inclination has not been sufficiently available since emphasis had usually been centred mostly on the shadow rather than the substance of the indigenous festival performances. the role of dance in the ihuen – eguare festival performance dance is one of the core aspects of the festival. without dance, we cannot have a total theatre. as dance plays a substantial role in the theatre, so does it in festivals. at the festival, the communicative spell of dance comes into play. this is heightened by the simultaneous participation of the whole community in the dance. so, the role dance plays in the festival culture can be seen in this instance. when acquiring a special function, the dance shape is accordingly adjusted by the dancer(s). in the process, the easily – found symbolic elements in dance are employed to make the action meaningful, different and unusual. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 4 plate 1: a comic dancer doing a solo dance as a prelude before the king’s dance. photo: the researcher in the ihuen – eguare egoro festival, irrespective of the style, the dances remain didactic; to promote obeisance. this movement is the warp (influence) of dance designed to induce mass psychosis (general participation). thus, the art of imitation sets in and the performers articulate thoughts and ideas in the dance – mime, or gestures. nevertheless, all these are realized in the complex interweaving of rhythms and movement patterns. in the eguare – egoro festival, the actions in the dance drama the imitation of the action of the ancestors. consequently, a high sense of observation is needed to be able to understand what you are seeing as the festival lasts. it can as well be easily determined by the style of the dancer at a given point in time. in the eguare – egoro festival, the simplicity of the esan language variety, not only aids the dancers; but also makes it easy okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 5 for the spectators to be involved in the dramatic enactments of the dance procession. as the dance procession moves, you are likely to hear phrases, words and exclamations to nativism and to contextualize the esan language. the aesthetic of esan language lies in the simplicity but subtle phrasing of sentence structure and style. ordinarily, the language of esan as used in the egoro variety is affable. it is not bombastic diction or jargon–plated syntax but the prose vernacular of everyday life. the emphasis of the egoro dialect of esan is on directness and clarity. the dialogue is often vivid and evocative. so, for this reason, the eguare festival employs the full range of linguistic resources of traditional african theatre – like proverbs, riddles, legends, jokes, metaphors, allusions, hyperboles and rhetorical devices of conversation and public oratory in the whole performance. so, dance is the soul of a people’s culture and tradition. the dance and the dramaturgy of the eguare – egoro festival performance the essentials of the dance are contained within the melody of songs and the harmony of the instruments. this is because performance includes all the activity of a given participant on a given occasion, which serves to influence in a way, any other participants. in the concept of the dance, every dancer has a relationship with one another, propelled by the musical sounds that they hear. folk songs are spontaneously formulated, within the eguare – egoro kingdom’s progeny, to suit the context of the dance. the urge to move is biological and significant to man in revealing his thoughts and freeing himself of a psychological strain. in this direction, one can postulate that dance evolved from three major sources; ‘’emotional impulse and improvisation’’, ‘’the need by man to release psychic tension using rhythmic movement’’ and ‘’the performance of ecstasy’’ or ‘’magic’’. thus, the ihuen – eguare festival (dance) performance creates room for solidarity ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 6 and social cohesion as it embodies doctrines and integrates thoughts and actions (efforts) through exaggeration and repetition which are the same processes employed in the realization of any dramatic experience. this dramatic content is understandable as a purely expressive entity: it cannot be explained by other media than dance. in the dance, the most important element, which is stressed first, is the flow of movements. in this perspective, ugolo points out that, “dance that is motivated by songs tend to be mimetic and tend to make use of gestures to dramatize the text content of the songs. movements, however, conforms to the rhythmic beat of the song” (173). significantly, the participants are interpretative instruments in the dance performance; they bring dance to life and give it its qualities and meanings through symbolic movements. the dances in the festival of ihuen – eguare performance are very spectacular in form and context. on the one hand, the rhythm of the music dictates the dance. on the other hand, in some movements, the dancers seem to dictate the rhythm of the music by way of body movement and facial expression and other related gestures that the temperament of the dancer(s) may reflect. the songs play a vital role in that it helps to carry the dancers to a realm, thereby stimulating the intellectual sensibility of every performer and spectator alike. this is because; the songs are the variables which constitute the main dialogues in the dramatic experience, providing the basis for the performance. self-expression and physical release can be seen as the two basic motives for dance. the point here is that dance communicates and propagates culture, and it is pertinent to state that every form of dance communicates. whereas communication is a conscious or intentional process in which feelings and ideas are expressed, and verbal and non-verbal messages are sent, received, and comprehended. dance as a form of non-verbal communication is capable of passing across intended messages. thus, the context of a message has an overall bearing on the message itself. it may be said that dance is the mother of all okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 7 languages, an original language of total bodily gestures we call speech and the other kinds of language are only parts of it which have undergone specialized development. consequently, dance as drama serves as a strong tool to identify, depict, and communicate images, characters, and cultures. obviously, dance can function as drama in that dance is ultimately related to man’s basic need to communicate what he is through body movements. conversely, obongko and onwuka postulate: like every art, dance mirrors society. it is a reflection of what obtains in the society, in which it is created, reflecting the styles, attitudes, codes, mannerisms, and the totality of the way of life of the members of the society. it expresses the totality of lifestyles and experiences just like other forms of art. dance interprets, reproduces and expresses the lives of the people in the society; therefore, it can be said to constitute the integral part of human existence that performs ritual functions in society (93). nevertheless, the ihuen – eguare festival dance is like what was asserted by nettleford: all of the writers acknowledge the mediation of dance in africa itself by social reality, associated, as those activities relating to birth, puberty and death, war, recreation, initiation, ritual et al. this indeed, makes dance in africa a traditional source of communication and often of history re-enacted through movements… as with the art forms emanating from their civilizations or cultural complexes, it merely means that viewers of african dance need to understand africa’s cultural heritage if they are to understand and critically appreciate in any depth the true meaning and aesthetic authority of what is being seen… the africans in their rituals and masquerades at home usually transform thoughts and ideas into spectacles. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 8 abroad in the diaspora, their task may well be to transform their spectacles (sports and entertainment), into thoughts (xiv, xviii). no wonder then that primus observes that, “dance in africa is not a separate art, but a part of the whole complex of living. dance is only a part of the whole or the complex. the ceremony [festival] is the complex… geniuses draw music from everywhere. dancers become filled with supernatural power’’ (4). the ihuen – eguare festival dance is mostly made up of war and victory dances – some nod their heads, rock their necks, tilt their heads and pause. they shake their shoulders; throw them back and forth, and bounce their breasts to thank god who ordained that they be alive. they rhythmically shake their buttocks, their stomach, and their legs in quick and slow marches; dribble, quiver and tremble while their feet perform. the dances are full of emotions. hence, primus observes: to understand african dance adequately, one should have some knowledge of african religions, for in the ecstasy of a religious experience – the dancers become a god – form and the body frees itself of its structural limitations. legs, bodies, arms, and heads may move in seemingly impossible counterpoint (10). therefore, “in the raw, traditional african dance is the integrated art of movement that is controlled by her music which is governed by her languages… african dance translates everyday experiences into movements” (green 13, 14). green further contends: dance is a way of life for african people and is associated with everyday activities… dance in africa is always accompanied by music which ranges from hand clapping and singing to massive orchestras of instrumentation… okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 9 dance in africa is a way of life, a source of communication and history enacted through movement (26). from the above assertions, it is correct to observe that such festival dances that are motivated by songs tend to be mimetic and tend to make use of gestures to dramatize the text of the songs. therefore movements conform to the rhythmic beats of the musical accompaniments. through the form of dance, the performance elicits a response from the spectators and mobilizes them to participate in the performance thus breaking “the fourth – wall”. dance does not only bring the festival closer to the ritual origin of the festival, but even more importantly enhances the aesthetic appeal to the spectators. however, there is no history and no culturally fixable limit as to what is or is not performance; what is important is that there is an “action” which is ‘framed, prescribed, highlighted or displayed’. whereas, performance is a didactic flow that is a spontaneous movement in which action and awareness are one and reflexivity in which the central meanings, values and goals of culture are seen in action as they shape and explain behaviour. in the ihuen – eguare festival performance, artistic talents are utilized to the fullest in the form of dance movements. dance is both a sign and a vehicle of communication. it can express an action or an idea and, it is at the same time the “action” and the idea it expresses. since a sign derives its meaning from its nature, and a tool assumes its significance from what it is used for; the use of dance in the festival has both intrinsic and cultural imports. through the movement patterns, dance kinetically conveys verbal information; the music gets visually interpreted and in particular – through dance motions. in the eguare – egoro festival, the voice also maintains a great effect as it sings out rhythmical sounds such as “ugh”, “ahha,” and “unh”. hence, the dance can be seen as “saying something,” or “telling a story.” the instruments are played with a percussive bias and the dance which is also percussive consists of ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 10 stamping, clapping, taps, and rattles. vocalizing in the form of voice ululation, and calls are prevalent throughout the celebration. as the drums communicate on a verbal basis, the dancers also speak out in bodily rhythms of particular gestures and steps. for example, if the secret is beating upon the drum, that secret will be revealed in dance; in the process, a lot of comic movements are also made to tincture the instinct of the audience and thus make them feel excited. at certain points in the performance, some of the dancers would move around slowly as if in a trance; a reflection of a soothsayer or herbalist who is trying to invoke a mysterious power to diagnose or even suggest a solution to a particular ailment or riddle. thus, in the process of performance, the art of dramaturgy and several others are utilized in a manner not dissimilar to their usage in other dramatic traditions like europe, america or asia. the dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen – eguare festival performance adesina adegbite however defines festivals as an ‘’event, usually and ordinarily staged by a local community that centres on some unique aspects of the community. a festival can also be seen as a series of performances involving music, plays, dances, etc., usually organized annually or as agreed upon, where people of a particular community come together to dine and wine; to celebrate and share common tradition’’ (133). the theme of the festival creates the mood for the actions thereafter. these in turn determine the dance contents that are improvised. the elements are basic components of any dramatic performance. in the ihuen eguare – egoro festival, the dance not only marks the rhythm of life, worship, and harvest – but also expresses the continuity of their culture of farming, hunting and sometimes going as far back as the ancient times. in the real sense, the eguare egoro festival performance in action of reality, constitutes the theatrical implications and articulations. okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 11 plate 2: the procession warriors brandishing their dane-guns in a dance style. source: ebhos photos, ikhido, egoro plate 3: the warriors doing the war dance steps source: the researcher ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 12 the eguare – egoro festival is full of dance and movements. the cast, costumes, orchestral accompaniment, solo and chorus differ little in spirit from the mystery and passion plays enacted in medieval europe in the cathedrals. the dances are apt to become ecstatic. once a state of such frenzy is attained, some of the main participants seem to become impervious as it were, capable of amusements, pleasure and entertainment; education and enlightenment. no wonder then that nwabuoku contends that: dance occupies a central position in nigerian music. indeed, in many nigerian cultures, the fusion is such that the words for music and dance have come to be synonymous. to illustrate the point, the vast majority of the ethnic group in nigeria, in attempting to translate the term music into its indigenous equivalent provides the word for dance… in reality, music as a concept is a signal for many things and therefore acts as a trigger for other behaviour as movements (dance or mime), songs and creative speech (43). following the dance movements diligently, the soul of the performance is mirrored through the beauty of the dances that run through the entire process of the festival. hence, the dramatic essence is seen in the transformation of everyday events and behaviour into live performances through dance and related gestures. all the antecedents of the people, both origin and history, are expressed in dance, which in turn holds the spectators spellbound. most people want to dance because it is therapeutic, educating, active and entertaining. every kind of word is expressed in the dance. the dances in eguare – egoro festival interpret and transmit epic content. the essentials of the dance in the festival are contained within the melody of the instruments. the movements are sensational because they are intertwined and interwoven with okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 13 the rhythms and harmonic patterns of the instruments – combined. the instruments, though they are so simple and easy to construct, yet when played accordingly; are capable of producing great rhythms which can motivate anyone to make some improvisational movements in response. the essence of the dance styles is mainly for entertainment and to pass a moral message to the audience through the songs, mostly wrapped in proverbs, adages and traditional idioms of the esan extraction. it serves as oral literature to the people, an avenue for them to sensitize and admonish spectators. the dance is propelled by the sounds that you hear. plate 4: female celebrants lead the dance procession source: the researcher in eguare – egoro annual festival, there is no audience separated from the performers; when the drums sound, accompanied by folk singing, dancing follows. however, when the ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 14 audience feels like dancing at any time during the performance of the dance, they spontaneously start dancing. similarly, one would ask: what is it that propels the audience to get up and dance? it is all about the excitement that has been generated by the entire ensemble. the vast majority of the movements are acquired by learning; because of this automated unconsciousness one meets great difficulties in verbally formulating the characters, and structuring the manner of exact performance of the movements that is including them in the cognitive process. plate 5: the dance moves on towards the palace ground with the researcher in front. source: ebhos photos, ikhido, egoro in dance, the most important element, and that which is stressed first, is the flow of movement. without respecting the continuity, without stressing the element of flow in movement, there is no dancing action: the flow of movement is the warp of dance. so, a dance exists only as long as the dancer is dancing. the relationship of music and dance is stronger and more intimate in okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 15 the african context. dance is born into african life and it is fully expressed or evident in the traditional festival scenario as the people venerate their ancestors and worship their gods. while discussing “music in nigerian traditional dance performance” ugolo postulates: in a typical african festival theatre, the art forms of music, dance, sculpture, painting and drama exist side by side… music and dance in traditional nigerian societies happen as religious (ritual) and social (ceremonial) events. in effect, to some extent, dance is a reflection of the social dynamics of music … the social conditions that motivate both (music and dance) are principally the same; the forms overlap, and the compositional and choreographic techniques are the same principles, thus giving a keen observer the impression that the two are inseparable, especially in the african and indeed the nigerian context (171). another prominent motive why the african festival is interwoven with dance is due to its musical bias, codifying the norms and nuances of the people into oral literature. because of this, ugolofurther puts it thus: as in most musical traditions, melody constitutes one of the chief characteristics of african music apart from rhythm. in other words, african dancers relate to the music based on both melody and rhythm. movements that are motivated by the melody of the music are usually emotionally based and are therefore very expressive …in most traditional festival performances, dancers play the role of musicians by singing while dancing or playing some instruments. some dancers wear musical instruments around their bodies, like leg and hand rattles, bells or iron chains. such instruments act as body idiophones that help to give an accent to the rhythm ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 16 of the step pattern of the dance… dance and music cooperate: they often coexist. there is no doubt that there is music in dance and most kind of music induce dance; or if not dance, some agitation of bodily movement. thus music and dance exist in a symbiotic relationship in nigerian traditional performance (174 – 175). in the ihuen – eguare festival performance, the dance of the king (onojie) appears simple. okewola emphasized that ‘’there is something very unique about african dance. although in general, dance uses a progression of steps and movements to resonate with the beat of a piece of music and coordinates the body in a cadenced manner, most african dances are segregated body movements that can be very hard to organize intellectually’’ (4). these are known as polyrhythm and polycentric movements. polyrhythm is the layering of different rhythms over one another and polycentrism is the idea that movement can initiate from any part of the body. these two qualities play together because different parts of the body dance to different instruments that are playing at different rhythms. for instance, my hands and my feet were to keep time with the gongs, my hips with the first drum, and my back and shoulders with the second. whereas, these elements of music are displayed clearly in the body and nothing is left out. hence, dancing is a way of incorporating and valuing the entire body and bringing together the music and dancing; thus, the artist’s body is in some sense separated so that different parts of the body are moving autonomously of each other. okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 17 plate 6: the king moving and dancing graciously source: ebhos photos discussing the essence of music, song, dance and mime in the eguare – egoro festival, these elements function jointly and severally almost inseparable. music functions as the language and it is ethnic–bound, so to speak. although some very specific songs are peculiar to the festival, sometimes the music-making may be organized as a concurrent activity, such as incidental or background music for some incidences, like visiting the odionwele or chiefs of certain quarters of the community to pay homage and receive gifts of kola nuts and money. in the process of the dance, the music may be related to the needs of the performers in a variety of ways. the dance is performed to attract the audience by performing work or occupational dances; both for their enjoyment and as a source of attraction and entertainment for the spectators. the dance or music in the festival is more like a social activity, one that emphasizes artistic as well as social, political and religious values. the dance is also performed for the messages that it ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 18 communicates, or for the outlet that it provides for social interaction or the sharing of community sentiments; whereas the music, some of which are war songs while others are a tribute to past kings and heroes, offerings to a deity or a general rendition of myths, legends, proverbs, parables and riddles. the approach to music links the festival moment and ensures spontaneous participation and identification with the musical life of the people. hence, awodiya notes “thus, the music, song and dance of the african people are artistic expressions of their humanity and society; the people’s philosophy features prominently” (181). it must also be emphasized that the music or songs in the eguare – eguare festival is participatory; everyone may participate in the chorus as the song leaders of the procession sing. the songs evoke responses from the people who either shake their heads or tap their feet or make spontaneous body movements. the music and songs are very scintillating and compelling in their rhythmic bearing. the songs are like imagery, witty and contain some proverbs and supplications. they form the basic make–up of the festival performance – whereby they become systematically interrelated parts of the entire dramaturgy. the most incredible feature of the performance is how the dancers can follow the harmony of the instruments and the melodious songs, to produce those steps which can be likened to contemporary dance-drama. in the entire performance, audience participation is spontaneous both in songs and in basic elementary movements. in the process of the performance, a lot of comic movements are also made to tincture the instinct of the audience and thereby make them feel excited. in some instances, the dance steps of the people may not be new each time they dance, but they always have one or two new revues (improvisations) to add to their flow of movements. hence, the aesthetics and social relevance of the festival are enhanced. sometimes the exuberant agility with which these people (old and young) jump, turn, sing, shout, run, leap, thrust, float, glide, flick, dab, etc dazzles the spectators. this okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 19 is so as there are some steps and movements in the process that are incredibly fantastic. in the process of the dance movements, the performers normally exhibit characters of domestic behaviours as well as occupational movements. the very typical dancer would make his or her movement to replicate some wild and domestic animals mimicking their postures in such a funny way as would be in tune with the melody of the music, particularly the lyrical accompaniments. conclusion edubirdie observes that ‘’in african culture, dance is for enjoyment, celebration and honour… dance has always been a big part of african culture – long before they were even oppressed or taken from native lands. it had always been a very fundamental part of the lives of africans. special occasions like childbirth or marriage were a cause for celebration and we use dances to do so’’ (1). it also suffices to note that the action of the dancers at certain movements of the performance is akin to man and his relationship with the spiritual world, which seemed to be a complete mystery, beyond the expression of words. the songs in ihuen – eguare festival have a way of stimulating the brain and mind of the dancer and the people including spectators – to activate the reality and the significance of the show, thereby enhancing excitement. any pattern of dance is relevant as long as it’s in tune with the melody of the songs and the harmony of the instruments in such a funny and intricate manner to re-enact life within the scope of the people. therefore, the dance structures in the eguare – egoro festival, when exposing some content, become meaningful shapes. they take on more or less abstract symbolic features. these are recognizable through their common movement expression, or they acquire secondary or conventional meaning. it must however be ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 20 understood that dance as an art, includes all those movement manifestations which take us above everyday life level. this may be achieved in different ways, varying in different times and places. those movement structures that become meaningful shapes, acquiring the status of symbols, contribute to the outcome of forms, which constitute the dance on the art level. in the eguare – egoro festival performance, every dancer has a relationship with one another about the sound that you are hearing. hence, for you to identify the dramatic essence of dance in the festival, you need to look very closely and see so clearly as the performance moves in the procession across the whole community. the dramatic essence involves what you see and how you understand what you see. this will involve discerning differences within movements and other elements such as costumes and props. during the climax of the performance, the dance styles use some of the humanly possible actions of the body, selected gestures, bends, extensions, twists and turns. these activities may be combined with stepping, jumping, running and even falling. how the dancer uses space can also determine the pace of the performance. analytically, the dance movements used in eguare – egoro festival are simple. they glide, leap and freeze. they make their performance theatrical that it combines mimic, and pantomimic elements amongst others. because the festival is all about happiness, the excitement becomes inevitable. since happiness is like pregnancy that cannot be hidden, it naturally finds expression in dance and gestures. once a state of frenzy is attained, few of the dancers suddenly seem to be impervious as it were; to amusements and ecstasy; pleasure and entertainment, education and enlightenment. in the end, the actual dramatic essence of the dances in the egoro festival is propitiatory, sacrificial and laudatory using which the people acknowledge the blessings of the supreme creator, lesser deities and the ancestral spirit – manifested in good health, good okhaifo: dramatic essence of dance in the ihuen-eguare annual festival… 21 harvest, etc. so, dance functions as drama in the interpretation and transmission of epic content of the people. according to adegbite, he points that, ‘’for effective communication, dance has been playing various roles that are functional in all the major manifestations of human endeavours. indeed, dance has also helped in the shaping and re-shaping the history of different cultures all over the world’’ (133). the festival performance in its manifestation, maintains a link with the people’s cultural, social and political inclinations. the eguare festival is not a complicated creation; but an art form with an acute critical perspective that enables the people to reflect on the origin and history of the community. the dance reflects the people’s cultural antecedents, beliefs, occupations and religion. moreover, the dance thrives on the stylish steps, gestures, and dynamics – which are so heightened to achieve a certain level of aesthetics. the dance dramatizes the historical life and cultural beliefs of the eguare people of the egoro kingdom in esan land. as the festival moves, it rotates and revolves around the dance in its evolution; motivated by music in the vivid manifestation of the whole process. dance, therefore, is not merely an art form – for art’s sake, entertainment: it could serve serious issues such as the ones addressed by the festival performance; that dance is the vehicle on which the festival performance moves and takes or navigates its course. works cited abbe, ebiuwa j. performance and choreographic aesthetics in ugie – oro ritual dance of the benin people of nigeria (unpublished phd thesis) ibadan: institute of african studies, university of ibadan, 2014. adegbite, adesina. ‘’the impact of african traditional dance: orosun example’’ in journal of media and communication studies, vol. 2(6), available online ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 22 http://www.academicjournals.org/jmcs, issn 2141 – 2545, july, 2010. retrieved on 11th october 2022. awodiya, p. muyiwa. the drama of femi osofisan: a critical perspective. ibadan: kraft books ltd., 1995. edubirdie, writing platform. ‘’the role and significance of dance for african cultures’’. february 17th 2022 in edubirdie. retrieved october 11th, 2022, from https://edubirdie.com/examples/the-role-and-significanceof-dance-for-african-culture/ emoruwa, f. o. “forms and meaning in biripo dance of ilaje in ondo state” in journal of humanities, unilorin, 2006. green, doris. traditional dance in africa. in african dance: an artistic historical and philosophical inquiry (k. w. asante ed.), african world press, 1996. nettleford, rex. “forward” in african dance: an artistic historical and philosophical inquiry (kariamu welsh asante ed.), african world press inc., 1996. nwabuoku, emeka. the realities of music and dance in africa. benin city: uniben press, 1998. obongko, enem and onwuka, esther. “the place of dance and music in democracy in nigeria’’, in nigerian theatre journal (ameh dennis akoh ed.), vol. 16, 2016. okewola, m. morajeyo. “the role of dance in african culture” in global sisters report: https://www.globalsistersreport.org/news/spirituality/colu mn/role-dance-african-culture, july, 2021. retrieved on 11th october 2022. primus, pearl. ‘’african dance’’ in african dance: artistic historical and philosophical inquiry. african world press inc., 1996. ugolo, e. chris. ‘’music in nigerian traditional dance performance’’ in music and social dynamics in nigeria’’ (bode omojola ed.), new york: peter lang publishing inc., 2017. http://www.academicjournals.org/jmcs https://edubirdie.com/examples/the-role-and-significance-of-dance-for-african-culture/ https://edubirdie.com/examples/the-role-and-significance-of-dance-for-african-culture/ https://www.globalsistersreport.org/news/spirituality/column/role-dance-african-culture https://www.globalsistersreport.org/news/spirituality/column/role-dance-african-culture somtoo obiefuna arinze-umobi cultural flux in selected nollywood film 215 cultural flux in selected nollywood films somtoo obiefuna arinze-umobi department of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. email: umobisomtoo@yahoo.com phone number: 07033569974 abstract the culture of a people communicates who they are. unfortunately, cultural errosion ocassioned by cultural flux threaten traditional identity of many cultural enclaves; especially, the igbo of eastern nigeria. the study therfore aims at evaluating impact of constant cultural flux due to interaction with other cultures, and also due to the influences of modernity and globalization. objective includes, using film as the most expressive medium of cultural exchange to checkmate impact of cultural flux and to ascertain how the changing nature of culture affects the history and memory of a people as a result of the loss of salient aspects of the people’s cultures. furthermore, objectives examine the affective dynamics of culture in films set in the eastern part of nigeria using the case study approach of the qualitative method. simple random sampling approach is ued in the selection of the films; while, the content analyses approach is used for interpreting the content of the films. findings from the study reveal that cultural flux interplays with the presentation of indigenous cultures of the igbo people. therefore, the study suggests that film productions should be tailored towards effective projection of the peoples' indigenous culture than focusing on the external cultural influences on the society. introduction the position of culture in the lives of a people since the evolution of man cannot be overstated. the quest for man to be identified within a group informs his culture. hence, culture has been generally accepted to be the way of a people in totality. however, it transcends this ordinary conception because it is a phenomenon that constructs and deconstructs a people. therefore, culture is identity, history, agency and practice that cannot be taken as fixed entities but part of a system of representation which is permanently in a process (oluyemi 35). culture is never a static phenomenon; it is a process that is in constant transformation over time ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 216 and in space. its amorphous nature is attributed to the people’s attitude towards it. according to mohammad zaman: culture, like matter also tends to creep towards uniformity although not quite to the degree of homogeneity as in the case of inert matter. to be precise, culture is more like a flowing amoeba with sprouting arms and legs and mouths as dictated by its immediate environs, evolving constantly in an amorous flux of “scapes” (1). the changes in culture could also be attributed to the intercultural mix or interaction among different ethnic, racial and national divide. hence, the commingling of different cultures produces new hybrids that either is in line with the contemporary changes and realties of the people. therefore, the evolving nature of culture accounts for its mutability and transmutation within a geographical enclave. more often than not, the idea may be to expunge negative cultures and replace it with positive ones. for example; the abolishment of osu caste system in most communities in the south east nigeria, female circumcision, widowhood practices, just to mention a few. other reason for cultural mutability could be directly or indirectly as a result of globalization, modernization and the fact that humans are by nature in flux. therefore, people have the power to accept or reject certain norms and values which threatens their existence. unfortunately, the changes in culture most times adversely affect the history and memory of the people because some of these cultures are lost to western and globalization tendencies. the implication is that salient ways of the people are consciously or unconsciously jettisoned. tracie utoh-ezeajugh et al observe that, "as the world moves closer together through increased globalization, migration and technological advancement, the possibility of transformation, transmutation or even total extinction of indigenous cultures and cultural values becomes imminent'' (228). hence, danbello ahmadu affirms that "...culture has suffered untold damage over the past years due to cultural imperialism which has crept into the society via communication facilities like radio, films etc" (532). his position raises pointer to the danger state of people’s culture by the propellants of globalization which is media technology. film is one of the essential media for projecting people’s culture and arguably the most powerful because of its audio-visual aesthetics, and the reliance by most developed nations like america, britain, china, etc in projecting their culture and inadvertently acculturate smaller and somtoo obiefuna arinze-umobi cultural flux in selected nollywood film 217 developing nations. ahmadu supports this idea by stating that "film is a documentary of the consciousness of culture, galvanizing or fusing all forces into a concrete charger that reconstruct the mind of the people" (537). hence, film as a medium has gained much ascendancy globally and appeals to all ages and races (nwaozuzu 1), through the reflection of human society that encompasses the language, ritual and beliefs of a given society (amaefula 147). therefore, film is a cultural product and thus the business of marketing people’s culture for audience appreciation. nigerian film industry popularly referred to as nollywood is at the center of transmitting the culture of nigerian to the globe. from its evolution till date, it has saddled the responsibility of reflecting the cultures and the changes in culture over time within the diverse cultures in nigeria. a cursory assessment of nollywood films will reveal either through thematic preoccupation or the aesthetic elements (costume, language, makeup, setting) among other things, the infiltration of cultures within a narrative, and thus highlighting the dynamic nature of culture and the its irresistibility to change over a given time, and the ability of film to capture such changes. the complexity of nollywood industry is anchored on the diverse cultural background of nigeria. the richness of nigerian culture which is evident in the ethnic diversity accounts for the success and appeal nollywood films have on the global audience. within the complexity of nollywood, the major ethnic groups-igbo, yoruba and hausa strive to ensure that their peculiar cultures are projected. furthermore, through the appreciation of films, some of the negative aspects of the people’s culture are exposed and condemned while the positive ones advocated for. therefore, this study examines some cultural flux in two movies set in south eastern nigeria in order to examine cultural interactions and their affective impact in the interpretation and understanding the films. the select films are ilochi olisaemeka's king uremma and okonkwo chikelue's evil culture. conceptual clarification cultural flux refers to an ongoing process of change in the way of life of a given people. culture is reasoned to be the creation of human interaction. hence, fayomi oluyemi observes that, "the changes in human society reflect the dynamism of culture. this dynamism is responsible for constant change in patterns associated with given culture... (40). it is imperative to note that cultural flux cannot only be reasoned from the point of western imperialism or influence. rather, it connotes also the changes that have ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 218 occurred due to ethnic or tribal interactions within a given territory like nigeria. the reason is because "greater part of what makes culture is acquired or learned, and not inborn or innate". hence, "the implication is that culture could be learned, acquired, experienced or transferred from one place to another through various ways" (ahmadu 532). however, one of the fundamental reasons for using the film medium to project cultural changes is remotely for commercial interest. according to olav velthius, “as in other markets for cultural goods, commercialization is the dominant force driving change in the contemporary art market." (1). consequently, most of the changes exhibited in films may not be a true reflection of the society which may be as a result of filmmakers quest for quick profit. one importance of cultural flux is its ambivalence in allowing cultural interactions that may benefit or mar a people's identity. these interactions according to shambat ilya in cultural flux and dynamic integrity "creates all kinds of creation, some that embody the best of the component cultures; some that embody the worst of component cultures, and some that contain both benign and malignant features of all the above". hence kayode animasaun as quoted in uwaoma nwazue, avers that: the problem of cultural mis-presentation and confusion is either the juxtaposition or sudden transition from one culture to the other or interweaving of traditional and western cultures as done in most nigerian movies. the result is that the nigerian cultures is often time downplayed which often leave the viewers to inquire about what good the traditional cultures can offer. (141) though this position presents the negative aspect of cultural flux, it does not preclude the inherent positive changes because it gives people a better chance at much better integrity which comes as a result of "integrating multiple influences and coming up with higher synthesis that enriches every culture that comes into the picture, as well as increasing the wisdom and knowledge of individuals involved in the flux" (ilya). synopsis of the selected films king uremma the film explores the theme of tyranny and its consequences on the lives and culture of umungwu community. uremma (chioma chukwuka akpota) returns from her exile fortified with charms. she challenges ajilija the king of umungwu for his tyranny and oppression against women and children, and subsequently defeats ajilija and his chiefs somtoo obiefuna arinze-umobi cultural flux in selected nollywood film 219 (onowu) with her superior charms. consequently, uremma ascends the throne as the king of umungwu and promulgates a decree that all men in the village should assume the duties of women in their respective homes; in other words, men thus wear clothes traditional meant for women, cook, and do other domestic chores. however, uremma's authority is threatened by ezenagu who returns to the village from the city after staying away for some years. ezenagu defies uremma's decree by refusing to adorn on female dresses and also rains abuses on his fellow men especially the elders for allowing such sacrilege. ezenagu's deviance denies him audience with odibeze, one of the female chiefs, over his claim for a piece of land that was bequeathed to him by his mother before her demise, which odibeze had taken. odibeze booths him out of her house on the ground that he must wear women's cloths, buy kola nut and hot drink, before they can discuss about the land. ezenagu's continuous and willful disobedience to the rule of uremma consequently lands him in prison. however, uremma's daughter falls in love with ezenagu and releases him from prison on the condition that he becomes her bride. ezenagu rejects the offer but prefers to stay in the prison, but for the mercy of uremma, he is released from prison on the ground that he will be loyal to her rules. infuriated by the turn of events in his village, ezenagu becomes violent and kills one of the allies of king uremma and consequently flees for fear of what uremma will do to him. uremma's malicious rules continuous until ezenagu returns home again, this time fortified with charms and consequently dethrones uremma and her chiefs, and restores normalcy to the land. evil culture this film underlines the clash between western and traditional religion. ejiofor (macsmith ochendu) neglects his obligation to igolo the community deity due to his debauchery. for this reason, igolo revenges by preventing every suitor who comes to marry ejiofor's sister ihuoma (chioma chukwuka akpota) by appearing to them (suitors) in their dreams warning them never to marry ihuoma or they die. ihuoma's failure to get married prompts her to seek the face of god. the parish priest informs her that the reason behind her predicament is igolo. hence, he advices ihuoma to invite ejiofor to church who consequently gives his life to christ. meanwhile, as the igolo festival approaches, the community is in apprehension over the incessant deaths caused by igolo because of ejiofor's failure to make the yearly sacrifices. hence the elders hire the services of another chief priest to perform the ritual, but igolo refuses to ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 220 be appeased. undeterred, the community goes on with the festival and becomes thrilled when ejiofor finally appears with the igolo mask at the village arena. appraising cultural flux in the selected films the plot of king uremma presents a culture that is alien to the traditional and contemporary igbo society. the igbos of the eastern part of nigeria is predominantly a patriarchal society where kingship and cabinet membership is designated to men. however, in umungwu community the case is reversed after the dethronement of king ajilija by uremma on the account of gross maltreatment of women and children. the expectation by this dethronement is that she uses her position to correct the negative aspects of patriarchy, but she presents even the worst scenario, a phenomenon that is symptomatic to the politics in nigeria. she changes the cultural norms and values, and forcefully condemns the men folks to the traditional status of women, women now wear clothes meant for men, sexually abuse and marry as many men as possible and even dictate what happens in the governance of the community. however, the film presents the issue of polyandrya custom that allows women to marry more than one man. this marital situation is not uncommon in africa and indeed nigeria as research shows that the irigwe people of jos, northern nigeria are known for such culture. nevertheless, this cultural practice is not the norm among the igbos. in king uremma, one of the cabinet members onowu is praised by her fellow women for marrying a third husband. this action is a deliberate attempt by the director to lampoon the polygamy which was practiced by traditional men in igbo society before the advent of christianity and modernization. onowu's marriage to obiadi goes through the traditional process of wine carrying and payment of dowry. somtoo obiefuna arinze-umobi cultural flux in selected nollywood film 221 plate 1: obiadi receiving wine from his mother to search for his groom plate 2: onowu (groom) drinks the wine presented to her by obiadi (bride). payment of dowry in african society is the prerogative of the groom’s family. however, the presentation of the opposite in the film is a creation that relates to the marriage culture in india, sir lanka, naples, pakistan ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 222 and bangladesh, where marriage rites is fulfilled by the bride's family unit. ezenagu sees these events as a smack on masculinity and his cultural background. hence, he laments, ''how did things turn upside down within a twinkle of an eye. women now wear men's clothes, own lands and dictate what happens. now this is an abomination and i will not be a part of it". this presentation highlights the importance of film in experimenting and fusing cultures which may or may not fit into the cultural sensibility of the people it narrates its story. similarly, king uremma's daughter who arrogates herself the role of a prince in umungwu exhibits the same tyranny her mother wields in the community. her refusal to see herself as a bride that should be married, but the groom that ought to marry any man of her choice relates to the ogwashi-uku idegbe cultural belief that bestows women a masculine gender role of a son in the absence of a male child in her family (nwosu 62), for the continuation of her father's linage. ezenagu's refusal to accept this offer and preference to stay in prison exposes him to the wrath of uremma's daughter. ezenagu's rejection underscores the utter rejection of such culture among the igbos where women are married outside their families. furthermore, the culture of transvertism or cross dressing is well projected in the film. one of the core decrees of king uremma is that men put on women's clothes vice versa. the culture of transvertism is rampant in contemporary society and is a product of transgender which has more prominence in the western world. though transvertism is not new to the world today, it is culture that is frowned at in traditional igbo society and its explication in king uremma underpins its infiltration to the igbo dress culture. ezenagu ridicules this situation by greeting the male elders who had been condemned by uremma's terror, "ndi nne mama"; a popular greeting in celebration of motherhood in igbo land). his sarcastic greeting criticizes the turn of events in the present society where men are gradually turning sissies. in evil culture, the issue of religion is central to the understanding of the plot. the film discusses the clash between the traditional religion and christianity which was forced down on africans during the colonial era. though the western religion has been embraced in the eastern part of nigeria, however, traditional religion is felt more during annual festivals in most communities in the region. as presented in the film, ejiofor' inability to fulfill his role which his father left as the priest of igolo somtoo obiefuna arinze-umobi cultural flux in selected nollywood film 223 arouses the wrath of the deity against his family. the deity inhibits ejiofor's sister from getting married, and also turns ejiofor into an unprosperous man among his peers. however, ihuoma's decision to embrace christ and thus represent western religion creates the divide and establishes the flux between these cultures. this is further highlighted in ejiofor who boasts before the community elders that "i ejiofor of the universe.... i am a new creation. old things have passed away". his public statement points out the influence of the christian faith over the traditional worship. nonetheless, his faith is does not stop him from finally assuming his communal responsibility of ensuring that igolo is appeased and also makes an appearance during the festival. the film projected also the decline in cultural attire during festivals in igbo communities. festivals in the contemporary time unlike in the traditional era have undergone several changes that even in costumes, western attires tend to dominate. this is unconnected to the impact of globalization and modernity that have rapidly engulfed the igbos that the purity of culture is hardly ever noticed. plate 3: ejiofors costume is a mixture of traditional nwaguru cap with polo shirt. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 224 plate 4: western costumes during igolo traditional festival therefore, in the film we see characters wearing jeans trousers and tshirts during the festival. even, ejiogu who ought to be a representative of tradition and culture of the people is costumed in a medley of western and traditional attire and thus, highlights the trend of flux that has permeated the culture of the igbos in ramification. conclusion cultures interact to create new concepts, ideas, norms and beliefs, and film as a medium of expression is mostly used to convey these concepts for critical evaluation and assimilation. however, from the assessment of the case studies, it is evident that the culture of the igbos’ who are situated in the eastern part of nigeria has greatly been affected by contemporary forces of modernity and globalization and also the consciousness of the people to adapt to changing trends in the world. further findings from the films reveal a recurrent utilization of code-switchinginterchanging from igbo to english language, vice versa. the essence is to project the ongoing flux in language use which affects human communication pattern. therefore, the films to an extent reveal the contemporary socio-cultural realities in the eastern part of nigeria and the processes of change affecting their cultural practices. this study concludes that the filmic presentation of a particular people should be tailored toward projecting the somtoo obiefuna arinze-umobi cultural flux in selected nollywood film 225 indigenous cultural practices of the people than centering on incooperating influences from other culture. works cited ahmadu, danbello ibrahim and joshua dakogol bala. "the role of indigenous films in presenting culture in nigeria: an appraisal of nollywood home video". international conference on communication, media, technology and design. 531-544. http://www.cmdconf.net/2015/pdf/51.pdf. accessed 04/10/17 amaefula, rowland .c. "ritual and identity construction in nigerian igbo films: a call for policy implementation. the creative artist: a journal of theatre and media studies. vol. 8 no. 3. awka: fab anieh, 2006. 147-161 daniel-inim, praise chidinma. "changing the unchanged in revolving theatre, stagnant culture and retrogressive gender issues in select nigerian home video". theatre, culture and change management in nigerian. ed. nkemakonam aniukwu. awka: fab anieh, 2016521-529 ilya, shambat. cultural flux and dynamic integrity: solutions for new millennium. www.bettermillenium.blogspot.com> 2008/09. accessed 4/10/2017 nwaozuzu, uche-chinemere. "towards a thriller tradition in the nigerian movie industry: a study of adaptation and generic classification". imsu theatre journal: a contemporary journal of arts and theatre practice. owerri: global press, 2012. 1-12. nwazue, uwaoma chimezie. "filming for change in nollywood: an experimentation with ifufe". theatre, culture and change management in nigerian. ed. nkemakonam aniukwu. awka: fab anieh, 2016.141-151. nwosu, canice chukwuma. "between loyalty and transgression: towards a feminist deconstruction of cultural taboos against young lovers in africa". re/presenting gender and love. ed. dikem yakali camaglu. oxfordshire: interdisciplinary press, 2015. 57-66. oluyemi, fayomi. "transnational and integrative cultural roles of nollywood entertainment media in west africa: the case study of benin republic and ghana". international journal of international relations, media and mass communication studies. vol. 1 .1 (2015): 34-41. www.eajournals.org. accessed 04/10/2017. utoh-ezeajugh, tracie et al. "resuscitation of endangered cultural heritage: the needed innovative policy approaches and framework". ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 226 the humanities and nation building. awka: fab anieh, 2013. 227247. velthuis, olav. "the contemporary art market between stasis and flux?".http://www.bamart.be/fi;es/bkveldanalyseolavvelthuis.pdf. accessed 04/10/17. wikipedia. polyandry. error! hyperlink reference not valid..... accessed 04/10/17 zaman, mohammad. culture in flux. http://www.achive.dhakatribune .com. accessed 04/10/2017. filmography king uremma. director ilochi olisaemeka. okija amaka pictures, 2017 evil culture. director okonkwo chikelue. coruma international ltd, 2017 steve james itsewah & oluwatoyin olokodana-james academic supremacy and obsession… 139 academic supremacy and obsession for power in asigbo’swar of the tin gods and once upon a school steve james itsewah department of theatre and media arts federal university, lafia. nasarawa state. tel: 08023522522, 08094314418 email: itsewah@yahoo.com/ stemokhai@yahoo.com and oluwatoyin olokodana-james department of creative arts university of lagos tel: 08023427172, 08094314417 email: olokodanajames@gmail.com/ olokodanajames@yahoo.com abstract the fact remains that in every professions of the world over, the phenomenon of supremacy and obsession for power is humanly inbuilt, human thirst for power in every endeavor and claim of superiority over one and other has been order of the day. everyone want to be something or somebody in life, by so doing goes to any length to acquire such feat regardless what happen to the other person(s) in the course of their pursuance of such feat. they crush anyone who crosses them, even their family members. the academics are not an exception in this race of life endeavor. the academics have been thrown into a confused state of ignorance, a war zone and political arena where power tussle and war of supremacy is the order of the day. the questions therefore are; how did we get here? when did we get to this mess? and are we not suppose be intellectuals who should know better and teach others? these and many other questions are the bases for this paper and asigbo’s ‘war of the tin gods’ and ‘once upon a school’ are plays that exposed the insensitivities of the academics to these dangerous epidemic that is ravaging our institutions. the paper tried to ex-rays the damages and decay that these two neglected epidemics (supremacy and obsession for power) have done to academics and academic system in nigeria, by exploring the sociological realism as its theoretical base. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 140 introduction in the world over, high institutions are almost the same probably in structures with governing bodies that administer the day to day activities in order to achieve the set up goals of such institution. as such, it is seen as a community of its own where learning and research are the order of the day, but not without the politics of scramble for positions here and there, promotions from one step to another therefore calls for competitions amongst both the academics and the non-academics. the scramble for loyalty of colleagues and the students for post and position in the institution gives room for back biting, rumor spreading and gangsterism amongst the lecturers and the students. the claim of superiority of all sort rears its ugly head as people who are supposed to be more knowledgeable than the others in area of academics, either in teaching, playwriting, directing or otherwise engage in in dirty war of complexity. set-up, witchhunting gang-up against each other and hot chase for position drives the wheel of lecturing in our society. however, one cannot rule out politics in all facet of our life endeavor even in our different homes but the politics that is trending in our high institution is unhealthy, grievous and un-call for, because it is affecting the educational system and the students involved. therefore, it is worrisome to see how decay and rotten our educational system have become due to supremacy war and thirst for power and position which asigbo in his plays, ‘the war of tin gods’ and ‘once upon a school enumerated. about the plays: war of the tin gods the play ‘war of the tin gods’ is satirical advancement of two giant playwrights in academics who fight for supremacy in playwriting and the accusation of being either too advanced or watering in language and plots. the claim is that one believed he writes for the elites and the other for the common man on the street. they both claim superiority over each other of their affluence in the academics and the society at large. their ego are also robbed on their followers/disciples who believed so much in them and their works regardless what critics or people say about them. woye and emi are the character used in play, it is crystal clear that the two of them attended the same school and both are playwright of good repute, and are always on each other’s neck. once upon a school steve james itsewah & oluwatoyin olokodana-james academic supremacy and obsession… 141 it is a play that exposed the antics and dubiousness of lecturers’ desirous for power in our institutions and the length at which they can go to get their desire achieved. their plots and plans to eliminate whosoever is on their way, no matter how high and mighty he/she may be was alighted in the play. the use of student most especially girls in setting up colleagues to achieve/acquire their goals was the in thing in the play, also is the issue of betrayer of trust after attaining power. the play emphases on these immoralities and lack of honest associated with activities of students, the lecturers and the university administrators who insist on imbibing ennobling qualities. it is a play that used typical issues to interrogate and analyses the prevalent social and academic problems inherent in an academic institutions. analysis of war of the tin gods pig. 1 the characters and events described in this play are entirely the author’s imagination and bear no semblance whatsoever to person(s) dead or living. any resemblance is therefore unequivocally fortuitous. (asigbo, v). ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 142 though asigbo’s claim(s) may be tenable in some quarters but starting from the play’s cover page which is out-rightly suggestive and there cannot be any denial of the fact that the two caricatures on the cover page (pig1) are resemblance of very prominent playwrights among nigerian academics. asigbo claimed he did not mention anyone’s name either living or dead, that the names in his play are fictions. that can only be genuine to the new generation set of students and not the old generation of academics who knows or experienced the cold war that went on between the two giant playwrights in ibadan then. with asigo’s claim above, that kite can only fly within the new generation of students and even at that, the new set of scholars these days are wide read and they cannot be pushed around like puppet on the string. even the lines in the play give it all out. for instance; olodumare: when did you notice this! mean this arrogant and disrespectful nature of his? zuluike: back then at uci when he was still fledge writer. looking at the speeches here, the playwright cannot deny the fact that uci is not an acronym for university college ibadan now university of ibadan, the great fountain of knowledge where most of our great playwrights drank/acquired their educational skills and water of knowledge. moreover, resemblance or pronunciation of names of major characters and other names in the play gave an indication that characters in the play are colleagues or contemporaries. names like chebe, zuluike, aba and aki are related to many other playwrights in woye and emi’s category. the cover page of the play ‘war of the tin gods’ speaks volume of the playwright’s (asigbo) intent and imagination, denial of any sorts can only be for people that are neither in theatre or academics. however, one can give it to him that as a playwright, one also has the right as a critic or analyst to read/interpret or give contextual in-depth meaning to a work of art. yerima (50) posits: art survives a man because it flows from man’s very essence and being. it allows man to express himself. it is used as a tool for distinguishing truth from falsehood, illusion from reality. it grows from man’s overriding belief, his origin, his religion and his history, allows man to face the constant ambivalence of existence which is the conflict between false consciousness and human nature. however, that the playwright said he does not refer to anybody whatsoever will allow us to just analysis that play based on its content and context steve james itsewah & oluwatoyin olokodana-james academic supremacy and obsession… 143 based on our knowledge and belief. woye in the play is an ogunian believer while emi is eshu believer; both deities are of yoruba mythology. ogun is god of iron who destroys its enemies in fierce battle while eshu is god of mischief and trickster contrary to the biblical devil. woye is believed in some quarters to be proud and pompous in his writings, using advanced vocabularies meant only for the elites above the common man’s knowledge. however, emi writes in a simple language that suits the common man. woye accuses emi of dearth of vocabularies, which brought about war of superiority between them. but the two tried to defend their stand and superiority in the text: olodumare: children, the world of the dead is a part of the living and the gulf that separates us must constantly be bridged by creatures stubborn and willful. let therefore the two ancestors in question to pit their wits against each other to determine who is the master of his art. let woye ogun and emi eshu stand out for this epic contest. woye: impossible! because my spirit has leapt into this land of the fleshless, must my body here be taken for a commoner’s? how can it be told that i, poison pen of my generation, scourge of megalomaniacs, the sublime artist himself am pitted against this purveyor of discordant note and nursery rhymes? emi: i beg your pardon! my art is populist not elitist. i am sensitive and responsive to the needs of the masses. i am committed. woye: committed? ha! ha! don’t make me laugh where were you in ’65 when single handedly . i held up a radio station at a gun point? where were you in ’67 when i dodged ogbunigwes and defied the orders of a tyrant to visit biafra? what of ’94 when i confronted the stone-age despot? my friend commitment must be tangle not nebulous. emi: it is a question of perception. my works urge unity and mass action. shall i cry war when peace is honorable? notwithstanding, the two have points in their favor and they have right to their opinions and stands but some quick questions come to mind, do we really need this bigotry in the field of art?, are we all talented same way? is creativity limited to a certain genre of art? i presume no, because as our faces are different so are our thinking and perception of thing differ. however, as human, it is bound to happen because we are jealous and ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 144 insatiable animals, even god who created us confirmed that he is a jealous god. the jealousy is pronounced in the text with venom when the two begin to eulogies their deities; woye: ogun o! ogun o! ogun the fabled wisdom! warrior who gorges himself with blood. ogun of the indestructible will. you the axe headed one! nourisher of my art. lone warrior of the winding road! conqueror of the abyss. artist, technologist and bulwark of my art! ogun o! will you stand by and watch this affront to your favorite ward agbako: are you done? woye: yes. agbako: emi eshu… you have olodumare leave to pray to your patron god. emi: i really do not believe in deities and divinities, myth and mystification but for purposes of their fable attributes. i make my prayer to eshu, the quintessential trickster. eshe ee! eshu ee! confuser of men’s brain. god or retribution who never forget injury. who defeat even the wise in their own games. i sing your oriki you who throw a stone today and it lands yesterday. you with the wit to spin a bloodless revolution. sharpen my wit against this conceited son of ogun. revenge this slight on your favorite ward and you orunmila give me wisdom. agbako: are you done? emi: yes. olodumare: now child, what displeases you inwoye ogun’s work? emi: everything! in fact, his entire philosophy is repugnant and repulsive. instead of water he asks for blood. instead of the spoon he demands for the knife. he attempts to foist an oriental philosophy that has the bondman scrambling for seppuke on the masters wish on us, olodumare: can you prove these allegations? steve james itsewah & oluwatoyin olokodana-james academic supremacy and obsession… 145 emi: i accuse him of theatrical apartheid! i accuse him of grand design to decimate the proletariat through his specious strong breed philosophy. woye: is this not the height of phantasmagoria? have you not taken leave of your sense? my friend, what i advocate is ogunnian hero not some reject of the world. emi: obstreperous! tell me, why is it always the poor who are called to sacrifice? why is it always the wretched, never a wealthy man, never the son of a king, who is suddenly discovered to bear the mark of destiny at difficult moment, and pushed on to fulfill himself in suicidal task in your plays? woye: are these the insipid charges i must encounter from this impetuous upstart? are you not treading the path of selfimmolation? tell me, in which of my works is a strong breed made a commoner? my carriers are not discovered by accident. their blood says they are the strong breed and they spend their lives in blessing on account of it. read my works and you will discover that my carriers are not discovered fortuitously. emi: what of your obsession with deities and divinities, myth and mystifications? why your beguiling preoccupation with gods and phantoms. with those conversations above, one could feel the supremacy tussle between the two playwrights, the envy, open jealousy and gruesome hatred between the two which has affected most of their followers’/disciples’ forbearance in present academics. these issues still linger in the academics till date amongst the big wigs and the upcoming, issues of clicks, caucus and godfatherism has become an epidemic and cankerworm in the high institution that is eating deeply into the fabric of our co-existence. war of words has become the weapon in which we throw like missile the destroy ourselves not minding the gravity of its effect and the aftermath. we use words freely and carelessly on each other as if we will never reconcile, forgetting that words are like egg when broken can never be coupled together again. this is the case of woye and emi in this play, the used words freely on each other and names calling that pierces like two edged sword. sincerely the war of supremacy has forever being and will continue to be as long as human being are concern and not only in the academic but in the world over, academics must take caution. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 146 aki and aba are representation of the stunt followership of these two playwrights, the die-hard woyeist and emist who believed in their doctrine, philosophy and ideology about life and academics prowess. they can go to any length to defend their masters come rain come shine, it was evident in the play when they got to oledumare to request for one of the ancestor/playwright to return for impartment of knowledge. olodumare: that will do. now, will my children from the living world ask question of woye ogun? aba: no question, olodumare! woye ogun is my mentor, the quintessential artist, inspirer and bulwark of our continental literature….. aki: speak for yourself! there is denying the fact that he is a great playwright…. woye: the greatest son, the greatest. olodumare: you emissaries of the living what do you have to say? aba: can you not hear the voice of humility clamoring and pleading for the return of the bleeding genius? do you not experience this anguish of an impoverished humility panting like a tired dog from a dearth of sublime wisdom? let woye ogun return with us.. aki: once again you go too far! when did we arrive at that decision? surely emi eshu is the better choice. those are the voices of their disciples/followers then which till echoes till now all over, none of them will succumb for each other, so the enmity and supremacy war lingers to no end in sight in our institutions, all over nigeria. few are those who are not loyal to one theatre guru or the other. once upon a school analysed the play ‘once upon a school’ is a typical replica of our high institutions and the nation at large. a nation where obsession for power is eminent, back biting and setup reign supreme. a people full of hatred, liars and insensitivity in dealing with each other has been the order of the day, where no one cares what comes out of any action taken even at death. asigbo chronicles the obsession for power in nigeria through the high institution with the characters of the lecturers and their professors with the syndrome of pull him down, setup and deceit. wariboko is likened to a steve james itsewah & oluwatoyin olokodana-james academic supremacy and obsession… 147 typical nigeria politician who wants a position by all means and could go to any mile to get it, even if it means assassinating and maiming the opponent. the politics played in our universities these days is outrageous and deadly not considering the aftermath of it outcome all that matters is the power and when they get the power, every other things become history including those who brought them to power. asigbo (199) asserts: through chairman [wariboko] the ugly picture of distorted social relations in nigeria as a nation is painted. some political [academics] aspirants when in search of power and recognition try to be levelheaded with their fellow citizens; but the moment they see themselves at the corridor of power, discard the same people who put them through to such elevated positions. agema (233) also posits: the political plot of africa is interesting and many times, depressing. it is one that has repeated itself since independence with only actors changing. at the time of poll, the actors promise heaven, speak jargons and pose as messiahs. such terms as transformation’, change’, continuity’ and the like are slogans that fill the air. it takes only a while before we see the truth of their lies. all the assertions above played out in the character of wariboko who wanted the position of the head of the department (hod) by all means, a position occupied by a professor and a superior at that, but his obsession for power and affluence brought out the human greed and selfishness in him to plot the professor’s downfall by using chuks who has axe to grand with the professor. chucks in the play is like our new generation of student(s) who will not strive to read or do the needful for academic excellence but always finding a short cut to success thereby vulnerable to be used as a bate for setup. however, the use of girls to bring down male lecturers is rampant and outrageous in our university, it has been there and continues to be there till the end, but still the male lecturers do not learn from occurrences that befall their colleagues. this is the case of the professor who could not take away his eyes off all that is under shirt which almost caused him his life hard earned professorship. the intrigues and antics of politics played in the university and the nation at large is exrayed in this play. sometimes getting to a position is not as worse as seeking the life of the opponent. for instance, after wariboko got the hodship and was feeling insecure, all he wanted next is the professor out of the system. chucks: really? ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 148 wariboko: yes. hurriedly. if you’re ready to do me a little favor in return? chucks: just tell me what to do sir and i will do it wariboko: okay, i will lay my card on the table. you know i want prof out of the system as much as i think you now do. okay, let me not beat about the bush. what i want you to do is this.. set prof up for blackmail so we can dictate our terms to him. chucks: how am i supposed to do that sir? wariboko: think about it chucks, think about it, if you want to pass prof’s course. i will leave you to figure out the best way. what a way to stampede and blackmail a citizen, most especially a student who is desperate to pass a course by all means with sentiment. this is the exact way our politicians rope the unsuspected citizens into mischiefs and dangerous mission. with such mouthwatering offer(s), anybody can go to any length to get such job done which was the case of chuck in the play using his girlfriend (angela) as bate to get the professor. this has been the trend in our universities and the nation at large. it has happened in osun state university, kwara state university, lagos state university, university of lagos where many lecturers were sack out-rightly out of blackmail or setup. in-depth analytical prowess of asigbo as a playwright the intellectual world of the twenty century was based on the mystification of ideological ‘isms’. the world force then to great extent, was predicated, influences, framework, terminologies and analysis of such terminologies has set and stable patterns. artistes could project their ideologies mystifications and positions in reality and turn them into symbolic imageries in their works, giving specific significations of meaning and theme to them. yerima (50) the two plays have a serious impact on the society and the students who will either read or study asigbo as a playwright and moreover those who do not know much about the war of supremacy of the two giant playwrights of our generation. asigbo as academics has a reputable prowess in writing, with these two plays in review, he has presented himself a prolific writer who satirized situation around him and give meaning to life impending results. however, asigbo, though trying to dodge the fact about the reality that faces us as academics most especially steve james itsewah & oluwatoyin olokodana-james academic supremacy and obsession… 149 the two playwrights, claiming superiority over each other, he managed to carve a way to express his consternation over this ugly situation. first and foremost, as an artist that he is, asigbo used his creative ingenuity to project his dismay. also as academics and mirror of the society, he has proven that he has the duty and obligation to express his pain through writing hence the plays. agema (237) quoting ojo-ade’s statement asserts: the artist serves the community and mirrors the life of people. the essentials of his art are commitment to the culture and responsibility within the society. from the vintage point, the writer chooses to depict reality as he would like it to be or paint a picture of present pollution, thus challenging the public to seek solution to the problems. however, the playwright has the liberty whatsoever to put on paper his thoughts, perception and arguably his stand on any given issue in society because he stands as prophet or mirror. he is not bereft of his society’s situations and happenings but sometimes though bias in some quarters. therefore, asigbo being a writer, academics and cultural activist who has canvased the nook and crannies of the university domain as administrator, supervisor and teacher, have seen and conquered, and by so doing, he needs to document his experiences via these two plays and some others. his experiences in university politics, the antics of his fellow lecturing colleagues in scrambling for position and the play of supremacy of rank and works of art has informed these play no doubt. his outpour and expressiveness satirized the insensitivities and gullibility of the academics in bit to gain relevance by all means. this is also borne out of his artistic ingenuity and love for his profession. olokodana (64) asserts: williamswordsworth’s expressive theory argues that expressiveness is the core of every literary work since every work of art is essentially the internal made external. the constituent of a work of art result from a creative process under the impulse of feelings combined with author’s perceptions and thought. the primary source and subject matter are the actions of the writer’s mind and perhaps some external influence; but these are still converted appropriately from facts to literature by the power of the writer’s expressiveness. conclusion conclusively, asigbo has no doubt expressed his thoughts, feelings and grudges about the academic setting through these two plays, painting it the way it was and it is now. looking at the foundation of the dwindling ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 150 university system from the fight of the two giants in playwriting genre which has affected the new generation of lecturers and lecturing. projecting the act of godfatherism, blackmailing, backstabbing, setup, examination racketeering and many other epidemics that are ravaging the university system which represents nigeria both in politics and social interaction that needs urgent attention. these two plays by our astute and inexhaustible professor of theatre is a clarion call to all and sunder to wake up to reality of life and stop chasing shadow, lecturers are teachers, mentors and evangelists who are to lead for others to follow. therefore, if the teacher so to say is ignorant of issues concerning him how will he impact knowledge or mentor the student(s) he is supposed to guide aright. asigbo has put on paper his own view about the issues concerning the academics and academic from his purview, perspective, perception and thoughts but systematically dodged the fact that wole soyinka (woye) and ola rotimi (emi) were two giant playwright mention in ‘war of the tin gods’, though he has the liberty to his opinion likewise i do have such liberty to think otherwise, i stand to be corrected. however, it is bestowed on everyone in the academic system to take precautions not to run fowl of these cancerous wind of blackmail and setup that is blowing across the university environ and even in the country as a nation. work cited agema, su’eddie. ‘why i no go laugh: a realist/post-colonial reading of dul johnson’s melancholia’ in the abuja communication oklobia, a. (ed) vol. 3 no 2. sevhage: makurdi. pp. 233-239. asigbo, alex. ‘the playwright as environmentalist: a reading of greg mbajiorgu’s wake up everyone’ in new frontiers, a journal in the humanities. ejue, o. (ed). vol. 1 no. 1. sevhage: makurdi. 2016. pp. 194-203. ---------war of the tin gods. a play. valid: akwa. 2008. ----------once upon a school. a play. valid: akwa. 2001. olokodana-james, olokodana. ‘the counteractive power of feminism and womanism: a pyscho-analysical discourse of osita ezenwanabe’s adaugo and stella oyedepo’sthe rebellion of the bumpychested in snapshots of the female ethos, essay on women in drama and culture in africa. methuselah, j. and evwierhoma m (eds). concept: lagos. pp. 61-77. yerima, ahmed. culture, drama and national ethos. ebony: ibadan. 2015. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 174 rethinking the role of social media comedy on child development in nigeria; a study of mark angel skits 1okoye, chukwudi michael phd, and 2chinaza jacintha okenyi 1,2 department of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. corresponding email: mc.okoye@unizik.edu.ng abstract children learn often from what they see and hear either through modelling their parents’ or peers’ behaviour, reading books, or viewing movies. recently, the internet has become a major source of entertainment for children and adults alike. this study, however, focuses on identifiable negative social-cultural behaviour portrayed in the contents of online comedy skits by video producers who may or may not have had formal training in film narratives but see social media as a means for disseminating artistic content without necessarily putting in context, the development needs of young viewers who are merely attracted to these various artistic creations churned out on different social media platforms. the research offers suggestions on how children experience the world around them using the concept of jensen eric’s arts with the brain in mind as the theoretical framework, and employing the emmanuella and markangel comedy skits as case studies for analysis. the content analysis and case study approach of the mixed research method was also employed in this paper. the study recommends that parents provide needed guidance in using smartphones as an alternative means of relaxation and entertainment. there is a serious need to adopt balance in the engagement of creative activities that can engender qualitative psychosocial development in children rather than spending these okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 175 passive leisure times in the consumption of uncensored internet comedy drama skits. introduction the impact of social media as a present phenomenon in our world today is not in doubt. social media represents a social structure that displays the different cultural backgrounds of individuals, communities, and organisations and how they communicate. indeed, this is made possible every day through technological advancements, which have opened up further the ease of communication and, to a large extent, influence. technology has shown rapid development through the introduction of small communication devices that can be used to access social networks anytime and anywhere. these gadgets include computers, tablets, laptops and even mobile phones (shabnoor siddiqui and tajinder singh 71). it would appear that social media is connected to almost everything that humans interact with today, education, health, finance, entertainment, and most especially for social interactions and connectivity. the roles social media plays are numerous; in the last decade, it has been utilized as a platform for individuals to voice out and discuss their issues and opinions as well as exchange information, ideas, materials, etc. among these social media platforms are “tech giants” such as facebook, linkedin, instagram, twitter, wechat, whatsapp and many others which have arguably influenced the value systems of many individuals, especially younger members of society. this study, however, is focused on the impact of social media comedy skits on child development in nigeria and how they influence development in the transition from childhood to adulthood. the discourse on social media's exposure, use and longterm effect on young minds would continue to dominate intellectual conversations for years to come. indeed, while some scholars argue that early exposure to technological devices capable ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 176 of accessing the virtual space, may help the child compete favourably in the 21st century, others propose that such actions may further inhibit proper psychosocial development in children. jonathan glazzard and samuel stones observe that, “evidence suggests that social media can impact detrimentally on children and young people’s mental health. at the same time, social media use can be beneficial and have positive effects. (1). furthermore, barbara kolucki, and dafna lemish opine that, there is also great anxiety associated with media’s ability to encourage destructive behaviours, perpetuate stereotypes, and lead to a deterioration of moral values…depending on the content we fill them with…and the individual characteristics of the children using them. research around the world suggests that good-quality media products produced for children … can effectively promote a host of development goals (9). the study, thus, evaluates the impact of social media comedy skits such as the markangel’s comedy series and how it influences children’s behavioural, socio-emotional, cognitive and physical development. the research employs an analysis of the character of emmanuella; a stereotyped character known for her hilarious and mischievous acts carried out on adults and peers alike. the study will draw attention to the main character's performance which is the major cause of the amusement in the skits. scholars have argued that uncensored social media content could be responsible for impaired and misconstrued learning among developing children. this challenge is evident in the retinue of problems that could hamper holistic development in children. the myriad of scenarios in this regard may consist of but is not limited to excessive exposure to social media content at home could increase the chances of poor cognitive and problem-solving skills, lack of parental guidance in the kinds of social media content okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 177 children have access to; the disregard of social network policy on age censorship by children and how it can affect their self-esteem as well as increase conditions of anxiety, stress, depression and cyber-bullying; and the unique ability of social media comedy skits to persuade and connect its audience on social matters thereby amplifying opportunities for the dissemination of wrong and mischievous information, placing children at risk of moral misconduct and poor development. it can be deduced that development in children can be approached from the two perspectives of maturation and learning. this study, however takes the approach of child development from the aspect of learning. eric jensen in his view classifies learning appropriately when he states: learning is commonly divided into two broad areas. one is explicit, what i call “labelled learning”—what we commonly read, write, and talk about. it includes textbook learning, videos, lecture, pictures, and dialogue. the other type is implicit, which includes “hands-on” approaches, more trial-and-error, habits, role plays, life experience, drama, experiential learning, games, and active learning. (74) learning takes place every day, every time and everywhere, especially in the lives of children. children learn at birth and continually, even at a more rapid pace in their early years. this learning takes place in stages as children develop. according to john d. bransford et al., for the commission on behavioral and social sciences and education, national research council, it is reported that: …a great deal of children’s learning is self-motivated and self-directed; other people play major roles as guides in fostering the development of learning in children. such guides include other children and adults (caretakers, ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 178 parents, teachers, coaches, etc.). but not only people can serve as guides; so, too, can power tools and cultural artefacts, notably television, books, videos, and technological devices of many kinds. in development and learning, children acquire cognitive skills, attitudes, and new physical skills. their assertion above means that children’s development results from the many ways they learn to understand, process, connect, and interpret information from external factors. therefore, social media comedy viewership as we see it today assumes a critical reference point in child behaviour and development when constantly exposed to it. numerous researches have indicated that young children are among the high users of mobile devices, especially at home. but this view does not imply that social media or any other media sources are bad in themselves. indeed, there are also indicators that it can contribute to broad learning and knowledge acquisition. the influence of social media on the cognitive development of children children occupy a unique place in society because they guarantee the continued existence of human society. it is, therefore, imperative that attention be paid to their educational and developmental needs to stimulate healthy and balanced psychosocial practices and values. the advent of social media buzz on the nigerian scene appears, at best to create a grey area on the benefits to the cognitive development of children. indeed, a holistic understanding of the psychology behind short dramatic skits on social media and their general appeal, especially to young viewers worldwide, remains critical to the discourse of cognitive development in children today. andie phoon opines that: almost every individual’s first instinct is to reach for their phone and check through their notifications and social okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 179 media accounts. they wake up scrolling through them, liking pictures, commenting, sharing, tweeting, etcetera…social media has become a big part of our lives, and most of us cannot live without it. we spend every waking second engaging with it, learning and receiving new information, ideas, and concepts through it. this has shaped our culture, our society, and, perhaps, even our general view of life. and in the moments where we are not attached to it, we react in ways that are similar to the symptoms of withdrawal. people hardly consider or ponder about why we feel that way, and how heavily social media impacts us as a society. (1) there are key points to deduce from the submission of phoon because they form critical points of discussion on the impact of social media in content and context. these points are to be considered to fully grasp the impacts of social media on children’s cognitive development. they include that social media activities appear to be mainly for connecting and sharing ideas and experiences of events through videos and pictures. however, due to its addictive nature, it can also be a source of low self-esteem for individuals seeking attention or a sense of validation online. these above thoughts can be said to have shaped how social media content creators and producers, especially those producing comedy skits, perceive their audience and viewers. there seems to be a drive to exploit the advantage the addictive nature of social media has on individuals who view such content, not necessarily minding the ages of the viewing audience. social media is not only growing in popularity but is also dynamic in influencing the mind considering the number of viewers and the hours they spend on various devices. it could be on any device (e.g. smartphone, computer, tablet, etc.). these online platforms have become a daily ritual and for many people are essentially unavoidable in modern society. on average, people check their social media multiple times ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 180 a day on different devices, affecting how they think and carry out their daily routines. because of the influential role social media play in society, understanding the psychosocial mechanisms through which symbolic communication influences human thought and action is of considerable importance, especially in the development of children. children’s experiences of the world are largely culturespecific. in an adult-dominated society like nigeria, children are not so socially empowered and may not even have a voice, reflecting their overall development. but through drama, especially comedy, they gain knowledge of different perspectives of the world through the characters. eric jensen in his theory of “arts with the brain in mind” makes it more lucid when he asserts that: dramatic arts can facilitate the development of emotional intelligence in children because they meet the criteria for facilitating those essential social and emotional skills. they create face-to-face interactions; and they require managing feelings, expressing verbal and nonverbal requests, delaying gratification, managing self-talk, problemsolving, identifying feelings in others, resolving conflicts, and more. all of these activate the student brain’s pleasure centre, making arts a genuine source of joy day after day. (80). comedy can be seen as a great source of inspiration that can influence their behaviour and development because it is most common on the internet, unlike other forms of dramatic enactments seen on social media. caty borum chattoo in her “the laughter effect: how comedy works (to change the world)” opines that: comedy’s persuasiveness is a central element that connects with social change. learning more is not necessarily a precursor to developing a favourable attitude or taking action. while comedy and entertainment are not the okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 181 dominant media genres for audiences to learn purely factual information, they are important vehicles to fuel audiences’ attitudes and perceptions. as individuals enjoy the comedy message and the messenger, they are less likely to scrutinize and counter-argue the information, which improves the conditions for persuasion. (1-2) it is paramount to note that comedy is a powerful source of influence and means of communication. at the same time, the need to engage the children in social problems is profound and taken seriously as a method to bring them into social issues. children’s experiences of the world are largely culture-specific. however, as noted by jensen, comedy is: important for enhancing student learning. reading, counting, speaking, and problem-solving are all maturation correlated…because play usually has the recipe for brain growth built-in: challenge, novelty, feedback, coherence, and time. students often do theatre and play games precisely because they are just challenging enough, with a novel twist here and lots of feedback. (76) it can then be deduced from the above words that drama and, indeed, comedy which is the genre discussed in this research, can have tremendous effects on children because “people share comedy to create shared cultural moments and display personal identity, amplifying serious messages” (caty borumchattoo 2). the porous nature of internet access therefore, and the impact of comedy skits may likely have less desirable effects on the overall development and learning of children, partly because the internet is loosely regulated or and many media products and content are not censored by any specific person or the parents of the children. furthermore, many social media content creators and producers utilize their platforms in ways that express their values, ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 182 preferences and knowledge base which leaves a large margin of error, especially with young viewers. implications of language to child development in markangel skits mark angel is a young nigerian in his early thirties. he is a comedian, scriptwriter and video producer. he produces the mark angel comedy skits alongside his cousin emmanuella samuel who also plays major roles in his skits. his skits are viewed on youtube, facebook, instagram and other platforms. observations reveal that the bulk of the markangel series deals with themes of economic woes, sibling rivalry, get-rich-quick schemes, moral decadence and so on, which appears to make it appealing to a crosssection of nigerians. this thrust of the analysis of this study investigated the impact of markangel comedy skits on the behaviour, attitude and overall development of children in awka south, anambra state, nigeria. the study population was made up of selected urban parents within awka south, lagos. over 150 questionnaires were sent to respondents. not all the questionnaires sent were returned. in addition, six focus group discussions with parents were conducted to elicit other salient responses about the impact of markangel comedy skit on children to supplement the questionnaire data. the research analysed and interpreted the questionnaire results alongside the focus group results simultaneously and was appropriately integrated. the general finding made from the survey and analysis is that many have various ways of relating to online drama skits. it was further observed that many of the parents do not watch the markangel comedy skits but are very familiar with the names “emmanuella” and “success” alongside “mark angel”. in most cases other parents who watch the online comedy skits gave their reasons for watching it, saying it is entertaining, serving as a great source of stress relief for most of the parents after work. some respondents okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 183 related to the online drama skits on a different level probably because it connects with their everyday lives for them the approach is edutainment. more so, the comic nature of markangel comedy skits and the diversity of language used in the drama could be a possible reason for the high-interest listenership rate. however, at the time of this survey, the majority of the parents complained that their children’s mischievous behaviours and especially their language are being modulated by such online drama series and the likes due to the excessively identifiable negative social-cultural behaviour portrayed by the children, such as “lack of respect for elders, derogatory language usage by children in mark angel comedy towards grownups which is a reflection of what is witnessed among children and teens in the community today as seen in the images below in mark angel comedy episode 57 titled “three men”: ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 184 the images above evidently portray negative signs of moral values which are communicated through markangel comedy skits. therefore, in the bid to evaluate the impact of markangel comedy skit, (54.6%) of the respondents agreed that such online drama skits had a direct or indirect positive impact on children which means that more than half of the respondents recognised the impact of uncensored internet drama skits and the likes, on children in general. this could serve as a pointer to the power which social media and indeed online drama skits, possess in enhancing or impeding a child’s behaviour and overall development through its subtle approach. in administering the data collection instrument for this study, over 150 copies of questionnaires were distributed among the respondents. this number was chosen because the sample size was a fair representation of the entire study population. the qualitative data were interpreted and analysed per the study’s objectives. deductions were drawn from the results concerning the subject of investigation. however, copies of the questionnaires were distributed to parents living in awka south local government area in anambra state. the method was used for presenting the data in the table, after which interpretation and analysis will be done, which will be concluded with the discussion of findings. over 150 okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 185 questionnaires were administered, 150 copies were retrieved, and four copies were void for inconsistency in response and noncompliance with the instructions. this leaves the researcher with 146 copies. the following research findings from the questionnaire are further presented and analysed below. the research considered equal distribution among gender to give both sexes an equal chance without bias since it was assumed that different sexes might exhibit different perceptions of internet use and viewership of online content. table 1: the impact of markangel comedy skit on children’s behaviour and development respondents frequency per cent high impact 82 54.6% average impact 40 26.7% low impact 24 16% invalid questionnaires 4 2.7% total questionnaires retrieved 150 100% the table below shows that respondents who hold the view that markangel comedy skits have a high impact on children’s behaviour and development were 54.6% and those on average were 26.7%, while those with a contrary view of low impact were 16%, while the invalid questionnaires are 2.7%. this means that most parents are aware of the socio-cultural implication of online uncensored drama skits that are likely to impede their children’s behaviours and overall development which can be a source of influence for negative behaviour modulations ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 186 among children and teens. however, the majority of the respondents complained of not being able to monitor what their children watch online during the day when they return from school because they go to work to attend to their daily business. summary of findings the study confirmed that social media unequivocally influences children's behaviours, realities and overall development as they grow up. this paper analysed data relating to the impact of social media drama series on child development using markangel comedy skits as a case study. the study population was a random selection of parents living in a semi-urban area who are businessmen and women or office workers within awka south, anambra state. the research simultaneously analysed and interpreted the questionnaire results alongside the focus group results and was appropriately integrated. most respondents said they watch social drama series while at home and their children also have access to such online content. it was observed that the rate of watching social media drama skits is higher during the weekends than on weekdays. most parents watch social media drama skits with their children at weekends, mainly for entertainment. however, some respondents also noted that their children watch social media drama skits in their absence during the weekdays. the research found that there is an impact of social media drama skits on the behaviour and development of children concerning acquired language, behaviour and role types presented by these online drama skits. the media generates a scheme of relationships and influences between it and the individual who analyses the information provided and contained outside the text. idle consequences and ramifications of social media relate not merely to how online events arc perceived but also to a multitude of cultural influences that operate through social media. social media is viewed as having the power to profoundly shape perceptions of the social world and manipulate actions in subtle but okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 187 highly effective ways. the debate over social media is in many respects being portrayed as a critical battleground of a larger “culture war” in the continuing struggle to define the factors that shape the broad social order of the society. within social media, drama skits have emerged as an especially strong force on children and a tool capable of influencing their perceptions and cultural orientations. children also form part of society therefore the overall effects of social media on society cumulatively affect them. this is predicated upon its ability to reach a wide audience, which often sends a strong and influential message. it is the persuasiveness of a medium such as the internet that enables it to reach the target audience. internet broadcasting is not censored and lacks control over the content displayed thereby influencing society. the way people engage with social media content, especially during the covid-19 pandemic era, has drastically exposed more children and teens to illicit content on the internet, causing a cultural shift in social media use by them. this research, therefore, studied the following theories of media effect on society as integral to looking at the impact of social media drama skits on children’s behaviour and overall development. conclusion drama has a profound influence on human conditions and culture since for many children culture is something they partake in through electronic and social media. the production and distribution of social media products is concentrated in a few hands. in nigeria, social media have an impact on children in awka south, anambra state because they consume a lot of online content, particularly comedy-drama series like markangel comedy skits. it can be concluded that this predominantly nigerian social media content has an impact on the choice of lifestyle for the selected sample of children in awka because of the contact hours and their content. children at this developmental stage are also active ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 188 participants when watching television and exhibit primary involvement where they fully concentrate on consuming the social media drama skits, sitting down solely to watch them. almost all children expose themselves to comedy-drama series for different durations of time. most children watch internet content during weekends and school holidays, at home and parents are usually not involved in discussing the content with their children. this study reveals that children who watch these social media content have minimal parental guidance. this raises questions as to some of the interpretations and lifestyles that emerge when children watch these internet contents in isolation and with no proper guiding principles. studies have proved that what we watch has a profound influence on how we make our lifestyle choices and this is especially true for more amenable children. most children found it normal to watch online comedy skits while eating and a smaller number while doing work at home. some of the reasons children cited for watching social media drama skits were entertainment and to pass time and humour. the study established that there is equally bad behaviour and language usage that children are exposed to in the online drama skits that they constantly watched. it is important then for parents to provide alternative means of relaxation and entertainment rather than the passive leisure of watching internet comedy drama skits for example going for a walk or a bike ride, painting, learning to play a musical instrument, reading together, listening to music, talk, play a game and enjoy each other’s company. therefore, parents should try to engage children in more interactive and family activities. they should watch the social media dramas their children watch or preview and use them to discuss inappropriate material or unacceptable behaviour or lifestyle. this can also help prepare children to decide on their own, whether about what they watch or how to make smart choices about lifestyle and behaviour. okoye and okenyi: rethinking the role of social media comedy on child… 189 works cited barbara kolucki, &dafna lemish. communicating with children: principles and practices to nurture, inspire, excite, educate and heal. communication for development unit gender, rights and civic engagement section division of policy and practice new york: unicef, 2011. borumchattoo, caty. the laughter effect: how comedy works (to change the world). center for media & social impact. washington d.c: school of communication agency university, 2016. david r. shaffer and katherine kipp. developmental psychology: childhood and adolescence. 8th edition. usa: wadsworth, cengage learning, 2010. jensen, eric. arts with the brain in mind. usa: association for supervision and curriculum development, 2001. bransford, john. d. et al. how people learn: brain, mind, experience, and school. expanded edition. editors: john d. bransford, ann l. brown, and rodney r. cocking. washington, d.c.: national academy press. 2000. glazzard jonathan and samuel stones. “social media and young people’s mental health”. technology and child mental health. london: intechopen, 2019. phoon, andie. social media and its stark influence on society. writ: journal of first-year writing: vol. 1: issue 1, article 8. <https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/writ/vol1/iss1/8>assessed on the 21st of august 2020. shabnoor, siddiqui and tajinder, singh. “social media its impact with positive and negative aspects”. international journal of computer applications technology and research volume 5, issue 2. 71 75, 2016. https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/writ/vol1/iss1/8 canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 1 ukala’s folkism and the poetics of performance space canice chukwuma nwosu department of theatre and film studies nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria +234(0)8037415046, nwosucoc@gmail.com and njideka ihekwoaba students affairs department alvan ikoku federal college of education, owerri ihekwoabanjideka@gmail.com 07036488535 abstract recently, the word theory generates controversy, skepticism and lackluster attitude among scholars any time it is mentioned in academic parlance. this trend has contributed to dearth of theories in the various disciplines including theatre. however, its centrality to disciplinary and professional scholarship makes its total negation impossible as this will amount to reduction of disciplines to mere occupations. objectives of the study include assessing the acceptability and service of theory to practitioners, the ubiquity, viability, suitability, simplicity, fluidity and adaptability of theories by practitioners. the study evaluates ukala’s folkism to ascertain if it possesses these qualities. hence, the preoccupation of the researchers is to interrogate the capability of ukala’s folkism to support performances on any type of theatrical space both the stage and electronic media so as to reveal the importance of this theory to contemporary theatre practice in nigeria. case study and content analysis approaches of the qualitative research method were adopted by the researchers for data collection and analyses. the study concluded that folkism is suitable for both stage and electronic performance and is capable of repositioning the declining live theatre culture and sustaining the gains made in the electronic media. introduction theatre experience of any kind involves space, either by entering a theatre of any kind or watching the performance on the electronic media, a spectator walks into a specific space, one that is designed to produce a certain reaction or series of responses from the audience, during and after ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 2 the performance. hence, how space impact on the production and the audience during and after production to motivate expected audience experiences generate discourses that may be referred to as poetics of space. thus, the impact of space on the performance and the reception of the performance space by the audience become part of the total theatrical experience that cannot be ignored. there are several dimensions that affect the audience entering into or viewing performance on a particular space for the first time; therefore, several questions need to be asked. lloyd llewellyn-jones listed the following questions: how, for example, is the space entered by the audience? do they enter through grand wide-open doors or do they climb narrow stairs? moreover, where has the audience come from before entering this specific space? in other words, is there a space before this space? once the audience has entered into the theatre space it becomes important to note how the space is divided. where does the audience sit (or stand) in relation to the performance area, if such a formal space exists? (2) bearing these factors in mind, the importance and relationship of ukala’s folkism to theatrical space, medium and stage design concepts as they affect audience reception in modern and postmodern productions in nigeria are examined; for it is evident that several contemporary directors are yet to utilize ukala’s folkism for productions on theatrical spaces of different media to full advantage in order to maneuver audience reactions in particular ways. though the researchers focused on the television medium as an electronic performance space, it is hoped that folkism will be applied to other performance spaces following the basic ideas expounded here to a fuller range of productions than those alluded to in this paper. presentational and performative techniques of folkism conform to contemporary organization of postmodern productions that “… undertake a radical rethinking of theatrical performance at the end of the twentieth century…” (gay mcauley, 1) though postmodernism is still epileptic in africa and postmodern performances are not popular, ukala’s folkism is among the earliest performance theories that bestride modernism and postmodernism. it is hoped that utilizing ukala’s theory across the stage and electronic media will help usher in postmodern performance culture in nigeria theatre practice. postmodern directors are: canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 3 …reinventing ways and means of exploring the multi-functionality of space as the essential medium of theatrical performance. . . . space in performance is a highly accessible, lucid and engaging piece of writing. it is essential reading for its exemplary theoretical and methodological approach to the study of theatrical performance as a spatial phenomenon. . . . at the same time, in its passionate support for the theatrical experience, space offers a great deal to theatre practitioners and spectators seeking to enhance their understanding and appreciation of the fascinating art of theatre." (gay mcauley, 1) salient points of ukala’s folkism reveal that performance, as distinct from other media, is essentially a relationship between performer, spectator, and the space in which both come together. space in performance examines the way arenas, theater buildings, television, radio and film spaces function to frame the performance event. folkism is not particular about any medium, but the organization of audience and practitioner spaces within the performance space must give the narrator, other performers or actors and the audience room to operate. the nature of the stage and the modes of representation it facilitates, and the relationship between the real space of the theater and the fictional places that are evoked in the story may not matter. the performer’s improvisational ability facilitates the marriage of real theatrical space and allusions to fictional places. live performance takes place in a three-dimensional space. the study of the theatre of any period in theatre history will reveal that there has always been a constructed evolution of theatre spaces, both formal and informal. almost in all cases, the audience member becomes part of the performance, hence, an integral part of the performance space. however, the level of involvement of the audience from one era or region to the other differs. folkloric performances provide strong indicators that the participation of the performer and the audience are almost at the same level whether the performance space is an informal space of village path, market square, river bank or a formal space of shrine or village square or electronic space of radio, television or video. therefore, the preoccupation of the researchers is to assess the capability of ukala’s folkism in influencing and conditioning theatre practice in the diverse theatre spaces of both the stage and electronic media. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 4 folkism and space in organization of stage and electronic performances the theoretical and methodological framework of this paper is both semiotic and phenomenological, based in part from the seminal work of anne ubersfeld, based on direct observation of the rehearsal process, to production and analysis of professional performances including the role of theory in these activities. the theorist in the rehearsal room has much in common with an ethnographer in the field. this is because contemporary ethnographic practice requires personal participation and observation. hence the researchers collapsed ubersfeld theory of performance space into ukala’s folkism theory to arrive at a strong theoretical base for the analyses of the case studies. the theatre space is product of the interplay between stage space, gestural space and dramatic space and, according to anne uberseld, “it is constructed, on the basis of architecture, a (pictorial) view of the world, or a space sculpted essentially by the actors' bodies” (85). the focus of this study is therefore the theatrical space as it impacts, first of all on the performance space, and how the duo of performance space and production impact on the audience. “ukala’s folkism enables him communicate with his audience which is a mixed audience of rural, peri-urban and literate audience. yet, this erudite scholar in his “folkism” addresses popular concern in an assimilable manner, deciding the appropriate language in which to do so.” (nwosu, 102-103) the emerging status of performance studies as a discipline is obvious; hence it is still evolving appropriate theoretical methodologies. the multimedia and multi-faceted approaches adopted by the researchers engage theater and performance studies specialists, those concerned with modes of representation in contemporary and electronic culture, and students of theater, semiotics, architecture, set design, acting and performance theory. it also offers a great deal to theater practitioners as well as to spectators interested in deepening their appreciation of theater space. drama is drama anywhere no matter the medium of performance, thus it is the space that makes the difference, cultural space inclusive. by cultural space we mean the society that houses the performance and the performance space meaning the medium of performance. it is a truism that ukala’s motivation for the evolution of his folkism theory stems from critique of the prevalent theatre performance culture in nigeria by critics and playwrights like a bodunrin, oyin ogunba, biodu jeyifo and bode canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 5 sowande. (ukala,1). these artists maintain that, there is no certitude in the process of evolving a prototype nigerian dramaturgy. they insist that; plays written by nigerian literary play wrights are usually unpopular among the nigerian audience. (ukala,1). looking at socio-economic problems in nigeria one will appreciate the need for ukala’s experiment with folkism. according to ukala, these critics maintain that the unpopularity of nigerian plays is attributed to: use of foreign and “deliberately made difficult language” for average literate nigerian and infectivity of the plays in tackling nigerian socioeconomic problems because: (i) subject matter does not reflect nigerian socioeconomic condition and current history and aspirations (ii) aesthetic distortion of subject matter beyond local recognition (iii) subject matter presented in foreign and unfamiliar manner that the generality of nigerians may not identify with it. (ukala,1) apart from these knocks given to nigerian drama, by these critics, ukala is of the opinion that drama in nigeria has shown non-totalistic drive towards evolution of new forms and genres. this is partly because of jungian and freudian influences on modern dramas across the globe and interplay of socioeconomic, political and religious forces in africa. the impact of religion is more on the pioneer playwrights like soyinka, kalu uka, j.p clark and so on as seen in the metaphysical themes of their plays. however, the acceptance of brechtian influence by the younger generation of modern nigerian playwrights like ukala marks a major departure towards a relentless demonstration that man and space (his environment) are pivots upon which creativity and performance rotate. hence, rather than wait for divine intervention, ukala has shown in his folkism theory and plays that man can alter his unjust world on the performance space and re-construct it with his creative ingenuity. however, like the ethnographer, working in the field, ukala achieved this feat through research and experimentation that took him back to his roots. through observation, personal participation documentation and production as stated by ubersfeld, he evolved the folkism theory. ukala offers a working definition of folkism in his theory and posits that: “folkism is the tendency to base literary plays in the history, culture, and concerns of the folk (people in general) and to compose and perform them in accordance with the african conventions for composing and performing ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 6 the folktale (285). according to ukala; “the african folktale is not prose, it exists only in performance before a live audience. it therefore entails dramatic phraseology, pleasant to speak and to hear; movement, gesture, impersonation, music-making and dancing, and sometimes costuming, make-up, masking and puppetry (171). interestingly, highlights of folkism as stated by ukala are not stage bound and therefore apply to any type of medium or performance space. the dynamism of folkism as a performance theory is appreciated more in the multifaceted attributes of its laws of aesthetic response. according to ukala, the laws of aesthetic response were inspired by: “the conventional responses of the narrator and the audience to folktale performance as found by researchers, such as j.p. clark, efua sutherland, ruth finnegan and dan ben-amos in different parts of black africa (33). the laws are eight in number: the law of opening the law of joint performance the law of creativity, free enactment and responsibility the law of the urge to judge the law of protest against suspense the law of expression of emotions: grief, fear, sympathy and scorn the law of ego projection the law of closing (33) ukala applies these laws in the structuring of his folk scripts like: placenta of death and akpakaland. ukala’s fokism is also effective in the performance of the folk scripts because: it is effective and popular among the nigerian audience. the folk play unlike the other traditional performances is narrative realized in performance the folktale and the play are temporal (allows for creativity), mimetic, interpretative and synthetic. unlike other african traditional performances, the folktale is like a play because it entails much speech.(38) the influence of ukala’s folkism on modern and african theatre practice cannot be overemphasized. the popularity of the folkloric tradition among nigerian playwrights and directors is part of ukala’s influence. recently one of the foremost exponents of african postmodernism canice chukwuma nwosu through the thaumaturgy of m.j.c. echeruo’s canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 7 dramatic limits of igbo ritual and ukala’s folkism evolved the mythicfolkism african postmodern theory. the influence of ukala’s folkism over nwosu’s theory is obvious in the reflection of latent postmodern elements of folkism in the mythic-folkism theory. though the influence of folkism is yet to be fully harnessed in the electronic space of radio, television and film media; there are fleeting moments of adherence to folkism in these areas of nigerian theatre. for instance, nta tales by moonlight, umuaka igbo taa, designed and produced by chidi oparaibeleche and aired on the ibc tv now known as orient tv owerri and the popular nollywood film, odum na akwaeke directed by amayo uzophilips are based on folkism. even though, the adherence to ukala’s theory may have occurred consciously or unconsciously, the influence of ukala’s folkism in these performances outside the stage medium; provides strong indicators about the ubiquity and versatility of ukala’s folkism. moreover, the successful adaptation of ukala’s folkism into film further justifies the potentials of folkism for both the stage and electronic media in nigerian theatre practice. according to ofonime inyang “… such repositioning within the context of sam ukala’s effort in moving the story of akpakaland from its stage orientation to a screen version,” (184) remains a plus for folikism especially with regards to its versatility in the present digital age. hence, the researchers situate this proposition within two episodes of a television performance: tales by moonlight selected for interrogation, to enable the researchers, ascertain the versatility of ukala’s folkism across performance spaces. ukala’s folkism and the poetics of performance space in tales by moonlight the poetics of performance space and media affirms that space impacts on every performance, reshaping, focusing and repositioning such performances. theory on the other hand explains principles of performance, conventions, ideas behind the performance and general laws applied by the cast and crew. therefore, theory combines with the impact of space to shape the performance. the impact of any electronic medium especially television on a performance cannot be over emphasized. as a medium, television is very powerful because of the influence of immediacy, combination of visual and audio codes and its ability to create a sense of authenticity on the viewer. folklore as stated by ukala’s folkism involves a narrator who tells a story in the presence of an audience with elaborate use of dialogue and ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 8 visual aids which the tv medium also explores extensively. c. okezie opines that “folktales are very easy to understand” they are presented in the language of the people, and do not have a fixed form” (24). during the traditional era even up to colonial period, folktale performance involved a narrator who performed for a number of people from his immediate environment as audience, there was limited coverage as it involves the people within a particular environment. but the narrator communicated and made impact. it is this limitation in limited outreach in the stage folkloric performance that the electronic media folktale is building on for wider acceptance and popularity. hence, the impact of the television space is obvious in the wider outreach and enhancing of folkloric performative technique. tales by moonlight, a television programme of the nigerian television authority (nta) is an archetypal electronic media folktale selected for study. the programme was introduced by the national television authority in the 1980’s to meet the moral and entertainment needs of children, youth and even adults through television. according to b. gerald, "next to the home and school, i believe television has a more profound influence on the human race than any other medium of communication.” (23) therefore, tales by moonlight as a television programme has spontaneous message carrying tendency, wide coverage and estimated viewers of about one hundred million people across the nigerian nation and even beyond. tales by moonlight as a contemporary electronic media folktale performance is an update of traditional folktale. this is to conform to the paradigm shift from the traditional means of information dissemination to the modern means of information that characterize the emergent electronic culture. according to sunday anozie "a story that is well told and well written will be understood by children for what it is worth; above all, we must remember that if children’s literature is taken as a natural language, then the children are the sole heirs and native speakers of the language" (7). since its emergence in the nigerian air space, tales by moonlight has followed the presentational and performative techniques of the folklore and researchers affirm that its high impact on the citizenry derives from the folkloric tradition. tales by moonlight is produced in different network centres of nta across the country. this programme despite its electronic mode of transmission exhibits all the attributes of a folkloric performance and ukala’s laws of aesthetic performance proposed by canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 9 folkism theory. hence, tales by moonlight aims to carry out the same functions of stage performed folktale: teaching, entertaining and informing the audience through the electronic space. the electronic folkloric performance of tales by moonlight serves as a medium of communication through which the individual shares in the world around him and beyond his immediate environment. by means of television, millions of people partake of experiences that impart on their lives and help them survive in both difficult and progressive societies. like the traditional folkloric performance, the electronic version still depends on a narrator who translates words into action, using stylistic and aesthetic elements to put the message of the performance across to the audience in a specific occasion. the audience through the same art of storytelling is entertained through another performance spacethe television medium. thus, the programme has the necessary communicative values of a folkloric performance that is didactic in nature and gets across to numerous viewers. the narrator in the process communicates certain moral, cultural, social, political and religious values to the listening, viewing and participating audience. during the traditional era, folktales were recited and presented by the narrator to the audience orally, without documentation. the narrator might be parents, uncles and aunties who by this method pass these folktales on from generation to generation. due to the influence of the electronic culture and emergence of the electronic spaces, folktale performance takes place in new media that still hinge their performances on the theoretical propositions of ukala’s folkism. this is without prejudice to the fact that some changes take place in this transition involving stage to television adaptation. thus, in tales by moonlight the narrator has folkscripts that are written and edited before presentation. the studio manager sees to the stylistic and aesthetic elements of the programme like the lighting, costume, props, and other materials for the production. he equally makes use of music, drums to convey the emotions and mood of the story as it is being performed so as to achieve the desired effect on the audience. “the restless merchant” and “the bad deal” produced by moonlight nta sokoto network centre, are the episodes selected for analysis. these episodes were taken from tales by moonlight of the sokoto network centre nta and were aired on the 27th of november 2015 by 5:30pm. the story teller in the first episode is isyaku abdullahi, who imitated different ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 10 voices, used dual language and dramatizations to enable her communicate to her audiences effectively. the story started with folkism’s law of opening with the narrator employing the opening code: “story! story!!” decoding it, the audience responded “story!!!” the narrator did this to awaken the consciousness of the audience and to further draw them into the story, the narrator employed another aspect of ukala’s law of opening “once upon a time!” and the participating audience according to ukala responded “time time!!” the narrator aroused the interest of the audience by making use of the law of opening especially by chanting the code “story! story!!” then the narrator continued: there lived a man called mallam edu in a certain village. he was such a busy man and wanted to make a lot of money. following ukala’s law of folkism this part of the story was performed with some members of the audience coming in to join in the performance. this is in line with ukala’s law of joint performance which recognizes the audience as active and participating audience. the narrator continued after the performance that: in a bid to be wealthy, mallam edu forgot everybody around him including his brothers and sisters. at this point people began to complain about him and his selfish ways of life. edu always responded by saying that business is competitive and time is precious. he placed money first before anybody even his wife and children. his friend mallam abasi advised him but he cared less. the narration conforms to ukala’s proposition that, the folk play unlike the other traditional performances is narrative realized in performance. hence, the play goes into performing the narrated version after which the narrator continued: a time came in mallam edu’s life when he became very sick. (the story is dramatized). and the narrator moves on: members of his family were the only ones taking care of him. no one cared to visit him or ask how he was faring, even his other relatives. edu was bewildered by his loneliness and he complained to his wife. calmly, his wife reminded him of his sayings, and told him that money is not everything. when edu was well and hearty he never visited anyone or even cared for anyone except his business and financial achievements. he deeply regretted his actions and asked god for another chance. the narrator ended the story by announcing to the audience that the story has ended. this also conforms to the law of closing in folkism. following the law of creativity, free enactment and responsibility, while closing the canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 11 story, the narrator asked the children the lesson they learnt from the performance which originally was not part of the story. responding, four children mentioned one lesson each which include: “no man is an island”, “we need people around us”, “we should listen to good advice”, and “you should care for others, do not be selfish. the second story started with the narrator opening the performance session with: narrator: “story! story!!” the audience responds with “story”. the narrator continued with the opening and said. “i have a story to tell you” and the audience responded: audience: tell us so that we shall be happy. the opening session like in the first performance followed folkism’s law of opening before the narrator started the story which is titled “the bad deal” the story is about a king and his wife who lived with many differences for many years, despite their differences, the king always wear a cheerful countenance, and pretends that all is well. this is dramatized by performers with the action showing the king and his wife. the narrator also adopted the law of creativity as she adapted new experiences into the dramatization. contrarily, the narrator continued, another man in the same community called mallam esike has a wife and they always quarrel. one day he visited the king to seek advice, when the king sighted him, he greeted him and asked after esike’s wife, mallam esike replies that the woman’s attitude has become worse and he is fed up with the woman. the king advised him to divorce his wife and marry another woman with a better character. the king told him that it will save him from dying prematurely. dramatization of the story follows. this is also in line with the law of creativity, free enactment and responsibility. the narrator continued with the story after that; informing the audience that: esike’s wife ran to the queen as soon as the news of the king’s verdict got to her. she told the queen the king’s verdict on her. the queen told her to ask her husband mallam esike to visit the queen. when esike got to the palace, the queen requested that esike should visit her and the king the next day, she told him to hide himself to avoid being seen by the king.the next day on reaching there, the man saw how the king was running errands for the queen and was practically serving her. the man was very surprised and he understood he has a lesser problem compared to the king. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 12 dramatization follows then the narrator continued and informed the audience that: the following day, esike went to the king and told him of his decision to continue to marry his wife that other people are going through worse situations and still manage to smile. he told the king that he saw a man running errands for his wife which his own wife never allowed. the king replied that as long as mallam esike continues to complain, he will continue to receive bad advice. the king told him that his major problem is that he likes to advertise his problems. he should learn to manage his affairs like a man, because other people have their own troubles too. following the law of closing the narrator ended formerly with this is the end of the story. then following the law of creativity he asked the audience moral lessons they have learnt. the following moral lessons were learnt by the audience as they were asked to contribute: “don’t expose your problems anyhow.” do not give bad advice to people.” “learn to manage your problems” “everyone has one problem or the other.” ukala’s folkism on stage and electronic performance spaces: a comparative analyses folkism has been tested in stage performances, and its acceptance and popularity is no longer in doubt as seen in the performance of plays like akpakaland and placenta of death mentioned by the researchers. the aesthetic makeup of stage performance comprises the presence of the performer in flesh and blood, captivation of the audience, direct retention of audience attention and the impartation of cognitive experience to the audience. the personality of the narrator in the traditional folktale performance helps to recreate through his worldview, religious belief, experience, verbal skill and appealing voice to give his audience a fulfilling moment. here, the audience feels the narrator’s personality in flesh and blood. they interact with the narrator physically and the audience is limited in number. however, the strength of the television version of folktale performance lies in wider coverage, more artistic elements and use of spectacles. the two media make use of the narrator, dramatization and performers. the audiences are participating audiences. the narrator exudes such pleasant personality through his electronically controlled voice, photogenic face to hold his audience to attention in the electronic media folktale canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 13 performance. this is because television has powerful visual effects; it is the most influential of all mass media and holds its audience in rapt attention. folkism’s laws of aesthetic performance are capable of providing support for the two performance spaces to realize their peculiar potentials. the service of folkism to the theatre practitioner is ubiquitous irrespective of the medium used. therefore, both in stage folktale performance and the electronic media performance, the laws of aesthetic performance are never absent. audiences in traditional folktale performance are captivated by the aura and acting techniques of the narrator, who sometimes demonstrates the story and sings alluring songs to add beauty to the story. the narrator makes good use of his descriptive ability to create mental pictures of the story. the electronic performance also makes use of dramatization by the narrator and members of the audience to add beauty to the narration and to captivate the audience more. the actors through skillful acting tell part of the story. comparatively, in the area of impartation of cognitive experience to the audience the two versions (stage and television folktale) teach morals and impact knowledge. they inculcate moral virtues and attributes for molding responsible members of society. c. okezie affirms that folktales may entertain or condemn certain social vices and immoral life; the lesson is either implicit or explicit” (30). though in stage folktale performance, the audience may be few individuals who sit in front of the narrator and maintain eye contact with him; there are spontaneous reactions from the audience as they are physically present with the performers. however, in the electronic version, there is wider coverage as it cuts across the length and breadth of the entire nation and beyond. never the less that eucharistic celebration experienced in the stage version is absent. the traditional folkloric performance takes place in the open spaces sometimes in natural settings like under a tree, on moonlight nights or fire place depending on the weather, while the setting of an electronic performance is still done outside the house but it is electronically recorded and aired to the millions of viewers at home. there is audience participation in the two versions. though audience participation in the stage version may appear more interjectory and disruptive, they are all part of the folkloric staging techniques. tracie uto-ezeajuh affirms that; …in telling a story, the narrator advances the plot, but participants typically interrupt, in order to reinforce a point, savour a moment or ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 14 delay the onset of an action. during the performance, the audience acts as both audience and chorus. (54) giving these similarities in staging techniques, theme, plot and goals of the stage and electronic folktale performances; difference in space cannot hinder the service of ukala’s folkism to both stage and media practitioners. conclusion the researchers noted that apart from change in medium, the producer harnessed the impact of the new medium and used it to modernize the electronic folktale productions, by using dramatic language in telling the stories including the use of idiomatic expressions and proverbs. language, humour and imagery were creatively used by the narrator in the new medium. he also employed studio facilities like lighting, the use of microphones and props. the languages used in the performances were english and hausa. this enabled the audience particularly the children and even those at home to understand the stories properly. the actors employed their dialects in their expressions in the dramatizations and this bilingual approach added glamour to the productions. there is law of free enactment as the narrator breaks off from narration to engage the performers in the dramatizations. the study reveals that the programme has promoted the use of local language as the actors always act in english and hausa languages inter changeably. english has become the major language for most children in the contemporary society. eventually, these children are the future generation so one of the aims of the progamme is to teach children and even people who are not from the north basic hausa language. this approach has helped to promote the local languages against foreign languages like english and french languages, which are being forced on children these days. the researchers also deduced that even though, the contemporary nigerian society is over whelmed by the craze of the moment like the internet, telephone, computer, satellite television, radio and other electronic media, the programme has helped to revive traditional values through folkloric stories and pass them on to the next generation, to inculcate in them sound judgment and need to choose good over evil. the study also revealed that the audience was actively involved in the two versions (the stage and the electronic versions) by paying attention to the canice c. nwosu & njideka ihekwoba-ulaka’s folkism and the poetics of performance space. 15 narrator as the stories unfold they also interject, ask questions and answer questions. this conforms to the law of joint performance as stated by ukala since the audiences co-performed with the narrator by listening attentively, joining the performance and answering questions when asked. however, it was also observed that the electronic version transmitted through television reaches millions of people at the same time, the audience at home and in the set of the production. but the audiences were emotionally and physically involved in the performances as they expressed their emotions through clapping, laughing, cheering and so on. the stories selected from “tales by moonlight” have reduced crime and social vices among the younger generation. it is even more effective in the electronic media because unlike the stage medium, it appeals more to children and has wider coverage. therefore, acceptable cultural norms and virtues incorporated into the plots and themes of the performance are being inculcated on the minds of the youth; to check the moral laxity of the present generation. these programmes have fostered sound moral virtues and acceptance of sound judgments. all these were achievable through the electronic transmission of these programmes across the length and breadth of the entire nation and even beyond. the programme enhances cultural transmission as its major target and is realized as a modernized folkloric performance. the myths, legends, folklores and other genre’s of african oral literature are being passed on to the younger generation through the electronic medium which the youths now identify with. furthermore, aside cartoons, children are encouraged to watch these programmes in television instead of the craze of the moment paraded in different stations across the country. the programs have served as agents of change and character mounding for the younger generation through television. works cited abdullahi, isyaku: “the restless merchant.” tales by moonlight. nta sokoto network centre. 27th of november by 5:30pm. 2015. akparobaro, f b o: introduction to african oral literature. lagos: princeton publishers, 2012. anozie, sunday. “the drum and the flute: reconstruction in children’s literature.” studies in african literature. ed. ernest emenyonu. ibadan: heinemann education publishers, 2012 ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 16 gerald, beatie. “influence of media and television on the society.” british broadcasting corporation television journal. vol. 6. london: british broadcasting corporation, (1984): 15-35 inyang, ofonime. “sustaining the african theatre in a digital age: an analysis of sam ukala’s experiment in akpakland.” sam ukala: his work at sixty. asagba ovigue austin ed. ibadan: kraft books. 2008: 183-190 llewellyn-jones, lloyd. “essay 4: understanding theatre space.” essays on documenting and researching modern productions of greek drama the sources. www2.open.ac.uk/classicalstudies/ greekplays.2002. accessed. 26052016. mcauley, gay. space in performance: making meaning in the theatre how real and imagined theatrical spaces and the relationships between them evoke meaning https://www.press.umich.edu/ 16220/space_in_performance accessed 25052016 okezie, c: a handbook to oral literature. owerri: great versatile publishers, 2012. ubersfeld. a. l'école du spectateur. paris: 1981. ukala, sam. from folk to popular literary theatre: a study in theory and practice. university of ibadan, phd thesis, 1986 -folkism: “towards a national aesthetic principle in dramaturgy.” words: a monthly international literary journal of writers’ resort. vol. 79. (1993):11-39 -“masquerade, folktale and literary theatre of english expression in africa.” eagle in flight. ibadan: safmos, 1999 160-178 “politics of aesthetics.” african theatre, playwrights and politics. ed. banham, gibbs and osofisan. oxford: james curry (2001): 29-41. utoh-ezeajugh, tracie. “communal aesthetics of african oral performance.” the crab: journal of theatre and media arts. vol.7. port harcourt: department of theatre and film studies, (2011): kester nnaemeka dibia absurdist drama and theatre of commitment inwole soyinka’s … 91 absurdist drama and theatre of commitment in wole soyinka’s king baabu kester nnaemeka dibia cddsiu-seefor, (world bank and european union assisted), opposite government house, anwai road, asaba-delta state kesterdibia02@gmail.com abstract existence is absurd because it is characterized by purposelessness, chaos, disorderliness, anguish, illogicality and hopelessness. hence, albert camus, a french essayist and playwright captures this in his essay the myth of sisyphus where the gods condemned sisyphus to rolling a stone up a hill only to have it roll down upon getting to the summit of the hill. the problem of this study therefore is the semblance of the science and technological engagement of the modern man as equally futile task. hence, the paper aims to explain that absurdism captures this man’s futile search for some meaning, direction, purpose or order and fullfilment. objectives of study include to ascertain why this purposeful or meaningful existence that man craves for continues to elude him and why despondency has continued to dog the existence of man as mankind has consistently failed to achieve its aim of making provision for a logical and perfect existence, considering the numerous failures that characterise mankind’s plans, missions. the study also evaluates absurdist theatre’s level of commitment to reformation, transformation and change in a positive direction amidst this apparent failure of man. using the content analysis approach of the qualitative research method; this paper examines wole soyinka’s absured drama king baabu as a drama of commitment to interrogate the commitment and effectiveness of absurd drama. the researcher concluded that the absurd drama with its peculiar methodology is capable of reforming the society. hence, he recommends the publication of more absured drama to revive the declining absurd theatre. introduction the plays that make up the theatre of the absurd highlight the futility of all actions and the pointlessness of all directions. absurdism emerged as a philosophical movement around the 19th and the 20th century. the term, ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 92 theatre of the absurd describes plays with absurdist conventions. it is a designation for plays written by a number of playwrights in the 1940s, 50s, 60s, up to the recent times. absurdism is credited to the 19th century danish philosopher, soren kierkagaad. absurdism, is a belief system that is born out of the existentialist movement when the french philosopher and playwright, albert camus published his work, the myth of sisyphus; the myth of sisyphus is camus’ foremost work on absurdism. in it, he considers absurdity as a confrontation, an opposition, a conflict or a ‘divorce’ between two ideals. the philosophy behind the absurd theatre portrays human beings as always making efforts to make meaning out of the existential essence of man. the theatre of the absurd as espoused by albert camus, who lived from 1913 to 1960, is used to describe or denote a human situation that is out of tune and out of harmony with reason; a situation that is completely found to be illogical and incongruous with logical and rational existence. hence, man resorts to filling the gap with a purpose set forth by higher powers, often a belief in supernatural powers, often represented by god or the gods. emeka nwabueze states that: the concept of absurdism maintains that human life and experiences evoke notions of absurdity, leaving the individual with choices comprising suicide, a leap of faith or recognition. recognition is the only defensible option open to man in his struggles to find meaning in a meaningless existence. suicide as an option, is an admission that life is not worth living and offers a way out to the absurdity of living in a meaningless, illogical universe… the leap of faith is an escape from rationality, and is, in fact, a philosophical suicide, which should be rejected along with physical suicide. (132) rational philosophers like plato and aristotle are unanimous in their informed opinions that situations or events must be premised on logic and rationality. on the other hand, absurdist theorists are of the opinion that mankind has not been able to make provisions for or achieve logical existence hence what mankind is faced with are layers of illogicality as emergent outcomes of numerous failures that characterise human plans and missions. for example, the need for comfortable means of transport has led scientists to invent and produce motor cars, aircrafts, the rail and marine transport systems. but ironically, these inventions have turned out to become sources of human destruction and misery. for example, if aircrafts and warships are not being used in conflict situations by the airforce and navy personnel to destroy the lives and property of those kester nnaemeka dibia absurdist drama and theatre of commitment inwole soyinka’s … 93 identified as insurgents or enemies, we are having crashes and other related disasters. in the opinion of absurdists therefore, mankind is back to square one as what was invented to bring about comfort and progress for man and ensure a meaningful existence for him has turned out to become sources of danger, misery and anguish. therefore, while rationalists believe that rationality and the true scale of good keep the world in perfect harmony, absurdists nurse strong doubts about the capability of man to pursue and achieve such harmony and goodness to be able to lead a logical existence that is completely devoid of hopelessness, chaos or disorderliness. ubong nda opines that the absurdist theatre emerged after the second world war as : … an unconditional springing up of dramatic thoughts… the appellation “theatre of the absurd” was coined by martin esslin, a drama critic from a quotation in the myth of sisyphus written by the renowned french dramatist and philosopher, albert camus (19131960). the philosopher/dramatist asserts that the contemporary world has lost the comfort and security of explaining the world based on reason and logic. (16) in his play entitled king baabu, wole soyinka presents a ruler known as basha who, through his actions and utterances only succeeds in portraying himself as an absolutist ruler who is only interested in achieving his personal aggrandizement at the expense of the welfare and well-being of his people or subjects. sociologically, absolutism denotes a political system or regime in which the ruler is not constrained in the exercise of power either by custom or rule of law. thus, the ruler’s will in this regard, is constantly turned into action. to achieve his ambition of advancing his personal aggrandizement, king baabu stops at nothing, including violence against his people and selfish appropriation of national wealth to himself. king baabu paints a clearer picture of his retrogressive agenda against his people and his intention to milk the treasury of his country dry when he states that “… but i think as long as he thinks i give him banking cow to milk, he remaining loyal. trouble begin when he see that i intend to milk banking cow myself. all national cow in fact… (37). as a leader whose government thrives on corruption, financial debauchery and violence, king baabu states that: …king baabu the bountiful say spend it all. spend every last penny of spanking guatuna currency, pa baabu going to feed all his children today so burst your throats as much as you want with food and drink but papa baabu going to make you all work for it later, you bet! (49) ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 94 a number of playwrights including samuel beckett, eugene ionesco, nigeria’s ola rotimi and wole soyinka to mention a few, have, without doubt drawn inspiration from the absurdist philosophy that hinges on observed illogicality, disharmony, hopelessness, purposelessness and directionlessness that characterise human existence. various techniques used by these playwrights show that the absurdist dramatist has succeeded in conditioning the audience to accept modern theatre techniques of simplification, suggestion and distortion as basic theatrical techniques. to achieve this, edwin wilson and alvin goldfish state that “absurdist playwrights present our existence including human relationships and human language as futile or non-sensical. to reinforce this theme, they use seemingly illogical dramatic techniques” (348). they go further to contend that even the structure of absurdist plays appears to differ essentially from the plays of the preceding period. they posit that absurdist plays do not “… have either traditional climatic structure or episodic structure. frequently, nothing seems to happen, the plot moves in a circle, concluding in the same way it began (348). consequently, absurdist dramas have come to portray the world in this circle and confused manner with mankind adrift in a neutral universe where truth is lack of logic, order and certainty. hence femi shaka observes that: … psychology had shown increasingly that many of man’s most powerful motivations are subconscious and cannot be deduced from purely external signs. the absurdist drama is thus part of the movements to redefine the world in which we live. (10) the theatre of commitment which also embodies absurdist drama emerged out of the need to put an end to the oppression and social injustices that africans were subjected to by europeans or white minority leaders especially in south africa during the apartheid regime. the theatre of commitment points to the glaring fact that there are ample and compelling evidence all around us that most socio-political systems and governments, especially in third world countries like nigeria, have failed to demonstrate enough commitment towards keeping violence and social injustices in their various shades and colours, exemplified by oppression, suppression, and so on, within decent bounds. nigeria’s ola rotimi once stated that he wrote holding talks, an absurdist play, to portray the lack of commitment of governments at all levels and the society generally, to the well-being of the people. ahmed yerima states that rotimi had been “dismayed at a growing propensity, a penchant of our universe today for jaw-jawing… kester nnaemeka dibia absurdist drama and theatre of commitment inwole soyinka’s … 95 there’s so much talking and less positive action these days…” (5). the theatre of commitment is concerned with bringing about positive changes in the society. it is a form of theatre that seeks to cater for the needs and aspirations of the down-trodden in the society. it is interested in and committed to addressing the various forms of social injustices or oppression which the less privileged in the society are subjected to. it is essentially, an instrument of or a catalyst for social change and development. essentially, theatre of commitment came into being through experiments from realism which the dramatist employed to portray his environment as it is. theatre of commitment is obsessed with bringing about the required change in the society. theatre of commitment is committed to catering for the well-being of the masses hence festus iyayi posits that: … it is the society, the type of economic and hence the political system which we are operating in our country today that brutalises the individual, rapes his manhood. it is necessary that all the oppressed sections of our community ought to take up arms to overthrow the present oppressive system. the system that has already proved that it operates through violence… (185) absurdist drama and theatre of commitment are two sides of the same coin. the absurdist theatre is a multiform theatre with inherent reformative potentials that can sensitise the people. it is committed to exposing the ills or iniquities of the society and the purposelessness that characterises man’s existence and then spurs him to action. many absurdist dramatists remain committed in a wide range of plays with absurdist characteristics like characters caught in hopeless situations, forced to carry out repetitive or meaningless tasks or actions, dialogue full of clichés, play on words or the use of pun. the plot of many absurdist plays feature characters in interdependent pairs. the characters may be roughly equal or have a begrudging interdependence. one character may be clearly dominant or may torture the passive character as in ola rotimi’s holding talks where man is the domineering character who tortures barber till he dies. man eventually shifts the torture to apprentice. generally, absurdists use these techniques to portray a chaotic society, a universe that is adrift and a degenerated mankind. according to robert cohen: … going beyond the use of symbols and the fantasy and poetry of other non-realists the absurdists have distinguished themselves by employing in their dramas, for example, clocks that clang incessantly, characters that eat pap in ashcan, corpses that grow by ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 96 the minute and personal interactions that are belligently non-credible. (263) in king babuu, wole soyinka uses this master/servant absurdist technique. the domineering character in the play is known as maariya, though responsible for basha’s predicament, lashes out at him below: maariya: he’s blabbering. that special blabbering when he’s scared shitless, don’t i just know it?.. oh dear, i bet… i knew it. turn around! basha: (backs away) i don’t want to. let me alone. maariya: you’re disgusting! if you think i am going to keep washing your soiled pants for you any time you’re scared… go and clean up at once. i don’t want any of your subordinates to see you as you really are. basha: (walking out backwards) nothing here to clean up, but i wanting to visit toilet anyway. i have the runs. all other beings not like you who get stone for stomach. the rest of us human, have to run sometime or other. something call obeying call of nature. maariya: are you still here? next time i’ll really let the news leak out to the soldiers how their general leaks into his pants. you think i am joking? fatasimu! (basha scuttles off). (9) as a further demonstration of her domineering character, maariya goes further to threaten basha that she will expose him to the ridicule of his subordinates if he fails to topple the military regime headed by general potipoo! she states that “… if he doesn’t come round to my plans, that’s one threat i won’t hesitate to use. all’s fair in love and warthat’s what they all say, fair is foul and foul is fair… (10) plots in absurdist plays are usually cyclical. endgame, for example begins where the play endssome lines at the beginning respond to some lines at the end and then the reader is led to safely assume that each day the same actions will take place. theatre of commitment on the other hand, can be said to be hinged on radical methodological approaches of absurdism. it is a theatre that is concerned with enthroning positive changes in the society and radicalism is simply a catalyst for change, be it social, political or economic. theatre kester nnaemeka dibia absurdist drama and theatre of commitment inwole soyinka’s … 97 of commitment is an ideological term that is used to identify political radicalism hence, saint gbilekaa contends that: … radicalism in nigeria’s dramaturgical art is a product of colonial imperialism as well as socio-economic developments in independent nigeria. it started as a protest… thus in the 1970s, beginning with the plays of femi osofisan, bode sowande, lole omotosho, this protest changed gear from mere political satire to total ideological commitment on the part of the artiste. (48) the salient message contained in the quotation above is that dramatists or artistes engaged in the theatre of commitment to launch a crusade for change in the society must work collectively in order to transform the society for the good of all. king baabu as an absurdist play according to oscar brocket as quoted by ubong nda: structurally, absurdist plays are characterised by the disjointed scenes that are bound together by a common theme, rather than a sequential arrangement where one thing leads to another… this structural disorientation is borne out of the absurdist’s insistence that life is not orderly and sequential, and that the cause to effect arrangement ascribed to life by rationalists does not exist in reality. (25) king baabu is typically absurdist in structure. it has a succession of scenes or episodes with the selfish, calculative and over-ambitious maariya dominating affairs. arising from this structural deficiency, the characters in king baabu are like automatons. like most absurdist characters, not much is known about the past of basha bash, maariya and indeed, any of the other characters. maariya attempts to disclose some information about the background of basha as a former goatherd and a coupist who has been involved in several coup plotting and execution in the past. beyond that, nothing else is known about him. this type of characterisation is the absurdist playwright’s way of portraying characters in absurdist plays as robots without such luxuries as biographies, background or sequential existence. basha also presents himself to his people as a kind, caring and generous father of all his people. he states that “…pa baabu going to feed all his children today, so burst your throats as much as you want with food and drinks… (49. as a ruler, baabu is anything but kind, caring and generous as in almost the same breath, he says “… but papa baabu going ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 98 to make you all work for it later, you bet” (49). this is a typical absurdist technique of depicting man’s inability to be truly what he professes to be. in africa, governance is characterised by mindless financial debauchery whereby government officials steal and spend money from government’s coffers recklessly. the playwright shows that we have not been able to extricate ourselves from this malaise when king baabu says “… i’m thinking now, to be bountiful. give me one box of spanking new guatuna notes. time i do some spraying with my own hands… hold on, my loyal subjects, papa baabu going to show bountiful hand to his children” (49). earlier, maariya had informed the people that the leader had nothing, having sold his assets and distributing the money realised as proceeds from the sale of his assets to all citizens. she however, admits to basha that “… those are mintfresh bank notes i ordered in your name this morning. why would i forge bank notes when i can forge your signature?” (46). the playwright, has by this confession from maariya, highlighted the fact that in our society, the leadership is neck-deep in corruption, dishonesty, deceit and anything but exemplary. it is an evil cycle of squander mania as successive governments or administrations, irrespective of their brand names, whether military or civilian, are always worse than previous ones as demonstrated by poor management of the nation’s resources. in the opinion of the playwright, therefore, we are back to square one as basha’s new regime is not better than or even positively different from the previous ones headed by rajinda or potipoo whose tenures as heads of government at various times can best be described as a web of deceits, lies, intrigues and corruption. the playwright also employs clichés as part of absurdists’ bid to show the mechanical and colloquial nature of language communication which manifests in insincerity and untruthfulness that characterise the process of human communication. tikim refers to basha as “the people’s redeemer” (41). rout also states that “fellow citizens, we present… basha the man of the moment. basha the man of the masses. basha the champion of the oppressed” (41). but the truth is that basha is anything but the people’s redeemer. the playwright uses the praise-singing roles played by tikim and rout to underline the insincerity inherent in the praises that followers of leaders in africa, especially those handling the information ministry or those tagged chief press secretaries shower on their principals in their desperation to keep their jobs. that is why they will tell the people that certain health policies, for instance, which are funded through deductions kester nnaemeka dibia absurdist drama and theatre of commitment inwole soyinka’s … 99 from workers’ salaries, are for the benefit of the masses whereas such policies are designed and executed purposely to enrich certain individuals within the corridors of power. therefore, “basha the people’s redeemer” or “basha the champion of the oppressed”, and so on, are all slogans that have been observed only in the breach by our leaders who come to the people with promises of redemption and a brighter future only to end up redeeming their private pockets and those of their cronies and family members. this is why many countries in africa, including nigeria, are impoverished and are deep-neck in debt. in most cases, the dialogue in absurdist plays is purposely elliptical. very often, the issues that characters in absurdist plays should address are replaced by ellipses or dashes as exemplified by the following dialogue: baabu: i know longest time i must not only kill this woman but disembowel her with a rusty bayonet… maariya: first listen to the beautiful music coming from down there … crowd: if this is king baabu… baabu! baabu! father of the nation … basha: (screaming) i not fathering anybody here. i not papa baabu and i not baabu the bountiful. stop them tikim… (4) much of the dialogue in absurdist plays is characterised by this kind of evasiveness and inability to make a connection. distinctively, absurdist language is characterised by meaningless clichés, play on words and use of meaningless expressions. the following dialogue between basha and kpoki is typical of absurdist language: basha: gentlemen, gentlemen, officers and gentlemen, the government escaping a very narrow escape. kpoki: from what? basha: from treachery and butchery, from stratagems and mayhems, from catastrophe and apostrophe. we would all have met butchery in our beds or else butchery would have met us on the road. we were for the high jump from potipoo downwards… (33) as in the above examples, meaningless clichés or play on words are usually used in absurdist theatre to portray the limits of language while ‘questioning or parodying the determinism of science and the knowability of truth’. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 100 king baabu as a drama of commitment king baabu just like other absurdist plays dramatises the absurdity and crisis that characterise human existence. wole soyinka may have come to the realisation that what he and other absurdist playwrights have been taught about social order, cohesion, fair play and warnings about planning for the next hour and posterity or rather, the popular maxim of “saving for the rainy day” may have been illusions or delusions when compared with the realities of the human situation. no doubt, they, just like the rest of us, have heard about fair play, equity and social justice only to be confronted with a preponderance of oppression, suppression, human rights abuses and pervasion or miscarriage of justice, most times encouraged by the insensitivity of the upper or ruling class. commenting on the myriad of socio-economic problems plaguing the nation, nnamdi azikiwe of blessed memory declared that “… faulty social organisation was mainly responsible for crime, prostitution and all other vices… our society must be treated like an individual to prevent it from becoming a victim of pathological factors…” (121) the theme of man’s dishonest nature is underscored in king baabu when basha invites representatives of the civilian populace to lunch in his residence. they are rout, dope and rent. basha (king baabu) states that: your emnes! and highness! and comrade routplease come back, come back. it looks as if our dear wife has prepared special lunch to welcome you as personal guests of chief of army staff. she thinking surely you deserve better than army cooking. please, follow my orderly, he will take you to our guest dining room. wish i coming with you but this emergency… my c-in-c waiting for me. (21) however, in actual fact, this invitation to lunch as “personal” guests of the chief of army staff is a camouflage for a coup being hatched up all because of man’s greed and inordinate quest for wealth and position. this therefore, strongly indicates that trust, sincerity and honesty have since eroded the nation as part of the crises of human existence while fear and pessimism have been entrenched. soyinka also highlights the social problems of corruption and greed when maariya attempts to beguile the people by painting her husband, basha, as an egalitarian and benevolent leader. she states that: … the new leader has nothing left because he has given away all he has. to you, the people, operation fill the stomach has already begun to yield full harvest. look at those twenty fat cows tethered to kester nnaemeka dibia absurdist drama and theatre of commitment inwole soyinka’s … 101 the trees. they are all for you. eat and drink till day break. there is food for everyone… there is pito and palm wine, burukutu and kainkain for everyone… and you’ll have three days on which to recover because he has declared a three-day national holiday… those huge vats over there are rice and beans and chicken and pork for everyone. that other side is for muslims-no pork will be served there. and vegetables for vegetarians on that side. no meat or fish. we have laid out enough eggs to…yes, plenty for the stomach but also something for the pockets…this is what he owns in this world and he has sworn to take none of it to the other world. this is a leader who is truly baabu but who is the most bountiful of living spirits. (empties boxes of notes over the heads of the crowd. a mad scramble for the cash). (46) however, this picture painted of basha by maariya sharply contrasts with an earlier one painted by basha of himself as a greedy and corrupt leader who is determined to bleed the nation dry. he states that “moriya, husband and whole family can all go to hell. wait till basha start digging into that bottomless pot of crude with these very hands right down to the elbow and up the stinking armpits…” (7). then on page 37 basha goes further to paint himself as a corrupt, insensitive and greedy leader when he states that “… but i think as long as he think i give him banking cow to milk, he remaining loyal. trouble begin when he see that i intend to milk banking cow myself. all national cow in fact…” nigeria and indeed so many other african countries have at one time or the other experienced dictatorship. dictatorial regimes are characterised by their uncanny tendencies to oppress and suppress popular opinions, especially the opinions coming from those that such dictatorial regimes have tagged “the opposition”. dictators do not accommodate criticisms and suggestions no matter how constructive they may be. basha exhibits these characteristics especially during a meeting with bank managers. during the meeting, basha makes attempts to compel the bank managers through their spokesman, who is also the managing director of sankofo heritage bank of guatu to sign an open cheque. this is revealed in the following dialogue: spokesman: but this is the same cheque that ex-brigadier general, chief tikim has been trying to get us to sign. baabu: yes. is own cheque book for your bank, not so? you saying you have no confidence in your own cheque book? ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 102 spokesman: your majesty, this is still an open cheque? baabu: what your trouble? i think you hear me say from now on we all running open government? everything must be done in the open, that is why we holding this enquiry in full view of public so no one complaining anybody making bad business behind back of public. you sign open cheque. spokesman: but we have to account to our shareholders and investors… (55) in his reaction, baabu screams “too much grammar i am hearing this morning and is all taking place on empty stomach” (55). he goes a step further to direct his henchman, bhieu to “shove this fool into open pit” (55). the impatience and intolerance that basha exhibits during the meeting are characteristic of dictators who often times are too impatient to accommodate contrary views, no matter how rational such views may be. conclusion the study reveals that the absurdist playwright has made great efforts to expose the despondency that characterises human existence and situation. the play has successfully shown that mankind has failed woefully to make provision for a logical and perfect existence, considering numerous failures that characterise mankind’s plans, missions, inventions and evolutions which are originally aimed at improving the lot of man. king baabu can therefore, simply be said to have successfully artistically instigated doubts on the feasibility of sound reasoning and logicality. through content analysis of the play, the researcher is able to reveal that part of the absurdity of man and his follies are traceable to his hypocritical attitude, pompous nature and insensitivity of the leadership class to the plight of the less privileged. the study has therefore, succeeded in bringing to us the playwright’s use of absurdist drama as a committed theatre to critically examine rationalism. according to ubong nda, “the level of pessimism unleashed on humanity by this school of thought in the bid to write off rational thought is too dangerous for human development. the strength of the absurdist pessimism is such that is capable of creating a despondent humanity. a mankind that no more strives, hopes and plans for tomorrow…” (29) kester nnaemeka dibia absurdist drama and theatre of commitment inwole soyinka’s … 103 the researcher concludes that absurd theatre has high lvel of commitment; thus, the absurdist playwright should use his drama as a tool for reformation, transformation and positive change that will usher in a better society. then the image of the theatre as a seriously inclined medium of change rather than an entertainment medium would have been enhanced. works cited azikiwe, nnamdi: my odyssey. ibadan: spectrum books, 1970. beckett, samuel. endgame. united kingdom: faber & faber publisers, 2009. camus, albert, “the myth of sisyphus”. the myth of sisyphus and other essays. new york: ransom house, 1955:88-91. hodgson, john. the uses of drama. london: eyre methuen publishers, 1972. iyayi, festus. violence. ikeja: longman, 1979. nda ubong. “ola rotimi’s holding talks, an absurdist’s question mark on rational discourse in ola rotimi’s drama and theatre, issues and perspectives”. ed. bakare ojo rasaki. nigeria: roots books and journals, 2007. nwabueze, emeka. studies in dramatic literature. enugu: abic books, 2011. robert, cohen. teatre-brief version. usa: moyfield publishers, 1980. rotimi, ola, holding talks. ibadan: university press, 1979. saint gbilekaa. theatre and political change in nigeria since independence in theatre and politics in nigeria. ibadan: calton publications, 1993. shaka, femi. the avant-garde drama. port harcourt: university of port harcourt press, 1994. soyinka, wole. king baabu. london: methuen publishers, 2002. wilson, edwin and alvin, goldfarb. the theatre experience. new york: mcgraw-hill, 2002. yerima, ahmed. basic techniques in playwriting. nigeria: kraft books, 2004. ojieson silver abhulimhen representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an … 17 representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an analysis of jetta amata’s black november ojieson silver abhulimhen day waterman college, abeokuta, ogun state. 08035503729, 08128243139; silverabhulimhen@gmail.com abstract nollywood’s dramatization of anarchy has come in scanty but different forms inspite of the near-impossible feat at actualizing large scale human and property destructions. this problem derives from funding constraints, accessibility to technical-know-how to execute precise representation of terrorist attacks in a magnitude befitting of national and global references. the study aims at making nollywood present terrorism as a social menace that is not only a heinous crime but a bold move aimed at making a loud statement where several attempts at correcting obvious anomalies have failed to yield desired results. in most cases, the leadership composition of known terrorist organizations appeal to some quarters as folk heroes who have salvaged some communal crisis, while also pandering to a version of criminal desperado. nollywood has enacted series of anarchy which in most cases endeared sympathizers who would stop at nothing to justify the rationale behind its glorification of anarchy over order. nollywood films such as jetta amata’s black november highlight the intellectual basis for taking arms against a state. this paper therefore bases its argument on the idea that social circumstances which ignites the effrontery of criminal conspiracy to unleash terror on a sovereign nation derive from several factors such as anomalies not unassociated with political incompetence culminating in security breach triggered by social, economic, cultural, religious and political injustices. it concludes that some filmmakers base their production concept on exposing inherent insincerity of purpose by government and terror mongers with certain perceived anomalies thereby warranting violent insurrections. keywords: nollywood, terrorism, anarchy, productions, social justice. introduction post-election violence, it seems was the commonest of anarchy that rears its ugly heads in modern nigeria. this supposes that there was a country ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 18 where at the news of natural disaster elsewhere, folks will lift up their hands and thank god that it was not affecting nigeria. acts of terror have become common place with incessant ethnic clashes and religious differences becoming more pronounced nowadays. the invasion of benin kingdom in 1897 and the subsequent amalgamation of the southern and northern protectorates it seems are unashamedly terrorist in execution as this superimposition run contrary to the indigenous wishes of the natives. in the course of the nigerian civil war, the federal government and its foreign allies perpetrated a terrorist hegemony over the seceding state of biafra and truncated its vision of an eastern-across the river niger free state. many acts of anarchy have occurred in nigeria and much more unfold on a daily basis yet every mechanism employed to checkmate acts of criminality and terror seem to yield little or no concrete results. it seems that socio-economic, religious and political factors influence anarchy in nigeria. culturally, ethnic crisis and land disputes have left many homeless in this country, but not in a most unsavory way as the socio-economic campaigns of mend (movement for the emancipation of the niger delta), which in its drive to address the injustice of resource control has mounted anti-state military bombardments of oil facilities. not different in intent is the campaigns by the niger delta avengers and other such groups. this in part has culminated in the amnesty programme for niger delta youths. in the name of religion, families have been torn apart, supremacist ideologies hoisted by one religion over another and the chances at a better life, denied some people especially in some parts of the north. in the most notable acts of terror ever unleashed in nigeria, the boko haram sect have sacked the north-eastern states of nigeria in its efforts to islamize predominantly christian-populated areas in the northeast. again, the economic joker card rears its head again as there are ample references suggesting that while the sect wishes to entrap the region in its religious abracadabra, there is no gainsaying that prospects of oil explorations in the chad basin is the prime factor influencing its jihadist exploits in the north-east of nigeria. the political point to note in this state of anarchy is rooted in government’s inability to make life bearable for all. means of survival in a modern state are totally unavailable and to make ends meet, a large chunk of jobless youths become ready tools in the hands of insincere politicians as thugs and in the process, become criminals who terrorize the state. ojieson silver abhulimhen representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an … 19 it is common knowledge that some politicians arm unemployed youths who they use to intimidate their opponents and disrupt free and fair elections. when the victory is won and the weapons are not retrieved, the youths become a serious threat to the wellbeing of the state. in some cases, the welfare of the citizenry is totally forfeited for personal aggrandizement leaving socially conscious youths with no options than to take arms against the state. there is some iota of truth that some ethnic jingoist are raising a secret army to unleash mayhem where land-grabbing campaigns have been mounted to dispose indigenous people of the middle belt of their ancestral homes. the farmers-herders’ crisis which has decimated communities in the middle belt, a geo-political zone in the north central blessed with lush vegetation does not betray any concealed sentiments. the confluence of the niger and benue rivers provide the most golden opportunities for nomadic exploits as villages are terrorized and claimed. whether this comes as ethnic cleansing or not, political benefits and resource-control (federal allocation?) as the more local governments these land grabbers possess will inform how much democratic joker-cards they play with. on the religious angle, there is a distinctive barricade between islam and christianity and this immediately sign posts a dichotomy that when thoroughly examined from a religious and ethnic point of view sets each against the other. while a side cannot claim to be enforcing a genocidal campaign, the most intelligent means to actualize dispossession would be to raise a mercenary contingent totally unattached to the identifiable group to embark on a mission of wiping out any resistance towards actualizing a clandestine goal. in the light of ongoing destruction of lives and properties in the middle belt, it seems that human lives have even become less valued against the life of a cow. these medieval precedents have exposed the stark reality of ethnic bigots who, in spite of apparent dots connecting them to the clannishness of jihadist tendencies operate without conscious efforts by the security chiefs of nigeria to apprehend them and bring them to justice. in cases where reprisal attacks were common, the security apparatus which is pro-destructively biased would rather swoop into actions and make arrests whereas, when communities brutally displaced are ransacked, no arrests are made. one only hopes that in the long run, a bloodied civil war which might consume all does not ensue. it is a known saying that one cannot continue to beat a child and expect him not to cry. and when the birds are come home to roost, there shall surely be retaliatory efforts in the manner in which cattle rustlers have been overtly taking a pound of flesh ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 20 over their stolen cows. yet it baffles one to imagine why after series of attacks on indigenous people, the state government of all affected states have not deemed it fit to make concrete plans to enact laws by its state houses of assembly for state policing, drone networks and satellite patrols. nollywood films and representation of terrorist attacks according to ismaila “every society at one point or the other has experienced not only violence at individual level but at intra and inter communal levels” (16). it still baffles the victims of terror attacks why they continue to experience the dastardly and wanton destruction of their lives and properties. people all over want a good life, to wake up every day and begin a new life, but this is hardly the case. while some are going about their daily lives, a disgruntled sect who profess a supremacist agenda, whether on a political, religious or ethnic basis, plan to unleash mayhem. arguing further is the position by ismaila that “in our present world, the oppressor and the oppressed, the ruler and ruled, the state and the masses and all manner of groups provide justifications for resorting to terror and violence” (26). the case of the middle belt is peculiar because, if the communities were properly policed and a herder’s cow that was stolen warranted arrest of the perpetrators, there would not be need for reprisals costing numerous lives and unnecessary destructions of properties. if criminal elements in a community are in the habit of smearing their ancestral homeland with acts of violence against strangers and they are not shielded by law enforcements, nomadic folks, whether of different or same tribes will not feel the need to retaliate. but the lines are blurry here as regards why religion and economic transactions have found an unholy alliance. what is happening in nigeria does not fall short of terror, whether for economic, religious, political, ethnic or ideological purposes. in the words of jenkins: terrorism is often described as ‘mindless’ violence, ‘senseless’ violence, or ‘irrational’ violence. none of these adjectives is correct. terrorism is ‘not’ mindless violence. there is a theory of terrorism, and it often works. to understand the theory, it must first be understood that terrorism is a means to an end, not an end itself; in other words, terrorism has objectives (3). the assertion above clearly indicates that terrorist perpetuations are aimed not only at wreaking havocs but to achieve noble as well as selfish purposes as it may concern the perpetrators. whether as an individual or a ojieson silver abhulimhen representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an … 21 group who seek to make statements politically, religiously, economically, or scientifically, there is always the need to use pressure to quicken their resolve, especially when the system is considered a hindrance to achieving the ‘unpopular’ demands as it concerns the socio-cultural and political wellbeing of all and sundry. according to weiman in his discussion of media and terrorism, he opines that “from its early days, terror has combined communicative and psychological aspects”. he went further by asserting that the word “terror” itself comes from the latin word “terrer”, which means “to frighten” or “to scare”. submitting that the first use of large scale terrorism was during the popular phase of the french revolution which lasted around the period of june 1793 to july 1794 in france popularly known as the reign of terror or simply ‘the terror”. the background of the upheaval, weiman says followed the overthrow of the monarchy which plunged the nation into chaos and the government found itself into frenzied paranoia. the era witnessed the executions of thousands by the revolutionary tribunal which aimed to instill fear (3). citing laquer (104), weiman asserts that modern terrorists have become exposed to new opportunities for exerting mass psychological impacts as a result of technological advances in communication technologies. he noted that media inspired terrorism have now replaced the public executions in parisian squares with spectacular violent productions performed on the global stages for the mass media. in nacos’ (8) view “getting the attention of the mass media, the public, and decision-makers is the raison d’etre behind modern terrorism’s increasingly shocking violence”. in the view of jenkins (1) terrorism appears to have increased markedly in the past few years. political extremists in various parts of the world have attacked passengers in airline terminals and rail road stations, planted bombs in government buildings, in the offices of multinational corporations, in pubs, in theatres, have hijacked airliners and ships and, recently…have held hundreds of passengers hostages, have seized embassies, and kidnapped government officials, diplomats, and more recently, business executives. terrorism may not be synonymous with violence but it exudes violent operational systematics. this is because all terrorist attacks are violence inclined and aimed to cause untold pain and warrant a mind-changing status-quo especially with large scale decision making. as noted by ismaila (1) “violence as a word covers a wide range ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 22 of activities from mere use of words to large scale terrorism…violence has been studied from several perspectives ranging from: its impact on cinema and television, sociological study of effects, study of the psychological mechanisms involved, laboratory studies, economic perspective, and cultural studies”. it is jenkins’ (529) opinion that “terrorist attacks are carefully choreographed to attract the attention of the electronic media and the international press. taking and holding hostages increases the drama. the hostages themselves often mean nothing to the terrorists. terrorism is aimed at the people watching, not at the actual victims. terrorism is a theatre”. in view of the above kerber (529) is of the opinion that “the terrorists’ message of violence necessitates a victim, whether personal or institutional, but the target or intended recipient of the communication may not be the victim”. these days, terrorist prefer the world stage–openpublic opinion galvanized media compared to obscure sources of operations as maintained by bell (89) when he said that “it has become more alluring for the frantic few to appear on the world stage of television than remain obscure guerillas of the mass-mediated terrorism in terms of effectively reaching huge audience than with the nature of dastardly destructions that will result from their operations (weiman 3). according to weiman: from the ‘theatre of terror’ perspective, the september 11 attack on america was a perfectly choreographed production aimed at american and international audiences. although the theatre metaphor remains instructive, it has given way to tension as a global television spectacular with ‘live’ breaking news, watched by international audiences, and transcends by far the boundaries of theatrical events (6). going further, weiman asserts that in the past, most-if not all acts of terrorism resulted in a great deal of publicity in the form of news reporting, but the september 11th attack introduced a new level of mass mediated terrorism because of the choices the planners made with respect to method , target, timing and scope (6). describing the targets chosen for september 11th, for example as symbol of american wealth, power and heritage, dobson and paine (5) capture the anecdote of one of black septembers’ response after the terror attack by palestinian terrorist of the munich olympics 1972 saying that: ojieson silver abhulimhen representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an … 23 we recognized that sport is the modern religion of the western world. we knew that the people in england and america would switch their television sets from any programme about the plight of the palestinians if there was a sports event on another channel. so we decided to use their olympic, the most sacred ceremony of this religion, to make the world pay attention to us. we offered up human sacrifices to your gods of sports and television. and they answered our prayers. from munich onwards, nobody could ignore the palestinians or their course. (n.p) jenkins opines that ‘some governments are prone to label as “terrorism” all violent acts by their opponents. rebels rarely call themselves terrorists, but frequently claim to be the victims of government terror. in short, the definition of terrorism seems to depend on point of view-it is what the ‘bad guys’ do”. by this definition, jenkins assert that terrorists recognize far fewer immune civilians. terrorists may regard a person as an enemy, and therefore a target, solely on the basis of nationality, ethnicity, or religion. or one can become a target by mere happenstance-by watching a movie in a theatre when a bomb goes off, or by passing through an airport waiting room when passengers are machine-gunned (2). whilst discussing ‘terrorism and the role of the media’, spencer submits that it has become widely accepted that there is an almost symbolic relationship between terrorism and the media as terrorism provides for exciting and violent stories which help sell the news product and the media provides terrorist groups with a means of spreading their message and creating fear among the general public (5). the hashtag #breaking news which most media stations headline causes in some quarters a predisposition for the bizarre and stomach churning armageddon of bad news and violent occurrences. the mainstream media is not the only sources where the propagation of bad news is evident. there is the use of social media to perpetrate bullying and acts of violent insurrections as weiman (2014:3) posits that: terrorists have good reasons to use social media. first, these channels are by far the most popular with their intended audience, which allows terrorists organizations to be part of the mainstream. second, social media channels are user-friendly, reliable and free. finally, social networking allows terrorists to reach out to their target audiences and virtually ‘knocks on their doors’-in contrasts to older models of websites in which terrorists had to wait for visitors to come to them. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 24 in her attempt to juxtapose the relationship between a planned theatrical outing and its similarities with a terrorist attack which takes much time to plan, silva holds the view that marvel’s 2012 summer blockbuster the avengers describes in simplicity the way that terror and performance are related. iron man (toni stark) and captain america discuss loki, legendary bad guy, demi-god, and brother of thor’s plan to defeat them (1). further on, it is silva’s assertion that ‘loki’s strategy to capture earth and force human kind to bend to his will’ compares with a planned attack in the form of 9/11 wherein the location of the attack was the world trade centre (stark tower) with its new sky scrapper and clean energy beacon situated downtown. she opines that ‘from images of new york city’s destruction, flying spaceships knocking into buildings, temporary memorials for the lost and dead, and an imminent ‘foreign’ threat thereby making the avengers just one of many adventure films that drama out post 9/11 anxieties of attack and terror in the crowded nyc (1). corroborating the above point is beall when she said that: the collapse of new york’s twin towers on 11th september 2001 dramatically demonstrated the susceptibility of cities to terrorist attacks. two and a half years later, on the 11th march 2004, bombs were detonated on packed commuter trains in madrid, killing 191 and injuring over 1,500 people, extending an amplified sense of urban vulnerability to cities in europe. this was reinforced by the london’s bombings in july 2005, which again targeted ordinary city dwellers going about their daily lives (1). in the light of the above, it comes to the understanding that violence is sometime borne out of the desire of man to control, exploit and infringe on the freedom of one another (ismaila 15). terrorist aparatus deployed in black november black november does not conceal its hatred of capitalism and the powers which undermine our collective and individual destinies as the federal military government and western oil collaborate to make life unbearable for the niger deltans in this nollywood production. the film which is but an innuendo for the foreign corporations exploring crude oil in the niger delta, interrogates the rationale behind constant exploitation of the niger delta folks by its government and capitalist interest. it is noteworthy that the brutality perpetuated in the movie is only but a signature of the military junta which undermined human rights. ebiere, who is a beneficiary of the scholarship of western oil dies a martyr for the inspiration which served ojieson silver abhulimhen representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an … 25 as basis for the numerous support/protests aimed at facilitating a better niger delta region. the provocations emanating from the peoples’ resistance ofwestern oil’s encroachment on the peoples’ environmental wellbeing and the government’s nonchalance soon gives birth to a radical group that seeks to wreak havoc on the economic life line of the nigerian state. such burning issues of a socio-economic, political and cultural concern which made it to centre stage is given birth to as an aftermath of ebiere perema’s harassment and disillusionment as we come to appreciate her individual efforts and how this inspired a radical group. the activities of western oil which resulted in oil spillage and incessant pipe line explosions resulting in deaths, trigger assemblage of the mammoth crowd at the facility of western oil. instead of dialoging with the indigenes, the corporation uses force and backdoor ‘tactics’ to pacify the people as it hands money to some insincere elders who did not commit the funds to a better course. irate youths soon take the laws into their hands leading to arson and revolts. from this point, when the authorities vehemently forbid further protests and shoot at unarmed citizens, a splinter faction of the law-abiding folks became radicalized. the los angeles terror alert scene, the swat team, news team and the soldiers comes as no surprise after numerous attempts to rally support for the welfare of the niger deltans. the opening scene at los angeles, in candid opinion looks like a hollywood action film, and this is made possible by budgetary considerations. the assemblage of the actors, the props-cars, trucks, and use of space, in this case, the tunnel gives the movie a critical attention score as we return to the niger delta. this first impression leaves us anxious and desperate to see how the explosives on the tankers will detonate. america does not negotiate with terrorists yes, but in what was clearly a terrorist attack, the world media was given insight into the fate of a girl (ebiere perema) whose campaigns for environmental preservation was met with authoritarian and capitalist force. the circumstances under which the niger delta militants gained access into america’s border meant that the matter was deserving of global intervention. black november clearly demonstrates that terrorism may not be solely aimed at destructive acts but to achieve a noble course. there may be casualties along the way, but as in this film, the militants became reactionary only after they were treated brutally by government forces that were hell bent on disorienting them rather than proffer solutions to the cause for which they fought. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 26 in the initial days of the struggle, the youths began only to take arms and captives for ransoms after all mediation reached a dead end as the government agents who wanted them to lay down their arms came only to wipe them out. it was at this point it became clear to them that the government cared more about the proceeds of the oil exploration and destroy everything standing on its way rather than concede any ‘people’ mandate. serious attacks on the state became pronounced as an indigenous officer watched his people brutalized but was powerless to retaliate. it was the indigenous officer who brought a wealth of military tactics to bear on the operations of the amateur niger delta militants. their ultimate goal was not to sabotage economic activities but that, ebiere perema must not be hanged which was the premise of their planned attack on us soil. western oil being a us company made the choice of the attack on america; to drive home the point that america’s economic interest which undermines the wellbeing of indigenous niger delta people was against the good interest of nigerian populace. the prominence of the usa, which is arguably the world’s political and economic hub can, by its international relations and diplomatic might; influence the nigerian government to reverse the death penalty upon a daughter of the niger delta, thus the socio-economic and political need to exploit this avenue. for this reason, the production of black november gives the opening scenes a viable reference detailing the rationale for the american attack. terrorism and media have a symbiotic relationship as we see in the case of the deceit which was pulled by the ann boss. tension rises and fall when ann’s boss saves america the embarrassment of a terror attack by amateur niger delta militants seeing that hudson could not reach the nigerian president to undo ebiere’s capital punishment, calls one of the low-iq militant, who excitedly announces that ebiere perema’s sentence has been abrogated. there is however some lessons to be learnt in this portrayal of sheer zeal and hunger for the emancipation of the oil rich delta from capitalist and corrupt government strangle-hold. ebere’s heroism and the resolve of the militants to repel injustice deserve some commendation as western oil and the government are not to be trusted to renege on their words. black november makes a simple statement, that in the light of oppressive regimes, the masses can only save themselves by engaging in team work as we see the strength and evolution with which the youths coordinated themselves and went deep in the creek. in the ojieson silver abhulimhen representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an … 27 course of time, the boys, following cash piled up over time from ransoms became emboldened to stockpile arms with which they ‘went to war’ as attacks upon attacks became a common news item. the film indicates by its climactic plot, that it sets out to notify the world of nigeria’s human rights abuse and environmental degradations using a resistant modus operando as governments and her capitalist interests does not understand the word-dialogue. conclusion the study reveals that the template of most nigerian films churned out fortnightly, lack attendant propaganda details and inherent power to tackle life challenging subjects. given the critical issues espoused in black november it is imperative to note how recent nollywood films have taken the initiative by exploring core-communal and people oriented subjects on a monumental scale. at present, more indigenous movies have been screened at the cinemas with landmark and record breaking box office returns partially based on key concepts therein treated. the scope of their explored subject matter transcends the shenanigans of two village rats and the idea of a dirty girl called dumebi should be the subject of a film. issues of national and global importance are having centre stage in new nollywood films which hitherto were deliberately ignored. this brings to the fore that new nollywood films are addressing issues previously considered hard nuts to crack over funding constraints. the subject of terrorism as it stands poses a threat to the continued existence of the various peoples of nigeria as a sovereign nation. when one considers the religious and ethnic difference which abound in nigeria, issues such as the idea of marauding fulani-herdsmen and farmers’ clash look like subjects to steer clear lest one is labelled an enemy of the north. yet it does not cease to baffle the masses how government’s apathy and indecisions helps to fuel the crisis at the expense of helpless indigenes of the middle belt. this brings us to the immediate failure of state governments at nipping terror in the bud in their various states. for example, there is nothing stopping a state government at legislating a law via its houses of assemblies to have an autonomous local police as the federal body have proven largely incompetent. here, the security votes of affected states can go a long way, if sincerely deployed, to address the nature of internal security of lives and properties. despite the series of attacks on indigenous people, especially in southern kaduna, plateau-jos, benue, nasarawa and villages where land-grabbing bandits seek to ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 28 displace and possess their lands and ancestral homes. it follows that if nollywood were to proffer solutions, a well-conceived idea to be executed cinematically should involve a pilot state which rejects the federal government’s cattle colony but invests heavily in its own agricultural crop and animal husbandries using european models of cattle ranches owned by indigenous people. this will greatly discourage the need for nomadic pastoralists from settling in peoples’ farm lands where over time, they begin to lay claims to peoples’ land. a look at the so much talk about the attackers coming to kill and burn villages at night, a model film can be produced in which the state government allocates budgets in collaborations with her indigenes overseas as well as town unions to fund a functional satellite in the state’s airspace for monitoring of any group of terrorists. to actualize this, all armed forces in the state will have their arms registered; all owners of licensed fire arms will have their weapons catalogued so that any foreign arms can be tracked at all open/closed state borders. while machinegunning people may not be the only method of genocidal campaigns used by these killers, the use of drones and satellite to monitor movements of people in most vulnerable places will assuage the pains which come with the heartless killings. what should be done would be to have every security post manned with enough man power and assault rifles, and while monitoring unverified movements of suspected bandits, alert a post of incoming movements so that unscrupulous elements are checked. in the light of the above, nollywood films which propagate a secured family and nation in the case of overwhelming security breaches and loss of lives and property should be scholarly sanctioned. times there are when taking up arms against the state looks like the best thing to do but in the long run, the demerits unleash more damages. here, it is advised that nollywood films should not only espouse the mundane but philosophically vibrant ideologies aimed at nation building, economic prosperity and a political vision capable of inspiring us to actualize a better society. films should be used as a medium to speak truth and discourage injustice, not minding whether the proposition of supremacist agendas threaten our individual position, but the collective good. ojieson silver abhulimhen representation of terrorist attacks in nollywood films: an … 29 works cited beall, jo. cities, terrorism and urban wars of the 21st century. london: crisis states research centre, 2007 bell, j.b. “terrorist script and live action-spectaculars”. columbia journalism review (may-june), 47-50. 1978. dobson, c. r paine. the carlos complex: a pattern of violence. london: hodder and stoughton, 1977. elise, silva. “terror as theatre’: unveiling spectacle in post 9/11 literature”. liminalities: a journal of performance studies vol. 11, no.5. brigham young university, utah, 2015 kerber, p. “urban terrorism: baseline data and a conceptual framework”. social science quarterly 1971. 52, 527-33 ismaila, r. adedoyin. theatre and violence: the dramaturgy of violence in selected nigerian plays. lagos: university of lagos (phd thesis), 2014. jenkins, m. brian. international terrorism: a new kind of warfare. california: the rand corporation, 1974. laqueur, w. terrorism and the media: from the iran hostage crisis to the world trade centre bombing. new york: columbia university press, 1976. spencer, alexander. terrorism and the media. uk: arts and humanities research council public policy series no.4, 2012. weiman, gabriel. new terrorism and new media. washington, dc: commons lab of the woodrow wilson international center for scholars, 2014. weiman, gabriel. “the theatre of terror: the effects of press courage”, journal of communication, 33: 38-45, 2015 filmography amata, jeta (director). black november. nigeria: wells and jeta entertainment, 2012. dvd ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 196 economic and socio-political imperatives of the new media in africa chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah department of theatre and media arts federal university oye-ekiti, oye-ekiti ekiti state, nigeria 07030183205 chukwukelue.umenyilorah@fuoye.edu.ng abstract the advent of the new media as enabled by information and communication technology from the 19th through the 21st century has no doubt taken its toll on all fronts of human existence; especially in africa and nigeria in particular. apart from shortening the distance between all parts of the world, technology and the new media has also succeeded in making the world a global village. hence, it’s now easy to relay live audio and visual signals across the length and breadth of the world in real time. people now contract and execute businesses across countries, conferences are held and ideas are shared with a simple push of a computer button. likewise, political leaders and diplomats are now just a click away from reaching those important decisions that take their countries’ fortunes to the next level. on the flip side, ict and the new media have also contributed in no small measure, in aiding global terrorism and general insecurity around the world. more interesting is the fact that as developing economies, african countries have massively embraced the information technology and this has helped them in keeping up with the trends in the polity of other model democracies around the world. this paper therefore examines how much effect ict and the new media have exerted on the economic, social and political lives of african nations with nigeria as a case in point for the purpose of this study. it demonstrates the positive and negative influences the new media is having on the social, economic and political lives of african nations introduction much of the developed world in the last 20 years has been transformed by technology, which is positively linked to global economic power and prosperity. history also shows that technological innovation was essential for human development. this is evident in the gradual but steady transition chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 197 from the ancient to the modern ways of doing thing. hence, the era of the “stone age” is now history because some more advanced tools have been developed to replace those carved out of stones and wood by the early men. no longer does man have to strike one stone against another to make fire, we now have match-sticks and lighters; just as the modern man no longer have to carve out spares and arrows from wood for hunting-he now has a barrage of sophisticated weapons in his arsenal to do so. people no longer have to walk unimaginable distances because there are now cars, boats, ships and air planes to take them to all parts of the world. neither does anyone necessarily need wait for someone to come home from the city so they can write a letter and send through him before they can communicate with kits and kin-there’s now the mobile phones to do so. technology has increasingly become a human development enabler, supporting people to increase their incomes and thereby increase the quality of their lives a major impact of technology on nigeria and africa and indeed the world over, is in the area of communication as evidenced by the advent of the printing press, telephone, television, fax and the internet, all of which reduced social isolation and enabled people to be better informed and hence more participative in the community and the economy. the use of technology has often been seen as synonymous with innovation and technological innovation viewed, by some, as a self-perpetuating mechanism capable of transforming social systems by permanently and positively altering values and patterns of beliefs. this implies that the use of technology in developing economies like nigeria could transform its social, economic and even political structures. this is because new technology requires new skills so that, inherently, learning becomes a part of technology. learning could result in morphogenic change, whereby the changes automatically cause more changes, which can eventually transform the entire social systems. the major objectives of this study include tracing the development of the new media from inception to the present day, with a view to examine the positive and negative impact of the new media on the economic and political lives of african countries, using nigeria as a case in point. it will also make recommendations as to how the new media can be used as a tool for socio-political and economic development of african nations. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 198 this study adopts the qualitative research method where data shall be generated from books and journals as well as from online sources. the new media: a brief history several scholars have slightly varying views about the origin of the internet and its evolution from inception to the present day. in all the submissions however, everyone seems to agree to the fact that the new media is largely driven by the internet. according to barry. m. leiner etal (2007, p.48), the internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. the internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. the internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. the invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. the internet today is a widespread information technology. its history is complex and involves many aspects technological, organizational, and community. and its influence reaches not only to the technical fields of computer communications but throughout society as we move toward increasing use of online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition, and community operations. human interactions with one another across long distances have been a great concern to humanity for centuries. as social animals, people have always relied on communication to strengthen their relationships. when face-to-face discussions are impossible or inconvenient, humans have dreamed up plenty of creative solutions. one of these solutions was the invention of the internet; the information dissemination technology that drives the rest of what has now come to be known as the new media, including all the social networking media platforms. in the words of drew hendricks (2013), the earliest methods of communicating across great distances used written correspondence delivered by hand from one person to another; in other words, letters. the earliest form of postal service dates back to 550 b.c., and this primitive delivery system would become more widespread and streamlined in future centuries. the telegraph was invented in 1792. this allowed messages to be delivered over a long chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 199 distance far faster than a horse and rider could carry them. and although telegraph messages were short, they were a revolutionary way to convey news and information. furthering the development of information and communication technology, two important discoveries happened in the last decade of the 1800s: the telephone in 1890 and the radio in 1891. both technologies are still in use today, although the modern versions are much more sophisticated than their predecessors. telephone lines and radio signals enabled people to communicate across great distances instantaneously, something that mankind had never experienced before. technology began to change very rapidly in the 20th century. and as drew puts it, after the first super computers were created in the 1940s, scientists and engineers began to develop ways to create networks between those computers, and this would later lead to the birth of the internet. the earliest forms of the internet, such as compuserve, were developed in the 1960s. primitive forms of email were also developed during this time. by the 70s, networking technology had improved, and 1979’s usenet allowed users to communicate through a virtual newsletter. by the 1980s, home computers were becoming more common and social media was becoming more sophisticated. internet relay chats, or ircs, were first used in 1988 and continued to be popular well into the 1990’s. the first recognizable social media site, six degrees, was created in 1997. it enabled users to upload a profile and make friends with other users. in 1999, the first blogging sites became popular, creating a social media sensation that’s still popular today. after the invention of the internet, the new media began to explode in popularity, offering internet users various platforms to get their information across to their target audience in their hundreds of millions and in real times. sites like myspace and linkedin gained prominence in the early 2000s, and sites like photobucket and flickr facilitated online photo sharing. youtube came into the picture in 2005, creating an entirely new way for people to communicate and share with each other across great distances. and by 2006, facebook and twitter both became available to users throughout the world. these sites remain some of the most popular social networks on the internet. other sites like tumblr, spotify, foursquare and pinterest began popping up to fill specific social networking niches. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 200 today, there is a tremendous variety of social networking sites, and many of them can be linked to allow cross-posting. this creates an environment where users can reach the maximum number of people without sacrificing the intimacy of person-to-person communication. the new media has taken communication and information dissemination further and farther from the conventional radio and perhaps television. the new media offers faster platforms which are much more durable, portable and convenient for the users. effect of the new media: the good, the bad and the ugly the invention of ict and the new media no doubt came with a mixture of influences which has changed the dynamics of everyday existence. it is therefore safe to suggest that the new media has had effects ranging from good through the bad to the ugly across all fields of human endeavors. according to imtiaz alli (2015, p. 1) social networks, (which are a consequence of the new media) help businesses in a variety of ways. traditional marketing mediums such as the radio, tv commercials and print ads are completely obsolete now and demand for thousands of dollars. and, with new media, businesses can now connect with their targeted customers almost for free; the only cost being those of energy and time. through facebook, twitter, linkedin or any other social site for instance, businesses can lower their marketing cost to a significant level. again, the increasing popularity of social sites like twitter, facebook and linkedin, social networks has gained attention as the most viable communication choice for the bloggers, article writers and content creators. these social networking sites have opened the opportunity for all the writers and bloggers to connect with their tech savvy clients to share their expertise and articles. the audience will further share such articles, blog or expertise in their various social circle which further enhance the networks of the followers. the new media has removed all the communication and interaction barriers, and now one can communicate his/her perception and thoughts over a variety of topics. students and experts are able to share and communicate with like-minded people and can ask for the input and opinion on a particular topic. another positive impact of social networking sites is to unite people on a huge platform for the achievement of some chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 201 specific objective. this is very important to bring the positive change in society. still writing on the positive impact of the new media on the society, dave parrack (2017) posits that “social networking isn’t for everyone, however, it is now such a massive part of all our lives; whether we embrace or reject the notion. it can no longer be ignored”. and while comparing the pros and cons of the newmedia, parrack thinks it’s only fair to find the balance. according to him, what some people would conceive as negative impact can also be positives for others. and because there are no hard and fast rules to the effect of the new media, the positives could be said to counterbalance the negatives. in his own argument for the new media, marion doss, (2016, p. 15) is of the opinion that: it has never been easier to make friends than it is right now and that is mainly thanks to the new media and social networking sites. the rise of mobile phones helped change the narratives in this instance by connecting people in new ways, but the social networks sprang up and the whole idea of friendship changes again. and there’s no going back it is now entirely possible to have hundreds of friends on facebook. they may not be friends you know personally, or can spend time with in real world on regular basis; in fact, one may never get to meet these virtual friends. but nonetheless, they are still friends. the new media makes communication faster. through the use of the various social media platforms, people can reach out to other across distances with their information and in real time. this is why robert bejil (2017, p.53) states that our time is being stretched thinner and thinner by work and family commitments. but the social networking sites offer a chance to communicate in a speedy and efficient manner. writing and update for twitter takes all of 20 second and with cross-posting to other social networks switched on, the same update reaches everyone you want it to reach (and probably more) in an instance. apart from communicating easily with close friends and family, the new media through social networking has also made it possible to open up the world, making it a smaller place. friends and acquaintances on the social networks need not bother about where each person lives or who they are, this is because with the new media, everyone is equal regardless of location. the new media offers a great platform for building new relationships. even though social networks can sometimes also lead to ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 202 relationship breakdown, still, people are moving onto other, perhaps better relationships on the social media. the social media connect people back in touch who have lots in common. and this common ground is often the beginning of some long lasting relationships. on the flipside however, it’s not all rosy with the new media as it also has its downside. according to imtiaz alli (p. 55) one of the negative effect of the new media or social network is it leads to addiction. spending countless hours on the social sites can divert the focus and attention from a particular task. it lowers the motivational level of the people, especially of the teenagers and students. they mainly rely on technology and the internet instead of learning the practical knowledge and expertise of the everyday life. kids can be greatly affected by these social networking sites if they are allowed to use them. the reason is that sometimes people share photos on social media that contains violence and sex, which can damage the behavior of kids and teenagers. it put the negative impact on overall society as these kids and teenagers involve themselves in crime related activities. another downside of the social media is that the user shares too much information which may pose threats to them and which more often than not, are not even verifiable. impact of the new media on african politics the new media have been used to trigger and initiate changes in the governments and societies. in fact, the new media can make a difference in the national politics of a state. however, according to narnia bohlermuller and charl van der merwe (2011, p. 15), it is important also to consider this side of the debate about the potential of social media to influence or bring about socio-political change on the african continent. the first is the fact that the tools themselves are actually ineffective, and second, that these tools can produce as much harm to any process of democratization as they can produce good. this critique that social media can as well be ineffective has been mostly used by malcolm gladwell in the new yorker and stems from the fact that casual participants to activities and actions such as large-scale social protests seek social change through low-cost activities such as joining a particular facebook group like the “save darfur” group, which was chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 203 created on facebook. gladwell is of the opinion that such actions cannot bring about any useful political action. shirky however says that even though this critique is correct, it is not central to the question of the power of social media in the sense that the fact that actors who are barely committed and who just joins facebook groups and makes comments online does not mean that actors who are very committed cannot use social media affectively to influence sociopolitical change. the second critique that social media tools can be used to influence or bring about socio-political change and political improvement has to do with the fact that the state is gaining increasingly sophisticated and more technologically advanced means of monitoring and interdicting social media tools. authoritarian states are increasingly shutting down communications networks and grids in their countries to deny dissidents the opportunity and resources to coordinate and broadcast documentation of any event in real time. the recent incidence in south-west (englishspeaking) cameroon is a glaring case in point. in nigeria for instance, the bring back our girls campaign has also largely been a social media campaign which has drawn attention from all over the globe. again, politicians and political office seekers in nigeria have also come to realize the power of the new media in executing their political campaigns as against using just the radio and (or) the television. apart from attracting a huge cost, those regular media (radio and tv) have their own peculiar limitations unlike the new media. it is thus necessary to point out that social media tools can and will be used as tools of state oppression. however, the success of social networking in providing momentum and support to the popular uprisings in tunisia and egypt cannot be denied. in this context, africa as a continent is experiencing a period of enormous change, and there is no doubt that social media will play a role in ensuring active continental political participation ict, the new media and economic development in nigeria economic development generally refers to the sustained, concerted actions of policymakers and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of a specific area. such actions can involve multiple areas including development of human capital, critical infrastructure, regional competitiveness, environmental sustainability, ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 204 social inclusion, health, safety, literacy, and other initiatives. and slovan michelle (2013, p. 37) explains the intertwined nature of the internet and economic development better when he posits that: the day the world wide web goes down is the day we will truly appreciate the worth and usefulness of the internet as a tool not just for economic development but for our existence. the day that happens is the day some call doom day or armageddon in a more religious language. the engine of globalization is the internet. the earth rotates on its axis but that rotation is being powered by the internet. young people are not just 70 % of the nigerian population, they also now have the tools and the means to effect changes from their population strength. this tool is the new media made possible by the invention of the internet. no longer do nigerians need to pay an upwards of n250, 000 to place job vacancies in a newspaper to advertize their enterprises, now people can simply tweet it and get real live responses from target audiences and this has enormous economic implications. ours is an empowered generation. we never had a voice but the dynamics have radically changed. we now have the loudest voice. since the precolonial and colonial era, african countries have desired to achieve progress in their economic development as observed in the developed countries. however, up until now, the african countries have continued to depend on the industrialized nations for guidance, largely due to the slow pace of technological development in africa. in nigeria for instance, the economic dependence level led to the recommendations of policies encapsulated as austerity measures and structural adjustment programmes (sap) by the imf and world bank in 1983 through 1992. on the political level, nigeria and the rest of the african countries were also subjected to the united nations' resolutions on democracy, constitutionalism, human rights and the rule of law. (echesi, 2014, p. 12) over the years, nigeria and indeed many other countries of the third world have enjoyed enormous economic benefits from the rest of the world as a result of the introduction of the ict. for instance, emerging businesses in africa can now freely draw from the experiences of their counterparts in the developed world. global business partnership is fast developing. this is why nigeria can now not only boast of her own indigenous chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 205 communication company in globacom (glo) but has also gone into mega partnership deals with other giant brands around the world. the ict has simplified the process of foreign interventions in africa and the rest of the third world. the presence of the usaid, uk dfid, undp, unicef and many others are readily evident around the world and their activities and progress are made visible with the help of the internet and new media. project reports and numerous education materials from these global interventionist organizations are now readily available in the cyberspaces and are also accessible to everyone who has internet access. this way, the new media is helping to better the lives of people. according to lee-roy chetty (2013, p. 2), technological innovation and information communication technologies (icts) “represent a way for developing nations to foster economic development, improve levels of education and training, as well as address gender issues within society”. entrepreneurship is crucial for economic development around the world. in countries such as nigeria, egypt and indonesia, micro-entrepreneurs generate 38% of the gross domestic product. (lee, p. 8). analysis from the world bank in 2011 indicates that small businesses create a disproportionate share of new jobs. they generate new ideas, new business models, and new ways of selling goods and services. in sub-saharan africa, for example, approximately poor state of roads the near-no-access to electricity, means that people would have very limited access to their target markets. the combination of poor infrastructure and poverty makes it difficult for entrepreneurs to access financial resources and information. the availability of the internet and consequently, the new media has however made it possible for people to access the desired financial information for their small businesses at a much reduced cost. a basic form of technology such as a simple mobile phone can assist people to communicate with one another, access market information, sell products across geographic areas, reach new consumers, enter mobile payment systems, reduce fraud and crime, and empower women and the disadvantaged. also, small holder farmers can access valuable information about the latest farming techniques via their mobile devices. according to a survey undertaken by the united nations development programme (undp) in 2014, it was found that 55% of women around the world earned additional income due to owning a mobile phone, and 41% increased their income and professional opportunities. mobile payment ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 206 systems represent a way to reduce the cost of financial transactions and thereby help entrepreneurs. if people can transfer funds quickly and efficiently, it becomes easier for small and medium-sized businesses to sell their products. this improves the efficiency of the marketplace and removes barriers to business growth. and as lee-roy (p.13) puts it, “mobile technology offers extensive help on various forms of social and economic development because wireless communications broaden access to information, improve capital access, overcome geographic limitations, and expand market access”. internet and social media as tools of socio-political development of nigeria the internet and social media have advanced social development by helping to curb the challenges of corruption, terrorism, security, public education and the likes. more critically, social media is helping to bridge the divide amongst nigeria’s millennial generation. young nigerians are talking. the government is beginning to listen too; or at least get a feeling of the political temperature in the country without necessarily going into a national conference. the man from owerri does not necessarily need to go to adamawa or ibadan to make friends with people from those parts of the country. while nigerians at home might not have appreciated the paradigm shift brought about by the invention of the internet. as a result of the january 2012 fuel subsidy removal protests, other sub-saharan africans saw that as a pointer to the way forward. the internet served well in mobilizing the nigerian masses for that protest. and as farid (2015 p.19) did say: it took just the click of the computer button to get the message of the protest on the facebook pages, twitter handles and blogs to tell every nigerian with access to the internet that the #occupynigeria #abuja protests would be at ascon filling station or that fuel subsidy was not the issue but corruption, mismanagement, cronyism and all the known and unknown vices of those in power. it was about the way nigerians defined the issues and set the government on the defensive path. the government had to be sent scampering for ad-hoc solutions. (p. 22) there is a shift in nigeria’s politics that is being run and defined by the internet and social media. the internet and social media affects politics and brings about institutional changes and set the nation on the path of trying to do the right thing. chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 207 democracy is about the people. the internet and social media today offer nigerians the unique opportunity of expressing themselves freely without the censorship suffered by conventional media houses. it allows everyone to debate freely on the socio-political and economic dynamics of the country. this helps to promote and improve our democracy and sets about the process of good governance. the internet and social media have become the crucial bridge through which the governed and the government reach out to one another. the new media and global politics the past decade has so far seen many important elections on the african continent. with powerhouses like nigeria and south africa holding national and local elections respectively, an independence referendum in south sudan, plus a presidential election in the fast growing uganda. all of these elections provide windows into the development of democracy and freedom on the continent. 2011 was also the start of a new decade on the african continent, one that follows significant economic development fueled by the high prices of natural resources. while the continent has widely consolidated economic reform in the first decade of the 21st century, democratic reform still lags in comparison. crisis in zimbabwe, dr congo, cote d’ivoire, sudan, among others highlight the ongoing struggles that the continent faces in terms of democratic consolidation. during this past decade also, another increase was under way: mobile penetration. the substantial growth of mobile technology has alerted development agencies and organizations to the empowerment that mobile devices bring to people of developing and emerging countries. the field of information and communication technology (ict) has been merged with these developmental bodies into a field of ict for development (ict4d). this emerging field has captured the interests of a range of specialties, from government bureaucrats, to information system companies, to multinationals, and to health organizations. in terms of democracy, ict plays a significant role in the future of africa’s evolution. explaining this in more details, bailard (2009, p. 9) submits that: because the term ict is so broad, any device, whether it be a radio, television, mobile phone, or ipad can be classified in the ict arena. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 208 traditional ict technologies, such as radio and the television have played substantial roles in elections and democracy since their invention for obvious reasons: the ability to communicate messages to the masses. however, both of these technologies have used oneway conduits to broadcast messages. even telephone campaigns have been a one sided affair in developed democracies, with campaign aids calling or texting to inform potential voters the pros of their candidate and the cons of the opposing candidate. these traditional modes of communication are well established in western countries, and have been employed by democracies and autocracies to meet their objectives. however, in the developing world, the infrastructure to conduct communication through these traditional modes of fixed line telephony, over the air television, and radio was first constructed by the western countries seeking to impose colonial or imperial control over these regions. thus, these networks were generally only established in urban areas where the concentration of people was the greatest and the need to control the masses was the highest. while radio became the medium of choice because of cost and scalability, these developing countries reminded significantly behind the rest of the world in communications technology. this state remained for much of the second half of the 20th century. with the advent of mobile technology this paradigm of communication has changed. now citizens are more connected to each other, to the events in their country, and thus closer to the government. however, this proximity means little if communication remains a one-way avenue. thus, the creation of social media, which creates a forum for two-way communication, is the real paradigm shift as it allows citizens and government to communicate back and forth. this has many consequences for democracy. social media, in terms of democracy, is increasing used to mobilize citizens, hold government officials accountable, and to document abuses and fraud. these modes of usage take on added significance when viewed from the interconnectivity of the world through the world wide web. the internet allows this national communication to be viewed by the rest of the world, as well as allow for the engagement between stakeholders inside and outside of the country. the message that social media users intentionally or inadvertently spread now has an audience as wide as 2 chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 209 billion. social media also allows for the bypassing of traditional media groups that often have corporate or ideological bias that shapes their reporting. the democratic values of social media mean that anyone from around the world can engage with an event happening anywhere in the world regardless of their government’s view of the event and provided the proper access exists. mobilization has always been a key part of political movements. spreading the message of your group to as many people as possible has always been seen as one of the greatest challenges because of the lack of interconnectivity. whether that was due to geographic distance, the socioeconomic gap, or the digital divide, influencing those people who are not part of the movement is necessary to meet political and democratic objectives. before now, election fraud and abuses previously worked fairly straightforwardly in rural parts of africa. with no international monitors being able to traverse to each district in the countryside, national and local elections were often accompanied by significant fraud and abuse because of the anonymity culprits could be assured would cover their tracks. with no evidence of ballot stuffing, voter violence, or other tricks of the ruling party’s cronies, there was very little that could be done from domestic and international viewpoints. hearsay and conjecture are unlikely to ever bring down a government, or bring about international sanctions. however, documented human rights abuses and confirmed electoral discrepancies certainly can bring about international attention and this is what the new media has been able to do in recent times. now, with a broadband mobile connection and a camera phone, election monitoring quickly becomes a task everyone can take part in. all of these methods used to mobilize, hold politicians accountable, and report election conditions are quickly adopting social media as a medium to conduct business. each usage requires access to ict technology. twitter, facebook, and custom crowd sourcing apps require a broadband internet infrastructure in order to transmit photos and video, plus provide access to the websites of social media tools. the other side of the new media: terrorism and security issues much as the ict and the invention of the social media have made great contribution to the overall socio-political and economic dynamics of the world, it has not been all rosy with the innovation. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 210 in a study by gabriel weimann from the university of haifa, weimann (2012) found that nearly 90% of organized terrorism on the internet takes place via social media. according to weimann, “terror groups use social media platforms like twitter, facebook, youtube and internet forums to spread their messages, recruit members and gather intelligence”. terrorist groups take to social media because social media tools are cheap and accessible, facilitate quick, broad dissemination of messages, and allow for unfettered communication with an audience without the filter or "selectivity" of mainstream news outlets. also, social media platforms allow terror groups to engage with their networks. whereas previously terror groups would release messages via intermediaries, social media platforms allow terror groups to release messages directly to their intended audience and converse with their audience in real time: the activities of the isis in the middle east and the boko haram group in nigeria are presently starring us in the face as the cyber spaces are constantly bombarded with the gory images and videos of their clandestine activities. and according to an online source www.bbcworld.co.uk/terrorwatch, “the taliban has been active on twitter since may 2011, and has more than 7,000 followers. tweeting under the handle @alemarahweb, the taliban tweets frequently, on some days nearly hourly. also, in december 2011, it was discovered that the somalia-based terror cell al-shabab was using a twitter account under the name @hsmpress. the account has amassed tens of thousands of followers and tweets frequently” alex laverty (2013). an while speaking to the media recently on the trend of terrorism in nigeria, the president of the nigerian senate, yakubu dogara acknowledges that “the new media has made recruitment a lot easier for the various terrorist organizations; not only in nigeria, but across the globe. an interesting twist to it all however, is that fact that the government and her security agencies seem to be in a thug with the terrorist groups for attention in the new media. on the one hand, the government and its allies would do just about anything to enforce a media blackout on the activities of terrorist groups, while on the other hand, the terrorists would do same to secure as much media attention as they can. the new media therefore appear caught between the cross-fire. chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 211 conclusion/summary historically, revolutionary movements began with people gathering together in the marketplace or town hall to discuss their common grievances. social media at the moment partly play the role of this public space, facilitating social interaction, information sharing, and fast and easy communication. there have been spaces such as these in almost every society throughout history with the atmosphere at the market being politically effective, as in eighteenth century paris. the invention of the ict and the subsequent introduction of the social networks have given the world more than the bargain. the trend in the new media has no doubt gone beyond mere connectivity and universal socialization. it has also proved to have a lot of social, economic, political and even religious implications the world has been made smaller and life itself made a lot easier with this invention called the internet. a lot of businesses have recorded massive growth while a lot more ideas have been translated into tangible businesses with so many prospects; all thanks to the information and communications technology people now make contacts across the length and breadth of the world in real time. bridges have been built and distances made virtual by technology. world leaders and governments share ideas and trends in governance, borrowing inspirations and exchanging knowledge with one another. overall, the world has recorded tremendous improvements in all aspects of life as a result of the invention of the ict and the new media. on the flip side however, ict and the new media have also advanced the threat to global peace. the rate of spread of cyber crime has become overwhelming; just as the internet seem to have become another terrible weapon freely in the hands of terrorists around the world. access to the internet has no limits from all parts of the world and there is little or no control over what people do with the invention. this is why people are at freewill to put ict and the new media to either a good use or a wrong one. in the face of the ever-present controversy about the freedom of the press in nigeria and in most of the other african countries, online and mobile communications have proved to be readily available for anyone to express himself. social media activists, bloggers, tweeters and speak-to-tweeters keep the world updated even if the television cameras have been switched ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 212 off. through the use of internet technology, organizations such as anonymous will continue to protect the freedom of those who speak out against oppression and corruption in the polity. governments must engage their people on issues of good governance and democracy, or other african leaders may face the same fate as their compatriots in north africa. the tide of popular expression is rising and resonating across the continent recommendations in essence, with the presence of the ict, the internet and the social media, it will be far more difficult, if not impossible, for governments to commit atrocities that remain hidden and silent. i therefore wish to the following recommendations 1. african governments should reconcile their laws and policies with this broader democratic contribution provided by the users of social media-based tools. in a sense this can be understood as a form of ‘direct’ democracy where many voices can and want to be heard. 2. mechanisms should thus be put into place which would assist governments in monitoring and evaluating political, social and economic developments and trends that would then enable them to respond to their people in a more productive and positive manner. 3. as opposed to viewing the advent of the ict as a threat to their political monopoly, governments in africa should learn to from their america and european counterparts among others, to embrace ict and explore its use to improve the lives of their citizens. embracing ict does not just improve the quality of life of a people, but also keeps them up-to-date with the trends around the world. 4. governments should realize that the new media have come to stay. as such, they should start to maximize the opportunities provided by ict and the new media to improve governance. 5. the positive impact of the new media and their negative impacts are like two sides of the same coin, as such people should be careful the way they use the internet and the new media chukwukelue uzodinma umenyilorah economic and socio-political imperatives of the new… 213 references alex, l. ict, social media and elections in africa: a prospective study. online: www.terrorwatch.com june 13, 2013 bailard, c. s. 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(2011).’the political power of social media: technology, the public sphere and political change’ in foreign affairs, volume 90 (1), pp. 28 – 41. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 214 shirazi, farid. (2008). the contribution of ict to freedom and democracy in “the electronic journal on information systems in developing countrie” 35: 1–24. print. philip, s. and dana, j. global terrorism and new media: the post-al qaeda generation. web: taylor & francis group/routledge, www.routledge.com; 160 pages. wheeler, t. 2011. ‘lessons for the anc in street protests’. published on ngo pulse. http://www.ngopulse.org/article/ lessons-anc-streetprotests accessed 15 july 2018. anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 177 revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability anana mariam department of languages mountain top university lagos-ibadan expressway, ogun state 08133931381, meanana@mtu.edu.ng abstract annang proverbs have not been reinvigorated and sustained because they are rarely spoken by elderly annang men and leaders especially during official meetings. also, they are selectively and scarcely utilized in informal situations. it is very rare for the annang youths to use annang proverbs in their daily interactions; and if this trend is allowed to continue, in the next few years, the rich annang proverbs may go into extinction. lacks of its resuscitation and sustainability have made speech delivery devoid of humour, interest and diverse interpretations. in other words, the denotative presentations have deprived the listeners the logical interpretations of what they listen to and place them in a position where they just decode the surface meanings of what they hear. this study investigates annang proverbs with a view to recommending ways of rejuvenating and strengthening them. the paper adopts pragmatics as its theoretical framework. telephone conversation and interview were used to collect data from annang respondents in ikot ekpene, akwa ibom and lagos. ten (10) items self-structured questions were used to collect data from respondents. it was discovered that to revive and sustain annang proverbs, these proverbs should be spoken by all the annang people continuously. the paper also found that annang proverbs are enveloped with interesting, humourous and diverse interpretations capable of enriching the listeners’ knowledge. having ascertained the importance of annang proverbs, the study recommends that these proverbs should be learnt and used mostly by the annang people so that their speeches would not only be replete with interesting, humourous and diverse interpretations but that annang proverbs may be revitalised and sustained through their continuous usage. key words: annang proverbs, resuscitation, logical interpretations, speech delivery, interactions ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 178 introduction many scholars (such as mensah (2010) , adegoju (2009), jegede (2008), lamidi (2008), tadi (2007), ojaide (2007) and meider (2004) have been interested in the study on proverbs because of the indispensable creative and cementing power that proverbs exert on individuals, communities and the societies at large. proverbs are very important in uniting the entire community because they are extracted from the cultures of the people. in other words, they are the root of cultural norms and traditions of people. it is what makes a community and as such to revive and sustain that community, proverbs must be used. proverbs have the potentials of beautifying words and making them wonderfully spoken; it also makes delivery interesting, humourous and contains inherent suspense that naturally keeps people to wait and get to the end of what they listen to. proverbs are words coded with different interpretations; they are witty and stronger words that make interactions interesting, humourous and full of meaningful interpretations. also, proverbs are short metaphorical sayings that centre on people’s cultures. they sustain people’s interest and make them sometimes enjoy presentations beyond speculated time if it is exceeded. proverbs, according to yusuf (cited in akporobaro etal 2010), is the pithy, concise, succinct, brief and terse practical expressions that project moral and ideological precepts. egbe (2003) also affirms that proverbs are witty sayings, usually popular, pithy and very sensible and that they convey pieces of advice and warnings. egbe (2003) further adds, that nigerian proverbs convey an air of authority and appeal to the fundamental laws of nature and that their predictions appear not to be opposed. akporobaro (2006) states that a proverb is “an aphorism, a wise saying, based upon people’s experience and that it is a reflection of the social values and sensibility of the people” (69). information parlour, a sponsored online article, also observes that proverbs are the core of any culture, they help to guide the normal ways of life and form the centre of living a healthy life. since everybody aspires to live a healthy lifestyle in all ramifications, it is therefore necessary that annang proverbs are used to enliven its sustainability. to do this, it is important that every annang speakers use annang proverbs continuously and consciously both in formal and informal settings when necessary. they should also be taught as part of english studies right from primary schools so that by the time a child anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 179 enters secondary school, he should be able to master a good number of annang proverbs that he can use easily in his interactions. annang proverbs should also be used in social media to communicate with both annang people and others. annang proverbs are the rich proverbs used mainly by the annang people who occupied the eastern part of nigerian, specifically, the south-south part of nigeria, akwa ibom. annang proverbs are quite unique because they are uttered in a typically beautified natural accent of the annang people. these proverbs have reviving tendencies, encouragement, admonition; protective, corrective and preservative power for the people in annang society and beyond. over the years, annang proverbs have not been revitalised and sustained because only elderly men and leaders in annang community used them sparingly during their official meetings. proverbs are said to be highly desirable among the leaders (nairaland, 2019). this shows that proverbs are used by selected people; and if this continues, the rich annang’s proverbs may go into extinction. to revamp and strengthen the use of these proverbs, this paper recommends that every annang speaker should use annang proverbs in official and unofficial gathering (where necessary). the objectives of this paper are to identify annang proverbs, analyse them and recommend ways of resuscitating and sustaining them for ananng posterity and community. annang proverbs will be presented in nigerian english (ne) because the embedded meanings of annang proverbs are better expressed in the variety of english that is very close to the culture of the people and in this context ne is the choice. the concept of nigerian english the existence of nigerian english (ne) is no longer doubted in as much as new englishes are in existence. english has spread to nigeria; so, the variety used by nigerians especially when they express themselves naturally is nigerian english. dazie (2004) avers that ne has come of age and its recognition as an international variety is a foregone conclusion. adetugbo, (2004) observes that “it has long been recognized that the english language in nigerian has certain features that set it apart from other varieties of english.” onyemelukwe and alo (2015) state that the concept of nigerian english is no longer a controversy since it has been ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 180 widely explored by many outstanding linguists such as bamgbose , banjo, adetugbo, adegbija, adejare , and akere. walsh (cited in ajani, 2007) was among the first category of people who first identify the existence of nigerian english. he maintained that the variety of english spoken by educated nigerians may be called nigerian english. confirming,walsh’s disposition, akere (2004) states that ne can certainly be counted now as one of the “new englishes” which have emerged in many parts of the world and which has also assumed distinctive characteristics of various socio-cultural environments within which they evolve. the english that exists in nigeria and is widely spoken by almost all nigerians at home and abroad is nigerian english. it is the localized, nativised, widely accepted and spread language used by nigerians in their daily interactions. nigerian great writers such as chinua achebe, wole soyinka and ola rotimi incorporate nigerian english in their literary works. admitting the uniqueness of these nigerian great writers, ajeigbe (2004) observes that these writers use english in the full awareness that it is no longer just the language of britain and united state but as a part of the linguistic heritage of many nigerians. akindele and adegbite (1996 cited in egwuwogu 2004) states that the variety of english that has developed into nigeria non-native english situation is as a result of colonial imposition of the language and the nature that english culture had on the country. they further state that the variety is not wholly native english and totally nigerian but a blend of two of them, and this is what they call ne. varieties of ne there are many varieties of nigerian english based on dialectical differences, social differences, level of education, status and even political differences. okoro (2004) observes that there are over 200 indigenous languages spoken in nigerian and by implication there are over 200 varieties of english. okoro (2004) further states that there are distinct nigerian englishes based on the major ethnic groupings in the country, thus he mentions the hausa, yoruba, efik , igbo , edo and so forth variants as great varieties of nigerian englishes. besides his geographical, educational and social anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 181 varieties, okoro (2004) further observes that ne manifests greatly through phonology even among the majority of very highly educated nigerian. okoro (2004) further stresses that one can tell the part of the country a nigerian comes from through that speaker’s accent of english. in the same way, adetugbo (2004) confirms that there are many varieties of english because features of native languages interfere on english; these, according to adetugbo (2004) are they characteristics of ne. similarly, akere (2004) concludes that english has developed from its ordinary contact or trade language between the british and american merchants and slave dealers (on the one hand) and african middle men with others (on the other hand) into numerous varieties replete with linguistic, social and cultural features. this he calls ne. considering the contributions of these great linguists above, the undeniable fact remains that ne exists and is effectively used in our dayto-day interactions by nigerians. proverb defined a proverb is a “short popular saying of unknown authorship, expressing some general truth or superstition”(akporobaro, 2006:49), jegede (2008) observes that proverbs are “dynamic mode o discourse with unique identity” (182). also, adedun (2013) states that it is a wise, witty and summarized expressions about life or a given situation. in addition, ohwovoriolo and joy (2014) observe that a proverb is a short esthetic saying that expresses truth, abstract idea or philosophical thoughts. they further state that it deals with larger issues and deeper meanings of life and events. the importance of proverbs proverbs are very significant in any given society because of their unifying power to any society that uses them properly. its language is very sensitive and characterizes with imageries and allusions that are mainly based on cultural, social, environmental, economic and political life of the people. the essence of proverbs is numerous; however, some of them are to: i. educate members of the community of the prevailing proverbs; ii. warn erring members of the society of the impeding danger due to their wickedness or hardness of heart; iii. present humourous delivery to the members of the society; ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 182 iv. make delivery interesting; v. sustain delivery; vi. admonish people; vii. persuade people to do so certain things that will be beneficial to them; vii. encourage members of the society to do good things and viii. lampoon societal abnormities with a view to correcting them. (source : author) akporobaro (2006) observes that proverb has proved to be of great continuing relevance to modern man. he further adds that it has been and it will remain a most powerful and effective instrument for the transmission of culture, social morality, manners and ideas of a people from one generation to another. the annang culture many annang communities are highly patriarchal; men are the mouth pieces of their wives. it is believed that a husband can speak for the wife, because what are in the hearts of the wives are easily revealed by their husbands. also, it is not ideal for a woman to get up and start talking in the gathering of both men and women. she must be permitted to talk; and if her husband has already spoken before she shows interest in taking, she will be reminded that her husband has spoken her mind. again, if she is the first to speak, opportunity will be given to the husband to do so; except he declines and it is very rare or not existing at all for a man to decline. the origin of the annang people the history of the annang people can be traced to the central africa where they are said to have migrated into the equatorial west africa through congo basin. udo (1983 cited in afud mbong ikpaisong annang 2008 ). the annang people finally settled in the 3rd and 4th centuries bc at eket. the annangs are also believed to have migrated from their origin in egypt and settled in ghana before arriving in their present area. the name annang is said to have originated from twi in ghana and this means fourth son. the annangs are said to have started their migration from eygpt in about 7500bc (ette 2008). again, the oral tradition also states that the ancestry of the annangs is the israelites from the north who left israel to egypt before babylon was captured. the annangs , according to ette (2008) , are said to be the products of marriages of the people of israel and egypt who migrated from egypt to the coastal southeastern nigeria through ethiopia and sudan. anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 183 annang people the annang people are fearless, bold, courageous, hardworking, neat and lovely people from the south-south, nigeria; they have occupied their land for thousands of years. the annang people are special cultural group that reside precisely in akwa ibom state and cross river state. they speak well and have the gift of eloquent speech (nairaland, 2019, pulse.ng 2019). the annang people occupy eight local government areas in akwa ibom; and these are: abak, essien udim, etim ekpo, ika , ikot ekpene, obot akara, oruk anam and ukanafun. they also reside in akirika, obi ngwa in abia state (where many of them speak ibo language). annang people are also found in many or all the states in nigeria and abroad. the annang people believe in abasi-ibom or abasienyong (the supreme being) and abasi ison also called abasi ipaisong. (the god of the earth). some new breed annang people solely worship the “abasi enyong” while many old traditionalists, although many of them are elders in orthodox churches, still worship the abasi ipa-isong. the major economic stays of the annang people are farming, local crafts and trading and civil servicing (nairaland, 2019). as a result of their hardworking nature, many annang people are comfortable with their living conditions. it is very rare to see a typical annang person begging for alms; it is not the tradition of the annang people. in terms of education, the annang people are highly educated now. it was in those days that they were used as servants to do menial jobs such as house helps and labour. in many annang families there are professors, doctors, masters’ holders, and others in various professions. annang’ proverbs annang proverbs are wise sayings that guide mainly the social and moral lifestyles of the annang people. there are many types of annang proverbs. for me, annang proverbs are grouped based on the functions they perform. they are resistible and irresistible proverbs, predictive and non-predictive proverbs, redeemable and irredeemable proverbs. the predictive proverbs are those that the speakers can forecast their outcomes while the non-predictive ones are those that the future occurrence cannot be known. the resistible proverbs are uttered to warn the intenders to resist from impending danger while the irresistible ones are those used in situations, where those addressed cannot resist the danger, even though ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 184 they want to. in other words, they are destined proverbs. the redeemable proverbs, as the name implies are those ones that can be remedied while the irredeemable means those that cannot be redeemed. this applies mainly to situations and not destinies as applied to irresistible cases. theoretical framework pragmatics pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that incorporates the speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior, philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology. osisanwo (2003) observes that pragmatics includes the following: (i) the message being communicated; (ii) the participants involved in the message; (iii) the knowledge of the world which they share; (iv) the deductions to be made from the text on the basis of the context; (v) the implications of what is said or what is left unsaid; and (vi) the impact of the non-verbal aspect of interaction on meaning. (51) from the foregoing, context is very crucial in interpreting what is meant. griffiths (2006) differentiating semantics from pragmatics, observes that if one deals with meaning without contexts, one is therefore doing semantics “but if there is a context to be brought into consideration” (6), then one is engaged in pragmatics. mey (2001) avers that pragmatics extends its analysis of meaning beyond words, phrases, clauses and sentences. it also analyses the relationship between the participants and the background knowledge that participants bring into the situations under discourse. pragmatics deals with the analysis of meanings in interactions. griffiths (2006) submits that it is the study of utterance meaning. pragmatics is relevant to our study because it centres on culture and our study is a typical research based on annang people’s proverbs, an aspect of annnag’s culture. it is only a subset of pragmatics that is applicable to this work; and these are its contexts, possible interpretations of utterances using the contextual information (i.e. explicatures) and implicatures of annang proverbs. anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 185 methodology this paper adopts two methods namely; telephone conversation and interview as its instruments for data collection. telephone conversation was made to a research assistant who is an annang lady; who resides in ikot ekpene. the researcher sent her research conversations to her through her whatsup to the assistant’s whatsup. the research assistant then converse with many annang speakers and forwarded the conversations to the researcher who then pruned them, and randomly selected 10 proverbs from telephone conversations and 10 proverbs form the interview she (the researcher) conducted in lagos where she resides. the annang speakers from ikot ekpene (ik) constitute the sample for this study. the annang people were selected because they are the original owners of annang language. being the bonafide owners of annang language, they have in-depth knowledge of almost the neglected annang proverbs in their language. convenient sampling technique and simple randomisation were applied to choose the respondents, the scope and the sample for this paper. data from the telephone conversation were coded and analyzed based on pragmatics. in addition to this, responses from the interview were analyzed descriptively. the two sets of data were then used to answer the research questions. data presentation and analysis: excerpts from telephone conversations and interview data are first presented in annang before they are translated in nigerian english and analysed using pragmatics. arabic numerals are used for data, “net” (nigerian english translation) is used for translation in nigerian english and “ana” is used for analysis. all the participants are annang speakers. the semantic or literal meanings of each annang proverb provide the bases for their explicatures and implicatures. 1. awo akute uruk-ikot ke iso essien mkpok idun amo , abohiyo akpon anun amanake abo ke ibeheke emo, idionoke ibo k’uruk-ikot ade asana aka esit ufok amo. net: he who sees a live snake in his neighbour’s compound and passes by does not know that that snake is moving directly to his living room. ana: this proverb is usually said to those who are not concerned about the difficulties that others are passing through. the linguistic context shows the utterance between two people, a concerned person to a carefree ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 186 individual. the non-linguistic context is that the use of snake indicates any unpleasant situation which can occur to anyone at any time. the background knowledge comes in here because the speaker is an experienced person who knows exactly what life offers. the implicature of this utterance is to deter the listener from putting a nonchalant attitude toward others. the speaker of this has a cordial relationship with the listener. the listener may infer that the speaker has either positive or negative intention toward him or her. 2. etono ke uyen edion ayop adiye eti ayan. net: the palm fronds that would be good for making brooms start being good from the tender age. ana: the “palm fronds” stands for people, things or objects. the annangs believe that any person that will make it in life must start doing well in his or her childhood. if things work out well at its inception, it is believed that it will end well. this proverb actually violates the belief that one cannot predict the future. the implication of this is that it discourages waste of time and encourages people to do the right thing at the right time. the listeners may give both positive and negative inferences to this. on the one hand, if the person spoken to has already found some things irredeemable in his/her life, he/she may feel that there is no way out for him/her. on the other hand, a young person who has made it in life will be happy to conclude that all will be well throughout his life time; this is a typical pragmatic disambiguation displayed in this proverb. 3. ndiyon akabak isan ikpon, anye adad uwak ntokayen. net: plantain was afraid of walking alone; so, when it was the time for it to come to the world, it came with plenty children. ana: “ndiyon” is a unique annang’s word; a typical ibibio man or woman, for instance, will pronounce it as “ukom”. the pronunciation of “ukom” is quite different from annang’s “ndiyon” ; the articulation of “ndiyon” is embellished with beauty, weight, interest, homour and meaning. “ndiyon’ has a multifunctional interpretations depending on it linguistic, non-linguistic and social contexts. it could stand for a married person, a project at hand or any person. if it refers to a married person who is still expecting children in the marriage, it may cause anxiety but if it refers to a person who has children, such a person will be fulfilled. its implicature therefore, is for those concerned to have productivities; and anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 187 the inferences can be both positive and negative depending on the listeners. 4. nti ofon isisioho uyo k’akebe; ndio ese sio net: good clothes do not make noises in the box; the worst ones do so. ana: this proverb has an inherent pragmatic disambiguation; it is always uttered to those who are either proud or haughty. its implicature is to remind the proud ones of their emptiness with a view to preventing them from doing so. the listener may interpret it for jealousy or takes it as a warning to desist from pride. 5. nko awo akpapa anye aboko atibe eyen net: it is only when someone dies that he or she can boast of having two eyes. ana: this proverb means that it is only the dead that are precluded from calamities. its implicature is that one should be ready to face any form of trouble anytime in life. this is one of the predicative proverbs prevalent in ananng community. its intention is to make people ready to face problems especially death. 6. ebu ufok asekedoko ebu ikot abo k’ndidia mmo ke akobod asine net: it is the inside rat that goes outside to inform the outside rats that there is food in the cupboard. ana: this is one of the predictable, irredeemable and irresistible proverbs; clearly issued to ingrates who reward their benefactors negatively. the implication of this is to reprimand the evil doers to refrain from evil. 7. ubono, ubono afid ifono akani iba net: it is not good to shit purging shits twice. ana: this means that disgraceful situations are not good to be repeated. this leads to different explicatures. first, if the addressee is already facing a shameful situation, he will probably interpret this as, “this is very shameful; don’t allow it to happen again.” secondly, if the addressee is not experiencing a scandalous situation, it may mean that he is reminded to be careful so that he doesn’t’ engage in any despicable situation. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 188 8. ese ekere ebo ke nsad eto adi ito ikpa, ede nsek ato akpa net: people always think that it is the dry branch of a plant that will first die but the freshly parts are those that will first die. ana: the pragmatic interpretation of this proverb means that what people do not always expect are what normally happen to them. this proverb has innumerable contexts that fit into the proverbs. the implicature of this is for the addressee to always prepare for the unusual. he can infer from here that he should comport himself very well when the unexpected occurs. he can also interpret it to mean that the unanticipated can happen to anyone at anytime. so the contexts in which this proverb occurs facilitate its disambiguation 9. ayen amana ke isong urua, ete eka fot ukot net: the baby is already born in the market place; they now tell the mother to cover her legs. ana: this is a lamentable proverb over a painful experience that cannot be remedied. this proverb can be uttered any time an irredeemable occurance takes place. the “baby” here represents any ugly situation. the implicature is that the addressee has to accept the situation; the intention of the addresser is to ensure that the addressee realises the pathetic condition he or she finds himself or herself. the addressee may infer that the addresser sympathises with him or he is realistic about the addressee’s irredeemable condition. 10. edim akpan iwan, ikpanna urua net: rain normally stops people from going to the farm and not those who are going to the market. ana: the explicature of “farm” here could mean any significant event while “the market” is an unimportant event or activity. “rain” is any obstacle or discouragement that may hamper the smooth advancement of an individual. this proverb is always uttered by a speaker himself or herself as a source of encouragement to forge ahead. 11. awo nkara nkara, abasi nkara nkara net: a cunny man normally meets a cunning god. ana: it is an irresistible proverb for dubious people to stop their crooked activities. it spells out the retributions for evil. it’s semantic interpretation anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 189 means that whatever anyone sows that will he reap or a biblical expression, “ an eye for an eye, or tooth for tooth ” (exodus 21:24) . the context of cruelty denotes the level of punishment that the addressee will be made to go through. the “cunning god” here could mean any context that will relinquish punishment for a wicked person. 12. awo aseke fehe nkpo asekewot ndon awo anannake ayin net: it is always the coward that points the dilapidated compound of the fearless man to people. ana: the explicatures of this proverb are multifunctional, the word “coward” can be referred to careful people, hardworking individual, visionaries, planners, etc. they are said to be those whose dreams, works, visions, plans and activities are going to last longer than the haughty and visionless people. the implicature is that the sender intends to encourage people to be positive and be creative thinkers and doers. 13. awo awotowo ke ofut adipa ke ofun. net: whoever kills by matchets will die by matchets ana: the pragmatic interpretation of this expression is that anyone who thinks of evil against another person shall also encounter evil. the implicature is to discourage people from occupying their minds with negative thoughts. 14. awo asinne afia ke abasin adidiono ananga asana asio afia do. net: he who puts a trap inside a basket will be the person who will know how to remove it. ana: this also has possible multifunctional interpretations depending on the contexts; for example, if it is used for a man who has impregnated a lady without paying the bride price, the parents of the lady may use this proverb for the man to explain to him that the same way he impregnated the lady, will be the same way that he will meet them to pay the bride price and at the same time helps the lady to be delivered of the baby safely. the implicature is to remind people that whatever negative things they do, they will be the ones that will correct or amend them; so they should not venture into them. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 190 15. akepde mma diono mmo ke ufok ito adi kappa urua, mkpa kesine ufa iba net: if i had known that toilet will become a public market place, i will have won a new pant ana: this proverb also has many explicatures depending on its contexts which are quite unique. it is a lamentable proverb, literarily interpreted as , “had i known.” it is a self-directed proverb, uttered to indicate the regrettable state of the speaker. for instance, if the speaker suddenly becomes partially rich as a result of the little efforts he puts into his business, he may utter this proverbs to lament his irreversible situation. its intention is to show self-encouragement for better productivity. 16. nyen udon asetie ke nte eka atie net: the pestle always sits where its mother sits. ana: the “pestle” here means the loyalists or one’s children, relatives or friends. the intention is to encourage unity and togetherness. the addressees will be encouraged to be supportive. 17. awo abiahake nnan abeneidem adide nnam. net: he who cheats the blind is preparing to be blind. ana: this means that people should not ill-treat the less privileged ones because there are laws of distributive judgment. its implicature is to deter people from being evil. 18. afon ebobob ubok emum ntatam mbak edibom idip net: it is good to fold one’s hands very well when one holds a cricket in order not to burst out its stomach. ana: this means that one needs to be very careful when dealing with or handling crucial issues/matters in order not to complicate the issues. its implication is to enable people to be very careful in dealing with complex issues. 19. k’ito ke anunune afid unen yak ewa aketibe ayen. net: it should not be as a result of the hen’s smelling shits that a dog suddenly loses it eyes. anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 191 ana: this proverb also has innumerous interpretations; for example, it means that one should not get hurt in an attempt to settling other people’s disputes. its intention is to call for wisdom in settling cases. 20. k’ukpon ufiat ke iba owo nwen. net: don’t be excessively fat (obsessive) in other people pants. ana: this proverb has several pragmatic meanings; for example, it can be used to a mother in-law who takes over the management of her son’s family as if it were hers or to a sister, who, instead of getting married, confiscates her father’s property as if it were hers. the daughter-in-law, for example, may tell the mother-in-law that she should not control her and her husband. this is intended to make people know that they should have total control of their property and not that of others. findings from the analyses of annang proverbs, the following findings were made: i. annang proverbs are mainly multifunctional and unique; each can be interpreted in different contexts to mean different things depending on the participants. ii. annang proverbs are harmonious and purgative ; capable of making people excited and removing burdens from the listeners. iii. annang proverbs can function as encouragement agents to someone who faces distractions or difficulties. iv. annang proverbs are replete with inherent pragmatic disambiguation. v. some annang proverbs have only two interpretations, for the good and the bad. vi. many annang proverbs are mainly used to warn people to desist from evil in order to avoid danger or impending doom. vii. few proverbs are self-directed proverbs aimed at checking self activities. conclusion and recommendations the annangs, the second largest ethnic group of people located in the eight local governments in akwaibom, are cultural group of people who are endowed with the gift of good and organised speeches. their speeches are embellished with innate orations and proverbs of which renditions are always harmonious, interesting and replete with semantic and pragmatics interpretations. this work investigates the annang’s proverbs with a view ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 192 to indicating that annangs’ cultural heritages may be rejuvenated and strengthened through the usage of these proverbs. the study recommends that annang proverbs should be used constantly and consistently in necessary official and unofficial contexts. it also recommends that there should be a paradigm shift from its usage mainly by the elders and leaders to its usage by everybody including the women and the youth; it is believed that its usage may attempt to revitalise and sustain the rich annang proverbs. references adedun, e.a. the use of english for academic purposes. lagos: university of lagos press. 2012 adegoju, a. “rhetoric in conflict related yoruba proverbs: a guide to constructive conflict resolutions in africa.” african study monographs, 30(2) 55-59, 2009 adetugbo, a. “problems of standardisation and nigerian english phonology” in (eds) dadzie, a. b. k and awonusi, s. (2004). nigerian english: influences and characteristics. lagos: concept publications limited. 2004 akere, f. “nigerian english in sociolinguistic perspectives: users, uses and emerging varieties in (eds) dadzie, a. b. k and awonusi, s. (2004). nigerian english: influences and characteristics. lagos: concept publications limited. 2004 akporobaro, f. b. o. (ed) . introduction to african oral literature. lagos: princeton publishing company. 2006. alofe, v . “the translation of yoruba proverbs in wole soyinka’s the forest of a thousand demons” in akporobaro, f.b.o. etal ( eds). landnark and new essays in literary & linguistic theories and analysis. lagos: princeton publishing co. 2010 ajani, t. t. . “is there indeed a “nigerian english” in journal of humanities and social sciences, vol.1 http://www.scientific journal retrieved on 1/11/2016, 2007. ajeigbe, o. “literary influence of some authors on nigerian english”. in (eds) dadzie, a. b. k and awonusi, s. 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(2004). nigerian english: influences and characteristics. lagos: concept publications limited. 2004.. exodus 21: 24 from king james version of the holy bible anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 193 egbe, d. mastering english and communication skills. lagos: tisons limited. 2003 ette. https://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane. blogspot.com/2013/06/annang-people-nigerias-artistic-people. html. 2008 griffiths, p. an introduction to english semantics and pragmatics. edinburgh: edinburgh university press. 2006. http://afudmbongannang.org/ammamg-nation-history retrieved on 2/11/2016 https://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/food-travel/annang-a-brief-walk-into-thehistory-belief-and-economy-of-one-of-africas-wisest/svp8s38 https://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2013/06/annangpeople-nigerias-artistic-people.html jegede, o. “reconstructing social and cultureal reality” proverbs and post proverbials in selected nigerian literary works.” proverbium (25), 179-198,2008 lamidi, m. t. “ the structure if textual of english translation of yoruba and igbo proverbs.” journal of language and translation , 9, 61-9, 2008. meider, w. a handbook. usa: greenwood press. 2004. mensah, e. o. “a morphosytactic analysis of efik proverbs.” glossa: an interdisciplinary journal , 250-280, 2010 okadiadi, n. a. status and use of an indigenous language.2009. okoro, o. “the identification of standard nigerian english usage” in (eds) dadzie, a. b. k and awonusi, s. (2004). nigerian english: influences and characteristics. lagos: concept publications limited, 2004. ohwovoriola, f. and omoru, j. “a literary survery of african oral performance” in (eds) adedun, e. a and sekyi-baisoo, y englsih studies in focus reading in language and literature. ghana: faculty of languages, university of education, 2004 ojaide, t. “urhobo proverbs and maxims” in ojaide and aziza (eds) . urhobo language today, 2007. oyemelukwe, n.h and alo, m. a. “making nigerian english pedagogy a reality” in american journal of linguistics, vol 4, no.1, 2015, pp 11-17 spolsky, b. “ferguson and fishman: sociolinguistics and the sociology of language” in history of sociolinguistics. https://en. wikipedia.org.wiki/sociolinguistics. retrieved on 17/11/2016, 2010 tadi, n. (eds). “ a contextual analysis of the pedagogical functions of proverbs in tangle society.” in atoye, r. o. (eds). papers in english and linguistics vol 7&8 uses of proverbs @http://informationparlour. retrieved on 1/11/2016, 2007. ama: journal of theatre and cultural studies 194 w https://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/anaang _people retrieved on 2/11/2016 yule, g. ed. the study of language. new york: cambridge university press. 1996. appendix 1: excerpt from one of the telephone conversations section a: preliminary section the researcher : hello! the respondent: hello! the researcher: how are you? the respondent: hello, i am fine the research: please i will like to discuss with you based on the previous interactions will had on the information about my research work. the respondent: hello, the researcher: are you ready to respond to my conversations the respondent: yes, of course the researchers’ conversations are found in sections b and c below. section b: nigerian english please answer “yes” or “no” from these (closed)questions sn statements yes no 1. is there nigerian english? 2. do you prefer nigerian english to british english? 3. do you consider nigerian users of nigerian english as illiterates? 4. is nigerian english spoken by many nigerians in your locality? 5. do you enjoy when people use nigerian english? section c: annang proverbs open questions s/n statements 6. annang proverbs have not been fully used by annang people 7. annang proverbs add humour to speeches 8. people are interested and satisfied when they listen to annang proverbs 9 it is ideal to just speak in plain language rather than using annang proverbs 10. annang proverbs help us to sustain speeches anana mariam revitalisation and sustainability of annang proverbs through its usability 195 appendix 2: (except from one of the interviewees) name : mrs roseline pius age: 45 language: annang the researcher: do you use proverbs in your daily interactions? the interviewee: no, but i use it rarely the researcher: why interviewee: ikpo wo ese etata iko (proverbs are meant for the elders) the researcher: how do you get the proverbs that you sometimes use? the interview: ami nde ayen yen obong ( i am from the descendant of the king) the researcher: can you tell me some of the proverbs that you think may go into extinction if not utilize daily? annang proverbs collected through interview and their interpretations are shown in the table below sn annang proverbs interpretations i. ubok mum, ubok mum anye aben ekpat collective effort or team work results in fast productivity ii aboboho afid ifono akaniba it is not good to be disgraced repeatedly iii. nko awo akpapa anye aboko atibe eyen until someone dies before he is freed from calamities in the world. untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 page 22 page 23 page 24 page 25 page 26 page 27 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 page 22 page 23 page 24 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 page 22 page 23 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 page 22 page 23 page 24 page 25 page 26 page 27 page 28 page 29 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 page 22 page 23 page 24 page 25 page 26 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 page 22 page 23 page 24 page 25 untitled-1 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 page 22 page 23 page 24 page 25 page 26 page 27 page 28 