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THE MARKETING MIX AND SUSTAINABLE CREATIVE 

INDUSTRIES IN NIGERIA:  THE CARNIVAL CALABAR 

AS PARADIGM 

 
Nwadigwe, Francisca  A. PhD 

Department of Theatre and Film Studies,  

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria. Email:  

f.nwadigwe@unizik.edu.ng 

 

Abstract 

The economic potential of carnivals as a product of cultural tourism 

is immense. The cultural tourism subsector can yield substantial 

revenue and raise Nigeria’s GDP.  This research examined the 

marketing strategies adopted for carnivals using the Carnival 

Calabar programme as a paradigm, it explored ways of improving 

the status quo for optimal results. Hence, Philip Kotler’s 7Ps 

marketing mix was applied in interrogating the problem. The study 

adopted the participant observation method for primary data 

collection. It was found that though Carnival Calabar is a model in 

cultural tourism promotion in Nigeria, the fiesta still costs the 

government a lot due to ineffective marketing strategies that fail to 

generate enough revenue from the private sector. The study 

recommends a policy review to give the private sector a free hand 

to manage and market the carnival while the government focuses 

more on making supportive policies and creating an enabling 

environment for the cultural sector to grow.  It concludes that if the 

present marketing structure is decentralized and revised to apply 

the 7ps marketing mix and “push and pull” concept, Calabar 

Carnival would actualize its potential as an economic resource for 

the people and their government. 

 

Introduction: The Carnival and Marketing Objectives 

The carnival is not only a theatrical and cultural event but 

equally a product. However, theatre scholars often concentrate on 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

24 

 

the costumes, visual designs and aesthetic spectacle that 

characterize the carnival presentation and give less research 

attention to the marketing of carnival as an artistic product.  Indeed, 

marketing this cultural product requires many creative approaches. 

The cardinal factor to be noted in this regard by the promoters is 

the need for adequate planning. Developing a marketing plan for 

the carnival event requires proper marketing research and 

application of the marketing mix to achieve effective results 

(Kotler 25). 

Following global best practices, carnival producers often 

make some initial investments to enhance the marketing project. 

This includes funding for market research, publicity and 

promotions, public relations, opening and maintenance of sales 

outlets outside the carnival destination (liaison offices), security 

arrangements and audience engineering approaches. These 

measures will constitute part of the unique selling points of the 

carnival product. 

Professional carnival marketers usually develop a 

marketing strategy based on their knowledge of their target 

consumers. This will be shaped by the results obtained from their 

thorough market surveys or audience research. The application of 

the marketing mix helps the carnival production team to strategize 

and put their product at the right place, time, and price. According 

to Philip Kotler, a marketing mix is a powerful tool that is hinged 

on a Seven-P (7Ps) pedestal. These 7Ps often associated with 

marketing in the service industry are “Product, Price, Place, 

Promotion, People, Process and Physical Evidence” (9). 

The carnival event falls within the service industrial 

subsector but its unique appeal is that consumers do not pay 

directly to the producers. On the other hand, the consumers pay 

indirectly for the product and the value is spread across various 

sectors and ancillary service providers in both public and private 

sectors. Some of the dividends are immediate such as payment for 

goods purchased and services enjoyed during the carnival 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

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programme. But some of the gains are indirect and take some time 

to materialize, such as new business investments, bilateral trade 

agreements and subsequent employment of people in the 

tourism/carnival destination community. The marketing mix can be 

applied to carnival marketing as follows. 

 

Product 

In applying the 7Ps marketing mix to carnival marketing, 

the producers could first consider the Product; the carnival 

performance itself, and ensure that it is properly packaged and has 

qualitative content enough to attract tourists and give them value 

for their money. Kotler observes that there is nothing more 

frustrating and counterproductive than trying to market a bad 

product. In one of his famous quotes reprinted on the cover of his 

book, Kotler explains that: 

 

Marketing is not the art of finding clever ways to dispose 

of what you make. Marketing is the art of creating genuine 

customer value. It is the art of helping your customer 

become better off. The marketer’s watchwords are quality, 

service and value. (cover page) 

 

Following this principle, product patronage is expected to 

add value and be sustainable. 

 

Price 

On the factor of Price, the carnival marketers could focus 

on support services in the host city to reduce the cost of visitors’ 

stay and participation in the carnival programmes. For instance, if 

transportation, accommodation, food and souvenirs are available, 

accessible and affordable in the host locality, then the carnival has 

the potential of attracting more tourists. The combination and 

application of the marketing mix would expectedly enhance the 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

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patronage of the carnival product at the right price, particularly 

from international customers. 

 

Place 

The Place is the location of the service being marketed. The 

carnival host city or environment will need to be part of the 

marketing campaign. The carnival destination should be easily 

accessed through air, rail, road, and water transportation where 

possible and at affordable costs. According to Stephen Page, 

tourism officials often overlook “the contribution of economics and 

geography to the analysis of tourism transport”. Similarly, 

practitioners including researchers do not often see and analyze the 

link between tourist transport and marketing. Page thus observes 

that “in the case of marketing, the number of studies focused on 

tourist transport is limited because there is a tendency for 

marketing to be more visible and result-oriented than based on the 

impact of transportation or academic analysis of good practice” 

(61). On their part, Horner and Swarbrooke affirm that: 

 

The diversity of transport modes used in tourism (i.e. air, 

rail, water, road and off-road transport) makes it difficult to 

generalize about transport and marketing. This is further 

complicated by the private, public and voluntary sector 

organizations involved in transport for tourism that all have 

different marketing objectives. (319) 

  

Therefore, even though the transportation is controlled by 

various operators, it should still be considered as part of the 

carnival package because good and affordable access to the 

carnival venues is a selling point. Following the “Push and Pull” 

concept of tourism as advanced by Crompton, transportation 

consideration is vital in attracting tourists to a place and can be one 

of the “pull factors” that should be exploited in marketing the 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

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carnival event (411). Since a venue can make the event, the carnival 

place itself should be clean, safe and attractive to tourists. 

 

Promotion 

Promotion is at the heart of marketing. This will involve 

various techniques of direct and indirect advertising campaigns 

using traditional and new media channels such as print, radio, 

television, and social media as well as other Internet-based 

platforms to promote the carnival event. Page observes that tourism 

promotion generally can be situated midway between advertising, 

public relations and propaganda. Since “promotional material and 

advertising campaigns constitute a major investment in time, 

money and creative thinking, with companies reluctant to highlight 

good practice that might undermine their future business potential, 

the tourism marketers combine different advertising and 

promotional techniques to highlight their selling points and mask 

their challenges” (62). 

 

People 

A carnival event is about people and their cultural 

productions and heritage. Thus, marketing a carnival product is not 

merely the promotion of a cultural event located at a place but also 

the projecting of the people and their positive values as part of that 

cultural fiesta. The carnival marketers could focus on the positive 

attributes of the local communities, their proud history, heritage, 

hospitality, unique traditions, peaceful disposition and warm 

reception of visitors. This is complemented by an attitudinal 

reorientation programmed for the people to adopt friendly attitudes 

towards visitors, especially during the carnival period. 

 

Process 

The Process of the carnival can also be built into the overall 

marketing strategy, beginning from the planning meetings and 

workshops, media interactive programmes, the stages of the 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

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rehearsals, costume design and production processes, the 

processional Dry Runs and the launch of the programme of 

activities before the Opening Day. Each stage of the carnival 

programme and production process offers a diversity of materials 

to marketers with immense potential for promoting the event and 

stimulating the artistic appetite of potential tourists. 

 

Physical Evidence 

Physical Evidence is the root of marketing in the service 

industry because it provides the conviction required by potential 

patrons to use the service. Unlike products which could be 

distributed, tested and confirmed in different parts of the world, the 

service industry needs the patron to visit the location and use the 

service. The physical evidence of the carnival marketing campaign 

lies in the testimonial techniques. This should focus on the 

testimony of different tourists from various regions, countries and 

cultures who have visited, participated in the carnival programmes 

and are not only satisfied but willing and eager to visit again. 

Therefore, marketing the carnival event is not only about 

securing funding partners and service support agencies; it is mainly 

about making the event an attractive brand that will yield returns 

on investments. 

 

Marketing the Calabar Carnival 

The Calabar Carnival is a programme of artistic and 

cultural activities that are hosted in the city of Calabar, Cross River 

State, Nigeria. The event takes place in December, lasting for one 

month, and culminating in the main carnival event, tagged “Street 

Party” which features a procession of hundreds of performers, 

drawn from five major Bands, dressed in colourful, magnificent 

and peculiar costumes accompanied with music and dance (Odigha 

8). The Calabar Carnival has become an annual programme since 

2004, managed by the Calabar Carnival Commission with the 

support of other government agencies in Cross River State. 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

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Although the five official Bands are responsible for raising funds 

and managing their participation and activities, it is the Carnival 

Commission that manages the entire programme with the 

Executive Secretary of the Commission serving as the Director. 

The Commission is primarily responsible for marketing the 

carnival events, raising funds, supporting the Bands, setting rules 

and standards, negotiating sponsorship and entering into 

partnership agreements with various local and international groups 

and agencies. 

Over the years, the Carnival Commission has adopted a 

marketing policy and pattern which focuses on steadily increasing 

the involvement of the private sector in funding the programme and 

attracting more international partners and participants by 

increasing the global media visibility of the events through 

promotional strategies. The idea was to reduce the financial burden 

on the State government which had been a major financier of the 

programme since inception. 

The cardinal marketing policy of the Commission is to treat 

Carnival Calabar as a brand, a product that will be patronized by 

individuals, agencies and corporate organizations and thus yield 

dividends in different ways. The government believes that the 

carnival is the property of Cross River people hence the dividends 

obtainable from the programme should primarily circulate among 

the citizens in different ways such as youth empowerment, 

increased return on private investments, employment 

opportunities, and increased sales and higher turnover in the 

patronage of goods and services offered by residents. 

A marketing objective of the Commission is to reduce the 

amount of taxpayers’ money that goes into the running of the 

carnival programme. In addition, the carnival is projected to attract 

foreign and local investors to boost the economy of the State to the 

benefit of the people. The Commission, therefore, focuses on 

selling the carnival to corporate organisations who take up 

sponsorship deals in return for publicity and patronage of their 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

30 

 

products and services by the public. As a project of the State 

government, the underlying idea is that its patronage and 

sponsorship by the corporate establishments will also bring the 

sponsors some goodwill and enhance their chances of doing 

business with the government. 

 

Critical Perspectives 

A critical evaluation of the Carnival Calabar marketing 

policy shows some shortcomings which affect their ultimate impact 

on the creative industry and the local people. The ideal marketing 

objective should have been to move the carnival away from 

government bureaucratic control and make it private-sector driven. 

The Commission is an agency of the State and still relies on the 

government for many things, including funds. As a product, the 

carnival should be a marketable brand and the programme should 

be self-sustaining. Even though the Bands are funded by private 

sources, including the procurement of their costumes and 

accessories which is capital intensive, the Commission struggles 

yearly to raise funds to run the carnival programmes. Hence, the 

government often comes in to assist by mandating different 

agencies of the State to offer their services free to enable the 

carnival to survive. Many of these agencies such as CRBC, 

Cultural Centre Board, Calabar Municipal and all Local 

Government Councils, Clean and Green Agency, State Tourism 

Board, and others, including security agencies, will still need the 

assistance of the government to be able to deliver the required 

services during the carnival period. 

The pricing of the carnival product is also another challenge 

in its marketing approach. Since the product is intangible, the 

marketers do not have a standard value for each prospective 

sponsor. The amount of publicity given to all sponsors is virtually 

the same, despite the amounts they contributed. The only 

difference is that such companies like Dangote Group and First 

Bank Plc are regarded as “major” sponsors for the year but their 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

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company flags, logos and billboards are displayed alongside other 

“minor” sponsors. From business analysis, this may not encourage 

future investment as investors usually analyze the actual and 

potential returns on investments before committing funds in future. 

The only difference between the “major” and “minor” sponsors is 

in the potential recognition and patronage which such “major” 

sponsors could get from the State government in future. There 

should be a clear difference in the publicity and business deals 

offered to major and minor sponsors to encourage investors. 

Furthermore, the partnerships should have a value to the 

Commission which can be monetized and thereby reducible to 

specific amounts. But at present, the Carnival Commission’s 

foreign partners constitute some financial strain to the 

establishment. The Commission has to raise money and pay them 

for their services, often in foreign currency, then pay for their flight 

tickets, accommodation and daily maintenance when they arrive. 

But, if the relationship is a “partnership”, and not patronage, it 

raises a question about what the partners are giving the 

Commission in return. The marketers of the carnival will need to 

analyze the financial implications of their partnerships and work 

towards a better deal that will bring in foreign investment as well. 

It was expected that the local professionals would take over from 

the foreign partners after a few years of mentorship, to save costs 

but this has not happened yet. 

The reputation of Calabar, the venue of the carnival, as a 

clean, safe, serene and hospitable city has endured over the years 

even before the carnival programme was initiated. Indeed, it 

appears the carnival benefits from this status and image of Calabar 

city. Hence, the marketers have not done much to sell the city. It 

was expected that marketing deals could have been explored with 

airlines, road transport companies, and Inland Waterways to offer 

special services during the carnival period and add value and 

additional attraction to the event. At present, these organizations 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

32 

 

merely make profits from the carnival event due to increased 

patronage but do not give something back to support the event. 

The Carnival Commission has put in place, a network of 

promotional activities to market the carnival to investors and 

tourists. This ranges from direct advertising to public relations and 

product promotions using the traditional mass media, satellite 

television channels, carnival website, Tourism Board website, 

press agentry and associated publicity strategies. The objective is 

to keep the carnival alive in the minds of target audiences all 

through the year. The promotional activities heighten and reach a 

peak in the last quarter of the year.  

However, field observations show that the promotional 

activities for the carnival are virtually inactive until the last quarter 

when they are activated using the carnival theme launch, which is 

a media event, as a springboard. The promotions are gradually 

increased as December approaches. This faulty marketing strategy 

may be attributed to insufficient funds. Throsby emphasized the 

economic importance and implications of planning and early 

decision-making for tourists before choosing a tourist destination 

to visit (12). The carnival promotion should be active on prime-

time television all through the year, to keep them in the 

consciousness of the target tourists to enable them to plan towards 

patronizing the brand. It was also observed that the promoters are 

not using frontline satellite television channels like CNN, BBC and 

ALJAZEERA for a wider global audience reach which will attract 

more international tourists and potential investors. This is the norm 

across many countries in the world that market their tourism 

potential. 

The people of Cross River State, as the hosts of Carnival 

Calabar, regard the fiesta with some pride due to its relative success 

and popularity. But the marketing strategies for the carnival should 

also focus on youth empowerment to give the people sustainable 

livelihood all through the year rather than targeting bumper sales 

during the carnival period only. The marketing strategy should aim 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

33 

 

at binding foreign partners from alienating the local community but 

to localize and domesticate their expertise and technology to enable 

the local people such as artisans, designers and other creative artists 

to become more involved in the carnival productions. Indeed:  

 

African carnival executives could where necessary, hire the 

services of foreign experts to teach new or emerging 

technologies to local designers. The Indigenous designers 

can then teach the skills and techniques to others. This train-

the-trainers approach will engender sustainability in the 

industry, develop the local human capital and save the much-

needed foreign exchange which can then be ploughed back 

into other sectors of the creative industry. (Nwadigwe and 

Nwadigwe 57) 

 

In this regard, the marketing campaign for the carnival 

would include selling the indigenous creativity, productive 

endeavour and artistic heritage of the local people thereby enabling 

them to take full ownership of the carnival. A cultural product does 

not exist in isolation. It is a part of the people that create it, their 

identity and heritage. Hence, marketing a carnival is invariably 

marketing the host city and its people who all together make the 

carnival fiesta brand by creating a warm and friendly atmosphere 

for visitors. The tourist can thereafter go back to testify that they 

had a great experience at the carnival. This becomes a credible 

testimonial and a strong selling point to market the carnival to 

others. It is the physical evidence that customers need to convince 

them to patronize a product or service in future. 

 

Policy Directions 

The staging of a carnival is capital-intensive and therefore 

requires a sustainable funding structure to thrive. As an annual 

event, there are always some expectations that each year’s 

production should equal or surpass that of the previous year in 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

34 

 

terms of glamour, creativity, attendance and organizational 

standard. This requires more work in aggressive marketing, 

increased funding and prudent management of resources. 

Carnival programmes across the globe are predominantly 

private-sector driven. Governments cannot sustainably carry the 

funding responsibility every year without a serious impact on their 

statutory duties to their citizens given competing demands in other 

sectors of the economy. This is a major reason why some State 

governments in Nigeria were unable to sustain or even launch their 

carnival programmes despite their lofty objectives and attractive 

concepts. A government that is struggling to pay workers’ salaries 

can hardly consider the funding of carnivals as a priority. 

There is therefore the need for policy directions and re-

focusing to give the private sector the job of managing the carnival 

while the government focuses on making supportive policies and 

creating the enabling environment for the cultural sector to grow. 

Even in situations where a public–private partnership exists, the 

government should not go into yearly funding of carnivals, 

especially in developing countries where resources are lean and the 

political climate unstable. The danger is that it may not be 

sustainable because if subsequent governments fail to finance the 

carnival project, the programme will fold up, to the detriment of 

practitioners in the industry. 

The Calabar Carnival needs competent and creative 

marketers who must set high targets that will be pursued 

aggressively. The present marketing structure, concentrated on 

Okhma Global Limited which is the official marketing company 

for the carnival, is not quite effective. Hence the Commission keeps 

going to the State government to bail them out financially. A 

revised funding policy is required to make the carnival self-

sustaining and yield profits in due course. The Commission should 

rethink the monopoly of Okhma Global Limited and decentralize 

the marketing structure. One way to achieve this is by breaking the 

carnival programme into segments and inviting other marketers to 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

35 

 

come into the programme through a transparent bidding process. 

With different companies marketing the various segments and 

events of the programme, there will be healthy competition among 

them and this will likely produce better results for the Commission. 

In doing this, marketing team(s) should seriously consider applying 

the 7Ps marketing mix which gets good results in service 

industries. 

The partnership agreements being entered into by the 

Carnival Commission should ideally be part of the marketing 

strategies. Hence, it should give profitable deals to the Commission 

rather than draining its resources. The foreign partners should, as a 

clause in the agreements, train local artists, producers and 

managers over a specified period to develop their skills to become 

experts and self-reliant. This will in the future yield significant 

dividends by saving the huge funds being spent on foreign partners 

every year as well as empowering the local people sustainably. This 

model is also suggested for the Bands that still import their 

costumes, accessories and designers either from abroad or outside 

the State. It is a welcome development that some new Bands such 

as CalasVegas are coming into the Carnival Calabar programme 

but they should focus their marketing strategies on creating 

homegrown models and continue to build the capacity of local 

designers, artists and artisans to make their skills marketable 

beyond the carnival season. 

The new marketing policy being suggested for Carnival 

Calabar should explore the possibility of exploiting local resources 

in production designs and service delivery. For instance, local 

transport operators can be brought in to give special services to 

registered tourists at a reduced cost. Such tourists may need to pay, 

register online and get slips or numbered tags for easy 

identification on arrival. This strategy can be extended to airlines, 

inter-state transporters and city shuttles. The ease of movement will 

not only attract more visitors but yield additional revenue for the 

Commission through a percentage-sharing formula. It equally 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

36 

 

makes the local people feel proud as part owners of the carnival 

fiesta. 

The Commission is currently diversifying the programmes 

of the carnival such as introducing the Food Fair, Bikers Festival 

and Old Skool Costume Parade. This is a step in the right direction. 

But the Commission and its marketers should also explore the 

opportunities that abound in the aquatic entertainment subsector. 

Calabar is a coastal city with abundant water resources such as 

creeks, rivers, harbour and the Atlantic Ocean. The waterfronts can 

be exploited to introduce aquatic events such as boat regattas, 

pleasure cruises for tourists, swimming competitions, and seafood 

bazaars. Globally, the water-based funfair is known to attract a lot 

of foreign tourists and Calabar has immense potential in that 

regard. Smith affirms that the “diversification of tourism products” 

ultimately leads to “an increase in demand for cultural activities, 

which are becoming an integral part of the visitor experience” 

(207). Such diversification would increase the “pull factors” and 

revenue generation capacity of Carnival Calabar.    

The marketers will need to extend their media promotional 

campaigns to the frontline global media such as ALJAZEERA, 

BBC and CNN. This will help immensely to pull more 

international tourists to the event. Relying on the website and 

Internet Blogs may not get the results for international visitors 

because Nigeria still ranks low on the global and even the African 

tourism destination index. Foreign tourists usually rely on 

international ratings in the industry to make decisions about their 

vacation destinations. A country like Malaysia had a similar 

campaign on CNN for a long period. Today, Malaysia has become 

a choice destination for cultural, business and academic tourism. 

The Internet platforms can only support the international satellite 

television media in this competitive quest to capture international 

tourists. 

 

 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

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Conclusion 

Globally, cultural tourism has become a significant 

economic resource that adds substantial inputs to a country’s GDP. 

The carnival remains a crowd-puller and revenue-generating 

resource for various sectors of the economy (Apeh 148). Nigeria 

and other developing nations can tap from this resource to support 

their national economy, tackle unemployment and promote their 

identity and heritage (Endong 13). Nigeria needs this 

diversification because of its economic challenges amid enormous 

cultural and tourism resources as well as the dwindling and 

unstable oil revenue in the global market. 

To achieve this, the management of the Carnival Calabar 

and other carnival programmes in Nigeria will need to transform 

their marketing policies using professional marketing outfits and 

adopting innovative mixes and strategies for effective results. The 

Cross River State government has set a good example in promoting 

cultural tourism in Africa. But this is having a considerable strain 

on the government treasury because the marketers are not raising 

enough funding and sponsorship deals to meet the growing needs 

of the yearly fiesta. The Bands are already self-supporting and 

private-sector driven, thereby substantially removing government 

expenses on them unlike the case when the carnival was at an early 

stage of development. The private sector initiative should be 

extended to the carnival management. 

The Carnival Calabar remains a model for arts and cultural 

promotion in Nigeria. The project should therefore be supported 

and sustained through policy frameworks and private sector 

participation. At present, the Carnival has assumed political 

relevance in Cross River State. Due to its popularity, successive 

governments in the State have been using it to win votes from the 

electorate. This is one of the key reasons why the governments 

have continued to finance it despite their lean resources having lost 

much of their oil wells to a neighbouring State which reduced their 

capital allocations from the Federation Account. But if a 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

38 

 

government decides to withdraw funding in future, the carnival 

may not survive. 

Therefore, the Carnival Commission must assume some 

autonomy and set up an effective and result-oriented management 

structure devoid of the current Civil Service laxity and 

bureaucracy. They can then launch an aggressive marketing 

programme as a private sector and profit-oriented agency, using 

different marketing outfits to market various segments of the fiesta, 

to take the carnival to greater heights without depleting the 

government treasury. Marketing strategies are constantly informed 

by consumer behaviour. The managers need to routinely conduct 

consumer behaviour research and apply creative techniques to 

audience engineering to achieve better results. It will be useful for 

the marketers to consider the “push and pull factors” in tourism 

promotion as advocated by John Crompton and focus their 

marketing campaigns in the direction of the “pull factors” applying 

Kotler’s 7Ps marketing mix in innovative ways for better results. 

The Carnival Calabar is promoting jobs and supports the 

livelihoods of many artists and the general public in the host 

community and beyond. It is a big boost to the local creative 

industry. Efforts should be made to sustain the product given 

economic uncertainties in the country and its potential impact on 

government funding and patronage of the culture and creative 

industries. 

 

Works Cited 

Apeh, Columba. Sociology of Tourism, Carnival and Processional 

Arts in Nigeria. Calabar: University of Calabar Press, 2017. 

 

Crompton, J.L. “Motivations to Pleasure Vacation” Annals of 

Tourism Research    6:4 (1979): 408-424 

 



Nwadigwe: Marketing mix and sustainable creative industries in Nigeria… 

39 

 

Ending, Patrick F., “Nigerianness Versus Foreignness in Calabar 

Festival and Carnival Calabar”. International Journal of 

English, Literature and Social Science 2:3 (2017): 4-15. 

 

Horner, S. and Swarbrooke, J. Marketing Tourism, Hospitality and 

Leisure in Europe. London: International Thomson 

Business Press, 1996. 

 

Kotler, Philip. Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, 

Implementation and Control (6th Edition) New Jersey: 

Prentice-Hall, 2016. 

 

Smith, Melanie. Issues in Cultural Tourism. London: Routledge, 

2009. 

 

Nwadigwe, F. and Nwadigwe, C. “Design, Technology and Human 

Capital: Exploring the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary 

Nigerian Carnival Performance”. African Performance 

Review 8:2 (2016): 44-60. 

 

Odigha, Glory. Carnival Calabar Preview 2012. Calabar: Cross 

River State Carnival Commission, 2012.  

Page, Stephen J. Transport and Tourism: Global Perspectives. 

Essex: Pearson Educational Ltd, 2005. 

 

Throsby, David. The Economics of Cultural Policy. Cambridge: 

University Press, 2010.  

 
 


