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158 

 

TOTEMISM IN IDOMA HISTORY AND CULTURE  

Odeh, Godwin Onuh, PhD 
Department of History, 

Sokoto State University, Sokoto-Nigeria 

Email: godwin.odeh@ssu.edu.ng 

 

Abstract  

This paper examines the breakthrough in the usage of totems in 

reconstructing the histories of village-size chiefdoms, of which 

the Idoma people of North Central Nigeria are an example. The 

construction of the early history of the Idoma, like most ethnic 

nations of Africa, has been made difficult due to the dearth of 

documentary evidence and a lack of archaeological data.  This 

challenge becomes worrisome because of the heated debate over 

the utilitarian value of oral tradition as a source of history despite 

its worldwide recognition decades ago. The debate is yet to 

thoroughly simmer down. The emergence of totems as one of the 

methodological devices in handling pre-colonial history saves 

scholars of Idomaextraction from the Eurocentric absurdity of 

bastarbastardisingistories of the people as the society possesses a 

wide range of totems which are amenable to historical 

scholarship. This paper concludes that Totems remained one of 

the oldest forms of identification of a group and therefore a 

veritable tool in the reconstruction of local history. 

 

Introduction 

The Idoma people occupy the broad valley of River Benue 

in modern-day Central Nigeria. A Plethora of academic work 

exists on the origins of Idoma and as a result that will not be 

given attention in the paper. Idoma has early interactions with the 

diverse groups that inhabit the Nigerian State. One of the 

elements which demonstrate the Idoma relationship with some 

Nigerian ethnic groups in terms of origins, similarities and 

mailto:godwin.odeh@ssu.edu.ng


Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

159 

 

differences is totems. Totem, therefore, where it exits is a useful 

instrument in the understanding of the history of preliterate 

people. However, studies on totems, have not been adequately 

exploited in writing the history of African pre-colonial society. 

The paper is structured into the introduction, conceptual 

clarifications, categories of totems, utilitarian value of totems in 

Idoma history, usage of totems in writing local history and finally, 

the conclusion. 

 

Conceptual Clarifications  

Totems attracted great scholarly attention in the 20th 

century, the flowering age of sociology and cultural anthropology. 

The concept is derived from Ojibwa Algonkian, an Indian word 

ototeman,i meaning: brother-sister relationships. In this 

sociological context, the term refers to varieties of relationships 

including genealogical, between social groups, animals or other 

natural objects; a kind of relationship that had existed between 

man and his material environment in the process of his territorial 

development. Totem should not be confused with an animal 

having a relationship with one person, whether as a guardian 

spirit or source of spiritual power; neither is the transformation of 

an individual into an animal, as in shamanistic possession by 

animal spirits, or supernatural owner of an animal to be 

designated as totems. Essentially, totems connote forbiddance 

(Iho) which could be an animal, a plant or a material object. 

Totemism among other things refers to the theory of origins and 

relationship of a group of people to nature.ii For the Idoma people, 

it is an emblem or symbol of the group’s solidarity and the 

contrasting identity and relations to their immediate neighbours; 

Tivs, Igala and Igbo respectively. A totem may be a feared or 

dangerous hunted animal, an edible plant; or any staple food. 

Totem is hedged about with taboos of avoidance or strictly 

restricted contact the principal contributors to the discussion on 

totems are: J.F. McLennan, in his first significant theoretical 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

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work; “The Worship Animals and Plants” published in1869 and 

the first comprehensive work on totems was provided by James 

Frazer, in his work “Totemism” published in1885 and republished 

as “Totemism and Exogamy” in 1910.iii 

 

Categories of Totems  

Historians have identified three broad categories of 

totems. These are; primary or kinship type, secondary or political 

type and tertiary or economic totems type.ivIn the understanding 

of totemism, a totem become primary where a social group for 

instance holds, Owa snake totems or any other species of snakes 

regardless of their present geographical locations.  The point is 

that if other groups have similar totems, it means they might have 

related to one another at one point. If the claim to a common 

ancestor or descent could be backed up with adequate 

genealogical connections between the various members of the 

groups, the Owa snake totem becomes the primary totem.v This 

kind of totem is also referred to as the Baganda system. If the 

members of Owasnake totems, for instance, moved to another 

State ruled by red monkey (Obagwu) totems, and as a result of 

political allegiance to the new rulers, adopt the red monkey totem, 

the Obagwubecomes the secondary totem. This, on the other 

hand, is referred to as Banyoro system.vi Instances also abound 

where in the course of migration several unrelated groups (mixed 

multitudes)dwell together or take one migratory route.viiThe 

category of totem taken by such a group is called tertiary or 

economic totem. Some Idoma and Igala groups that took the same 

migratory route from Kwararafakingdom to settle in their present 

locations are good examples of this kind of totem. It is against 

this backdrop that some Idoma group traced their ancestry to the 

Igala land because they were believed to have settled there as a 

bus stop during their migration before arriving and settling in 

their present abode. 

 



Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

161 

 

 

 

 

Utilitarian Value of Totems in Idoma History 

Among the Idoma people; Owuna bird, Ogonopo 

fish,Agba fish, red Monkey (Obagwu) black Monkey (eka), Owa 

snake, CivetCat (Anwu), Crocodile (Ikwu) and leopard (Orgwu) 

have been identified as totemic symbols. The following present-

day kindreds observe the Owuna bird totems, Ojentelle, ugboju, 

ai-oko, Entekpa, Orada, the royal kindred of Otukpo. 

Genealogically, each group is unrelated to others going by kinship 

totems. The reverence of the Owuna bird totem has been largely 

explained in economic terms. Sources have it that after the 1630s, 

several ethnic groups left Kwararafa for the Benue South. The 

new homeland, also called Apa, was located in modern 

Makurditowns. On their arrival, they were hosted by Ugboju 

chiefdom whose royal totem was the Owuna bird. Although not 

asked to pay tributes in the form of rent to their host to continue 

holding on to their land as new immigrants that came out of 

Kwararafa, they adopted the Owuna bird totem in addition to their 

different kinds of totems.viii Details of Idoma group and their 

totems are furnished in a subsequent part of the paper. 

   The question that readily comes to mind is, what is the 

utilitarian value of totems in studies in early history particularly, 

Idoma?  The following may serve as the answer; first, totemism 

as a theory of origin aid students of Idoma history in the analysis 

of the origins of various Idoma kindred groups. For instance, it 

was believed that the kindred group which observe the Ogonopo 

fish totem descended from a common ancestor, Ode. Although 

geographically scattered in several settlements in Idoma land, the 

Ogonopo fish totemic group refers to themselves as Ai-Ode (i.e. 

descendent of Ode, the founder of the group). Ode, according to 

traditions lived in Kwararafa, but left that cradle land C: 1625-

1655, probably as a result of both centrifugal and the centripetal 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

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forces from the East.ix He later founded another settlement at the 

mouth of RiverMuin the present day Makurdi. It was there he died 

and left behind four sons whose names are; Eje, Oguche, Ona and 

Ala. These four separated; with three moving towards the modern 

Idoma land and Alamoved towards the upper area of the Cross 

River basin and founded his group.xThe other three settled 

separately but were later united in 1900 by the colonial 

administration into one division. The descendants of these three 

sons founded Umogidi, Ugbokpo and Oglewu settlements in the 

present Idoma land. 

Secondly, studies in totems help students of Idoma history 

to assess cultural Nigeria at large in the dim past. Historical 

evidence abounds that there was a cordial relationship between 

the Igbirra chief and the leader of Owuna bird totems group, Oga 

between C.1625-1655. Oga was noted to be interested in trade in 

locally manufactured cloth-Opa in which Igbirra, Oga, was also 

believed to have borrowed Igbirra social institution called 

ekwuafia. Idoma historical tradition indicates that the ekwuafia 

was used by the Igbirra people in strengthening their chiefdom 

against internal and external attacks. It was equally used during 

the installation and burial rites of their Igbirra chiefdom.xi This 

institution was later acquired by Oga, which he used in 

strengthening his chiefdom. Over time, the ekwuafia institution 

and Owuna bird became synonymous. 

Third, totemism demonstrates the past social, economic 

and political setting a group of people, found themselves in the 

past. For instance, one of the characteristics of the group who 

once lived in ancientKwararafa is that each of the group had its 

primary totems. Among the Jukun for example, the following are 

identified; manatee and ahura fish, while that of the Idoma are 

Ogonopo fish, Agba fish, the Civet cat, black and red Monkey and 

snails; all of which suggest the ecology in which the Jukun and 

Idoma ancestors lived and worked.xiiPolitics comes in when, in 

the course of migration, groups come under the dominion of other 



Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

163 

 

groups and out of compelling necessity and survival strategy 

adopted another totem which is often secondary. 

Fourth, totems a kind of national emblem and symbol served as 

identification marks in the analysis of the group’s solidarity and 

differences. Durkheim and his adherents rightly maintained that 

social order is primarily an assemblage of totems.xiiiTotems, 

therefore, demonstrate the differences and the commonality 

between Idoma, Igala, Tiv, Igbos, Yoruba, Hausa and other 

Nigerian groups. Erim cited in Usman and Odeh, agrees with this 

position: 

… totems often provided the basis for a variety of social, 

economic and political links in the pre-colonial period 

between the various States and people which were natural 

predecessors of modern States in Africa…It was this 

network of pre-colonial ties which over the centuries 

created a solid basis for the development of modern 

nationality in Africa. That these nation-states today lived 

within ill-defined boundaries is dictated primarily by the 

consideration of European power politics as well as the 

process of ”modernization”.xiv 

 

            The above underscores why a revered or feared animal 

and taboo are sometimes similar to those of other ethnic groups in 

Nigeria. For instance, there are various similar food and sex 

prohibitions across Nigerian cultures today that are indicative of 

Nigerian unity.  

Fifth, totemism renders obsolete the so-called pure tribe 

theory. Although pre-colonial African historians have rejected the 

“pure tribe” phenomenon, it has not been easy for them to 

demonstrate that modern African nations are an amalgam of 

diverse ethnic and linguistic groups. With the emergence of 

totemism,pre-colonial historians have been to prove that modern 

African ethnic groups were created out of a multi-ethnic 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

164 

 

community. The Idoma case has shown that the various groups 

that today answer the name Idoma, came from various sources 

and directions as showcased by the existence of western and 

eastern routes in the course of migration from the Kwararafa 

kingdom.xv 

Finally, totems can be used in conjunction with other 

sources of historical writings to generate knowledge about 

Idomapast. In other words, when other sources are inadequate in 

the analysis of the past, totems may be used. Based on linguistic 

evidence, Armstrong, the Idoma linguist rejects the position that 

Idoma and Jukun are ethnically related. He contends that…it must 

be realized that the Idoma are not Jukun…the two languages are 

related to each other only in the sense that most of the languages 

of southern and central Nigeria are distantly related.xvi 

 The claim to Jukun-Idoma common origin is further 

disregarded by the different totems among the two people. 

According to Webster, none of the Jukun totems are present 

among the Idoma.xvii From available historical evidence, none of 

the groups in modern Idoma land belongs to aputse fish totem. 

Reliance on one source alone, therefore, is not sufficient. Philips 

Stephens Jr. buttresses thus: 

…finally, he must use oral traditions (totems 

inclusive…Emphasis Added) as a guide for comparative 

research. Element in traditions must be cross-checked with 

other traditions, with anthropological studies, with 

archaeological data, with results of linguistic methods 

such as glottochronology, and with written records.xviii 

The argument here is that a situation where a writer relies 

completely on one source, particularly the one that favours his 

people portends a danger to historical enterprise. Thus, diverse 

sources should be jointly employed to have a balanced picture of 

the past. 



Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

165 

 

 

Totems in the Writing of African Local Histories: Example 

from Idoma  

Totemism is a welcome development in the writing of 

African local histories, whichIdoma has demonstrated its usage. 

In East Africa, primary totems mean kinship ties. From Idoma 

experience it is obvious that primary totems connote political, 

social as well as economic ties. The fact remains that it is not the 

order in which the totem is adopted that is of historical 

significance, but the crucial thing is the circumstances of its 

adoption. The circumstances determine what is primary and what 

is not. 

Besides, whatever degree of success attended the use of 

totems as a historical device in the reconstruction of the past, 

either in East or West Africa, it is necessary to remind ourselves 

that much remains to be done in that direction. In the first place, 

evidence does not yet abound of systematic collection of totems 

over a wide area in any part of Africa.  As a consequence, it is 

difficult at this stage among Idoma scholars to categorically 

classify crocodile totems as either primary or secondary without 

detailed information from other ethnic groups that once lived side 

by side in the Kwararafa kingdom.  The table below contains 

Kindred and some totems in Idoma land. 
 

Table 1: Totemic Kindred Fleeing from Kwararafa between C. 1535-

1745  

 
S/N Kindred 

Location 

Kingship 

Totem 

Political 

First 

Totem 

Second 

Point 

of 

Depart

ure  

Date 

of 

Depar

ture  

1.  Adogoji Oje 

(Agatu) 

- Leopard    1625-

1655 

2.  Adagba (Agatu) - “   “ 

3.  Abogba (Agatu) - “   “ 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

166 

 

4.  Ai-Agbo 

(Olokam) 

- “   “ 

5.  Oju (Oju) Hawk “ Bat South 

Of 

Idaha 

“ 

6.  Osiroko (Agila) Snake “ - “ “ 

7.  Onwa (Agila) Snail  “ - “ “ 

8.  Angbetta 

(Agila) 

“ “ - “ “ 

9.  Angbetta 

(Agila) 

“ “ - “ “ 

10.  Ogboloko 

(Agila) 

“ Dog  Lizard Ankpa  “ 

11.  Idogbodo 

(Agila) 

- Leopard - “ “ 

12.  Onyegede 

(Onyagede) 

Civet Cat “ Bird “ “ 

13.  Ai-Agbo 

(Ichama) 

Snail Dog Lizard “ “ 

14.  Okoto (Ugboju) Civet Cat “ “ “ “ 

15.  Ai-Oche 

(Okpga) 

Civet Cat Leopard Bird “ 1655-

1685 

16.  Ingle 

(Edumoga) 

Crocodile  “ Snake “ “ 

17.  Amuda 

(Edumoga) 

Dogs  “ - “ “ 

Table 2: Totemic Kindred Fleeing from Apa I,1685-1805 

S/N Kindred 

Location 

Primary 

Totem 

Secondary & 

Tertiary 

Totems 

Point of 

Departure  

Date of 

Departu

re  

1.  Ugboju Royal 

Kindreds 

(Ugboju) 

Bird 

(Owuna) 

Civet Cat 

(Anwu) 

Modern Tiv 

Land  

 

2.  Adoka Royal 

Kindreds 

(Adoka) 

Black 

Monkey 

(Eka) 

- “ “ 

3.  Ologba (Agatu) Monkey 

(Red & 

Black) 

- “ “ 

4.  Ojigo 

(Edumoga) 

Crocodile  - - “ 

5.  Amejo & Red -   



Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

167 

 

Okonobo 

(Edumoga) 

Monkey 

Phase II 

1 Aku (Agatu) Black 

Monkey 

 Modern Tiv 

Land  

1715-

1745 

2 Ooji 

(Ochekwu) 

“  “ “ 

3 Agbaduma 

(Agatu) 

Crocodile  “ “ 

4 Ai-Agaji 

(Oglewu) 

Red 

Monkey 

Bird (Owuna) “ “ 

5 Ojantelle 

(Ochekwu) 

Civet Cat “ “ “ 

6 Ugboju Ai-

Omaga 

“ “ “ “ 

7 Ai-Oko 

(Olokam) 

“ “ “ “ 

8 Egba (Agatu) “ “ “ “ 

9 Ai-Ede 

(Onyagede) 

“ “ “ “ 

10 Ajobe (Ugboju) “ “ “ “ 

11 Agadagba 

(Onyagede) 

“ “ “ “ 

12 Ai-Agbo 

(Ochobo) 

“ Black 

Monkey 

South Of 

Alagoland 

“ 

1.  A-Onyilo 

(Ochobo) 

“ “ “ “ 

2.  Ai-Agabi 

(Ochobo) 

“ “ “ “ 

3.  Ai-Ogbebeche 

(Ochobo) 

“ “ “ “ 

4.  Ai-Ajibo 

(Igumale) 

“ “ “ “ 

5.  Ai-

Agboidogwu 

(Igwumale) 

Leopard  “ Modern 

Wakari 

“ 

Phase III 

1.  Entekpa 

(Adoka) 

Civet Cat Bird (Owuna) Modern Tiv 

Land 

1745-

1775 

2.  Auke 

(Ochekwu) 

“ Leopard “ “ 

3.  Okpagabi 

(Ochekwu) 

“ Civet Cat “ “ 

4.  Ijaha “ “ “ “ 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

168 

 

(Ochekwu) 

5.  Umogidi 

(Adoka) 

Fish 

Ogonopo 

Civet Cat   “ “ 

6.  Ugbokpo 

(Ochekwu) 

“ “ “ “ 

7.  Ijami (Oglewu) “ “ “ “ 

8.  Idabi (Oglewu) “ “ “ “ 

9.  Alaglamu  

(Oglewu) 

“ “ “ “ 

10.  Eboya  

(Oglewu) 

“ “ “ “ 

11.  Adana  

(Oglewu) 

“ “ “ “ 

12.  Akpeko 

(Agatu) 

Fish (Agba) “ “ “ 

13.  Ikpele (Agatu) Bird 

Okohokpa 

“ “ “ 

14.  Ikpari (Akpa) Leopard 

(Eje) 

“ “ “ 

15.  Ifu (Akpa) “ “ “ “ 

16.  Mbo (Akpa) “ “ “ “ 

17.  Ijaha (Oglewu) Civet Cat Bird Owuna Southern 

Alagoland 

“ 

18.  Ijaha (Akpa) “ “ “ “ 

Phase IV 

1.  Iga (Agatu) Fish (Agba) - Southern 

Alagoland 

1775-

1805 

2.  Iga (Ochekwu) “ Black 

Monkey 

“ “ 

3.  Adija 

(Ochekwu) 

“ - “ “ 

4.  Ugboju 

(Ochekwu) 

“ - “ “ 

5.  Ochuekwu 

(Ochekwu) 

“ - “ “ 

6.  Otukpo Royal 

Kindress 

(Otukpo) 

Red 

Monkey 

Civet Cat  “ 

7.  Otada (Olutpo) “ “  “ 

8.  Ataganyi 

(Ochekwu) 

Civet Cat -  “ 

9.  Akpachi 

(Ugboju) 

Bird Civet Cat  “ 

10.  Akpachi Crocodile  Civet Cat,  “ 



Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

169 

 

(Otukpo) Bird 

11.  Ijaha 

(Onyagede) 

Civet Cat Bird (Owuna)  “ 

12.  Ai-Agboke 

(Oglewu) 

Snake (Idili) -  “ 

13.  Ai-Oga 

(Oglewu) 

“ “  “ 

14.  Anwule 

(Oglewu) 

“ -  “ 

15.  Otada (Otukpo) Civet Cat (Bird Owuna)  “ 

16.  Okpailo 

(Otukpo) 

Bird (Iwele) -  “ 

17.  Ajobe (Otukpo) Snake (Idili) -  “ 

 

Table 3:The Earliest Western Immigrations from Igala Land C. 1625-

1685 

S/N Kindred Location Kingship 

Totem 

Political 

First 

Totem 

Second 

Point 

of 

Depart

ure  

Date 

of 

Depar

ture  

18.  Adogoji Oje (Agatu) - Leopard    1625-

1655 

19.  Adagba (Agatu) - “   “ 

20.  Abogba (Agatu) - “   “ 

21.  Ai-Agbo (Olokam) - “   “ 

22.  Oju (Oju) Hawk “ Bat South 

Of 

Idaha 

“ 

23.  Osiroko (Agila) Snake “ - “ “ 

24.  Onwa (Agila) Snail  “ - “ “ 

25.  Angbetta (Agila) “ “ - “ “ 

26.  Angbetta (Agila) “ “ - “ “ 

27.  Ogboloko (Agila) “ Dog  Lizard Ankpa  “ 

28.  Idogbodo (Agila) - Leopard - “ “ 

29.  Onyegede (Onyagede) Civet Cat “ Bird “ “ 

30.  Ai-Agbo (Ichama) Snail Dog Lizard “ “ 

31.  Okoto (Ugboju) Civet Cat “ “ “ “ 

32.  Ai-Oche (Okpga) Civet Cat Leopard Bird “ 1655-

1685 

33.  Ingle (Edumoga) Crocodile  “ Snake “ “ 

34.  Amuda (Edumoga) Dogs  “ - “ “ 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

170 

 

Source: E.O. Erim “Cultural Totemism and Idoma Pre-Colonial 

History,”,  63-72 

The tables above show varieties of totems in Idoma early 

historical development particularly before and after migration 

from Apa land on the one hand, and her relations with other 

cultural groups in the Nigerian region. It demonstrates some 

elements of cultural, social, economic and adaptation as they tried 

to adjust to the realities of the time.   

Conclusion  

This paper focused on the concept of totem and totemism, 

categories of totems in history and their utilitarian value in the 

pre-colonial history of Africa with particular emphasis on Idoma 

has been examined.  Steps towards effective utilization of totems 

in historical reconstruction have been suggested. The paper 

contends that while totemism is a welcome development in the 

writing of local African histories, it should not be undertaken 

mainly with the sole aim of legitimizing the history of one group 

over another. In writing a history of people like Idoma for 

instance, an integrated approach should be adopted rather than a 

parochial perspective which may only cause disunity. This does 

not mean local differences should be suppressed but, situated 

within the overall context of the larger Idoma society. Along this 

line of argument, Smith cautions that when writing about a pre-

colonial period where written sources are deficient, conditional 

statements such as “it would appear’ or “probably” should be 

adopted.xix If this is adopted, contending issues in writing pre-

colonial histories would be minimized.  Conclusively, therefore, 

totems when properly utilized assist the pre-colonial historian to 

destroy the myth of the “pure tribe” in African history. 

 

 



Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

171 

 

Endnotes  

 

iYeshua llan et al: The New Encyclopedia Britannica Vol.11, 15th 

Edition, London 1768, 864.  

ii E.O. Erim: “Cultural Totemism and the Idoma Pre-colonial 

History” The Calabar Historical Journal (2) 2, 1978, 56. G 

O.Odeh,The Creation of Ohimini Local Government and its 

Impact on Okpiko Clan, 1996-2006. (Unpublished B.A. Project, 

Department of History, Benue State University, Makurdi), 2007, 

33-34. 

iii Yeshua llan et al: The New Encyclopedia Britannica Vol.11, 

15th Edition, London 1768, Pp. 864-865.  

iv E.O. Erim: “Oral Tradition and the Development of 

Nationality” Perspectives and Methods of Studying African 

History. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd, 1984, 40. 

v E O. Erim: “Cultural Totemism and the Idoma Pre-colonial 

History” The Calabar Historical Journal, 57.  Itodo Ejembi, c90 

years, an elder;interviewed at  Okpiko-Ukpobi Anyuwa, Ohimini 

Local Government Area of Benue State on  3rd  April, 2007. 

vi E O. Erim: “Cultural Totemism and the Idoma Pre-colonial 

History” …. 57. 

vii E O. Erim: “Oral Tradition and the Development of 

Nationality” Perspectives and Methods of Studying African 

History….40. 

viii E  O. Erim: “Oral Tradition and the Development of 

Nationality” ….45. 



AMA: Journal of Theatre and Cultural Studies 

172 

 

 

ix E.O. Erim: The Idoma Nationality 1600-1900 Problems in 

Studying the Origins and Development of Ethnicity, Enugu: 

Fourth Dimension Publishers 1981, E.O. Erim “Cultural 

Totemism Idoma Pre-Colonial History”, 61. 

x  Olo Antayi, c80 years,  an elder interviewed atUkpobi-Ipiga in 

Ohimini LGA on  2nd April, 2007, E.O. Erim “Cultural Totemism 

and Idoma Pre-colonial History”… 61. 

xi J.I. Elaigwu: “Self-Regulation in a Traditional Society: 

Integration and Orders in Pre-colonial Otukpo of Nigeria” in 

Benue Bulletin, n.d. 13. 

xii T.N. Tamuno (ed), “People of the Niger-Benue Confluence” A 

Thousand and Years of West African History, Ibadan: University 

Press, 1965, 201-202. 

xiii O. Erim: “Cultural Totemism and the Idoma Pre-colonial 

History”…,56. 

xiv A.F Usman, and G.O.Odeh, “When Contact is not Enough: 

Issues in a Century of Intergroup Relations in Nigeria” Police 

Academy (POLAC) International Journal of Humanities and 

Security, (1)1, (Maiden Edition), 2015, 84. 

xv R.G. Armstrong: “The Idoma Speaking Peoples” in The 

Peoples of the Niger-Benue Confluence, London, 1955, 97. 

xvi J.B. Webster: “Animals of the Kingdom: Crocodiles and 

Hippos, Manates and Fishes” Benue Valley papers cited in E.O. 

Erim Cultural Totemism and Idoma Pre-colonial History, 60. 



Odeh: Totemism in Idoma History and Culture 

173 

 

 

xviiE.O. Erim: The Idoma Nationality 1600-1900: Problems in 

Studying the Origins and Development of Ethnicity, 23. 

xviiiZ.D. Goshit, “Some Controversial Issues and Problems in 

Ngas History, Plateau State” Essay in Honour of late Dr. C.C. 

Jacobs, presented at the Benue State University, Makurdi on 30th 

May, 2005, 3. 

xix R. Smith, “Explanation in African History: How and why” 

Tarikh, Historical Method (6), 1, 1978, 9. 


