




































American Economic & Social Review; Vol. 2, No. 1; 2018  

ISSN 2576-1269   E-ISSN 2576-1277  

                                                      Published by Centre for Research on Islamic Banking & Finance and Business 

 

 

33 

Female Labour Force, ICT and Growth Nexus in Nigeria 

 

Emmanuel Okokondem Okon1 

1Department of Economics,  Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria 

Correspondence: Department of Economics, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria, E-mail: 

tonydom57@yahoo.com. Tel: +2348023275716  

 
 

Received:  January 6, 2018                        Accepted: January 9, 2018                   Online Published: January 16, 2018   

 

Abstract 

Growth in the labor force is one of the determinants of a nation‟s maximum sustainable, or potential, rate of 

economic expansion. However, in the period of study in this paper, the relationship between women‟s participation 

in the labor force of Nigeria and economic growth is inverse and insignificant. This is attributed to the level of 

economic development, social norms, education levels, fertility rates and other factors. From policy perspectives 

therefore educational opportunities for the girl child should be extended to the nooks and crannies of the country so 

as to enhance socio-economic family planning techniques and methods to reduce the burden of women in the labour 
force. In the same vein, employers should be encouraged to give all gender equal opportunity and chance to pursue 

their potentials especially if they have potentials required for a particular job. However, particular attention should 

be focused on men by enlightening them on the essence of encouraging their spouses on any career they may choose 

as long as it does not affected the family in any way.  

 

Keywords: Gender, Female Labour Force, Economic Growth, Nigeria. 

 

1. Introduction 

Gender differentiation and productivity are critical issues that are central the socio-economic life of any country. 

Women contribute half or more of the country‟s population but they contribute much less than men towards the 

value of recorded production both quantitatively in labor force participation and qualitatively in educational 

achievement and skilled man power (Olukemi,2008). The extent to which these phenomena are discussed varies 
from country to country. While the developed countries have practically graduated from problems of gender 

differentiation, their less developed counterparts are still often been looked down upon in terms of their ability to 

contribute to the economic well-being of their families which invariably has some correlation to a nation‟s economic 

growth. 

In the case of Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa with an estimated population of 177,155,754 people 

(Index Mundi, 2014),right from the pre-colonial-traditional-Nigeria-society to its modern state, women have often 

being discriminated upon in affairs that led to deplete their contribution to economic growth (Makuochukwu, 

2013).Nevertheless, this paper seeks to empirically investigate female labor force contribution to Nigeria‟s growth. 

Specifically, the research question to answer is why are women discriminated upon in participating in labor force in 

this modern state of Nigeria?This study is pertinent because the influential role of gender equality on economic 

growth is most directly illustrated in the participation of women in the labor force (News watch times, 2014) and the 
size of labor force is an asset in a country‟s capability to enhance productivity and growth. 

The paper also looks at the effect of ICT on economic growth since the growth of information and communications 

technologies (ICT) is changing the way economic and social development occurs in most countries. The 

introduction of GSM in Nigeria was to expand the teledensity in the country and to make telephone services cheaper 

and accessible to the common person and the business community. GSM is ICT based telecommunication than can 

contribute to the growth and development of any nation. These telecommunication networks have created significant 

effect on the gross domestic product (GDP) of Nigeria in terms of job creation, communication linkages 

connectivity, security of lives and reduced transport cost among other. This paper attempts to empirically examine 



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the impact of ICT on the Nigerian economic growth, even though many studies (Ndukwe, 2004; Igwe, 2005) have 

focused on the challenges and roles of ICT in economic growth of Nigeria 

2. Labour Force Participation in Nigeria 

The total population in Nigeria recorded was at 166.2 million people in 2012 from 45.2 million in 1960, changing 

268 percent during the last 50 years. Population in Nigeria averaged 93.39 million from 1960 until 2012, reaching an 

all-time high of 166.21 million in 2012 and a record low of 45.15 Million in 1960 (Trading economics, 2015).The 
estimated population in 2015 is 178 841 235 people (Country meters, n.d.).Table 1 (ADB, 2006) shows that there 

are more men than women and there is a gradual increase in the rate of growth of males in the Nigerian population. 

Table 1 – Nigeria‟s Population Figures (Male and Female) 

ECONOMIC SECTOR SMALL MEDIUM 

MANUFACTURING  13,442  548 

MINNING & QUARRYING  218  33 

ACCOMMODATION & FOOD 
SERVICES  

7,130  161 

AGRICULTURE  1,424  152 

WHOLESALE/RETAIL TRADE  15,248  258 

CONSTRUCTION  500  67 

TRANSPORT & STORAGE  820  40 

INFORMATION AND 

COMMUNICATION  

448  31 

EDUCATION  22,141  2,867 

ADMINISTRATIVE AND 

SUPPORT ACTIVITIES  

2,956  103 

ARTS, ENTERTAINMENT AND 

RECREATION  

251  16 

OTHERS SERVICES ACTIVITIES  2,793  64 

WATER SUPPLY, SEWERAGE, 
WASTE MANAGEMENT AND 

REMEDIATION ACT  

24  1 

Total  67,396  4,341 

SECTOR 

 
                                                                           

2013  

 NUMBER PERCENT 

Agriculture 3,300,778 8.92 

Mining and Quarrying 70,443 0.19 

Manufacturing 4,887,395 13.21 

Sewage, Waste Management and Remediation Activities 7,875 0.02 

Construction 731,303 1.98 

Wholesale and Retail 20,224,627 54.67 

Transportation and storage 1,760,932 4.76 

Accommodation and Food Services 2,039,517 5.51 

Information and communication 335,604 0.91 

Administration and support services 213,724 0.58 

Education 104,420 0.28 

Arts, entertainment and Recreation 390,609 1.06 

Other services 2,927,351 7.91 

Transport, storage and communication 0 0.00 

Hotel and Restaurant 0 0.00 

Total 36,994,578 100.00 

 

Year Female ‘000 Male ‘000 % % Male 



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Female 

1970 26,098.0 25,759.3 50.33 49.67 

1975 29,592.3 29,357.4 50.20 49.80 

1980 34,191.0 34,256.4 49.95 50.05 

1985 39,174.9 39,260.0 49.95 50.05 

1990 45,140.3 45,417.0 49.85 50.15 

1995 51,677.4 52,236.3 49.73 50.27 

2000 58,318.0 59,289.8 49.59 50.41 

2001 59,643.4 60,724.6 49.55 50.45 

2002 60,967.1 62,167.2 49.51 50.49 

2003 62,293.1 63,619.1 49.47 50.53 

2004 63,626.6 65,082.4 49.43 50.57 

2005 64,971.3 66,558.3 49.40 50.60 

2014 88,693.2 90,985.0 49.36 50.64 

Source: ADB (2006). Countrymeters (n.d.). 

 

Going through other statistics, however, we note that wherever it mattered, women were negatively impacted upon 

e.g. in illiteracy rate and in labour force participation rate as shown Table 2 and 3. 

 

Table 2 Adult Illiteracy Rate in Nigeria 

Year  Female%  Male% 

1970  89.5  69.5 

1075   84.0  62.4 

1980  78.3  55.3 

1985   69.9  48.0 

1990  61.6  40.6 

1995  52.8  34.0 

2000   49.9  27.8 

2001   42.3  26.7 

2002  40.7  25.6 

2003   39.1  24.5 

2004  37.4  23.5 

2005  35.8  22.4 

2005-

2011 

58.6 38.7 

Source: ADB( 2006), ADB (2014) 

 

Note that while the illiteracy rate fell for both men and women, the illiteracy rate among the female population is 

still more than 50% higher than among the male population. The same can also be said for labour force participation 

rate, which shows the percentage of the population employed. The 2006 data (ADB 2006) show that the female 

labor participation rate is less than 50% of the male labour participation rate. This has implications for income levels 

and economic empowerment, especially when this is taken together with the data on participation at different levels 

for the different genders.Tables 5 indicates that there are hardly any sector where women do not participate in.  

 

Table 3 – Labour Force Participation Rate in Nigeria 

Year  Female as % of total Male as % of total  

1970  36.8    73.2  

1975  36.2   73.8  

1980  35.5    74.5  

1985  35.1    74.9  

1990  34.6   75.4  

1995  35.1   74.9  

2000  35.7   74.3  



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2001  35.7   74.3  

2002  35.8   74.2  

2003  Na  Na  

2004 Na    Na  

2005 Na    Na  

2013 42.6 Na 

Source: ADB (2006), ADB(2014) 

Table 4: Percentage Distribution of Working Population by Employment Status  

 Male Female Male Female 

Regular Employee  17.8  8.8 

Casually Employed  3.1  0.9 

Unpaid Worker  8.2  15.5 

Self Employed  70.9  74.9 

Total  100  100 

Source: National Bureau of Statistics 

 

Table 5: Economic Participation by Occupation and by Sex 

Occupation/Sector  Male Female Gender Parity Index 

(GPI)* 

Agriculture 41.48 22.41 0.54 

Trade & Industry 35.08 44.95 1.28 

Oil & Gas 3.77 1.59 0.42 

Services 11.32 13.81 1-22 

Others 8.36 17.25 2.06 

Total 100.2 100 1.00 

 

GPI is the ratio of the female to the male measure of a variable. 
Source: Federal Governemnet of Nigeria (2008). 

 

2.1. Telecommunication Information on Nigeria 

The total number of subscribers to telephone lines as at the end of December 1986 was put at around 230,000 while 

Telex subscribers were only 5,300 in number.Total installed capacity for telephone then was 320,834 and telex 

11,577. The percentage utilization for telephone therefore was 71.6 per cent while telex was approximately 45.7 per 

cent. However, modernity in telecommunications has provided facilities that make for new class of service, 

improved revenue generation with properly reviewed tariff policy. Now, in 1996, the country has almost 1,000,000 

subscribers to telephone lines all of which are handled by standard A antennae facing both the Indian and the 

Atlantic Ocean Regions installed at four (4 NO.) different geographical locations across the country. Nigeria 

operates a Domestic Satellite System by leasing three (3 No.) transponders from INTELSAT which are accessed by 
nineteen (19 No.) Standard B earth stations in some state capitals of the Federation. There is a Territorial Manager 

responsible for Telecommunications Administration in each state except Lagos state where because of the relatively 

large number of switching centres and subscribers in the metropolis, it was considered prudent to have at least two 

(2No.) territorial managers. 

Nigeria embraced Digital Technology since the 1980s with the introduction of Digital Switches and Transmission 

Systems (Radio and Optic fibre) into the network. Since the beginning of the 90s, Mobile Telephone Services 

(Cellular), Paging and Electronic Mail have also been part of the services offered by NITEL (Nigerian 

Telecommunications Plc). NITEL had an X.25 and X.40 switching facilities in its network. With a population of one 

hundred million (100m) back then , the figure of more than half a million telephone lines in the country means in 

effect, a very low telephone density ratio; though the country has the largest number of telephones in any one 

country in Africa (Alabi, n.d.). 

Still, in this present time, ttelecommunication infrastructure remains one of the major issues affecting technology 
deployment required for growth and development in Nigeria. There has however, been massive improvement in 

infrastructure over the past few years. Nigeria has certainly left the telecomm state where there were only a few dial-

up e-mail providers and Internet service providers (ISPs) and when Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) 



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was the only Telecommunications operator. It was a dark era characterized by slow internet links, poor service, high 

cost, lack of infrastructure and an unprogressive telecoms monopoly. Things have certainly changed.  

Deregulation of the telecommunications sector led to the introduction of major Global System of Mobile 

Communications (GSM), mobile phone providers MTN Nigeria, V-Mobile, Globacom and Mtel (Jidaw 

(n.d.). Nigeria's government had earlier provided the impetus for liberalization by setting up the Nigerian 

Communications Commission (NCC) (http://www.jidaw.com/comm.html). Although NCC became the regulatory 
body for Nigeria's telecom sector in 1992, it is the present government that dealt with the telecom policy, 

interconnection agreements and the empowerment of NCC. NCC issues licenses to private telecoms companies 

providing a variety of telecom services to the Nigerian populace.  

3. Empirical Review 

Economic literature shows significant attention towards the role played by female labor force in the economic 

development of nations. The participation of female labour force is desirable for both equity and efficiency reasons. 

The equity aspect shows that the women‟s participation in the labor market ultimately improves their relative 

economic position, increase the overall economic efficiency by enhancing the development potential of the country. 

Moreover, the increasing integration of women in the economy helps in reducing gender disparities in education, 

improving maternal health, increasing sectoral share of female employment in different sectors of the economy 

(Mujahid and Zafar, n.d.). 

In her bid to examine the influence of religion on female labor force participation across countries, H‟madoun 
(2010) specified and estimated a probit model with a vector of religious variables among other exogenous 

predictors. The data for the study were obtained from the 2005 wave of the World Value survey, where 26,711 

women in the age range 18 to 55 years in 48 countries were selected for the study. Like many other studies of this 

nature, the religious women were found to participate less in labor market activities than the non-religious women 

after controlling for other social and economic variables in the model. The shortcoming of the study, in our view, is 

the fact that all the 48 countries were lumped together in the analysis without being disaggregated for country-

specific peculiarities (Fadayomiand Ogunrinola, n.d.). 

Sackey (2005) used data from the Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS4 and GLSS3) to estimate the female labor 

force participation and fertility models. It was assumed that the two concepts – labor force participation and fertility 

decisions – are strongly linked and as such they should be studied together. To do this, a probit and a multinomial 

model types were specified and estimated. Significant contribution of this study is the negative effect of education 
on fertility while education and reduced family size increase labor force participation rate in Ghana. 

Aromolaran (2004) examined the influence of education (both own and husband‟s) on labor force participation of 

married women in Nigeria in wage market employment, self-employment and overall labor market participation. 

The study confirms not only the influence of own education (both bundled and unbundled) on labor force 

participation, but also that the husband‟s education positively influence the labor force participation of married 

women in Nigeria. 

A body of theoretical and empirical literature provides evidence that female labor force participation has a positive 

and strong relationship with economic growth (Tansel, 2002; Fatima and Sultana, 2009). 

ICTs constitute an opportunity and a fundamental source of job creation, economic and technological catching up, 

cost cutting of transactions and the informative distance, improvement of the gains of productivity, the quality of the 

services and decentralization of the powers and help achieve better coordination, etc.,(Kahouli, 2012). 

These positive effects on the economic growth justify the significant investments in ICTs made by different 
countries and reveal an increasing interest in these technologies. Indeed, at the international level, a significant 

evolution has been witness in terms of access to these technologies and a liberalization of the ICTs market in most 

countries. Empirically, several authors confirmed the positive effect of ICTs on productivity and economic growth. 

Dewan and Kraemer (1998) studied the impact of ICTs diffusion on the productivity for a sample of 36 countries 

during 1985 – 1993. They explained the annual GDP by the stock of ICTs capital, the stock of capital other than 

ICTs and annual number of working hours. 

4. Methodology 

This study employed content analysis and quantitative approaches. It adapted Makuochukwu‟s (2013) model and 

augmented it for this analysis. The model is specified as follows:GDP = π +δ FLE + ICT +λMLF +ѱ 
Where: GDP is Gross domestic product; FLE means female labor force employment; ICT is information 

communication technology (GSM); MLE denotes male labor force employment; ѱ is error term used to capture 

other variables that are not included in the model; π is the intercept of the model; δ, , λ are co-efficient of the 

independent variables. The apriori expectation is as follows: δ, , λ > 0. 
This study used data covering 1986-2016 mainly from secondary sources for all the variables concerned.Time series 

characteristics of the variableswere carried before the actual analysis. The data for the analysis is from the Central 



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Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin.The choice of these secondary sources is based on their authenticity and 

reliability. The operational methodology adopted for this multiple regression analysis was ordinary least square 

(OLS) econometric technique. This was necessary in order to determine the nature and extent of the relationship that 

exists among the variables.The estimates are evaluated for statistical significance based on the relevant statistics of 

regression output (T– Statistical test, F – Ratio test). The explanatory power of the model as a measure of goodness 

of fit is decided using R2 and adjusted R2 test. 

5. Result and Discussion 

5.1 Regression Result 

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-value  prob 
FLF  -13340.43 44376.00 -0.300623 0.7668 
ICT  1.030238 0.187135 5.505335       0.0000 
MLE  -223496.10 28724.33 -0.817986 0.4230 
C   2591292       3892754       0.665670      0.5132 
R2 =  0.918272 R2 adjusted 0.906012 DW=2.150607 
Source:Eviews4.0 

The analysis was conducted with the use of the Eviews software; the adjusted R-square of 0.906012 depicts a high 

explanatory power of the model. This means that 90% variation in GDP is as a result of variation in ICTs, MLF and 
FLF. The F-statistic which measures the overall significance of the regression model shows that the model is 

significant. The Durbin-Watson statistic shows that the possibility of a serial correlation in the equation is low. This 

is because the value is above 2. 

The result of the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) shows thatthe estimates of the model parameters show consistency 

with the theoretical expectation for the coefficient, but δ and λ coefficients have negative signs which are 
contradictory to the a priori expectation. By implication, for every unit increase in ICTs, GDP increases by 1.030238 

units. This coefficient shows statistical significance at 0.01 level of significance. In Nigeria, the noticeable gain from 

ICT is the increase in productivity which is enabled by easier and efficient communication, facilitated by increased 

access to telephone and then internet. However, the country has a long way to go, considering such prevailing 

factors like the limited access to ICT infrastructure, including fixed and mobile telephony services ratio, internet and 

broadband service penetration.  

It is essential to note that ICT growth far exceeds the mass importation and presence of telephones, computers and 

other ICT devices. Infrastructural content as well as the amount of usage of services by the populace - for instance, 
the level of telephony density, are factors that are key in grading the country in terms of ICT growth (Compuworld, 

n.d.).  

Furthermore, the regression result reveals an inverse relationship between male labour force and gross domestic 

product (GDP) during the period that was studied. This implies that a unit increase in the male labour employment 

leads to a decline in GDP by 23496.10 units. This result is attributed to the unemployment rate during the subsidy 

removal and minimum wage law period where some industries lay -off their workers in Nigerian. Historically, males 

have always dominated labour force in the country. However, labour productivity growth has been unsatisfactory in 

Nigeria. Indeed, there is a huge decline in GDP per worker over the years, this implies low GDP per person (whether 

male or female)in the country (Umoru and Yaqub, 2013). 

The result shows that an increase in female labour force employment (FLF) by 1 unit will slow down growth (GDP) 

by 13340.43 units. This result aligns with Klasen and Lamanna (2009) who investigated the same relationship for 
Sub-Saharan African (SSA) and Arab countries and find female share of labour force to be negatively associated 

with economic growth. However, FLF variable in this study appeared to be statistically insignificant at any of the 

conventional levels. More so, the magnitude of the decline in GDP caused by female labour force participation is 

less than that caused by male counterpart. This is because the labour force participation rate of men is higher than 

those of women in Nigeria. As at year 2010, the percentage of women that participated in labour force is still as low 

as 40% which is less than half (Nwakeze, n.d.).  This is consistent with the view that “women generally have higher 

rates of unemployment and especially of under-employment and disguised unemployment than men and find it 

difficult to re-enter employment once they lose their jobs” (Lim, 2002). This is asa result of some militating factors. 

5.2 Factors Militating Against Women’s Active Participation in Nigeria’s Labor Force  

Due to huge family responsibilities, it is always difficult to give adequate time to both work and home activities. For 

instance, pregnancy period and child nursing are very demanding; much is expected from the woman in the home. 

Even though there is maternity leave there is not enough time to attend to the child. 



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In the traditional Nigerian society, the female is accorded a low status that leaves her with less choice than to be at 

the background. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/the World Bank (1994) stated that 

women‟s disadvantaged social position which is often related to the economic value placed on family roles, helps 

perpetuate poor health, inadequate diet, early and frequent pregnancy and a continued cycle of poverty. They 

explained also  that parents may invest less in girls because they perceived them to have less economic  potentials 

since girls often become part of another family at marriage and generally earn less income. They further state that 
women‟s low socio-economic status can also expose them to physical and sexual abuse and mental digression 

The value and importance of educating women has not been adequately recognized. High illiteracy and low 

enrolment rates, especially in secondary schools, affect women‟s ability to acquire the skills needed for income 

generating activities. More still, they are restricted to certain sectors like agriculture, teaching, nursing, clerical work 

as well as household and domestic service occupations. In addition, they do not migrate (i.e., constraint to mobility 

of labour) easily, especially if they are married and have children. These lead to reduction in their participation in 

the labour force.  

Nigerian women are under- represented at high level managerial, executive and legislative bodies in the country, 

thus limiting the chance of improving the number of female employment. 

6. Conclusion and Suggestions 

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been accepted as one of the main driving force behind 

organizational competitiveness in the present day business environment. Though the government of Nigeria has 
taken several steps to create an environment good enough to attract investment and ventures by entrepreneurs, a lot 

still need to be done to check the prevailing anomalies in terms of existing infrastructure. in the ICT sector. This 

paper suggests that: 

 There is need for a special incentive programme to induce investment in the ICT sector while at the same 

time, there is need to promote legislations for the protection of online business transactions, to ensure 

adequate privacy security and privacy.  

 There is need for an increase in the literacy rate in ICT using ICT tools like e-Learning to enhance the 

usage of ICT tools as well as reduce the cost of gaining access to the computer and internet. As such this 

paper urges the government to work on policies that affect the ICT sector. The cost of acquiring such tools 

should be subsidized to encourage acquisition of such tools. 

 Growth in the labor force is one of the determinants of a nation‟s maximum sustainable, or potential, rate of 
economic expansion. However, in the period of study in this paper, the relationship between women‟s 

participation in the labor force of Nigeria and economic growth is inverse and insignificant. This is 

attributed to the level of economic development, social norms, education levels, fertility rates and other 

factors. From policy perspectives, this paper therefore recommend that: 

 Educational opportunities for the girl child should be extended to the nooks and crannies of the country so 

as to enhance socio-economic family planning techniques and methods to reduce the burden of women in 

the labour force. In that regard, child care in the form of day care centers, pri-school education etc., should 

be provided and subsidized. 

 In urban areas and most especially in the rural areas in Nigeria, efforts should be geared towards increasing 

access to ICT education, removing socio-cultural norms that discourage women from studying science and 

technology, and removing stereotypes that women have towards ICT jobs (Hafkin and Taggart, 2001).  

 The general public should be re-oriented and educated that both gender have equal chance of being 
employed into any sector of the economy. This can be done by creating awareness through seminars, 

conferences and workshop. In the same vein, employers should be encouraged to give all gender equal 

opportunity and chance to pursue their potentials especially if they have potentials required for a particular 

job. However, particular attention should be focused on men by enlightening them on the essence of 

encouraging their spouses on any career they may choose as long as it does not affected the family in any 

way. In addition, the society should discourage existing cultural and religious practices which forbid 

women from taking up paid employment. 

 Government of Nigeria should focus on encouraging cottage industries in rural areas where the 

participation of women can easily be increased due to their cultural and traditional skills. Similarly, public 

and private partnership in the cottage industries should be explored in order to facilitate industrial 

expansion to accommodate the unemployed in Nigeria. 
 There should be systematic inclusion of gender concerns at the policy, institutional and managerial levels in 

Nigeria, that way the employment needs of female can be met. 

 

 



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