




































American Economic & Social Review 

Vol. 7, No. 1; 2021 

ISSN 2576-1269   E-ISSN 2576-1277 

Published by CRIBFB, USA 

25 

 

DIFFERENCES IN EXCLUSIONARY DISCIPLINE 

CONSEQUENCE ASSIGNMENT BY THE ECONOMIC STATUS 

OF BLACK STUDENTS DETERMINED TO BE AT-RISK: A 

TEXAS, STATEWIDE ANALYSIS 
 

 

Candace M. Pohl 

Doctoral Student 

Department of Educational Leadership 

Sam Houston State University, USA 

E-mail: stdcmr14@shsu.edu 

 

Dr. John R. Slate 

Professor 

Department of Educational Leadership 

Sam Houston State University, USA 

E-mail: jrs051@shsu.edu 

 

 

ABSTRACT 

This study was conducted to determine the degree to which economic status was related to Discipline 

Alternative Education Program placement assignments for Grades 8 and 9 Black boys and Black girls 

who were at-risk during the 2017-2018 school year. Inferential statistical analyses of Texas statewide 

data revealed the presence of statistically significant differences in the number of Discipline 

Alternative Education Program placement assignments by the economic status of Black boys and 

Black girls at both grade levels. Grades 8 and 9 Black boys and girls who were at-risk and who were 

economically disadvantaged were assigned to statistically significantly more of these exclusionary 

discipline consequences than their counterparts who were not economically disadvantaged. Grade 8 

Black boys who were economically disadvantaged were assigned to these exclusionary discipline 

consequences two times more often than Grade 8 Black boys who were not economically 

disadvantaged. Grade 8 Black girls who were economically disadvantaged were assigned to these 

exclusionary discipline consequences two-thirds more often than Grade 8 Black girls who were not 

economically disadvantaged.  Grade 9 Black boys and Black girls who were economically 

disadvantaged were assigned these exclusionary discipline consequences one-third more often than 

their non-economically disadvantaged peers. Implications and recommendations for future research 

were discussed. 

 

Keywords: Discipline Alternative Education Program Placement, Economic Status, Discipline 

Consequences, Economically Disadvantaged, At-Risk, Exclusionary Discipline, Ethnicity/Race. 

 

INTRODUCTION  

Differences in Exclusionary Discipline Consequence Assignment by the Economic Status of Black 

Students Determined to be At-Risk: A Texas, Statewide Analysis 

For students to achieve academic and social success, educational environments must be 

inclusive and equitable.  Students of color and students in poverty have historically suffered in 

traditional educational environments that lack appropriate policies to support them in academics and 

their social-emotional development.  In addition, many students of color and students who are 



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26 

economically disadvantaged may also be identified as at-risk of dropping out of high school 

(Rumberger, 2011).  Although school systems continue to use various methods of discipline practice 

such as in-school suspension and expulsion, it is important to identify any disparities that might be 

present in discipline practices.  Evidence of any inequities could then be used to establish and 

implement appropriate and equitable policies.  In preparation for future academic and social-

emotional student success, any inequity issues must be resolved.  

Researchers (Bottiani, Bradshaw, & Mendelson, 2016; Hilberth & Slate, 2012; Hirschfield, 

2018; Skiba, Arredondo, & Williams, 2014; Skiba et al., 2011; Slate, Gray, & Jones, 2016; Welsh & 

Little, 2018) have demonstrated the presence of negative consequences that are associated with 

exclusionary discipline practices such as a lack of connectedness to school, a decrease in their sense 

of belonging, repeated delinquency, academic gaps, and dropping out of high school. In the State of 

Texas, 14 criteria exist to determine whether students are at-risk for dropping out of high school. 

These criteria range from low academic achievement and grade retention to pregnancy and discipline 

placements. Readers are directed to the Texas Education Code website 

(https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/ED/htm/ED.29.htm#29.081) for the complete list of criteria. 

Of note to readers are two identifiers that are not included in the Texas at-risk criteria: (a) students of 

color and (b) students who are economically disadvantaged.   

The transition from middle school to high school can be a tumultuous experience and students 

who have a history of problematic behavior may find this transition to be especially difficult 

(McCallumore & Sparapani, 2010; Neild, 2009; Queen, 2002).  Black boys who are economically 

disadvantaged appear to have the most difficult time transitioning from middle school to high school, 

possibly due to a lack of support structures, low academic preparation, and behavioral problems 

(Queen, 2002). Neild (2009) described the transition from middle school to high school as an 

important predictor of successful high school graduation.  For students who are already considered 

at-risk, a smooth transition becomes increasingly important as a successful ninth grade year can 

provide a strong foundation for the remainder of a student’s high school years (McCallumore & 

Sparapani, 2010; Neild, 2009; Queen, 2002).   

A plethora of research investigations exist in which inequities have been documented in the 

assignment of discipline consequences to students of color (Bottiani et al., 2016; Bradshaw et al., 

2010; Hilberth & Slate, 2012; Skiba et al., 2011;Waller & Waller, 2014).  The continued use of 

exclusionary discipline consequences, specifically for students with special needs may negatively 

affect their educational opportunities.  Of importance to the reader should be the large number of 

repeated Discipline Alternative Education Program placements to students who have previously been 

identified as being at-risk of dropping out of high school, are students of color, and/or are 

economically disadvantaged.   

 

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 

School district leaders use Discipline Alternative Education Program placements, an exclusionary 

discipline consequence, for serious student misbehavior. According to the Texas Education Agency 

Public Education Information Management System discipline data for the 2018-2019 school year, the 

number of students who were assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement was 

80,815 students. Of this more than 80,000 cases, 76,523 were members of ethnic/racial groups other 

than White; 63,256 were economically disadvantaged; and 62,877 students were determined to be at-

risk.  Despite the abundance of literature on the disproportionate disparities in the assignment of 

exclusionary discipline consequences to students of color and to students from poverty (Skiba et al., 

2011; Slateet al., 2016; Waller &Waller,2014),a shortage of research studies are available on 

exclusionary discipline consequences for students who are labeled as being at-risk. Even fewer 

published research articles could be located regarding the Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placements of students of color who were economically disadvantaged and students of color who were 



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27 

labeled as being at-risk. As such, the degree to which multiple student characteristics are related to 

disciplinary consequence assignments is largely unknown and merits investigation.   

 

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 

Four purposes are present in this empirical, statewide investigation.  The first purpose of this study 

was to determine the degree to which economic status was related to an assignment to a Discipline 

Alternative Education Program placement for Grade 8 Black boys who were at-risk. The second 

purpose of this study was to ascertain the extent to which economic status was related to an assignment 

to a Discipline Alternative Education program placement for Grade 8 Black girls who were at-risk.  

The third purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which economic status was related to 

an assignment to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement for Grade 9 Black boys who 

were at-risk. The final purpose of this study was to ascertain the extent to which economic status was 

related to an assignment to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement for Grade 9 Black 

girls who were at-risk.  

 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

The following research questions were addressed in this study: (a) What is the difference in 

assignment to a Disciplinary Alternative Education Program placement by the economic status of 

Grade 8 Black boys determined to be at-risk?;(b)What is the difference in assignment to a Disciplinary 

Alternative Education Program placement by the economic status of Grade 9 Black boys determined 

to be at-risk?; (c) What is the difference in assignment to a Disciplinary Alternative Education 

Program placement by the economic status of Grade 8 Black girls determined to be at-risk?; and 

(d)What is the difference in assignment to a Disciplinary Alternative Education Program placement 

by the economic status of Grade 9 Black girls determined to be at-risk? 

 

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 

This study was conducted to add to the existing research literature available on inequities in discipline 

consequences. Numerous studies have been conducted on the inequities in discipline consequences 

(Hilberth & Slate, 2012; Skiba et al., 2011; Waller & Waller, 2014).  Few researchers, however, have 

examined discipline consequences among students who are already determined to be at-risk.  

Stakeholders who could benefit from the information in this study include policymakers and education 

leaders such as school district administration and campus leaders.  

 

METHOD 

Research Design 

A causal-comparative research design (Johnson & Christensen, 2012) was used. In this study, one 

independent variable was present: economic status. The dependent variable was number of Discipline 

Alternative Education Program placements for Grade 8 and 9 Black boys and Black girls who were 

at-risk in the 2017-2018 school year. The advantage of using a causal-comparative research design 

was the ability to analyze archival, pre-existing data from the Texas Education Agency Public 

Education Information Management System. 

 

Participation and Instrumentation 

Participants in this study were Grades 8 and 9 Black boys and Black girls who were economically 

disadvantaged, at-risk, and had been assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placement setting during the 2017-2018 school year. In Grade 8, 1,016 Black boys and 494 Black 

girls had been assigned a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement. With respect to Grade 

9, 1,547 Black boys and 740 Black girls had been assigned a Discipline Alternative Education 

Program placement.  The discipline data for this study were obtained through a Public Information 



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28 

Request to the Texas Education Agency’s Public Education Information Management System. Data 

were then imported into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software program for analysis on. 

 

RESULTS 

To ascertain whether economic status was related to Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placement assignments for Grade 8 and Grade 9 Black boys and girls who were at-risk, Pearson chi-

square analyses were conducted.  This statistical procedure was viewed as the optimal statistical 

procedure to use because frequency data were present for economic status and for disciplinary 

consequence assignments.  As such, chi-squares are the statistical procedure of choice when both 

variables in each research question are categorical (Slate & Rojas-LeBouef, 2011).  In addition, with 

the large sample size, the available sample size per cell was more than five.  Therefore, the 

assumptions for using a Pearson chi-square procedure were met. 

For the first research question on the effect of economic status on Discipline Alternative 

Education Program placements for Grade 8 Black boys, the result was statistically significant, χ2(1) 

= 28.413, p< .001. The effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was below small, .07 (Cohen, 1988).  

As revealed in Table 1, almost half as many Grade 8 Black boys who were economically 

disadvantaged were assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement than were 

Grade 8 Black boys who were not economically disadvantaged.  Depicted in Figure 1 are the 

percentages of Discipline Alternative Education Program placement assignments of Grade 8 Black 

boys by their economic status. 

 

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics of Discipline Alternative Education Program 

Placements by the Economic Status of Grade 8 Black Boys 

 

 Assigned Not Assigned 

Economic Status n  Percent n  Percent 

Economically Disadvantaged 1,016 18.2% 4,557 81.8% 

Not Economically Disadvantaged 127 11.5% 927 88.5% 

 

 
Figure 1. Percentage of Grade 8 Black boys and their Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placements by economic status. 

 

For the second research question on the effect of economic status on Discipline Alternative 

Education Program placements for Grade 9 Black boys, the result was statistically significant, χ2(1) 

= 19.326, p< .001. The effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was below small, .05 (Cohen, 1988).  

As delineated in Table 2 and depicted in Figure 2, more than one-third more Grade 9 Black boys who 

were economically disadvantaged were assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placement than were Grade 9 Black boys who were not economically disadvantaged.   

18.20%

11.50%

0.00%

2.00%

4.00%

6.00%

8.00%

10.00%

12.00%

14.00%

16.00%

18.00%

20.00%

DISADVANTAGED NOT-DISADVANTAGED

Discipline Alternative Education Program
Placements



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29 

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Discipline Alternative Education Program Placements by the 

Economic Status of Grade 9 Black Boys 

 

 Assigned Not Assigned 

Economic Status n  Percent n  Percent 

Economically Disadvantaged 1,547 24.5% 4,757 75.5% 

Not Economically Disadvantaged 253 18.9% 1,084 81.1% 

 

 
Figure 2. Percentage of Grade 9 Black boys and their Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placements by economic status. 

 

For the third research question on the effect of economic status on Discipline Alternative 

Education Program placements for Grade 8 Black girls, a statistically significant difference was 

yielded, χ2(1) = 12.933, p< .001. The effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was below small, .06 

(Cohen, 1988).  As presented in Table 3, more than two-thirds as many Grade 8 Black girls who were 

economically disadvantaged were assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement 

than were Grade 8 Black girls who were not economically disadvantaged.  Shown in Figure 3 are the 

percentages of Discipline Alternative Education Program placement assignments of Grade 8 Black 

girls by their economic status. 

 

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Discipline Alternative Education Program Placements by the 

Economic Status of Grade 8 Black Girls 

 

 Assigned Not Assigned 

Economic Status n  Percent n  Percent 

Economically Disadvantaged 494 15.1% 2,786 84.9% 

Not Economically Disadvantaged 45 9.0% 454 91.0% 

 

 
Figure 3. Percentage of Grade 8 Black girls and their Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placements by economic status. 

24.50%

18.90%

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

DISADVANTAGED NOT-DISADVANTAGED

Discipline Alternative Education
Program Placements

15.10%

9.00%

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

DISADVANTAGED NOT-DISADVANTAGED

Discipline Alternative Education Program
Placements



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30 

For the fourth research question on the effect of economic status on Discipline Alternative 

Education Program placements for Grade 9 Black girls, a statistically significant difference was 

revealed, χ2(1) = 7.830p< .005. The effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was below small, .04 

(Cohen, 1988).  About a third more Grade 9 Black girls who were economically disadvantaged were 

assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement than were Grade 9 Black girls who 

were not economically disadvantaged.  Table 4 contains the descriptive statistics for this analysis. 

Presented in Figure 4 are the percentages of Discipline Alternative Education Program placement 

assignments of Grade 9 Black girls by their economic status. 

 

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Discipline Alternative Education Program Placements by the 

Economic Status of Grade 9 Black Girls 

 

 Assigned Not Assigned 

Economic Status n  Percent n  Percent 

Economically Disadvantaged 740 18.8% 3,206 81.2% 

Not Economically Disadvantaged 101 14.3% 603 85.7% 

 

 
Figure 4. Percentage of Grade 9 Black girls and their Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placements by economic status. 

 

DISCUSSION 

In this study, the degree to which differences were present in Discipline Alternative Education 

Program placements by the economic status of Grades 8 and 9 Black boys and Black girls who were 

at-risk was addressed. For all four research questions, statistically significant differences were 

established in the number of Discipline Alternative Education Program placements of Grades 8 and 9 

Black boys and Black girls who were at-risk by their economic status.  Over 1,000 Grade 8 Black 

boys who were economically disadvantaged and who were at-risk were assigned to a Discipline 

Alternative Education Program placement compared to only 127 Grade 8 Black boys who were not 

economically disadvantaged and who were at-risk.  This pattern was replicated for Grade 9 Black 

boys as well with 1,547 Grade 9 Black boys who were economically disadvantaged and at-risk who 

were assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement compared to only 253 Grade 

9 Black boys who were not economically disadvantaged and who were at-risk. 

With respect to Grade 8 Black girls who were economically disadvantaged and who were at-

risk, almost 500were assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement compared to 

less than 50 Grade 8 Black girls who were not economically disadvantaged and who were at-risk.  

Similarly, 740 Grade 9 Black girls who were economically disadvantaged and who were at-risk were 

assigned to a Discipline Alternative Education Program placement compared to 101 Grade 9 Black 

girls who were not economically disadvantaged and who were at-risk.  Readers should note, for both 

18.80%

14.30%

0.00%

2.00%

4.00%

6.00%

8.00%

10.00%

12.00%

14.00%

16.00%

18.00%

20.00%

DISADVANTAGED NOT-DISADVANTAGED

Discipline Alternative Education Program
Placements



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31 

Black boys and girls, assignments to a Discipline Alternative Education Program increased from 

Grade 8 to Grade 9.  This increase could be linked to the transition that occurs between middle school 

and high school.  Clear evidence was obtained that the economic status of Grades 8 and 9 Black boys 

and girls was related to their assignment to this exclusionary discipline consequence. 

Results from this study are congruent with the findings from previous research.  Waller and 

Waller (2014) investigated the relationship of variables including race, at-risk status, and economic 

status, to placements in an alternative education setting.  Students who were at-risk and Black students 

had a higher probability of receiving an alternative education placement than their peers. Hilberth and 

Slate (2012) analyzed disciplinary consequences assigned to Black and White students in Grades 6, 

7, and 8 and concluded that Black students received more in-school suspensions, out-of-school 

suspensions, and assignments to a Disciplinary Alternative Education Program placement statistically 

significantly more than White students.  Similarly, Lopez and Slate (2020) investigated the 

relationship between ethnicity/race and Disciplinary Alternative Education Program placement 

assignments in Grades 6, 7, and 8 for boys in four school years.  At all grade levels for each year, 

Black boys were assigned to Disciplinary Alternative Education Program placements at statistically 

significant higher rates than their peers.   

 

IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND FOR PRACTICE 

From the findings of this study, several implications for policy and for practice are present.  

Policymakers are encouraged to evaluate discipline procedures for school districts that do not 

discriminate.  Policymakers are also encouraged to provide discipline consequences that do not result 

in removing students from their instructional environment.  Educational leaders should investigate 

their disciplinary procedures to determine the extent that this study is applicable to their school 

districts and campuses.  Educational leaders should provide disciplinary consequences that are not 

exclusionary, instead consider a restorative approach. 

 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 

Based upon the results of this investigation, several recommendations are possible for future research. 

As only Discipline Alternative Education Program placements were examined in this investigation, 

researchers are encouraged to extend this study to other exclusionary discipline consequences such as 

out-of-school suspensions.  Researchers could also replicate this study with other grade levels, as only 

data on Grades 8 and 9 students were analyzed herein.  Researchers could extend this study to include 

the ethnicity/race of other students.  Finally, researchers could investigate how students who are at-

risk may be more susceptible to exclusionary discipline practices than students who are not at-risk 

and determine the contribution of specific at-risk factors to higher rates of exclusionary discipline 

assignments. 

 

CONCLUSION 

In conclusion, the economic status of Grade 8 and 9 Black boys and Black girls who were at risk had 

a clear and demonstrable relationship to their assignment to a Discipline Alternative Education 

Program placement.  Grade 8 Black boys who were economically disadvantaged and at-risk had 

almost twice as many Discipline Alternative Education Program placements when compared to Grade 

8 Black boys who were not economically disadvantaged.  Grade 8 Black girls who were economically 

disadvantaged and at-risk had over two-thirds more placements than Grade 8 Black girls who were 

not economically disadvantaged. In addition, Grade 9 Black boys and Black girls who were 

economically disadvantaged and at-risk had one-third more Discipline Alternative Education Program 

placements when compared to Black boys and Black girls who were not economically disadvantaged.  

Based on this Texas statewide analysis, it is obvious that the economic status of Grade 8 and 9 Black 

boys and Black girls who were at-risk is clearly related to their Discipline Alternative Education 

Program placements.  



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32 

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Copyrights 

Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the 

journal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative 

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