




































American Economic & Social Review; Vol. 2, No. 1; 2018  

ISSN 2576-1269   E-ISSN 2576-1277  

                                                      Published by Centre for Research on Islamic Banking & Finance and Business 

 

 

52 

 

Economic System and Environment: Co-Composting Effect of 

Prosopis Africana and Cow Dung 

 

Oladipo, Dayo George1 & Emmanuel Okokondem Okon2 

 

 
1Department of Chemistry, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria 
2Department of Economics, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria 

Correspondence: Oladipo, Dayo George, 1Department of Chemistry, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria 

E-mail: oladipodg@yahoo.com.Tel: +2348066146893 

 

 

Received:  January 16, 2018                    Accepted: January 19, 2018                   Online Published: January 28, 2018   

 

Abstract 

An economic system is comprised of the various processes of organizing and motivating labor, producing, 

distributing, and circulating of the fruits of human labor, including products and services, consumer goods, 

machines, tools, and other technology used as inputs to future production, and the infrastructure within and through 

which production, distribution, and circulation occurs. Natural environment refers to climate, weather, and natural 

resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The natural environment is an important component of 

the economic system, and without the natural environment the economic system will not be able to function. Hence, 

in recent years economists have started treating the natural environment in the same way as they treat labor and 

capital as an asset and a resource. Composting is a biological conversion of heterogeneous organic substrate under 

controlled conditions, into a hygienic, humus rich and relatively bio-stable product that conditions soil and nourishes 

plants. The use of compost as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer, or a growth medium has, of course, significant 

environmental benefits. However, there are also negative impacts on the environment associated with making and 

using compost. The overall aim of this study is to understand the physicochemical changes such as temperature, 

conductivity, pH, loss in weight and moisture content that occur during the co-composting of  Prosopis Africana 

shell with cow dung and to assess the way in which these factors influence the quality of the resulting compost and 

the environment. 

 

Keywords: Economic System, Environment, Co-Composting, Prosopis Africana, Cow Dung. 

 

1. Introduction 

An economic system is comprised of the various processes of organizing and motivating labor, producing, 

distributing, and circulating of the fruits of human labor, including products and services, consumer goods, 
machines, tools, and other technology used as inputs to future production, and the infrastructure within and through 

which production, distribution, and circulation occurs.  These processes are overdetermined by the political, cultural, 

and environmental conditions within which they come to exist (Mtholyoke, n.d.). 

The natural environment is a state in which all living and nonliving things occur in a particular region (The 

DynamicNature, 2014). According to business dictionary (n.d.), natural environment refers to climate, weather, and 

natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The natural environment is an important 

component of the economic system, and without the natural environment the economic system will not be able to 

function. Hence, in recent years economists have started treating the natural environment in the same way as they 

treat labor and capital as an asset and a resource (HigheredMheducation, n.d.). 

The maintenance of good soil quality is vital for the environmental and economic sustainability of annual cropping 

(ARCGIS, n.d.). Composting is a biological conversion of heterogeneous organic substrate under controlled 



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53 

 

conditions, into a hygienic, humus rich and relatively bio-stable product that conditions soil and nourishes plants 

(Kalaiselvi and Ramasamy, 1996). Co-composting means the composting of two or more raw materials together 

(SNV, 2016). Co-composting, as ordinary composting is an effective strategy for diverting several types of waste 

from landfills, while transforming them into valuable resources (Dinis, 2009). According to Manderson (n.d.), 

compost is the product of the controlled microbial degradation of heterogeneous organic matter into a safe and 

beneficial humus-like material. The use of compost as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer, or a growth medium has, of 
course, significant environmental benefits. In addition to returning nutrients to the soil and thus permitting the 

reduction of artificial fertilizers, compost is waste that does not have to be landfilled. When it is used as daily cover 

at landfills, it replaces other materials that would otherwise be used for that purpose (UNEP, n.d.). 

However, there are also negative impacts on the environment associated with making and using compost. These 

impacts depend both on the technical approach used and the waste composition of the input streams. Mixed 

municipal solid waste (MMSW) and sewage sludge composting pose greater risks because these materials typically 

contain higher levels of heavy metals than do kitchen or yard wastes(UNEP, n.d.). 

In this study, co-composting  of two feedstock was carried (Prosopis Africana shell and cow dung). Prosopis 

Africana is a flowering plant species in the genus Prosopis found growing wild in Northern and the Middle-Belt of 

Nigeria. The proximate composition of the nutritional and functional properties of Prosopis Africana is as follows: 

moisture, total ash, ether extract, crude protein, crude fibre and carbohydrate, that is, 1.9, 4.4, 12.8, 23.6, 3.3 and 

54.0g % respectively (Aremu et al., 2007). The seeds contained 20.54, 5.67 and 6.51 g/100 g of protein, ash and 
fiber, respectively (Barminas, 1998). 

The use of cattle manure, or cow dung, in the farms or garden is a popular practice in many rural areas of Nigeria. 

Cow dung provides high levels of organic materials and rich in nutrients. It contains about 3 percent nitrogen, 2 

percent phosphorous, and 1 percent potassium (3-2-1 npk). In addition, one of the other advantages it is very useful 

for the farmers to use cow dung manure because it contains high levels of ammonia which is potentially dangerous 

for pathogens (Atulesh, n.d.). By combining the two feedstock/raw materials during composting, the benefits of each 

can be used to optimize the process and the product (compost). 

Generally speaking, this study attempts to determine the physical and chemical transformations that occur during the 

co-composting of  Prosopis Africana shell with cow dung and to assess the way in which these factors influence the 

quality of the resulting compost and the environment. This investigation is important in enabling us know whether 

or not compost cannot be considered potentially detrimental or dangerous for the environment or for the human 
health. 

2. Nigerian Economy and Physical Environment 

Economy 

Nigeria is the most populous country within OPEC. It has around 177 million inhabitants. Located on the Gulf of 

Guinea on Africa‘s western coast, Nigeria covers an area of around 924 thousand square kilometers (OPEC, 2018). 

Nigeria is a middle-income, mixed economy and emerging market, with expanding manufacturing, financial, 

service, communications, technology and entertainment sectors. It is ranked as the 21st-largest economy in the 

world in terms of nominal GDP, and the 20th-largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the largest economy 

in Africa; its re-emergent manufacturing sector became the largest on the continent in 2013, and it produces a large 

proportion of goods and services for the West African subcontinent (Wikipedia, n.d.a). In addition, the debt-to-GDP 

ratio is 11 percent, which is 8 percent below the 2012 ratio (Reuters Staff , 2014). 

Nigerian GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) had almost tripled from $170 billion in 2000 to $451 billion in 
2012, although estimates of the size of the informal sector (which is not included in official figures) put the actual 

numbers closer to $630 billion. Correspondingly, the GDP per capita doubled from $1400 per person in 2000 to an 

estimated $2,800 per person in 2012 (again, with the inclusion of the informal sector, it is estimated that GDP per 

capita hovers around $3,900 per person). The Table 1 shows a trend of gross domestic product of Nigeria at market 

prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in USD billions (IMF, 2006). Figures before 2000 

are backwards projections from the 2000–2012 numbers, based on historical growth rates, and should be replaced 

when data becomes available. The figure for 2014 is derived from a rebasing of economic activities earlier in the 

year. 

Table 1: Economic Indicators of Nigeria 

Year Gross Domestic 

Product, 

(PPP, In Billions) 

US Dollar 

Exchange 

Inflation 

Index 

(2000=100) 

Per Capita 

Income 

(As % Of USA) 

1980 *58 1 Naira 1.30 7% 

1985 *82 3 Naira 3.20 5% 

http://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp?DocumentID=166
http://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp?DocumentID=166
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_economy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerging_market
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28PPP%29
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt-to-GDP_ratio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt-to-GDP_ratio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_sector
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund


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1990 *118 9 Naira 8.10 2.5% 

1995 *155 50 Naira 56 3% 

2000 170 100 Naira 100 3.5% 

2005 291 130 Naira 207 4% 

2010 392 150 Naira 108 5% 

2012 451 158 Naira 121 7% 

2014 972 180 Naira (no data) 11% 

 

Source: Wikipedia (n.d.a). 
Although oil revenues contribute 2/3 of oil revenue (Wikipedia, n.d.a), oil only contributes about 9% to the GDP. 

Nigeria produces only about 2.7% of the world's oil supply (in comparison, Saudi Arabia produces 12.9%, Russia 

produces 12.7% and the United States produces 8.6%)(Wikipedia, n.d.b). Although the petroleum sector is 

important, as government revenues still heavily rely on this sector, it remains a small part of the country's overall 

economy(see Figure 1 for general economic activities in Nigeria).According to a Citigroup report published in 

February 2011, Nigeria will get the highest average GDP growth in the world between 2010 and 2050 (Wikipedia, 

n.d.a). Nigeria is one of two countries from Africa among 11 Global Growth Generators countries. 

In spite of the oil, agriculture remains the base of the Nigerian economy, providing the main source of livelihood for 

most Nigerians. The sector faces many challenges, notably an outdated land tenure system that constrains access to 

land (1.8 ha/farming household), a very low level of irrigation development (less than 1 percent of cropped land 

under irrigation), limited adoption of research findings and technologies, high cost of farm inputs, poor access to 

credit, inefficient fertilizer procurement and distribution, inadequate storage facilities and poor access to markets 
have all combined to keep agricultural productivity low (average of 1.2 metric tons of cereals/ha) with high 

postharvest losses and waste (FAO, 2018). 

Even though agriculture still remains the largest sector of the Nigerian economy and employs two-thirds of the 

entire labour force, the production hurdles have significantly stifled the performance of the sector. Over the past 20 

years, value-added per capita in agriculture has risen by less than 1 percent annually. It is estimated that Nigeria has 

lost USD 10 billion in annual export opportunity from groundnut, palm oil, cocoa and cotton alone due to 

continuous decline in the production of those commodities. Food (crop) production increases have not kept pace 

with population growth, resulting in rising food imports and declining levels of national food self-sufficiency. The 

main factors undermining production include reliance on rainfed agriculture, smallholder land holding, and low 

productivity due to poor planting material, low fertilizer application, and a weak agricultural extension system 

amongst others (FAO, 2018). 
 

 
Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing economic activities 

Source:Aregheore (n.d.). 

 

Physical Environment  

Due to its peculiar geographical, geological and geomorphological setting, the Nigerian environmental system is 

characterized by the combination of natural features that make it uniquely susceptible and highly fragile. In 

ecological terms, Nigeria is a land of extremes and had remained constantly at risk for ages, with the more recent 

phenomenon of global warming further accentuating the rate of environmental degradation. Some of these unique 

features include: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citigroup
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G_%28countries%29


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(a) Nigeria is bounded in the south by over 850km long active coastline and in the north by a similar length of the 

Sahara Desert (see Fig. 2). The country is therefore permanently being ravaged by coastline erosion to the south as 

well as desertification to the north. Global warming is now acting as a catalyst to these two destructive natural 

forces. Thus, while coastal inhabitants are under constant threats of sea-level rise, and coastal erosion, Nigerians 

who dwell along the fringes of the Sahara are under the unabating threats of desertification. 

 
Figure 2 : Nigeria: State and Coastal Boundaries 

Source: Google(n.d.). 

 
Figure 3: Map of Nigeria showing climate classification 

Source: Zifan (n.d.) 

(b) The low-lying nature of much of the coastal parts of Nigeria due to its natural geological setting also constitutes 

a natural threat to the Nigerian environment. Generally, rising to less than 5 metres above sea level, these coastal 

regions are highly prone to flooding even with small rises in sea level (Ngenvirons, n.d.) (see Figure 3). 

(c) Nigeria lies in the middle latitudes in the Gulf of Guinea. It is therefore characterized by generally high and 

strong wave systems which have more destructive impacts on the shoreline and constantly causing shoreline erosion. 

(d) Nigeria lies within the equatorial belt characterized by generally high torrential rainfall (Fig. 4). Annual rainfall 

ranges from over 3000mm along the coastline to about 600mm in the extreme north(Ngenvirons, n.d.). Even with its 

short season, rainfall in the north is usually characterized by heavy downpour and high impact torrents, contributing 
largely to gully erosion. 



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Figure 4: Map of Nigeria showing annual rainfall 

Source: Ishaku and RafeeMajid (2010). 

(e) Over 40% of Nigeria‘s land area is covered by loose Cretaceous Sandstones and deeply weathered Basement 

Complex rocks giving relatively soft and loose sections near surface (Ngenvirons, n.d.). Such profiles are highly 

susceptible to gully erosion, especially when combined with torrential rainfall. 

Soils 
Soil types in Nigeria are influenced by and follow very broadly, the climatic and vegetational zones of the country. 

This is expected because the degree of available moisture in the soil is an important factor in soil reactions and 

fertility and productivity (see Figure 5 for soil fertility of Nigeria: pH water). The soils of the humid tropical forests 

are quite different from those of the drier forests and the savanna zone, which in turn are different from the savanna 

zone (Aregheore, n.d.). 

 
Figure 5: Soil Fertility Map of Nigeria: pH Water 

Source: Google (n.d.b). 

The major soil types in Nigeria, according to FAO soil taxonomy legends are fluvisols, regosols, gleysols, acrisols, 

ferrasols, alisols, lixisols, cambisols, luvisols, nitosols, arenosols and vertisols. These soil types vary in their 

potential for agricultural use (see Table 2). 

None of the soils were rated as Class 1 with high productivity by the FAO. In-short over 48 % of the Nigerian soils 

fall into class 4 and 5, which are mainly vertisols, alisols, acrisols, ferrasols and arensol. These soils usually have 
low productivity due to inadequate moisture retention capacity and low organic matter. Except for the ferrasols, they 

are the most dominant types found in the northern dry parts of the country. 



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     Table 2: Productivity potential of Nigerian soils 

Soil Productivity grade FAO Productivity Classes Area 

      km2 % of total 

High (1)    - - 

Good (2) Fluvisols, Gleysols, Regosols 50.4 5.52  

Medium (3) Lixisols, Cambisols, Luvisols, Nitosols 423.6 46.45 

Low (4) Acrisols, Ferrasols, Alisols, Vertisols 289.2 31.72 

Low (5) Arenosols, Nitosols 148.8 16.32 

Source: Adegbola, S.A. (1979). 

 

2.1. Prosopis Africana in Nigeria 
Prosopis Africana is a multipurpose tree of great economic value among the rural communities in the Guinea 

savanna of Nigeria (Agboola, 2004). The tree is  generally known as Iron wood Tree in Nigeria and itbelongs to the 

family Minosoceae. It is variously called; Kiriya (Hausa), Ayan (Yoruba), Ubwa (Igbo) and Gbaaye or Kpaaye 

(Tiv). This list of names is however in-exhaustive, because in North-Central Nigeria the Iron wood tree is widely 

known and called differently by the many different ethnicities in the region. 

The species is widely distributed in the Sahel region of Africa and is native to Africa; occurring from Senegal to 

Ethiopia throughout the Sudananian and Guinea eco-zones. It is a common deciduous savannah tree throughout 

West Africa. Like the African Locust bean tree; the Iron wood tree is widely distributed in Nigeria; a common 

characteristic distribution on farm-lands in North-central states of Nigeria namely Benue, Jos, Kaduna, Kogi, Kwara 

and Nasarawa States. However, their population in the wild is now threatened because of extended uses and 

particularly, of its wood for fuelwood and burnt bricks production (Tee et al., 2009). 
The fruit of the tree is used as feed for animals, while the seeds are fermented to make ukpehe, a highly 

proteinaceous condiment. The tree is not cultivated. The products from the hard wood, such as some wooden farm 

implements, kitchen utensils, and planks for construction, are extensively traded. The tree is a good source of 

firewood and charcoal. The secondary roots are used as medicine (Agboola, 2004). In summary, Iron wood tree is 

widely utilized in Nigeria and other African countries for consumption, source of income/employment as well as 

ecological services.  

2.2. Cow Dung 

Cow dung, also known as cow pats, cow pies or cow manure, is the waste productof bovine animal species. These 

species include domestic cattle ("cows"), bison("buffalo"), yak, and water buffalo. Cow dung is the undigested 

residue of plant matter which has passed through the animal's gut. The resultant faecal matter is rich in minerals. 

Color ranges from greenish to blackish, often darkening soon after exposure to air (Wikipedia, n.d.). Cow dung, 
which is usually a dark brown color (usually combined with soiled bedding and urine) is often used as manure 

(agricultural fertilizer). If not recycled into the soil by species such as earthworms and dung beetles, cow dung can 

dry out and remain on the pasture, creating an area of grazing land which is unpalatable to livestock. 

In many parts of the developing world, and in the past in mountain regions of Europe, caked and dried cow dung is 

used as fuel. Dung may also be collected and used to produce biogas to generate electricity and heat. The gas is rich 

in methane and is used in rural areas of India and Pakistan and elsewhere to provide a renewable and stable source 

of electricity (Denmark, n.d.). 

In central Africa, Maasai villages have burned cow dung inside to repel mosquitos. In cold places, cow dung is used 

to line the walls of rustic houses as a cheap thermal insulator. Most of villagers in India spray fresh cow dung mixed 

with water in front of the houses to repel insects. It is also dried into cake like shapes and used as replacement for 

firewood (Wikipedia, n.d.). In Nigeria, traditionally, cow dung is used as a fertiliser, though today dung is collected 

and used to produce biogas (Essiet, 2015). 

3. Literature Review: Composting 

A review of literature has revealed a wide variation in compost quality and characteristics. Dresbøll and Thorup-

Kristensen (2005) investigated the physical properties of produced compost and the process parameters of 

composting based on plant residue feedstock from three different species of plants (wheat, hemp, and miscanthus). 

The authors indicated that different plant feedstocks changed the texture of the compost produced noticeably, 

affecting parameters like water retention, particle size distribution, C/N ratio, and the amount of mineralized 

nitrogen. 

Physical and chemical properties of commercial compost based on their feedstocks and location of origin were 

investigated by Zmora-Nahum et al. (2007). The authors found that while the compost properties differed widely, 

there was significant correlation of properties based on the type feedstock. 



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Microbes are major drivers of the composting process, and as such, characterization and identification of 

microorganisms in compost is important to better understand degradation mechanisms. Microbial community 

structures change during the composting process as temperature and chemical conditions change. Blanc et al. (1999) 

classified the microbial variety in composts using a combination of population counts and rDNA isolate tests. The 

authors reported that thermophilic bacteria were being replaced with less thermophilic bacteria as the temperature in 

the compost pile dropped below optimal ranges for thermophilic bacteria (Blanc et al., 1999). 
Fernandez et al.(2008) have evaluated carbon degradation value during co-composting of exhausted grape marc with 

different biowastes: manure and straw, municipal solid waste and grape straw. They concluded that co-composting 

of exhausted grape marc not only enhanced the carbon degradation rate, but also reduced the carbon remnant 

fraction at the end of the composting process (Fernandez et al., 2008). 

Tognettiet al., (2005) applied co-composting when mixing municipal organic waste with biosolids and the result 

showed that this led to improved organic matter concentration therefore enhancing the compost quality and market 

value while creating products that improve the nutritional capacity of the soil (Tognettiet al., 2005). 

The chemical and physical stability of the compost determines the shelf-life and applicability of compost for various 

uses. A stable compost is one that shows an advanced degree of organic matter decomposition with resistance to 

further decomposition (Mondiniet al., 2003; Wichuk and McCartney, 2010). A stable compost shows steady values 

of a number of indices like respiration rates (Wu et al., 2000), microbial count and biomass, organic matter content, 

C/N ratio, and storage temperature (Baffi et al., 2007; Wichuk and McCartney, 2010). 
Many phytotoxins, which are compounds detrimental to plant growth, come from agricultural use of pesticides, 

industrial solvents, propellants, and refrigerants (e.g., halogenated alkanes, alkenes, and aromatic (aryl) 

hydrocarbons), degradation of waste plastics (polymers, pigments, bulking agents, and filler materials), and storm 

water runoff. Composting facilitates microbial degradation of organic molecules with phytotoxic properties, and in 

addition, organic matter generated through composting can bind phytotoxic metals and thereby reduce their 

bioavailability. Direct germination rates, or a modified germination index (comparison of germination rates of a test 

vs a control growth media) have been used as indicators of phytotoxicity in composts (Pascualet al., 1997; Tiquia et 

al., 1997; Tiquia and Tam, 1998; Tiquia and Tam, 2000; Wu et al., 2000; Tang et al., 2006; Himanen and Hänninen, 

2011).  

4. Materials and Methods 

Prosopis Africana fruits were collected from Ilorin, Kwara state in the north central zone of Nigeria. The Prosopis 
Africana shells were washed, dried, separated from their seeds and pulverized and stored in an airtight container at 

room temperature. 

4.1 Preparation of Compost 

Prosopis Africana was washed, dried and crushed. Prosopis Africana shells were pulverized and separated from its 

seeds, 50g was weighed into a conical flask and 10g of cow dung and added to it in the flask. 60ml of distilled water 

was added and all the components of the flask were thoroughly stirred together. It was covered with foil paper and 

kept at room temperature for decomposition. Samplings were carried out on a weekly basis for seven weeks (7, 14, 

21, 28, 35, 42 and 49 days)to monitor the decomposition in terms of loss in weight, change in moisture content, 

electrical conductivity, pH and temperature. The weight was measured using a weighing balance in order to 

determine the decomposition. The pH, electrical conductivity and temperature were measured by preparing 1% 
wt/wtof compost in water and then oven dried in the oven after each sampling. After each sampling day, the content of 

the flask were oven dried at 100oC for about 30 minutes and a control sample was prepared without cow dung 
amendment. 1% w/w of the sample was taken at every 7 days interval. The electrical conductivity was measured 

using EC214 conductivity meter and pH was measured using Inolab 7310 pH meter. The temperature, conductivity 

and weight of the selected sample was recorded before being oven dried. The weight after oven drying was also 

recorded so that the discrepancy after oven-drying would correspond to the moisture content.  

Temperature, one of the key indicators of composting determines the rate of many biological processes as it 

indicates the end of the transition from the active phase to the curing phase. This plays a selective role on evolution 

and succession of microbiological communities (Hassen et al., 2001). In the study, the temperature measurements 

were taken from the compost during the whole period of decompostion . The results from the table gives a graph of 

the variation of those parameters measured during the period of decompostion.  

5. Results and Discussions 

5.1 Presentation of Results 
The temperature, electrical conductivity, moisture content, loss in weight and pH for the composting experiment is 

presented generally in Table 3. However, the breakdown and dicussion of results were done subsequent tables. 

 

 



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  Table 3: Loss in weight, moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity and temperature of composting experiment. 

SN Composting 

Period (Days) 

Temperature 

(
0
c) 

Moisture 

Content 

Loss In Weight 

(G) 

Ph Electrical 

Conductivity 

(S/M) 

1 7 30.50 150.78 2.47 9.67 117.23 

2 14 30.33 161.60 2.49 8.67 105.7 

3 21 30.67 148.94 2.34 7.87 93.26 

4 28 30.67 150.49 2.40 7.70 97.43 

5 35 29.33 154.67 2.65 8.20 64.17 

6 42 29.17 144.88 2.66 9.00 46.23 

7 49 30.00 158.46 2.84 9.20 36.30 

Source: Field report 

 

5.2.1 Temperature 

Table 4: Temperature (0C) against composting period (days). 

S/N Composting period (days) Temperature (
0
C) 

1. 7 30.50 

2. 14 30.33 

3. 21 30.67 

4. 28 30.67 

5. 35 29.33 

6. 42 29.17 

7. 49 30.00 

Source: Field report 

 

 
Figure 6: Graph of temperature against the composting period. 

Source: Field report 

 

Figure 6 explains the relationship of the temperature with the composting period (days) during composting. 

Temperature range in this study falls within the acceptable range for composting of organic material. The 
decomposition of the Prosopis Africana was rapid in the first week of the composting process resulting in increase in 

temperature of the compost due to the heat liberated by the action of microorganisms that degrade the compost using 

the surrounding oxygen (Ros et al., 2006). This may be referred to as the active phase of the composting process.  

The temperature was maintained at about 30°C for a minimum of 14 days to destroy the viability of many pathogens 

in the mixture. A pathogen is an organism that produces a disease. An example of a very well known pathogenic 



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bacteria is Salmonella. There are some 200 immunologically distinguishable types of Salmonella known to be 

pathogenic to humans. But there are many more that infect animals, including livestock. Cross-infection between 

people can occur via water pollution. The spreading of untreated or poorly treated compost on land and its use for 

the irrigation of crops can also be a source of infection (Lenntech, n.d.). However, the temperature of the compost 

was monitored such that it does not produce so much heat that the compost burst into flame. 

The second stage; the curing phase, is evident in the graph where the graph steeps down significantly, this occurs 
during the fourth week. This indicates the lowering of temperature (i.e., dropping to ambient air temperature) when 

the decomposition is almost over and mesophilic microorganism recolonize the compost. The last phase where the 

temperature dropped is the maturation phase which is characterized by decrease in temperature (Bernal et al., 2009). 

Mature compost is a stable material with content called humus that is dark brown or black and has a soil-like, earthy 

smell (EPA, n.d.). Compost application can improve soil quality and productivity as well as sustainability of 

agricultural production by replenishing soil organic matter and supplying nutrients (Duong, 2013).    

Agriculture is the backbone of the economic system of a given country. In addition to providing food and raw 

material, agriculture also provides employment opportunities to very large percentage of the population (Agriculture 

Goods, n.d.). That is why agriculture has been regarded in recent times as the most viable route with which Nigeria 

can successfully meander from her current economic dilemma (Aikhionbare, 2016).  

5.2.2 Loss in Weight 

Table 7:Loss in weight(g) against composting period(days) 

S/N Composting Period (Days) Loss In Weight (G) 

1. 7 2.47 

2. 14 2.49 

3. 21 2.34 

4. 28 2.40 

5. 35 2.65 

6. 42 2.66 

7. 49 2.84 

Source: Field report 

 

 
 Figure 8: A graph of loss in weight against composting period 

Source: Field report 

 

The profile for weight loss was found to drastically increase generally throughout the composting period due to the 
volatilization losses of nitrogen in the compost (see Figure 8). These gaseous losses can include NH3, N2O, N2, and 

possibly other nitrogen oxide compounds (Martins and Dewes, 1992; Körner et al.,1999). Volatilization losses of 

nitrogen vary depending on the balance with available carbon (Martins and Dewes, 1992; Rynk et al.,1992) and with 

oxygenation level (Michel and Reddy, 1998). Loss of nitrogen can also result from high ammonium levels at high 

pH. Concerning the effect of these gaseous losses on the environment, Hao and Benke (2008) observed that the 

biggest challenge in composting is N loss, mainly as NH3 and to a lesser extent as N2O. Ammonia contributes to 

smog formation and reduces air quality. Near large feedlot operations, high atmospheric NH3 depositions have been 

linked to plant diversity decline, soil acidification and surface water eutrohication. Emission of N2O (greenhouse 

gas) contributes to global warming and climate change (Hao and Benke, 2008). Scientists and economists are 

https://infoguidenigeria.com/author/iaikhionbare/


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beginning to grapple with the serious economic and environmental consequences if greenhouse gases emission is not 

quickly and deeply reduced (UCS, n.d.). As Forbes (2017) observed, global warming affects the geography within 

which the global economy operates. It changes growth zones. It changes shorelines. It changes the places where 

humans will feel comfortable living. In addition, if humans actually decide to do anything about it, it will change the 

way industry and people use fossil fuels.  

     
5.2.3 Electrical Conductivity 

Table 9: Values for electrical conductivities (S/m)  

 

S/N Composting Period (Days) Electrical Conductivity (S/M) 

1. 7 117.23 

2. 14 105.7 

3. 21 93.26 

4. 28 97.43 

5. 35 64.17 

6. 42 46.23 

7. 49 36.30 

Source: Field report 

 

0
50

100
150

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

El
e

ct
ri

ca
l 

C
o

n
d

u
ct

iv
it

y 
(S

/m
) 

composting period (days)

Electrical Conductivity(S/m) against composting period (days)

 
Figure 10: Electrical conductivity (S/m) against composting period (days) 

Source: Field report 

 

The highest conductivity was measured at the initial time of decomposition. This graph shows a negative slope 

which indicates that the amount of free ions in a solution decreases with increasing composting period. The 

electrical conductivity is actually a measure of salinity. Compost with excessively high salinity can affect plants in 

the following ways: Specific toxicity of a particular ion (such as Sodium); Higher osmotic pressure around the roots 
prevents an efficient water absorption by the plant. Some plants are more susceptible to the electrical conductivity 

than others and each specie has an electrical conductivity threshold, beyond which yield is decreased (Sela, 2017).  

4.2.3 Moisture Content 

 

Table 10: The values for the moisture content during the composting period 

S/N Composting Period (Days) Moisture Content 

1. 7 150.78 

2. 14 161.60 

3. 21 148.94 

4. 28 150.49 

5. 35 154.67 

6. 42 144.88 

7. 49 158.46 

 

Source: Field report 

 
 



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62 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 11: The graph of moisture content against composting period 

Source: Field report 

 

The result of this study reveals that the moisture content varies significantly with the temperature profile. Moisture 

content are important parameters to evaluate maturity of compost (Ameen  et al., 2016). Rynk (2000), Haug (1993), 

Lin et al. (2008), Kuwahara et al (2009) and Nakayama et al (2007) suggested that the optimal moisture content for 

biological activity is between approximately 40 and 60 percent of the compost‘s weight. Rynk (2000) also 

mentioned that the critical moisture content range for supporting spontaneous combustion is around 20 to 45 

percent; above this range there is moisture sufficient for the evaporation process to cool the temperature and below it 

there is insufficient moisture to sustain the biological reaction. Normally, the composting process operates with a 
moisture content range of between 40 and 70 percent (Haug, 1993). The graph in figure 11 shows that the moisture 

content increases from the first week as the active phase of the composting process progresses rapidly, the moisture 

content also decreases during the curing phase according to the graph. The reduction in the value of moisture content 

at the end of composting is a positive sign of decomposition and it gives mature compost (Epstein et al., 1995). 

4.2.4. PH 

Table 11: pH versus Composting period (days). 

 

S/N Composting period (Days) PH 

1. 7 9.67 

2. 14 8.67 

3. 21 7.87 

4. 28 7.70 

5. 35 8.20 

6. 42 9.00 

7. 49 9.20 

Source: Field report 

 
 



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63 

 

0

5

10

15

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

p
H

Composting Period(days) 

Variation of pH with Composting period

 
Figure 12: A graph showing the relationship between pH and the composting period. 

Source: Field report 

 

As shown in figure 12, the pH initially decreases for the first three weeks. During the process of co-composting, the 

pH value for the compost tended to stabilize at around 7.79 and 8.10. This slight decrease in pH was noted in the 
compost and can be explained by the production of organic acids; dissolved CO2 in the medium and by-products 

from the degradation of easily degradable compounds such as polysaccharides and fats. Also, a lack of oxygen that 

can occur between two turnings can result in the production of acids (Kochtitzkyet al.,1969; Mustin ,1987; Peters et 

al.,2000).  

In terms of environment and pH, soil pH affects the amount of nutrients and chemicals that are soluble in soil water, 

and therefore the amount of nutrients available to plants. Some nutrients are more available under acid conditions 

while others are more available under alkaline conditions. However, most mineral nutrients are readily available to 

plants when soil pH is near neutral. The development of strongly acidic soils (less than 5.5 pH) can result in poor 

plant growth as a result of one or more of the following factors: aluminum toxicity, manganese toxicity, calcium 

deficiency, magnesium deficiency, low levels of essential plant nutrients such as phosphorus and molybdenum. 

Alkaline soils may have problems with deficiencies of nutrients such as zinc, copper, boron and manganese. Soils 
with an extremely alkaline pH (greater than 9) are likely to have high levels of sodium (Greensland Government, 

n.d.). 

5. Conclusion and Suggestions During Future Research  

Economic activity is spurred by production which uses natural resources, labor, and capital. It has changed over time 

due to technology (automation, accelerator of process, reduction of cost functions), innovation (new products, 

services, processes, new markets, expands markets, diversification of markets, niche markets, increases revenue 

functions) such as, that which produces intellectual property and changes in industrial relations (Wikipedia, n.d.c). 

However,wastes are generated by activities in all economic sectors involving loss of materials and energy, and 

imposes economic and environmental costs on society for its collection, treatment and disposal (Morselli et al., 

2008). Composting is a biological conversion of heterogeneous organic substrate under controlled conditions, into a 

hygienic, humus rich and relatively bio-stable product that conditions soil and nourishes plants (Kalaiselvi and 

Ramasamy, 1996). Composting has a great importance in economic terms, because it affects a lot and directly into 
increased productivity culture for which it is used. However, making and using of compost should not be  

detrimental or dangerous for the environment. The natural environment is an important component of the economic 

system, and without the natural environment the economic system will not be able to function. 

This study has attempted to probe the physical and chemical transformations that occurred during the 49-day 

composting of Prosopis Africana shell and cow dung and implication on environment. However, for future research, 

firstly, the variation of the C/N nitrogen during the composting period should be monitored and recorded weekly. 

Secondly, the composting process is an aerobic process and therefore needs adequate supply of oxygen, the use of 

foil paper to cover the conical flask should be discouraged. Thirdly, graph showing moisture content during the 

composting period showed that the moisture content did not stabilize at any point, probably implying that the 

composting of Prosopis Africana shell should take a little longer than 49days before compost maturity is properly 

reached. 

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license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) 

 

http://www.snv.org/public/cms/sites/default/files/explore/download/snv_-_co-composting_of_faecal_sludge.pdf
http://www.snv.org/public/cms/sites/default/files/explore/download/snv_-_co-composting_of_faecal_sludge.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Nigeria
http://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp?DocumentID=166
https://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi5sPqU6-DVAhUSK1AKHeaOAFAQFggkMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unep.or.jp%2FIetc%2FESTdir%2FPub%2FMSW%2FSP%2FSP4%2FSP4_3.asp&usg=AFQjCNGVkJjnIeml_A73svV2k7xlyuhzuQ
https://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi5sPqU6-DVAhUSK1AKHeaOAFAQFggkMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unep.or.jp%2FIetc%2FESTdir%2FPub%2FMSW%2FSP%2FSP4%2FSP4_3.asp&usg=AFQjCNGVkJjnIeml_A73svV2k7xlyuhzuQ
http://www.unep.or.jp/Ietc/ESTdir/Pub/MSW/SP/SP4/SP4_3.asp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cow_dung
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Nigeria#/media/File:Nigeria_map_of_K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification.svg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Nigeria#/media/File:Nigeria_map_of_K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification.svg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Nigeria#/media/File:Nigeria_map_of_K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification.svg

