




































American Interdisciplinary Journal of Business 

and Economics 
ISSN: 2837-1909| Impact Factor : 4.6 

Volume. 9, Number 4; October-December, 2022; 

Published By: Scientific and Academic Development Institute (SADI) 

8933 Willis Ave Los Angeles, California 

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Navigating the Turbulent Adolescence Stage: The Role of Parental Presence 

and Absence in Bulilima and Mangwe Districts, Zimbabwe 

 

 
 

E. Sharai 
Faculty of Education, Zimbabwe Open University 

 

Abstract: This study aims to examine the psychological effects of parental labour migration on adolescent 

children left behind in the Bulilima and Mangwe districts of Zimbabwe. A multi-dimensional theoretical 

framework encompassing bio-ecological, socio-cultural, and pathway model perspectives is utilized to explore 

the topic. The study reveals that the most significant psychological effects of parental migration on adolescents 

left behind are negative, including depression, aggressiveness, sadness, stress, loneliness, rebellion, and abuse. 

Data are collected from 18 adolescents and 16 stakeholders, including teachers, nurses, and caregivers, who 

provided rich data to authenticate contributions from adolescents. The study proposes practical 

recommendations to different players directly and indirectly involved in child care practices to minimize the 

negative psychological effects associated with parental migration. Bronfenbrenner`s ecological systems theory 

is used to explore how adolescence is a stage epitomized by turbulence, and systems like meso, exo, and macro 

systems are involved in actors' roles in the children's well-being. Furthermore, the chrono system dimension 

considers changes over time, and how they promote breakups among married couples can have potential 

negative effects on children left behind's psychological well-being. 

Keywords: parental migration, psychological well-being, adolescent, Bulilima district, Mangwe district, 

Zimbabwe, multi-dimensional theoretical framework, Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, negative 

effects, practical recommendations. 

 

 

Introduction 

The effects of labour migration on the children left behind have caused serious concern all over the world.This 

concern is sensible seeing that labour migration often implies the splitting up of families consequently 

producing several negative outcomes on the psychological well-being of households left behind. Several 

scenarios where parental separation occurs have been identified by psychological health research as having 

negative effects on the psychological wellbeing of children left behind (Amato & Cheadle, 2005; Huurre, 

Junkkari, & Aro, 2006). Psychologists also agree that adolescence is a developmental stage marked by 

significant physical, emotional, psychological, and social transformations (Marcell & Halpern-Felsher, 2007). 

As a result, the parental absence could become particularly traumatic. In light of this psychological effects of 

migration on children left behind have become a topical subject for numerous studies. For instance, Graham 

& Jordan (2011) conducted a comparative study of Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam to 

determine the effects of parental migration on the psychological well-being of children left behind. The study 

produced some intriguing findings. According to the study, children abandoned in Indonesia had a higher 

likelihood of experiencing emotional discomfort than children raised by both parents (Graham et al, 2011). 

However, neither did i it appear in Thailand nor Vietnam that there were meaningful disparities between 

children who lived with both parents and children who were raised in left-behind households. Results for the 

Philippines suggested that some children’s psychological wellbeing was less negatively impacted by migration 



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(Graham et al, 2011). Other researchers, however found that parental relocation had detrimental effects on the 

mental health of the children left behind (Gao et al., 2010). According to a study by Filippa (2011), the 

experiences of teenage children left behind in Zimbabwe were comparable to those discovered in studies 

conducted in other continents like Asia. Filippa (2011) found out in her research that in response to the negative 

effects of migration, children who were left behind developed defence mechanisms. The rationale for 

conducting this research was the surprising lack of meaningful similar research in the Bulilima-Mangwe 

districts, which have arguably one of the long histories of labour migration in the country. This research 

examined how labour migration affects the psychological health of adolescents who are left behind and attend 

secondary schools in the Bulilima and Mangwe districts. 

Research question 

 What are the effects of parental migration on the psychological well-being of adolescent children left behind?  

Objective of the study  

 To ascertain how parental migration affects the psychological well-being of adolescent children left behind?  

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological Perspectives 

Urie Bronfenbrenner`s ecological systems theory was the primary informant of this research. This theory 

avows that adolescents experience interactions similar to Bandura`s reciprocal determinism. Bandura (2001 

as cited in Kosslyn & Rosenburg, 2008, p.21) avers that there exists in human behaviour an interaction process 

involving both psychological and social forces that affect the environment and behaviour. In turn behaviour 

affects the environment and personal factors. This implies that the psychological well-being of adolescents 

left behind is influenced by their developmental stage as well as the environment they grow in such as that of 

migrant households. Indeed, this theory sees development of adolescent children left behind, as being 

influenced by five subsystems namely; micro, meso, exo and macro systems. By micro system Bronfenbrenner 

referred to adolescent children left behind’s proximate relationships or systems they interact with, such as 

their immediate family, school, peers, neighbours, and caregivers. Within the microsystems of the home, 

adolescent children left behind may find themselves in child headed like family situations where they are 

forced to take up parenting roles in the absence of migrant parents thereby incurring heightened psychological 

strain(de la Garza, 2010). 

Swartz et al., (2011) assert that in almost all cultures adolescence is a stage epitomised by turbulence. 

Similarly, Erickson (1993, as cited in Sun & Sun, 2021, p. 268) describes this stage as one in which adolescents 

experience identity crisis. This crisis can better be managed by healthy micro relations likely to be fostered by 

a “complete available family”, failure to which many adolescents become predisposed to heightened levels of 

stress and emotional turmoil with potential to degenerate into undesirable and destructive behaviours such as 

drug abuse, teenage pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections inter alia (Chingwe, 2022). Moreover, 

stressful life events caused by absence of a partner and shouldering double parenting duties by the remaining 

parent may erode the remaining parent’s coping behaviour, creating emotional distress and marital 

disharmony. Such a development may equally promote parenting practices that are uninvolving and harsh 

which may potentially negatively affect the psychological well-being of adolescents left behind (Chingwe, 

2022). 

The mesosystem which Bronfenbrenner (2008) defined as an assortment of linkages between two or more 

systems in which adolescent children left behind actively participate is where we find systems like the local 

community, religious organisations and friends. This implies that neighbours, friends or teachers may offer 

adolescent children left behind emotional care and guidance as they undergo ‘storms and stresses’ of 

adolescence thereby mitigating the effects of both adolescence and parental migration. Inversely, actors in the 

mesosystem may take advantage of the vulnerability of budding adolescent girls left behind by sexually 

abusing them hence worsening the turbulences of both adolescence and parental absence. 

Exo systems denote the presence of one or more settings in which adolescents left behind do not necessarily 

actively participant but still influence their psychological well-being (Donald et al., 2010). Examples of such 

alike systems include migrant parent’s workplaces and foreign communitie sin which they live. Although 

migrant parents’ workplaces and foreign communities in which they live are remote, occurrences in these 

settings significantly affect the psychological well-being of adolescents left behind. For example, the outbreak 



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of COVID-19 and xenophobic attacks on Zimbabweans in South Africa left some migrants jobless and others 

dead creating psychological strain on families left behind in Zimbabwe. In one highly publicised incident in 

April 2022, a 43-year-old Zimbabwean, a father of four children was burnt alive in Diepsloot South Africa by 

a group of people ordering foreigners to produce valid visas (OHCHR, 2022). One can only wonder the 

psychological strain suffered by the bereaved back home. Incidents like these equally have potential to 

negatively affect the psychological well-being of children left behind who are not in any way directly or 

indirectly related to the bereaved as they send waves of fear for the security and safety of migrant parents 

living in the same communities or country where such incidents are occurring. 

Macro-systemssignify the wider community comprised of the economy, culture, laws, beliefs, expectations, 

and lifestyles (Oswalt, 2008). For example, cultural values that consider every adult to be a parent of all 

children in the community may promote care and nurturance of children left behindthereby helping to lessen 

the negative psychological effects of being left behind. Community aunts may for example offer guidance to 

budding girls hence limiting the effects of storms and stresses of adolescence as well as of parental absence. 

At the end of the ecological system is the chrono system, referring to the role played by the time dimension in 

human development. Here emphasis is put on changes or consistencies in relationships overtime. Such alike 

changes maybe parental divorce, historical events, or social condition as well as changes, like life transitions 

within the developing person (Bronfenbrenner, 2008). For example, it has been observed that migration tends 

to promote breakups among married couples which in themselves have potential to negatively affect the 

psychological well-being of children left behind (Zhao et al., 2018; Crush et al., 2010). In addition, parents 

who spend longer periods of time abroad and visit their children less tend to worsen the psychological well-

being of children left behind than those who occasionally visit their families back home. Equally important in 

this theory is the role played by gender and age (Ettekal & Mahoney, 2017). Some studies have shown that 

girls appear to be more emotionally affected by parental migration than boys (Botezat, 2018). 

Erikson’s Psychosocial Perspectives 

Related to the ecological systems theory is the psycho-social analytic theory by Erick Erickson who fused 

together psychoanalytic concepts with social perspectives. Like Bronfenbrenner Erickson regards adolescents 

as active participants in their own development (Snowman and Biehler, 2012). Erickson asserted that human 

beings developed in social stages rather than sexual stages as was asserted by Sigmund Freud. These stages 

include; trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus 

inferiority, identity versus identity confusion, intimacy versus isolation, creativity versus stagnation, ego 

integrity versus despair (Lahey, 2009). Of greater relevance to this study is the fifth stage, identity versus role 

confusion 

because it coincides with the developmental stage of the majority of research participants. Erikson averred 

that adolescents encounter a crisis where they must develop an identity, meaning determining who they really 

are and where they are going. Successful realisation of an identityleads to identity accomplishment whereas 

failure to achieve an identity will lead to identity confusion (Donald et al., 2010). 

It is generally agreed that the period called adolescence is usually eventful and associated with great 

turbulence. One scholar has suggested that this period is characterised by storms and stresses of life, which if 

not properly managed, may lead to challenges for the individual, the family, schools and society at large 

(Swartz, et al., 2011). Parents, teachers, caregivers are therefore crucial at this stage for the provision of 

guidance and control in the lives of the growing children. Human development as illustrated by this 

psychosocial theory is characterised by a series of crises linked to emotional needs and nested social relations 

(Berk, 2007). Adolescent children left behind also face these crises but how they resolve them may 

undoubtedly be influenced by this situation of being left behind which they find themselves in. 

Rutter’s pathway model perspectives 

To augment the two theories above the researcher considered views of Rutter who suggests that some people 

are naturally resilient. Resilience here is taken to mean an individual’s ability to manage stress and adversity 

(Unger, 2008). Some authorities have suggested that resilience may be an outcome of a person`s capability to 

interrelate with their settings and this nurtures their psychological well-being against the crushing effects of 

parental migration (Rutter, 2005; Ward & Eyber, 2009). It follows therefore that some adolescent children left 

behind may thrive under the negative effects of parental absence while others may develop psychological 

imbalance leading to behaviours such as drug abuse, emotional distress and such alike. As with the ecological 



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and psycho-social theories above where significant others such as teachers, neighbours, members of the 

extended family and faith leaders may help to mediate the effects of parental migration lessening anxiety, 

stress, depression and trauma associated with being left behind Rutter avers that given support, children 

experiencing strenuous situations such as those posed by being left behind may develop healthy psychological 

outcomes even with parents away (Rutter, 2008). It is imperative to note that some adolescents may naturally 

be psychologically, emotionally or mentally resilient than others hence parental migration may produce 

varying psychological outcomes. It is equally important to note that significant others can offer a life-line to 

adolescents left behind so as to promote their psychological well- being and protect them from the negative 

effects of being left behind.  

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
The key intention of this study was to ascertain effects of parental migration on adolescent children left behind 

in Bulilima and Mangwe districts, Zimbabwe. The researcher adopted the phenomenological research 

methodology cast in a descriptive case study design. Phenomenology is a qualitative approach focusing on 

exploring, understanding, bringing to the surface deep subjective issues, and making voices heard (Greening, 

2019). The researcher endeavoured to gain access into adolescent’s world of being left behind. As such 

therefore using this design entailed providing a descriptive account of adolescent children left behind’s lived 

experiences within left behind households. Phenomenology enabled the researcher to gain access into 

adolescents’ lived experiences while shutting out taken-for-granted assumptions and common ways of 

perceiving (Tufford, et al., 2010). This case study entailed exploring a bounded system, either by time, context, 

single or multiple cases spanning over a period of time (Coombs, 2022).The psychological well-being of 

children left behind was one such case that was seen to be bound by time and context where time here referred 

to a period when parental migration has been on the rise, where COVID-19 was ravaging the world, when 

xenophobic attacks where on the rise in neighbouring countries, while context referred to the developmental 

stage of main participants characterised by ‘storms and stresses’ of life (Swartz, et al., 2011). The case study 

design was preferred for this study because of its inherent flexibility to adapt to  

various approaches such as phenomenology, in which it strives to describe, analyse and interpret the 

psychological effects of parental migration on adolescents left behind. In this case study, the researcher 

undertook to explore a variety of left behind cases spanning over varying time periods by way of 

comprehensive data collection using various informants, two data collection tools and a sample made up of 

18adolescents left behind and 16 stakeholders. 

Sampling of participants 

Three High schools were purposefully selected since it had been observed that a sizeable number of students 

enrolled there lived in migrant households. From each of the 3 High schools (2 urban and 1 rural, 2 boarding 

and 1day and all mixed schools)6 students (giving a total of 18 students, 9males and 9 females), 2caregivers 

(giving a total of 6 caregivers, 4 females and 2 males) and 2 teachers (giving a total of 6 teachers, 3 males and 

3 females) were purposefully selected. In addition, 4 nurses (3 females and 1 male) from clinics within the 

vicinity of the schools (rural and urban) were selected to participate in the study giving a total of34 

participants. Since all the 3 schools had more than one class with prospective participant’s simple random 

selection was done to come up with a single class from which the 6 adolescents left behind were purposefully 

sampled. Expert sampling a form of purposive sampling was used in selecting teachers and nurses who had 

experience and expertise in dealing with adolescents. 

The researcher tried to make the sample as small as could be possible in order to create sufficient room for 

participants to narrate their life experiences. Sample size is an integral aspect of the sampling process. While 

quantitative researchers calculate the sample size before the start of the study and maintain it throughout the 

study, (Creswell, 2014) qualitative sampling involves a series of decisions throughout the study aimed at 

reaching saturation (Emmel, 2013 cited in Guetterman, 2015). In other words, there is no prescriptive sample 

size in a qualitative study since saturation guides both data collection and analysis hence sample size is decided 

on throughout the process (Saunders et al., 2018). Despite this a qualitative researcher is recommended to 

come up with an approximate sample sufficient to allow for collection of rich descriptive data (Merriam, 2009 

cited in Guetterman, 2015). Simple random sampling methods were used in this study in order make certain 

that the sample was representative enough and reduce bias whereas purposive sampling was done to ensure 



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that participants matched the attributes desired for achieving the objective of the study (Noor et al., 2022). 

Using purposive sampling allowed for the inclusion of various migrant household characteristics such as; 

those with both parents abroad, with either only father or mother away, those left in the care of hired personnel 

or members of the extended family and those left alone. 

3.3 Data collection 

Before visiting the 3 schools, 2 clinics and 6 households, the researcher sought permission to carry out the 

study in Bulilima and Mangwe districts. Using a letter providing permission and introducing the researcher 

from Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU), the researcher sought further permission which was granted without 

difficulty from the two District Administrators (DA’s), the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education 

(MOPSE) and Ministry of Health and Child care. Having obtained permission, the researcher visited the 

schools, homes and clinics where with the help of teachers 3 separate focus group discussion interviews were 

conducted with adolescents while interviews were convened with teachers, nurses and caregivers. 

Data analysis 

In order to make sense of data collected the researchers made use of Braun & Clarke’s reflective thematic 

analysis (RTA)shown on figure 1 below (Braun & Clarke, 2022). 

 
Figure 1: Reflexive thematic analysis process (adapted from Braun and Clarke, 2020) 

Reflective thematic analysis has been defined as an adaptable interpretative approach to qualitative data 

analysis that enables the detection and scrutiny of patterns in a data set (Braun & Clarke 2013). RTA 

emphasises a researcher’s active role in the generation of knowledge (Braun & Clarke 2019). Here codes are 

taken to epitomise a researcher’s analyses of patterns of meaning within the dataset. Put differently, RTA is 

seen as a mirror of a researcher’s interpretive analysis of data, made within the framework of a dataset; 

theoretical assumptions of the analysis, and researcher’s investigative skills (Braun &Clarke 2019). As such 

it may not be expected for two different researchers to produce similar codes or themes even when using the 

same dataset. RTA follows 6 stages namely; data acquaintance with data; preliminary generation of codes; 

preliminary generation of themes; appraisal of themes; definition and naming of themes and consequently 

report production (Campbell, 2021). These stages are however not necessarily linear and are illustrated on 

figure 1 below. As such in line with RTA before the researchers attempted to acquaint themselves with the 

dataset, they were involved an iterative process of reflexivity with an objective of comprehending prior 

individual biases which could affect the research process (Berger, 2015). 

The researchers engaged in numerous discussions throughout the research process where they tried to bring 

out their own biases to the fore before familiarising with the dataset. Eventually it was agreed that data analysis 

will be based on both data and theoretical frameworks explained above. This was followed by familiarisation 

of data in a bid to examining data for any possible patterns leading to preliminary stages of data coding. Using 

a diagram where codes where initially formulated researchers then came up withinitial themes. Using the 

coded data, the two researchers tried to describe each theme together. 



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For instance, describing the effects of parental migration on the mental state of adolescents connected well 

with the psychological well-being of adolescents and it was concurred that issues such as loneliness, 

depression, anxiety, feelings of hopelessness, sadness and having suicidal thoughts were commonly raised in 

the interviews and focus group discussions and hence to capture all these under one name the theme was 

named emotional effects. Secondly it was observed that there were behaviours which could be direct offshoots 

of the psychological state of adolescents and some of these like rebelliousness, petty crime, smoking appeared 

in the interviews carried out. In order to capture all these together a theme social effects was coined. It was 

indeed imperative for the researchers to continuously review both the codes and themes so as to ensure that 

emerging themes mirrored exactly what was in the dataset. Satisfied with the work done so far it became 

necessary for generated themes to be named in a most descriptive and representative manner reflecting 

contents of the themes. As outlined on figure 1 the final stage involved writing of the report. 

Ethical considerations 

Conscious of the need for adherence to research ethics the researchers had to consider several ethical issues 

such as voluntary participation, informed consent, seeking permission, confidentiality, anonymity, inclusive 

language and privacy all in the bid to safeguard participants especially that most of them were children 

(Ketefian, 2015).Participants were provided sufficient information about the study and thereafter were 

requested to volunteer taking part in the study by signing assent and consent forms(Manandhar & Joshi, 

2020).Furthermore, recognising that this study entailed reliving social realities with potential to raise sensitive 

and emotional experiences basic counselling services were given to participants before, during and after the 

study with the help of Guidance and Counselling teachers and nurses who had earlier on been appraised on 

some of these ethical considerations. In respect of principles of anonymity, confidentiality and privacy 

pseudonyms and codes were used to conceal the identities of participants. The researchers were always 

cognisant of the need to use inclusive language throughout the study and during the writing of the final report. 

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 
This study endeavoured to establish effects of parental migration on the psychological well-being of 

adolescents left behind. Using RTA researchers distilled data into three main themes namely; emotional 

effects, social effects and resilience. The study established that the most noticeable psychological effects of 

migration were negative than positive. Indeed, data overwhelmingly revealed that parental migration exposed 

adolescents left behind to heightened levels of; depression, hopelessness, sadness, suicidal thoughts, anger 

and anxiety. Such mental conditions were found to easily degenerate into undesirable behaviour such as 

smoking, drinking, violence and petty crime. Interestingly, irrespective of the confirmed negative effects of 

parental migration other adolescents appeared to thrive under such adverse conditions. 

Emotional effects 

Here emotional well-being was taken to mean adolescents feelings and thoughts.It was uncovered that quite a 

huge number of left behind adolescents reported often feeling lonely, unloved and unhappy. Similarly, it was 

revealed that left behind adolescents showed signs of depression as evidenced by feelings of hopelessness, 

sadness and having suicidal thoughts. Indeed, slightly over 80% of adolescents reported having felt lonely on 

several occasions while lightly over 60% reported having felt that nobody loved them in a period of 3 months 

before the study. In addition, about 50% of adolescents confirmed having been unhappy on several occasions 

in the past 3 months before the study. Only about 30% confirmed having felt that nobody understood them on 

several occasions in the past 3 months whereas times about 80% recounted having once considered committing 

suicide. All adolescent participants reported having felt sad and hopeless on several occasions in the past 3 

months.Interestingly, about 90% of adolescents reported having experienced some form of abuse.The 

following excerpts from two adolescents left behind confirm these findings; 

“Living without your parents is painful and sad. You have no one to tell your needs and fears. Even if you live 

with relatives still you need your parents who can love you and understand you unconditionally”. (Participant 

FGDZ5; an adolescent) 

“There is usually no one to stand up for you. Even if you are living with relatives at times they consider their 

own children first. That’s why sometimes you end up thinking that it’s better to die because you won’t have 

someone to look out for you”. (Participant FGDX1; an adolescent)  



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“Being left behind does increase adolescent children’s chances of being bullied, teased or stigmatised. This 

is most common where it is the father who migrated unless maybe there is an adult male who happens to live 

in the family”. (Participant FGDY6; an adolescent)  

These results confirmed observations by Zhou et al., (2019) that being left behind increased the risk of suicide 

among left behind children due to heightened stress, depressive symptoms, mental disorder and decreasing 

social support. The findings were equally consistent with Erickson’s psycho-social analytic theory whose fifth 

stage avers that adolescents may experience heightened stress which may lead to suicidal thoughts (Swartz et 

al, 2011). This human developmental stress is worsened by separation anxiety and diminishing social support 

related to parental migration. In studies carried out in Ecuador, Mexico, Moldova and the Philippines it was 

shown that migrant children are usually negatively judged, or even stigmatized in some communities thereby 

worsening their psychological well-being (Cortes, 2007).  

In conversations of a large number of adolescents left behind with their parents abroad adolescents reported 

often telling migrant parents that they missed them and wanted them to come back home. This was a clear 

reflection of the negative emotional effects of parental absence. This situation may also have been worsened 

by strained parental relations. The current study revealed that relations between migrant parents were not 

always good and thus had potential to negatively affect the psychological well-being of the left behind 

children. Zhao et al., (2018) observed that the negative effects of parental migration may be worsened by other 

dilemmas such as parents’ misunderstanding which could in some cases lead to divorce. A study carried among 

Zimbabwean migrants by Pasura (2008) uncovered that many diasporic marriages were failing and breaking 

up. It was observed that emotional and psychological migration induced strain did not only affect adolescent 

children but also left behind carers most of whom where mothers who had to carry a double burden of raising 

children almost alone. Stakeholders revealed that it was common for migrant husbands to start new families 

abroad and these strained relationships with wives left behind. Strained relationships between parents created 

situations where left behind parents vented their anger, frustrations and stress on adolescent children whom 

they expected to fully assist them in shouldering extended household responsibilities. Such a development 

occurred in the context of turbulence associated with adolescence. 

In terms of gender, left behind female adolescents appeared to be most emotionally affected by parental 

absence especially where it was the mother who migrated. Studying the effects of parental migration on 

children left behind in Tajikistan Catrinescu et al., (2011) also uncovered that female respondents aged 

between 15 and 18 were the most affected by sadness and depression and this manifested as aloofness, 

rebelliousness, aggressiveness and other anti-social behaviours. Girls in left behind situations reported 

experiencing increased household workload as they took over some of the responsibilities left by the migrant 

parent. In worst cases adolescent girls in such households had little time to sleep doing household chores and 

preparing siblings for school before they could do the same for themselves while others had to take care of 

sick siblings or left behind parent. Prolonged nursing of the sick has often resulted in burnout for family 

caregivers (Lindgren, 1990; Angermeyer et al., 2006). Both adolescent girl children left behind and mothers 

left behind proved to be more susceptible to burnout in cases where they took care of the sick, elderly parents 

or handicapped children left behind. One left behind adolescent girl shared her experiences below; 

“I often cry when I think about my mother who works in South Africa. It’s ok for her to work for us there but 

I miss her often especially when I see what others do with their mothers”. (
Participant FGDX

3; an 

adolescent) 

It is interesting to note that exposure to bullying, abuse and stigmatisation had the effects of producing negative 

mental and emotional outcomes for those affected. Indeed, some studies also have revealed that left behind 

children are indeed prone to all forms of abuse. A study in the Philippines by Scalabrini Migration Centre 

(2004) concluded that left behind children suffered more physical abuse than their counterparts in non-migrant 

households. Similarly, Salah (2008) explored the effects of migration in Moldova and concluded that children 

left behind were at risk of abuse, violence and trafficking. However, these findings are in conflict with a study 

carried out in Romania which concluded that differences in the level of exposure to verbal abuse, humiliation, 

threats, physical abuse and neglect between left behind children and children from non-migrant households 

was negligible (Toth, 2007). All the same it can be concluded that being exposed to abuse does indeed 

negatively affect the mental and emotional state of those affected. 



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Social effects 

In coming up with this theme the researchers considered the behaviour adolescents exhibited which were seen 

to be closely linked with their emotional and mental states. The researchers observed that the negative 

psychological outcomes of parental migration usually degenerated into undesirable behaviour patterns such 

as petty crime and violence. About 30% of adolescents reported having been involved in disciplinary cases at 

school which necessitated the summoning of caregivers to school while about 5% reported usually staying 

beyond 2100hrs without the knowledge of caregivers. Additionally, only about 10% of adolescents reported 

being regular smokers of tobacco whereas only about 5% confirmed being regular takers of drugs. Finally, 

about 15% of adolescents reported having attended wild parties ever since their parent(s) migrated while about 

20% reported having once been in conflict with the law. These occurrences were portrayed by two stakeholders 

below; 

“Ukugcina abantwana babazali abasemazweni kunzima bavame ukungahloniphi, ukulwa, ukungathumeki 

lokwenza njee okungamacala okuncane ikakhuklu nxa kungabafana abalobaba ongekho”. Taking care of 

children whose parents work outside the country is difficult, they are usually disrespectful, violent; refuse to 

be sent, rebellious and prone to doing petty crimes especially boys whose father is away. (Participant ZCM; 

a caregiver) 

“As I have said before adolescent children in migrant households are likely to be more depressed and this 

manifests as anti-social and violent behaviour especially among boys”. (ParticipantXUT1; a teacher)  

The findings above are similar to those by Rudatsikira et al., (2009) and Mabharani, (2014) as cited in 

Tawodzera & Themane, (2019) which observed that some adolescents left behind resorted to petty crimes 

under the influence of illicit drugs such as marijuana, while others drowned their sorrows in smoking cigarettes 

and drinking alcohol as a way of dealing with stress induced by parental absence. It is interesting to note that 

resorting to illicit drugs, unbecoming and risky behaviours was discerned among adolescents left behind in 

the current study. However, adolescents in some studies have lamented the way caregivers and some teachers 

falsely accuse them of drinking beer, smoking, stealing and intending to impregnate other people’s children. 

Such adolescents have even suggested that these false accusations tormented them so much that to the extent 

of being on the edge of engaging in the very vices for which they were regularly accused of planning to engage 

in (Kufakunesu, et al., 2013). Unger (2008) alleges that none of such stereotypes are accurate when objectively 

scrutinized among today’s adolescents. It is however interesting to note that in the current findings both 

adolescents and caregivers appear to agree that left behind children are more prone to exhibiting violent 

behaviour and be in conflict with the law while others confirmed being involved in drinking and smoking 

practices. 

Findings above are equally consistent with Erickson’ theory of development which avers that adolescents may 

generally experience turbulences during this phase. Concurring with Erickson, Meyers (2018) asserted that 

adolescence was characterised by storms and stresses of life, which if not properly managed, may lead to 

challenges for the individual, the family, schools and society at large. A good example of an adolescent bound 

crisis is puberty. Girls and boys undergoing puberty suffer unpredictable mood swings as a result of hormonal 

changes. It is these hormonal changes which may prompt adolescents to rebel and disobey household authority 

systems especially in the case of boys (Leong, 2015). Studies in Moldova and Ecuador revealed that children 

left behind were generally regarded as ‘arrogant, aggressive and rude’ (UNICEF, 2006). Indeed, during 

interviews, caregivers re-counted how adolescent children mostly boys became disrespectful and rebellious 

as narrated by one caregiver below; 

“Ukugcina abantwana babazali abasemazweni kunzima bavame ukungahloniphi, ukulwa, ukungathumeki 

lokwenza njee okungamacala okuncane ikakhuklu nxa kungabafana abalobaba ongekho”. Taking care of 

children whose parents work outside the country is difficult, they are usually disrespectful, violent; refuse to 

be sent, rebellious and prone to doing petty crimes especially boys whose father is away. (Participant ZCM; 

a caregiver) 

It is sad that most people in the two districts appear to prefer leaving their children alone or with hired 

personnel than with members of the extended family. Such a tendency could also help account for the higher 

levels of emotional distress and vulnerability among adolescents left behind. Leaving children in extended 

families could indeed help lessen the emotional distress of parental absence as was uncovered by Coe (2011). 



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Similarly, findings from a recent comparative study of Georgia and Moldova by Cebotari et al., (2018) 

revealed the utility of members of the extended family in mitigating negative effects of being left behind. 

Resilience 

Interestingly, findings above do not imply that all adolescent children left behind suffered the same emotional 

strain and exhibited similar undesirable behaviours, motivated by this strain. Indeed a few other lefts behind 

children remained thrived in the face of migration related challenges. Of interest is an example given by one 

adolescent of a female student who grew up in a migrant family but has done well to the extent of enrolling 

for a degree in medicine at a local University. Academic success was seen as evidence of healthier 

psychological outcomes. Adolescents concurred that such an achievement could only have been made possible 

by a healthier mind. This is explained in an excerpt below. 

“Kayisiwo wonke umntwana othwalanzima njengabanye. Ukhona engimaziyo ngithemba lani liyamazi 

usewaphumelela ezifundweni zakhe waze waya fundela ubudhokotela.Ngibona lokho kutshengisa ukuthi 

abanye akubahluphi kangako ukusala bodwa. Uyasikhuthaza kakhulu’’. It is not everyone child left behind 

you may suffer the negative psychological effects of parental migration. Others do well in such situations. Am 

sure you know one such girl who has done well in her studies and has even enrolled for medicine. She is our 

role model. (Participant FGDY2; an adolescent)  

Such adolescents could be said to be endowed with what Bronfenbrenner referred to as competencies, which 

mediated interactions within their proximal ecologies (Ettekal & Mahoney, 2017). Findings from a study by 

Rutter et al., (2008) reveal that resilient children are predisposed to doing better in some risky contexts in 

contrast with children with all parental support. This shows that not all left behind adolescent children will be 

emotionally unstable. Perhaps this could be the reason why some studies carried out in the Philippines implied 

that migration was less detrimental to the psychological wellbeing of some children (Graham et al., 

2011). However, this is not an excuse to deliberately expose children to risks because all children deserve to 

live in a safe, supportive environment. 

Indeed, while results above may look hopeless it is interesting to note that there is a window of hope brought 

in by regular communication between adolescents left behind and their migrant parents. Such communication 

could also help build resilience among children left behind. This uncovered that communication with migrant 

parents was largely through WhatsApp for most of participants. If it were possible intensification of 

communication could perhaps lessen the negative emotional effects of parent absence. Frequent 

communication with parents has been confirmed by several studies such as by Parennas (2002) who observed 

that constant communication between migrant parents and left behind children in Philippines helped to ease 

the negative effects of parental separation. Similarly, Maruja (2006) uncovered that regular communication 

between migrant parents and children left behind lessened the intensity of anxieties and loneliness. Modern 

technology has been acknowledged by Lin & Wen (2012) for positively contributing to the emotional well-

being of children left behind. Indeed, Graham & Jordan aver that novel communication systems play a crucial 

task of keeping the absent parent ‘virtually present’. Improvement in telecommunications has improved the 

regularity of contact between left-behind children and their parents. However, some researchers observe that 

the quality of such communication is seldom high as some parents narrowed their communication to just 

instructions on how remittances sent should be used (Carrillo, 2006).The existence of at least one parent left 

behind in most migrant households could also greatly also mediate in the emotional well-being of adolescents 

and help make the children more resilient. It is unfortunate that some left behind households were left in the 

care of hired personnel and other children whose capacity to nurture and guide adolescents undergoing storms 

and stresses of life is questionable.Such situations created conducive ecologies for child abuse as perpetrators 

took advantage of the vulnerable children. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 
In light of observations made above and in the pursuit of improved child care practices it is recommended that 

all stakeholders come aboard where; 



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Government reviews social protection services and migration policies so as to broaden it and expressly 

include protection of vulnerable people, inclusive of children left behind.  

Key community stakeholders should work together and revive the traditional role played by extended 

families in the care and protection of children.  

Schools reinvigorate and realign curriculums to foster teaching of parenting skills to children left 

behind and offer tailor-made guidance and counselling services.  

Health institutions extend their loco-parentis duties to afford vulnerable left behind adolescent children 

care and support such as through domiciliary visits, continuously reinvent the concept of adolescent friendly 

clinics to meet novel developments with regards adolescent child care.  

 Future studies consider focusing on localised ways of building resilience among children in undesirable 

circumstances such as those faced by some left behind adolescents and country specific migration 

management policies can be reviewed with an objective to promote best care of left behind families. 

CONCLUSIONS 
The study concluded that effects of labour migration on adolescent children’s psychological well-being are 

complex and varied depending on factors, such as gender, societal values and individual competencies to 

manage turbulences associated with adolescence as well as parental absence. Additionally, psychological 

effects of migration on adolescents left behind equally depend on migration features such as who migrates, 

whether the migrant parent is legally or illegally resident in the host country, whether parental migration is 

seasonal or long term as well as family dynamics such as the size of family and existence of the extended 

family. This empirical study revealed that adolescents left-behind are exposed to adverse psychological and 

developmental experiences. Some measures can be taken to mitigate these adverse effects through resilience 

building, intensification of communication through the use of modern technologies and cost effective social 

media platforms and widespread use of members of the extended family in the care and protection of children 

left behind. 

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