




































 AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL STUDIES 7(1) (2023), 32-40  

32 

 

      AGRICULTURAL STUDIES 

                                                               AIJAS VOL 7 NO 1 (2023) P-ISSN 2641-4155   E-ISSN 2641-418X 
                                                  

                                                                                                                        Available online at www.acseusa.org      

                                                                                                                                     Journal homepage: https://www.acseusa.org/journal/index.php/aijas 
                                                                                                                                         Published by American Center of Science and Education, USA 

 ANALYSIS OF   SESAME PRODUCTION AMONG INDIGENOUS AND 

NON-INDIGENOUS FARMERS IN YAGBA EAST, KOGI STATE, 

NIGERIA 
 

 Yetunde Eunice Ajibade (a)1  Haruna Ibrahim Opaluwa (b)   Matthew Olufemi Adio  (c)   Abayomi Oluwaseun  

Gbadamosi  (d)    Sefiaat Abdullahi (e)   

 

(a) Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Prince Abubakar Audu University, Nigeria; E-mail: euniyetbade@yahoo.com 
(b) Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Prince Abubakar Audu University, Nigeria; E-mail: opaluwa.h.i@ksu.edu.ng 
(c) Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University Oye- Ekiti, Nigeria; E-mail: matthew.adio@fuoye.edu.ng  
(d) Department of Agricultural Education, College of Education, Nigeria; E-mail: oluwaseunabayomigbadamosi@gmail.com 
(e) Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Prince Abubakar Audu University, Anyigba, Nigeria; E-mail: onyinoyi82@gmail.com 

 

 
A R T I C L E I N F O 
 

 

Article History: 
 

Received: 21st January 2023 

Revised: 20th March 2023 

Accepted: 26th June 2023   

Published: 31st July 2023   

 

Keywords: 

 

Constraints, Profitability, Resources, 
T-Test. 

  

JEL Classification Codes:  

       

G32 

 

 

 

 
 

 
A B S T R A C T 

 
Sesame is one of the oil crops with high economic value. Its production is becoming more pronounced 

in many parts of the world and gaining more ground among farmers in Nigeria. The study analyzed 

sesame production among indigenous and non-indigenous farmers in Yagba East, Nigeria. This study 

employed a Two-stage sampling technique in collecting primary data from one hundred and twenty 

respondents. It is a comparative study with specific objectives embedded. The data collected were 

analyzed using Descriptive statistics, t-test, Gross margin analysis, and a 4.0-point Likert scale. The 

results show that the majority (58.33%) of indigenous farmers were young, while (65.00%) of non-

indigenous farmers were middle age. Also, most respondents were married (65.00%, 81.67%) 
indigenous and non-indigenous farmers. The average total revenue (N370,452.50, N548,712.40) per 

hectare accrued to indigenous and non-indigenous farmers, respectively. The average total costs the 

indigenous and non-indigenous farmers expended were (N70,152.28, N84,408.18) per hectare 

respectively. The findings showed (5.28, 6.50) as benefit-cost ratio (BCR) for the indigenous and non-

indigenous farmers, respectively. The results revealed that the high cost of fertilizer (mean score=3.38, 

3.88), lack of improved seed (mean score=3.23, 2.53), high transportation cost (mean score=3.25, 3.52), 

and access to credit (mean score= of 3.43, 3.42) were serious constraints confronting both the 

indigenous and non-indigenous farmers respectively. Therefore, good road construction is needed 
through self-help or government intervention for effective transportation of inputs and output, extension 

visit is paramount, and farmers' resources should be pooled together to enhance farmers' access to 

adequate finances. 

 
 

© 2023 by the authors. Licensee ACSE, USA. This open-access article is distributed under the terms 

and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license 

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).                           

 

INTRODUCTION 

Sesame seeds or beniseed are the tropical annual “Sesamum indicum" seeds. The species are cultivated for oil, according to 

history. It is an important crop that is cultivated extensively all over the world, and it is attracting the interest of many 

researchers and developers all over the world (Dossa et al., 2023). Sesame is produced in northern, southern, and some parts 

of southeast and south-south in Nigeria (Mohammed, 2020). There are two types of sesame seeds that are produced in 

Nigeria; the white/ raw food-grade seeds used in the bakery industry, which contains 98-100% white-grade seeds, and the 

brown/mixed type, which is primarily used for oil production. Sesame yields in relatively poor climatic conditions and is 

widely used within Nigeria. Sesame is an important component of Nigeria's agricultural exports. Sesame is often 

intercropped with other crops by smallholder farmers (Hong et al., 2020). Sesame is majorly grown for its seeds, and the 

seed is a source of oil for cooking. Due to its economic value, sesame production is becoming attractive to farmers in Kogi 

State, just as in other parts of Nigeria. Non-indigenes from other parts of the country, especially farmers from Benue State, 

have been moving to the State to cultivate sesame amidst other food and oil crops. The indigenes from a few villages have 

                                                      
1Corresponding author: ORCID ID:0000-0002-4638-9547 

© 2023 by the authors. Hosting by ACSE. Peer review under the responsibility of the American Center of Science and Education, USA.  

https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v7i1.290 
 
To cite this article: Ajibade, Y. E., Opaluwa, H. I., Adio, M. O., Gbadamosi , A. O., & Abdullahi , S. (2023). ANALYSIS OF SESAME PRODUCTION 

AMONG INDIGENOUS AND NON-INDIGENOUS FARMERS IN YAGBA EAST, KOGI STATE, NIGERIA. American International Journal of 

Agricultural Studies, 7(1), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v7i1.290 

https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v7i1.290
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4638-9547
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9161-9639
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9783-0259
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5986-4504
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0689-0160


Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

33 
 

embraced sesame production. Although many of the farmers are small farm holders, their value calls for attention and 

empirical study in terms of the resource use, output, profit, and constraints encountered in production. Since sesame has 

high market potential no matter the output, there is a ready market for it at home and abroad. Every part of the crop is useful, 

ranging from its stem to other parts. The sesame-dried stem is a good cooking fuel source; the leaves could serve as a 

vegetable in the human diet, and it is rich in protein and other nutrients (Tunde- Akintunde et al., 2012).  

However, it may not be unlikely that sesame production, just as other challenges facing agricultural production, 

may be limited by inadequate technology or processing facilities for sesame, especially for oil extraction, and lack of access 

to capital by the farmers, among others (Wacal et al., 2021). Despite the involvement of indigenous and non-indigenous 

farmers in sesame production in the study area, with many others migrating from other states to settle down in the area for 

agricultural production, There need to be more empirical studies in this regard. Therefore, this study filled the existing gap 

by analyzing sesame production among indigenous and non-indigenous farmers in Yagba East, Nigeria. Thus, the study was 

able to describe the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, compare the resources used by the respondents, 

estimate their costs and returns, and identify the constraints facing the respondents to justify the research questions. Which 

were;  

 What are the socio-economic characteristics of indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers in the study area? 

 Are there differences in the amount of farm resources used by indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers in 

the study area? 

 Are there differences in the costs and returns of indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers in the study area? 

 What are the constraints the indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers face in the study area? 

The introduction section reveals the background of the study, uses of the crop, justification, and objectives of the 

study, which emanated from the research questions raised. The literature review section reveals the volume of sesame 

production globally and major producers, including Nigeria, and reviews past empirical studies and their recommendations. 

The methodology section reveals the study area, sampling technique, and analytical tools adopted. The results and 

discussions of the study's findings were enumerated in this section. This section highlighted the study's conclusion, 

recommendations, and limitations. 

 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

The total sesame produced by sesame-producing countries exceeded 92.6% of the world's production (FAOSTAT, 2022). 

Sesame is grown globally on over 5 million acres (20,000 km2), with six countries producing sesame in Asia, thirteen 

countries producing sesame in Africa, and only three countries producing sesame in both Central and South America (Dossa 

et al., 2023). Nigeria was among the ten sesame-producing countries in the world in 2018 (Wacal et al., 2021).   Sesame 

surplus is usually bulked up, bagged, commercialized, and exported to other parts of the world after drying and cleaning 

(RMRDC, 2004). Recently, Yadav et al. (2022) reported the challenges farmers face in sesame production and recommended 

the need to address technologies and develop the best economic and sustainable development strategies. Wei et al. (2022) 

showed sesame's nutritional value in terms of chemical composition, pharmacological effect, and processing using sesame 

and recommended further studies on the pharmacological effects of sesame. Dossa et al. (2023) also conducted a study on 

the economics of sesame production and recommended developing and promoting the sesame value chain in the agricultural 

sector. However, this study analyzes sesame production among indigenous and non-indigenous farmers in the study area. 

The study is a comparative study among the two categories of sesame farmers in the study area. 

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Study Area 

This study was carried out in Yagba East.   Yagba East is situated in  Kogi State, Nigeria. Its headquarters are in the town 

of Isanlu Tedo. It has two (2) major districts, namely:  Yagba North-East and Yagba Southeast. It shares boundaries with 

Mopa/Amuro, Yagba West, some parts of Kabba/Bunu, and others of Ijumu. It is located on Latitude: 8° 16' 60.00" N and 

Longitude: 5° 49' 59.99" E. It occupies a landmass of 1396 square kilometers with an average temperature of 30 degrees 

centigrade. It experiences two climatic conditions: the rainy and dry seasons. The rainy period lasts 8.3 months, from March 

1 to November 12, with a sliding 31-day rainfall of at least 0.5 inches. The most rain falls during the 31 days centered around 

September 3, with an average total accumulation of 7.3 inches, and the dry season period of the year lasts for 3.7 months, 

from November 12 to March 1. The least rain falls around December 29, with an average total accumulation of 0.0 inches. 

It has an estimated average humidity level of 44 percent and an average wind speed of 10 km/h. This area lies within the 

country's savanna vegetation belt, including scrub, grasses, and occasional trees. 

Yagba East is a hub for agricultural practices, with the area known for cultivating various crops such as yam, rice, 

cassava, maize, millet, sesame, cowpea, and ground nut. Other important economic activities include trade, animal rearing 

(goats, sheep, poultry birds, and pigs), crafts making and wood carving, and lumbering.  

The indigenous dwellers of Yagba East are Okun people (a sub-group of Yoruba ethnic people); the Okun dialect 

of the Yoruba language is commonly spoken in the area. It also accommodates people from other tribes, such as Igbo, Hausa, 

Ebiras, and Bassa, who have been living peacefully without rancor and acrimony. Farming and trade is the major occupation, 

while education is also the largest industry in the community.  

 

 

 

 



Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

34 
 

Population and Sampling Techniques 

The target population for the study comprises all indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers in Yagba East. A Two-

stage sampling technique was used for the selection of respondents. In the first stage, three villages where sesame farmers 

(indigenous and non-indigenous) were prominent were purposively selected, namely Ijowa Isanlu, Ponyan, and Ife-

olukotun. In the second stage,   twenty (20) indigenous and twenty (20) non-indigenous sesame farmers were randomly 

selected from the farmers’ group lists (indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers), respectively. A total sum of one 

hundred and twenty (120) respondents, that is, sixty (60) indigenous sesame farmers and sixty (60) non-indigenous sesame 

farmers, were selected for this study. A well-structured questionnaire and a personal interview were used to elicit 

information from the respondents. 

 

Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-test, Gross margin analysis, and a 4.0-point Likert scale. 

 

T-test 

 

In statistics, the term "t-test" refers to the hypothesis test in which the test statistic follows a Student's t-distribution. 

According to Kim (2015), a comparison of two independent groups is possible using a t-test. It can be used to check whether 

two data sets were significantly different from each other or not. This study compares the resources used by the respondents 

in this study (indigene and non-indigene) using a t-test.   Mathematically, it is represented as, 

t = ( x̄1 – x̄2) / √ [(s1 / n1 ) + (s2 / n2)] 

Where: 

x̄1 = Observed Mean of 1st Sample 

x̄2 = Observed Mean of 2nd Sample 

s1 = Standard Deviation of 1st Sample 

s2= Standard Deviation of 2nd Sample 

n 1 = Size of 1st Sample 

n 2 = Size of 2nd Sample 

 

Gross margin Analysis  

Measurement of the profitability of respondents was achieved using Gross Margin analysis in estimating costs and returns 

of the two categories of sesame farmers following other authors (Djokoto & Zigah, 2021; Choumbou et al., 2015; Ukpabuku 

& Ohen, 2020). The total revenue represents the value of the output from the farm multiplied by the unit price. The total 

costs include the variable and fixed costs of the respondents. The Gross Margin (GM) is expressed mathematically as: 

 

GM = TR-TVC ------------------(1) 

Where: 

GM- Gross Margin (N) 

TR- Total Revenue (N) 

TVC- Total Variable Cost (N) 

Labour (Man day) 

Seed purchase (kg) 

Fertilizer (Kg) 

Pesticides (Litres) 

 

4-Point Likert Scale   

According to Tunde-Akintunde et al. (2012), Likert scale technique provides interesting results in analyzing constraints or 

challenges faced by farmers in agricultural production. Dossa et al. (2023) adopted 5- point Likert Scale in identifying 

constraints faced by sesame farmers in their study. 

The constraint associated with sesame production was achieved using a mean score from a 4-point Likert scale in 

this study. These were rated as strongly agree (SA) =4, Agree (A) = 3, Disagree (D) = 2, and strongly disagree=1 the mean 

score of respondents based on the 4- point Likert Scale.  

Opinion      Point 

Very Serious (VS)    4 

Serious (S)     3 

Not Serious (NS)     2 

Not a problem     1  

 



Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

35 
 

The mean response to each item was calculated using the following formula;  

   𝑋 =
∑𝐹𝑋

𝑁
 

It was computed as: 

 
4 + 3 + 2 + 1

4
=
10

4
= 2.5 

Decision rule: Any mean scores below 2.5 (i.e., MS< 2.5) were ranked "Not serious; while those greater than 2.5 (MS>2.5) 

were considered ‘Serious.' 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

The results in   Table 1 show that   58.33% of the indigenous sesame farmers were 30-50 years old, while the majority 

(65.00%) of the non-indigenous sesame farmers were within the age range of 51-70 years. The results imply that younger, 

active, and productive farmers who were indigenes of the study area engaged in sesame production, unlike the non-

indigenous farmers who were much older. The older non-indigenous farmers could have laid their hands on other agricultural 

and non-agricultural activities before discovering and venturing into sesame production. However, the indigenous farmer 

could have discovered the crop's economic importance through the non-indigene who were grossly engaged in sesame 

production in the area. Thus, the productive age of the indigenous farmers, if properly utilized, would, in turn, enhance high 

productivity. Uwagboe et al. (2016) observed that age is an important factor in farm work; if the bulk of the farmers are old, 

they will have less energy, which will, in turn, affect their productivity. 

Table 1 shows that the majority (75.0%) of indigenous and 71.67% of non-indigenous sesame farmers were male 

in the study area. These agree with the findings of Tiamiyu et al. (2013), who reported that men dominated sesame farming. 

Also, Musa et al. (2020) also asserted the dominance of males in sesame production in their study. This could be attributed 

to the fact that male farmers have more access to family land than their female counterparts because of the exclusive right 

of male children to inherit family land. In contrast, the male non-indigenous farmers could have more drive to rent, purchase 

or lease farmland for sesame cultivation due to its economic value. Another reason for male predominance in the study area 

could be attributed to the labor-intensive nature of sesame farming, which could be hectic and time-consuming, especially 

for female respondents who combine farming with other domestic chores. 

The results in Table 1 show that 65.00% of the indigenous and 81.67% of the non-indigenous farmers were married, 

respectively. This implies that most indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers were responsible and could be assisted 

by their wives and children if available on the farm. The results concur with Abu et al. (2011), who stated that a high 

proportion of married indicates family labor availability. Also, Rahman et al. (2009) findings also stated that a high 

proportion of married respondents would contribute widely to the use of family labor. 

The results in Table 1 further show that 48.33% of the indigenous sesame farmers had household sizes of 6-10 

individuals, and 91.67% of the non-indigenous sesame farmers had household sizes of 11 and above individuals. This 

implies that family labor would be readily available when needed for sesame farming operations by the respondents. Larger 

household sizes have been reported to enhance family labor availability. Hence, the need for hired labor will be minimal, 

alleviating labor constraints. However, a large household size means more mouths to feed so large households could provide 

a smaller marketed surplus for a given farm size. 

  The results in Table 1 show that the majority (96.66%) of the indigenous sesame farmers had formal education 

from primary education to tertiary education. In comparison, 30.00% of the non-indigenous respondents needed formal 

education. Although some non-indigenous sesame farmers also had one form of education or the other, their level of 

education still needed to be higher than the indigenous sesame farmers. The findings imply that there is potential for 

increased sesame production in the study area since education will give farmers access to information on new agricultural 

innovations that can be adopted to enhance their productivity. Farmers who can read and write are expected to adopt 

innovation with its effect on productivity. This finding agrees with Ezeh et al. (2012), who found that the level of education 

attained by farmers increases farm productivity and enhances their capacity to understand and evaluate new production 

technologies. 

The results in Table 1 showed that 46.67% of the indigenous respondents were full-time farmers, while 91.67% of 

the non-indigenous were full-time farmers. This implies that the non-indigenous sesame farmers were fully engaged in 

farming; no wonder they were majorly devoted to sesame cultivation, unlike their counterparts, who gave more priority to 

other occupations, thus taking farming as a part-time venture. 

The results in Table 1 also show that 31.67% of the indigenous sesame farmers had farming experience between 

10-20 years, while 51.67% of the non-indigenous respondents had farming experience between 10-20 years. These imply 

that indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers are experienced in sesame cultivation. However, the non-indigene had 

a higher percentage of sesame cultivation in the study area. One can infer that the non-indigenous farmers have been in 

business ahead of the indigenes who later joined the train, probably, due to the prospect foreseen through the non-indigenous 

farmers. The results align with the findings of Abu et al. (2011), who reported that the average farming experience of sesame 

farmers in Nasarawa State was 12.8 years. Amaza and Olayemi (2002) also stated that the higher the number of years spent 

in farming by a farmer, the more he becomes aware of new production techniques. Also, the farming experience could be 

an added advantage to the farmers regarding management practices that could increase productivity and cost of production 

minimization. 



Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

36 
 

The results also show that the majority (86.67%) of the indigenous sesame farmers hired labor for sesame 

production. In comparison, the majority (93.33%) of the non-indigenous sesame farmers made use of their family members 

on the farm. The results buttress the larger household size, especially for the non-indigene who had large members within 

their reach, who became sources of labor on their farms, and the entire family members took sesame production as their 

means of income.                                                                                                                                      

Therefore, the non-indigenous farmers spent less on labor while their indigene counterparts spent more on hired 

labor. It may be likely that they even employed non-indigenous farmers to help on their farms since many indigenous sesame 

farmers were part-time farmers, as stated earlier. 

              The results revealed in Table 1 further show that 53.33% of the indigenous respondents had no contact with the 

extension agents. Likewise, the majority (66.67%) of the non-indigenous respondents had no contact with the extension 

agents. This may negatively influence the adoption of improved sesame production technologies because contact with 

extension agents exposes farmers to new technologies, improved seed varieties, and others. The low extension access 

recorded in this study could be associated with the low extension staff-to-farmers ratio observed in Nigeria and other 

developing countries. 

 

Table 1. Socio-economic Characteristics of Indigenous and Non-indigenous Sesame Farmers 

 
 Indigenous Non-indigenous 

Socio-economic 

variables 

Frequency Percentage Mean/mode Frequency Percentage Mean/mode 

30-50 35 58.33  17 28.33  

51-70 20 33.33  39 65.00  

71-90 5 8.33  4 6.67  

Total 60 100,00  60 100,00  

Sex       

Female 15 25.00  17 28.33  

Male 45 75.00 Male 43 71.67 Male 

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

Marital status       

Single 4 6.67 
 

   

Widow  3 5.00  8 13.33  

Widower  7 11.67 Married 3 5.00  

Married 39 65.00  49 81.67 Married 

Divorced  7 11.67     

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

Household size       

1-5 23 38.33  1 1.67  

6-10 29 48.33  4 6.67  

11-15 8 13.33  55 91.67  

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

Level of 

education 

      

No formal 

education 

2 3.33  18 30.00  

Primary 

education 

5 8.33  26 43.33  

Secondary 

education  

15 25.00 Tertiary education 14 23.33 Primary 

education 

Tertiary 

education  

38 63.33  2 3.33  

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

Other occupation       

Other occupation 32 53.33  5 8.33  

Full-time 

Farming 

28 46.67 Other occupation 55 91.67 Full-time 
farming 

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

 Source of capital       

Self-finance 21 35.00 Self-finance 28 46.67 Self-finance 

Credit and thrift 6 10.00  14 23.33  

Cooperative 19 31.67  18 30.00  

Agric bank 7 11.67  0 0.00  

Friends and 

family 

7 11.67  7 11.67  

Total 60 100.00  60 100  

Farming 

experience 

      

10-20 19 31.67  21 35.00  

21-40 34 56.67  31 51.67  

Above 41 7 11.67  8 13.33  

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

Land source       

Inherited 30 50.00 Inherited 5 8.33  

Gift 23 38.33  19 31.67  



Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

37 
 

Purchase 5 8.33  16 26.67 Rent 

Rent 2 3.33  20 33.33  

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

Source of labour       

Family 4 6.67  56 93.33  

Hired 52 86.67 Hired 3 5.00 Family 

Cooperative 

farming 

4 6.67  1 1.167  

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

Extension access        

No access 32 53.33  20 33.33  

Access  28 46.67 No access 40 66.67 No access 

Total 60 100.00  60 100.00  

 

Source:  Field Survey, 2021 

 

Comparison of Resources Used by Indigenous and Non-indigenous Sesame Farmers 

The result in Table 2 showed that non-indigenous farmers planted more seed (303.33kg) than the indigenous sesame farmers 

(91.25kg); the difference in seed quantity planted was significant at 1%. This implies that the expected output of the non-

indigenous sesame farmers should be greater than their counterparts, all things remaining equal. The costs incurred by the 

respondents were in line with the seed quantity purchased, as shown in the Table. This implies that the non-indigenous 

sesame farmers cultivated more land than the indigenous sesame farmers. The evidence of these is revealed in the land area 

cultivated by indigenous sesame farmers (11.02ha) and non-indigenous sesame farmers (23.26ha), which was also 

significant at 1%. This implies that the non-indigenous sesame farmers acquired more land than the indigenous sesame 

farmers, who were indigenes and rightful land owners. However, the indigenous farmers need to attach more importance to 

sesame production on their land, thus, leaving the strangers to take better advantage of their possession economically. 

The results also showed that the indigenous farmers, despite their low land cultivation, still hired more labor (10.56) 

than the non-indigenous sesame farmers who used low-hired labor (4.18). It may be likely that the indigenous farmers also 

hired the non-indigenous sesame farmers on their farms because indigenes always see strangers in their land as cheap sources 

of labor. 

Also, there were significant differences in the quantities of herbicides and pesticides used by the two categories of 

sesame farmers. These variables were significant, mostly at 1%, apart from the quantity of fertilizer, which was not 

significant for both categories of farmers. These results show that in terms of management practices, the non-indigenous 

sesame farmers could take good care of their farms regarding pest and weed control. These could translate to more output 

during the harvest period for the non-indigenous sesame farmers who were always on the ground to look after their farms. 

 

Table 2. Farm Resources Used by the Indigenous and Non-indigenous Sesame Farmers 

Resources Indigenous Non-indigenous  t-value  

Seed quantity (kg) 91.25 303.33 9.5884*** 

Seed cost (N) 55,343.33 485,565.33 2.7437** 

Land quantity (ha) 11.02 23.65 4.1318*** 

Labour quantity (person-days) 10.56 4.18 3.8766*** 

Labor cost (N) 22,755.17 10,800.00 2.0087** 

Pesticides quantity (liters) 10.28 18.22 6.0207*** 

Pesticides cost (N) 13.025.83 38.438.83 2.6120*** 

Herbicides quantity (liters) 10.72 18.83 6.1789*** 

Herbicides cost (N) 14,887.50 31,675.83 5.0201*** 

Fertilizer quantity (50kg bag) 9.98 19.13 1.3412 

Fertilizer cost (N) 35,882.14 64,720.00 5.2247*** 

Note:  Significant at ***1%, **5% 
Source: Field Survey, 2021 

                                                       
Costs and Returns of Indigenous and Non-indigenous Sesame Farmers 

The results in Table 3 show that the average total revenue obtained by indigenous sesame farmers was N370,452.50 per 

hectare, and the total variable cost was N59,942.78 per hectare while the Gross margin was N310,509.72 per hectare with 

5.28. As Benefit Cost Ratio. The non-indigenous sesame farmers’ average total revenue was N548,712.40 per hectare,  

average total variable cost was N72,867.73 per hectare while the Gross margin was N475.844.67 per hectare with Benefit 

cost Ratio (6.50). These results showed that sesame production is highly profitable in the area, and thus, any effort at 

expanding it would be a good decision. The results align with the findings of Abu et al. (2011), who found that sesame 

production is profitable in West African countries. The results also buttressed the findings of Makama et al. (2011), who 

found that sesame production is profitable, in which sesame farmers' realized a BCR of 1.40.  

 

Table 3. Costs and Returns of Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Sesame Farmers/Hectare 

 
Variables  Indigenous Non-Indigenous  

Items  Qty. Unit Price  Amount (N) Qty. Unit Price Amount (N) 

Return (100 bags) 10.45 35,450.00 370,452.50 15.50 35,400.80 548,712.40 

A. Total Revenue, TR   370,452.50   548,712.40 



Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

38 
 

Variables Costs       

Seed (kg) 17.4 550.45 7,376.03 18.35 555.16 10,187.19 

Labour   13.5 2,200.50 29,706.75 15.5 2200.00 34,100.00 

Pesticide (liters) 3.8 1400.00 5,320.00 3.3 1350.85 4,457.81 

Herbicide (litres) 2.0 3100.00 6,200.00 2.7 3100.50 8,371.35 

Fertilizer (bag) 1.8 6300.00 11,340 2.5 6300.55 15,751.38 

B. Total Variable Cost, TVC   59,942.78   72,867.73 

Fixed Cost       

Depreciation on fixed items - - 10,209.50 - - 11,540.45 

C. Total Fixed Cost, TFC   10,209.50   11,540.45` 

Total Costs, TC = B+C   70,152.28   84,408.18 

Gross Margin, GM=  A – B    310,509.72   475,844.67 

Profit, π = A – C    300,300.22   464,304.22 

BCR = A/C    5.28   6.50 

Source: Field Survey, 2021 

 

Constraint Faced by Indigenous and Non-indigenous Sesame Farmers 

The results in Table 4 show that the indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers faced the constraints of the high cost 

of fertilizer (mean scores = 3.38, 3.88), respectively. The implication is that the high fertilizer cost would limit farmers' 

purchasing and applying adequate fertilizers to increase their production. Thus, soil fertility would be depleted faster each 

year without adequate replenishment, which could lead to low sesame production in the current and subsequent years. 

Nyiatagher and Ocholi (2015) state that low fertilizer application could lead to low yield. Lack of improved seeds (mean 

scores = 3.23, 2.53) was another serious constraint faced by indigenous and non-indigenous sesame farmers, respectively. 

Thus, the local sesame cultivar is majorly planted by the farmers in the area, which would have affected the volume of their 

output. Also, inadequate access to credit was a serious constraint faced   (mean scores = 3.43, 3.42) by the indigenous and 

non-indigenous sesame farmers, respectively. This implies that the respondent’s means of expansion will be limited to 

probably their savings or from friends and relatives. This could limit their land area to be cultivated, managed and total 

output. The inability of farmers to have access to credit from financial institutions may be due to the lack of collateral 

required for credit acquisition. Invariably, family and friends may remain their main sources of farm credit, whose 

disbursement volume is usually low. This collaborates with the findings reported that producers complained that shortage 

of capital and stringent conditions imposed by banks for securing loans had deterred farmers' performance in sesame 

production. Also, Abu et al. (2011) discovered funds as a constraint to sesame production among farmers in Nasarawa State. 
 

Table 4. Constraints Facing Indigenous and Non-indigenous Sesame Farmers   

 
Constraint Indigenous Non-Indigenous 

VS S NS NP MS VS S NS NP MS 

High cost of fertilizer 41 8 4 7 3.38 54 5 1 0 3.88 

Lack of improved seed 27 25 3 5 3.23 4 26 28 2 2.53 

Disease and pest infestation 13 6 26 15 2.28 0 15 40 5 2.17 

Low output per hectare 8 13 22 17 2.20 1 18 34 7 2.22 

Inadequate processing facilities    16 10 23 11 2.25 5 16 24 15 2.18 

High transportation cost 34 13 7 6 3.25 43 8 6 3 3.53 

Poor storage facilities 18 5 17 20 2.35 17 5 15 23 2.27 

Inadequate access to credit  37 14 7 2 3.43 40 9 7 4 3.42 

Pilfering/theft 2 5 18 35 1.57 5 3 19 33 1.67 

 

Note: VS= Very Serious, S= Serious, NS=Not Serious, NP= Not a problem, MS= Mean Score 

Source: Field Survey, 2021 

 

CONCLUSIONS 

The study compared sesame production among indigenous and non-indigenous farmers in Yagba East, Kogi State, Nigeria. 

The findings showed that the majority of the respondents (indigenous and non-indigenous) were married men. The 

indigenous sesame farmers were more educated than the non-indigenous sesame farmers. The non-indigenous farmers 

cultivated more land area than the indigenous farmers. Also, the non-indigenous farmers were mostly given to full-time 

farming of sesame, and they had more years of experience in sesame production than their counterparts. The findings showed 

that higher returns, gross margins, and benefit-cost accrued to the non-indigenous farmers than the indigenous, who also 

found sesame production profitable. The high cost of transportation, lack of improved seed varieties, high fertilizer cost, 

and inadequate access to credit facilities and extension services were serious constraints faced by indigenous and non-

indigenous sesame farmers, respectively. 

           Therefore, good road networking construction is paramount for the effective transportation of inputs and output; 

extension agents visits are needed in the study area to disseminate new techniques to enhance increased sesame production, 

and sesame farmers (indigenous and non-indigenous) should pool their resources together as cooperatives to enhance easy 

access to credit in other to purchase farm inputs such as fertilizer to replenish soil fertility and increase their output in the 

study area. The limitations of this study were inadequate funding and the inability of older respondents to read and write. 

Future research should compare technical efficiency and value addiction among different categories of sesame producers in 

the study area.  
 



Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

39 
 

 

 

 

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.E.A.; Methodology, Y.E.A.; Software, Y.E.A.; Validation, Y.E.A. and H.I.O.; Formal Analysis, Y.E.A., 
S.A. and M.O.A.; Investigation, Y.E.A., S.A. and M.O.A.; Resources, Y.E.A., S.A. and M.O.A.; Data Curation, A.O.G. and S.A.; Writing – Original Draft 

Preparation, Y.E.A., S.A. and M.O.A.; Writing – Review & Editing, Y.E.A., H.I.O. and A.O.G.; Visualization, Y.E.A., S.A. and M.O.A.; Supervision, 

Y.E.A.; Project Administration, Y.E.A.; Funding Acquisition, Y.E.A., S.A. and M.O.A. Authors have read and agreed to the published version of the 
manuscript. 

Institutional Review Board Statement: Ethical review and approval were waived for this study due to the research does not deal with vulnerable groups 

or sensitive issues. 

Funding: The authors received no direct funding for this research. 

Acknowledgments: Not applicable.  

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. 

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available 

due to restrictions. 

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   

 

REFERENCES 

Abu, G. A., Abah, D., & Okpachu, S. A. (2011). Analysis of Cost and Return for Sesame Production in Nasarawa State: 

Implication for Sustainable Development in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 13(3), 238–

249.  

Amaza, P. S., & Olayemi, O. (2002). Analysis of technical efficiency in food crop production in Gombe State of Nigeria. 

Nigeria Applied Economics, 9(13), 146-152. https://doi.org/10.4314/naj.v32i1.49376 

Choumbou, R. F. D., Odoemenem, I. U., & Ohen, N. E. (2015).  Gross Margin Analysis and Constraints Faced by Rice 

Producers in the West Region of Cameroon. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 5(21), 1088-112.  

Djokoto, J. G., & Zigah, D. E. (2021). Gross Margin of Smallholder Palm Fruit Processors with Non-Allocable Inputs in 

Assin North and South District in Ghana. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 5, 100177. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2021.10017 

Dossa, K. F., Enete, A. A., Miassi, Y. E. & Omotayo, A. O. (2023). Economic analysis of Sesame (Sesamum et al.) 

Production in Northern Benin. Frontiers in Sustainable Food System, 6, 1015122. 

https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.1015122 

Ezeh, C. I., Anyiro, C. O., & Chukwu, J. A.  (2012). Technical Efficiency in Poultry broiler Production in Umuahia Capital 

Territory of Abia State, Nigeria. Science, 2(1), 001-007.  

FAOSTAT (2022). Production of crops and livestock products. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/faostat#compare 

Hong, Y., Heerink, N., & der Werf, W. (2020). Farm Size and Smallholders' Use of Intercropping in North-West, China. 

Elsevier, 99,105004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020  

Mohammed, D. T. (2020). Maximizing the potential of Beniseed Sesame (Sesamum et al.) Production in Adamawa State, 

Niger. International Journal of Innovative Agric. and Biology Research, 8(2), 12–20.  

Makama, B. Y. (2011). Synthesis and Effect of Catalyst Concentration on the Yield of Biodiesel by Transesterification of 

Castor Oil and Palm Oil in Admixture. Int. J. Chem. Sci. Tech, 1, 116-120. 

Musa, J., Bello, M. S., & Beli, S. A. (2020). Profitability Analysis of Sesame (Sesamum et al.) Production in Dutsin-ma 

Local Government Area, Katsina State, NIGERIA. FUDMA Journal of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, 

5(2), 47-55. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18516.35205 

Nyiatagher, Z. T., & Ocholi, A. (2015). Gross Margin Analysis and Resource Use Efficiency in Sesame Production among 

Small Scale Farmers in Benue State, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 8(7), 15–23. 

Rahman, S. A. & Umar, H. S. (2009). Measurement of Technical Efficiency and its Determinants in Crop Production in 

Lafia Local Government Area of NassarawaState, Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, Food, Environment, 

and Extension, 8(2), 90-96. https://doi.org/10.4314/as.v8i2.51103 

Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC) (2004). Survey report of ten selected agro raw materials in 

Nigeria. BENISEED (Maiden Edition) 108pp.  

Tiamiyu, S. A., Adagba, M.A. Ibrahim, P. A. & Shaahu, A. (2013). Profitability of Sesame Production and Marketing in 

Nigeria. Advanced Journal of Agricultural Research, 1(6), 88-94, Science and Management, 3(1), 100-104. 

https://doi.org/10.29322/ijsrp.12.01.2022.p12142 

Tunde- Akintunde, T. Y., Oke, M. O., & Akintunde, B. O. (2012). Sesame Seed- A Book published by Interchopen.  

Ukpabuku, J. U., & Ohen, S. B. (2020). Analysis of Profitability of Microbroiler Enterprises in Calabar Metropolis, Cross-

Rivers State. Global Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 19, 1-9. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjass.v/9i1.1 

Uwagboe, E., Meludu, N. T., & Agbebaku, E. E. O. (2016). Adoption of Integrated Pest Management among Cocoa 

Farmers in Cross River and Osun States of Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 5, 188-201. 

Wacal, C., Daniel, B., Okello-Anyanga W., Murongo, M.F., Namirembe, C., & Malingumu, R. (2021).  Analysis of sesame 

seed production and export trends; challenges and strategies towards increasing production in Uganda. EDP 

Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2020073 

Wei, W., Zhao, F.,Wang, Z., Wang, Z., Hou, G., & Meng, Q. (2022). Sesame (Sesamum et al.). A Comprehensive Review 

of Nutritional Value, Phytochemical Composition, Health Benefits, Development of Food and Industrial 

Applications. Nutrients, 14(19), 4079. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu1419479 

Yadav, R., Kalia, S., Rangan, P., Pradheep, K., Govind, P. R., Kaur, V., Panday, R., Rai, V., Vasimalla, C. C., Langan, S., 

Sharma, S., Thangavel, B., Rana, V. S., Vishwakarma, H., Shan, A., Kumar, A., Singh, K., & Siddique, K. H. M. 

https://www.fao.org/faostat#compare


Ajibade et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 32-40 

  

40 
 

(2022). Current Research Trends and Prospects for Yield and Quality Improvement in Sesame, an important 

oilseed crop. Front. Plant Sci, p. 13, 863521. https://doi.org/10.3389/Fpls.2022.863521 
 

 

Publisher’s Note: ACSE stays neutral about jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 

 
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee ACSE, USA. This open-access article is distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 

(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 

American International Journal of Agricultural Studies (P-ISSN 2641-4155 E-ISSN 2641-418X) by ACSE is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 4.0 International License. 

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
http://ssbfnet.com/ojs/index.php/ijrbs
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

