




































 AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL STUDIES 9(1) (2024), 1-6  

1 

 

      AGRICULTURAL STUDIES 

                                                               AIJAS VOL 9 NO 1 (2024) P-ISSN 2641-4155   E-ISSN 2641-418X 
                                                  

                                                                                                                      Available online at www.acseusa.org      

                                                                                                                                Journal homepage: https://www.acseusa.org/journal/index.php/aijas 
                Published by American Center of Science and Education, USA 

CAN CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECT INCOME-GENERATING 

ACTIVITIES?: EVIDENCE FROM FARMERS IN ENUGU STATE 

NIGERIA  
 

 Kelvin Nnaemeka Nwangwu (a)1    Chukwuma Ume (b)      Ogochukwu Gabriella Onah (c)      Chinedum Jachima 

Chiemela (d)      Emmanuel Ejiofor Omeje (e)      

 

(a) Lecturer II, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria; E-mail: nnaemeka.nwangwu@unn.edu.ng 
(b) Lecturer I, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria; E-mail: chukwuma.ume@unn.edu.ng 
(c) Lecturer I, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria; E-mail: ogochi.onah@unn.edu.ng 
(d) Senior Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria; E-mail: chinedum.chiemela@unn.edu.ng 
(e) Lecturer I, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria; E-mail: ejiofor.omeje@unn.edu.ng 

 

 
A R T I C L E I N F O 
 

 

Article History: 
 

Received:10th January 2024 

Reviewed & Revised:11th January  
to 28th April 2024 

Accepted:30th April 2024 

Published:4th May 2024 

 
Keywords: 
 

Climate Change, Income-Generating 

Activities, Pearson Product-Moment  

Correlation 

 
JEL Classification Codes: 

 

Q00, O13 

       

 Peer-Review Model:  

 

 External peer-review was done through  
double-blind method.  

 
A B S T R A C T 

 
The need to analyze the changes that the effect of climate change brings on the income-generating 

activities of farmers in Enugu state necessitated this study. The study examined farmers' socio-economic 

characteristics, described the perceived climate change effects, analyzed changes in income-generating 

activities, and evaluated the link between socio-economic factors and income-generating activities. 

Primary data were collected from 120 respondents using well-structured questionnaires. The data were 

analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson product-moment correlation. The results showed that 

the majority (73.3%) of the respondents were male farmers. Results of the study also showed that 
reduction in productivity (89.2%), change in farming pattern (77.5%), and soil degradation (65.0%) 

were the most perceived effects of climatic change among the respondents. The result also revealed 

strong negative change in income-generating activities in the areas of goat/sheep rearing (-33.4), fishing 

(-32.5), rabbit rearing (-15.0), and basket weaving (15.0), while petty trading (+23.4), hair barbing 

(+18.3) and food vending (+15.8) had strong positive change in the study area. The study revealed that 

socio-economic characteristics such as marital status, household size, and years of farming experience 

are correlated with positive income-generating activities. The study recommends that farmers should 

prioritize positive income-generating activities that correlate with their socio-economic characteristics. 
The study also recommends the implementation of crop rotation and organic manure as one of the 

ecological practices for climate change mitigation. 

 
 

© 2024 by the authors. Licensee ACSE, USA. This open-access article is distributed under the terms 
and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license 

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).                           

 

INTRODUCTION 

Climate change is characterized by a consistent and prolonged pattern of fluctuations in various weather elements over thirty 

years or more. These elements encompass temperature, pressure, wind systems, direction, humidity, cloud cover, and 

precipitation, as outlined by the IPCC in 2007.  

Climate change has led to desertification, flooding, and drought, impacting various aspects of life, with a primary 

focus on agricultural systems (Twumasi et al., 2022). The progress achieved in agricultural activities in Enugu State is 

threatened by climate change, as highlighted by (Ozor & Nnaji, 2011). Farmers in this region are facing challenges such as 

soil erosion, degradation, loss of fertility, reduced productivity, scarcity of potable water, loss of vegetation, intense weed 

growth, health issues, increased pests and diseases, and disruption of wildlife ecosystems. The agricultural sector, 

individuals with poor health, and those with lower levels of education are particularly vulnerable to the risks posed by 

climate change (Ishaya & Abaje, 2018).  

                                                      
1Corresponding author: ORCID ID: 0009-0008-0374-5071 

© 2024 by the authors. Hosting by ACSE. Peer review under the responsibility of the American Center of Science and Education, USA.  

https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v9i1.312 
 
To cite this article: Nwangwu, K. N., Ume , C., Onah , O. G., Chiemela, C. J., & Omeje , E. E. (2024). CAN CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECT INCOME-

GENERATING ACTIVITIES?: EVIDENCE FROM FARMERS IN ENUGU STATE NIGERIA. American International Journal of Agricultural Studies, 

9(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v9i1.312 

https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v9i1.312
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
https://www.openaccess.nl/en
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0374-5071
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2033-0560
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9883-2109
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8605-0871
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1448-7003


Nwangwu et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 9(1) (2024), 1-6 

  

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The significant impacts of climate change in the research area encompass diminished agricultural yields and 

income, the depletion of streams or rivers, deterioration in crop storage quality, the loss of pastureland or vegetation, and 

disruption of wildlife ecosystems (Enete et al., 2011). This could be that Enugu state is an arid area and also being closer to 

the Northern parts of Nigeria where there is insufficient rain for optimal crop production (Nzeh & Eboh, 2011). Hence, 

some research in developing countries like Nigeria have opined that farmers rely on both farm and non-farm activities for 

income generation for their livelihood (Oladeji, 2007; Alalade et al., 2021; Kebede et al., 2024). In Sub-Sahara Africa for 

example, farmers depend on livestock rearing for their livelihoods because they generate most of their incomes from 

livestock farming (Twumasi et al., 2021; Jamro et al., 2021; Jabessa et al., 2023). Climate change has profound implications 

for the income-generating activities of farmers, disrupting traditional agricultural practices and challenging livelihoods in 

Nigeria (Alalade et al., 2021). This multifaceted issue encompasses a spectrum of impacts on farming, from altered 

precipitation patterns and temperature fluctuations to extreme weather events, leading to environmental degradation and 

economic instability. In addition, Shifts in precipitation and temperature can disrupt traditional growing seasons, leading to 

reduced crop yields and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases (Patrick et al., 2023). These changes threaten the 

stability of farm income, particularly farmers who rely only on agriculture for their livelihood. In regions where agriculture 

is rain-fed, irregular rainfall patterns can result in prolonged droughts or sudden floods, which have detrimental effects on 

crop production (Alalade et al., 2021). Farmers may face increased financial strain as they grapple with the uncertainties 

associated with these climatic variations. 

The study area is currently facing drought, fluctuation in rain and drying up of numerous rivers because of climate 

change. These challenges are expected to contribute negatively on income-generating activities of farm household as well 

as impacting negatively on human living standards, particularly in sub-Sahara Africa like Nigeria (Akinbile, 2010; Adefalu, 

et al., 2013; Alalade et al., 2021). Unlike other existing literature, this study explores the intricate relationship between 

climate change and the income-generating activities of farmers, examining both challenges and potential adaptations. The 

study also emphasized more on positive income-generating activities that correlate with the socio-economic characteristics 

of the farmers in the study area. 

The broad objective of this study is to analyze climate change and its effect on farmers' income-generating activities 

in Enugu state. The specific objectives of the study include: describing farmers' socio-economic characteristics, determining 

the perceived effect of climate change among farmers in the study area; examining the change in income-generating 

activities of farmers in the study area; and examining the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and income-

generating activities. 

 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

Internationally, climate change is acknowledged as a significant menace to sustainable development, posing adverse effects 

on the environment, human health, food security, and physical infrastructure, as highlighted by the Africa-Wide Civil 

Society Climate Change Initiative for Policy Dialogues (ACCID) in 2010. The comprehensive impact of climate change 

encompasses unpredictable rainfall, altering seasonal patterns, and elevating the probability and intensity of extreme events 

like floods. It is crucial to highlight that the gradual reduction of trees in forests, without replenishment, has impacted the 

presence of diverse plant and animal species. Despite rising demand, deforestation has substantial consequences on exposed 

soil, resulting in thinner vegetation cover and compromising soil fertility (Shove, 2016). In this regard, the income-

generating activities of farmers have been diversified, forcing farmers to adopt different income-generating activities other 

than farming activities due to perceived effect of climate change in the study area. 

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Study Area 

The study was carried out in Enugu State, Nigeria. Enugu state is one of the 36 states in Nigeria, located in the Southeast 

geopolitical zone. The state lies between latitudes 5056'N and 7005'N of the Equator and longitudes 6053'E and 7055'E of 

the Greenwich meridian (ENADEP, 2012). The state comprises 17 Local Government Areas (LGAs) and is divided into six 

agricultural zones (ENADEP, 2012). These zones are Nsukka zone: Igbo-etiti, Nsukka, and Uzo-uwani LGAs; Enugu Ezike 

zone: Udenu, Igbo-Eze South and Igbo-Eze North LGAs; Enugu zone: Enugu North, Enugu East, and Isi-Uzo LGAs; Agbani 

zone: Nkanu East, Nkanu West, and Enugu South LGAs; Awgu zone: Awgu, Oji River and Aninri LGAs; and Udi zone: 

Udi and Ezeagu LGAs. 

Sampling Procedure 

A multi-stage sampling technique was used for the study. In first stage, two agricultural zones (Nsukka and Enugu Ezike) 

were selected from the six agricultural zones. These zones were selected because they generate income from non-farm and 

farm activities. In stage two, Uzo-uwani LGA and Igbo-Eze North LGA were purposively selected from Nsukka and Enugu 

Ezike agricultural zones respectively, giving two LGAs. These LGAs were selected because they depend on agricultural 

activities for income generation. Stage three involved a purposive selection of two communities from each of the two LGAs, 

making four communities. These communities were selected because they depend on farming activities to generate income. 

In the fourth stage, two villages were randomly selected from each of the four communities to get eight villages.  In the 

finally stage, fifteen respondents were selected randomly from each of the eight villages to generate sample size of 120. 



Nwangwu et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 9(1) (2024), 1-6 

  

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Data Collection 

Primary data were collected with well-structured questionnaires for the study. The questionnaires were administered to 

household farmers. It contains information on the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers, some effect of climate 

change, and income-generating activities of the farmers in the study area. 

 

Data Analysis 

The data was analyzed using relevant statistical and econometric tools. First, second and third objectives were realized using 

descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentages while fourth objective was analyzed using Correlation analysis. 

 

RESULTS 

Table 1. Distribution of farmers according to their socio-economic characteristics 

 
Socio-economic characteristics  Frequency Percentages % 

Age   

Less than 20 4 3.3 

21 – 30 11 9.2 

31 – 40 31 25.8 

41 – 50 33 27.5 

51 – 60 34 28.3 

61 and above 7 5.8 

Sex   

Male 88 73.3 

Female 32 26.7 

Marital status   

Single 35 29.2 

Married 73 60.8 

others 12 10 

Educational level   

Primary school 24 20 

Secondary school 58 48.3 

Tertiary education 38 31.7 

Primary Occupation   

Agriculture 44 36.7 

Trading 44 36.7 

Artisanship 19 15.8 

Civil/public service 13 10.8 

Years of farming experience   

 1-5 13 10.8 

6-10 17 14.2 

11-15 40 33.3 

16 and above 50 41.7 

Household size   

1 – 3 20 16.7 

4 – 6 50 41.7 

7 – 9 36 30.0 

10 and above 14 11.7 

Monthly Income (₦)   

Less than 2000 32 26.7 

>2000 88 73.3 

Total  120 100 

 

Table 2. Perceived effect of climatic change among farmers in Enugu State 

 
Perceived impact of Climatic Change* Frequency Percentages (%) 

Soil degradation 78 65.0 

Economic instability 23 19.2 
Fluctuation in the rainy seasons 61 50.8 

Change in farming pattern 93 77.5 

Deforestation 14 11.7 
Destruction of wildlife ecosystem 37 30.8 

Loss of pasture land and vegetation 42 35.0 

Reduction in productivity 107 89.2 
Air pollution 15 12.5 

*Multiple responses recorded 

Table 3. Change in Income-generating activities of farmers 

Income-generating activities of 

farmers* 

Engaged in ten years ago Engage presently % Change in 

income generating activities  

 Frequency Percentages Frequency Percentages %Diff 

Goat/sheep rearing 68 56.7 28 23.3 33.4- 

Fishing 53 44.2 14 11.7 32.5- 

Livestock production 13 10.8 10 8.3 2.5- 



Nwangwu et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 9(1) (2024), 1-6 

  

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Hunting 28 23.3 20 16.7 6.7- 

Piggery production 37 30.8 34 28.3 2.5- 

Palm oil processing 38 31.7 27 22.5 9.2- 

Crop planting 26 21.7 28 23.3 1.7+ 

Selling of firewood 27 22.5 29 24.2 1.7+ 

Keeping of local fowls 32 26.7 26 21.7 5.0- 

Rabbit rearing 37 30.8 19 15.8 15.0- 

Snail collection 37 30.8 21 17.5 13.3- 

Basket weaving 43 35.8 25 20.8 15.0- 

Food vending 50 41.7 31 57.5 15.8+ 

Petty trading 42 35.0 14 58.3 23.3+ 

Hair plating 40 33.3 25 45.8 12.5+ 

Hired labour 37 30.8 31 25.8 5.0- 

Tailoring 31 25.8 14 40.0 14.2+ 

Palm-tapping 13 10.8 13 10.8 0.0* 

Blacksmithing 15 12.5 19 15.8 3.3+ 

Cloth weaving 24 20.0 25 20.8 0.8+ 

Carpentry 30 25.0 39 32.5 7.5+ 

Welding 13 10.8 12 10.0 0.8- 

Barbing 45 37.5 23 55.8 18.3+ 

Transporter 28 23.3 36 30.0 6.7+ 

Traditional medicine 37 30.8 25 20.8 10.0- 

Mean 33.76   23.55  

+ signify more involvement in income generating activities, - signify less involvement in income generating activities; * signify no change in income 

generating activities 

Table 4. Pearson product-moment results showing the correlation between some selected socio-economic characteristics of 

the farmers and positive income-generating activities 

 
Variable s Chi-square value Df p-value 

Age  0.58 4 0.170 

sex 0.11 2 0.321 

Marital status 7.67 1 0.006* 

Level of education 2.08 1 0.148 

Primary occupation 1.12 1 0.472 

Household size 4.08 2 0.005* 

Farming experience 21.10 4 -0.001* 

* means significant correlation 

DISCUSSIONS 
Table 1 discusses the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers, such as age, sex, marital status, level of education, 

primary occupation, years of farming experience, household size, and monthly income. The result revealed that the majority 

(28.3%) of the respondents are within the age of 51-60 years, (27.5%) and (25.8%) are within 41-50 years and 31-40 years 

respectively. The results also show that the majority (73.3%) of respondents were male farmers whereas (26.7%) are female 

farmers. The result of the marital status indicates that the majority (48.3%) of respondents is married and (29.2%) are single, 

(10.0%) are others. This suggests that farmers who were married are keen into diversifying their income generation to 

support their household needs. The result also revealed that the majority of the respondents (48.3%) were secondary school 

graduates, while (31.7%) were graduates from tertiary institutions and (20%) were from primary school. 
The result of the primary occupation revealed that the majority (36.7%) of the respondents were agriculturist and 

traders whereas (15.8%) were artisans. The finding shows high level of diversification in income-generating activities by 

the respondents in the study area. The finding is in line with Oladeji (2007) who opined that most developing countries like 

Nigeria generates income from difference sources other than farm activities for their livelihood. The result of the farming 

experience shows that the majority (41.7%) of the respondents has more than 16 years of farming experience, whereas 

(33.3%) have between 11 and 15 years, and (14.2%) have between 6-10 years of farming experience. This means that 

significant numbers of respondents in the study area are experience farmers. This means that significant numbers of 

respondents in the study area are experience farmers. On that note, they can easily navigate the adverse effect of climate 

change by diversifying their income-generating activities. 

The result also shows that the majority (41.7%) of the households has between 4-6 persons in a house, (30.0%) 

have between 7-9 persons in the house and (16.7%) have 1-3 persons in the house.  

The result also shows that the majority (73%) of the respondents earn more than ₦2000 while (26%) earn less than ₦2000 

per month from both farming and non-farming activities. This finding is not in conformity with Adefalu et al. (2013) who 

reported that farm earnings have decreased in recent years as a result of the impact of climate change on agricultural 

productivity.  

Table 2 revealed that about 89.2% of the respondents perceived reduction in productivity to be the greatest adverse 

effect caused by climate change in the study area. The results also show that 77.5% and 65.0% of the respondents perceived 

change in farming patterns and soil degradation as the second and third ranking adverse effects caused by climate change 

in the study area respectively. Fluctuation in the rainy season was reported by 50.8% of the respondents, and 35.0% of the 

respondents reported that the loss of pasture land and vegetation was also among the adverse effects caused by climate 



Nwangwu et al., American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 9(1) (2024), 1-6 

  

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change in the study area. It also revealed that 30.8% of the respondents reported destruction of wildlife, and 19.2% of the 

respondents reported economic instability as the adverse effect caused by climate change. In addition, 12.5% and 11.7% of 

the respondents mentioned air pollution and deforestation respectively as the least adverse effect caused by climate change 

in the study area. The findings revealed that respondents perceive climate change as being detrimental to agriculture, 

particularly in decreasing agricultural productivity, shifting farming practices and causing degradation of soil quality. 

Consequently, respondents are likely to engage in additional off-farm income-generating endeavors to support their 

livelihoods. The findings align with that of Alalade et al. (2021), who argue that climate change adversely affects agricultural 

activities. Thus, it is crucial to investigate the repercussions of climate change and devise strategies to mitigate its adverse 

effects for sustainable agribusiness within urban and rural areas in Nigeria. Additionally, soil degradation resulting from 

exposure to adverse weather variability reduces productivity, hence, affecting income-generating activities in the study area. 

Furthermore, deforestation emerges as a significant contributing factor, because it exposes soil to harsh climatic conditions, 

thereby disrupting crop growth and diminishing farmers' agricultural productivity. 

Table 3 indicates the various farming and non-farming activities that farmers engaged in between 10 years ago and 

the present. The finding revealed that some of the activities reduced and/or increased in the recent time. For instance, 

income-generating activities such as Goat/sheep rearing (33.3%), fishing (32.55%), rabbit rearing (15.0%), basket weaving 

(15.0%), snail collection (13.3%), traditional medicine (10.0%), and palm-oil processing (9.2%),  reduced in the recent time 

compared to ten years ago. Petty trading (23.3%), hair barbing (18.3%), food vending (15.8%), tailoring (14.2%), and 

carpentry (7.5%), increased recently. The finding implies that large numbers of farmers are now shifting from agricultural 

related activities to other ventures such as trading, hair barbing etc. This is because climate change is adversely affecting 

the cultivation of staple crops and overall farming practices, prompting farmers to seek alternative sources of income through 

off-farm activities. In addition, this also shows that there is diversification in farmers’ income-generating activities, aimed 

at mitigating high risks associated with climate change. The finding is in line with Alalade et al. (2021), who opined that 

non-agricultural activities assist farmers in spreading production risks by diversifying their income generation. 

Consequently, agricultural income-generating activities of the farmers have been negatively influenced by climate change. 

The implication is that there will be potential decline in food production in the region on the long run. Hence, the finding is 

in line with Onumadu et al. (2000) who stated that climate change are risk to food security and the sustainability of 

agricultural production. Therefore, adapting to the challenges posed by climate change requires innovative and sustainable 

practices. Precision agriculture, which utilizes technology to optimize inputs like water and fertilizers, can enhance 

efficiency and mitigate resource use. Diversification of crops and income sources can also make farmers more resilient to 

climatic uncertainties. Additionally, the promotion of agroforestry and conservation agriculture practices helps improve soil 

health, water retention, and overall resilience in the face of changing climate conditions. According to Shove (2016), 

concentrating on positive income-generating activity such as crop planting with the help of organic practices could also play 

vital role in climate change mitigation. 

Table 4 showed that out of the seven selected socio-economic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, level of 

education, primary occupation, household size, and farming experience) of the respondents, only marital status (0.006), 

household size (0.005) and farming experience (-0.001) were significantly correlated with the positive income generating 

activities as perceived by the respondents. This implies that experience farmers who are married with up to four children 

have more tendency of adopting climate change mitigation and diversify their income generation through non-farm 

activities. However, the study is in contrast with Akinbile (2010); Alalade et al. (2021) who reported that there is positive 

relationship between socio-economic characteristics (age and level of education) with income-generating activities of 

farmers.  

 

CONCLUSIONS 

The study aimed at analyzing climate change and its effect on farmers’ income-generating activities in Enugu state, Nigeria. 

The study revealed that most farmers in the study area are male and married with a household size of about 4-6 persons. 

The most perceived effects of climate change in the study area are reduction in productivity, change in farming patterns, 

and soil degradation. The study revealed that income generation on Goat/sheep rearing, fishing, rabbit rearing, basket 

weaving, snail collection, traditional medicine and palm oil processing were low. However, it revealed that there are increase 

in income generation among farmers who combines petty trading, hair plaiting, hair barbing, food vending, tailoring and 

carpentry with farming activities. It was also revealed that marital status (0.006), household size (0.005), and farming 

experience (-0.001) were correlated with the positive income-generating activities as perceived by the respondents. The 

study recommends that farmers should prioritize positive income-generating activities that correlate with their socio-

economic characteristics. The study also recommends the implementation of crop rotation and organic manure as one of the 

ecological practices for climate change mitigation. Furthermore, extension agents need to put in more efforts in educating 

farmers on the possible ways of addressing the severity of climate change. 

 
 

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.N.N., C.U., O.G.O., C.J.C. and E.E.O.; Methodology, K.N.N.; Software, K.N.N.; Validation, F K.N.N.; 
Formal Analysis, K.N.N., C.U., O.G.O., C.J.C. and E.E.O.; Investigation, K.N.N.; Resources, K.N.N., C.U., O.G.O., C.J.C. and E.E.O. and B.D.; Data 

Curation, K.N.N.; Writing – Original Draft Preparation, K.N.N., C.U., O.G.O., C.J.C. and E.E.O.; Writing – Review & Editing, K.N.N., C.U., O.G.O., 

C.J.C. and E.E.O.; Visualization, K.N.N.; Supervision, K.N.N.; Project Administration, K.N.N.; Funding Acquisition, K.N.N., C.U., O.G.O., C.J.C. and 
E.E.O. Authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  

Institutional Review Board Statement: Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, due to that the research does not deal with vulnerable 

groups or sensitive issues. 
Funding: The authors received no direct funding for this research. 

Acknowledgments: Not Applicable  



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Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. 

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available 

due to restrictions. 

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   

 

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