







































American International Journal of Agricultural Studies  

Vol. 3, No. 1; 2020 

ISSN 2641-4155   E-ISSN 2641-418X 

Published by American Center of Science and Education, USA 

 

33 

 

Influence of Grasscover in Restoring the Properties of Eroded Soils of 

Umudike, Southeastern, Nigeria 
 

 

Onwuchekwa Ojimgba PhD 

Department of Soil Science 

Faculty of Agriculture, Abia State University, Uturu, Nigeria  

E-mail: onwuchekwao@yahoo.com 

 

 

Abstract 

The influence of grasscover in restoring the eroded soils was carried out in Umudike, Southestern Nigeria. The use of 

grass has attracted considerable research attention with respect to forage production and erosion control. Little 

information is available on the influence of this grasscover management on soil physical and chemical properties. Four 

different grasses namely: Paspalum notatum(PN), Panicum maximum(PM), Axonopus compressus(AC) and Vetiver 

grass(VG)- Vetiveria zizanioid/es) were used in this study and their influence on eroded soil tested in two locations. 

This study has shown that the soils planted with the grasses gave significantly (p<0.05) higher results of the physical 

and some chemical properties than their adjacent open bare soil. In all the parameters considered in this study, the 

values obtained in soils under Paspalum notatum was higher than those obtained in PM, AC, VG and their adjacent bare 

soils(BS). The soils under PN had generally lower bulk density, higher total porosity and hydraulic conductivity than 

other grasses and adjacent open bare soil in both locations. The soil under PN proved best, outperforming PM, VG,and 

AC in stabilizing soil aggregates. Planting of PN on eroded soil significantly (p<0.05) increased the mean weight 

diameter from 0.77mm (BSPN1) to 1.31mm (PN1) and 0.82mm (BSPN2) to 1.48mm (PN2) for Locations 1 and 2, 

respectively. The relative improvement in Location 1 was in the order : 

PN1>AC1=VG1>PM1>BSVG1=BSPN1>BSAC1=BSPM1. Also, soils under PN had significantly higher values of pH, 

organic C and organic matter, total nitrogen and available P more than other grasses and their adjacent open soils. The 

magnitude of increase in Location 1 was in the order : PN1>AC1>PM1=VG1>BSVG1=BSPN1=BSAC1>BSPM1. 

Location 2 also increased in the same trend. The organic carbon content of PN increased from 0.73%(BSPN1) to 

2.89%(PN1) and 0.88%(BSPN2) to 2.91%(PN2) in Locations 1 and 2, respectively. Also, the organic matter content of 

the soil increased in the same trend as organic carbon content. 

 

Keywords: Influence, Grasscover, Restoring, Eroded Soils, Umudike, Nigeria.  

1. Introduction 

 

1.1 Background Information 

 

Land degradation is becoming one of the severest environmental issues in the world, especially in developing nations. 

Land degradation, usually accompanied by soil erosion, always results in a decrease or complete loss of land 

productivity, and produces on-site and off-site pollution to soil and water. Much has been written about the amount of 

land in the different continents which have succumbed to erosion. It is a major impediment to increased agricultural 

production in many areas of Nigeria (Ojimgba, 2018). Studies in Nigeria show that damage caused by soil erosion is, 

manifested in detrimental changes in the physical and chemical properties of the residual eroded soils. 

The erosion of soil is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each 

contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively 

unnoticed or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil (Ojimgba and Mbagwu, 2007). The loss of 

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soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality damage drainage 

networks (Blanco and Lal, 2010). 

.However, erosion is a natural process; human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is 

occurring globally. Excessive erosion causes both ‘’on-site’’ and ‘’off-site’’ problem. On-site impacts include decrease 

in agricultural productivity and ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil. In some cases, 

the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of water ways and eutrophication of 

water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary 

causes of land degradation, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive 

erosion one of the most significant environmental problems world-wide (Blanco and Lal, 2010). 

Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are among the more 

significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion (Julien, 2010). However, there are many 

remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils and one of such is the use of suitable 

grasscover. 

 

Grasscover are grasses that are planted primarily to manage soil erosion, improving soil fertility, soil quality, water, 

weeds, pest, diseases, biodiversity, and wildlife in an agroecosystem (Ojimgba and Mgbeahuru, 2018). Grasscover and 

perhaps land use are some of the most important factors in erosion management in south eastern- Nigeria. Bahia grass 

increases soil organic carbon, microbial biomass and potential nitrogen mineralization rate, reducing the bulk density. 

According to the authors, soils under grass cover have shown better chemical properties than soils under forest cover 

and also bare soils.  Stocking, et al., (1988) showed that vegetative cover acts in a variety of ways by intersecting 

raindrops, encouraging greater infiltration of water and increasing surface organic matter, thereby reducing the 

erodibility of the soil. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education  opined that grasscover helps to cut fertilizer 

cost, reduced the need for herbicides and other pesticides, improve yields by enhancing soil health, prevent soil erosion, 

conserve soil moisture, protects water quality and help safe-guide personal health. The objective of this study was to 

determine the influence of grasscover in restoring the properties of eroded soils of Umudike, Southeastern, Nigeria 

 

2.  Materials and Methods 

2.1 General Description of the Location 

The study was conducted on the experimental research farm of Abia State University, Umuahia Campus. This study 

area is located on latitude 0.50 -29’N and longitude 070-33’E in the rainforest ecological zone of South Eastern Nigeria 

and lies at a mean elevation of 122meters (400ft) above sea level (climatic data for National Root Crop Research 

Institute (NRCRI) Station, Umudike). 

The soil is classified as Ultisol according to USDA and as an Acrisol according to FAO/UNESCO classification 

schemes, as summarized by Opara-Nadi (2000). The soil is characterized by inherent constraints such as low organic 



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matter, poor structural stability, low nutrient and water holding capacities, low clay activities and high susceptibility to 

soil erosion and drought stress (Opara-Nadi 2000; Salau et al., 1992). 

The climate of Umuahia is typical of the humid tropics, with fairly even and uniform temperature throughout the two 

seasons (dry and rainy) each year. The rainy season which usually starts from March and ends in October is 

characterized by clouds driven by light winds from the ocean relatively constant temperatures. Frequent rain and high 

humidity from May to October, rainfall is quite high with peaks in July and September. The rainfall distribution pattern 

of the area is bimodal with a total annual mean of 1830mm in the Northern parts to 2188mm in the Delta region 

(Odurukwe et al., 1995). The mean annual minimum temperature ranges from 300C to 330C and mean annual minimum 

temperature ranges from 210C to29oC (Enwezor et al., 1990). 

Grasscover Species Used for the Study 

 

Carpet grass/Root  (Axonopus compressus)  

         

    Bahia grass/Root (Paspalum notatum)                                                 

 

Guinea grass/Root (Panicum maximum) 



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Vetiver grass/Root (Vetiveria zizanioides) 

 

2.2 Laboratory Studies 

Under each of the grasscover and the adjacent bare soil, disturbed samples were collected from the 0 -30 cm in two 

locations within the campus. Each location represented a replicate. The samples were collected from the grasscover 

(Paspalum notatum, Panicum maximum, Axonopus compressus and Vetiver grass- Vetiveria zizanioides) already 

established to monitor runoff and soil loss, and their adjacent open bare soil ten (10) meters away. The grasses had been 

there for over 8 years. These are perennial grasses and could be widely accepted as a better alternative for land 

reclamation due to their  excellent features: 1) strong resistance to adverse conditions, which adapts it to various harsh 

weather and environmental conditions; 2) strong ability to remove pollutants, which makes it rehabilitate the polluted 

land rapidly; and 3) huge biomass, including shoots and roots, which makes it effectively ameliorate the degraded soil 

and cover barren land rapidly.  

 

Also, undisturbed core samples were collected randomly near points where the disturbed samples were taken.  The 

dimensions of the core were 5.0 cm (height) and 5.7cm (internal diameter).  The disturbed samples were air-dried, 

sieved through a 2-mm sieve and used to determine particle size distribution, pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, 

available phosphorus and moisture retained at 1.5 MPa.  The core samples were used to measure soil moisture retained 

at 0.01 MPa, saturated hydraulic conductivity, bulk density and total porosity.  The unsieved, disturbed samples were 

used to determine aggregate stability. 

The procedures that were used for the determination of the physico-chemical properties of the soil were outlined below: 

Soil reaction (pH) 

Soil pH was determined in 0.1N Potassium chloride (KCl) solution using a soil: liquid ratio of 1:2.5. After 20g of soil 

sample was weighed into plastic beakers, distilled water of KCl was added and stirred for 30 minutes, then the pH 

values was read off using a glass electrode pH meter (McLean. 1982). 

Organic carbon (OC) 

This was determined by the Walkley and Black method in which the soil organic matter was oxidized using 1N K2Cr207 

solution and conc.H2SO4, and the percentage organic carbon found by titrating with IN ferrous ammonium sulphate 

solution (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). 

 



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Organic Matter (OM) 

This was determined from Walkley and Black method. The organic matter content was determined by multiplying the 

percentage organic carbon by the conventional ‘’Van Bemmelen factor’’ of 1.724. The use of this factor is based on the 

assumption that soil organic matter contains 58% carbon. 

Total Nitrogen (N) 

This was determined by the micro-Kjaldahl method using CuSO4/Na2SO4 catalyst mixture. The ammonia (NH3) from 

the digestion was distilled with 45% NaOH into 2.5% boric acid and determined by titrating with 0.5N HCl 

Available phosphorus 

Available phosphorus was determined by the extractant method-Bray’s method II (0.03N ammonium fluoride x O.IN 

HCl). The ppm phosphorus were determined using a photo-electric calorimeter (Page et al., 1982). 

Particle Size Analysis 

Particle size analysis was determined on the soil sample using the principles of Bouyoucos hydrometer method 

described by Day (1965).  The technique used was the dispersion of sample with calgon (sodium hexameta-phosphate).  

In this method, soil samples were soaked in calgon for 24 hours and later transferred to mechanical stirrer for 

mechanical agitation before the hydrometer test (Gee and Bauder, 1986). 

Soil Moisture Retention Characteristics 

Disturbed soil samples were collected from the plots and 30 g of each weighed into robber bands (rings).  These were 

used to determine the water content of the soil at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) and 0.01 MPa (0.1 bar), using the pressure – plate 

apparatus (Stolte, 1997).  In each case, the samples were placed on ceramic plate – sand soaked with water for 24 hours. 

The plates with the samples were placed in the pressure chamber and subjected to the different suctions until water 

ceased to drain out from the soil samples.  The samples were then weighed and oven dried at 105°C for 24 hours. 

Calculation 

Field capacity that is 0.01 MPa suction is the maximum amount of water the soil can hold after it has freely drained for 

2 – 3 days following saturation and without evapotranspiration occurring during the period (Klute, 1986).  Wilting 

point: This value is sometimes known as lower limit of plant available water.  It is often equated to the soil water 

content at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) water potential. 

Available Water Capacity (AWC) 

The amount of water which a given soil can store for plant use is estimated from the difference between the field 

capacity (FC) and the Wilting point (WP).  It was calculated as follows. 

AWC = FC - WP 

Where: 

FC = gravimetric water content at field capacity (%) 

WP = gravimetric water content at wilting point (%) 

Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 

Undisturbed soil samples were collected from each plot using cylindrical metal cores of size 5.0 x 5.7 cm for the length 

and internal diameter, respectively.  Soil loss was prevented by a muslin gauze at the bottom of the column.  After 

saturating the samples with water for 24 hours, saturated hydraulic conductivity K(θ) was determined using a constant 

head permeameter.  The transposed Darcy’s formula for vertical flows of liquid was used to calculate K(θ) thus: 



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K(θ) =           .    

Where: 

 θ = Steady state volume of flow (cm3) 

 A = Cross sectional area of core sample (cm2) 

 t = Time elapsed (hr) 

 L = Length of core sample (cm) 

 ΔH = Change in hydraulic head (cm) 

  = The hydraulic gradient (i.e., space rate of  

   change of hydraulic head in the direction flow). 

 

Bulk Density 

Bulk density (Db) is the apparent density of the field soil and was calculated by dividing the mass of the oven – dried 

soil by its volume.  After drying the soil samples used for the hydraulic conductivity measurements for 48 hours at 

105°C, bulk density was determined by the core method (Blake and Hartge, 1986) using the formula. 

                Db  =       g/cm3 

Where: 

 Db = bulk density 

 Ms = mass of soil sample 

 V = volume of soil sample (equals volume of core) 

 

Total Porosity 

Total porosity is the volume of the sample not occupied by solid materials and is usually expressed as percentage of the 

sample volume.  It is assumed to be the volume available to air and/or water.  It was calculated from the values of bulk 

density using the method described by Vomocile (1965).  The calculation was based on the relationship between bulk 

density and particle density and on the assumption of particle density of 2.65 mg m-3 for mineral soils. 

 St  =             x 100      

Where: 

 St = total porosity (%) 

 Db = bulk density (mg m-3) 

 Dp = particle density (mg m-3) 

Water Stable Aggregates (WSA) 

A nest of sieves, 2 mm, 1 mm 0.5 mm as described by Kemper and Chepil (1965) were used to sieve wet aggregates of 

between 4 and 2 mm diameter size.  The operation was carried out for 2 minutes at one oscillation per second after 

which the sieves were removed from water and oven – dry weight of the materials on each determined. Mean weight 

diameter : This was determined using the method of  Van Bavel (1950) as modified by Kemper and Chepil (1965).  The 

materials used for water stable aggregates determination were used in the following relationship: 

 

 

Ms 

V 

(1 – Db)      
Dp 

θ 

At 

L 
ΔH 

H L 



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MWD  =    ∑X1 W1 … 

MWD = mean weight diameter 

X  = mean diameter of each size fraction (mm) 

W = the proportion of the total sample weight  occurring in the corresponding size 

fraction. 

2.3 Statistical Analysis 

The data collected were analyzed statistically and significant differences between treatment means of various 

experiments were tested at P<0.05 using the Fisher’s least-significant differences (F-LSD), standard errors and student’s 

“t”-test, according to the procedures of Steel and Terrie (1980). In all statistical analysis, P<0.05 were used to test for 

significant differences between the treatment means of the various experiments.  

3.  Results and Discussion 

Physico-chemical properties of the eroded surrounding topsoil of the study site at Umudike, Nigeria. 

 

Tables 1 and 2 summarize the physico-chemical properties of the bare topsoil of the study site at Umudike, Nigeria. The 

sandy clay loam topsoil had 1.70 mg gm-3 bulk density, 25.50% total porosity and 10.02 cm hr-1 hydraulic conductivity. 

However, the topsoil of the study site had low pH, N, Organic C. and consequently organic matter, available P, 

exchangeable cations (K, Na, Ca, and Mg) and percentage base saturation. However the percentage Al. saturation, 

effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) and exchangeable acidity (EA) were high.      

The very high bulk density , decrease in total porosity and hydraulic conductivity observed in the surrounding soils of 

the study site according to Ojimgba and Mbagwu (2007), was due to translocation of clay from eluvial horizon with 

simultaneous loss of structure and close parking of sand grains in the eluvial horizon.  Lowery et al., (1995) also 

associated increase bulk density and decrease saturated hydraulic conductivity of eroded soils to loss of organic matter 

and other colloidal particles.  Ojimgba and Mbagwu (2007) also concluded that increase in bulk density generally 

resulted in decrease porosity and poor aeration which physically restrict root growth. 

Also, the soil pH value (4.42) was acidic. Ojimgba and Mbagwu (2007) observed that there was a problem of exposure 

of very acidic subsoil due to erosion. They attributed this low value partly because the soils were heavily leached of the 

basic cations due to very heavy rainfall associated with the rainforest zone. The organic matter content (0.72%) was low 

which is typical of most tropical soils which have been exposed to hot weather and constant cultivation. As erosion 

increased, Organic C is reduced (Ojimgba and Mbagwu, 2007). Opara-Nadi (2000) concluded that, these soils being an 

Ultisol constitutes the bulk of the upland soils of southeastern Nigeria. He added that these soils are rich in free iron but 

have a lower mineral reserve and lower fertility than the Ferruginous Tropical Soils. Their cation exchange capacity and 

base saturation are very low. 

 

 

 



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                        Table 1. Physical properties of unprotected topsoil at Umudike, Nigeria. 

Attributes /Statistics  Units of 

measurement 

Mean values 

 
  

Sand % 51.80 

Silt  % 12.80 

Clay  % 35.40 

Textural class   Sand clay 

loam  

Bulk density mg mg-3 1.70 

Total porosity  % 26.50 

Hydraulic conductivity  cm hr –1 10.02 

   
 

 

                      Table 2. Chemical properties of unprotected topsoil at Umudike, Nigeria. 

   Attributes /Statistics  Units of 

measurement 

Mean values 

 
 

pH  4.42 

Nitrogen % 0.03 

Organic C % 0.42 

Organic matter % 0.72 

Available P Ppm 3.40 

Exchangeable K C mol (+) kg –1 0.06 

       “      Na “ 0.12 

       “     Ca “ 0.70 

       “     Mg “ 0.50 

       “     Al  “ 2.20 

Exchangeable H “ 0.60 

Exchangeable Acidity (EA) “ 2.80 

Effective cation exchange capacity 

(ECEC) 

“ 4.18 

Al Saturation  % 62.90 

Base saturation  % 39.00 

C:N  14:1 



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Influence of grasscover management in improving the physical properties of eroded soils of Umudike, Nigeria 

Table 3 summarizes the influence of grasscover (Paspalum notatum, Panicum maximum, Axonopus compressus and 

Vetiver grass- Vetiveria zizanioides), and their adjacent open soils on the textures, bulk density, total porosity and 

hydraulic conductivity of the soils of Umudike.  The grasscover management significantly (P<0.05) improved the soil 

physical properties. There were also significant changes in the physical properties of the various grasscover 

management as shown in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Therefore, the grasscover management improved the physical properties of 

the degraded soil. 

Particle size distribution 

Generally, the values obtained from Table 3 show that the textures of the soils were not affected significantly at P<0.05 

by the various grasses.  Clay values obtained from the grasses (PM, PN, AC AND VG) were significantly similar and 

ranged between 33 and 35% for PN1 and BSPM1 in Location 1 as well as 34 and 35% for PN2 and BSVG2 in Location 

2, respectively.  Also, Table 3 shows the  values of the silt which were significantly similar in both Locations 1 and 2, 

and ranged between 10 and 11% for BSPN1 and PN1 (Location 1), and 10 and 12% for BSAC2 and PN2 (Location 2), 

respectively.   However, total sand content with statistically similar values ranged between 54 and 56% in Location1 for 

BSVG1 and PN1, and 54 and 55% in Location 2 for PN2 and BSAC2, respectively. 

Bulk density 

Table 3 also shows that the grasscover management significantly decreased the soil bulk density relative to the adjacent 

open soils in Locations 1 and 2.  The results indicated that Paspalum notatum (PN) gave significantly higher bulk 

density values in Location 1 than those of the other grasses and their open adjacent soils. For example in Location 1, the 

PN1 reduced the bulk density from 1.43 (BSPN1) to 1.10 mg m-3(PN1), while in Location 2, the reduction was from 

1.49(BSPN2) to 1.13 mg m-3 (PN2).  The differences among the treatment means were in the order : 

PN1<PM1=AC1=VG1<BSPM1=BSPN1=BSVG1=BSAC1.  The results showed that the adjacent open soils produced 

no significant changes in bulk densities probably due to low organic matter content. 

 

Total porosity 

Table 3 also shows that the various grasscover management significantly increased the total porosity when compared 

with the adjacent open soils in Locations 1 and 2. The Paspalum notatum (68.23%) had statistically similar total 

porosity values with those of Axonopus compressus (68%) and Panicum maximum (65%) which were significantly 

higher than the values of Vetiver grass (48%) and their adjacent open soils.  The differences between the treatment 

means in Location 1 were in the order : PN1=AC1=PM1>VG1=BSPN1>BSPM1>BSVG1=BSAC1. Also in Location 2 

PN1 gave significantly (P<0.05) the highest total porosity values than the rest of the treatments. The values ranged 

between 71.00 and 35.00% for PN2 and BSVG2, respectively. 

 Hydraulic conductivity 

Table 3 also shows that Paspalum notatum (PN1) and Axonopus compressus (AC1) significantly increased the soil 

hydraulic conductivity relative to the statistically similar values of PM1 and VG1 as well as their adjacent open soils. 

However, the grasscover Paspalum notatum (PN) gave significantly higher soil hydraulic conductivity values of 75.00 

and 79.00 cm hr-1 than other treatments, while the least values of 25.00 and 27.00 cm hr-1 in both Locations 1 and  2 

study periods, respectively were the results for BSVG1 and BSAC2. Also, the relative improvement in the hydraulic 



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conductivity of the eroded soils by the grasses was in the order : PN1(75 cm hr-1) =AC1 (75 cm hr-1) >PM1 (63 cm hr-1) 

=VG1 (60 cm hr-1) >BSPM1(45 cm hr-1) =BSPN1(43 cm hr-1) >BSAC1(26 cm hr-1) =BSVG1(25 cm hr-1)  . Paspalum 

notatum (PN1) grass, therefore, greatly improved water movement into the eroded soils more than the other grasses. 

 Water-stable aggregates (WSA) 

Table 4 shows the influence of grasscover on water-stable aggregates as well as the mean weight diameter of the study 

soils. Introduction of grasscover on the eroded soil greatly improved the stability of the soils. Aggregate stability was 

determined at five different diameter : 4.00 – 2.00 mm, 2.00 – 1.00 mm, 1.00 – 0.5 mm, 0.5 – 0.2 mm, and <0.2 mm. 

The eroded soil planted with Paspalum notatum in Locations 1 and 2 proved best, outperforming other treatments in 

stabilizing aggregates. For example, relative to the adjacent open soil, in size range of 4.00 -2.00 mm, PN increased 

from 13.10 to 31.80, and 14.67 to 40.70% in Locations 1 and 2, for BSPN and PN, respectively. Also, in size range 

between 0.5 and 0.2 mm, Paspalum notatum significantly (P<0.05) reduced the soil size range from 49.37 to 35.00%, 

and 49.10 to 30.50% in Locations 1 and 2 for BSPN and PN, respectively. Similar trends were observed with the < 0.2 

mm fraction. However, relative to the adjacent open sites whose effects were not statistically noticed, the establishment 

of Paspalum notatum in the eroded soils significantly increased mean weight diameter (MWD). The relative 

improvement in Location 1 was in the order : PN1>AC1=VG1>PM1>BSVG1=BSPN1>BSAC1=BSPM1. All the 

grasses significantly improved the eroded soils more than their adjacent open soils, while PN was the best in improving 

the soil aggregates. Planting of PN on eroded soil significantly (p<0.05) increased the mean weight diameter from 

0.77mm (BSPN1) to 1.31mm (PN1) and 0.82mm (BSPN2) to 1.48mm (PN2) for Locations 1 and 2, respectively. 

 Moisture retention characteristics 

Table 5 summarises the influence of grasscover management on volumetric soil moisture content (0.01 and 1.5 MPa 

suctions) and available water capacity of the eroded soils of Umudike, Nigeria. As with the saturated hydraulic 

conductivity and total porosity, the establishment of grasscover into the eroded soils significantly increased the soil 

moisture contents measured for the 0.01 and 1.5 MPa matric potentials. Among the treatments, PN gave significantly 

the highest moisture content. However, the magnitude of increase was more pronounced at field capacity (0.01 MPa) 

than at wilting point (1.5 MPa). The volumetric moisture content of the soils ranged between 23.00 and 40.00% at 0.01 

MPa in Location 1, and 24.90 and 40.90% in Location 2, for BSVG and PN, respectively.  At these suction levels, 

higher values were obtained for soils with PN, while the corresponding adjacent open soils had lower values. However, 

the relative order of improvements in available water capacity (AWC) obtained due to these grasses was : PN1>AC1> 

PM1>VG1> >BSPM1>BSPN1>BSAC1=BSVG1.  Generally, the adjacent open soils gave significantly lower values 

than the grasses. 

 



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                         Table 3.   Influence of grasscover on the physical properties of eroded soils of Umudike, Nigeria. 

          %       %         %     

       Clay    Silt     Sand      BD     TP     HC 

Location               Treatment    -----   Particle Size Analysis ---------        T C         (Mg m-1)          ( % )          ( cm hr-1 ) 

 Location 1   BSPM1    35.00    11.00    54.00    SCL    1.43   40.21     45.00 

    63.00   PM1    35.00    10.00    55.00    SCL    1.26   65.00 

 BSVG1    35.00    11.00    54.00    SCL    1.55   32.19     25.00 

 VG1    35.00    11.00    55.00    SCL    1.30   48.00     60.00 

 AC1    35.00    11.00    54.00    SCL    1.28   68.00     75.00 

 BSAC1    34.00    10.00    56.00    SCL    1.56   30.50     26.00 

 BSPN1    34.00    10.00    56.00    SCL    1.43   45.00     43.00 

 PN1    33.00    11.00    56.00    SCL    1.10   68.23     75.00 

 F-LSD0.05     2.18NS      3.75NS      2.06NS     0.13*    4.45*       8.38* 

         

Location 2 BSPM2    35.00    11.00    54.00    SCL    1.40   39.22     50.00 

 PM2    34.00    11.00    55.00    SCL    1.19   57.99     73.00 

 BSVG2    35.00    11.00    54.00    SCL    1.53   35.00     28.00 

 VG2    35.00    11.00    54.00    SCL    1.30   48.05     62.00 

 AC2    35.00    10.00    55.00    SCL    1.20   62.00     69.00 

 BSAC2    35.00    10.00    55.00    SCL    1.50   36.01     27.00 

 BSPN2    35.00    10.00    54.00    SCL    1.49   48.91     53.00 

 PN2    34.00    12.00    54.00    SCL    1.13   71.00     79.00 

 F-LSD0.05     1.89NS      2.06NS      1.73NS     0.12*    4.64*      4.58* 

         

                                  TC = Textural class,  BD = Bulk density, TC = Total porosity, HC = Hydraulic conductivity,  SCL = Sandy clay loam 

                     NS = Not significant,  * = Significant at P = 0.05, PN=Paspalum notatum,PM=Panicum maximum,                                       AC=Axonopus 

compressus, VG= Vetiver grass- Vetiveria zizanioides), BSPN=Bare soil PN, BSPM=Bare soil PM, BSAC=Bare soil AC, BSVG=Bare soil VG 

 

 

 

 

 



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                       Table 4.  Influence of grasscover on water-stable aggregates (WSA) and mean weight diameter (MWD) of the eroded soil of Umudike, 

Nigeria. 

  --------------------------------------- WSA%--------------------------------------- 

    4.00 -    2.00 -    1.00 -      0.5 -    

Location               Treatment              2.00 mm          1.00 mm           0.5 mm             0.2 mm     < 0.2 mm     MWD 

(mm) 

Location 1   PM1    24.40     3.90    17.00    39.90    14.80     1.09  

 BSPM1     8.10     2.20    14.90    46.00    28.80     0.61  

 BSVG1    14.10     2.90    14.10    43.80    25.20     0.77  

 VG1    27.00     4.00    22.10    35.70    11.20     1.18  

 AC1    27.80     3.50    18.80    36.80    13.10     1.18  

 BSAC1     9.80     2.00    13.10    42.70    32.40     0.64  

 BSPN1    13.10     2.70    17.50    49.37    17.00     0.77  

 PN1    31.80     4.50    20.10    35.00     8.60     1.31  

 F-LSD0.05      0.68*     0.34*      0.27*     0.59*     0.39*     0.04*  

         

Location 2   PM2    31.10     3.20    13.20    35.50    17.00      1.24  

 BSPM2    12.00     3.50    24.50    43.50    15.60     0.78  

 BSVG2    21.50     3.60    19.50    42.10    13.30     1.02  

 VG2    28.00     3.40    19.20    38.50    10.90     1.16  

 AC2    31.80     4.50    20.10    35.00     8.60     1.31  

 BSAC2    10.80     2.10    17.30    48.40    21.40     0.70  

 BSPN2    14.67     2.60    17.60    49.10    15.70     0.82  

 PN2    40.70     4.00    11.70    30.50    15.10     1.48  

 F-LSD0.05      0.91*     0.38*      0.34*     0.85*     0.36*      0.05*  

         

                           * = Significant at P = 0.05 ,  MWD = Mean weight diameter, WSA=Water- stable aggregate, PN=Paspalum notatum,PM=Panicum                 

maximum, AC=Axonopus compressus, VG= Vetiver grass- Vetiveria zizanioides), BSPN=Bare soil PN, BSPM=Bare soil PM, BSAC=Bare soil AC, 

BSVG=Bare soil VG 



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 Table 5.  Influence of grasscover management on volumetric soil moisture content (0.01 and 1.5 MPa suctions) 

and available water capacity of eroded soils  of Umudike, Nigeria.  

                      0.01      1.5  

Location Treatment         MPa      MPa     AWC 

Location 1   PM1       25.60    10.90    24.70 

 BSPM1       30.00    10.10    19.90 

 BSVG1       23.00     7.40    15.60 

 VG1       32.40     9.90    22.50 

 AC1       39.70    13.30    26.50 

 BSAC1       26.70     8.20    18.50 

 BSPN1       29.30    10.20    19.10 

 PN1       40.00    13.10    26.90 

 F-LSD0.05       10.07*     0.53*     0.37* 

      

Location 2   PM2       38.00    11.90    26.10 

 BSPM2       31.80    10.20    21.60 

 BSVG2       24.90     8.70    16.20 

 VG2       33.40    10.50    22.90 

 AC2       39.93    12.90    28.53 

 BSAC2       29.80     9.00    20.80 

 BSPN2       34.30    10.60    23.70 

 PN2       40.90    13.80    28.60 

 F-LSD0.05        0.88*     0.65*     0.44* 

      

           AWC = Available water capacity;  * = Significant at P = 0.05, PN=Paspalum notatum,PM=Panicum 

maximum, AC=Axonopus compressus, VG= Vetiver grass- Vetiveria zizanioides), BSPN=Bare soil PN, BSPM=Bare 

soil PM, BSAC=Bare soil AC, BSVG=Bare soil VG 

 

Results presented in Table 3 showed that the adjacent bare soils gave the highest bulk density values for the two 

Locations than the grasses. Ojimgba and Mbagwu (2007) observed that the increase in bulk density may be due to the 

lower organic matter contents of the eroded soils. High bulk density according to Mbagwu et al., (1984) is also 

attributed to translocation of clay from eluvial horizon with simultaneous loss of structure and close packing of sand 

grains in the eluvial horizon. Also, bulk densities of all soils increased over time with cultivation. Dry bulk density is a 

soil physical parameter used extensively to quantify soil compactness and has a very influential effect on root growth 

and proliferation which are both indicators of soil productivity (Alvaro et al., 1998). Anikwe et al., (2003) noted that a 

0.1 Mg m-3 decrease in dry bulk density had a significant beneficial effect on root development and yield of sorghum 

and groundnut. Soil compatibility is influenced by soil organic matter content, soil water content during trafficking, 

initial dry bulk intensity, soil strength (cone index) and soil texture (Gysi, 2001). 

The planting of grasses on the eroded soils resulted in a decrease in bulk densities. The lowest bulk density obtained 

with Paspalum notatum may be due to its high organic matter contents and its constituents. Anikwe et al., (2003) noted 

that it is logical that soil and crop management factors like tillage, crop type, incorporation of organic matter and 

mulching could influence soil compactability. They observed that the lowest (P<0.05) soil dry bulk density was 

recorded in groundnut plots amended with manure + NPK than in plots with NPK alone or control. 



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Decrease in total porosity and hydraulic conductivity was observed in all bare soils and was more evident on BSAC. 

Mbagwu et al., (1984) who made similar observation stated that reduced saturated hydraulic conductivities were due to 

structure degradations as reflected in increased bulk densities and decreased total porosities of the exposed soils. Also, 

this reduction may be directly related to increased compaction, reduced micro-porosity and a higher incidence of soil 

crusting observed on the eroded soils. Ojimgba and Mbagwu (2007) concluded that increase in bulk density generally 

resulted in decrease porosity and poor aeration which physically restrict root growth. Mbagwu (1992) had emphasized 

that expected high crop yields were not obtained on many tropical soils even after optimizing the chemical fertility. This 

had led to the conclusion that, on most soils in the tropics, for soil-management practices to be effective and reduce the 

fertilizer demand, they should aim at ameliorating the degraded physical properties. He concluded that the major 

physical constraint to high level crop production on degraded tropical soils is high bulk density resulting from 

continuous cultivation. That the consequences of this is reduced porosity, infiltration rates and saturated hydraulic 

conductivity, and low available water capacity within the rhizosphere. He also stressed that since high bulk density of 

these soils is directly related to low organic matter contents, all ameliorative treatments should logically aim at 

improving the soil organic matter status. High organic matter content of the grasses might have contributed to the 

reduction in soil bulk densities, increased porosity and hydraulic conductivity of the study soils.  

In terms of water-stable aggregates (WSA) at five different diameters, the soil planted with Paspalum notatum proved 

best, outperforming other treatments in stabilizing aggregates and increasing mean weight diameter (MWD). This may 

be attributed to the increase in organic matter content of the soils which seemed to contribute to aggregation. However, 

from the result in Table 4, with grasses, aggregate size distribution of whole soils was shifted to larger sizes, whereas 

percent content of micro-aggregates (<0.2 and 0.5 – 0.2 mm) decreased indicating improvement in aggregates >2 mm in 

size. Piccolo and Mbagwu (1990) made similar observations. Bewick (1980) concluded that adding crop residues along 

side with manure increases soil aggregation, water movement and roots penetration. 

Also, the incorporation of amendments into the soils significantly increased the soil moisture contents measured for the 

0.01 (field capacity) and 1.5 MPa  (wilting point) as well as the available water capacity (AWC) relative to the 

unamended control and the fertilizer rates (Table 4.6.3). Ojimgba and Mbagwu (2007) observed that it is possible that a 

reduction in the organic matter contents of the soils might have caused the lowering of water retained at these various 

suctions in the adjacent open soils. The increase in soil moisture contents and available water capacity (AWC) may be 

due to the increase in organic matter contents of the soil as a result of the grasses. Mbagwu (1992) had emphasized that 

the incorporation of organic manure into the soil significantly increased the soil moisture content. 

Influence of various grasscover management on some chemical properties of soils of Umudike, Nigeria. 

Tables 6 and 7 summarize the influence of grasses (Vetiver grass- Vetiveria zizanioides, Axonopus compressus, 

Paspalum notatum and Panicum maximum) on some chemical properties of soils in the two locations in Umudike, 

Nigeria. The soils under the grasses generally had higher pH, organic carbon and organic matter, as well as higher 

nitrogen and available phosphorus than the soils of the open adjacent soils. . The Tables also show significant (P<0.05) 

differences existing among the various grasscover management. The grasses significantly improved the chemical 

properties of the soils more than their open adjacent bare soils.   



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Some increase in pH of the soils under the grasses was observed. For example, the pH of the soil under Paspalum 

notatum(PN1) in Location 1 was raised slightly from 4.5(H2O) and 4.0(KCl) for BSPN1 to 6.3(H2O) and 5.2(KCl) for 

PN1, respectively. Also, Location 2 followed same trend. However, the soils under PN gave significantly higher values 

of pH than the values of other grasses and their open adjacent soils in Locations 1 and 2.  The relative improvement in 

pH in Location 1 was in the order : PN1>AC1>VG1=PM1>BSPM1=BSVG1>BSAC1=BSPN1 (Table 6).  

Also, the results obtained from Tables 6 and 7 show that the percentage organic carbon content was significantly higher 

in the grasses than the adjacent open soils in Locations 1 and 2. Generally, all the grasses significantly increased the 

organic carbon concentration of the soil, but the magnitude of increase was more for PN than the other grasses and their 

adjacent open soils. The magnitude of increase in Location 1 was in the order : 

PN1>AC1>PM1=VG1>BSVG1=BSPN1=BSAC1>BSPM1. Location 2 also increased in the same trend. The organic 

carbon content of PN increased from 0.73%(BSPN1) to 2.89%(PN1) and 0.88%(BSPN2) to 2.91%(PN2) in Locations 1 

and 2, respectively. Also, the organic matter content of the soil increased in the same trend as organic matter content. 

However, the grasses significantly (p<0.05) increased the total nitrogen of the soil more than their adjacent open soils. 

For example, Paspalum notatum(PN) increased the total nitrogen from 0.061%(BSPN1) to 0.231%(PN1) and 

0.036%(BSPN2) to 0.241%(PN2) in Locations 1 and 2, respectively. The relative improvement was in the order : 

PN1>AC1>PM1=VG1>BSVG1>BSPN1>BSAC1>BSPM1 in Location 1. Also, Location 2 followed the same trend, 

while BSPM1 gave the least total nitrogen values in both locations (Tables 6 and 7). The grasses also increased the 

available phosphorus (P) values.  

 

Table 6. Influence of various grass cover management on Organic carbon, Total nitrogen, pH and Available 

phosphorus of Umudike soils (Location 1) 

Treatment  

Location 1 

pH (H2O) pH (KCl) OC       (%) OM 

(%) 

N 

(%) 

AV.P 

(mg/kg) 

VG1 5.8 4.7 1.68 2.89 0.148 18.6 

BSVG1 4.8 4.3 0.76 1.31 0.068 13.4 

AC1 6.1 4.9 2.62 4.52 0.209 21.3 

BSAC1 4.5 3.7 0.67 1.16 0.059 14.0 

PN1 6.3 5.2 2.89 5.01 0.231 41.8 

BSPN1 4.5 4.0 0.73 1.26 0.061 16.5 

PM1 5.7 4.8 1.81 3.12 0.149 18.5 

BSPM1 4.8 3.6 0.29 0.50 0.029 12.1 

LSD (0.05) 0.18* 0.08* 0.20* 0.34* 0.01* 1.5* 

AC = Axonopus Compressus, OC = Organic carbon , PN = Paspalum notatum ,OM = Organic  Matter, PM = 

Panicum maximum, VG = Vetiver Grass, TN = Total Nitrogen , AV.P  = Available Phosphorus, ), BSPN=Bare soil PN, 

BSPM=Bare soil PM, BSAC=Bare soil AC, BSVG=Bare soil VG    

 

 

 



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Table 7. Influence of various grass cover management on Organic carbon, Total nitrogen, pH and Available 

phosphorus of Umudike soils (Location 2) 

Treatment  

Location 2 

pH (H2O) pH (KCl) OC       (%) OM 

(%) 

N 

(%) 

AV.P 

(mg/kg) 

VG2 6.0 4.9 1.87 3.22 0.171 20.1 

BSVG2 4.6 4.3 0.69 1.81 0.090 14.8 

AC2 5.9 4.8 2.44 4.21 0.211 19.2 

BSAC2 4.8 3.8 0.48 0.83 0.033 12.8 

PN2 6.4 5.2 2.91 5.04 0.241 22.6 

BSPN2 4.9 4.3 0.88 1.52 0.036 13.0 

PM2 5.9 4.9 1.60 2.76 0.136 19.0 

BSPM2 4.5 4.0 0.36 0.62 0.030 11.3 

LSD (0.05) 0.12* 0.07* 0.19* 0.35* 0.01* 1.0* 

AC = Axonopus Compressus, OC = Organic carbon , PN = Paspalum notatum ,OM = Organic  Matter, PM = 

Panicum maximum, VG = Vetiver Grass, TN = Total Nitrogen , AV.P  = Available Phosphorus, ), BSPN=Bare soil PN, 

BSPM=Bare soil PM, BSAC=Bare soil AC, BSVG=Bare soil VG    

Ojimgba and Mgbeahuru, (2018) observed increase in pH due to Paspalum notatum. They added that grass increases 

soil organic carbon, microbial biomass and potential nitrogen mineralization rate, reducing the soil bulk density. They 

also stated that soils under grass cover have shown better chemical properties than soils under forest cover and bare 

soils. Similar observation was made by Ojimgba (2018). The high pH values of the adjacent bare soil according the 

Ojimgba and Mbagwu, (2007) may be attributed to the exposure of the acidic subsoil due to soil erosion. The attributed 

this low values partly because the soils are heavily leached of the basic cations due to very heavy rainfall associated 

with the rainforest zone. Grasscover management have contributed to the sustainable management of land through 

replenishing soil nutrients (Tizita, 2015). 

4.  Conclusion and Recommendations 

▪ The study had basic information on the influence of grasscover management on the physical and some 

chemical properties of soil under Panicum maximum, Paspulum notatum, Axonopus compressus and vertiver 

grass and their adjacent bare soils in Umudike. This study has shown that the soils planted with the grasses 

gave significantly (p<0.05) higher results of the physical and some chemical properties than their adjacent 

open bare soil. In all the parameters considered in this study, the values obtained in soils under Paspalum 

notatum was higher than those obtained in PM, AC, VG and their adjacent bare soils(BS). The soils under PN 

had generally lower bulk density, higher total porosity and hydraulic conductivity than other grasses and 

adjacent open bare soil in both locations. Also, soils under PN had significantly higher values of pH, organic C 

and organic matter, total nitrogen and available P more than other grasses and their adjacent open soils The 

result, therefore, pointed to the fact that grasscover management especially Paspulum notatum(PN) improved 

the physical and some chemical properties of the soils better than other grasses and their adjacent open soils. 

o From the study, Paspalum notatum which proved best is a perennial grass with huge biomass and 

accepted as a better alternative for land reclamation. The shoots and roots, make it effective for use to 

ameliorate the degraded soil and cover barren land  

o It is hoped that grasscover if established on soils that are prone to erosion, would help improve the 

soil aggregate, reduce direct impact of raindrop and runoff and encourage infiltration. People should 



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not weed and expose the topsoil to avoid erosion hazards, rather plant Paspalum notatum and trim 

continually. 

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