AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL STUDIES 7(1) (2023), 1-9  

1 

 

      AGRICULTURAL STUDIES 

                                                               AIJAS VOL 7 NO 1 (2023) P-ISSN 2641-4155   E-ISSN 2641-418X 
                                                  

                                                                                                                        Available online at www.acseusa.org      

                                                                                                                                     Journal homepage: https://www.acseusa.org/journal/index.php/aijas 
                                                                                                                                         Published by American Center of Science and Education, USA 

 GENDER DIFFERENTIALS AND PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS OF 

 PEPPER (CAPSICUM SPECIES) PRODUCTION, KADUNA STATE,  

 NIGERIA 

 

 Olugbenga Omotayo Alabi    (a)1   Chinwe Edith Anekwe  (b)   

 

(a) Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria; E-mail: omotayoalabi@yahoo.com 
 (b) Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria; E-mail: edithdennis@yahoo.co.uk 

 

 
A R T I C L E I N F O 
 

 

Article History: 
 

Received: 25th September 2022  

Accepted: 4th January 2023 

Online Publication: 7th January 2023 

 

Keywords: 

Gender Differentials, Profitability Analysis, 

Pepper Production, Kaduna State, Nigeria 

 

JEL Classification Codes:  

       

Q1, Q2, Q5 

 

 

 

 
 
 

  

 
A B S T R A C T 

 
This study analyzed gender differentials and profitability of pepper (Capsicum species) production in 

Kaduna State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was adopted. One hundred pepper farmers were 

selected. Primary sources of data were employed with the aid of well-designed and well-structured 
questionnaire. The results show that 66% of pepper farmers were between 21 to 50 years. Pepper 

production was profitable in the study area. Gender differentials in average costs and returns in pepper 

production revealed that gross margin were 137, 556.51 Naira per hectare for male pepper farmers, 

higher than that at 109,711.77 Naira per hectare for female pepper farmers respectively. Gender 

differentials in factors influencing output of pepper produced shows that age (𝑋1),and fertilizer input 

(𝑋4), were significant factors influencing output of pepper produced by male farmers at 1% probability 

levels, while age (𝑋1), labour input (𝑋3), and fertilizer input (𝑋4), were significant factors influencing 

output of pepper produced by female farmers at 1% probability levels respectively. The return to 

scale(𝑅𝑇𝑆) of pepper production was estimated at 2.798 for male farmers, which signifies increasing 

return to scale.  The return to scale (𝑅𝑇𝑆) was calculated for female pepper farmers at 0.033, which 
implies decrease return to scale. Major constraints faced by pepper farmers were: lack of fertilizers, 

pest and disease infestations, and inadequate capital. The study recommends that women pepper farmers 

should be giving more access to farm inputs and credit facilities at low interest rate to increase 

productivity.   

 
 

© 2023 by the authors. Licensee ACSE, USA. This article is an open-access article distributed under 

the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license 

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).                           

 

INTRODUCTION 

Pepper (Capsicum species) is a highly valued, varied and widely grown spice crop for food and cash by farmers all over the 

world (Aliyu et al., 2012). Pepper ranks second (2nd) after tomatoes in the world as the most important fruit vegetable. 

Pepper constitutes about 40% of human vegetable consumed and it’s the world’s most commonly used spice (Adeoye et al., 

2014). Pepper is the most widely produced type of colouring food and spice flavouring crop and its excellent source of 

natural colours and anti-oxidants compound. Nigeria has good soil and weather conditions that can support growth and 

productivity of pepper. Nigeria is one of the major producer of pepper in the world, and it accounted for 50% of Africa’s 

production (Mohammed et al., 2013). Nigeria produces 762, 174 tonnes of chillies and pepper, green in 2020 which is 0.27% 

increase over that of 2019 which was 760, 114 tonnes (FAO, 2020). The average yield of chillies and pepper green in 2020 

was 2 to 2.5 tonnes per hectare (FAO, 2020) The area under chillies and pepper, green production was 101, 350 hectares in 

2020, the yields of chillies and pepper green was 75, 202 hg/ha (FAO, 2020). The production of chillies and pepper, dry in 

2020 was 62,556 tonnes which was 0.32% increase over the production in 2019 which was 62, 356 tonnes (FAO, 2020). 

The area and yields of chillies and pepper, dry in 2020 were 36, 605 ha and 17,089 hg/ha respectively (FAO, 2020).  Pepper 

is medicinal and nutritional which has potentials to generate foreign exchange, reduce unemployment, and its use in 

pharmaceuticals, culinary and confectionary purposes has been on the increase. According to Dipeolu and Akinbode (2007) 

pepper contains vitamins A, B, C, B1, B2 and B3. All varieties of peppers are good excellent sources of vitamins A, and C, 

                                                      
1Corresponding author: ORCID ID: 0000-0002-8390-9775 

© 2023 by the authors. Hosting by ACSE. Peer review under responsibility of American Center of Science and Education, USA.  

https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v7i1.269 

 
To cite this article: Alabi, O. O., & Anekwe, C. E. (2023). GENDER DIFFERENTIALS AND PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS OF PEPPER (CAPSICUM 

SPECIES) PRODUCTION, KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA. American International Journal of Agricultural Studies, 7(1). 

https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v7i1.269 

https://doi.org/10.46545/aijas.v7i1.269
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8390-9775
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4186-1694


Alabi & Anekwe, American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 1-9 

  

2 
 

potassium, fibre and folic acid. Most of the Nigerian’s pepper is produced by small scale, resource-poor, smallholder farmers 

who sell their produce to middlemen or traders who re-sell the products to processors (Adeoye et al., 2014). Pepper is widely 

cultivated throughout Nigeria especially Northern Nigeria, the yields obtained by resource-poor farmers are still low 

(Ogunbo, 2015). Production constraints include: lack of farm inputs, lack of credit facilities, low soil fertility, pests and 

diseases, weeds, and poor management practices (Dennis & Kentus, 2018; Ogunbo, 2015). High potential pepper producing 

areas of Nigeria are Kaduna, Kano, Jigawa, Sokoto, Plateau, and Bauchi States. Pepper grown in Nigeria is in high demand 

because of it pungency and good flavor (Dennis & Kentus, 2018).  

 Gender refers to the social opportunities and attributes associated with being female or male and the relationships 

between men and women (World Bank, 2003). Gender plays a significant role in the agricultural sector where both women 

and men are involved in the agricultural value chain activities that complement each other (Adam et al., 2018). Women 

make up 60 to 80 % of agricultural labour force in Nigeria (World Bank, 2003). In sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria inclusive, 

women are known to be involved in agricultural activities than men. About 73% of African women were involved in cash 

crops, arable and vegetable gardening, 16% were involved in post-harvest activities, while 15% of African women were 

involved in agro-forestry activities (Ajibade et al., 2021). Women in Nigeria have practically taken over the processing and 

production of arable crops, they are responsible for as much as 80% of staple foods (Afolabi, 2008; Ogunlela & Mukhtar, 

2009). Despite the high percentage of women in agriculture in Nigeria, productivity is lower for female farmers when 

compared to their male counterparts (Olakojo, 2017). Women tends to have lower access to agricultural productive resources 

than men due to gender specific constraints (FAO, 2020). Productive resources include: access to credit facilities; access to 

extension services; ownership of land, crop and livestock; access to farm inputs; access to education, skills and knowledge 

related to agriculture; and management of agricultural resources (Moore et al., 2015). Women also had problem of access 

to agricultural information, when adequate information are available to women farmers, experiences can be shared, sources 

of financial aids, best practices, and new markets will be made known to women. In order to improve agricultural production 

and attained agricultural sustainable development, information on agriculture is crucial for any nation (Lawal et al., 2017). 

Women productive capacity in the agricultural sector remains lower than their male counterparts, and thereby impacting 

adversely on overall productivity (Olakojo, 2017). Male and female farmers have equal productive efficiency especially 

when inputs, credit and market access as well as physical and human capital are adequately controlled (Olakojo, 2017) 

 

Objectives of the Study 

This study analyzed gender differentials and profitability analysis of pepper (Capsicum species) production in Kaduna State, 

Nigeria. Specifically, the objectives were to:  

(i) Determine the socio-economic characteristics of pepper farmers, 

(ii) Analyze the gender differentials in costs and returns of pepper production, 

(iii)  Evaluate gender differentials in factors influencing output of pepper production, 

(iv)  Evaluate gender differentials in elasticities of production, and return to scale of pepper production, and 

(v) Determine the constraints faced by pepper farmers in the study area.  
 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

This research study was conducted in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Kaduna State lies between Longitudes 060 15│ and 080 50│ 

East of the prime meridian and Latitudes 090 02│ and 090 02│North of the equator. The State has total land area of 4.5 

million hectares. Kaduna State vegetation is divided into Northern guinea savanna and Southern guinea savanna. There are 

two (2) seasons in Kaduna State. The seasons are: dry and wet seasons, the dry season is between October to March, the 

wet season is from April to October, in between the dry and wet seasons is the brief harmattan period which span from 

November to February. The average rainfall is about 1,482mm, the temperature of Kaduna State ranges from 350C to 360C 

during the humid period to as low as 100C to 230C during the harmattan period. The population of Kaduna as at 2021 was 

8.9 million people. They are involved in agricultural activities. Crops grown include: pepper, maize, ginger, sorghum, rice, 

yam, cassava, millet, and tomatoes. Animal reared include: cattle, goats, sheep, rabbit, and poultry. Multi-stage sampling 

technique was used. One hundred (100) pepper farmers were selected. Data collected from pepper farmers were of primary 

sources using well-designed and well-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to pepper farmers using 

well trained enumerators. Data were analyzed using the following analytical tools: 

 

Descriptive Statistics: This involves the use of mean, range, percentages and frequency distributions to summarize the 

socio-economics characteristics of pepper farmers as stated in specific objective one (i).       

 

Farm Budgetary Technique: The farm budgetary techniques used was Gross Margin Analysis (GM) and is defined as the 

difference between gross farm income (GFI) and total variable cost (TVC). This tool of analysis was used to determine the 

gender differentials in costs and returns of pepper production as specified in specific objective two (ii). The Gross Margin 

Model is stated thus: 

𝐺𝑀 = 𝑇𝑅 − 𝑇𝑉𝐶 … … … … … … … … … … (1) 

        𝐺𝑀 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖𝑄𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1 − ∑ 𝑃𝑗𝑋𝑗 … … … … … … (2)𝑚

𝑗=1  

    𝑁𝐹𝐼 = 𝑇𝑅 − 𝑇𝐶 … … … … … . (3) 

    𝑁𝐹𝐼 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖𝑄𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1 − [∑ 𝑃𝑗𝑋𝑗

𝑚
𝑗=1 + ∑ 𝐺𝐾𝑘

𝑘=1 ] … … … . (4) 

 

 



Alabi & Anekwe, American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 1-9 

  

3 
 

Where 

𝑃𝑖  = Price of Pepper (
𝑁

𝐾𝑔
), 

𝑄𝑖 = Quantity of Pepper (Kg), 

𝑃𝑗 = Price of Variable Inputs (
𝑁

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡
), 

𝑋𝑗 = Quantity of Variable Inputs (Units),  

𝑇𝑅 = Total Revenue obtained from Sales from Pepper (N), 

𝑇𝑉𝐶 = Total Variable Cost (N), 

𝐺𝐾 = Cost of all Fixed Inputs (Naira)  

𝑁𝐹𝐼 = Net Farm Income (Naira)  

 

Financial Analysis: This is an analytical tool used to determine the gender differentials in profitability of pepper production. 

The financial analysis was used to achieve part of specific objective two (ii). Gross Margin Ratio according to Ben-Chendo 

(2015) is defined as:  

   𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒
… … … … . (5) 

 

The operating ratio (OR) according to Olukosi and Erhabor (2015) is defined as:  

 

   𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑇𝑉𝐶

𝐺𝐼
… … … … … … … … (6) 

 

Where, 

𝑇𝑉𝐶 = Total Variable Cost (Naira), 

𝐺𝐼 = Gross Income (Naira), 

According to Olukosi and Erhabor (2015) an operating ratio of less than one (1) implies that the gross income from pepper 

enterprise was able to pay for the cost of the variable inputs used in the enterprise. 

The rate of return per naira invested (RORI) in pepper production is defined as: 

   𝑅𝑂𝑅𝐼 =
𝑁𝐼

𝑇𝐶
… … … … … … … … … … (7) 

Where,    

𝑅𝑂𝑅𝐼 = Rate of Return per Naira Invested (Unit),  
𝑁𝐼 = Net Income (Naira),  

𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑁𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑎).  
 

Cobb-Douglas Production Function Model: The model is defined as follows:  

 

𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑌 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑋1 + 𝛽2𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑋2 + 𝛽3𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑋3 + 𝛽4𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑋4 + 𝛽5𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑋5 + 𝛽6𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑋6 + 𝑈𝑖…………(8) 

  

Where, 

𝑌 = Output of Pepper (Kg),   
𝑋1 = Age of Farmers (Years),  
𝑋2 = Farm Size (Hectares),  
𝑋3 = Labour Input (Mandays),  
𝑋4 = Fertilizer Input (Kg),  
𝑋5 = Seed Input (Kg),  
𝑋6 = Chemical Input (Litres),  
𝑈𝑖 = Error Term,   
𝛽1 − 𝛽6 = Regression Coefficients,    
𝛽0 = Constant Term,  
 

This was used to evaluate gender differentials in factors influencing output of pepper production as stated in specific 

objective three (iii). 

 

Elasticity of Production and Return to Scale: Elasticity of production and return to scale of pepper production can be 

defined as:  

                                                     𝑅𝑇𝑆 = ∑ 𝐸𝑃 … … … … … … … . (9)𝑛
𝑖   

       𝑅𝑇𝑆 = ∑ 𝛽𝑖
6
1 … … … … … … (10)  

 

              RTS = 1, Constant Return to Scale 

        RTS > 1, Increasing Return to Scale 

        RTS < 1, Decreasing Return to Scale 

 

 



Alabi & Anekwe, American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 1-9 

  

4 
 

Where 

𝑅𝑇𝑆 = Return to Scale (Units), and  

𝐸𝑃 =  Elasticity of Production Inputs (Units),  

This was used to evaluate the gender differentials in elasticity of production and return to scale of pepper production as 

stated in specific objective four (iv). 

 

Principal Component Analysis: The gender differentials in constraints faced by pepper farmers were subjected to principal 

component analysis. This was used to achieve specific objective five (v). 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

Socio-Economic Characteristics of Pepper Farmers in the Study Area 

The socio-economic characteristics of pepper farmers under considerations were age, gender, marital status, educational 

status, household size, access to credit facilities, contact with extension agents, years of farm experience, and farm size as 

presented in Table 1. The results show that 66% of sampled pepper farmers were between 21 to 50 years of age. The mean 

age was 43 years. This implies that pepper farmers in the study area were active, energetic, and resourceful in their youthful 

age. Mohammed et al. (2016) reported that younger pepper farmers were more flexible to risk and new ideas, therefore, they 

are expected to adopt innovations more readily than older farmers. Gender analysis in this research study classified pepper 

farmers into male and female. About 78% of pepper farmers were male, while 22% were female. This means that pepper 

farming was dominated by male counterparts. About 43% of pepper farmers had formal education, while 57% had non-

formal education. Dennis and Kentus (2018) reported that illiteracy level among pepper farmers could affect negatively the 

ability to participate in extension training as well as adopt high level of innovations and improved practices of pepper 

production. Education acquired by pepper farmers is an important socio-economic factor influencing management decisions 

and adoption of new technology. Furthermore, 74% of pepper farmers had between 1 to 10 people as member of household. 

Averagely, there are 8 people per household. Mohammed et al. (2015) reported an average household size of 11 people for 

pepper farming household which implies that there is appreciable number of family labour supply to accomplish various 

farm operations. Similar to this finding, Sani et al. (2010) reported that larger household sizes among pepper farmers provide 

enough persons for family labour which signifies that little or less money will be needed to pay for hired labour. Also, 83% 

of pepper farmers had access to credit facilities, 35% do not have access to credit facilities. The low access to credit could 

be due to the fact that government seldom grant financial credit to farmers (Ekong, 2003). Access to credit is a very strong 

factor that is needed to develop any enterprise, availability of credit could determine the extent of production capacity 

(Mohammed et al., 2016). Access to micro-credit could improve productivity of pepper farmers and contribute to uplifting 

the livelihood of peasant resource-poor rural farming communities (Nosiru, 2010). Farm experience of pepper farmers is 

another important socio-economic factor that can bring about increase in pepper productivity. About 98% of pepper farmers 

had between 1 to 10 years’ experience in pepper farming. Experience pepper farmers can correct past errors and can forecast 

future market situations of their products at higher prices to make better profits. Averagely, pepper farmers had 1.01 hectares 

of planted pepper farm land. They are small scale, smallholder, and resource-poor pepper farmers. Nigerian farms are 

classified into small scale (less than 5 hectares); medium scale (5 – 10 hectares); and large scale (more than 10 hectares). 

According to Ogunbo (2015), farm size may influence adoption of technology, scale of production, output level, and revenue 

accruable to pepper farmers. 

 

Table 1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Pepper Farmers in the Study Area 
 

Variables Frequency Percentage Mean 

Age (Years) 

21 – 30  

31 – 40  

41 – 50 

> 51  

Gender 

Male 

Female 

Marital Status 

Single 

Married 

Divorced 

Educational Status 

Primary 

Secondary 

Tertiary 

Non-Formal 

Household Size (Units) 

1 – 5 

6 – 10  

11 – 15  

16 – 20  

Access to Credit Facilities 

Yes 

No 

Contact with Extension Agents 

 

28 
19 

19 

34 
 

78 

22 
 

07 

84 
09 

 

21 
15 

07 

57 
 

36 

38 
21 

05 

 
65 

35 

 

 

28.00 
19.00 

19.00 

34.000 
 

78.00 

22.00 
 

07.00 

84.00 
09.00 

 

21.00 
15.00 

07.00 

57.00 
 

36.00 

38.00 
21.00 

05.00 

 
65.00 

35.00 

 

 

 

 

43.61 

 
 

 

 
 

 

 
 

 

 
 

 

 
 

 

8.0 

 

 

 
 

 

 



Alabi & Anekwe, American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 1-9 

  

5 
 

Yes 

No 

Years of Farm Experience 

1 – 5 

6 – 10 

11 – 15  

Farm Size (Hectares) 

0 – 0.99  

1 – 1.99  

2 – 2.99   

Total 

83 

17 
 

75 

23 
02 

 

40 
50 

10 

100.00 

83.00 

17.00 
 

75.00 

23.00 
02.00 

 

40.00 
50.00 

10.00 

100.00 

 

 
 

 

4.35 

 

 

 

1.01 

        Source: Field Survey (2021) 

 

Gender Differentials in Profitability Analysis of Pepper Production in the Study Area 

The gender differentials in costs and returns of pepper production was presented in Table 2. All costs incurred and revenue 

obtained were based on the market price as at the time of field survey. The variable costs incurred in pepper production for 

male and female farmers include: seed input, fertilizer input, herbicides, insecticides, bag sack, and labour input. The fixed 

cost, depreciated involved in pepper production for both male and female farmers include: land rent, sprayer, hoe, cutlass, 

and water pump. There was a significant difference between total variable costs involved in pepper production between male 

and female farmers. The average total variable costs in pepper production for both male and female were 155, 409.01 Naira 

and 122, 800.73 Naira and this accounted for 81.87% and 81.81% of the total cost of production per hectare respectively. 

There was also a significant difference between average total costs incurred in pepper production between male and female 

farmers. The male farmers incurred average total cost of 189, 824.06 Naira, while female farmers incurred 82, 418.15 Naira. 

Pooling the data for both male and female together, the average total cost incurred for both male and female farmers in pepper 

production was 134, 430.66 Naira. The gross margin analysis per hectare revealed that pepper production was profitable for 

both male and female farmers. The enterprise is worthwhile for both male and female pepper farmers. The gross margin was 

higher per hectare basis for male pepper farmers at 137, 556.51 Naira than female pepper farmers at 109, 711.77 Naira. The 

net farm income analysis also revealed level of profitability for both male and female pepper farmers. There was a significant 

difference between net farm income for both male and female pepper farmers. The net farm income for male pepper farmers 

was higher at 103, 141.46 Naira than female pepper farmers at 82,418.15 Naira per hectare respectively. Pooling the data 

together for both male and female pepper farmers, the net farm income was estimated at 98, 582.33 Naira. This implies level 

of profitability for pepper production in the study area. Financial analysis revealed that the gross margin ratios of pepper 

production for male, female farmers and pooled data were 0.47 each respectively. This implies that for one Naira invested in 

pepper production 46 kobo covered taxes, profits, expenses, and depreciation respectively. The rate of return on investment 

was higher at 0.55 for male pepper for farmers (return on investment for female pepper farmers at 0.54), this implies that for 

one Naira invested by male pepper farmers, additional 55 kobo was realized. Similar findings on the same group of vegetable 

production by Ajibade et al. (2021) reported that gross margin of tomato production at 67,083.64 Naira per hectare for male 

farmers, this was higher than the gross margin of tomato production at 34,325.38 Naira per hectare for female farmers in 

Abuja, Nigeria.  

 

Table 2.  Gender Differentials in Average Costs and Returns of Pepper Production per Hectare 
 

                     

 

                   Items 

                   Male                 Female                 Pooled 

Amount 

(Naira) 

Percentage Amount 

(Naira) 
Percentage Amount 

(Naira) 
Percentage 

Total Revenue 

Variable Cost 

Seed Input 

Fertilizer Input  

Herbicides 

Insecticides 

Bags Sack 

Labour Input 

(a) Land Clearing 

(b) Soil Tillage 

(c) Planting 

(d) Manure Application 

(e) Chemical Application 

(f) Weeding 

(g) Fertilizer Application 

(h) Harvesting 

(i)  Bagging 

Fixed Cost (Depreciation) 

(a) Land Rent 

(b) Sprayer 

(c) Hoe 

(d) Cutlass 

(e) Water Pump 

Total Variable Cost 

Total Fixed Cost 

Total Cost 

Gross Margin 

292,965.52 

 
1,480.10 

44,919.14 

6,063.84 
1,450.46 

1,989.06 

 
12,044.33 

13, 385.22 

11, 240.39 
8, 275.86 

8,122.17 

18,622.66 

8,029.56 

15, 822.66 

3, 963.55 
 

26, 256.16 

2,384.03 
2,123.30 

238.73 

3,412.83 

155,409.01 

34,415.05 

189,824.06 

137, 556.51 

 

 
0.779 

23.66 

3.194 
0.764 

1.047 

 
6.344 

7.051 

5.921 
4.339 

4.248 

9.810 

4.230 

8.335 

2.088 
 

13.83 

1.255 
1.185 

0.125 

1.797 

81.87 

18.13 

100.00 

 

232,512.50 

 
1,280.01 

39,231.20 

4,547.88 
1,160.37 

1,591.24 

 
9,033.25 

10,038.91 

8, 430.29 
6,620.68 

6, 497.74 

14, 898.13 

5,620.69 

11,075.86 

2,774.48 
 

21,004.92 

1,668.82 
1,698.64 

190.98 

2,730.26 

122,800.73 

27,293.62 

150,094.35 

109,711. 77 

 

 
0.852 

26.13 

3.030 
0.775 

1.060 

 
6.018 

6.688 

5.616 
4.411 

4.329 

9.923 

3.744 

7.379 

1.848 
 

15.999 

1.111 
1.131 

0.127 

1.819 

81.81 

18.19 

100.00 

 

279,665.85 

 
1,436.08 

43,667.79 

5,730.33 
1,386.64 

1,901.54 

 
11,381.89 

12,649.03 

10,622.16 
7,911.72 

7,764.79 

17,803.26 

7, 499.61 

14,778.364 

3,701.96 
 

25,100.89 

1,859.68 
2,029.87 

228,23 

3,254.86 

148,235.19 

32,848.33 

181,083.58 

134,430.66 

 

 
0.793 

24.11 

5.164 
0.965 

1.050 

 
6.285 

6.905 

5.865 
4.369 

4.289 

9.831 

4.141 

8.161 

2.044 
 

13.86 

1.026 
1.120 

0.126 

1.797 

81.86 

18.14 

100.00 

 



Alabi & Anekwe, American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 1-9 

  

6 
 

Net Farm Income 

Quantity (50 Kg) 

Price  

Operating Ratio 

Rate of Return on Investment 

Gross Margin Ratio 

103,141.46 

14.64 

20,000 

0.53 

0.55 

0.47 

 82,418.15 

11.62 

20,000 

0.52 

0.54 

0.47 

98,582.33 

13.98 

20,000 

0.53 

0.544 

0.47 

 

 

                                                  Source: Field Survey (2021) 

 

Gender Differentials in Factors Influencing Output of Pepper (Capsicum species) Production in the Study Area  

Gender differentials in factors influencing output of pepper production was presented in Table 3. The explanatory variables 

under consideration in the Cobb-Douglas production model were age(𝑋1), farm size (𝑋2), labour input (𝑋3),  fertilizer input 

(𝑋4) , seed input (𝑋5) , and chemical input (𝑋6) . All the regression coefficients for male, female pepper farmers and pool 

data were positive. Age(𝑋1) , and fertilizer input (𝑋4) were statistically significant at (𝑃 < 0.01) for male pepper farmers, 

while age (𝑋1), labour input (𝑋3), and fertilizer input (𝑋4) were statistically significant at (𝑃 < 0.01) for female pepper 

farmers. Pooled data revealed that age (𝑋1), labour input (𝑋3),  and labour input (𝑋3),  were statistically significant at 

(𝑃 < 0.01). The coefficient of multiple determinations (𝑅2) was 0.81 for male pepper farmers and 0.56 for female pepper 

farmers. The coefficient of multiple determinations (𝑅2) for pooled data was 0.755. The coefficient of determinations (𝑅2) 

of 0.81 implies that 81% of variations in output of pepper produced by male pepper farmers were explained by the 

explanatory variables included in the model. Also, the coefficient of determinations (𝑅2) of 0.56 implies that 56% of 

variations in output of pepper produced by female pepper farmers were explained by the explanatory variables included in 

the model. The F-values were statistically significant at (𝑃 < 0.01) for male (225.71), female (196.21) pepper farmers and 

pooled data (219.22) respectively. This confirmed the explanatory variables included in the model as jointly responsible for 

variations in output of pepper produced by male, female pepper farmers and pooled data respectively. The regression 

coefficients of farm size and fertilizer input were 0.521 and 0.491 for male pepper farmers, while that of female pepper 

farmers were 0.020 and 0.001 respectively. This implies that 1% increase in farm size will lead to 52.1% and 02.1% increase 

in output of pepper production for both male and female farmers respectively. Similarly, Adeoye et al. (2014) reported that 

1% increase in farm size will lead to 05.15% increase in pepper production among farmers under tropical conditions. 

 

Gender Differentials in Elasticity of Production and Return to Scale of Pepper Production in the Study Area 

Gender differentials in elasticity of production and return to scale of pepper production was presented in Table 4. The 

regression coefficients of the male, female pepper farmers and pooled data were the elasticities of production. The sum of 

elasticities of production gave the return to scale for male, female pepper farmers and pooled data respectively. The 

elasticities of production of fertilizer input was 0.491 for male, and 0.039 for female pepper farmers respectively. The 

elasticities of production of fertilizer input for pooled data was 0. 3916. All the elasticities of production for variable inputs 

included in the Cobb-Douglas production model were positive for male, female pepper farmers and pooled data respectively. 

The return to scale (𝑅𝑇𝑆) of pepper production for male farmers was 2.798, which signifies increasing return to scale. This 

implies that a unit increase in any production input in pepper production will lead to more than proportionate increase in 

output of pepper produced. The return to scale(𝑅𝑇𝑆) of pepper production for female farmers was 0.033, which signifies 

decrease return to scale. This implies that a unit increase in any production inputs will lead to less than proportionate 

decrease in output of pepper produced. The return to scale for pooled data was 2.206. Which signifies increase return to 

scale of pepper production. This result is similar to findings of Dossah and Mohammed (2016) who obtained return to 

scale (𝑅𝑇𝑆) of 1.314 for male vegetable farmers (increasing return to scale), and 0.97 for female vegetable farmers (decrease 

return to scale) in Plateau State, Nigeria.   
                       

Table 3. Result of Multiple Regression Analysis of Cobb-Douglas Production Function Model 
 

 

 

Variable 

                              Male                         Female 

Regression 

Coefficient 

Standard  

Error 

t-Statistics Regression  

Coefficient 

Standard  

Error 

t-Statistics 

Age (𝑿𝟏) 

Farm Size (𝑿𝟐) 

Labour Input (𝑿𝟑) 

Fertilizer Input (𝑿𝟒) 

Seed Input (𝑿𝟓) 

Chemical Input (𝑿𝟔) 

Constant 

RTS 

𝑹𝟐  

𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝑹𝟐  

F-Value 

0.412 

0.521 
0.361 

0.491 

0.530 
0.483 

4.012 

2.798 
0.81 

0.78 

225.71*** 

0.1141 

0.2059 
0.1332 

0.1323 

0.2070 
0.2185 

1.6786 

3. 61*** 

2.53** 
2.71** 

3.71*** 

2.56** 
2.21** 

2.39** 

 

0.035 

0.020 
0.006 

0.039 

0.014 
0.012 

2.844 

0.033 
0.56 

0.51 

196.21*** 

0.011 

0.008 
0.002 

0.001 

0.006 
0.005 

1.252 

 

3.21*** 

2.57** 
3.64*** 

3.45*** 

2.41** 
2.56** 

2.27** 

Source: Data Analysis (2021) 

*-Significant at 10% probability level 
**-Significant at 5% probability level 

***-Significant at 1% probability level 

 
 

 

 

 



Alabi & Anekwe, American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 1-9 

  

7 
 

Table 4. Result of Multiple Regression Analysis of Cobb-Douglas Production Function Model 
 

 

 

Variable 

                             Pooled Data 

Regression 

Coefficient 

Standard  

Error 

t-Statistics 

Age (𝑿𝟏) 

Farm Size (𝑿𝟐) 

Labour Input (𝑿𝟑) 

Fertilizer Input (𝑿𝟒) 

Seed Input (𝑿𝟓) 

Chemical Input (𝑿𝟔) 

Constant 

RTS 

𝑹𝟐  

𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝑹𝟐  

F-Value 

0.3291 
0.4108 

0.2829 

0.3916 
0.4165 

0.3793 

3.7550 
2.2064 

0.755 

0.720 
219.22*** 

0.0093 
0.1624 

0.0972 

0.1072 
0.1646 

0.1663 

1.3372 

3.52*** 
2.53** 

2.91*** 

3.65*** 
2.53** 

2.28** 

2.808** 

Source: Data Analysis (2021) 

*-Significant at 10% probability level 

**-Significant at 5% probability level 

***-Significant at 1% probability level 
 

Constraints Faced by Pepper Farmers in the Study Area 

Table 5 shows the constraints faced by pepper farmers in the study area using principal component model. Principal 

component analysis (PCA) is an analytical technique that can transform many interrelated constraints of pepper farmers into 

few uncorrelated constraints. Constraints with Eigen-values greater than one (1) were retained by the principal component 

model. Constraints with Eigen-values less than one (1) were discarded by the model. Lack of fertilizers with Eigen-value of 

3.2091 was ranked 1st among the constraints based on the perception of pepper farmers, and this explained 21.71% of all 

constraints retained by the principal component model. Pest and disease infestations was ranked 2nd based on the perceptions 

of pepper farmers, and this explained 21.60% of all constraints retained by the model. The other constrained faced by pepper 

farmers include: inadequate capital (3rd), high perishability of commodity (4th), poor soil fertility (5th), lack of improved 

seeds (6th), and lack of storage facilities (7th). The retained constraints faced by pepper farmers explained 83.76% of all 

constraints faced by pepper farmers in the study area.  

           
Table 5. Principal Component Analysis of Constraints Faced by Pepper Farmers 

 
 

Constraints 

Eigen-Value   Difference Proportion Cumulative 

Lack of Fertilizers 

Pest and Disease Infestation 

Inadequate Capital 

High Perishability of Commodity 

Poor Soil Fertility 

Lack of Improved Seeds 

Lack of Storage Facilities 

3.2091 
3.1020 

2.9801 

2.9107 
2.8709 

1.8701 
1.6701 

0.4120 
0.3971 

0.3651 

0.3402 
0.3101 

0.2907 
0.2770 

0.2171 
0.2160 

0.1131 

0.1001 
0.0971 

0.0621 
0.0321 

0.2171 
0.4331 

0.5462 

0.6463 
0.7434 

0.8055 
0.8376 

Bartlett Test of Sphericity 

KMO  

Chi Square 

Rho   

 

0.6701 

490.67 
1.000000 

   

Source: Data Analysis (2021) 

***-Significant at 1% probability level 

 

CONCLUSIONS  

This research study has shown that pepper production for both male and female farmers were profitable enterprise in the 

study area. Pepper farmers were active, energetic, and resourceful, in their youthful age. Pepper production is mainly 

dominated by male counterparts and farming household have large household size with an average of 8 people per 

household. They are small scale, smallholder, peasant and resource-poor pepper farmers with an average farm size of 1.01 

hectares of farm land. Gender differentials in average costs and returns of pepper production shows that the gross margin of 

male pepper farmers was 137, 141.46 Naira per hectare higher than that of female pepper farmers with gross margin of 

109,711.77 Naira per hectare. Net farm income of male pepper farmers was 103, 141.46 Naira per hectare higher than that 

of female pepper farmers with net farm income of 82, 418.15 Naira per hectare. Financial analysis revealed that the gross 

margin ratios were 0.47 for male and female pepper farmers respectively. This signifies that for every one naira invested in 

pepper production, 47 kobo covered taxes, expenses, profits, interest, and depreciation respectively. The rate of return on 

investment was higher for male pepper farmers at 0.55 than female pepper farmers who had rate of return on investment of 

0.54. Gender differentials in factors influencing output of pepper produced shows that age, fertilizer input were the 

statistically significant factors influencing output of pepper produced by male farmers at 1% probability level, while age, 

labour input, and fertilizer input were statistically and significant factors influencing output of pepper produced by female 

farmers at 1% probability level. The coefficient of multiple determinations (𝑅2) was 0.81 for male pepper farmers and 0.56 

for female pepper farmers. The return to scale was estimated at 2.798 for male pepper farmers which signifies increasing 

return to scale, while that of female pepper farmers was calculated at 0.033 which implies decreasing return to scale. 

Constraints faced by pepper farmers include: lack of fertilizers, pest and disease infestations, inadequate capital, and high 



Alabi & Anekwe, American International Journal of Agricultural Studies 7(1) (2023), 1-9 

  

8 
 

perishability of commodity, poor soil fertility, lack of improved seeds, and lack of storage facilities. This research study 

recommends the following: 

 Farm inputs should be provided for male and female pepper farmers such as improved seeds, fertilizer inputs, and 

chemical inputs, to increase productivity. 

 Women pepper farmers should be giving more access to credit facilities at low interest rate to increase productivity. 

 Government should employ female extension agents to disseminate research findings and new technologies to 

pepper farmers. 

 Government should encourage mechanized farming by providing equipment’s such as tractors, motorized sprayers, 

and irrigation facilities etc. to increase productivity. 

 Storage facilities should be provided for pepper farmers to solve the problem of high perishability of commodity.  

 

 

 
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, O.O.A. and C.E.A.; Methodology, O.O.A. and C.E.A; Software, O.O.A. and C.E.A.; Validation, O.O.A. and 

C.E.A.; Formal Analysis, O.O.A. and C.E.A; Investigation, O.O.A. and C.E.A.; Resources, O.O.A. and C.E.A; Data Curation, O.O.A. and C.E.A.; Writing 

– Original Draft Preparation, O.O.A. and C.E.A.; Writing – Review & Editing, O.O.A. and C.E.A; Visualization, O.O.A. and C.E.A; Supervision, O.O.A. 

and C.E.A; Project Administration, O.O.A. and C.E.A.; Funding Acquisition, O.O.A. and C.E.A.. Authors have read and agreed to the published version 
of the manuscript. 

Institutional Review Board Statement: Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, due to that the research does not deal with vulnerable 
groups or sensitive issues. 

Funding: The authors received no direct funding for this research. 

Acknowledgments: The authors thank the World Bank for sharing the data. 

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. 

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available 

due to restrictions. 

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   

 

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