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ISSN 2641-7987   E-ISSN 2641-7995 

Published by American Center of Science and Education, USA 

 

1 

 

 

Self-Image as Predictor of Stigma Consciousness among Physically 

Challenged Students in Tertiary Institutions in Oyo State, Nigeria 

 
Somotan Oluwayomi Abdulmojeed 

Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling, 
 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 

 

 

Atoyebi Adeola Olusegun 

Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling 

 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 

E-mail: adeola671@gmail.com 

 

Abstract 

The study investigated the levels of stigma consciousness among physically challenged students in tertiary 

institutions in Oyo State. It ascertained the effect of stigma consciousness on the academic performance of 
physically challenged students. Also, the study determined the relative influence of self-image on stigma 

consciousness of physically students. Furthermore, it examined the influence of self-image on stigma consciousness 

of physically challenged students. These were with a view to providing information on the factors that could 

influence stigma consciousness of the physically challenged students. The study adopted the descriptive survey 

research design. The population for the study comprised physically challenged students in tertiary institutions in 

Oyo State. Three institutions (University of Ibadan, The Polytechnic Ibadan and Emmanuel Alayande College of 

Education, Oyo) were purposively selected within Oyo State because they have the physically challenged students. 

A sample size of 120 physically challenged students were selected from the institutions using proportionate random 

sampling technique. One adapted instrument with two scales was used to collect data from the students. The scales 

were “Stigma Consciousness Scale (SCS) and Self-Image Questionnaire (SIQ). Data collected were analysed using 

percentage, frequency counts, one-way ANOVA and multiple regressions. The results of the study showed that 

4.8%, 88.6%, 6.7% of tertiary institutions in Oyo State demonstrated low, moderate and high levels of stigma 
consciousness respectively. The results showed that there was no significant effect of stigma consciousness on the 

academic performance of the physically challenged students (F (2.102) =0.059, p=0.943). It was also discovered that 

there was a significant positive influence of self-image on stigma consciousness of physically challenged students 

(N=105, t= 0.198, p< 0.05). Finally, the results showed that the self-image (β =0.019, F=1.98, p<0.05) contributed 

significantly in influencing stigma consciousness with coefficient of multiple regression (R2) of 0.164  at p < 0.05 .It 

was concluded that self-image could influence stigma consciousness among physically challenged students in 

tertiary institutions. 

 

Keywords: Stigma Consciousness of Physically Challenged and Self-image. 

 

1. Introduction 
Students with physical challenges are those students suffering from one challenge to other and who may wish to 

achieve financial and personal independence need to access postsecondary education and overcome numerous 

academic barriers. It appears therefore that challenged students are experiencing many barriers to their presence, 

participation and learning at school and little is known of the specific nature of these barriers. Physically challenged 

person may be referred to as people who have substantial, adverse and long-term effect on their ability to carry out 

normal day to day activities. Lawal-Solarin (2010) in an article titled Banks and the Physically Challenged quoted 

MSN Encarta Dictionary which defines physically challenged as an inability to perform some or all the tasks of 

daily life or a medically diagnosed condition that makes it difficult to engage in the activities of daily life. Some 

people are born with disabilities and challenges, while others develop them later in life. 

  There are, however, many types of challenges or disabilities; both physical and mental, and they vary 

greatly in causes, degrees and treatments. Common disabilities include blindness, deafness, and deformity, loss of 

limbs, mental illness and mental retardation, muscular, nervous and sensory disorders. This opinion was supported 
by Adesokan (2003) when he noted that most challenged persons suffer rejection, isolation, and maltreatment from 

other members of the society. He opined that challenged persons are shown negative attitudes and in the Traditional 



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Yoruba society terms such as Abirun meaning handicap, Didinrin meaning imbecile, Abami meaning strange 

person, and Alawoku meaning mentally imbalance are used to refer to them. They are seen as objects of ridicule, 

shame and pity.  

Meanwhile, there is a great deal of disagreement as to what should be considered offensive or derogatory 

by people with or without disabilities, Wikipedia (2010) noted that views vary with geography and culture, over 

time, and among individuals. Furthermore, terms such as, ''retarded'' and '' lame'' are said to be a deliberate insult. 
Also the term ''wheelchair-bound'' is inherently negative. Yet another term ''Mongolism'' is based on stereotypical 

ideas of certain groups of individuals with disabilities. The word 'handicapped'' is considered by some people to be 

derogatory, while others see it as a synonym for ''a person with a disability'', and it is still used by Adesokan (2003). 

  The researchers observed that physically challenged students are present in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, 

Oyo State in particular. Some of these physically challenged students may be signally conscious because of their 

perceived low self-image. This is likely to result in poor academic performance and incompetence when compare 

with their able colleagues and this gives the need for this study in tertiary institutions in Oyo State, Southwestern 

part of Nigeria. Differences in stigma consciousness of physically challenged students may be explained by 

differences in cognitive aptitude, but variables like self-image status stereotype may also intervene.   

The potential consequences that individuals may experience as a result of high stigma consciousness are 

important. One study revealed that women high in stigma consciousness avoided engaging in tasks in which they 

may be vulnerable to prejudice (Pinel, 1999). Additional research has linked high stigma consciousness to lower 
grade point averages for ethnic minority students (Brown & Lee, 2005), as well as poorer performance on a math 

exam for women (Brown & Pinel, 2003). In another study of biracial individuals, high stigma consciousness was 

related to lower levels of belongingness (Wilton, Sanchez, & Garcia, 2013). All this may affect the academic 

performance of a normal person and physically challenged in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.  

Although, several studies have been carried out on the factors that could predict stigma consciousness of 

students of physically challenged student. One of the factors that can predict it is the self-image. Self- image is seen 

as the way individuals regularly describe themselves in relation to their physical, social, emotional, and 

psychological feelings. According to Martin, (2007), self-image has to do with the individual’s feelings, knowledge 

of self, and ideas about self. This means that self-image is the totality of an individual and all that is peculiar with 

the person. At the center of Self-image is one’s self-schema, which is a mental framework, a cognitive structure that 

organizes individuals’ emotions, knowledge, and ideas. Social psychologists believe that Self-image has to do with 
individuals’ possible selves. Therefore, one’s Self-image plays a lot of roles in the development of the person 

academically, socially, and psychologically. When students are stereotyped and work along the same view, it tends 

to affect them from different dimensions.  Martin and Osborne (1992) stated that individual Self-image is the 

collection of beliefs, thoughts, and feelings that individuals have about themselves. It is the individual’s Self-image 

that is the way the person sees himself or herself.  Self-image is seen as a general term that refers to the wide range 

of one’s self-descriptions made by individuals.  

Most of the individuals’ self-descriptions have been associated with rewards that are likely to elicit very 

positive images and emotions. This implies that how individuals perceive themselves in terms of the stereotypes 

eventually affects the totality of their behavior.  According to Demidenko, Tasca, Kennedy, and Bissada (2010), 

self-image contains three parts: self-esteem, stability, and self-efficacy. Self-esteem is the evaluative component, 

where one makes judgment about his or her self-worth. In their views, stability refers to the organization and 

continuity of one’s self-image. For McGraw (2008), Self-image is a person’s composite or collective view of 
himself or herself across a multi-dimensional set of specific precepts. It is based on self-knowledge and evaluation 

or worth of a person’s capabilities that one formed through experience and interpretation of the environment. 

McLead (2008) sees Self-image as how people think and evaluate themselves. Features associated with Self-image 

include personality, skills, abilities, occupations, hobbies, and physical characteristics, among others.  

A person’s self-image may change with time as reassessment occurs, which in some cases leads to identity 

crises (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2002). Self-image is not restricted to the present; it includes past selves and future 

selves. The past self represents the activities and experiences of the individual in previous occasions, while the 

future self indicates one’s proposals and intentions that have not been accomplished. These correspond to hopes, 

fears, standards, goals, and threats (Santrock, 2009).  

The aim of this present study is to investigate to what extent the variability in self-image, could predict 

stigma consciousness among physically challenged students. Studies had been done on the related issue around the 
globe, but the present study is focused on Nigerian sample and Oyo State to be precised. The study will add to the 

existing literature on the issue and will also have implications for educationalists, counsellors and therapists, who 

work in school settings. It is expected that Self-image will reveal the nature of its predictability of stigma 

consciousness of physically challenged students. 



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2. Objective of the Study   

The broad objective is to determine the impact Self-image as a Predictor of stigma consciousness among special 

students in a tertiary institution in Oyo State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of this study are to: 

 Investigate the levels of stigma consciousness among physically challenged students  in tertiary institutions 

in Oyo state 

 Ascertain the effect of stigma consciousness on the academic performance of physically challenged 
students 

 Determine the relative influence of self-image on stigma consciousness of physically challenged students;  

 

3. Research Questions  

The following research question will be addressed in this study: 

 What are the levels of stigma consciousness among physically challenged students in tertiary institutions in 

Oyo state?  

 

4. Research Hypotheses  

 There is no significant effect of stigma consciousness on the academic performance of physically 

challenged students. 

 There is no significant relative influence of self-image on stigma consciousness of the physically 
challenged students  

 

5. Methodology 

The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. This entails the process of gathering information from a 

representative sample of a population. The descriptive survey design studies characteristics and opinions of 

relatively small samples of a population through which it seeks to determine the incidence and distribution of such 

characteristics and opinions in the population. Using small sample for fact gathering and testing theories and 

hypotheses, it has the ability to provide accurate information on the whole population of people. Due to its 

techniques of sampling and the capacity of the results from such samples to be generalized to the whole population, 

the descriptive survey research is widely used by researchers, especially for practical and policy goals. The results 

from researcher have usually been remarkably accurate and generalisable. This study adopted this research design 
because it sought to obtain information from a representative sample of the population. The dependent variable was 

physically challenged. The independence variable was self-image. Stigma consciousness of physically challenged 

students was measured using stigma consciousness scale to establish the levels of stigma consciousness of 

physically challenged students. Also, the independence variable, Self-image was measured using Self-image scale of 

Chen and Gully (2001) to establish students’ Self-image. 

 This consists of three sections: section A is the bio-data of the respondents while section B and C were 

stigma consciousness and self-image scale respectively. The instruments were validated with the help of experts in 

Tests and Measurement and Psychology of Education at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Kaiser-Olkin 

Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (BTS) were carried out to ascertain the 

usability of factorial validation for the validation of the items in each section of the questionnaire and each item 

yielded uniform data. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) value for stigma 

consciousness and self-image scale were 0.85 and 0.925 respectively which is greater than critical value at 0.05 level 
of significance and so is acceptable. The Cronbach’s Alpha approach was adopted in determining the reliability of 

the scale and it yielded a coefficient of 0.756and 0.884 

 

6. Results 

Research Question 1: What are the levels of stigma consciousness among physically challenged students in tertiary 

institutions in Oyo State? 

In order to answer this research question, items on stigma consciousness scale (SCS) were scored such that 

a strongly agree response was allotted 4, agree response 3, disagree response 2, and strongly disagree response as 1. 

In this scale, high scores represent a high level of stigma consciousness and vice versa. However, negatively worded 

items such as items 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, and 14 were reversed in scoring. Students’ responses to these items were 

cumulated to build a measure of stigma consciousness. The minimum and maximum scores obtained in this scale 
were 14 and 56 respectively while the range was 42. Scores of 14-28 were described as a low level of stigma 

consciousness, 29-42 as moderate level while scores of 43-56 were described as a high level of stigma 

consciousness. This categorization is then subjected to descriptive statistics of frequency and percentage, mean and 

standard deviation. The result is presented in Table 1 below. 



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Table 1. Levels of Stigma Consciousness among Physically Challenged Students in Tertiary Institutions in Oyo 

State 

 

Levels  Score Range Mean SD Frequency (f) Percentage (%) 

Low 14-28 27.00 1.41 5 4.8 

Moderate 29-42 34.86 3.20 93 88.6 

High 43-56 43.86 0.90 7 6.7 

Total    105 100.0 

 

Table 1 shows the levels of stigma consciousness among physically challenged students in tertiary 

institutions in Oyo State. As shown in the Table, out of 105 (100.0%) of the physically challenged students that 

participated in this study, only 5 (4.8%) exhibited low level of stigma consciousness. The score range for this group 
on Stigma Consciousness Scale is 14-28 with respective mean and standard deviation values of 27.00 and 1.41. 

Also, 93 (88.6%) exhibited moderate level of stigma consciousness with score range of 29-42 (Mean=34.86, SD= 

3.20) while 7 (6.7%) exhibited high level of stigma consciousness with score range of 43-56 (Mean=43.86, SD= 

0.90). It is shown in this result that the majority of the physically challenged students in tertiary institutions in Oyo 

State exhibited a moderate level of stigma consciousness. 

 

Research Hypotheses 

Research Hypothesis 1: There is no significant effect of stigma consciousness on the academic performance of 

physically challenged students. 

In order to test this hypothesis, students’ scores (GPAs) were subjected to a One-Way Analysis of Variance 

using level of stigma consciousness as a factor variable. The result is presented in Table 2 below. 
 

Table 2.One-Way Analysis of Variance of effect of stigma consciousness on the academic performance of 

physically challenged students  

 

Source Df SS MS F P 

Between Groups 2 .053 .027  

.059 

 

.943 Within Groups 102 46.272 .454 

Total 104 46.325  

 

Table 2 shows a one –way between groups analysis of variance conducted to explore the effect of stigma 

consciousness on the academic performance of physically challenged students. It can be observed from the result 

that there was no statistically significant effect of stigma consciousness on the academic performance of physically 

challenged students with low, moderate, and high levels of stigma consciousness as determined by one-way 

ANOVA (F(2,102) = .059, p = .943). Since the p-value is greater than 0.05 level of significance, we do not reject the 

stated null hypothesis. This result concludes that there is no significant effect of stigma consciousness on the 

academic performance of physically challenged students. 

. 
Research Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relative influence of self-image and status stereotype on stigma 

consciousness of physically challenged students. 

In order to test this hypothesis, students’ scores on the measure of stigma consciousness were subjected to 

multiple regression with self-image and status stereotype jointly treated as the predictor variables. The coefficients 

indicating the individual contribution of the independent variables were obtained and are presented in table 3 below. 

 

Table 3.Results of Relative Influence of Self-Image on Stigma Consciousness of Physically Challenged Students 

 

 

 

Model 

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients  

 

t 

 

 

P 
B Std. Error Beta 

(Constant) 25.990 4.144  6.272 .000 

Self-image  .014 .071 .019 .198 .843 

      

 



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Table 3. Shows the result of the relative influence of self-image on stigma consciousness of physically 

challenged students. As shown in Table … self-image had t-value of .198 and beta weight of .019. From the values 

of beta weights and t-ratio for  independent variable (self-image), it is shown that status stereotype had significant 

influence on self-image. It can be concluded from this result that self-image had no significant influence on stigma 

consciousness of physically challenged students. 

 

7. Discussion of Findings 

It was discovered that most of the physically challenged students in tertiary institutions in Oyo State had a moderate 

level of stigma consciousness. This may also aid the high academic performance of physically challenged students 

in their studies. 

The result of the three hypothesis shows a significant correlation between stigma consciousness and the 

self-image of students. A study by Barker in Awan, (2011), a positive and statistically significant correlation was 

found between self-image and stigma consciousness of physically challenged students. McCoach (2002) indicated 

that self-image is a significant predictor of stigma consciousness. The same author further states that as much as 

one-third of the variance in achievement can be accounted for by academic self-image alone. In a study to 

investigate the relationship between self-beliefs, academic background and achievement of adolescent Asian-

American students in post-secondary education (House 1997), self-image was found to be a significant predictor of 

Asian-American students’ subsequent academic performance. In another study, self-image was found to be directly 
and significantly related to the deep rather than the surface learning approach (Drew and Watkins 1998). 

It was also observed from the analysis that self-image had an influence on stigma consciousness. 

The findings of the current study emphasized a positive relationship between ‘self-image’ and ‘stigma 

consciousness of physically challenged students’. To be more specific, self-image and stigma consciousness of 

physically challenged students were strongly correlated (Ahmed (1986), Gordon (1997), Haque and Sarwat (1998), 

Sabir (1999), and Shafique (2002). Gage and Berliner (1992) research findings on the relationship between self- 

image and stigma consciousness of physically challenged students and this suggests that measures of general or even 

self-image are not significantly related to stigma consciousness of physically challenged. And this is against the 

findings of this current study which states that self-image had an influence on stigma consciousness of physically 

changed students in tertiary institutions in Oyo State. 

The finding of the study shows a significant positive relationship between stigma consciousness of 
physically challenged and self-image of the Under-graduate students of tertiary institutions in Oyo State. This 

finding has been supported by researchers (Barker, McInerney, and Dowson (2003) Lawrence and Vimala, (2013). 

As per the interview and discussion with the subjects, it was observed 80% of the participants were of the view that 

their target is to have good self- image of themselves and which may also aid the good performance of the students 

in their studies. In turn, it makes them try to achieve excellence in their area of interest. They become confident 

about themselves and able to choose the career they want.  

To conclude, in order to improve the self-image of students, efforts must be taken by the teachers and 

parents to provide a good environment both inside and outside the educational environment. It will develop their 

self-image which will further lead to an understanding of their capabilities, strengths, weaknesses, interests, attitude, 

aptitude, emotions, knowledge etc. this will finally lead them to develop stigma consciousness. 

 

8. Conclusion 
The present study established that majority physically challenged undergraduates possessed a moderate level of 

stigma consciousness. The study concluded that self-image predicted stigma consciousness. The study also 

concluded that there was a significant influence of self-image on stigma consciousness of physically challenged.  

 

9. Recommendations 

Arising from the findings and conclusion of this study, various recommendations were proposed to further enhance 

stigma consciousness of physically challenged students, which will result in academic excellence and high 

performance of the students. Therefore, this study should be applied in various educational and counseling settings. 

These recommendations are given subsequently. 

There is a need for students to make real commitments to their stigma consciousness with the intention to 

be successful academically. It is also important that physically challenged undergraduates should develop good self-
image and this will also aid their academic performance. School counsellors should organize periodic academic 

seminars for physically challenged students on how to develop and maintain good self-image and this will enhance 

their stigma consciousness and result in high academic performance. Teachers, school owners and parents should 



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also encourage students to develop positive image toward their academics and this will help them to be successful at 

school. 

 

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Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. This is an 

open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license 

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 

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